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The influence of globalization, economics, and educational policy on development of 21st-century skills in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics education through project-based learni...

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Content Running head: INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 1
THE INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION, ECONOMICS, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY
ON DEVELOPMENT OF 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS IN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY,
ENGINEERING, AND MATHEMATICS EDUCATION THROUGH PROJECT-
BASED LEARNING AND SCIENCE COMPETITIONS IN SECONDARY
SCHOOLS IN IRELAND
by
Shelley C. Adams
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2017
Copyright 2017 Shelley C. Adams
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 2
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my first and most profound teachers, my parents, John
and Diane Adams. They have always embodied and continue to embody the spirit of my per-
sonal mantra, “Lead by example.” It is because of their personal commitment to each another
and my well-being that I have been able to successfully persevere through this endeavor.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 3
Acknowledgments
I would not have been able to undertake this journey without the unwavering support and
assistance from many individuals.
I am blessed by the backing of a distinguished governing authority in the Commission of
Baldy View Regional Occupational Program. Their understanding of the time commitment
involved and support of me in completing this endeavor has been steadfast, uncompromising,
encouraging, and is greatly appreciated.
That I have a management team, staff, and instructors who are exceptional in their dedi-
cation to exemplary effort toward producing quality opportunities for students is unquestionable.
To that end, their ability to perform at expected levels while my attention was divided during this
process is a testament to their character and the moral imperative that keeps us striving for only
the best when it comes to our student outcomes. I thank them for their focus and tenacity.
I began this journey as the result of congratulating one of my colleagues on his decision to
pursue this endeavor, only to find myself recruited into the fold. I thank my fellow superinten-
dent, Trojan, and cohort peer, Mat Holton. He is right that “there's never a good time, so it might
as well be now.”
From that first telephone conversation, Dr. Michael Escalante had the magic words. He
made me feel not only welcome into the first USC Executive Leadership cohort but also needed,
able to contribute, and—most importantly—was encouraging that I would be successful. I thank
him for his counsel, leadership, and facilitation through this journey. I bestow much appreciation
on my dissertation committee members, Dr. David Cash, who has become my barometer of
cultural competence and awareness, as well as the revered Dr. Stuart Gothold of the Rossier
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 4
School of Education for their insightful perspectives as those who successfully “sat in the chair”
as superintendents.
I thank Dr. Artineh Samkian for making research study concepts understandable and
objectives attainable. George and Sheila Porter made the vibrant culture of Ireland and its unique
attributes accessible. I thank them for the generosity of their viewpoints and their willingness to
make introductions and connections possible. Thank you to the wonderful stakeholders who
made this research study possible and were most gracious with their time and perspectives. I am
also appreciative to Dr. Ilda Jimenez y West for her review and feedback and to Phyllis Parmet
for editing.
My experience would not have been the experience without each irreplaceable member of
the first USC Executive Leadership cohort: Alex, Art, Sheryl, Darin, Owen, Paul, Colleen, Mat,
Kevin, Michelle, Steve Miller, Froilan, Steve Martinez, Karen, and Eddie. It has been my great
pleasure and honor sharing this unforgettable experience with each of them.
Encouragement, pep talks, lunch, wine, and reference book loans came from Dr. James
Elsasser, Dr. Forest DeRenzo, Dr. Michael O’Neill, Dr. Lisa Fears-Hackett, Dr. Irene Fujii, and
Dr. Marcia Hernandez. I thank them for keeping me on the straight, narrow, and reasonably sane
path.
Finally, the hallmark of a life lived well is a life full of love and laughter. On that note, I
thank my parents, John and Diane Adams; my eternally missed brother Sean, whose spirit is ever
present; my cousin Barbara and her husband Lee; my best friend Omekia and my “other” family;
my godchildren, Nia and Harrison, and my “nephew” Sage—who inspire me to pursue the best
for all children; my friends, Willa, Lisa, Jamille, and Raelea, for precious “girl time”; and
Miguel, whose presence brings immense joy to my life.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 5
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
List of Tables 8
Abstract 10
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 11
Statement of the Problem 12
Purpose of the Study 13
Research Questions 13
Significance of the Study 14
Limitations of the Study 15
Delimitations of the Study 16
Assumptions of the Study 16
Definitions of Terms 17
Organization of the Dissertation 19
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 21
Globalization 22
Overview and Definition 22
History of Globalization 23
Flattening Phenomenon 25
Impact of Globalization 28
Ireland 30
History and Political Overview 30
Economic History 34
Influence of Economics on Educational Policy 40
Education in Ireland 42
Historical Overview 42
Current Education in Ireland 43
Twenty-First-Century Skills 46
Project-Based Learning 51
STEM 56
Science Fairs and Competitions 61
STEM Pathways Into College 63
Conclusion: Educational Reform in the 21st Century 65
Theoretical Frameworks 66
Figure 1: Diagram of relationship of theoretical frameworks 67
Chapter Summary 69
Chapter Three: Research Methodology 71
Research Design 72
Research Team 76
Population and Sample 77
Educators and Students 78
Business and Industry Leaders 79
Political Leaders and Educational Policymakers 79
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 6
Instrumentation 79
Interview Protocols 81
Observation Protocols 84
Survey Protocols 85
Data Collection 86
Data Analysis 89
Validity, Credibility, and Trustworthiness 91
Reliability 92
Ethical Considerations 92
Chapter Summary 93
Chapter Four: Results 94
Research Design 98
Participants 98
Educators and Students 100
Business and Industry Leaders 100
Political Leaders and Educational Policymakers 100
Data and Analysis 101
Findings for Research Question 1 101
Theme 1: STEM Education and the Development of 21st-Century Skills Are
Important to Ireland’s Economic Future 102
Theme 2: Globalization and MNCs’ Needs Drive Demand for STEM Education
and Development of 21st-Century Skills in Ireland 109
Theme 3: Educational Policy in Ireland Must Change 116
Discussion Summary for Research Question 1 123
Findings for Research Question 2 124
Theme 1: Students Benefit From Participation in Science and Technology
Competitions 124
Theme 2: Traditional Science Curriculum Does Not Prepare Students for
Participation in Science and Technology Competitions 129
Discussion Summary for Research Question 2 135
Findings for Research Question 3 136
Theme 1: Interest in STEM and the Development of 21st-Century Skills Has
Increased as a Result of Science and Technology Competitions 137
Theme 2: Science and Technology Fairs Have Been Beneficial in Preparing
Students for the Labor Force 142
Discussion Summary for Research Question 3 147
Chapter Summary 148
Chapter Five: Summary, Implications, Recommendations, and Conclusion 151
Summary of Findings 154
Research Question 1 154
Research Question 2 157
Research Question 3 158
Implications for Practice 159
Recommendations for Future Research 160
Conclusion 162
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 7
References 163
Appendices
Appendix A: Recruitment Letter to Principal 174
Appendix B: Political Leader/Educational Policymaker Interview Protocol 175
Appendix C: Business and Industry (MNCs) Interview Protocol 177
Appendix D: School Leader Interview Protocol 179
Appendix E: Teacher Interview Protocol 181
Appendix F: Student Interview Protocol 183
Appendix G: Classroom Observation Protocol 185
Appendix H: SciFest Observation Protocol 188
Appendix I: Survey Protocol for School Administrator or Teacher 191
Appendix J: Survey Protocol for Political Leader or Business Leader 193
Appendix K: Survey Protocol for Educational Policymaker 195
Appendix L: Survey Protocol for Student Participant in SciFest 197
Appendix M: Information/Fact Sheet for Exempt Nonmedical Research 199
Appendix N: Information Letter to Parents 201
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 8
List of Tables
Table 1: Alignment of Interview Protocols with Research Questions (RQs) and
Theoretical Frameworks 83
Table 2: Alignment of Survey Protocols to Research Questions (RQs) and Theoretical
Frameworks 87
Table 3: Summary of Participants, Their Organization/Position, and Data Types 99
Table 4: Participants’ Responses Regarding the Importance of Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Math (STEM) Education and 21st-Century Skills
Development: SACD Students and All Students 103
Table 5: Participants’ Responses Regarding the Importance of Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Math (STEM) Education and 21st-Century Skills
Development: SACD Teachers and Administrators and All Teachers and
Administrators 105
Table 6: Participants’ Responses Regarding the Importance of Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Math (STEM) Education and the Development of 21st-
Century Skills: Business Leaders and Educational Policymakers 106
Table 7: Participants’ Responses Regarding the Impact of Globalization and Multina-
tional Corporations (MNCs) on Ireland’s Education System: Business
Leaders and Educational Policymakers 111
Table 8: Participants’ Responses Regarding the Impact of Globalization and Multina-
Corporations (MNCs): SACD Teachers and All Teachers 112
Table 9: Participants’ Responses Regarding the Influence of Globalization and Multi-
national Corporations (MNCs) on Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Math (STEM) Education : SACD Students and All Students 115
Table 10: Participants’ Responses Regarding Whether Changes to Educational Policy in
Ireland Should Occur to Ensure That Students Develop 21st-Century Skills
and Receive a Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) Edu-
cation: SACD Students and All Students 117
Table 11: Participants’ Responses Regarding Whether Changes to Educational Policy in
Ireland Should Occur to Ensure That Students Develop 21st-Century Skills
and Receive a Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) Edu-
cation: SACD Teachers and All Teachers 120
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 9
Table 12: Participants’ Responses Regarding Whether Changes in Educational Policy in
Ireland Should Occur to Ensure that Students Develop 21st-Century Skills
and Receive a Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) Edu-
cation: Business Leaders and Educational Policymakers 121
Table 13: Participants’ Responses Regarding the Benefits to Students From Participating
in Science Fair Competitions: SACD Students and All Students 126
Table 14: Participants’ Responses Regarding Preparation of Students for Science Fairs:
SACD Teachers and Administrator and All Teachers and Administrators 127
Table 15: Participants’ Responses Regarding the Benefits of Students’ Participation in
Science Fair Competitions: Business Leaders and Educational Policymak-
ers 128
Table 16: Participants’ Responses Regarding Preparation of Students for Science and
Technology Fair Competitions: SACD Students and All Students 131
Table 17: Participants’ Responses Regarding Preparation of Students for Science and
Technology Fairs: SACD Teachers and Administrator and All Teachers
and Administrators 132
Table 18: Participants’ Responses Regarding Preparation of Students for Science Fair
Competitions: Business Leaders and Educational Policymakers 133
Table 19: Participants’ Responses Regarding Increased Student Interest in Science,
Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) and 21st-Century
Skills as Result of Science Fair Competitions: SACD Students and All
Students 138
Table 20: Participants’ Responses Regarding Increased Interest of Students in Science,
Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) and 21st-Century Skills Due to
Participation in Science Fair Competitions: SACD Teachers and Admin-
istrator and All Teachers and Administrators 139
Table 21: Participants’ Responses Regarding Students’ Preparation for the Labor Force
Due to Science and Technology Fair Competitions: SACD Teachers and
Administrator and All Teachers and Administrators 145
Table 22: Participants’ Responses Regarding Students’ Preparation for the Labor Force
Due to Science and Technology Fair Competitions: SACD Students and
All Students 145
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 10
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of globalization and foreign direct
investment (FDI) by multinational corporations (MNCs) on the educational policy, curriculum,
and instructional practices of secondary schools in Ireland. The study also examined how science
fairs and competitions, such as SciFest, influence the use of inquiry-based instructional strate-
gies, such as PBL, by teachers in the classroom to prepare students for a 21st-century workforce
in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM).
Results from the research study indicated that globalization and MNCs have a measure of
influence on educational policy in Ireland with respect to the needs for a workforce able to
perform with 21st-century skills in STEM career areas. However, the needs of employers and the
response by the Irish government are misaligned. Employers expressed interest in wanting
reforms to occur more quickly with emphasis on real-world skills, while current educational
policy in Ireland remains focused on preparing students for a Leaving Certificate, a summative
assessment, which is the only gateway to college and university placement. Preparation for the
Leaving Certificate leaves little time for inquiry-based instruction; however, opportunities for
this type of instruction is encouraging students’ interest and influencing student choices for
coursework during their Transition Year and Senior Cycle.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 11
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
The national identity of Ireland has transformed through the challenges of being migra-
tory in the 19th century due to famine, traditional in the 1920s in a return to core values, transna-
tional in the 1960s in alignment with the United States and Europe, and global in the 1990s via
an economic boom era categorized as the Celtic Tiger in which Ireland became the European
center for foreign direct investment (FDI) by multinational corporations (MNCs; Fagan, 2002).
More recently, the fiscal crisis attributed to the Great Recession of 2008 resulted in an economic
downturn in which Ireland’s response is to invest in its human capital to regain its economic
footing. According to the Ireland Department of Education and Skills (2004), “research, devel-
opment and innovation are critical elements in achieving and maintaining economic competitive-
ness and securing continued prosperity” (p. 5).
Ireland’s educational system seeks the implementation of policies and strategies support-
ing science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) to respond to the challenges of economic
revitalization in a 21st-century global economy. As stated in a speech by Minister for Education
and Skills, Jan O’Sullivan, TD,
1
on February 25, 2015,
the government and my department have taken various measures to support Science
Technology Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) education… . The continuing upward
trend in the numbers of students taking physics and chemistry in 2014 and Higher Level
Mathematics in the last three years in the Leaving Certificate Examinations is to be wel-
comed . . . reforms . . . are designed to promote investigative inquiry based learning . . .
students will be provided with opportunities to investigate questions, engage in research
1
T.D. = Teachta Dála or Deputy to the Dáil, official title of a member of Irish Parliament.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 12
and to apply rather than merely accumulate and recall knowledge and facts. This ap-
proach is designed to ensure that students move towards a deeper understanding of core
scientific ideas, principles and processes and that they develop high levels of interest in
their learning. (paras. 9–10)
The policy direction of Ireland toward STEM and inquiry-based learning strategies such
as project-based learning (PBL) has the potential to assist students as they develop 21st-century
skills and become knowledge-ready workers for a competitive global economy. Additionally,
state support of student participation in science competitions such as SciFest has responded to
one of the recommendations from the report of The Task Force on the Physical Sciences to the
Irish government in March 2002 to create a goal to “raise the level of awareness of the physical
sciences among school students and parents” by “establishing an integrated, national science
awareness programme” (p. xix).
Statement of the Problem
As a result of FDI, globalization, and multinational economic conditions, companies have
completely transformed the manner in which they produce, market, and sell goods and services
worldwide (O’Hagan & Newman, 2014). For these reasons, Ireland has made significant
changes in trade agreements, educational policy, and federal-local government mandates. Since
the 1990s, often referred to as the Celtic Tiger era, Ireland has enjoyed a positive transforma-
tional shift in industry because of its desire and ability to attract foreign direct investors and
MNCs to the country. Ireland is experiencing unanticipated challenges resulting from this
economic infusion. To attract and retain foreign companies and to produce competitive domestic
firms, the educational community of Ireland must expand opportunities for all students to
develop 21st-century skills in STEM through inquiry-based instructional strategies, including
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 13
PBL (O’Hagan & Newman, 2014). Science fairs and competitions, such as Ireland’s SciFest,
provide opportunities for students to demonstrate their development of 21st-century skills in
STEM through a PBL curriculum (Bender, 2012; Capraro, Capraro, & Morgan, 2013).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of globalization and educational
policy on the curriculum and instructional practices in schools in Ireland. The study also exam-
ined how science fairs and competitions influence the use of inquiry-based instructional strate-
gies, such as PBL, by teachers in the classroom to prepare students for a 21st-century workforce
in the STEM fields.
Research Questions
The study was guided by the following three research questions:
1. How have globalization and MNCs influenced educational policy in the area of
STEM education and the development of 21st-century skills?
2. How have science and technology competitions, such as SciFest, influenced develop-
ment of 21st-century skills through the use of inquiry-based instructional strategies in STEM?
3. How has participation in science and technology competitions, such as SciFest, influ-
enced students’ interest in and selection of STEM-related courses in Senior Cycle, as well as
their pursuit of college- and/or career-related STEM fields?
Four frameworks were selected to guide this study and assist in analyzing data: (a) Fried-
man’s (2007) framework of globalization, (b) Spring’s (2015) world educational culture, (c)
Wagner’s (2008) survival skills for the 21st century, and (d) Slough and Milam’s (2013) design
principles for PBL and STEM. Each of these frameworks was significantly useful in understand-
ing the role of science fairs and competitions in Ireland. The framework for this study was
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 14
contextualized through Friedman (2007) whose work described the worldwide movement of
globalization and the economic need of skilled citizenry to embrace closer borders amidst a
flattening global market. Spring (2015) and Wagner (2008) utilized concepts from the work by
Friedman (2007) to articulate the needs of future generations who must acquire 21st-century
skills along the continuum of educational movement in order to be competitive in the global
marketplace. Work by Slough and Milam (2013) provided a practitioner-level component to the
framework, as STEM and PBL are examined in terms of their contributions to the global econ-
omy. Active participation in the ever-increasing competitive marketplace requires that skills
taught in the 21st-century classroom continue to flatten the globe, increase competition among
nations, and equip new generations with 21st-century survival skills (Friedman, 2007; Spring,
2015; Wagner, 2008). Themes were identified through a convergence of data collected from
surveys, interviews, and classroom observations, the results of which were triangulated to
formulate evidence-based responses to address each of the research questions (Creswell, 2013).
Significance of the Study
Globalization has influenced nations around the globe as the worldwide community has
been flattened and drawn closer together due to technology and the need to outsource production
(Friedman, 2007). Advances in information and communications technology have transformed
the global economy from material goods and service based to information and knowledge based
(Claxton, 2008; Dede, 2010; National Research Council, 2001). These changes demand that a
21st-century workforce attain a higher level of cognitive skills and learning capacities (Scheuer-
mann & Pedro, 2009). As Ireland begins its economic recovery from the Great Recession of
2008, FDI has been identified as a key driver of Ireland’s return to economic prosperity and its
young, educated, highly skilled workforce as a significant asset (Chartered Accountants Ireland,
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 15
2016). Ireland’s ability to develop and maintain an educated, inquiry-based workforce with the
combination of creativity and higher cognitive skills that a global economy demands is a key
component of its economic and business competitiveness. Attracting and retaining highly
skilled, innovative workers educated in the STEM fields are necessary to support Ireland’s
strategy toward becoming a knowledge-based economy. The shift to a knowledge-based econ-
omy has increased the need for attention devoted to school curriculum as the next generation of
workers are prepared to meet the needs of the 21st century (Thurow, 2000). This study examined
the relationship between (a) curriculum, inquiry-based instructional strategies, interest in STEM,
and national science and technology competitions; and (b) their influence on the development of
future workers prepared with 21st-century skills. Additionally, this study examined how global-
ization and the needs of MNCs influence educational policy in relation to STEM and 21st-
century skills.
This case study was intended to provide credible evidence and to identify valuable infor-
mation for the organizers, participants, and sponsors of science and technology competitions in
their analysis of the competitions’ impact on the development of 21st-century skills and interest
in STEM.
Limitations of the Study
The limitations of this case study were as follows:
1. Data collection for the research team to address the research questions occurred
during a 10-day trip involving international travel to and from Ireland.
2. Generalizability of the findings is limited to stakeholders in SciFest.
3. Sampling was limited and data collection was contingent on the level of access to
participants and their willingness to respond to surveys, interviews, and observations.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 16
4. Data validity was determinant on the selected quantitative and qualitative research
instruments.
Delimitations of the Study
The delimitations of the case study were as follows:
1. Students who had competed in SciFest, their teachers, and school leadership indi-
viduals who had influenced those students;
2. Secondary school focus with no consideration for demographics such as socioeco-
nomic status, race, gender, or geographic location; and
3. Business, government, and education leaders who influence educational policy.
Assumptions of the Study
The following assumptions were made for this study:
1. That globalization, FDI, and MNCs in Ireland have an impact on curriculum and
instruction in schools;
2. That science and technology fairs and competitions, such as SciFest, were being
implemented at schools in Ireland;
3. That students were being prepared with 21st-century skills through the effective
implementation of inquiry-based instructional strategies such as PBL, an emphasis on STEM,
and participation in science and technology fairs and competitions;
4. That the interview, survey, and observation protocols provided valid data; and
5. That a mixed-methods, predominantly qualitative approach, with some quantitative
methodology, was appropriate for this study.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 17
Definitions of Terms
The following terms are defined for application within this study:
FDI: An investment involving a long-term business relationship in one country by an
entity based in a separate country (Razin & Sadka, 2007).
Globalization: The process of increased interaction and integration among individuals,
companies, and governments driven by international trade and FDI (Spring, 2015). The contrast
of the 20th-century world with the increasingly smaller and flatter 21st-century world has signifi-
cant effects on the environment, culture, educational and political systems, economic develop-
ment, and level of prosperity in societies around the world (Chanda, 2007; Friedman, 2007).
Human capital: The skills and capacities that reside in people and are put to productive
use. For corporations, human capital is the economic value of an employee’s set of skills. For
policymakers, human capital is the capacity of the population to drive economic growth (World
Economic Forum, 2015).
Inquiry-based learning: A method of instruction that poses questions, problems, or
scenarios while placing students and their interactions at the center of the learning experience
(Capraro et al., 2013; Slough & Milam, 2013).
International Baccalaureate: An optional diploma programme offered at the researcher’s
assigned school site and designed to provide age 16- to 19-year-old students with the opportunity
to become global citizens through a curriculum dedicated to providing a balanced education,
facilitating geographic and cultural mobility, and promoting international understanding (Interna-
tional Baccalaureate, 2016).
Junior Cycle: An educational cycle in Irish schools that students usually begin at age 12
and complete by age 15. The Junior Certificate examination is taken after 3 years. The main
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 18
objective of the Junior Cycle is for students to complete a broad and balanced curriculum and to
develop the knowledge and skills that will enable them to proceed to Senior Cycle education.
Beginning in September 2014, a new Framework for Junior Cycle began making significant
changes to the current Junior Cycle in the areas of practical work, group work, and inquiry
assessments (Ireland Department of Education and Skills, 2016a).
Knowledge-based economy: A set of trends in advanced economies toward superior
dependence on knowledge, information, and high-skill levels as well as the growing need for
immediate access to all of these by the business and public sectors (Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development [OECD), 2005).
Leaving Certificate: A series of six to eight examinations that culminate the Irish second-
ary school system (Donnelly, 2011).
PBL: An inquiry-based, student-driven, teacher-facilitated approach to learning in which
students confront real-world problems, determine how to address them, and then act in a collabo-
rative fashion to create solutions (Bender, 2012; Buck Institute for Education, 2009; Capraro et
al., 2013; Slough & Milam, 2013).
Science competitions: A form of PBL used to promote interest in STEM fields. In
Ireland, students may participate in fairs and competitions through SciFest and other contests
(SciFest, 2015).
SciFest: A series of local, regional, national, and international science competitions for
secondary students in Ireland that are hosted in schools at the local level and third-level colleges
regionally. This PBL strategy promotes creativity, critical thinking, innovation, and STEM
education (SciFest, 2015).
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 19
Senior Cycle: Post primary (secondary) students in the 15- to 18-year age group in
Ireland. It includes an optional Transition Year (TY), which follows immediately after the Junior
Cycle. TY provides an opportunity for students to experience a wide range of educational inputs,
including work experience, over the course of a year that is free from formal examinations.
During the final 2 years of Senior Cycle, students take one of three programs, each leading to a
State Examination: the traditional Leaving Certificate, the Leaving Certificate Vocational
Programme (LCVP) or the Leaving Certificate Applied (LCA; Ireland Department of Education
and Skills, 2016a).
STEM: An interdisciplinary and applied educational approach requiring students to solve
problems that, when considered in their entirety, demonstrate students’ mastery of concepts
through hands-on, real-world PBL applications (Capraro et al., 2013).
Twenty-first-century skills: The skills that students need to compete in a global workforce
and economy, including critical thinking, collaboration, adaptability, initiative, effective oral and
written communication skills, the ability to access and analyze information, and curiosity and
imagination (Wagner, 2008).
Organization of the Dissertation
This dissertation is divided into five chapters. Chapter One has provided an overview of
the study, statement of the problem, purpose of the study, research questions, significance of the
study, limitations and delimitations, assumptions, and definitions of key terms. Chapter Two
reviews relevant literature on the topics of globalization; the influence of Ireland’s political and
economic history on educational policy; historic implications; and current instructional method-
ologies such as STEM, PBL and science fairs and competitions that are influencing student
acquisition of 21st-century skills. The theoretical frameworks that guide the methodology are
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 20
identified. Chapter Three describes the methods that were used in the study. A mixed-methods,
predominantly qualitative approach with some quantitative designs of the research is discussed,
as well as the research team, population and sample, instrumentation, data collection, and data
analysis plan.
Chapter Four presents the research findings from data collection, along with a description
and analysis of the data. Chapter Five summarizes the study’s findings, identifies implications
for practice, and presents recommendations for further research.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 21
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This literature review examines the influence of globalization and FDI by MNCs on
education policy and practices in schools in Ireland as it has related to the development of 21st-
century skills through inquiry-based learning strategies such as PBL and science competitions in
STEM education. The review examines how globalization and the needs of MNCs have influ-
enced the development and education of future workers prepared with 21st-century skills to meet
the challenges of a knowledge-based economy. In addition, this review explores the influence of
science fairs such as SciFest on educating and preparing a future work force ready to embark on
STEM careers. These categories of literature relate to the research focus of this study.
This literature review is organized into three key areas: globalization, a history of Ireland,
and education in Ireland. The first section provides a definition and presents a historical context
of globalization that describes how globalization has evolved over time, a conceptual and theo-
retical framework of globalization (Friedman, 2007), and the impact of globalization on educa-
tion through a framework developed by Spring (2015). The second section will provide a brief
historical and political background of Ireland and examine the economy of Ireland including the
influence of FDI by MNCs and how the economic influence of MNCs has become a key driver of
educational policy in Ireland (Thurow, 2000). The third section begins with a historical overview
of the education system in Ireland. This section defines 21st-century skills through a framework
according to (Wagner, 2008) and discusses the relevance of 21st-century skills in today’s world,
examines STEM education and explains the rationale for producing STEM competencies in
students, explores the concept of PBL and its influence on STEM education through a framework
suggested by Slough and Milam (2013), and examines science fairs as a strategy for advancing
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 22
interest in STEM careers among students. Together, these elements provide a framework on
which research was conducted to develop and address three research questions:
1. How have globalization and MNCs influenced educational policy in the area of
STEM education and the development of 21st-century skills?
2. How have science and technology competitions, such as SciFest, influenced develop-
ment of 21st-century skills through the use of inquiry-based instructional strategies in STEM?
3. How has participation in science and technology competitions, such as SciFest, influ-
enced students’ interest in and selection of STEM-related courses in Senior Cycle, as well as
their pursuit of college- and/or career-related STEM fields?
Globalization
Overview and Definition
According to (Spring (2015) and the State University of New York, Levin Institute
(2015), globalization is a process of interaction and integration among the people, companies,
and governments of different nations. It is a process driven by international trade and investment
and aided by informational technology affecting the environment, culture, political systems,
economic development and prosperity, and human physical well-being in societies around the
world. Altbach (2004) defined globalization as “the broad economic, technological, and scien-
tific trends that directly affect higher education and are largely inevitable” (p. 5). Altbach sug-
gested that the expansive use of information technology, the societal needs for individuals who
are more highly educated, the use of common scientific language to promote communication,
international patterns of cultural diffusion, and politics are all elements of globalization to which
higher education as global institutions must respond by educating individuals in the new knowl-
edge of the 21st-century knowledge economy.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 23
According to Chanda (2007), economic and political changes in the world have affected
the definition of globalization. Technological progression from the 1957 launch of Sputnik,
which decreased the size of the world by making global communication a new reality through the
emitting beeps of a radio signal heard around the world, to the ability to see the images of the
moon during the historic Apollo II 1969 space flight, made the world more integrated but not yet
linked to the initial definition of the word globalization that was included in Webster’s
Dictionary in 1961 (Chanda, 2007). Webster’s defined globalization as “making world-wide in
scope or application” (as cited in Chanda, 2007, p. 248). It was further suggested by Chanda that
the term emerged because the awareness of a globally connected life, able to be observed by the
public, called for a word to describe the phenomenon of worldwide interconnectedness.
Since then, the definition of globalization has evolved. “The trend of an increasing inter-
dependence and integration of the world signifies that globalization is here to stay” (Chanda,
2007, p. 248). Friedman (2007) defined globalization as the interconnectedness of technology,
capital, and information across national and international boundaries, which cultivates and drives
a single global market. Friedman (1999) noted that countries around the world are no longer
solely dependent on Western leadership to produce products or to take the lead in business
ventures; small nations can now take part in and benefit from the globalized market due to
increasing access to telecommunications. Global connectivity enables small- and medium-sized
enterprises to be competitive among corporate giants.
History of Globalization
According to Chanda (2007), the story of globalization began with the need to migrate by
the earliest humans who roamed the earth, looking to escape oppression, famine, or disease in
order to survive, as revealed by stories in the Bible. The origination of trading had a significant
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 24
impact on globalization and stemmed from people using products from the land and sea in the
area they inhabited. Most of these items were indigenous to the land and allowed for trading
with those who had different natural resources in their own territories. Trade was responsible for
transforming societies and emerged to connect communities even more closely (Chanda, 2007).
Friedman (2007) examined human history through a series of globalization movements.
The first globalization effort began in 1492, as Christopher Columbus’s expedition represented
the opening of trade between the Old World and the New World. Globalization and the shrink-
ing size of the world in this era was governed by imperialism and persons seeking religious
freedom. Friedman’s (2007) second era of globalization spanned from 1800 until 2000 and was
shaped by the increase in industry. This period experienced interruptions by global events, such
as the Great Depression and World Wars I and II. Catalysts for globalization during this era were
the Industrial Revolution, falling transportation costs, and advancement in telecommunication
technology and availability. The emergence of the Internet was a dominating force at the end of
this span and quickly catapulted the world into the current era of globalization. Since 2000,
technological advances, including the ever-increasing presence of the Internet, have shrunk and
flattened the world so that both companies and individuals now have the capability to compete on
a global scale (Friedman, 2007). Consistent with this work, Chanda (2007) referred to global-
ization as a phenomenon of mobile capital, trade, and technology that have created today’s
instantaneously connected, interdependent world that stems from a basic human urge to seek a
more fulfilling life.
Current trends of globalization are not new in that
if you compared the volumes of trade and capital flows across borders, relative to Gross
National Products, and the flow of labor across borders, relative to populations, the period
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 25
of globalization preceding World War I was quite similar to the one we are living through
today. (Friedman, 1999, p. 3)
Wars, economic strife and ideological differences hindered the sustainability of this early global-
ization movement. Although the world is not free of conflict and economic hardships, the
globalization movement can grow freely through ever-increasing technological advancements
and competitive knowledge-based economies around the world (Thurow, 2000).
Flattening Phenomenon
Friedman (2007) described globalization as the leveling of the competitive and collabora-
tive playing fields on an individual level through the flattening of the world as technology and
telecommunications improvements, political movements, and transportation have minimized the
distances between individuals, bridged communication divides, and stimulated the growth and
promotion of MNCs. These flatteners have opened up the world to everyone:
Barriers to entry have all but disappeared regarding almost any business, particularly
those knowledge-based; size doesn’t matter as much as what the region brings to the
table; combining the unique assets of a region, packaging these in a compelling manner,
using connectivity to its fullest—are the key enablers; moving goods and services has
become far easier than moving people—a Thai farmer can sell mangos to Carbondale, but
may find it rather difficult to visit. (ViTAL Economy Alliance, 2008, p. 6)
Friedman (2007) described 10 flatteners that have propelled the world toward the global,
knowledge-based economy that people live in today. The first flattener occurred when the Berlin
Wall came down in November 1989. Millions of highly skilled engineers, scientists, and techni-
cians became available to serve the global market at lower costs. The human resource market-
place became global, and firms could access best practice skills at competitive prices anywhere at
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 26
any time. Additionally, Microsoft Windows
®
operating systems made an appearance in this same
time period, thereby increasing the capacity and capabilities of the personal computer.
The second flattener occurred when Netscape™ went public in August 1995. The
Internet became the medium for electronic communication for a broader audience as the
Netscape browser enabled the general public to share digital content. Individuals could commu-
nicate with one another, regardless of boundaries, and create new ideas faster and less expen-
sively (Friedman 2007).
The third flattener involved the creation of workflow software that enabled people all
over the world to design, display, manage, and collaborate on business data that were previously
managed manually (Friedman 2007). “People all over the world can now shape, design, create,
buy and sell things, track inventories, prepare tax returns, and read x-rays from half a world away
by using a common software platform” (ViTAL Economic Alliance, 2008, p. 11). Firms are
competing in a world without boundaries, using workflow software to improve productivity and
increase prosperity. Competitive global business markets rose to unprecedented levels with the
infrastructure of the Internet and the ease of global access (Friedman, 2007).
According to Friedman (2007), the flattening of the world, or convergence of a series of
technological and economic forces, is the most structurally significant occurrence since the year
2000. This new flat-world platform not only enabled more people to develop more content and
to collaborate on that content but also supported Friedman’s (2007) next six flatteners: uploading
(open sourcing), outsourcing, offshoring, supply-chaining, in-sourcing, and in-forming. Upload-
ing allowed people to upload files and globalize that content without going through any of the
traditional hierarchical organizations or institutions. The more information and technological
resources became available in countries such as India and China, the easier it was for Western
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 27
countries to outsource work to people living in nations with struggling economies. Firms could
access well-developed intellectual capability in developing countries 24 hours per day without
owning the capacity or reducing quality. Outsourcing led to offshoring that, by contrast, is when
a company takes one of its factories and moves it offshore to another country. All prior flatteners
prepared global firms to be able to produce the same product or service in the same way to serve
local markets and expand global capacity with cheaper labor, lower taxes, subsidized energy, and
lower healthcare costs. Supply-chaining, in-sourcing, and in-forming further flattened the world
and allowed companies to collaborate horizontally to enhance value, to synchronize global
supply chains, and to individualize the customer experience. Elements of the supply chain from
raw material to customer are connected, thus resulting in on-demand production and logistics
enabling increased efficiency and lower costs (Friedman, 2007).
Businesses, governments, nongovernment organizations (NGOs) and citizens have the
opportunity to create new services and products and reach broader local, regional, national. and
global markets through the use of in-forming technologies and strategies. Friedman (2007)
affirmed that in-forming represents one of the most important shifts in globalization. In-forming
is the ability to build and utilize a personal supply chain. According to Friedman (2007),
the democratization of information is having a profound impact on society. Today’s
consumers are much more efficient—they can find information, products, services, faster
[through search engines] than through traditional means. They are better informed about
issues related to work, health, leisure, etc. Small towns are no longer disadvantaged
relative to those with better access to information. And people have the ability to be
better connected to things that interest them, to quickly and easily become experts in
given subjects and to connect with others who share their interests. (p. 179)
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 28
Friedman’s (2007) final flattener is what he called “the steroids.” Information and com-
munication technology innovations have created the ability to work from anywhere, anytime,
thus improving the speed of transactions whether people are at work, at home, or on the go—
whether people are wired or wireless. Learning and adapting these technologies are critical to
economic transformation and prosperity. In essence, people are able to operate in a way that is
“digital, mobile, personal and virtual” (Friedman, 2007, p. 187).
Impact of Globalization
According to Goldberg and Pavcnik (2007), globalization can have both positive and
negative effects on countries. The positive side of globalization is that it can ensure a country’s
interdependence, mobilization of goods and services, and changes in policy and trade barriers.
These factors increase how technology, comprehension, culture, and information across nations
are shared. However, negative effects of globalization can include inequalities in economy,
skilled versus unskilled wages, and lack of compliance with labor market regulations (Goldberg
& Pavenik, 2007).
Globalization has also been credited with an increase in the complexity and interconnec-
tedness of formerly separated worlds. “Increasingly interconnected economies, enterprises, and
societies have given rise to vast new opportunities” (IBM Corporation, 2010, p. 3). For these
reasons, globalization may be welcomed or regarded as a risk factor.
Globalization has contributed to society’s shift to knowledge-based economies due in part
to dramatic developments in technological industries outlined by Friedman (2007). Thurow
(2000) supported this shift: “These technologies and their interactions are producing a knowl-
edge-based economy that is systematically changing how all people conduct their economic and
social lives” (p. 20). Thurow noted that the period of growth from the 1990s into the new
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 29
millennium enables new individuals to join the ranks of the wealthiest. This era marked the shift
from those owning natural resources such as minerals and oil to those who hold stock in techno-
logical companies, such as Microsoft or Intel.
The transition to a knowledge-based economy has shifted the power of control over a
nation’s economy from within its borders to a condition in which nations build platforms to
attract increased global economic activity (Thurow, 2000). Thurow (2000) defined elements of
platform building by describing the process of “creating the educated workforce, infrastructure,
stability, and market frameworks necessary to play the economic game” (p. 21). The economic
game presented by Thurow hinges on the education of the workforce as an integral component of
a nation’s ability to compete in the global marketplace. In a knowledge-based economy, a
nation’s needs and capabilities often determine how knowledge is shaped.
Globalization’s impact on education has increased the speed of communication through
technological advancements to disseminate educational techniques and concepts. Evidence of
the spread of educational models is present in Spring’s (2015) statement, “World education
culture developed alongside the worldwide spread of Western models of government and nation”
(p. 9). Spring noted four main reasons for the globalization of education: First, mass schooling is
a component of globally spreading Western traditions; second, world models of school systems
are being drawn on in planning new schools; third, educational credentials are becoming more
necessary globally; and fourth, educational research of best practices is now available on a
globalized scale. Based on Spring’s depiction of Western practices and ideals, the globalized
concepts in education travel through the communication conduit, as outlined by Friedman
(2007), to reach nations that had experienced isolation prior to the breaking of literal and figura-
tive borders.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 30
Ireland
History and Political Overview
Ireland’s history has been shaped by struggles with entities from outside its borders and
through a tug-of-war of religious power and influence. In the year 433 AD, Christianity reached
the shores of Ireland (Hegarty, 2012). Prior to the era of Christianity, Ireland was dominated by
pagans led by the High King Laoghaire. Legend tells of an epic magical battle between King
Laoghaire and a man named Patrick. The battle culminated when Patrick lifted a pagan druid
into the air and bashed his head in. According to legend, a fearful Laoghaire converted to
Christianity through Patrick’s influence (Bartlet, 2010; Hegarty, 2012).
Although much of St. Patrick’s life is described in legend, he did serve a vital role as a
missionary to Ireland. Kidnaped from a comfortable home in western England, Patrick was
brought to Ireland against his will. Although he escaped, he was drawn back to the island and
made his way to the nation as a missionary. St. Patrick became a symbol of power and was
quickly used by the Catholic Church to bolster influence over the Irish (Bartlet, 2010; Hegarty,
2012).
Hegarty (2012) detailed the conquest by the Vikings from western Scandinavia in the year
793 AD. It was recorded that the Vikings burned buildings, plundered stores, and forced the
abandonment of several towns and monasteries. The Vikings came to Ireland due to overpopula-
tion in their homeland and the newfound technology of constructing ships that could make the
successful journey to other lands. This group, migrating from the north, continued to conquer
towns across Ireland and established the Viking age (Atwood, 2015; Hegarty, 2012).
Vikings, otherwise known as Norsemen (i.e., men from the north), established strong-
holds in several European nations outside Ireland. Within Ireland, the Norsemen populated
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 31
regions that included ports, such as the newly founded Dublin. Thus, waterways were used in
international trade, one of the first examples of globalization in Ireland. The Vikings were forced
out of Ireland in 902 AD by the Irish king Muirecan (Bartlet, 2010). The Vikings would return to
the island; however, they never took it over completely (Atwood, 2015; Hegarty, 2012).
In the 12th century, Ireland was politically divided into several small kingdoms—a
situation causing political tension among persons in positions of leadership in these loosely
organized empires. Following deportation of King Diarmait Mac Murchada of Leinster,
England’s Henry II authorized the exiled king to use Norman knights to regain his position in
Ireland. Henry II grew concerned about the Norman stronghold in Ireland and traveled to the
island himself to place Ireland under the crown of England (Bartlet, 2010; Hegarty, 2012).
The 13th century saw a weakening of the Norman stronghold, consequently allowing Irish
landowners the opportunity to fight and win back sections of their land. This action was inter-
rupted in the mid-14th century as a plague swept through Ireland; however, the native Irish were
spared, primarily due to their inhabitancy of the rural countryside and away from the disease-
infested cities where the Normans and English resided (Hegarty, 2012).
In the following century, England’s attention was directed toward conflicts outside of
Ireland. Throughout Ireland, local lords expanded their kingdom, as they were free of the high
levels of oppression imposed by England’s rule (Bartlet, 2010). The mid-16th century brought a
resurgence of English rule under the crown of Henry VIII. The brutal conflicts to reconquer
Ireland lasted for nearly 70 years into the 17th century (Hegarty, 2012).
By the 17th century, a majority of the Irish were Catholic peasants. Their wealthier
landowners, comprising 5% of the population, had become Protestant and were in fear that their
land might be taken by the crown (Hegarty, 2012). Wealthy Anglo-Irish landowners held power
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 32
over the economy and legal system. Many of the wealthiest Anglo-Irish lived in England, away
from their native land. Irish nationalists still residing in Ireland began to grow resentful of
England and the power that England held over their acreage (Hegarty, 2012; O’Donoghue &
Harford, 2011).
Hegarty (2012) noted that wealthy landowners demonstrated inefficient management of
their affairs through their absence. This situation led to an imbalance of exported foods versus
foods remaining in Ireland for domestic consumption. Over time, the Anglo-Irish republicans
began to feel more devotion to England than to Ireland. In 1791, a group of Irish nationalists
formed the Society of the National Irishmen, and the Irish Rebellion of 1798 was caused by
tension between nationalists and republicans. The rebellion was unsuccessful and quickly came
to a bloody end for the Irish nationalists (Bartlet, 2010; Hegarty, 2012).
The Act of Union in 1801 brought Ireland and England together under the new title of the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Under the union of the two nations, the Test Act
was put in place with the goal of removing many of the discriminatory policies toward Catholics.
In addition to the unification of the two lands, the act combined the churches of the two nations
and opened trade without duty between the countries. Politically, one parliament was seated to
represent the entire United Kingdom (Bartlet, 2010; Hegarty, 2012; O’Donoghue & Harford,
2011).
The year 1845 brought the beginning of Ireland’s Great Famine, also known as the Potato
Famine. During the years 1845 to 1850, nearly 1 million Irish citizens died as a result of the
conditions caused by the famine (Bartlet, 2010). The population was also reduced by as much as
25% during this time due to emigration to other lands (Hegarty, 2012; O’Donoghue & Harford,
2011).
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 33
Irish nationalists and republicans (i.e., those who favored union with England) clashed
with the passage of the Local Government Act of 1898, which allowed increased local gover-
nance of Irish affairs and stripped some power from the Anglo-Irish landlords. This Act created
two distinct and opposing groups: the Protestant Orange Order and the members of the Catholic
Church (Bartlet, 2010; Hegarty, 2012).
The Irish Free State was established in 1922 as a democracy, with a European backdrop
of dictatorships and financial meltdown for the world amidst the ensuing Great Depression
(Bartlet, 2010). Civil war between nationalists and the unionists loyal to England plagued the
first years of the Irish Free State. The 1930s brought more acceptance of the Irish Free State. The
newly independent Ireland was primarily under the control of the Catholic Church, as more than
90% of the population identified with Catholicism (Bartlet, 2010; Hegarty, 2012; O’Donoghue &
Harford, 2011).
Since the creation of the Irish Free State, citizens have struggled to reestablish their
national identity. This struggle is evident in the sporadic political movements for reunification of
Ireland and Northern Ireland—a conflict about territory and governance that is often mischarac-
terized as based on religion. Additional characteristics of this quest to create a new Ireland
include a return to a Gaelic Ireland through language priorities in the educational system and
other cultural movements, turmoil caused by extremist groups such as the Irish Republican Army
(IRA), and an influx of immigrants in response to the job growth during Ireland’s period of rapid
economic growth in the late 20th century and into the 21st century (Hegarty, 2012). This period
of growth, known as the Celtic Tiger Era, came after a dynamic economic history shaped by the
presence of various groups, interaction with the crown and the church, and the beliefs of Ireland’s
leaders (O’Hagan & Newman, 2014).
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 34
Economic History
The early recorded history of Ireland illustrates the tendency for this island nation to
participate in international trade and globalization practices. Hegarty (2012) recounted that
following the invasion by the Vikings, their occupation of seaports opened a gateway for the use
of waterways to export Irish goods. The Norsemen purposefully located themselves at port cities
to take advantage of international trade routes. Centuries later, the Act of Union in 1801 specifi-
cally mentioned maintenance of free trade for Ireland as a member of the United Kingdom and
duty-free trade with England itself (Hegarty, 2012).
The earliest years of Ireland’s Free State were dominated by an agricultural economy and
support of free trade among nations. Between 1921 and 1932, agriculture comprised 54% of
Ireland’s employment and 32% of its gross domestic product (GDP). The primary exports were
brewing, distilling, and biscuit making, all related to agricultural industries (O’Hagan &
Newman, 2014).
The years 1932 to 1939 marked a turbulent time for Ireland’s economy as the nation
experienced the effects of the Great Depression. The Irish government adopted a model of self-
sufficiency and, as part of this model, raised tariff rates to unprecedented levels. In order to
bypass tariff expenditures, Ireland’s own Guinness Beer established a brewery outside London.
This international business exchange allowed the company to deliver the product at a lower cost
to consumers in Great Britain (O’Hagan & Newman, 2014).
World War II led to a flattening of the Irish economy with a 14% increase in national
income, in contrast to Northern Ireland’s 84% increase (O’Hagan & Newman, 2014). World
War II also marked a decrease in imports and exports to half of the prewar levels. Following the
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 35
war, Ireland’s GDP rose 4%; however, government spending was at levels greater than govern-
ment revenue (O’Hagan & Newman, 2014).
O’Hagan and Newman (2014) noted that the 1950s did not improve Ireland’s economic
outlook compared to the rebounding economies of its European neighbors. During this decade,
Ireland’s GDP rose less than 1% per year. The decade was also marked by increasing jobless and
unemployment rates, thereby resulting in yet another increase in emigration. Historians noted
that a reason for Ireland’s economic stagnation was the failure of the nation to match its products
with export needs. The failure to examine the products in demand led Ireland to fall behind its
European neighbors (O’Hagan & Newman, 2014).
The 1960s brought a breath of fresh air to Ireland’s stagnant economy. The period 1960
through 1973 was defined by a policy of export-led growth and free trade. The abolition of
tariffs brought trade to a level that Ireland had not seen since the 1920s. The 1960s was also
marked by beginning efforts by Ireland to attract FDI to the rebounding economy. In addition to
free trade and the infusion of FDI, Ireland enacted wage restraints to maintain profit (O’Hagan &
Newman, 2014). Childs (2001) noted that “Ireland has grown from a small industrial base,
where agriculture/food and tourism were the most important sectors to one where high-tech
electronics, software and pharmaceuticals dominate the economy, particularly exports” (p. 7).
This marked shift in the economy was the forefront of the later infusion of FDI and the presence
of MNCs in the economy.
Beginning in the late 1970s and into the 1980s, there was a slower increase in the GDP
and a drop in per capita consumption. O’Hagan and Newman (2014) attributed the retardation of
economic growth to a fourfold increase in oil costs. Increased government spending and an
increased deficit also occurred during this period. As oil prices began to drop slowly, this time
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 36
period also saw a rebound in the economy and Ireland’s deficit subsequently decreased (O’Hagan
& Newman, 2014).
MNCs and FDI. FDI from MNCs is defined as “an investment involving a long-term
relationship and reflecting a lasting interest and control of a resident entity in the source country
(foreign direct investor or parent firm) in the host country” (Razin & Sadka, 2007, p. 1). FDI is
estimated to account for $1.3 trillion in the global economy. FDI allows nations to compete for
business from MNCs through production–labor costs, tax incentives, opportunities to raise
capital, location assets, and access to markets. Since the 1960s, Ireland’s economic policies have
focused on attracting FDI. Ireland’s well-educated and English-speaking workforce, stable
property taxes, low corporate tax structure, political stability, infrastructure, and location make
the island nation an attractive option to companies (Paus, 2005). Improvements in transportation
and information and communication technologies have driven globalization in Ireland (Jacobson
& Kirby, 2006). This focus has yielded a substantial reward for Ireland, as the country has the
most FDI-intensive manufacturing sectors in all of Europe (O’Hagan & Newman, 2008). Ap-
proximately 1,200 foreign companies have chosen Ireland as their European base (IDA Ireland,
2014). These companies work in a variety of industry sectors including engineering, financial
and international services, information communications technologies, medical technologies, and
pharmaceuticals (FitzPatrick & Huggins, 2001; O’Hagan & Newman, 2014). Companies such as
Intel, Apple, IBM, Google, and Microsoft are established in Ireland.
“Globalization is at the heart of economic change in the 21st century” (Paus, 2005, p. 1).
This statement summarizes the experience of Ireland’s economic resurgence, beginning in the
1990s. The rebound spanned the 1990s until the harsh economic downturn in 2008. This period
of economic upturn, stemming from FDI and the presence of MNCs, prompted growth of the
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 37
Irish economy as a “tiger economy,” rebranded as the Celtic Tiger (Grant, Cadden, McIvor, &
Humphreys, 2010).
Ireland experienced two shifts in its monetary system during this time. Due to increasing
inflation rates, Ireland shifted from the pound sterling to the European Monetary System (EMS)
in 1979. Ireland had a long history with the pound sterling, dating back to 1826. Next, a collapse
of the EMS in 1992 led Ireland to adopt the euro. Ireland’s positioning with the euro made it an
attractive location for the United States to establish a presence to serve all of Europe (O’Hagan &
Newman, 2014). Thus, globalization is characterized in a nation by the attraction of investment
by foreign corporations and firms, as well as the spreading and establishment of MNCs in new
nations (Paus, 2005).
According to O’Hagan and Newman (2014), Ireland was a desirable location for Ameri-
can FDI in that the workforce was becoming increasingly educated and English speaking, and
there was a low corporate taxation rate. The increase in FDI in pharmaceuticals and information
technology raised the employment rate (unemployment fell to 4%) and allowed Ireland to catch
up with other nations in the EU by 2000 (O’Hagan & Newman, 2014). Ireland’s Celtic Tiger era
existed between 1995 and 2000, during which period Ireland realized rapid economic growth
fueled by FDI and an influx of MNCs (Jacobson & Mottiar, 1999). As a result, Ireland experi-
enced a true introduction to the role of a competitive, globalized participant.
Friedman (2007) discussed the nature of power going to individuals and entities world-
wide through development of competition as a result of globalization. Competition exists to
provide the best product at the best price, thus giving MNCs opportunities to outsource produc-
tion and services and to invest locally (O’Hagan & Newman, 2014). To accomplish this, both the
market and the education of the future workforce must be equipped to compete. This
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 38
competitive philosophy exists in Ireland, as reflected by O’Hagan and Newman (2014) in their
discussion of the shift of educational focus in Ireland to maintain competitiveness:
Bending to such tasks as gearing society to produce entrepreneurs, vitalizing indigenous
enterprise, providing adequate and appropriate education and training, evaluating public
investment more thoroughly, introducing flexibility into the labor market, reducing the
disincentives to do unskilled jobs, and fostering competition among firms. (p. 29)
Through the lens of economists, the objective of national survival in a competitive market is to
train and educate the population and to conduct a thorough examination of the nation to ensure
its capacity to maintain a competitive stance in a global economy (Y. Kennedy, 2014).
American FDI decreased after 2000; however, the Irish banks freely issued loans for
homes, subsequently causing a housing boom in the new millennium. According to Doris,
O’Neill, and Sweetman (2015), after a period of very rapid growth from 1994 to 2007, when the
average annual GDP growth rate was over 7%, the Irish economy collapsed and the average
growth rate from 2008 to 2011 was -1.75%. This issue was reflected in the unemployment rate
that was relatively stable at 4% to 5% for most of the early 2000s, then rose to 12% in 2009, and
continued to rise further to 14.6% in 2011. Inflation averaged 2.5% in the period from 1994 to
2011 but was negative in 2009 (-4.5%) and 2010 (-1%). At the 2014 Annual Central Bank Sym-
posium, European Central Bank (ECB) President Mario Draghi ascribed the recent diverging
performances of the Irish and Spanish labour markets in part to the fact that “Ireland entered the
crisis with a relatively flexible labour market. . . .[In addition] in Ireland, downward wage
adjustment began already in the fourth quarter of 2008 and proceeded more quickly [than Spain]”
(Doris et al., 2015, p. 2)
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 39
Ireland was one of the countries worst affected by the Great Recession, with output
falling by over 10% between 2008 and 2010 (Doris et al., 2015). The effects of the global
recession felt elsewhere were compounded in Ireland by the bursting of a property bubble and the
subsequent collapse of output and employment in construction-related sectors. Because bank
lending was so highly concentrated in construction, Irish banks experienced huge losses, and the
government decided to guarantee all bank liabilities in 2008. However, continued falling tax
revenue and exposure to bank liabilities resulted in the government deficit going from almost
zero in 2008 to 13.9% in 2010 and as high as 30.8% in 2011. As a result, yields in Irish bonds
reached unsustainable levels in 2010, and the government sought and accepted a rescue package
of €85 billion from the EU, ECB, and the International Monetary Fund (IMD; Doris et al., 2015).
This economic event caused Ireland’s unemployment rate to rise, once again resulting in
an increased level of emigration. Ireland has been steadily recovering since the Celtic Tiger era.
O’Hagan and Newman (2014) framed the causes and strategies for Ireland’s recovery since the
recession as follows:
A mixture of fiscal restraint, falling house prices and wage reductions have helped restore
Ireland’s competitiveness, the U.S. economy has largely recovered, exports have re-
bounded, and job creation was strong enough in 2013 to reduce the unemployment rate
markedly and prompt substantial immigration. (p. 26)
Evidence of Ireland’s competitive drive is clear in the annual competitive scorecard
produced by the Irish government. In the 2014 Ireland Competitive Scorecard, Taoiseach (Prime
Minister) Edna Kenny expressed the views of the government: “Our traditional strengths remain
—Ireland is a good place to do business, with a well-educated workforce, a responsive and
responsible regulatory system, and a pro-enterprise environment” (as cited in National
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 40
Competitiveness Council, 2014, p. 3). This statement highlights the current perspective and
desire of the Irish government to maintain a healthy global competitive edge through educating a
workforce that can innovate and produce at high levels.
Y. Kennedy (2014) noted that “companies can no longer expect to become major global
technology players without having an Irish base” (p. 52). Publishers and business analysts have
also recognized this reputation. In 2013, Forbes (as cited in Y. Kennedy, 2014) ranked Ireland as
first on its list of best countries for business. Forbes used several indicators for this ranking,
including GDP, tax burden, level of innovation, monetary freedom, and required red tape for
businesses (Y. Kennedy, 2014). The 2014 IMD World Competitive Yearbook (as cited in Y.
Kennedy, 2014) ranks Ireland as first in the following: a workforce that is flexible and adaptive,
skilled labor availability, incentives available, and attitudes toward globalization. “Foreign
companies create employment opportunities and make a significant contribution to Ireland’s
economy. MNCs spent 20.8 billion euros in the Irish economy and accounted for 70 percent of
all Irish exports” (Y. Kennedy, 2014, p. 54). Based on these combined attributes, Ireland has
created a competitive platform that did not exist prior to the rise of the booming economic times
of the Celtic Tiger era and the recovery since the Great Recession. All components of the com-
petitive platform have been established through the workforce training process and the education
of future generations (Y. Kennedy, 2014).
Influence of Economics on Educational Policy
The Global Information Infrastructure Commission (GIIC; 1998), an international,
independent NGO, contended that
the globalization of the economy and its concomitant demands on the workforce requires
a different education that enhances the ability of learners to access, assess, adopt, and
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 41
apply knowledge, to think independently to exercise appropriate judgment and to
collaborate with others to make sense of new situations. The objective of education is no
longer simply to convey a body of knowledge, but to teach how to learn, problem-solve
and synthesize the old with the new. (p. 4)
The world system and global economy are facing a fundamental restructuring and an
ongoing process of globalization, thus leading to the development of a knowledge-based global
information society. Addressing the challenges posed by globalization will require tremendous
levels of cooperation between the public and private sectors and among global, regional, and
national organizations. Globalization is a very real phenomenon that is transforming the world
economic system, including nearly all aspects of production, distribution, and other business
processes (GIIC Forum, 1998). With the emergence of a new development model, particularly in
the highly industrialized economies, knowledge and information take on increasing importance.
There is a need for tangible responses in knowledge, education, and learning to the challenges
and opportunities presented by the age of globalization.
Thurow (2000) noted that the globalization movement changed the role of nations from
those who control their own economy to those who must develop and construct the individual
platform to which MNCs are attracted to conduct business. This platform development is linked
to the process of educating a nation’s workforce and adjusting curriculum to maximize competi-
tiveness (O’Hagan & Newman, 2014). Leahy and Phelan (2012) noted significant changes in
Ireland’s technology education: “Technology education syllabi were revised to include more
design activity at the senior cycle. These changes reflect the forward thinking of policymakers in
reflection of the progression from the industrial era—to the information era—to the conceptual
era” (p. 375). Adjustments to curriculum and instruction in Ireland are linked to its need to
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 42
maintain a competitive edge and to continue to recover from the recession that abruptly stalled
the Celtic Tiger.
Education in Ireland
Historical Overview
The forces of government and religious institutions have shaped the history of Ireland’s
educational system since its inception as a national school system in 1831 (Donnelly, 2011). The
original intent of the educational system resembled themes in the concept of globalization
through the establishment of a national school system that would unite students from all religious
backgrounds in one educational setting. Following establishment of national schools, religious
influence placed pressure on the Irish government to allow schools to be under the direction of
individual churches. The pressure applied by the churches was successful; by the mid-1800s,
only 4% of the national schools were under mixed management with blended student religious
beliefs (Donnelly, 2011; O’Reilly, 2012).
Donnelly (2011) noted that during these early years of Ireland’s schooling system,
teachers were instructed through the rules of education to be sensitive to the religious back-
grounds of students. These rules were revisited in 1965: “Teachers were no longer required to be
careful in the presence of children of different religious beliefs and they were not to touch matters
of controversy” (Donnelly, 2011, p. 3). In 1971 a new curriculum was published nationally that
introduced several innovations and the integration of a new prospectus (Donnelly, 2011;
O’Reilly, 2012).
The earliest period of Ireland’s national school system experienced problems stemming
from the lack of compulsory education laws. In addition to student attendance problems, parents
were required to pay fees for their children to attend school. The Irish Education Act of 1892
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 43
was an attempt to solve some of these early problems in the national school system. Under this
act, school was made a mandatory activity for children between the ages of 6 and 14. The act
also made education free for students in this age group, although it balanced its revenue loss by
reducing teachers’ salaries (O’Reilly, 2012).
The end of the 19th century saw a rise in attempts by the Roman Catholic Church to
expand control throughout Ireland of schools that were then dominated by the influence of the
Church of Ireland. O’Reilly (2012) noted that the Roman Catholic Church had minimal influ-
ence during this time; however, this situation changed with development of educational policy
late in the 19th century. Cardinal Paul Cullen was a driving force behind the spread of the
Catholic Church’s influence across Ireland. For most of the 20th century, the Catholic Church
controlled the national schools. A major reason for this dominance has been linked to the fact
that most schools were built on church property (O’Reilly, 2012; Rougier & Honohan, 2015).
The history of Ireland’s educational system is in contrast to that of the majority of Euro-
pean nations. Historical research has demonstrated that Ireland’s national school system has
been intertwined with the church and controlled by the church until the most modern times
(O’Reilly, 2012; Rougier & Honohan, 2015). In contrast, other Western nations have public
schools run by the government and a parallel system run by various religious organizations and
churches. This parallel nature limits the sphere of influence of churches on day-to-day functions
of a government-run educational system (O’Reilly, 2012; Rougier & Honohan, 2015).
Current Education in Ireland
According to Goldberg and Pavcnik (2007), the economic needs of a nation will shape the
development of policy and structures as the future workforce is prepared. The Celtic Tiger Era of
Ireland transformed the economy from primarily agricultural to one driven by technology
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 44
(Childs, 2001). Childs (2001) noted numerous adjustments in the focus of education in response
to the needs of the nation. Research indicated that these changes originated at the national level
within the office of the Minister of Education. These factors continue to influence how technol-
ogy, comprehension, culture, and information are shared from nation to nation. Thus, this
section of the paper focused on an overview of the impact of globalization on Ireland’s recent
educational practices.
Ireland’s educational system is composed of three main levels. Primary education is
comparable to elementary school in the United States, where students receive foundational
learning. Secondary education serves students ages 12–18 and is composed of two levels. The
junior level spans 3 years and resembles middle school in the United States, where students are
equipped for the next level of education. The senior level may include a 2- or 3-year period
comparable to high school in the United States (O’Reilly, 2012).
O’Reilly (2012) noted that the senior level of education in Ireland leads students to one of
three types of programs. A Leaving Certificate Programme path allows students to take an
examination at the end of their final year to assess their college readiness. Points are awarded
based on the results of this examination, and university admissions and assignment to a major
field of study are contingent on these scores. Students may take the examination one time,
regardless of preparation or readiness. Many students and parents have argued that the weight
placed on a single examination is too great, as it determines the student’s pathway through life.
Teachers have argued that the examination narrows their curriculum in that students care only
about material that will be on their Leaving Certificate examination (O’Reilly, 2012).
Students may also choose to be a part of a LCVP. This certificate does not guarantee that
the student will move on to third-level education at a university. It is instead cross-curricular,
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 45
designed for the individual student based on specific interests and strengths (O’Reilly, 2012).
The vocational training focuses more acutely on job skills than does the Academic Leaving
Certificate.
The third option is for students to participate in a TY Programme prior to entering a
Leaving Certificate Programme. This pathway allows students to explore options and have time
to mature and decide which pathway is best for them (O’Reilly, 2012). Banks, Bynre, McCoy,
and Smyth (2014) argued that in some schools, students are socially restricted based on their
examination pathway choices. This system of tracking students has been shown to limit choices
of career and postsecondary pathways.
Educational policy in Ireland rested in the hands of the church and the government for
several decades of its history. Groups such as the teacher’s union were not happy with this
imbalance between religious power and education. The Education Act of 1998 was the next
major educational movement in Ireland since the introduction of free postprimary education in
1967. This act established a new balance of power and allowed teachers to become more in-
volved in the decision-making process (O’Reilly, 2012). The new law recognized fixed numbers
of representatives to serve on boards that steer curricular decisions. For example, O’Reilly
(2012) described the composition of the Curriculum Committee for Social, Environmental, and
Scientific Education as having 13 members from teaching organizations, six from religious
organizations, four from government organizations, and three from parent organizations. This
system places a considerable amount of power in the hands of teachers to shape curriculum.
Although a new balance of power appeared on the curricular steering boards, the Catholic Church
still held considerable power within the educational system, as the school locations were typi-
cally still on church property (O’Reilly, 2012).
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 46
The Celtic Tiger era was a period of unprecedented growth in Ireland’s economy and was
defined by the large number of MNCs contributing to the economy (O’Hagan & Newman, 2014).
Donnelly (2011) and O’Reilly (2012) noted that integration of the national curriculum in 1971 set
the stage for forthcoming educational movements aimed to give Ireland a competitive edge
against other nations. “Students with high scores on the Leaving Certification Exam have first
choice as to what college or university they wish to attend and what course of study they wish to
pursue” (O’Reilly, 2012, p. 13). This competitive edge existed primarily in the technology sector
and played a large role in Ireland’s attractive economic landscape in the late 1990s and into the
early 2000s. During this time, 70% of Ireland’s third-level students studied the fields of engi-
neering, science, computer science, or business (O’Reilly, 2012).
Irish educators saw a decline in the number of students taking courses of study in techni-
cal fields in the late 2000s (O’Reilly, 2012). O’Reilly (2012) attributed this decline to student
interest in other careers, such as law or medicine, based on differences in pay between medical or
legal fields and technology or engineering. Ireland’s economic survival became dependent on
promotion and education in STEM fields to attract MNCs and FDI (Paus, 2005). In addition,
educational strategies were targeted to further develop and educate students to contribute in a
knowledge-based economy, thereby aiming to gain a competitive edge to attract FDI and MNCs
(Turner & D’Art, 2008).
Twenty-First-Century Skills
Wagner (2008) foreshadowed the thoughts of economists such as O’Hagan and Newman
(2014) in that today’s economy has been labeled a knowledge-based economy. Wagner (2008)
illustrated that many schools remain stagnated in an ever-changing, fast-paced world, thus
rendering them obsolete. Today’s schools are concerned about “learning how to read, at least at a
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 47
basic level, they are not learning how to think or care about what they read” (p. xxiii). In order to
combat a stagnation of student growth and development, Wagner (2008) identified seven survival
skills for the 21st century: (a) critical thinking and problem-solving abilities, (b) collaboration
across networks, (c) agility and adaptability, (d) initiative and entrepreneurship, (e) effective oral
and written communication, (f) accessing and analyzing information, and (g) curiosity and
imagination. Successful implementation of 21st-century skills results in students with the ability
to analyze roots of a problem and to identify how problems evolved using a systematic approach.
Students are involved in global interactions, think strategically through the lens of cultural
awareness, and lead though influence. They are flexible, resourceful, lifelong learners who adapt
easily to disruptions. These students seek new ideas and opportunities to be a leader and make
improvements. The ability to communicate one’s views, opinions, and ideas is key in a global
economy, as is the development of critical thinking skills needed to analyze, synthesize, and
evaluate data, along with an inquisitive, motivated, analytical thought process (Wagner, 2008).
Critical thinking and development of high levels of problem-solving abilities are the first
of the 21st-century skills (Wagner, 2008). “Asking good questions, critical thinking, and prob-
lem solving go hand in hand in the minds of most employers and business consultants” (p. 15).
The abstract thinker is seen to go above and beyond simple memory recall or a formula-driven
thought process. The flattening of the world described by Friedman (2007) has also migrated
into business and corporations that have modified former hierarchical relationships to flattened,
cross-functional teams that may collaborate on projects (Wagner, 2008).
Wagner (2008) took 21st-century skills a step further with the second survival skill: the
ability to collaborate across networks. In themes established by Friedman (2007) and his
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 48
depiction of a flattened world, individuals must now work with others across the globe, not
necessarily across the hallway.
The ability to work fluidly around the globe is a competitive advantage: understanding
how to leverage the globe, time zones, where the work can best be done, where there are
skills that best match the task either because of the culture or the training. (Wagner,
2008, p. 23)
Bell (2010) reported research on how to engage learners instructionally in collaborating
across networks through the specific benefits of PBL: “Students learn accountability with PBL,
through the daily goal setting, as well as through expectations of their peers” (p. 40). PBL
enhances a student’s ability to communicate effectively, show respect for differing viewpoints,
and apply principles of teamwork (Bell, 2010). Educational institutions must train the future
workforce not only in the technical skills required to maintain a competitive edge but also in the
versatility to collaborate. Without these skills, jobs and the knowledge-based economy will
travel elsewhere (O’Hagan & Newman, 2014).
The knowledge-based economy has been shown to change continuously, requiring
members of the workforce to adapt to ongoing fluctuations (Clifton, 2011; Thurow, 2000).
Wagner (2008) identified a key attribute of the knowledge-based economy in his third 21st-
century survival skill: agility and adaptability. Karen Bruett of Dell Computers was cited by
Wagner (2008) as saying: “What goes on in the classroom today is the same stuff as fifty years
ago, and that’s just not going to cut it” (p. 31). This stagnation of curriculum and educational
philosophy is a dangerous phenomenon as nations attempt to construct a platform upon which
MNCs will be attracted to a country where a knowledge-based economy may thrive (Thurow,
2000).
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 49
Wagner (2008) suggested survival skills that can be taught in a classroom; however, an
individual’s initiative and entrepreneurial spirit are essential elements to persistence in the 21st
century. Individuals with this skill have an intrinsic drive to take the initiative to execute ideas
and think outside of the traditional box. This ability, coupled with refined academic skills,
creates a highly competitive person who can withstand the tug of war of global business.
Clarity of thought in written and oral communication is a skill that is sought by many
employers (Wagner, 2008). “They have difficulty being clear and concise; it’s hard for them to
create focus, energy, and passion around the points they want to make” (Summers, as cited in
Clifton, 2011, p. 35). The communication process is essential in the conveyance of thoughts,
ideas, and innovation. Without an effective vehicle of communication, these thoughts will never
be operationalized.
Data and information grow daily at exponential rates (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking,
2000; Christensen, Horn, & Johnson, 2011). “There is so much information available that it is
almost too much, and if people aren’t prepared to process the information effectively it almost
freezes them in their steps” (Summers, as cited in Bransford et al., 2000, p. 36). The process of
accessing and analyzing information is the sixth skill area that Wagner (2008) suggested as an
essential attribute to survive in the 21st century. In addition to accessing and interpreting infor-
mation, individuals in the 21st century must learn to adapt to changing information.
The final 21st-century skill suggested by Wagner (2008) involves the intrinsic nature of
curiosity and imagination. These attributes allow people to possess a drive and motivation to be
involved in critical thinking and to apply imagination and creativity to solve problems. These
attributes serve as a catalyst for the skills learned in the classroom and continue to redefine the
competitive edge in an increasingly globalized, knowledge-based economy (Spring, 2015;
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 50
Thurow, 2000; Wagner, 2008). Clifton (2011) supplied additional insight regarding this survival
skill in the notion that many nations such as the United States do not lack imagination, innova-
tion, and creativity; the element missing in individuals is the entrepreneurial spirit and the ability
to commercialize this innovation in a competitive market.
The framework presented by Wagner (2008) sets a template for educational and prepara-
tory systems to address the challenges and skills needed to survive in the 21st century. Nurturing
people with these skill sets is essential to prosperity in a globalized, knowledge-based economy.
Educators must shape their teaching strategies in response to student learning needs and context.
According to Spring (2015), the needs of a 21st-century workforce influenced by globalization
will require a global education that is not centered on imparting information but rather on how to
teach: how to learn; how to problem solve; how to integrate old and new ideas; how to work,
collaborate, and communicate in diverse settings; and the adoption of lifelong learning as a
culture of practice.
This doctoral study addressed how educators use science fairs and competitions to influ-
ence the development of 21st-century skills through application of PBL in STEM content areas.
Wagner (2008) presented an example of 19th-century students being educated in a one-room
schoolhouse. This form of education may have satisfied the needs of society in this early period
but may be inadequate for the present day; however, some educational techniques are timeless.
Wagner (2008) cited Socratic questioning techniques to guide and shape a learning experience.
Although this teaching strategy dates back more than 2,500 years, its effectiveness is timeless and
can play an essential role in educating the future workforce. Educators around the globe must
understand the pressures that their students will face in the fierce competitive environment of the
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 51
global economy and consequently adapt their curriculum and delivery technique to build a
cutting-edge workforce (Christensen et al., 2011; Spring, 2015).
Project-Based Learning
PBL is a well-suited instructional method for achieving the goal of STEM education.
Capraro and Slough (2013) defined STEM PBL as a nebulous task or set of tasks based on
standards or goals where students are required to solve problems and present their solutions that
demonstrate mastery of various STEM subjects. STEM PBL combines engineering design
principles into the curriculum to create real-world applications and to help prepare students to be
college and career ready. PBL provides the context for students to build critical STEM skills
supported by language arts, social science, and the arts (Capraro & Slough, 2013).
The flattening of the world and the advances in science and technology have created a
need for more engineers and scientists throughout the world. STEM education is an economic
factor in established national economies throughout the world, and emerging nations understand
the importance of STEM education in their development (T. J. Kennedy & Odell, 2014).
Up to this point in the review of related literature, the historic, economic, social, and
cultural background of globalization and Ireland has been established as a backdrop for the
proposed study. As curricular ideas, concepts, and techniques are developed to increase 21st-
century skills in students, the body of empirical research has also grown. This portion of the
review of related literature examines many empirical research examples that focus on essential
curricular development to serve the needs of students as well as to benefit society as it continues
to shift toward a globalized and competitive community. The review of literature has supplied
multiple perspectives and ample evidence of the skills that are required to be successful in the
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 52
21st century, as well as the platforms that must be established to attract business to a nation’s
knowledge-based economy.
Thurow (2000) established that the world is moving toward a knowledge-based economy
and that nations must establish competitive platforms to attract MNCs. Darling-Hammond
(2010), O’Hagan and Newman (2014), and Spring (2015) have reinforced the concept that an
educational system is critical in the preparation of the future workforce to take an effective role in
the global economy. Darling-Hammond applied the concept of a knowledge-based economy to
the education of a population that not only memorizes facts but also has the adaptability to
change with an ever-changing world:
Schools must teach disciplinary knowledge in ways that focus on central concepts and
help students learn how to think critically and learn for themselves, so that they can use
knowledge in new situations and manage the demands of changing information, technolo-
gies, jobs, and social conditions. (p. 4)
Both Clifton (2011) and Wagner (2008) outlined the required skills that must be taught or be
inherently present in the workforce in order to have a competitive stance in the world.
One way that educational scholars have recommended for educators to build 21st-century
skills is through inquiry-based instructional approaches such as PBL. The notion of PBL is not a
new concept. Bender (2012) and Capraro et al. (2013) traced the origins of student-centered
pedagogy to John Dewey in 1916, as this method of instruction was found in agriculture and
industrial arts. Another example was originated by a Columbia Teacher’s College professor,
William Heard Kilpatrick and published as “The Project Method”:
[A project is] any unit of purposeful experience, any instance of purposeful activity where
the dominating purpose, as an inner urge, (1) fixes the aim of the action, (2) guides its
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 53
process, and (3) furnishes its drive, its inner motivation. The project thus may refer to
any kind or variety of life experience which is, in fact, actuated by a dominating purpose.
(Kilpatrick, Bagley, Bonser, Hosic, & Hatch, 1921, p. 10)
Based on this original definition, PBL is an authentic, relevant, and engaging problem that allows
students to travel through an inquiry process to find an appropriate answer or response.
PBL is critical in teaching students essential 21st-century skills (Bender, 2012; Buck
Institute for Education, 2009; Capraro et al., 2013). PBL has been described as an exciting and
innovative instructional format in which students are motivated by solving real-world problems
as they learn concepts in a course (Bender, 2012). Hixson, Ravitz, and Whisman (2012) stated
that “PBL instruction used in combination with PBL professional development can have an
impact on 21st-century teaching” (p. 31). Hixson et al. examined the 21st-century skill compo-
nents of PBL lessons and found that all but one skill area yielded significant results. These
significant skill areas were critical thinking, collaboration, communication, creativity and innova-
tion, self-direction, local connection, and technology.
PBL has been shown to foster teamwork, collaboration, persistence, and mutual encour-
agement in research (Lou, Liu, & Shih, 2011). In an empirical study of 84 high school students
in Taiwan, students were administered questionnaires during a PBL lesson, as the assignment led
them to develop audio speakers. Data led the researchers to the conclusion that the project
improved students not only in the area of science but also in mathematics and the use of creativ-
ity in the area of engineering design (Lou et al., 2011). The nature of a PBL assignment allowed
the students to enhance both their 21st-century skills and a broad range of STEM-related critical
thinking.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 54
Capraro et al. (2013) noted that authors following Dewey and Kilpatrick have offered
diverse definitions of the method; however, implementation and professional development of
PBL did not reach an acceptable level of fidelity. Slowly, over time, educators lost sense of any
definition of true PBL; and its existence evolved into less-structured student-centered activities.
Instead of meaningful learning, PBL has in many cases become a time filler without true learning
experiences (Slough & Milam, 2013). As education moves deeper into the 21st century, this
once poorly defined pedagogical technique has become a vital link to survival skills suggested by
Wagner (Capraro et al., 2013).
Finkelstein, Hanson, Huang, Hirschman, and Huang (2010) examined student perfor-
mance in a project-based economics course. The study examined economics courses in Califor-
nia and Arizona, where economics is a required course for graduation. Finkelstein et al. included
128 economics teachers from 106 high schools to conduct the study by using PBL strategies in
their classrooms. Research questions were designed to measure the level of student content
knowledge and problem-solving skills in economics using PBL, compared to a nontreatment
control group. The study used the Test of Economic Literacy to examine the effects on student
content knowledge and a performance-based assessment developed at the University of Califor-
nia, Los Angeles, to assess students’ problem-solving skills. The results indicated that the inter-
vention group outscored the control group by statistically significant levels in both economics
content knowledge and problem-solving abilities (Finkelstein et al., 2010).
Tongsakul, Jitgarun, and Chaokumnerd (2011) conducted an empirical study examining
the use of PBL and the ideas of student motivation and sharing. The purpose of the study was to
identify and compare instructors’ and students’ perceptions of factors that contributed to effective
use of PBL in Thailand. The sample consisted of 247 electrical technology instructors at Thai
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 55
vocational education institutes and 161 students who were electrical power graduates from those
institutes. Data were analyzed using factor analysis and structural equation modeling. The
results indicated that instructors and students agreed on the importance of two factors: motivation
to learn and use of the scientific process. These results provide significant empirical evidence
that PBL increases classroom learning motivation and use of the scientific process.
Although most research paints the use of PBL in a positive and beneficial light, Johnson
and Delawsky (2013) found that PBL could hinder some aspects of the learning process. They
focused their research on student engagement in the PBL environmental setting. In their study,
25 students’ behavioral, cognitive, and emotional engagement were examined during the study of
two chemistry units: one with the use of PBL and the other without PBL. Data on the level of
behavioral, cognitive, and emotional student engagement indicated that behavioral and cognitive
engagement was either not measurable or decreased with the use of PBL. Student emotional
engagement increased when examined in the context of the chemistry class. “If students investi-
gate their passions by using PBL, the role of teachers becomes that of a facilitator rather than an
entertainer” (Johnson & Delawsky, 2013, p. 560). Data concerning student engagement should
be considered as it can, in turn, have a positive impact on a student’s academic process; there-
fore, its place in the decision- making process should be prominent.
A teacher’s intrinsic motivation is an essential component of a student’s motivation to
learn. Lam, Cheng, and Ma (2009) noted that, no matter what instructional delivery model is
used in the classroom, a teacher’s intrinsic motivation has more impact on a student’s motivation
than any other variable. Lam et al. presented this evidence in an empirical study of 126 Hong
Kong teachers and 631 students who were surveyed to collect data after a semester of PBL.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 56
The reviewed research indicates that the use of PBL as an instructional delivery platform
is essential in equipping the 21st-century learner with appropriate survival skills (Wagner, 2008).
The process of combining STEM with PBL creates an increased level of authentic learning with
practical relevance for students as they enter the global, knowledge-based economy (Thurow,
2000; Tongsakul et al., 2011). The critical nature of the STEM–PBL relationship is evident:
PBL within STEM requires collaboration, peer communication, problem solving, and
self-directed learning while incorporating rigor for all students. PBL within STEM builds
on engineering design as the cornerstone and as the foundation on which students bring
their compartmentalized knowledge of STEM to bear on solving meaningful real-world
problems. (Capraro & Slough, 2013, p. 2)
An examination of STEM education shows critical links to relevant curriculum to be necessary to
build competitive knowledge-based economies and workforces (Thurow, 2000).
STEM
“With the flattening of the global economy in the 21st century, teaching STEM has taken
on new importance as economic competition has become truly global” (T. J. Kennedy & Odell,
2014, p. 246). The necessity to bring additional professionals into STEM fields has become a
driving force in meeting the demands of a competent and changing workforce (Bybee, 2010).
Research indicates that STEM is the lifeline to a competitive. knowledge-based economy
(Slough & Milam, 2013). T. J. Kennedy and Odell (2014) concluded that STEM curriculum
must challenge students to innovate and invent while applying their acquired knowledge to
problems in pursuit of a solution. The authors noted that students must demonstrate mastery of
STEM concepts in a work-based and contextualized setting.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 57
Breiner, Harkness, Johnson, and Koehler (2012) examined the definition of STEM as
presented by faculty members; rather than defining STEM as a set of four disciplines, these
educators viewed STEM as individualized disciplines, operating in segregated silos of study.
Judith Ramaley, a director of the National Science Foundation in the United States, first used the
acronym STEM in 2001. The original acronym was SMET; however, the National Science
Foundation changed the ordering of subjects out of fear that SMET would be confused with
issues of vulgarity. The term STEM catapulted into popularity, as it was seen as an avenue to
increase student performance after falling behind internationally in mathematics and science
scores (Breiner et al., 2012).
A STEM education is critical not only for the advancement of a knowledge-based econ-
omy but also as one of the “critical factors necessary to surpass successfully the educational
pipeline” (Hayden, Ouyang, Scinski, Olszewski, & Bielefeldt, 2011, p. 48). In a study of student
engagement in the STEM disciplines, Hayden et al. (2011) noted three areas in STEM to advance
in students’ education. Students must have the opportunity to learn mathematics and science;
they must have high achievement in these subjects; and they must have the desire to pursue
STEM in their course sequencing.
T. J. Kennedy and Odell (2014) outlined five critical STEM pedagogical techniques.
First, “educators must implement instructional strategies that integrate the teaching of STEM in a
way that challenges students to innovate and invent” (p. 256). Second, “educators must use PBL
strategies with a set of specific learning outcomes to support student learning” (p. 256). Third,
“educators must create meaningful learning opportunities, provided context learning is delivered
using applied and collaborative learning” (p. 256). Fourth, “educators must require students to
demonstrate their understanding of these disciplines in an environment that models real world
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 58
context for learning and work” (p. 256). Fifth, students must be provided with “viewpoints to
demonstrate how STEM transcends national boundaries providing students a global sense of
community” (p. 256). The research by T. J. Kennedy and Odell pointed STEM education in
multiple directions. First, STEM education must have real-world contextual meaning; second, it
must be meaningful and collaborative; and third, it must involve PBL themes that allow students
to be creative and innovative in the problem-solving process.
Many of the themes suggested by T. J. Kennedy and Odell (2014) echoed the work by
Capraro et al. (2013) in their integration of STEM with PBL. The process of merging STEM
with PBL “integrates engineering design principles with the K–16 curriculum” (Capraro et al.,
2013, p. 1). Capraro et al. stated that neither concept of PBL or STEM is new in itself; however,
emphasizing STEM education in the PBL setting is a new trend, as these lessons are linked to
experiences typically found at the postsecondary level. Combining PBL and STEM creates a
rich, authentic task that requiries collaboration and application of knowledge to real-world
problems.
The Report of the STEM Review (Northern Ireland Department of Employment and
Learning, 2009) discussed the shift in the economy and the urgency placed on Western nations to
maintain a competitive stance:
The pace of economic and business change continues to accelerate rapidly around the
World. Furthermore, we are seeing an accelerating eastward shift of economic strength
which now threatens the traditional power base of the European Union, USA, Canada and
Japan. (p. 35)
The report continued by examining data that indicated a need for more students to pursue a
STEM pathway. Some students who have tried alternative pathways have been diagnosed as
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having “STEM fatigue.” “STEM fatigue has resulted in a reduction in the numbers of students
enrolling in STEM subjects, at a time when economies are projecting a growth in STEM jobs”
(Northern Ireland Department of Employment and Learning, 2009, p. 36). The correction to
offset the supply and demand for persons entering the STEM fields has been placed at the
forefront of many educational platforms.
The work by Capraro et al. (2013) bridges the gap between STEM and PBL with the 21st-
century skills suggested by Wagner (2008). Through merging STEM and PBL, the curriculum
content and learning outcomes are more relevant to the real world, thus benefitting not only the
learner but also the competitive national platform that attracts potential MNCs and investment by
foreign entities (O’Hagan & Newman, 2014; Thurow, 2000). Morgan, Moon, and Barroso
(2013) noted the tendency of the change process to persist in the STEM field: “With the ever-
changing technological advances and new problems being identified daily, we must prepare
students for jobs and challenges that possibly do not even exist today” (p. 29). This preparation
is enhanced through a design process that aims to develop solutions for an identified problem.
Slough and Milam (2013) provided a theoretical framework for the design and implemen-
tation of STEM-based PBL. The PBL experiences in STEM have four main design principles.
First, the content must be accessible to the student. Projects should represent authentic context
that can be personally related to by a student. Personalized questions and design, along with
feedback, are essential to making the experience accessible.
The use of visible thinking is the second design principle developed by Slough and
Milam (2013). Under this principle, students should be encouraged to represent their thoughts
and findings through multiple methods. Computerized animation and modeling are essential
functions for creating a visual depiction of the scientific process.
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The third design principle is grounded in social constructivism and includes the
following:
Encouraging listening to others, design discussions, highlighting the cultural norms, and
employing multiple social structures. Through the student’s involvement in the design
process of the PBL experience, they should also be encouraged to discuss and reflect
upon the ideas of other students. (Slough & Milam, 2013, p. 16)
The fourth design principle proposed in Slough and Milam’s (2013) theoretical frame-
work is to promote autonomy and lifelong learning. Slough and Milam noted that this could be
accomplished through
encouraging monitoring, providing complex projects, revisiting and generalizing the
inquiry process and scaffolding critique. The nature of the complex project design leads
to complexity in learning and an advancement of the inquiry process. Through this
design, teachers must foster an environment where students formulate more research
questions and develop an independent drive to advance new explanations and arguments.
(p. 17)
Lattimer and Riordan (2011) supported the theoretical framework established by Slough
and Milam (2013) with the following statement from an examination of a PBL setting in a
middle school:
When PBL is thoughtfully designed and implemented, evidence suggests that it can be
more effective than traditional instruction for teaching concept mastery in core academic
disciplines, supporting long-term knowledge retention, improving mastery of 21st-
century skills, and preparing students to synthesize and explain concepts. (p. 18)
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The essential merger of STEM and the pedagogical strategy of PBL is epitomized in
science fairs and competitions, as students have the opportunity to develop research questions
and hypotheses and to design experimental procedures to test their hypotheses in a controlled
setting. These fairs and festivals act as a microcosm of the functions of STEM scientists, engi-
neers, and mathematicians in society.
Science Fairs and Competitions
Science fairs and competitions have a long history, with the first exhibition held in 1828
and featuring several modern-day scientific inventions, such as the Morse telegraph and the Bell
telephone. The first student involvement in a science competition was in 1928 and is noted for
being the standard for all subsequent fairs. The original student science competition eventually
became the International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF), currently sponsored by the Intel
Corporation. This annual fair features the top science competition projects from around the
globe and offers monetary awards as prizes. Intel has held an interest in science competitions in
the United States, Ireland, and other countries (Bellipanni & Lilly, 1999):
Intel has a vested interest in strengthening the STEM talent pipeline to improve the
current trends in STEM education. Finding enough qualified candidates for Intel job
openings remains a daunting challenge, underscoring the economic imperative to resolve
the STEM skills gap in the U.S. and other parts of the world. (Intel Corporation, 2014, p.
69)
Intel views STEM and PBL education through the science competition process as a
method to strengthen the knowledge-based economies around the world. Through the promotion
of science fairs and competitions such as SciFest, Intel has a direct influence on its future work-
force across the globe. Bencze and Bowen (2009) supported Intel’s views: “Given that science
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fairs promote student-led project work, which tends to be de-emphasized in schools, they may be
viewed as a positive educational phenomena” (p. 2459). Most research focusing on science fairs
examines the actual process and procedure of the student’s inquiry. Minimal research exists
addressing the external influences and driving forces of the science fair process and its influence
and representation of curriculum in the educational system (Bencze & Bowen, 2009).
The use of PBL within STEM and science competitions in a student’s education was
noted in research by Sahin (2013), who posited that “students who attended STEM courses and
after school science clubs had a higher percentage of post-secondary matriculation into STEM
majors than the national average” (p. 10). In Sahin’s study, many after-school science clubs were
geared toward student participation in the school-level science competition. These positive early
experiences in the STEM field increased the likelihood of students eventually pursuing STEM
career pathways.
Czerniak and Lumpe (1996) found that middle and secondary students’ attitudes toward
science competition participation generated affirmative outcomes. Student participants’ positive
feedback included their excitement in learning something new, grade improvement, receiving
money or prizes, having a good experience, impact on academic record, improving presentation
skills, and networking. Students who participated in the science competition viewed this practice
as an advantage.
A study with contrasting results was conducted by Hampton and Licona (2006), who
examined science fair participation in communities serving students whose parents are highly
underrepresented in science fields. The researchers indicated that these students’ participation
created a nonmemorable experience and that there was no evidence that the students were
engaged in meaningful learning. In addition, many of the students experienced inadequate
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 63
support in creating science projects for the competitions. Some students received support from
their parents, while others received no support and became stressed in the process.
Thus, in contrast to the studies conducted by Czerniak and Lumpe (1996) and Sahin
(2013), there appears to be a difference in students’ expectations and success based on students’
demographics and location. This disparity between groups can often be related to access
(Hampton & Licona, 2006). Many students in Ireland have access to science competitions such
as SciFest; however, not all students can compete and participation is not mandatory, as it is in
countries such as Costa Rica.
The review of research literature has shown that learning must be engaging and that
students must be connected to real-world problems that parallel positions in the knowledge-
based economy to establish an authentic learning scenario. Although a limited amount of
research has focused on science competitions, the opportunities afforded through the merger of
PBL and STEM create an authentic atmosphere to maximize learning. Many of these authentic
inquiry scenarios create links to career pathways, thereby strengthening the knowledge-based
economy of a competitive nation (Bellipanni & Lilly, 1999; Bencze & Bowen, 2009; Sahin,
2013). It has been shown that Intel’s interest in SciFest and the promotion of student perfor-
mance in science fairs and competitions benefit not only nations but also the workforce of
corporations.
STEM Pathways Into College
Empirical research has also centered on pathways and obstacles between high school and
collegiate STEM programs and the tendencies of students to pursue either a STEM route or other
majors. Schneider, Broda, Judy, and Burkander (2013) used the College Ambition Program
(CAP) on selected school treatment groups to examine the influence of student participation in
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the college session. The CAP treatment groups articulate the transition to college with topics
such as financial aid to academic transitions between high school and the collegiate academic
environment. In addition to these transition elements, CAP designs specialized programs to train
students to understand how the collegiate experience can fit into their lives and plans. Schneider
et al. indicated that males were 13.5% more likely to enter a STEM major than were their female
counterparts. Students from treatment schools in urban settings were approximately 4% more
likely to enter STEM majors. Students in the CAP treatment groups across the experiment were
5.7% more likely to pursue a STEM pathway from high school to college (Schneider et al.,
2013). These findings indicate that the likelihood of pursuing a STEM-related major in college
after a high school experience is dependent on influences from both within and beyond the
control of both the student and the school. Although students and schools cannot affect their
high school setting or demographic characteristics, transition and programmatic influences can
be altered to ease students into STEM pathways as a continuance of their high school academic
pursuits.
Furthering study of gender and ethnic gaps in STEM, LeBeau et al. (2012) examined high
school coursework and sequences that influence student completion of STEM majors at the col-
legiate level. They studied 3,459 students from 229 high schools in the United States to collect
data on the influences on high school to college participation in STEM and completion of
collegiate majors in these subject areas. Their results echoed those reported by Schneider et al.
(2013) in that Caucasian and Asian ethnic groups were significantly more likely to pursue and
complete majors in STEM-related fields. LeBeau et al. also noted that males were more likely to
pursue and complete a college STEM program than were their female counterparts.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 65
LeBeau et al. (2012) examined the relationship between mathematics coursework and
successful completion of a STEM-related college major. The level of the course and the course
content of a high school mathematics program did not play a significant role in predicting suc-
cessful completion of a STEM-related major. Beyond gender and ethnic variables, LeBeau et al.
noted that the most significant predictors of collegiate STEM completion were the score on the
mathematics section of the American College Test (ACT) and earned grade point average (GPA)
in high school mathematics, regardless of the coursework or mathematics programmatic se-
quence.
Other studies have examined the relationship between high school coursework and the
increase in STEM career interest. Sadler, Sonnert, Hazari, and Thi (2014) noted that student
participation in 1 or 2 years of calculus, a 2nd year of chemistry, and 1 or 2 years of high school
physics was associated with a significant increase in their STEM career interest level. The
authors noted that other advanced sciences, such as biological sciences, did not have an effect on
STEM career interest. Similarly to LeBeau et al. (2012), Sadler et al. noted that participation in
the Advanced Placement Program did not play a significant role in the level of a student’s career
interest.
Conclusion: Educational Reform in the 21st Century
Thurow (2000) noted that the 21st century has shifted to a knowledge-based economy in
which global competition for business is based on platforms established by each nation. Educa-
tion for 21st-century students and future members of the global workforce has taken shape to
equip them with essential tools to survive in a constantly changing competitive environment
(Wagner, 2008). Through the use of STEM education and PBL, many of the skills are taught to
establish a workforce to attract FDI and the interests of MNCs. Ireland’s recovery from the bleak
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 66
period of the Great Recession has been attributed to a highly educated workforce with which
industries may flourish (Y. Kennedy, 2014).
The merger of PBL and STEM has been shown to create an authentic and applicable
learning scenario for students and to establish a growing knowledge-based economy (Bellipanni
& Lilly, 1999; Slough & Milam, 2013; Thurow, 2000). Science fairs and competitions have a
long international history and serve as a practical application of both STEM topics and PBL
(Sahin, 2013). Although the body of research literature is minimal in examining science fairs
and competitions in Ireland, websites and nonresearch artifacts reveal the level of importance that
these competitions hold for the education of the future workforce and the maintenance of a
competitive, knowledge-based economy (Y. Kennedy, 2014).
Theoretical Frameworks
Four frameworks were used to analyze and understand Ireland’s experience in globaliza-
tion, its curriculum and instruction incorporating 21st-century skills, and implementation of PBL
within STEM. The theoretical framework for the study were composed of work by Freidman
(2007), Slough and Milam (2013), Spring (2015), and Wagner (2008). Figure 1 illustrates the
relationships among the theoretical framework components. Friedman (2007) provided the
context for the framework and is centered in the diagram. His work depicts the worldwide
movement of globalization and the empowering need for workers who are equipped with skills to
facilitate closer borders and a flattening global market. Spring (2015) and Wagner (2008)
assembled concepts from the work by Friedman (2007) as points of convergence in the educa-
tional movement to instill 21st-century skills into future generations and to provide meaningful
education to be competitive in the global market. Their frameworks are depicted alongside
Friedman (2007), thus illustrating their connectivity and alignment. The work as described by
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Figure 1. Diagram of relationship of theoretical frameworks for
proposed study.
Slough and Milam (2013) provides a practitioner-level component to the framework, as STEM
and PBL are examined in terms of their contributions to the global economy. The skills that are
taught in the 21st-century classroom continue to flatten the globe, increase competition among
nations, and equip new generations with the 21st-century survival skills to be active participants
in the ever-increasing competitive market. In Figure 1, Slough and Milam are depicted on the
top of the pyramid—indicating the flattening effect while illustrating the cohesive link to Fried-
man (2007), Spring (2015), and Wagner (2008).
Friedman’s (2007) and Spring’s (2015) frameworks, based on the flattening theory and
world educational culture, were used as context for understanding Ireland’s role in educational
globalization. The key points that Friedman (2007) examined are as follows:
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1. Globalization 1.0 (1492–1800) shrank the world from a size large to a size medium;
2. Globalization 2.0 (1800–2000) shrank the world from a size medium to a size small;
and
3. Globalization 3.0 (starting about 2000) is shrinking the world from a size small to a
size tiny and flattening the playing field at the same time.
Globalization 3.0 is going to be driven more not only by individuals but also by a much more
diverse, non-Western, non-White-group. The most exciting part of Globalization 3.0 and the
flattening of the world is the process of connecting all knowledge pools in the world—downsides
and upsides. When the world is flat, citizens in Ireland can work and innovate without having to
relocate.
The key points that Spring (2015) identified for globalization of education were the fol-
lowing:
1. Development of a uniform global education culture sharing similar goals, educational
practices, and organizations;
2. Similarity of national school systems as a result of adoption of a Western model of the
nation-state that requires mass education;
3. A common educational ladder and curriculum organization; and
4. Global uniformity of schooling that provides entrance into the global economy.
In the case of the proposed study, lens #4 will help to frame Ireland’s educational curriculum in a
global perspective.
The work by Wagner (2008) served as a framework to organize a set of skills in which
schools prepare students for the 21st-century jobs that will be available to them when they
graduate. Specific attention will be given to the latest critical skills that Wagner (2012)
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identified: critical thinking and problem solving; collaboration and leadership; agility and
adaptability; initiative and entrepreneurialism; effective oral and written communication; the
ability to access and analyze information; the ability to have and use curiosity and imagination;
and incorporation of play, passion, and purpose.
The work by Slough and Milam (2013) served as the framework to analyze PBL within
STEM, wherein
the design of learning environments emphasizes: (a) making content accessible, (b)
making thinking visible, (c) helping students learn from others, and (d) promoting auton-
omy and lifelong learning. The learning sciences emphasize the importance of (a) pre-
existing knowledge, (b) feedback, revision, and reflection, (c) teaching for understanding,
and (d) metacognition. (p. 15)
Chapter Summary
The literature review included three main themes: globalization, the history of Ireland,
and education in Ireland. The first theme examined the concept of globalization, its historical
transformation, the flattening phenomenon, and the impact that globalization has had on the
world. The second theme examined the history of Ireland through social, political, economic,
and labor perspectives. The third theme examined the education system in Ireland from past to
current practices, 21st-century skills, PBL, STEM education, and science and technology fairs
through global and research-based perspectives.
While the literature is clear that MNCs are attracted to Ireland’s economic incentives and
skilled labor force, there is a need for further research examining the influence of MNCs on Irish
education, specifically the roles of STEM and PBL in Ireland’s education system. A second area
for further research is the influence of STEM education and PBL on Irish students choosing
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 70
STEM-related majors and careers. A third area for further research is the influence of science
and technology fairs on Irish students choosing STEM-related majors and careers. Student
choice of STEM-related majors and careers will ultimately maintain, promote, or reduce Ire-
land’s global position as an attractive destination for FDI from MNCs. Fourth, there is a need for
a detailed examination of the influence of global economic policies on teachers and their delivery
of PBL within STEM education.
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CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of globalization and MNCs on
educational policy on the curriculum and instructional practices in schools in Ireland. The study
also examined how science fairs and competitions have influenced the use of inquiry-based
instructional strategies, such as PBL, by teachers in the classroom to prepare students for a 21st-
century workforce in the fields of STEM. This study was conducted as a collaborative enterprise
among 16 researchers who formulated their research study proposal together, thus explaining
similarities among the problem, purpose and research questions of the study, literature review,
and research methodology in Chapters One, Two, and Three. Each researcher conducted his or
her particular data collection from a purposefully selected school site in Ireland through the use
of surveys, interviews, and observations of participants: students, teachers, and site leadership.
Data collected from educational policy leaders, political leaders, business leaders, and at the
SciFest@College science competition in Cork were shared among the researchers; however, data
analysis, findings, and conclusions were an individual effort among each of the researchers.
This study was designed to address the research questions by using qualitative and
quantitative approaches that would elicit feedback from governmental, educational, business, and
student respondents in Ireland. By using the researcher as the primary instrument in data collec-
tion and analysis, an inductive investigation was employed to gather a comprehensive description
of the events and actors in the setting (Merriam, 2009).
The issue addressed in the research questions was to find solutions to problems and fill in
gaps in academic knowledge based on a review of related research literature (Creswell, 2013;
Maxwell, 2013). Three research questions were developed to guide this study:
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1. How have globalization and MNCs influenced educational policy in the area of
STEM education and the development of 21st-century skills?
2. How have science and technology competitions, such as SciFest, influenced develop-
ment of 21st-century skills through the use of inquiry-based instructional strategies in STEM?
3. How has participation in science and technology competitions, such as SciFest, influ-
enced students’ interest in and selection of STEM-related courses in Senior Cycle, as well as
their pursuit of college- and/or career-related STEM fields?
This chapter describes how the research questions were addressed through a presentation
of the research design, participants, instrumentation, data collection methods and analysis, and
ethical considerations. First, the Research Design section provides a rationale for the use of
qualitative and quantitative approaches. Second is a description of the research team that was
assembled to conduct the study. The next section identifies the sample population and explains
the selection process. The fourth section outlines the instrumentation and protocols that were
used to conduct the interviews, observations, and surveys. The fifth section describes the process
to be used for data collection and analysis. The sixth section identifies ethical considerations, the
University of Southern California’s (USC) Institutional Review Board (IRB) process, and
adherence to those guidelines by the research team (IRB Approval #UP-IRB#:16-00179).
Research Design
Determining an appropriate research method depends on the issue the researcher wants to
study. Qualitative research and its methods are essential in the examination of a phenomenon in
its natural setting, in contrast to studies conducted in a controlled laboratory condition. Van
Maanen (1979) defined qualitative research as “an umbrella term covering an array of interpre-
tive techniques which seek to describe, decode, translate, and otherwise come to terms with the
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 73
meaning, not the frequency, of certain more or less naturally occurring phenomenon in the social
world” (p. 520). Qualitative studies are inductive, and a prestructured approach that leaves the
researcher open to emergent insights by deciding in what ways and why to prestructure a study
may be advantageous in helping to construct a design that enables researchers to answer their
questions, make progression on their goals, and remain focused (Maxwell, 2013).
According to Maxwell (2013), the four key issues for conducting a qualitative study are
establishing research relationships, site and participant selection or sampling, data collection, and
data analysis. In qualitative studies the researcher is the research instrument. Everything that can
be captured by the researcher’s senses and communicated to the researcher is potential data.
Acquiring the data means developing and maintaining appropriate, positive relationships that
provide access and opportunity to the sampling in the study. Data can be interpreted in a variety
of ways and can be triangulated by using multiple sources of data and data collection methods to
confirm emerging findings to validate the conclusions (Merriam, 2009). Utilizing multiple
sources of data and data collection methods such as interviews and observations may expand the
scope of credibility when drawing conclusions from data analysis. According to Maxwell,
observations describe setting, behaviors, and events; and interviewing provides a description of
actions and events. Observations are important because they allow the researcher to get a first-
hand account of the study setting, participants, behaviors, and environment. The participant’s
true perspective can be revealed to the researcher through understanding the context in which the
participant’s behaviors occur. Interviewing is important because it can be a fact checker for
observation, an opportunity for additional data collection missed during observation; and if
questions are asked and answered about specific events and actions, information that cannot be
acquired by observation or past events can now be accessible to the researcher (Maxwell, 2013).
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 74
However, a qualitative approach was not the only method used in this study. The
research team addressed the research questions by using a mixture of qualitative and quantitative
approaches. Quantitative research was employed through the use of surveys. Data collection via
these surveys allowed the researchers to collect large amounts of information in a structured
format to provide additional data to address the research questions (Creswell, 2013). These
survey data were used alongside qualitative interview and observation data to provide a compre-
hensive description of 21st-century skill development in Ireland, science fairs and competitions,
and the pursuit of STEM curricula and careers beyond high school. Selected participant groups
who were critical to the study included political and business leaders, policymakers, school
leaders, teachers, and students in Ireland. Data gathered during the interviews were coded using
the following categories: the process and meaning of SciFest, the influence of MNCs and global-
ization, and STEM curriculum and career choices. The primary use of qualitative methods with
a lesser quantitative approach led to addressing the research questions based on data collected
from the various participants within the context, thus providing understanding of the meanings
and processes of another nation (Creswell, 2013).
Several qualitative approaches were used in this study, including ethnography, grounded
theory, case studies, phenomenological research, and narrative research. These approaches are
known as strategies of inquiry that provide structure to the type of research design (Creswell,
2013; Glesne, 2011). One of these approaches, the case study, was used to determine how the
Irish education system has been transformed. According to Merriam (2009), a case study is “an
in-depth description and analysis of a bounded system” (p. 40) to understand and explore it.
Using this approach, the researcher is able to focus solely on the problem and limit outside
factors that could alter the direction of the study. Merriam identified three characteristics of a
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 75
case study: particularistic, descriptive, and heuristic. A particularistic study is focused on a
particular situation. The case study approach is important because of what it reveals about the
situation and, ultimately, what it represents for those involved. A study that is descriptive in
nature not only provides a story of the phenomenon of the study but also tells a story that sup-
ports what transpired over a period of time. The use of thick descriptions reflects what anthro-
pologists refer to as holistic, lifelike, grounded, and exploratory accounts that convey the
researcher’s understanding of the case study (Glesne, 2011; Merriam, 2009). A heuristic study
provides insight into why situations are the way they are. The result is a qualitative study with
minimal use of quantitative methods, which is valued for its ability to capture a depth of compre-
hensible content and the rationale behind the collected data. Merriam identified three types of
case studies: historical and observational, intrinsic and instrumental, and multisite. A multisite
approach, the one chosen for this study, will allow the researcher to study more than one case.
While multisite case studies can be difficult to manage, such an approach can strengthen the
external validity of the findings (Merriam, 2009).
This study used data from multiple sources of information and sites, thus requiring
triangulation of the data. Triangulation served to validate the collected data through cross-
verification from multiple sources of interviews, observations, and surveys by the research team.
A conceptual framework supported the researcher in identifying similarities among assumptions,
beliefs, and theories that supported and informed the research (Maxwell, 2013). The research
team approached the study using the following frameworks: (a) Wagner’s (2008) description of
21st-century skills for learning; (b) Slough and Milam’s (2013) theoretical framework for the
design of STEM and inquiry-based instructional strategies, such as PBL, in the classroom; (c)
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Friedman’s (2007) explanation of the flatteners that led to globalization; and (d) Spring’s (2015)
theoretical perspectives on globalization and the effect on education.
This study was focused on a particular phenomenon in another country and therefore was
bounded by the borders visited. Creswell (2013) described cases as “bounded by time and
activity” (p. 13). Therefore, a qualitative case study as the predominant research design method
was the best fit because the study was bounded by the limited time in Ireland. “The decision to
focus on qualitative case studies stem from the fact that this design is chosen precisely because
researchers are interested in insight, discovery and interpretation rather than hypothesis testing”
(Merriam, 2009, p. 42).
An inductive investigation was conducted to gather a comprehensive description of the
influence of globalization and educational policy on the curriculum and instructional practices in
schools in Ireland. Throughout collection and analysis of research data, the researcher’s personal
bias remained in the context to ensure that its impact is minimized in conclusions drawn for the
study. The study examined how science competitions, such as SciFest, have influenced the use
of inquiry and project-based instructional strategies by teachers in Irish classrooms to prepare
students for college and 21st-century disciplines in STEM. The researcher used the findings to
inform educational leaders in Ireland and to improve educational policies in the United States.
Uncovering and understanding the phenomenon for future application was the primary goal of
this study.
Research Team
The research team for this study consisted of 16 doctoral students from the USC Rossier
School of Education under the direction of Dr. Michael Escalante. The team met on a monthly
schedule to establish research questions, present research literature, and determine conceptual
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 77
frameworks that contributed to the study and provided support and understanding of how global-
ization and inquiry-based instructional strategies in STEM education and science and technology
fairs, such as SciFest, have influenced education in Ireland. From this thematic group approach,
there are some similarities among the dissertations; however, the majority of each individual
group member’s study is individualized and distinct.
Population and Sample
The short amount of time for data collection in Ireland (10 days), influenced the need to
acquire data from uniquely informed individuals who had inquiry-based learning teaching expe-
rience in STEM classrooms and familiarity with 21st-century skills; individuals who participated
in science competitions and STEM classes; participants who were knowledgeable and had
decision-making authority with respect to educational policy and practices in Ireland; and
participants who were knowledgeable about FDI and the influence of MNCs on the economic
policies of Ireland. Therefore, the sampling strategy for this research study was purposeful
selection, nonprobability sampling (Maxwell, 2013; Patton 2002)—a method that allows for an
in-depth study of a problem in qualitative research.
According to Bogdan and Biklen (2007), building good rapport with those who will be
intimately involved in the study is critical to establishing acceptance of the work that one wants
to accomplish; therefore, reaching out to the subject of the study is paramount. Throughout the
fall and spring of 2015–2016, the research team initiated monthly contact and communication via
Skype and e-mail with Sheila Porter, founder and chief executive officer (CEO) of the SciFest
Project, and with her husband, George Porter, chief financial officer (CFO) of SciFest. Through
this established relationship and with their valued assistance, purposefully selected site-level
contacts were initiated with school leaders to gain access to participants for the study. The team
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of researchers worked with site-level contacts to establish an interview list that would ensure
participation from students and educators and, through the SciFest contacts, ensure interview
participants among business and industry and government leaders.
The researcher’s assigned site was a secondary school in Dublin identified via pseudonym
as SACD (IRB Approval #UP-IRB#:16-00179). It was founded in 1894 by members of the
Presbyterian community and accredited by both the Council of International Schools and the
New England Association of Schools and Colleges since 1984. SACD is located in the suburb of
Booterstown, with a view of Dublin Bay. Offering Junior and Senior Cycle programs, a manda-
tory TY, and International Baccalaureate, SACD is an interdenominational, coeducational school
with over 100 teachers and approximately 1,000 pupils, ages 12–18, representing over 40 coun-
tries.
Educators and Students
In mid-April 2016, the research team traveled to Ireland to gather data for the study.
Team members interviewed and surveyed students, teachers, and site educational leaders.
Selected participants were purposefully selected to ensure that participants had appropriate
knowledge to provide data to address the study’s research questions (Merriam, 2009). In addi-
tion, classroom observations at assigned schools in Dublin and the surrounding area and a
SciFest science competition observation at the Cork Institute of Technology were conducted to
capture data on the influence of globalization, SciFest, and inquiry-based instructional strategies
in STEM on students and the educational system in Ireland. SciFest was selected as an event for
the study due to its high level of importance in the international community and its prominent
role within Ireland itself. Students, teachers, and site administrators who had participated in
SciFest will be interviewed and surveyed. The team also surveyed and interviewed the founder,
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CEO, and CFO of SciFest. At assigned school sites, teachers, administrators, and students were
interviewed, surveyed, and observed.
Business and Industry Leaders
During the visit to Ireland, research team members interviewed and surveyed executives
affiliated with MNCs who had been purposefully identified by the educational contacts in
Ireland. These key participants allowed the research team to understand the relationship between
students who participate in STEM education and SciFest and the MNCs who hire these students.
Political Leaders and Educational Policymakers
Political leaders and educational policymakers in Ireland have influence on the country’s
educational system and direction. To facilitate understanding of policy and its perceived impact
on education, the research team interviewed political leaders and representatives from the Ireland
Department of Education and Skills to learn their perspectives on current educational progress
and future direction. Leaders and policymakers were purposefully selected based on recommen-
dations by the SciFest organizers as well as local school leaders. These recommendations
provided opportunities for the research team to make contact with persons who were actively
involved with the Irish educational system from a political or policymaking perspective.
Instrumentation
This predominantly qualitative research study required that the researchers serve as the
primary instruments for data collection. This procedure allowed for an inductive investigation to
produce rich data regarding the impact of globalization and science fairs and competitions, such
as SciFest, on schools in Ireland (Creswell, 2013). The instrumentation and protocols used by
the team include five interview protocols, two observation protocols, and four survey protocols.
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The main instrument for data collection was the interview protocol, which supported the
researchers in gathering information from educators, students, business and industry leaders, and
policy and political leaders. All members of the research team worked collaboratively to create a
draft of the research instrument protocols. In the fall and spring of 2015–2016, the researchers
met to develop a draft of an interview protocol, including interview questions to be finalized
prior to April 2016. A draft of a survey protocol, including survey questions, was also developed
by the research team during the same time period. The data gathered via interviews and surveys
were triangulated through the implementation of an observation protocol developed in spring
2016.
The observation, interview, and survey protocols contain meaningful questions that
helped the research team to conduct the interviews, focus the observations, and validate the
aligned survey questions. These instruments allowed the team to understand the influence of
globalization and MNCs on educational policy in the area of STEM and the development of 21st-
century skills. The protocols were reviewed by officials from SciFest prior to the team traveling
to Ireland to ensure that items were written in a manner that would be clear to citizens of Ireland.
It was recommended that the term PBL be changed to inquiry-based learning and that the term
21st-century skills be defined for study participants. The protocols addressed how science fairs
and competitions, such as SciFest, have influenced development of 21st-century skills through
use of inquiry-based experiences and STEM. In addition, the questions were designed to deter-
mine how students’ participation in science fairs and competitions, such as SciFest, has influ-
enced their interest in continuing their study of STEM in Senior Cycle and/or college and/or in
pursuit of a STEM-related career field. All interview protocol questions were aligned with the
study’s research questions and theoretical frameworks.
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The interviews, observations, and surveys ensure that the collected data were triangulated
“to shore up the internal validity of the study” (Merriam, 2009, p. 215). These methods allowed
the researcher to understand how globalization and science and technology fairs, such as SciFest,
have influenced curriculum and instruction through integration of inquiry-based instructional
strategies in STEM. All participants were contacted via a recruitment–consent correspondence
(Appendix A). All research instruments were submitted to the USC IRB for approval in spring
2016; the IRB permitted the team to perform an exempt study on human participants in a country
other than the United States.
Interview Protocols
The purpose of qualitative interviewing is to “capture how those being interviewed view
their world, to learn their terminology and judgments, and to capture the complexities of their
individual perceptions and experiences” (Patton, 2002, p. 348). Patton (2002) described three
varying strategies for qualitative interviewing: unstructured, semistructured, and structured. The
interview protocols (Appendices B–F) were developed using a semistructured approach and
incorporated Patton’s (2002) justification for using a recording device, as well as an agreement to
participate (Stringer, 2007). The interview protocol explained the purpose of the study, how the
data would be used, and provided for ethical considerations as well as a definition of 21st-century
skills as described by Wagner’s (2008) framework. The questions were created to guide the
interview (Merriam, 2009; Patton, 2002) with the ultimate goal of obtaining rich, thick data
(Merriam, 2009) to address each of the research questions. The interview protocols were
designed specifically to address each sample group: political leaders and educational policymak-
ers, business and industry leaders, school leaders, teachers, and students. Based on the work of
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Merriam (2009) and Patton, the research team understood the importance of reducing the number
of yes–no and “why” questions in order to glean optimal information from participants.
The research team aligned the interview questions for policy and educational policymak-
ers, business and industry leaders, school leaders, teachers, and students with the three research
questions and the conceptual frameworks. The questions were aligned in the following format:
In Section I, Questions 1–7 aligned with Research Question 1, which addressed the influence of
globalization on educational policy, STEM, and development of 21st-century skills. In this
section, the first question aligned with Wagner’s (2008) framework for 21st-century skills and
Slough and Milam’s (2013) framework on STEM and inquiry-based instructional strategies. The
second question in Section I aligned with Friedman’s (2007) framework of globalization and
Spring’s (2015) work on a global uniformity of schooling that provides entrance into the global
economy. Questions 3–7 in Section I aligned with all four frameworks.
Section II of the interview protocols included seven questions that addressed Research
Question 2. All seven questions in this section focused on the influence of science competitions,
such as SciFest, on the development of 21st-century skills and use of inquiry-based instructional
strategies in STEM. The conceptual frameworks of both Slough and Milam (2013) and Wagner
(2008) were appropriate for analyzing the data produced from these interview questions. Ques-
tion 6 in Section II included Friedman (2007) framework; it was the only item in Section II that
aligned with all four theoretical frameworks.
Section III of the interview protocol focused on the influence of science and technology
competitions, such as SciFest, on students pursuing STEM majors in college and/or a STEM-
related career. Three questions in this section aligned with Research Question 3. Each was
analyzed using the theoretical frameworks of 21st-century skills for learning (Wagner, 2008) and
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inquiry-based instructional strategies in STEM curriculum and instruction (Slough & Milam,
2013). Questions 2 and 3 specifically addressed the effects of science competitions on students’
future interests in STEM in college and a STEM-related career. They also included the concept
of globalization; the frameworks of Friedman (2007) and Spring (2015) were used to analyze
these responses. The alignment of the interview questions with the research questions is shown
in Table 1.
Table 1
Alignment of Interview Protocols with Research Questions (RQs) and Theoretical Frameworks
Item RQ1 RQ2 RQ3 Wagner Slough/Milam Friedman Spring
Section I
1 X # #
2 X # #
3 X # # # #
4 X # # # #
5 X # # # #
6 X # # # #
7 X # # # #
Section II
1 X # #
2 X # #
3 X # #
4 X # #
5 X # #
6 X # # #
7 X # # # #
Section III
1 X # #
2 X # # # #
3 X # # # #
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Observation Protocols
According to Merriam (2009), observations occur in a location where a phenomenon that
is being studied can take on its natural form. An observation enables a firsthand account of what
an interview cannot provide. In this study, observation protocols were developed to assist in data
collection in two environments. Stringer (2007) stated that researchers “acquire a record of
important elements of the life-world of the participants [and] should record these notes during or
soon after events have occurred” (p. 76). Bogdan and Biklen (2007) and Merriam (2009) articu-
lated the need for field notes to be highly descriptive and organized in a structured format. The
observation protocols, in template form, were designed for this study to be flexible and accessible
for quick notes. Understanding the importance of observational data, the research team devel-
oped an observation protocol that was used in classrooms in Ireland (Appendix G) to examine
instructional strategies in STEM classes and an observation protocol that was used at the SciFest
science and technology fair at the Cork Institute of Technology (Appendix H). Merriam noted
that researchers cannot capture all data with observations and must use a list that supports the
various elements of observation: the physical setting, the participants, activities and interactions,
conversation, subtle factors, and the behavior of the researcher.
The observation protocols developed by the research team focused on the various compo-
nents that allowed them to capture as much data as possible. The cited frameworks were used to
align the protocols to the various areas to be observed. The first section of the observation
protocols allowed the researcher to gather basic information about the setting and location, to
recreate a representation of the location, and to record an overview of the lesson and identify
materials that were used. The second section charted the conceptual frameworks of Slough and
Milam (2013) and Wagner (2008) to guide the researcher to focus on the seven skills for 21st-
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century learning and inquiry-based learning within STEM, respectively. To capture thorough
observations, the researchers noted actions and conversations and recorded comments based on
the conceptual frameworks. The third section presented eight reflective questions in the class-
room observation protocol and seven questions in the SciFest protocol that corresponded to the
three research questions. Each set of questions served as a guide for the researcher to ensure that
observations captured what the study was designed to understand.
Survey Protocols
Surveys are self-administered questionnaires, completed by hand or by computer, which
are used to collect information to describe, compare, or explain knowledge, feelings, values, or
behavior (Fink, 2013). The quantitative approach, if executed correctly, provides reliable and
usable data (Creswell, 2013).
The research team developed quantitative surveys to be distributed to school leaders and
teachers (Appendix I), political and business leaders (Appendix J), educational policymakers
(Appendix K), and students (Appendix L). The survey items were aligned with the study’s
research questions and formatted using a 6-point Likert-type response scale (Fink, 2013) as fol-
lows: Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Strongly Disagree, and I Don’t Know. Each
survey item targeted each participant group to enable the researcher to acquire the best possible
responses to address the research questions: seven items for Research Question 1, 10 items for
Research Question 2, and four items for Research Question 3. In developing the survey ques-
tions, the following characteristics were taken into consideration to develop clear and valid
items: Jargon was avoided; standard grammar and syntax were used; and items were kept con-
crete and close to the participants’ experience (Fink, 2013).
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All survey items were slightly modified to be relevant to each participant group, with the
exception of two initial questions at the beginning of the students’ survey to inform the
researcher as to whether the student had participated in a school and/or college science fair. The
survey items were aligned in the following manner: Items 1–7 aligned with Research Question 1,
pertaining to the influence of globalization and MNCs on educational policy in the area of STEM
and the development of 21st-century skills. These aligned with the four frameworks identified in
the following assignments: Friedman (2007) and Spring (2015), Items 3–7 concerning globaliza-
tion; Wagner (2008), Items 1–7 for 21st-century skills; and Slough and Milam (2013), Items 1–7
for STEM PBL. Survey items 8–17 aligned with Research Question 2, pertaining to how science
competitions such as SciFest have influenced the development of 21st-century skills through use
of inquiry-based instructional strategies and STEM. Each survey item aligned with the four
frameworks in the following manner: Friedman (2007) and Spring (2015), items 12–13 and 16–
17); and Slough and Milam (2013) and Wagner (2008), Items 8–17). Survey items 18–21
aligned with Research Question 3 and relate to how students’ participation in science competi-
tions, such as SciFest, has influenced their interest in continuing their study of STEM in college
and/or in pursuing a STEM-related career field. Each of these items aligned to each of the four
frameworks. Alignment of the survey items with the research questions and the four frameworks
is summarized in Table 2.
Data Collection
According to Creswell (2013), data collection for qualitative study involves four basic
types: observation, interviews, documents, and audio and visual materials. To collect data, the
research team used a combination of face-to-face interviews, conducting observations, and
administering surveys at various sites. The research team traveled to Ireland in April 2016, as
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Table 2

Alignment of Survey Protocols to Research Questions (RQs) and Theoretical Frameworks
Item RQ1 RQ2 RQ3 Wagner Slough/Milam Friedman Spring
1 X # #
2 X # #
3 X # # # #
4 X # # # #
5 X # # # #
6 X # # # #
7 X # # # #
8 X # # # #
9 X # #
10 X # #
11 X # #
12 X # # # #
13 X # # # #
14 X # #
15 X # #
16 X # # # #
17 X # # # #
18 X # # # #
19 X # # # #
20 X # # # #
21 X # # # #
22 X # # # #
supported by Creswell (2013) in that the ability to collect data in participants’ natural location is
an advantage of using qualitative methods in research. As part of the data collection protocol,
participants read and completed a consent form that described the purpose of the study and
measures taken to ensure confidentiality (Appendix M). Once permission was granted, the
interviews were recorded (Merriam, 2009; Patton, 2002; Weiss, 1994). According to Patton
(2002), qualitative researchers seek to acquire the actual words of the interviewees to memorial-
ize the participant’s perspective as fairly and fully as possible in preparation for data
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interpretation and analysis. Interviews took place in quiet office spaces and lasted an average of
35 to 45 minutes each. In the interview protocol, participants were informed that they could
pause or terminate the recording at any time. An information and fact sheet (Appendix M)
indicating status of exempt nonmedical research was provided to participants prior to the inter-
view. All recordings were transcribed for coding purposes. The researcher took notes during the
interviews to capture important points and comments made by the participants.
The observation and survey protocols were utilized during SciFest in Cork and at
assigned school sites. Surveys were administered via email and in classrooms and at other
locations. The surveys administered were collected immediately upon completion to increase the
response rate. Consistent with the recommendations Bogdan and Biklen (2007) and Merriam
(2009), observations lasted for a maximum of 45 minutes. At the researcher’s assigned school,
SACD, a total of four classroom observations, 13 student interviews, and four interviews of
teachers and administrators were conducted. Additionally, 50 survey responses were received
from SACD students and 14 survey responses were received from SACD teachers and adminis-
trators. Among the 18 assigned school sites, the research team surveyed a total of 1,081 students,
167 teachers and administrators, as well as 14 education leaders and policymakers, and 21
political and business and industry leaders from the STEM industry or other local entities.
Merriam (2009) suggested that triangulation consists of comparing multiple sources of
data, including interviews, observations, and surveys. Because research team members con-
ducted observations at different sites, it was important to triangulate the data. Three methods of
triangulation described by Merriam were used: multiple methods, multiple sources of data, and
multiple investigators.
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Data Analysis
Collected data examined the influence of globalization and MNCs on educational policy
and curriculum and the instructional practices in schools. The study also examined how science
and technology competitions, such as SciFest, have influenced the use of inquiry-based instruc-
tional strategies by teachers in the classroom to prepare students for a 21st-century workforce in
the STEM fields. As a case study, this type of research required “detailed descriptions of settings
and individuals” (Creswell, 2013, p. 196). According to Bogdan and Biklen (2007), qualitative
researchers record not only the sensory experiences that transpire during the course of an obser-
vation or interview but also thoughts and reflections. Field notes are comprised of possible
patterns, ideas, and strategies that emerge from these experiences. While in the field, the
researcher made notations regarding the class setting, number of students, and the seating chart;
took photographs of the classroom environment; and made observation notes regarding the
interactions between the teacher and students during classroom activities—keeping in mind
connections to patterns and possible themes through the use of observer’s comments to be cited
in the researcher’s field notes.
For the purposes of this study, the researcher followed Creswell’s (2014) model for data
analysis and interpretation of qualitative research. In addition, Creswell’s model was used to
guide the analysis of data gathered via the surveys. Each research team member used individual
data gathered from his or her assigned school, as well as pooled data collected from political
leaders, policymakers, and business and industry leaders of MNCs who had an interest in the
future of Ireland’s education and workforce.
Upon return to the United States, each researcher organized and prepared the data for
analysis. This process began with transcribing interviews, typing field notes, and sorting and
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 90
rearranging the data into categories for accessibility while the information was still fresh. The
second step was reading and reflecting on the data to identify emerging patterns, along with
consistencies of information. Next, the researcher labeled and coded the information to identify
themes that were organized into chunks to create meaning. The researcher followed Creswell’s
(2013) eight substeps designed to facilitate the coding process:
1. Establish what is being read and comprehended and record ideas;
2. Select one document and create essential questions that support theory and inquiry;
3. After individually reviewing all documents, list topics and common themes;
4. From the list created, establish codes that will identify the data;
5. Reduce the number of categories by identifying similarities in data;
6. Organize the established codes in alphabetical order;
7. Perform preliminary analysis after data have been organized; and
8. Recode data as necessary. (p. 198)
Creswell’s (2013) fourth step is focused on coding and is used to generate a thick descrip-
tion from the data. The fifth step, a narrative, provided an interpretation of the themes identified
by the researcher, which may be in the form of rich, thick descriptions or a detailed identification
of findings and themes and how they connect. The final step entails making meaning of the data.
This step involves elucidating the reviewed literature and bringing forth meaning and under-
standing that can support past research and identify areas for further research.
The study was organized in a way that facilitated collection of data by the research team;
thus, it was crucial to monitor how data were collected and how the data applied to the overall
purpose of the study. As Merriam (2009) recommended, a database was established by the
research team to serve as a hub where data were organized, edited, and made accessible to
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 91
research team members throughout the course of the study. The researcher ensured that all data
and files were organized periodically for quality assurance. This process ensured that the
researcher had access to information related to the focus and purpose of the study.
Validity, Credibility, and Trustworthiness
According to Creswell (2013), validity is about accuracy of findings from the perspective
of the researcher, the participant, or readers of the study. The use of multiple validity strategies is
the recommended approach by Creswell to improve the accuracy of findings and address the
issues of credibility and trustworthiness. The research team utilized a variety of validity strate-
gies to heighten the accuracy of the data findings, including the following:
1. Triangulation through the collection of field notes from the various participant obser-
vations and interviews, transcriptions of the interviews, and personal documents in the form of
lesson plans from the teachers. According to Merriam (2009), data obtained through observa-
tions and interviews are designed to address the research questions, and personal documents can
add additional insight regarding participants’ perspectives on what they believe is of value.
2. Member checking through follow-up interviews with study participants to gain their
insights on the findings.
3. Providing a rich description of the setting in which the study is conducted to facilitate
sharing the experience with readers.
4. Reflectivity to identify researcher bias on the interpretation of the findings to mini-
mize impact (Creswell, 2013).
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Reliability
Merriam (2009) referred to reliability as “the extent to which research findings can be
replicated” (p. 220); “the more important question for the qualitative research is whether the
results are consistent with the data collected” (p. 221). Creswell (2013) suggested a series of
procedures to ensure the reliability of a research study. Based on these suggestions, the
researcher followed the prescribed process as follows: (a) analysis of transcripts to ensure that
they have been transcribed accurately, (b) analysis of identified codes to ensure uniformity and
consistent definitions, (c) communication with other coders on the research team to document
and share analyses, and (d) cross-checking of codes developed by other researchers to ensure
accuracy.
Ethical Considerations
Maintaining ethical considerations in the course of research study by protecting the rights
and privacy of the participants is paramount (Merriam, 2009). As described by Glesne (2011),
the research team was careful to avoid ethical dilemmas by conscientiously safeguarding the
confidentiality of the study participants, maintaining integrity through accurate findings, and
appropriately discarding data when no longer needed or relevant. The research team comprised
of 16 members and led by Dr. Michael Escalante completed the USC IRB process (Approval
#UP-IRB#:16-00179). The IRB is charged with protecting the rights and welfare of human
research subjects in research studies conducted at USC and elsewhere by USC faculty, staff,
graduate, or undergraduate students, regardless of funding or type by or through USC. Satisfac-
tory completion of this process required each research member to complete a series of training
exercises through the Collaborative IRB Training Initiative (CITI). CITI is an online training
program that supports researchers in understanding various ethical considerations when
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 93
conducting research. In addition to the IRB approval and training process, every participant was
presented with an informed consent statement that indicated the purpose of the study and partici-
pants’ rights (Appendix M). An information letter was sent to parents of participating school
children describing the children’s role in the study (Appendix N).
Chapter Summary
This chapter presented the methodology used in the study, including the research design,
research team, populations, and sample, and instrumentation used. The method of data analysis
was described, along with the validity, credibility, and trustworthiness, reliability, and ethical
considerations.
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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
Ireland enjoys a rich history of transformation. Shifting from its quaint beginnings as an
agrarian society to its current role as a 21st-century clearinghouse for knowledge-based, skilled
workers eager to step forward and claim their place in the global economy. As Ireland continues
its economic recovery from the Great Recession of 2008, FDI has been identified as a key driver
of Ireland’s return to economic prosperity and its young, educated, highly skilled workforce are a
significant asset (Chartered Accountants Ireland, 2016). Ireland must continue to develop and
expand its educated workforce to maintain its economic and business competitiveness in the
current international marketplace. As stated in a speech by Professor Brian MacCraith, Chairper-
son of the STEM Education Review Group (STEMERG), President of Dublin City University,
on November 24, 2016, “the overall levels of performance and engagement in STEM subjects are
not good enough if we aim to provide the best for our nation’s children, and if we wish to sustain
our economic ambitions for the future” (Ireland Department of Education and Skills, 2016b, Also
Speaking at Today’s Announcement section, para. 1).
Opportunities to experience STEM education through inquiry-based learning strategies
such as PBL may provide a competitive edge for students as they develop 21st-century skills and
become knowledge-ready workers for a global economy (O’Hagan & Newman, 2014). Participa-
tion in volunteer-driven science fairs and competitions such as Ireland’s SciFest provide oppor-
tunities for students to demonstrate their development of 21st-century skills in STEM through a
PBL curriculum (Bender, 2012; Capraro et al., 2013). However, Irish educational policy empha-
sis on the Leaving Certificate Programme leaves little time for activities not devoted to the
preparation of successful passing of the various summative examinations. Current developments
by the Irish Department of Education and Skills for the new Junior Certificate and the revised
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Leaving Certificate programs may be signaling a shift from traditional learning to a participatory,
interactive, inquiry-based process that supports an experiential learning environment (Moynihan,
2015). As stated by Minister for Education and Skills, Richard Burton, TD, on November 24,
2016, when delivering the report of the STEMERG,
we need to encourage our existing students, as well as future generations of students, to
understand and embrace areas related to STEM. We must instill in our students that a
STEM education can open many doors, even for those who do not pursue a STEM career.
(Ireland Department of Education and Skills, 2016b, Speaking at Today’s Announcement
section, para. 3)
The Minister’s 21 Priority Actions for Implementation disseminated from the
STEMERG’s (2016) report included putting essential measures in place to support the imple-
mentation of more inquiry-based learning as part of the curriculum in STEM subjects and devel-
oping a means of recognizing participation in informal extracurricular STEM events and
activities (e.g., Science Fairs, BT Young Scientist and Technology Exhibition, SciFest,
CoderDojo, Intel MiniScientist) in the STEM curriculum and assessment at the primary and
post-primary levels. These types of policy changes were supported by the Irish education system
that encourages engaging learning strategies such as inquiry-based instruction or PBL, which
may hold the key for increasing student access and interest in STEM education through opportu-
nities such as science and technology competitions.
The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of globalization and educational
policy on the curriculum and instructional practices in schools in Ireland. The research also
examined how science and technology fairs have influenced teachers’ use of inquiry-based
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 96
instructional strategies, such as PBL, to prepare students for a 21st-century workforce in the
fields of STEM.
The results of data collected and analyzed for the study are reported in this chapter. The
study was driven by three research questions:
1. How have globalization and MNCs influenced educational policy in the area of
STEM education and the development of 21st-century skills?
2. How have science and technology competitions, such as SciFest, influenced devel-
opment of 21st-century skills through the use of inquiry-based instructional strategies in STEM?
3. How has participation in science and technology competitions, such as SciFest, influ-
enced students’ interest in and selection of STEM-related courses in Senior Cycle, as well as
their pursuit of college- and/or career-related STEM fields?
Four frameworks were utilized to provide examination and context when analyzing
globalization, educational policies and practices related to 21st-century skills learning, and
implementation of inquiry-based instruction using PBL for STEM education in Ireland: (a)
Friedman’s (2007) framework of globalization, (b) Spring’s (2015) world educational culture, (c)
Wagner’s (2008) survival skills for the 21st century, and (d) Slough and Milam’s (2013) design
principles for PBL and STEM. The framework for this study was contextualized through Fried-
man (2007), whose work described the worldwide movement of globalization and the economic
need of skilled citizenry to embrace closer borders amidst a flattening global market. Spring and
Wagner (2008) utilized concepts from the work by Friedman (2007) to articulate the needs of
future generations who must acquire 21st-century skills along the continuum of educational
movement to be competitive in the global marketplace. Work by Slough and Milam (2013)
provided a practitioner-level component to the framework, as STEM and PBL are examined in
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terms of their contributions to the global economy. Active participation in the ever-increasing
competitive marketplace requires that skills taught in the 21st-century classroom continue to
flatten the globe, increase competition among nations, and equip new generations with 21st-
century survival skills (Friedman, 2007; Spring, 2015; Wagner, 2008). Themes were identified
through a convergence of data collected from surveys, interviews, and classroom observations,
the results of which were triangulated to formulate evidence-based responses to address each of
the research questions (Creswell, 2013).
This study focused largely on a secondary school in Dublin identified via a pseudonym as
SACD (UP-IRB#16-00179). It was founded in 1894 by members of the Presbyterian community
and has been accredited since 1984 by both the Council of International Schools and the New
England Association of Schools and Colleges. SACD is situated in the suburb of Booterstown,
with a view of Dublin Bay. It offers Junior and Senior Cycle programs, a mandatory TY, and
International Baccalaureate Diploma programs. SACD is an interdenominational, coeducational
day school with over 100 teachers and approximately 1,000 pupils, ages 12–18, representing over
40 countries. Approximately 160 students graduate each year with Leaving Certificates; 25% of
these graduates continue to the university to study in the STEM areas, including medicine.
Approximately 150 students have compulsorily participated in SciFest since it was introduced 3
years ago (H.R., SACD teacher, personal communication, March 14, 2016).
This chapter begins with an overview of the study’s research design and participants. It
continues with a discussion of the findings related to each of the three research questions and
presented with a focus on emerging themes; the connection of the themes to the literature; and an
analysis of the supporting data from surveys, interviews, and observations. The chapter con-
cludes with a summary of the key findings related to the research questions.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 98
Research Design
The research team for this study was comprised of 16 doctoral students under the direc-
tion of Dr. Michael Escalante. Guidance and instruction was received during monthly meetings
during which the team established the research questions, presented and studied the research
literature, and determined conceptual frameworks that contributed to the study. This preparatory
work provided support and understanding regarding how globalization and inquiry-based instruc-
tional strategies in STEM education and science and technology competitions, such as SciFest,
have influenced education in Ireland. The thematic group approach necessarily resulted in
various similarities among the dissertations; however, the majority of each distinctive group
member’s study was individualized and specific to his or her assigned school. The group orga-
nized the process for data collection through a valuable connection with SciFest CEO Sheila
Porter and CFO George Porter in Ireland. Through this established relationship and with their
valued assistance, purposefully selected site-level contacts were initiated with school leaders to
gain access to participants in the study. The team worked with these contacts to establish an
interview participant list that would ensure participation from education, business and industry,
and government sectors.
Participants
Purposeful sampling (Merriam, 2009) was used to select the participants for this predomi-
nantly qualitative study. The participants included Irish teachers and administrators, students,
political leaders, educational policymakers, and business and industry leaders of MNCs in Dublin
and the greater vicinity who had an interest in the future of Ireland’s education and workforce.
The participants represented the specific groups needed to triangulate the researcher’s findings.
According to Patton (2002), the method of purposeful sampling in qualitative research allows for
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 99
an in-depth study of a problem. Results from the researcher’s data collection are included in the
discussion of the three research questions and all emerging themes. Student, teacher, and admin-
istrator data from SACD were compared to data from other schools in Ireland collected by the
other members of the research team. Data from business and industry leaders as well as political
leaders and educational policymakers were collected and shared among research team members
through interviews and surveys. Table 3 provides a summary of participants involved in surveys,
interviews and/or observations.
Table 3
Summary of Participants, Their Organization/Position, and Data Types
Participants Organization/position(s) Data type(s)
Students
13 students SACD students Interviews
50 students SACD students Surveys
1,081 students Students from various schools Surveys, interviews
in Ireland
Teachers/administrators
4 teachers/administrators SACD teachers/administrators Interviews
14 teachers/administrators SACD teachers/administrators Surveys
167 other teachers/administrators Teachers/administrators from Surveys, interviews
various schools in Ireland
Business and industry leaders: 21 Various organizations and MNCs Surveys, interviews
Political leaders/educational policy- Various organizations Surveys, interviews
makers: 14
Note. SACD = pseudonym for researcher’s assigned school.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 100
Educators and Students
Participants were purposefully selected to ensure that they had appropriate knowledge to
provide data to address the study’s research questions (Merriam, 2009). In addition, three
classroom observations at SACD and a SciFest science and technology fair observation at the
Cork Institute of Technology were conducted to capture data on the impact of globalization,
SciFest, and the influence of inquiry-based instructional strategies in STEM on students and the
educational system in Ireland. The researcher interviewed, surveyed, and observed students,
teachers, and site administrators. Pseudonyms were used for student and school staff participants
to safeguard their confidentiality (UP-IRB#16-00179).
Business and Industry Leaders
During the visit to Ireland, research team members interviewed and surveyed purpose-
fully sampled executives affiliated with MNCs. These key participants allowed the research
team to understand the relationship among STEM students, SciFest participants, and the MNCs
that hire these students. The interviewees included the SciFest founder-CEO and the CFO.
Political Leaders and Educational Policymakers
Political leaders and educational policymakers in Ireland have some influence on the
country’s educational system and direction (O’Donoghue & Hartford, 2011). To facilitate an
understanding of policy and its perceived impact on education, the research team interviewed
political leaders and representatives to learn their perspectives on current educational progress
and future direction. Political leaders and policymakers were purposefully selected based on
recommendations by the SciFest organizers and local school leaders. These recommendations
provided opportunities for the research team to make contact with individuals actively involved
with the Irish education system from a political or policymaking perspective.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 101
Data and Analysis
Data to provide answers to the study’s three research questions were gathered using three
research instruments: surveys, interviews, and observations. Common themes and findings
resulted from analysis of the raw data collected in Ireland to create a thorough depiction of Ire-
land’s schools and their role in shaping the future workforce and the future of the nation’s
economic pathway. The interview protocols are included in Appendices B, C, D, and E; the
observation protocols, in Appendices F and G; and the survey protocols, in Appendices H and I.
The following sections revisit the study’s three research questions, delineate the findings into
common themes, and relate the data to existing related research literature.
Findings for Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, “How have globalization and MNCs influenced educational
policy in the area of STEM education and the development of 21st-century skills?” The objec-
tive of this question was to understand how the presence of MNCs within Ireland and the effects
of globalization on the economy influence educational policies with respect to STEM education
and 21st-century skill development. Data collection to inform this question included surveys of
the stakeholder groups of students, teachers, administrators, business leaders, and educational
policymakers. In addition to these surveys, interviews of stakeholder groups and classroom
observations were conducted. Upon completion of triangulation, the data provided a contextual-
ized perspective of the process of Ireland’s business community and schools as well as perspec-
tives on globalization, STEM, and 21st-century skills.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 102
Theme 1: STEM Education and the Development of 21st-Century Skills Are Important to
Ireland’s Economic Future
Review of the literature suggested that growth of the Irish economy in the 1990s and
throughout the Great Recession was realized through FDI and the presence of MNCs within
Ireland and the spread of globalization (Paus, 2005). The period of economic resurgence in
which rapid economic growth fueled by FDI and an influx of MNCs between 1995 and 2000 is
referred to as the Celtic Tiger era (Jacobson & Mottiar, 1999). This era saw an increase in FDI in
pharmaceuticals and information technology companies such as Intel, Apple, Dell, Microsoft,
and others, subsequently enabling Ireland to lower its unemployment rate to 4% by the year 2000
(O’Hagan & Newman, 2014). Ireland’s economic recovery since the Great Recession of 2008,
which saw Ireland’s unemployment rate balloon to 14.6% in 2011 (Doris et al, 2015), has been
attributed to a competitive platform including an adaptable and skilled workforce, tax incentives,
and a welcoming attitude toward globalization (Y. Kennedy, 2012).
Themes emerged from the data collected in the study that addressed the study’s research
questions. One such theme involved the positioning of STEM education and 21st-century skills
in relation to the economic growth of Ireland. In order to examine the nature of the importance
of STEM education and 21st-century skill development, data were collected through surveys,
interviews, and observations. Survey items linked to Research Question 1 revealed the highest
level of agreement among all stakeholder groups in their perspectives on the importance of
STEM education and the development of 21st-century skills. Student and adult stakeholder
groups demonstrated the highest level of agreement in items for Research Question 1 through
surveys on the importance of STEM and 21st-century skills. In survey responses, 85% of all
students and 96% of SACD students agreed that STEM education is important to the economic
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 103
future of their country (see Table 4). All stakeholder groups had the highest level of agreement
on the importance of STEM and 21st-century skills. Interview data from students, professionals
in the schools, and policymakers were consistent with this outcome.
Table 4
Participants’ Responses Regarding the Importance of Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Math (STEM) Education and 21st-Century Skills Development: SACD Students and All Students
SACD All
Survey item and response categories students students
STEM education is important.
Strongly Agree 26 464
Agree 22 416
Neutral 1 101
Disagree 0 10
Strongly Disagree 1 5
I Don’t Know 0 40
The development of 21st-century skills is important.
Strongly Agree 33 566
Agree 15 391
Neutral 2 51
Disagree 0 4
Strongly Disagree 0 4
I Don’t Know 0 20
Note. SACD = pseudonym for researcher’s assigned school.
One SACD student noted the importance of STEM and 21st-century skills, “I think,
especially in Dublin, with Facebook, Google, everything set up here, there’s a lot more job
opportunities in the STEM fields” (A.D., personal communication, April 21, 2016). Likewise,
93% of all students surveyed and 96% of SACD students supported the concept that 21st- century
skill development was critical. A higher percentage of all student stakeholders found the
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 104
development of 21st-century skills important than found STEM important—respectively 93%
versus 85% (see Table 4).
Another SACD student stated:
I think without 21st-century skills, you’d be stuck with people who learn things off the
heart. They have no way of applying it in a practical sense. You could be really intelli-
gent in school, learn all the definitions, and business, but then when you go out to get a
job, you have no way of applying it. You don’t have the skills to deal with people. . . . I
think by introducing all these skills, STEM education is teaching people to actually think
outside the box, and not just study for exams. (K.M., personal communication, April 21,
2016)
Ninety-nine percent of all teachers and administrators and 100% of SACD educators
verified the importance of STEM education. Correspondingly, 99% of all educators and 100% of
SACD administrators and teachers supported the importance of the development of 21st-century
skills (see Table 5).
A SACD science teacher, took the importance of 21st-century skills a step farther:
That sort of skill that you’re learning in STEM is of huge importance for us. We’re a
small country. Our farming industry, our dairy industry, and all that industry used to be
the backbone of the country. That’s all changing. Google’s based here; Intel is based
here. Your huge multinationals, they’re based here because they recognize good work
force, good education. Ireland is an island. It’s now become global, so we go anywhere
in the world, so you might work for Google, or you might work for Intel. So the skills
that you have now must be far more transferable. (N.K., personal communication,
April 21, 2016)
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 105
Table 5
Participants’ Responses Regarding the Importance of Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Math (STEM) Education and 21st-Century Skills Development: SACD Teachers and Administra-
tors and All Teachers and Administrators
SACD administrator/ All administrators/
Survey item and response categories teachers teachers
STEM education is important.
Strongly Agree 14 118
Agree 0 28
Neutral 0 2
Disagree 0 0
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 0 0
The development of 21st-century skills is
important.
Strongly Agree 14 115
Agree 0 31
Neutral 0 2
Disagree 0 0
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 0 0
Note. SACD = researcher’s assigned school.
The strongest agreement among adult stakeholder groups for the support of STEM and
21st-century skills was among business leaders and policymakers. All other stakeholder groups
had the same percentage of strongly agree or agree between the importance of development of
21st-century skills and importance of STEM (see Tables 4, 5, and 6). Table 6 outlines the
frequency of responses in which all but one respondent strongly agreed with the statements on
the importance of the two interdisciplinary areas. The Lord Mayor of Dublin echoed the SACD
teacher’s statement: “The future of education in Dublin must include STEM” (C. Ni Dhalaigh,
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 106
personal communication, April 16, 2016). As further elaborated upon by the Minister for
Education and Skills, Richard Bruton, TD, in his policy speech launching the STEMERG report
on November 24, 2016, “providing STEM education of the highest quality is essential if Ireland
is to become an innovation leader at the forefront of technological and scientific change” (Ireland
Department of Education and Skills, 2016b, Speaking at Today’s Announcement section, para.
2).
Table 6
Participants’ Responses Regarding the Importance of Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Math (STEM) Education and the Development of 21st-Century Skills: Business Leaders and
Educational Policymakers
Business Educational
Survey item and response categories leaders policymakers
STEM education is important.
Strongly Agree 11 8
Agree 1 0
Neutral 0 0
Disagree 0 0
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 0 0
Development of 21st-century skills is important.
Strongly Agree 11 8
Agree 1 0
Neutral 0 0
Disagree 0 0
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 0 0
The literature review and analysis of the data suggested that the leaders in Dublin and
throughout Ireland were strong supporters of the benefits of STEM and 21st-century skill
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 107
building and believed that their continued economic prosperity lies within educating a global
workforce capable of innovation and high levels of productivity (National Competitiveness
Council, 2014).
Interviews with MNC officials reiterated the sentiments expounded by the students,
school officials, the Lord Mayor, and the Minister of Education and Skills on the importance of
STEM and 21st-century skills development through statements such as, “It’s imperative that we
have a strong pipeline of high caliber graduates with those STEM backgrounds otherwise we
wouldn’t be able to fulfill our growth in Ireland” (L.Wilkinson, Dell [MNC] representative,
personal communication, April 18, 2016).
A representative from Dell, an MNC in Ireland, stated the following when discussing
STEM education and Ireland’s economic future:
STEM education, we view it as the future pipeline. We’ve got to look at the future in
terms of the economic growth of the country and the areas in which Ireland’s economics
are starting to go in terms of inward investment. . . . A lot of that is coming in, and has
been for the last couple of years, in the whole technology and science space. There is a
concern in this country that we haven’t filled the pipeline significantly at all to meet that
future demand that’s coming in the next 5 to 10 years. It goes without saying that STEM
education is hugely important for the near and immediate term of Ireland’s economic
future. (D. Griffin, personal communication, April 18, 2016)
The importance was further elaborated in the statement by another MNC official regard-
ing STEM and 21st-century skills:
From Abbott’s point of view, skills development and STEM is extremely, extremely
important. I feel the majority of our skills-based volunteering activities that we undertake
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 108
right across all of our sites are STEM focused. We see it as something that we are
supporting for our company because we want to ensure that we have a future pipeline of
scientists and engineers to ensure that our company is sustainable for the future, but also
it’s a national issue so we feed into this as a national problem. There is not enough young
people undertaking STEM education at third-level education, or even dropping it very
early on in second-level education, and there is that misconception that women are not
very good in STEM subjects, either, so tackling that. (S. Hickey, personal communica-
tion, April 18, 2016)
Ireland MNC stakeholders saw the acquisition of STEM education and 21st-century skills by the
future workforce in numbers to address their needs as critical to their economic survival and
prosperity.
Researchers sought the opportunity to observe several classroom settings to look for
evidence of development of 21st-century skills using inquiry-based instruction within a STEM
learning environment. This researcher was able to observe a TY chemistry class of 4th-year
students. The class met once per week for 8 weeks and was designed to develop interest in
students to take chemistry upon their return to 5th year in the Senior Cycle. TY is mandatory at
SACD and provides opportunities such as this one when the pressure of the Leaving Certificate is
not as great to explore subject matters and interest areas that may help steer senior-level students
to a direction of coursework for the following year. Although the presence of 21st-century skills
development in this STEM setting was apparent in this classroom (personal observation,
April 21, 2016), this was not universal to all learning settings or subject area observations and it
was not inclusive in all classrooms and schools. Some classrooms were observed to have a
noninquiry setting consistent of a more traditional approach where instructions were
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 109
communicated, memorization strategies such as mnemonics and drills were prevalent, and the
learning activities were strictly based on preparation for concepts related to the Leaving Certifi-
cation Examination. Nevertheless, all stakeholders indicated the importance of the effort toward
instilling 21st century skills development.
Theme 2: Globalization and MNCs’ Needs Drive Demand for STEM Education and Devel-
opment of 21st-Century Skills in Ireland
FDI allows nations to compete for business from MNCs through production: labor costs,
tax incentives, opportunities to raise capital, location assets, and access to markets (Razin &
Sadka, 2007). Ireland’s well-educated and English-speaking workforce, stable property taxes,
low corporate tax structure, political stability, infrastructure, and proximity to the EU and UK
make it an attractive option to the international marketplace (Paus, 2005). Improvements in
transportation and information and communication technologies have driven globalization in
Ireland (Jacobson & Kirby, 2006). According to Spring (2015), the needs of a 21st-century
workforce influenced by globalization will require a global education that is not centered on
imparting information but rather on how to teach; how to learn; how to problem solve; how to
integrate old and new ideas; how to work, collaborate, and communicate in diverse settings; and
the adoption of lifelong learning as a culture of practice. Educators must redesign their teaching
strategies in response to student learning needs for 21st-century skills development within a
STEM context so that they can compete. Data collected in this study revealed a crucial need for
Ireland’s education system to provide quality STEM learning experiences along with the devel-
opment of 21st-century skills. Although all stakeholders responded with consistent agree
answers, the nation’s business leaders had the strongest collective response in their agreement
that globalization is the cause for a shift in beliefs in the Irish education system.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 110
Survey data showed that business leader respondents felt most strongly about globaliza-
tion being the catalyst for the rise in the need for STEM and 21st-century skills education. Con-
sistent with the work of Spring (2015), the data indicated that educational policymakers agreed
that globalization has played a role in shaping the curriculum and that STEM and 21st-century
skills are important to the economic future of Ireland. Although the educational policymakers
displayed a slightly lower level of agreement than their business counterparts, neither stakeholder
group expressed any neutral or disagree responses, thus demonstrating that 100% of both busi-
ness leaders and policymakers either agreed or strongly agreed with the statements. Table 7
summarizes survey data that reflected a high level of agreement among policymakers and busi-
ness leaders, with their responses supporting the notion of globalization’s influence on STEM
and 21st-century skills and the important impact of this on Ireland’s economy.
When survey data from SACD teachers and their counterparts who taught in and around
Dublin were examined, slightly more in this stakeholder group merely agreed than strongly
agreed when attributing globalization’s influence on education; however, they consistently
strongly agreed that STEM education and 21st-century skills are vital to the economic success of
the nation (see Table 8).
Interview responses reflected data collected through the survey instruments in support of
globalization’s influence on education. A representative from Intel, an MNC in Ireland, offered
the following when discussing the impact of globalization and MNCs on education:
It’s huge—MNCs in Ireland represent 25% of our GDP and employ actually a small
amount of people relative to the GDP . . . about 140,000 people in Ireland applied to
multinationals and about 2 million people applied in total. A little bit more than 5%. It’s
a small amount, but the impact is huge. About 70% of our exports is MNC based. It’s a
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 111
Table 7
Participants’ Responses Regarding the Impact of Globalization and Multinational Corporations
(MNCs) on Ireland’s Education System: Business Leaders and Educational Policymakers
Business Educational
Survey item and response categories leaders policymakers
Globalization has influenced the demand for STEM
education and development of 21st-century skills.
Strongly Agree 9 1
Agree 1 6
Neutral 1 1
Disagree 0 0
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 1 0
MNCs have influenced the demand for STEM educa-
tion and development of 21st-century skills.
Strongly Agree 9 1
Agree 2 6
Neutral 0 1
Disagree 0 0
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 0 0
STEM education and 21st-century skills development
are important to the economic future of Ireland.
Strongly Agree 12 6
Agree 0 2
Neutral 0 0
Disagree 0 0
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know
Note. STEM = science, technology, engineering, and math.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 112
Table 8
Participants’ Responses Regarding the Impact of Globalization and Multinational Corporations
(MNCs): SACD Teachers and All Teachers
SACD All
Survey item and response categories teachers teachers
Globalization has influenced the demand for STEM
education and the development of 21st-century skills.
Strongly Agree 6 76
Agree 8 64
Neutral 0 6
Disagree 0 0
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 0 1
MNCs have influenced the demand for STEM education
and development of 21st-century skills.
Strongly Agree 6 66
Agree 6 69
Neutral 2 10
Disagree 0 0
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 0 1
STEM education and 21st-century skills development
are important to the economic future of Ireland.
Strongly Agree 9 96
Agree 5 47
Neutral 0 3
Disagree 0 1
Strongly Disagree 0 1
I Don’t Know 0 0
Note. SACD = pseudonym for researcher’s assigned school. STEM = science, technology,
engineering, and math.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 113
very, very important sector in Ireland. Through the bad recession we just came through,
the multinational sector performed quite well through that actually—probably the only
real bright spot through the whole process. (L. Hobbs, personal communication,
April 18, 2016).
Based on this statement from a MNC representative, the presence of globalization factors has had
a substantial impact on Ireland’s GDP (at 25%) and is one of the most significant contributors to
Ireland’s economic well-being.
An interviewed SACD science teacher provided his perspective on the influence of
globalization and MNCs:
I think for kids here, they’re quite aware of the major corporations, Google, Facebook,
based in Dublin . . . kind of has gotten them, and they know of people who have been
involved with them. So that has guided students somewhat towards that sort of field.
(E.F., personal communication, April 21, 2016)
An interviewed administrator added her perspective:
News and media really highlight multinationals being here. Because we are a small
country, we get to hear about everything. We know in Dublin if Intel is shelving 1,500
jobs in Limerick. We know Microsoft is employing another 200. We know if Google is
expanding their canal dock. If we get to hear about it, surely it’s deemed to be signifi-
cant’ and if it’s significant, people make decisions based on that. Teenagers and late
teenagers are pragmatic. If they have a talent in technology, they see it as being useful in
the workforce—they will be driven by that. (M.L., personal communication, April 21,
2016)
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 114
Based on these insights and other similar responses, it was commonly understood that the
globalization influence of MNCs in Ireland has had a significant impact in the classrooms, as
reflected both in the daily interaction between teachers and students and in students’ focus in life
as they acquire technological skills.
Survey data summarized in Table 9 indicate the presence and influence of globalization
and MNCs in schools in and around Dublin from students’ perspectives. SACD students and all
students strongly agreed (84%) or agreed (70%) that globalization influences demand for STEM
and 21st-century skills development, with no students responding with disagree or strongly
disagree. Data received from SACD students and all students also demonstrated that the major-
ity of these stakeholder groups agreed or strongly agreed that MNCs influence demand for STEM
and 21st-century skills development. However, the percentage of agree and strongly agree
responses was less for both stakeholder groups—SACD students at 67% and all students at 64%,
with a 2% response of disagree and a 3% response of strongly disagree or disagree, respectively.
Student interviews indicated that knowledge of MNCs and the influence of globalization
are foremost in the minds of the future workforce. Evidence of this opinion can be found in
students’ statements such as this one:
I don’t feel the school curriculum has changed, but I feel the students understand that they
need to take higher skill levels in subjects such as engineering and STEM because the
economy has put so much—I guess trust in our generation to keep up. They’ve given all
these companies different incentives to try and bring them here, and I guess it’s our
responsibility for us to provide labor to keep them here. (F. Z., SACD student, personal
communication, April 21, 2016)
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 115
Table 9
Participants’ Responses Regarding the Influence of Globalization and Multinational Corpora-
tions (MNCs) on Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) Education : SACD
Students and All Students
SACD All
Survey item and response categories students students
Globalization has influenced the demand for STEM and
development of 21st-century skills.
Strongly Agree 14 264
Agree 28 475
Neutral 7 161
Disagree 0 15
Strongly Disagree 0 3
I Don’t Know 1 110
MNCs have influenced the demand for STEM education
and development of 21st-century skills.
Strongly Agree 11 223
Agree 21 431
Neutral 10 199
Disagree 1 24
Strongly Disagree 0 12
I Don’t Know 5 133
Note. SACD = pseudonym for researcher’s assigned school.
Additional student responses in interviews were rooted with globalization themes, such
as, “I think the multinationals’ part of the job is to continue to educate how in different countries,
some approach things in different ways or different mindsets” (A.S., SACD student, personal
communication, April 21, 2016) and “Globalization gives us a variety of different things we can
see. It spreads culture. Is what’s going to happen in different countries the same for us?” (R.B.,
SACD student, personal communication, April 21, 2016). Through statements such as these,
students revealed that they saw the effects of globalization not only through the presence of
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 116
MNCs but also through the presence of cultural norms and knowledge application as part of a
global workforce.
Classroom observations provided limited additional data to support various observed
instructional settings, including the presence of critical 21st-century skills that were taught to
students or were being used in students’ educational experiences. These same skills have been
noted by leaders at MNCs as being vital to the future of their companies as they compete on a
global level (O’Hagan & Newman, 2014); however, as indicated in the previous theme, 21st-
century skills development and the use of an inquiry instructional approach were not prevalent in
all classrooms at SACD or in all schools observed by the research team.
Theme 3: Educational Policy in Ireland Must Change
The review of the literature described how the Department of Education, now renamed
the Department of Education and Skills, began formulating and implementing education policy in
the 1960s. In 1971 the Higher Education Authority was created as the planning and development
authority for the university sector. Major discussions on educational reforms occurred in the
1990s, thereby leading to the publication of the Education Act of 1998 that provided a statutory
framework for the Irish education system at first and second levels (O’Reilly, 2012). The current
system of post-primary state examinations includes the Junior Certificate taken at the end of 3
years in post-primary education, and the Leaving Certificate examination taken at the end of the
Senior Cycle. The Leaving Certificate examination is the gateway to third-level education, and
its results are converted to points and used to allocate places at the university level (Looney,
2006). The related literature further suggested that this one high-stakes certificate examination
system may limit opportunities for students due to its focus on a narrow range of academic skills
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 117
to the detriment of “many other qualities which young people need for life and work” (Commis-
sion on the Points System, 1998, p. 114).
Table 10 details student stakeholder groups’ perceptions that changes to educational
policy should occur to ensure that students develop 21st-century skills and receive STEM educa-
tion, as indicated by the strongly agree responses. Seventy-six percent of SACD students
responded strongly agree or agree, with no disagree or strongly disagree responses reported.
Correspondingly, 68% of all students surveyed responded agree or strongly agree, with only 5%
choosing disagree or strongly disagree. Neutral at 19% and I Don’t Know at 8% comprised the
remainder of the responses.
Table 10
Participants’ Responses Regarding Whether Changes to Educational Policy in Ireland Should
Occur to Ensure That Students Develop 21st-Century Skills and Receive a Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Math (STEM) Education: SACD Students and All Students
SACD All
Survey item and response categories students students
Changes to educational policy in Ireland need to occur
to ensure that students develop 21st-century skills and
receive a STEM education.
Strongly Agree 18 281
Agree 20 415
Neutral 10 195
Disagree 0 38
Strongly Disagree 0 9
I Don’t Know 2 85
Note. SACD = pseudonym for researcher’s assigned school.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 118
Student interviews indicated that the limitations of the current educational policy were of
concern to students, and they expressed hope that change will occur. Evidence of this opinion
can be found in students’ statements such as this one:
The computer skills we’ve learned are quite outdated, in a sense. Even programming, the
languages we’re taught, aren’t really useful today in a practical sense. A lot of the teach-
ers would teach us these skills or even talking to us about cyberbullying and being safe on
the Internet. I don’t think a lot of us would use it, and actually apply it. I think by updat-
ing the software in school and getting younger people to come in and talk to us, it would
be a lot better. (K.M., SACD student personal communication, April 21, 2016)
Another student commented:
I feel there hasn’t been enough emphasis put on teaching kids proper computer skills.
There’s actually no class. I’d say only about 5% of the people in school in Ireland actu-
ally use a computer properly, and fully utilize it. I feel that we should introduce an IT
[information technology] classroom. (A.W., SACD student, personal communication,
April 21, 2016).
Other students voiced concern over the state examination system and their futures, such
as the following examples:
I think they should also change the standardized testing system from every 3 years to
maybe just constant assessment, because in my opinion once you do your three test, most
people just forget that until the next cycle of the 3-year test. So I don’t think a lot of
people really retain the information until the very last minute before the test. (D.G.,
SACD student, personal communication, April 21, 2016)
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This is just my personal opinion. It’s not because I hate tests or anything, but I don’t
particularly think it’s fair about how the test is done. If you miss one point on what you
want, then you can’t get that course. (A.B., SACD student, personal communication,
April 21, 2016)
Another student added: “That means your future is being changed just because you forgot the
dates of when someone was born or something like that” (L.L., SACD student, personal commu-
nication, April 21, 2016). Students were very much aware that their futures are impacted in two
ways with respect to current educational policy: limited access to STEM subjects and limited
options for assessment through a high-stakes state examination process that determines their
future (Looney, 2006).
Table 11 summarizes the survey data of SACD teachers and all teachers. Overwhelm-
ingly, 100% of SACD teachers either strongly agreed or agreed that changes to Ireland’s educa-
tion policy should occur to ensure that students develop 21st-century skills and receive a STEM
education.
Teacher interviews such as the following confirmed that educational policy changes are
needed for students to access STEM and 21st-century skills development through PBL: “There
has to be more room in the classroom for teachers to extend students into long-term investiga-
tions—investigations that interest students, rather than a lot of the recipe book practicals we have
at the moment (H.R., SACD teacher, personal communication, April 21, 2016). Another teacher
indicated that change must occur:
If you take the Leaving Certificate skills and you take a student who has the ability to rote
learn, they could achieve 55% to 60% in their exam based upon pure rote learning and
very little understanding of the situation. You take that system and move it to
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Table 11
Participants’ Responses Regarding Whether Changes to Educational Policy in Ireland Should
Occur to Ensure That Students Develop 21st-Century Skills and Receive a Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Math (STEM) Education: SACD Teachers and All Teachers
SACD All
Survey item and response categories teachers teachers
Changes to current educational policy in Ireland should
occur to ensure that students develop 21st-century skills
and receive a STEM education.
Strongly Agree 8 59
Agree 6 65
Neutral 0 14
Disagree 0 8
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 0 0
Note. SACD = pseudonym for researcher’s assigned school.
International Baccalaureate; students have to understand it and apply the understanding to
a situation on an exam paper. It gets them to think critically whereas the Leaving Cert
course at the moment doesn’t really have that involved. We don’t have any project-based
at the moment for the Cert and for Senior Cycle. (E.F., SACD teacher personal commu-
nication, April 21, 2016)
Teachers were fully aware that they bear the day-to-day responsibility of getting students
prepared for their future, and they had a tried and true traditional method for doing so. However,
increased competition through globalization and the ever-increasing needs of the MNCs require
not only subject knowledge but also the ability to apply that knowledge through the lens of 21st-
century skills development. The requirements of the national syllabus and Leaving Certificate do
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 121
not easily provide either the time or freedom to engage in a community of practice that can
implement inquiry-based instruction.
Table 12 survey data details the business leaders’ perceptions that changes to educational
policy should occur to ensure that students develop 21st-century skills and receive a STEM edu-
cation, as indicated by their strongly agree responses. Policymakers, as indicated by their agree
responses, were not quite as resolute in their opinion but were in solid agreement. This finding
may demonstrate that despite MNCs’ perceived influence on STEM and 21st-century skills
development, as determined by data triangulated from earlier in the study, educational policy has
been slow to meet the needs of a knowledge-based, 21st-century skilled workforce.
Table 12
Participants’ Responses Regarding Whether Changes in Educational Policy in Ireland Should
Occur to Ensure that Students Develop 21st-Century Skills and Receive a Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Math (STEM) Education: Business Leaders and Educational Policymakers
Business Educational
Survey item and response categories leaders policymakers
Changes to current educational policy should occur to
ensure that students develop 21st-century skills and
receive a STEM education.
Strongly Agree 4 4
Agree 7 2
Neutral 1 1
Disagree 0 1
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 0 0
Interview data from an MNC representative from Microsoft provided some indications of
educational policy challenges:
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The challenge is getting the system to listen and respond. The fact that we don’t have
some sort of computer science curriculum or subject anywhere for fourth, fifth, and sixth,
which are the kids who are 16, 17, and 18—that’s a gap. In a country like ours which has
all the presence of tech and multinationals in particular, and we don’t have that—you
have to question. (K. Marshall, personal communication, April 18, 2016)
The same MNC representative further noted:
It’s a challenge because the argument is we’ve done reasonably well for such a long time
in the system that actually works and that people have confidence in. You do 3 years to
the 15-year-old exam. You do another 3 years to your Leaving Certificate. Then get the
points to give you entry into university. That’s allegedly held up well for a number of
years . . . changing the system is really difficult because parents trust the system. . . .
There’s a lack of vision, maybe. It’s just that there’s so many stakeholders involved in
the education system that it’s so hard to get it over the line. Change takes time and
nobody wants to make a mistake. . . . If you go and look at Eastern Europe, you go and
look at other countries, how they’re making changes that will eventually, from a competi-
tive perspective, that’ll overtake us. (K. Marshall, personal communication, April 18,
2016)
Through the triangulation of data collected from surveys, interviews, and observations,
stakeholders from all participant groups suggested that the current educational policy in Ireland is
challenged by a rote system of teaching and learning that has pockets of noteworthiness but no
comprehensive engagement of all Irish students as its foundation. Some stakeholders and their
institutions have managed to instill opportunities for inquiry-based instruction as a methodology
of limited practice in the 1st or 2nd year of secondary school. However, longer intervals for
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 123
investigations, questioning, practice, and reflection did not exist within the confines of the
current education system in Ireland.
Discussion Summary for Research Question 1
It was noted in the discussion of data for this research question within the three themes
that growth of the Irish economy in the 1990s and throughout the Great Recession was realized
through FDI and the presence of MNCs in Ireland and the spread of globalization (Paus, 2005).
In addition, improvements in transportation and information and communication technologies
have driven globalization in Ireland (Jacobson & Kirby, 2006). According to Spring (2015), the
needs of a 21st-century workforce influenced by globalization will require a global education that
is not centered on imparting information but rather on how-to knowledge, also known as 21st-
century skills. Data used to provide conclusions for the first research question examined the
perspective of multiple stakeholder groups through triangulation of surveys, interviews, and
observations.
Survey and interview evidence exists that participants had a strong belief that STEM
education and the development of 21st-century skills are vital for the economic success of
Ireland’s future. An analysis of the data showed that business leaders had a slightly higher level
of agreement than educational policymakers that globalization and the skills needs of MNCs
have created a need for more STEM education and the acquisition of 21st-century skills. Teach-
ers and students understood the urgent need to produce a workforce that has the capacity to fill
the roles required by MNCs for the future of Ireland’s economy and the prosperity of students’
individual well-being.
Educational policy in Ireland has to change to meet the 21st-century needs of MNCs, or
the Irish Republic will find itself unable to keep up with demand and other nations will step up to
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 124
fulfill the role—thereby putting the country’s economic sustainability and growth model in
jeopardy. Recent proposed changes by the Irish educational policymakers toward a revision of
the Junior Cycle Certificate in favor of inquiry-based activities may suggest that MNCs’ needs as
a result of globalization are influencing educational policy. However, challenges from the
teachers’ unions and the lack of trained teachers on inquiry-based instruction and assessment, in
conjunction with an urgent need for increased numbers of highly skilled, knowledge-based labor,
present an interesting set of challenges for stakeholders to resolve. Additionally, concerns
regarding a high-stakes point system for the Leaving Certificate will have to be addressed if
policy changes are to be comprehensive.
Findings for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, “How have science and technology competitions, such as
SciFest, influenced development of 21st-century skills through the use of inquiry-based instruc-
tional strategies in STEM?” The objective of this question was to examine the relationship of
science and technology fairs in Ireland to the development of 21st-century skills using inquiry-
based strategies in a STEM field of study. Two themes emerged from the analysis of data col-
lected through surveys, interviews, and observations of a SciFest science fair and STEM classes.
The themes reflected the personal beliefs of the participants on science and technology fairs, as
well as participants’ viewpoints on conflicting priorities in Ireland’s educational system.
Theme 1: Students Benefit From Participation in Science and Technology Competitions
There was a paucity of peer-reviewed literature regarding science and technology compe-
titions. This situation is surprising given the decades of their existence and the fact that they may
provide an approach to support and enable students to conduct student-directed, open-ended
science and technology project work that places on emphasis on learning about science and how
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 125
to “do science” (Bencze & Bowen, 2009). However, the literature reviewed illustrated that
“students who attended STEM after school science clubs had a higher percentage of post-
secondary matriculation into STEM majors than the national average” (Sahin, 2013, p. 10). This
trend in the research benefits both students in their pursuit of higher education options that lead
to desirable employment prospects and MNCs that are dependent on a continuous supply of a
knowledge-based workforce equipped with 21st-century skills workforce. According to Bencze
and Bowen (2009), the overall science fair process “functions as a filtering system for selecting
the most gifted students for potential enrollment in sponsoring universities and, eventually for
jobs as knowledge workers with sponsoring businesses” (p. 2478).
Stakeholders involved in this study showed overall agreement that there are definite
benefits realized from students’ participation in science and technology fairs. The respondents
agreed that the nature of inquiry-based learning is a valuable tool for students to use in all areas
of their curriculum and that it is especially essential for preparation to enter the workforce of the
future (Spring, 2015). Survey responses indicated a high level of agreement that students benefit
from science and technology fairs, with only 2% responding with disagree from SACD and 4%
of all students surveyed choosing disagree or strongly disagree (see Table 13).
One SACD student responded, “Amazing! Just working on that project and researching
things that I have never seen before, I have never known how to explain, is phenomenal. I’ve
enjoyed it so much” (A.B., personal communication, April 21, 2016). Another SACD student
commented:
I think I enjoyed the experience. I worked by myself, but I liked how we got to choose
our own topic. I mean, the topic I chose I was generally interested, which kind of drove
me to actually do the research and put the work in, which I really liked. I actually found
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that I was happy with the results. I was interested to know the results and the outcome of
what I learned. (L.L., personal communication, April 21, 2016)
Table 13
Participants’ Responses Regarding the Benefits to Students From Participating in Science Fair
Competitions: SACD Students and All Students
SACD All
Survey item and response categories students students
Students benefit from participating in science and
technology fairs.
Strongly Agree 18 331
Agree 21 470
Neutral 10 139
Disagree 1 28
Strongly Disagree 0 12
I Don’t Know 0 48
Note. SACD = pseudonym for researcher’s assigned school.
Table 14 summarizes staff members’ responses to the survey question item focusing on
students and the benefits received from participating in science and technology fairs. The educa-
tors’ responses were consistent with the review of literature that the opportunity for application
of knowledge utilizing inquiry-based strategies in an experiential learning environment allows
for students to make connections to the meta-discipline of STEM and to see potential career
prospects (Bellipanni & Lilly, 1999; Bencze & Bowen, 2009; T. J. Kennedy & Odell, 2014;
Moynihan, 2015; Sahin, 2013). It was consistently revealed in the surveys that a majority of
participants either agreed or strongly agreed regarding the benefits of science fair competitions.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 127
Table 14 reports data responses from teachers and administrators at SACD and in and around
Dublin.
Table 14
Participants’ Responses Regarding Preparation of Students for Science Fairs: SACD Teachers
and Administrator and All Teachers and Administrators
SACD administrator/ All administrators/
Survey item and response categories teachers teachers
Students benefit from participating in science
and technology fairs.
Strongly Agree 9 85
Agree 4 53
Neutral 1 7
Disagree 0 0
Strongly Disagree 0 1
I Don’t Know 0 0
Note. SACD = pseudonym for researcher’s assigned school.
One SACD teacher commented that “SciFest has been going on 4 years now at . . .
[SACD], and it’s been a very positive experience that we’ve had which the kids really do enjoy it
when they’re doing it” (E.F., personal communication, April 21, 2016).
Table 15 summarizes the responses by participating business leaders and educational
policymakers. Consistent with the educators’ responses reported in Table 14, there was a high
level of agreement among business representatives and policymakers that students benefit from
participation in science and technology fairs. One MNC representative noted:
Enthusiastic students . . . they get opportunities to develop their skills in presentation;
they get to network with the ITs where we would recruit graduates from, etc. Overall,
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Table 15
Participants’ Responses Regarding the Benefits of Students’ Participation in Science Fair
Competitions: Business Leaders and Educational Policymakers
Business Educational
Survey item and response categories leaders policymakers
Students benefit from participating in science and
technology fairs.
Strongly Agree 8 7
Agree 4 1
Neutral 0 0
Disagree 0 0
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 0 0
extremely positive . . . what SciFest can offer: the opportunity to work as part of a team,
but also the opportunity to reach out into yourself and know what the competition is out
there. (S. Hickey, Abbott representative, personal communication, April 18, 2016)
Survey data indicated the level of agreement regarding the benefits of science and tech-
nology fair competitions for students. A SACD biology teacher commented:
It’s probably made me a little bit aware of being so didactic . . . and so even just from a
very basic level, we begin inquiry, and then we have discussion, even on a macroscale of
biology—it’s great. It’s better for students long term because it’s less regurgitation of the
notes. (N.K., personal communication, April 21, 2016)
The Deputy Principal remarked on SACD’s experience with SciFest:
Fabulous. I think we’re 5th year in, and we have more students choosing science now
than we ever did . . . I think it’s really significant to see what the kids have produced. . . .
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 129
It’s been very, very significant and useful and has a real and tangible influence on the
uptake of science in the school. (M.L., personal communication, April 21, 2016)
Classroom observations provided additional data and evidence that the SACD science
teachers were aware of the benefits of inquiry-based instructional strategies and that preparation
for the science fair participation for 1st- and 2nd-year students helped to refine student use of
inquiry-based strategies. However, inquiry-based instructional strategies as a community of
practice is at the discretion of the individual teacher, and requirements for the Junior Cycle leave
little time for inquiry-based instruction as a primary instructional strategy. Nevertheless, for
SACD, compulsory participation in SciFest in the 2nd year may be the catalyst for the increase of
science classes that the school is seeking to offer due to increased demand based upon sign-ups
(personal observation, April 21, 2016).
Theme 2: Traditional Science Curriculum Does Not Prepare Students for Participation in
Science and Technology Competitions
The review of literature suggested that after the establishment of the Irish Free State in
1923, science was removed in favor of a return to Gaelic traditions and culture that had been
neglected under British rule. Science did not return to the primary school curriculum until 1999
(O’Reilly, 2012).
The literature further indicated that science and technology fairs promote student-led
project work but that it is not a major priority in schools (Bencze & Bowen, 2009). SciFest is
available to all students in Ireland, and Intel has been a regular sponsor of other national science
and technology fairs that are more inclusive. Experiences in these various science and technol-
ogy fairs have promoted PBL and STEM inquiry that went above and beyond what students may
have learned in traditional classrooms. However, even with these opportunities and a significant
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element of support, data have shown that competing national educational priorities, mandated in
Ireland’s curriculum sequence, decrease attention to the devoted skills and processes of essential
inquiry-based foundational strategies that are necessary for students to participate in science and
technology fairs.
Data collected for this study through surveys, interviews, and observations provided ideas
parallel to the work of Bencze and Bowen (2009), in that stakeholders stated that barriers in
Ireland prohibit teachers from fully engaging in teaching skills required for students to be suc-
cessful in a science fair competition such as SciFest. Table 16 summarizes data from student
survey items focused on the science curriculum and preparation for science and technology fairs,
such as SciFest. Based on the data presented in Table 16, although a majority of respondents
agreed or chose neutral for statements regarding preparation for the science fair, several dis-
agreed with the statements that students are well prepared for these inquiry-based learning
experiences.
Table 17 summarizes educators’ responses to identical survey items on the topic of
science and technology fair preparedness. The data presented in Table 17 illustrate a lower level
of agreement by school administrators and staff that schools and the current science curriculum
prepare students well for science and technology fairs.
Table 18 summarizes responses to the same survey items answered by area business
leaders and policymakers. Based on the data presented in Table 18, business leaders displayed an
even lower level of agreement that schools and science curriculum are preparing Ireland’s
students for science and technology fairs than that shown in the responses by surveyed educa-
tional policymakers.
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Table 16
Participants’ Responses Regarding Preparation of Students for Science and Technology Fair
Competitions: SACD Students and All Students
SACD All
Survey item and response categories students students
My science courses have prepared me well for the
science competition.
Strongly Agree 11 153
Agree 21 440
Neutral 8 236
Disagree 3 86
Strongly Disagree 2 39
I Don’t Know 4 75
My school prepared me well for the science competition.
Strongly Agree 10 180
Agree 30 438
Neutral 6 237
Disagree 1 76
Strongly Disagree 2 28
I Don’t Know 2 69
Note. SACD = pseudonym for researcher’s assigned school.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 132
Table 17
Participants’ Responses Regarding Preparation of Students for Science and Technology Fairs:
SACD Teachers and Administrator and All Teachers and Administrators
SACD administrator/ All administrators/
Survey item and response categories teachers teachers
Schools prepare students for science and
technology fairs.
Strongly Agree 2 27
Agree 7 68
Neutral 3 28
Disagree 2 19
Strongly Disagree 1 4
I Don’t Know 0 2
The science curriculum prepares students for
participation in science and technology fairs.
technology fairs.
Strongly Agree 0 8
Agree 3 48
Neutral 6 53
Disagree 5 18
Strongly Disagree 1 6
I Don’t Know 0 3
Note. SACD = pseudonym for researcher’s assigned school.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 133
Table 18
Participants’ Responses Regarding Preparation of Students for Science Fair Competitions:
Business Leaders and Educational Policymakers
Business Educational
Survey item and response categories leaders policymakers
Schools prepare students well for science and technology
fairs.
Strongly Agree 1 4
Agree 5 2
Neutral 4 2
Disagree 1 0
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 1 0
Science curriculum prepares students for participation in
science and technology fairs.
Strongly Agree 1 2
Agree 3 3
Neutral 7 2
Disagree 0 1
Strongly Disagree 0 0
I Don’t Know 1 0
In order to understand the stakeholders’ perspectives on student preparation for science
and technology fairs, interview data were included in the analysis. Teachers, students, business
leaders, and educational policymakers were interviewed to provide contextualized perspectives
on the preparation of students for Ireland’s science and technology fairs. Curriculum priorities
constituted a common topic in several interviews, including one with a SACD teacher who
noted:
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If you want kids to be interested in science, you can’t just give them a project and say,
“This is the only way it has to be done.” You want inquiry. Can they interpret data rather
than just take the information? (E.F., personal communication, April 21, 2016)
A national educational leader and policymaker expanded on priorities of the classroom:
At the moment the biggest driver in education in Ireland happens at the end of high
school, a single compressed 2 weeks of regurgitation—not solely, but a lot of it in that
this drives behavior and that does not foster the attributes we’re looking for (B.
MacCraith, personal communication, April 20, 2016)
The same educational leader and policymaker provided a rich perspective on how teaching
practices in science prepare students for science and technology fairs:
Not at all. Zero. One recommendation is that we have to, again, come back to the assess-
ment and integration of assessment into the mainstream. We have to recognize problem-
based learning, project-based learning, inquiry-based learning as manifest in SciFest and
BTM Scientists. We have to do that because, number 1, we say that’s important; number
2, we’re saying the 21st-century skills that you learn are a priority; and number 3, it’s
saying that you’re changing the assessment system. (B. MacCraith, personal communica-
tion, April 20, 2016)
Advancement to third-level education or university is based on a points system rooted in
the high-stakes Leaving Certificate Examinations. High scores on these examinations translate
into points, and points translate into a slot at the university of your preference. Stakeholder
groups, especially students, expressed concern that the Leaving Certificate Examination was a
focused sense of purpose within the school. Teachers and students were directed toward test
preparation and instruction in a traditional textbook setting or rote learning environment, whereas
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 135
science and technology fairs use an applied learning technique through inquiry-based learning on
specific STEM projects, for which there is no national accountability at this time.
A new Junior Cycle examination focus has been a proposed solution in the educational
system, with the goal of allowing an inquiry-based learning system that would include science
and technology fairs to be included in the curriculum. If this new Junior Cycle becomes a reality,
the two divergent learning directions would eventually complement one another. However,
concerns from stakeholders such as the teacher unions and parents, must be addressed and
resources identified if there is to be any forward movement. As indicated in classroom observa-
tions, however, with the exception of the TY elective courses between Junior and Senior Cycles,
many teachers continue to teach to the summative Leaving Certification assessments.
Discussion Summary for Research Question 2
A prominent theme indicated that students benefit from their participation in science and
technology fairs. Participants nearly unanimously agreed through surveys and interviews that
students benefit from these competitive inquiry activities and experiences. In contrast to the
positive benefits seen with student involvement in science and technology fairs, the triangulation
of interviews, surveys, and observations indicated that participants agreed that the current cur-
riculum delivered in the schools does not adequately prepare students for science and technology
fairs.
Further analysis of the relationship between the curriculum and science and technology
fairs was influenced by the participants’ responses due to the Leaving Certificate Examination.
Staff and students were focused on preparation for the Leaving Certificate Examinations and did
not feel that the curriculum adequately prepared students for science and technology fairs (refer
to Table 16). There was a noticeable increase in agree responses from primarily SACD teachers
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 136
and student stakeholder group when respondents were asked if schools prepared students for
science and technology competitions (refer to Table 17). It was noted in several interviews that
teachers and students focused primarily on material that was preparatory for the Leaving Certifi-
cate Examinations to allow students the best options for their Senior Cycle education and post-
secondary educational opportunities. SciFest was compulsory for 2nd-year students at SACD
and encouraged by the science teachers of those who might want to compete yearly. Preparation
for the competition generally occurred outside of their regular school day or usually during the
TY, and the assistance received by staff may explain the increased number of agree responses.
Findings for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, “How has participation in science and technology competi-
tions, such as SciFest, influenced students’ interest in and selection of STEM-related courses in
Senior Cycle, as well as their pursuit of college- and/or career-related STEM fields?” The objec-
tive of this question was to explore the relationship of these voluntary inquiry activities with
selection of Senior Cycle courses and career decisions in STEM. Ireland has been shown to be a
center of MNC attraction for various technology companies such as Intel, Dell, Google, and
Facebook. This question was developed to examine the influence of science and technology fairs
on the decisions and interests of students who could potentially fill the role of employees in these
MNCs.
In order to gain complete perspectives of the various stakeholders with respect to science
and technology fairs, data were collected via surveys, interviews, and observations. Surveys
were conducted online through an emailed link to participants, and some hard copies were dis-
tributed and completed at the sites. Interviews were conducted at school sites and at individual
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 137
places of employment, and observations were conducted in classrooms and at a SciFest science
and technology fair. Two main themes emerged to provide conclusions for Research Question 3.
Theme 1: Interest in STEM and the Development of 21st-Century Skills Has Increased as a
Result of Science and Technology Competitions
In the review of literature, Wagner (2008) listed seven survival skills for the 21st-century:
(a) critical thinking and problem-solving abilities, (b) collaboration across networks, (c) agility
and adaptability, (d) initiative and entrepreneurship, (e) effective oral and written communica-
tion, (f) accessing and analyzing information, and (g) curiosity and imagination. A majority of
these 21st-century survival skills were communicated by interviewed participants as an element
of the process of designing and presenting a science fair competition project. Wagner’s work
served as a framework to organize a set of skills with which schools can prepare students for the
21st-century jobs that will be available to them upon graduation. Through the acquisition of
these skills, students have the capacity to make them applicable to all subject areas in their
advanced studies, such as in Ireland’s Senior Cycle.
Stakeholder surveys indicated a perceived increase in the STEM field of study and 21st-
century skills due to the influence of students’ participation in science and technology fairs.
Table 19 summarizes quantitative data illustrating this trend in respondent opinions. Although
the level of agreement reflected in Table 19 was not as high as that noted in prior survey
responses, a majority of students still either agreed or strongly agreed with the idea that interest
in STEM and 21st-century skills as well as studying these topics in Senior Cycle had increased
through science fair participation.
Adult survey participants had a higher level of agreement on the items identified in Table
20. From the adult perspective, science and technology fairs had a more significant impact on
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 138
Table 19
Participants’ Responses Regarding Increased Student Interest in Science, Technology, Engineer-
ing, and Mathematics (STEM) and 21st-Century Skills as Result of Science Fair Competitions:
SACD Students and All Students
SACD All
Survey item and response categories students students
My interest in STEM and development of 21st-century
skills has increased as a result of the science competition.
Strongly Agree 10 154
Agree 18 378
Neutral 10 212
Disagree 8 122
Strongly Disagree 0 44
I Don’t Know 2 119
After participating in the science competition, I have
increased interest in studying STEM-related subjects
in Senior Cycle.
Strongly Agree 12 204
Agree 13 335
Neutral 14 208
Disagree 7 123
Strongly Disagree 2 48
I Don’t Know 2 111
Note. SACD = pseudonym for researcher’s assigned school.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 139
students’ interest in STEM and 21st-century skills. For adult stakeholders, the impact of science
and technology fairs on students’ Senior Cycle choices was less significant. The survey results
revealed a perception regarding benefits from participation in science and technology fairs both
in terms of a general interest in STEM and 21st-century skills and in the choices that students
made in their Senior Cycle due to the shift in interest.
Table 20
Participants’ Responses Regarding Increased Interest of Students in Science, Engineering, and
Mathematics (STEM) and 21st-Century Skills Due to Participation in Science Fair Competitions:
SACD Teachers and Administrator and All Teachers and Administrators
SACD administrator/ All administrators/
Survey item and response categories teachers teachers
Interest in STEM and development of 21st-
century skills has increased as a result of the
science competition.
Strongly Agree 4 28
Agree 8 77
Neutral 1 31
Disagree 1 5
Strongly Disagree 0 3
I Don’t Know 0 3
Students who participated in science and
technology fairs showed increased
interest in studying STEM-related
subjects in Senior Cycle.
Strongly Agree 0 8
Agree 3 48
Neutral 6 53
Disagree 5 18
Strongly Disagree 1 6
I Don’t Know 0 3
Note. SACD = pseudonym for researcher’s assigned school.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 140
Interviews provided data regarding the examination of the relationship of STEM and
21st-century skills interests to science and technology fairs. One SACD student responded:
“Exposing to new ideas and concepts about maybe biology, chemistry, social sciences” (A.B.,
personal communication, April 21, 2016).
Students who were interviewed in this study had a positive perception of science and
technology fairs and their benefits for both school preparedness and shaping their interests in
terms of STEM and the development of 21st-century skills. Students who were interviewed
primarily had a positive attitude and perspective toward the science and technology fair events, as
evident in the account of another SACD student:
I think at the start of the 1st year, you’re presented with this big text book—learn this,
learn that—and it can get very boring, and a lot of the time it’s only the basics. By doing
this project, you open your eyes to how much there actually is, and what you can do with
technology now and science once you’re able to. Going into the cycle, I think I’d be a lot
more interested in continuing science, because I know how much potential it has and
what I can actually achieve using the skills I’ve learned doing these projects. (K.M.,
personal communication, April 21, 2016)
Although science and technology fairs continue to provide a usually voluntary experience
in their supplementary role in Ireland’s schools, they are increasingly widespread and perceived
by stakeholders as a popular way of exploring scientific curiosity and shaping future educational
plans. In the case of SACD, SciFest has become compulsory for 2nd-year students and voluntary
for any year thereafter.
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Adult interviews revealed a broader perspective of the influence of science and technol-
ogy fairs on students’ interests and pursuits of STEM and 21st-century skills areas. One SACD
teacher suggested a rationale for the increased number of science classes at SACD:
It’s hard to know exactly, but we’ve got a huge increase in science coming in to next year:
two extra physics, one extra chemistry, and one agriculture. So we’ve got four extra class
periods in Senior Cycle. Some of it may be based on how we do our transitioning pro-
gram this year with all students transitioning in 8-week blocks of physics, chemistry, then
biology, so they get a taste of what Senior Cycle subjects. But I think some have the links
to SciFest—they can see that’s where future careers are based on, and it gives them an
interest in it at a young age. The quicker you can get them interested in science and
technology, the better that’s going to be. (E.F., personal communication, April 21, 2016.
A SACD administrator speculated on the possible connection of SciFest and increased
science sign-ups: “We have more students this year than any other doing sciences. Hard to
determine if it’s linked to SciFest, but certainly we have more students this year choosing science
options in 5th year than before” (M.L., personal communication, April 21, 2016).
A SACD teacher commented that the culture and demographics of the school site were a
factor in STEM interest more so than participation in SciFest:
We normally had quite a high number of students going into science-related colleges
anyway. That’s probably from the children of professional couples, etc.; but they are
directed into that area already anyway, so just because they are taking on SciFest, I don’t
think we’re appealing to anyone we didn’t appeal to before. (H.R., personal communica-
tion, April 21, 2016)
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A science and math teacher interviewed at SciFest provided additional data to support the
theme and findings from interview and survey data. L.W. had been teaching science and math
for 2½ years; she had three groups participating in SciFest and was the first teacher participant
who used to compete in the BT Young Scientists and Exhibition science competition as a
student. When asked if SciFest played a role in students’ STEM career interests, she responded:
“I think it does have a massive impact because it prepares them for, ‘What if I went to college
and I have to present?’ It gives them all that kind of experience” (personal communication,
April 22, 2016). When asked if students were more interested in taking science classes as a
result of participating in SciFest, she enthusiastically noted:
Yes, definitely. Especially when it’s the whole social media hype of it as well . . . the fact
that people think that sometimes these SciFest and science competitions are not exciting
or fun—but when they see all these pictures of a robot man walking around, that they do
see that’s fun and interesting. Then it puts it in their head for participating another year or
taking up science as a subject. (personal communication, April 21, 2016)
Theme 2: Science and Technology Fairs Have Been Beneficial in Preparing Students for the
Labor Force
The literature review suggested that successful implementation of Wagner’s (2008) 21st-
century skills results in students having the ability to analyze roots of a problem and to identify
how problems evolve using a systematic approach. Students are involved in global interactions,
think strategically through the lens of cultural awareness, and lead though influence. They are
flexible, resourceful, lifelong learners who adapt easily to disruptions. They seek new ideas and
opportunities to be leaders and to make improvements. Their ability to communicate their views,
opinions, and ideas is vital in a global economy, as is the development of critical thinking skills
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needed to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate data, along with an inquisitive, motivated, analytical
thought process. Study participants have noted that science and technology fairs have an effect
on students, as the experience better equips them for entering the modern-day labor force.
Although it was noted that specific content may not be immediately present or demonstrated by
students, the capacity built in acquiring these 21st-century skills makes them competitive and
able to adapt within a complex environment.
The theme of science and technology fairs being beneficial for preparing students for the
labor force emerged in several points of the data collected in the schools in and around Dublin
and at SciFest. There were some discrepancies regarding the scope of preparation and whether
students’ training included actual content or more of a capacity-building process for them to
experience prior to their Senior Cycle. Throughout the study, adults and students had varying
levels of confidence in this theme, although a majority of survey respondents either agreed or
strongly agreed with the statements focused on career preparation.
Data were collected to determine responses from adult educators on their perspective of
student preparation for the workforce. Table 21 indicates that although a small number of school
staff members disagreed with the statement that science and technology fairs prepare students for
the labor force, the majority of adult respondents either agreed or strongly agreed.
In contrast, the student survey data presented in Table 22 shows a high level of agree-
ment; however, there was a shift in the numbers of individuals disagreeing with the statement not
evident in prior theme analyses. Furthermore, many students selected I Don’t know as a
response, thus providing a glimpse regarding their perspective of an uncertain pathway and
transition into their advanced coursework and eventually into a career.
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Through participants’ explanations, their perspectives on science and technology fairs,
and their goals for the future, the interview data provided more context to survey data summa-
rized in Tables 20 and 21. One SACD staff member outlined skill sets that student science and
technology fair participants gain as tools for assisting them in the workforce: “You’re talking
about being self-directed learning. You’re talking about doing project work. You’re talking
about the research aspect of it as well. That’s something they can take forward” (N.K., personal
communication, April 21, 2016).
When asked whether science and technology fairs prepared students for STEM-related
careers, SciFest CEO Sheila Porter noted the perceived difference in definitions between
preparation and interest. The following statement outlines her position about the benefits of
science and technology fair competition:
They learn what they are; they learn what it is to work in Apple or what it is to work at
Intel. It prepares them in that they know what the jobs are that are available. Also, I think
as well it prepares them and gives them different approaches to learning; rather than just
trying to learn it all, they’re better able to find out for themselves and to do research.
(personal communication, April 21, 2016)
This statement echoed that of interviewed school staff members. Adults who were
interviewed agreed that students used the skill sets learned as a prerequisite of preparation for the
labor force versus actual content knowledge. Many of the skills listed as being learned through
the science and technology fair were rooted in 21st-century items such as collaboration, inquiry
skills, abstract thinking, and the use of technology to discover answers or pathways to answers.
In contrast to school and science and technology fair officials, a representative from Intel
did not view science and technology fairs as preparation for the labor force. The representative
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Table 21
Participants’ Responses Regarding Students’ Preparation for the Labor Force Due to Science
and Technology Fair Competitions: SACD Teachers and Administrator and All Teachers and
Administrators
SACD administrator/ All administrators/
Survey item and response categories teachers teachers
Science and technology fairs have been bene-
ficial in preparing students for the labor force.
Strongly Agree 3 30
Agree 7 66
Neutral 3 36
Disagree 1 11
Strongly Disagree 0 2
I Don’t Know 0 0
Note. SACD = pseudonym for researcher’s assigned school.
Table 22
Participants’ Responses Regarding Students’ Preparation for the Labor Force Due to Science
and Technology Fair Competitions: SACD Students and All Students
SACD All
Survey item and response categories students students
Science and technology fairs have been beneficial in
preparing students for the labor force.
Strongly Agree 6 96
Agree 14 290
Neutral 15 254
Disagree 8 154
Strongly Disagree 2 51
I Don’t Know 4 180
Note. SACD = pseudonym for researcher’s assigned school.
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noted that student project experiences through science and technology competitions encompass
specialized subject areas. When asked whether the competitions affected labor force preparation,
the response was, “A little bit—maybe because you’re doing a project, it’s quite a narrow field.
It’s subjective. I don’t really know. I don’t think so. I don’t think it does a lot for them in that
regard” (L. Hobbs, personal communication, April 18, 2016). However, another representative
from Medtronic, an MNC, suggested that the concept of teamwork is an aspect of employment
preparation that science and technology competitions might bring to students: “This is much
more about the practical side, the team building within the team working on the projects, collabo-
ration—so I think that all helps prepare them” (C. McLaughlin, personal communication,
April 18, 2016). An MNC representative from Dell further expounded on the concept of team-
work and other benefits for students:
I think to the degree that they have been involved in competition, there is a competitive
element, there is the looking for a solution, and there is the looking at different options
and evaluating them until you come up with your proposed solution and then running
with that. So assuming they followed that pipeline approach, then the intensive competi-
tions, generally larger than one person . . . and as a result of this they have that interaction
with people and value of collaborative approach because the differences that each team
member can bring will actually enhance the end solution typically, so if that’s what the
science and technology competitions are impacting at Junior/Senior Cycle, then that’s
something that’s going to come through and positively impact them in careers. (R.
Chatasaigh, personal communication, April 18, 2016)
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Discussion Summary for Research Question 3
The data analysis for Research Question 3 indicated a strong belief that science and
technology fairs have increased students’ interest in STEM education and 21st-century skills, as
evident in choices made by students in their selection of Senior Cycle course pathways. This
position was expressed by multiple stakeholder groups through surveys, interviews, and observa-
tion data. Some teachers contended that there was not a true increase in interest but rather a
preexisting interest that prompted student participation in the science and technology fairs
originally. Interest in STEM fields and 21st-century skills was also demonstrated through partici-
pants’ expressions that students are more likely to choose these types of courses in the Senior
Cycle due to their curiosity and experiences gained through science and technology fair competi-
tions.
The second theme related to Research Question 3 was that participation in science and
technology fairs was beneficial for preparing students for the labor force. Participants had a high
level of agreement that science and technology fairs helped to prepare students for their career
pursuits; however, interviews showed that this preparation was not due to specific content
knowledge but to acquisition of 21st-century skills that build the capacity to work in a competi-
tive environment in a MNC, such as the technology companies found in Ireland. In the minds of
most study participants, science and technology fairs created the vehicle of delivery for 21st-
century skills for students. It was also noted that the true core of capacity building of 21st-
century skills was in the directions given by STEM instructors in preparation for daily lessons, as
well as the process of completing science fair competition projects.
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Chapter Summary
The data analysis included a review of the literature and relating it to survey responses,
interview responses, and observations. The data were analyzed and aligned with the research
questions and the four frameworks—Friedman (2007), Slough and Milam (2013), Spring (2015),
and Wagner (2008)—were used to analyze and understand Ireland’s experience with globaliza-
tion, its education curriculum and instruction incorporating 21st-century skills, and implementa-
tion of PBL in STEM areas.
Data related to Research Question 1 produced three themes. The first theme suggested
that STEM education and the development of 21st-century skills are important for economic
growth. As leaders have worked to make Ireland more globally competitive, the country has seen
a rise in the number of MNCs. These MNCs need knowledge-ready workers. The second theme
indicated that globalization and the requirements of MNCs have increased the need for STEM
education in Ireland. An analysis of the data showed that business leaders and educational
policymakers supported the notion that globalization and the presence of MNCs have created a
need for more STEM education and the acquisition of 21st-century skills. SACD teachers, staff,
and students and the various stakeholders involved in the research study understood the urgent
necessity to produce a workforce that has the capacity to fill the roles in MNCs for the future of
Ireland’s economy and the well-being of current students. The third theme addressed a need for
educational policy change implementation in Ireland that supports the country’s economic
sustainability and growth model. Staff and students were focused on preparation for the Leaving
Certificate Examinations and did not feel that the curriculum adequately prepared students for
science and technology fairs (refer to Table 16). There was a noticeable increase in agree
responses from primarily the SACD teacher and student stakeholder groups when respondents
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were asked if schools prepared students for science and technology competitions. Additionally,
concerns regarding a high-stakes point system for the Leaving Certificate will have to be ad-
dressed if policy changes are to be comprehensive.
Analysis of the data related to Research Question 2 produced two themes. The first
theme indicated that students benefit from participation in science and technology fairs. This
result was supported by participants who were nearly unanimous in their agreement on surveys
and in interviews that students benefit from these competitive science experiences. In contrast to
the positive benefits seen in science and technology fair participation, the second theme indicated
that the curriculum does not fully support the required skills for students to be successful in a
science fair competition. The relationship between the curriculum and science and technology
fairs was misaligned in the participants’ minds due to the emphasis on passing the Leaving
Certificate Examination. Staff and students were focused on preparation for the Leaving Certifi-
cate Examination and within the school day for science and technology fairs. It was noted in
several interviews that teachers and students focused primarily on material in preparation for the
Leaving Certificate Examination to allow students the best options for their Senior Cycle educa-
tion.
Analysis of the data related to Research Question 3 produced two themes. The first
theme showed that interest in STEM and 21st-century skills had increased as a result of participa-
tion in science and technology fairs. This increased interest is important not only because the
development of STEM skills supports the country’s success globally but also because the 21st-
century skills developed through participation in the science and technology fairs are an impor-
tant part of a student’s ability to compete for good jobs and to be successful in their future careers
(Clifton, 2011; Friedman, 2007; Wagner, 2008). This belief was consistent among multiple
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stakeholder groups as shown through surveys, interviews, and observation data. Interest in
STEM fields and 21st-century skills was further demonstrated through participants’ responses
that indicated that students were more likely to choose these types of courses in their Senior
Cycle due to their curiosity and experiences gained in science and technology fair competitions.
The experiences gained in the competitions translated into opportunities that resulted in some
preparation for the labor force and experiential learning of some 21st-century skills such as
collaboration, digital literacy, and analysis.
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CHAPTER FIVE:
SUMMARY, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND CONCLUSION
FDI, globalization, and international economic conditions have completely transformed
the manner in which companies produce, market, and sell goods and services worldwide
(O’Hagan & Newman, 2014). For these reasons, Ireland has made significant changes in trade
agreements, educational policy, and federal and local government mandates. Since the 1990s,
often referred to as the Celtic Tiger era, Ireland has enjoyed a positive transformational shift in
industry due to its desire and ability to attract foreign direct investors and MNCs to the country.
To attract and retain foreign companies and to produce competitive domestic firms, the educa-
tional community of Ireland must expand opportunities for all students to develop 21st-century
skills in STEM through inquiry-based instructional strategies, including PBL (O’Hagan &
Newman, 2014) to meet skilled workforce requirements. Science fairs and competitions such as
Ireland’s SciFest provide opportunities for students to demonstrate their development of 21st-
century skills in STEM through a PBL curriculum (Bender, 2012; Capraro et al., 2013).
This study was designed to collect data from various stakeholders in and around the Irish
education system, including students, school staff, business leaders, political leaders, and policy-
makers. The collection of data allowed the researcher to create meaning based on the perspec-
tives of the participants associated with Ireland’s educational system. Data were collected using
surveys, interviews, and observations at school sites, at SciFest, and in and around businesses
and offices in Ireland.
Chapter One presented an overview of the study, including an introduction of the research
questions, a statement of the problem and purpose, discussion of limitations, and definitions of
terms used in the study. The research questions were developed to understand the role of STEM
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and 21st-century skills from the perspectives of participants. The study further examined the role
of science and technology fairs in the curriculum and the interaction between the regular class-
room and these national competitive events. Finally, the study examined participants’ perspec-
tives on science and technology fairs in relation to possible career pursuits and students’ choices
in their advanced Senior Cycle.
Chapter Two presented a comprehensive review of related literature. The cornerstone of
the literature review were the four sources that provided the conceptual framework for the study.
The first element of the framework was work by Friedman (2007), who depicted the worldwide
movement of globalization and the driving need for citizens who are equipped with skills to
facilitate closer borders and a flattening global market. The main concepts offered by Spring
(2015) were discussed: (a) the development of a uniform global education culture sharing similar
goals, educational practices, and organizations; (b) similarity of national school systems as a
result of the adoption of a Western model of the nation state that requires mass education; (c) a
common educational ladder and curriculum organization; and (d) global uniformity of schooling
that provides entrance into the global economy. The third area of the theoretical framework was
work by Wagner (2008). Wagner identified a number of areas that a student must develop to
become equipped with 21st-century skills: critical thinking and problem solving; collaboration
and leadership; agility and adaptability; initiative and entrepreneurialism; effective oral and
written communication; the ability to access and analyze information; the ability to have and use
curiosity and imagination; and incorporation of play, passion, and purpose. Finally, the work of
Slough and Milam (2013) provided a practitioner-level component to the framework as STEM
and PBL were examined in terms of instructional method and their overall contributions to the
global economy.
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In addition to the theoretical framework outlined in Chapter Two, the review of literature
provided an historic background on the development of Ireland’s educational system from the
church era to modern times, as well as an overview of the nation’s economic history and the
processes of becoming a globalized market. The final area of the review of literature was the
analysis of the research literature in the areas of STEM, 21st-century skills, science and technol-
ogy fairs, and generalized educational studies.
Chapter Three presented the methodology of the study, including elements such as the
participants, setting, instrumentation, research design, data collection procedures, data analysis
procedures, and ethical considerations in relation to the implemented procedures. As the primary
instrument in data collection, the researcher instrument in data collection, used Irish schools, a
SciFest science fair, and other offices and businesses throughout Ireland as the setting for data
collection. In order to collect and triangulate the most authentic and contextualized data,
surveys, interviews, and observations were conducted.
Chapter Four revisited each of the research questions and outlined data collected during
the study in terms of identified themes related to each of the questions. This analysis of data
consisted of a coded frequency analysis of specific survey items, samples of interview transcrip-
tions, a summary of thematic findings from participants in the interview setting, and a discussion
of findings from the observation protocols from both classrooms and a SciFest science and
technology fair competition. Following the discussion of each theme, conclusions were drawn
for each of the study’s three research questions.
Chapter Five provides a summary of the previous chapters and presents implications for
current practice and recommendations for future research.
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The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of globalization and educational
policy on the curriculum and instructional practices in the schools of Ireland. The study also
examined how science and technology fairs have influenced the use of inquiry-based instruc-
tional strategies such as PBL by teachers in the classroom to prepare students for a 21st-century
workforce in STEM fields. Three research questions were formulated using the Friedman’s
(2007) framework on globalization, Slough and Milam's (2013) instructional design principles of
STEM and 21st-century education, Spring’s (2015) impact of globalization on education, and
Wagner’s (2008) survival skills for the 21st-century skills:
1. How have globalization and MNCs influenced educational policy in the area of
STEM education and the development of 21st-century skills?
2. How have science and technology competitions, such as SciFest, influenced develop-
ment of 21st-century skills through the use of inquiry-based instructional strategies in STEM?
3. How has participation in science and technology competitions, such as SciFest,
influenced students’ interest in and selection of STEM-related courses in Senior Cycle, as well as
their pursuit of college- and/or career-related STEM fields?
Summary of Findings
Seven themes emerged related to the study’s three research questions. This section
presents a summary and discussion of the study’s findings in relation to current practice.
Research Question 1
The aim of Research Question 1 was to understand how the presence of MNCs in Ireland
and the impact of globalization on the economy influence policies in the field of education and
adjustments in STEM and 21st-century skill development. Three findings emerged from the data
collected from the literature, surveys, interviews, and surveys.
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The initial finding related to Research Question 1 was that STEM education and the
development of 21st-century skills are important for economic growth. This finding was consis-
tent with the work by Wagner (2008), who discussed methods in which schools and society can
combat a stagnation of student growth and development in a knowledge-based economy.
Wagner identified seven survival skills for the 21st-century: (a) critical thinking and problem-
solving abilities, (b) collaboration across networks, (c) agility and adaptability, (d) initiative and
entrepreneurship, (e) effective oral and written communication, (f) accessing and analyzing
information, and (g) curiosity and imagination.
In comparison to other survey questions, responses to survey items linked to Research
Question 1 revealed the highest level of agreement among all stakeholder groups relating to their
viewpoint on the importance of STEM education and the development of 21st-century skills.
Interviews of stakeholders, including students, school staff, business and political leaders, and
educational policymakers, all reflected the findings from the survey data. The interview process
indicated a strong belief that STEM and 21st-century skill acquisition are essential to the eco-
nomic success of Ireland for competing in a globalized economy.
The second finding related to Research Question 1 was that globalization and the prolifer-
ation of MNCs have increased the need for STEM education in Ireland. It was noted by O’Hagan
and Newman (2014) that there is a fundamental attraction of technological giants to Ireland based
on the population’s English-speaking ability and the high level of education possessed by the
country’s graduates. Data revealed an urgent need for Ireland’s education system to provide
quality STEM education along with the development of 21st-century skills. Participant business
leaders had the strongest response in their belief that globalization and the skilled workforce
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requirements of the MNCs generate the need for students to develop 21st-century skills and
receive a STEM education.
The third finding related to Research Question 1 was evidenced by a desire for changes to
educational policy to occur to ensure that students develop 21st-century skills and receive a
STEM education, as indicated by strongly agree responses. Seventy-six percent of SACD
students responded strongly agree or agree, with no disagree or strongly disagree responses
reported (refer to Table 10 in Chapter Four). Data analysis of other stakeholder participants
suggested that educational policy and implementation in Ireland must change to meet the 21st-
century needs of MNCs. Otherwise, the Irish Republic may find itself unable to keep up with
skilled labor demands, and other nations will step up to fulfill the role—consequently putting the
country’s economic sustainability and growth model in jeopardy. Recent movement by the Irish
educational policymakers toward a change in the Junior Cycle Certificate in favor of inquiry-
based activities would seem to suggest that the requirements of MNCs are being acknowledged
but that challenges by teachers’ unions, a lack of trained teachers for inquiry-based instruction
and assessment, and resource allocation in conjunction with an ever-pressing need for more
highly skilled labor present an interesting conundrum for stakeholders. Additionally, concerns
regarding a high-stakes, “winner-take-all” points system for the Leaving Certificate will have to
be addressed if policy changes are to be comprehensive.
In summary, Ireland’s adoption of globalization as the means for national economic
growth and sustainability has obligated schools to acknowledge the necessity for development of
21st-century skills and an emphasis on STEM education. To create and expand a knowledge-
based workforce, educational policy must change to allow for the capacity building needed to
train future generations of workers. This shift in educational philosophy has been influenced by
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the need to keep Ireland competitive on a global basis as it continues to recover from the Great
Recession and prepares a knowledge-ready workforce that is equipped for the future.
Research Question 2
The first finding related to Research Question 2 was that students benefit from partici-
pation in science and technology fairs. Most stakeholder respondents had an overall high level of
agreement that there are definite benefits of students being involved in science and technology
competitions. The respondents agreed that the nature of inquiry-based learning is a valuable tool
for students to use in all of their curricular areas and an essential component for the workforce of
the future. Students who were interviewed noted that participating in science and technology
fairs made deeper connections for them to STEM education and gave them confidence to try
more rigorous subject matter.
The second finding related to Research Question 2 was that curriculum and the national
Leaving Certificate do not fully support the required skills to be successful in a science fair
competition. Data have indicated that the competing national educational priorities mandated in
Ireland’s curriculum sequence do not permit timely attention to the skills and processes of
inquiry-based foundational strategies that are necessary for students to participate in science and
technology fairs.
Findings related to Research Question 2 indicated that respondents viewed participation
in science and technology fairs as a positive and beneficial activity both for the students and for
increasing dynamic interactions in the classroom. Although there is increasing support for
science and technology fairs in Ireland in the educational system, competing factors exist. This
divide must be addressed in order for Ireland to maximize the educational opportunities for
students and to expand the powerful, knowledge-based workforce.
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Research Question 3
The first finding related to Research Question 3 was that interest in STEM and 21st-
century skills has increased as a result of science and technology fairs. Wagner (2008) listed
seven survival skills for the 21st-century: (a) critical thinking and problem-solving abilities, (b)
collaboration across networks, (c) agility and adaptability, (d) initiative and entrepreneurship, (e)
effective oral and written communication, (f) accessing and analyzing information, and (g) curi-
osity and imagination. Several of these 21st-century survival skills were found in the interview
transcripts as being a critical component of science and technology fairs.
Chapter Two provided evidence from the literature that STEM education is critical for the
advancement of a knowledge-based economy and also because educators around the globe must
understand the pressures that their students will face in the fiercely competitive environment of
the global economy and consequently adapt their curriculum and delivery technique to build a
cutting-edge workforce (Christensen et al., 2011; Spring, 2015). Many of the study participants
viewed science fair competitions as an avenue for applied and collaborative learning. Some
SACD teachers and teachers in and around Dublin noted that students who participate in science
and technology fairs are already biased toward the activity due to their prior interest in science
and/or technology.
The second finding related to Research Question 3 was that science and technology fairs
have been beneficial in preparing students for the labor force. It was noted that science and tech-
nology fairs have a positive effect on students because they equip them to enter the modern-day
labor force. Although it was noted that specific content may not be immediately present, the
capacity built by acquiring these 21st-century skills provides students with a sense of workforce
expectations in a team environment and the ability to adapt in a competitive and complex setting.
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These findings present a direction in education that not only shapes future practice for the
education of the youth but also ensures that Ireland has a role of power in the globalized econ-
omy. In order for Ireland to maintain a competitive edge, it is important that educational leaders
examine their current practices in relation to future goals.
Implications for Practice
This study examined the history of Ireland’s economy and education to understand the
current condition of both national entities. Ireland’s economy has shifted from one rooted in
agriculture and simple exports to one of cutting-edge technology led by some of the largest
names in the technology industry. Ireland’s schools have traced their roots from a dominant
Catholic entity to one with increased independence, although many school sites still maintain
their facilities on church-owned grounds (O’Donoghue & Harford, 2011). Current pressures to
remain competitive in a globalized market have led to two implications regarding the practice of
education in Ireland.
The first implication for practice by educators, policymakers, and political leaders
responds to the notion that globalization and the requirements of MNCs have increased and
continue to increase the need for STEM education and the infusion of 21st-century skills. As
suggested by Childs (2001), educational policy can begin to reflect increasingly the demands
placed on schools by industry. A majority of participants in this study expressed that 21st-
century skills and STEM education are important for the economic future of Ireland and a
globalized economy. Respondents further indicated a need to examine the summative assess-
ment systems in Ireland, as well as the point system used for university admission. One of the
most critical components is the students’ Leaving Certificate Examinations that require the
majority of classroom time to prepare for the high-stakes, gateway examination (Looney, 2006).
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Respondents indicated that these examinations do not allow teachers to spend adequate time
working with inquiry-based learning instructional activities, such as science and technology fairs.
As time continues, the conflict between inquiry-based learning requested by the MNCs and the
traditional tried and true techniques to guide students toward successful outcomes through rote
learning that is aligned with the Leaving Certificate should be addressed to ensure that students
are adequately prepared to compete in the global economy.
The second implication for practice was evident in the majority of respondents who
indicated that interest in 21st-century skills and STEM fields has increased as a result of stu-
dents’ participation in science and technology fairs (refer to Table 20 in Chapter Four). Although
some argued that science fair participants have a predisposition to interest in these contests, most
agreed that the experience draws students to the labor force in the STEM sector. As Ireland
continues to cement its place in a modern, globalized economy, it is important that more students
have opportunities to participate in science and technology fairs. Early and frequent exposure to
engaging activities that promote STEM education and the development of 21st century skills
during the formative school years will result in a more educated citizenry prepared to join a
knowledge-based workforce that can meet the requirements of the MNCs.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study’s review of literature noted gaps in the research surrounding the role of science
and technology fairs in the promotion of STEM education and students’ acquisition of 21st-
century skills. In addition to these gaps in the existing body of research, there are deficiencies in
research linking the benefits of participation in these fairs to the economic benefits to nations and
the promotion of successful MNCs. Although this study has provided data for three essential
research questions in this field, there are still gaps in the research examining the best practices to
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 161
promote economic growth and superior education for all students that will benefit them and the
country. In addition, the present study focused on the schools centered in and around Dublin
that have participated in SciFest. Although these schools and regions are rich with technology
and MNC growth, schools that are not voluntarily participating in SciFest and that are situated in
similar or other geographic regions should be more thoroughly examined to truly understand the
larger scope of possible deficiencies as well as to highlight best practices in STEM education and
the promotion of 21st-century skills (refer to Table 11 in Chapter Four).
The first recommendation for future research is to examine how the implementation of
the newly proposed changes to the Junior Cycle Certificate impacts the education received by
students and their future college and career choices. A study should be conducted in which a
pilot group of students who have the opportunity to engage in more inquiry-based strategies for
learning as a community of practice (which is a proposal of the revised Junior Cycle Certificate)
and compare them to students educated via traditional rote learning to identify the impact on the
number of students who chose STEM as their future college and career choices. The study
should be done using variables such as geographic regions throughout Ireland (rural, suburban,
and urban) and socioeconomic status, which were not considered in this research study, in order
to identify to what extent, if any, these variables play a role in capacity building. Ireland has a
capacity issue with respect to the demand for skilled labor exceeding the actual supply of skilled
labor. Irish stakeholders need to figure out how to get more students interested in STEM educa-
tion and do so quickly.
The second recommendation for further research is to explore the gender gap in STEM
education. Although not noted in this study, the researcher, through observations and interviews,
observed a significant percentage of female participants partaking in science and technology
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 162
competitions; however, it was noted by several adult stakeholders, primarily MNCs, that diver-
sity in STEM careers is an ongoing challenge. This finding suggested that participation in
science and technology competitions may be beneficial to students but is not necessarily translat-
ing into a high number of women choosing STEM for third-level education and/or future STEM
careers. There is a paucity of existing research based in Ireland on these variables, and more
study may allow for additional conclusions to be drawn about the best practices for successful
implementation of strategies to promote STEM education and the development of 21st-century
skills for all students.
Conclusion
Ireland is transforming as it moves through a state of renewal because globalization,
through the presence of MNCs, dominates a majority of the economy. In response to this global-
ized economy, Ireland’s schools have begun to increase their emphasis on the development of
21st-century skills and the enhancement of STEM curriculum (refer to Table 10 in Chapter
Four). Although there are conflicting focuses in the curriculum with the students’ Leaving
Certificate Examinations, there is noted support for and growth of science and technology fairs,
as evidenced by recent educational policy reports and stakeholder responses. Although the data
collected and analyzed in this study indicated significant support for 21st-century skills and
STEM in the classroom, along with strong agreement on the need for educational policy change,
there remained significant divergent viewpoints on how best practices should be implemented.
Together, stakeholders in Ireland acknowledged the work that must be done in and around the
classroom to maintain a competitive edge for Ireland’s economic future.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 163
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Appendix A
Recruitment Letter to Principal
Dear [CONTACT NAME],
My name is [USC STUDENT’S NAME] and I am currently [USC STUDENT’S TITLE/ POSITION],
located in the United States. I am also a doctoral student at the University of Southern California (USC)
and in April, 2016, I will travel with 15 other doctoral students from USC to Ireland as part of a research
team led by Dr. Michael Escalante.
Recently, Sheila Porter, CEO of SciFest, contacted you, or a representative at your school, to request
your participation in a 1-day study. On April 20 or 21, 2016, another doctoral student and I hope to visit
[NAME OF SCHOOL/INSTITUTION] to talk with, observe, and survey willing students, teachers, and
you.
This study’s ultimate goal is to understand how schools and SciFest are helping students to develop 21st-
century skills, particularly in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and maths (STEM). We are
interested in STEM education as a means of producing knowledge-ready workers for 21st- century jobs.
Furthermore, we aim to understand the influence of globalization and multinational corporations on
schools throughout Ireland.
The following questions will guide our research:
1. How have science and technology competitions, such as SciFest, influenced development of 21st-
century skills through the use of inquiry-based instructional strategies in STEM?
2. How has participation in science and technology competitions, such as SciFest, influenced students’
interest and selection of STEM-related courses in the senior cycle, as well as in pursuing college-
and/or career-related STEM fields?
3. How have globalization and multinational corporations influenced educational policy in the area of
STEM education and the development of 21st-century skills?
Please know that participation during our visit will be entirely voluntary, confidential, and nonevaluative.
If you would like, at the completion of the overall study, I would be more than happy to provide a copy of
the final dissertation results and conclusions report.
Thank you for considering my request and taking your valuable time to read this correspondence; without
your help, this experience would not be possible.
May I request that you reply at your convenience via email to [USC STUDENT’S EMAIL] to provide a
contact number and preferred time for me to call you to discuss details about my visit to [NAME OF
SCHOOL/INSTITUTION].
Sincerely,
[USC STUDENT’S NAME]
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 175
Appendix B
Political Leader/Educational Policymaker Interview Protocol
Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Information:
Length of Time in Your Position
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]
During this conversation, we hope to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your experiences
with regard to changes in the education system in Ireland. This study’s ultimate goal is to
understand how schools and SciFest are helping students to develop 21st-century skills. These
21st-century skills may be defined as skills that students need to compete in a global workforce
and economy, including critical thinking, collaboration, adaptability, initiative, effective oral and
written communication skills, ability to access and analyze information, and curiosity and
imagination. We are particularly interested in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and
maths (STEM).
Your comments will remain confidential. We would like to record this interview to ensure the
accuracy of our conversation. The recording will be used only by our research team to review
responses and to provide an opportunity to code themes among the various respondents. The
information recorded will never be made public by any means. Do we have your consent to
record?
This interview will last approximately 45 minutes. Do you have any questions before we begin?
I. Influence of Globalization and Multinational Corporations on Educational Policy,
STEM, and Development of 21st-Century Skills
1. What is your opinion of the importance of science, technology, engineering, and maths
education, or STEM, and 21st-century skills development?
2. Describe changes in educational policy that have occurred as a result of globalization in
Ireland.
3. How has the influence of multinational corporations (MNCs) created an increased need for
students to acquire 21st-century skills, particularly those in STEM fields?
4. What should be the role of MNCs and other business and industry in promoting STEM and
21st-century skills development in schools in Ireland?
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 176
5. How can STEM education help Ireland’s economic future, if at all?
6. What is the importance of 21st-century skill development and its influence on the economic
future of Ireland?
7. Some people say that, to promote development of 21st-century skills and STEM education,
current educational policy in Ireland must change. How would you respond to that?
II. Influence of Science and Technology Competitions (SciFest) on Development of 21st-
Century Skills and the Use of STEM and Inquiry-Based Learning Strategies
1. What has been your experience with the science and technology competitions, such as
SciFest?
2. How do science and technology competitions affect teaching practices in science?
3. How do science and technology competitions affect STEM curriculum?
4. What strategies should be employed to prepare students for science and technology competi-
tions?
5. How do science and technology competitions affect or promote the use of inquiry-based
instructional strategies?
6. How do science and technology competitions affect or promote the use of technology in
schools?
7. How will science and technology competitions influence change in the educational system
in Ireland?
III. Influence of Science Competitions (SciFest) on Students Pursuing STEM-Related
Subjects in Senior Cycle and/or in College and/or a STEM-Related Career
1. Have you noticed changes in interest in STEM-related fields by students who participate in
science and technology competitions? How about teachers? Educational leaders?
2. How do science and technology competitions affect student interest in continuing their study
in STEM fields in senior cycle and/or in college, if at all?
3. How do science and technology competitions affect student preparedness for STEM-related
career fields, if at all?
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 177
Appendix C
Business and Industry (MNCs) Interview Protocol
Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Information:
Length of Time in Your Position:
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]
During this conversation, we hope to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your experiences
with regard to changes in the education system in Ireland. This study’s ultimate goal is to under-
stand how schools and SciFest are helping students to develop 21st-century skills. These 21st-
century skills may be defined as skills that students need to compete in a global workforce and
economy, including critical thinking, collaboration, adaptability, initiative, effective oral and
written communication skills, ability to access and analyze information, and curiosity and imagi-
nation. We are particularly interested in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and maths
(STEM).
Your comments will remain confidential. We would like to record this interview to ensure the
accuracy of our conversation. The recording will be used only by our research team to review
responses and to provide an opportunity to code themes among the various respondents. The
information recorded will never be made public by any means. Do we have your consent to
record?
This interview will last approximately 45 minutes. Do you have any questions before we begin?
I. Influence of Globalization and Multinational Corporations on Educational Policy,
STEM, and Development of 21st-Century Skills
1. What is your opinion of the importance of science, technology, engineering, and maths
education, or STEM, and 21st-century skills development?
2. Describe changes in educational policy that have occurred as a result of globalization in
Ireland.
3. How has the influence of multinational corporations (MNCs) created an increased need for
students to acquire 21st-century skills, particularly those in STEM fields?
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 178
4. What should be the role of MNCs and other business and industry in promoting STEM and
21st-century skills development in schools in Ireland?
5. How can STEM education help Ireland’s economic future, if at all?
6. What is the importance of 21st-century skill development and its influence on the economic
future of Ireland?
7. Some people say that to promote development of 21st-century skills and STEM education,
current educational policy in Ireland must change. How would you respond to that?
II. Influence of Science and Technology Competitions (SciFest) on Development of 21st-
Century Skills and the Use of STEM and Inquiry-Based Learning Strategies
1. What has been your experience with the science and technology competitions, such as
SciFest?
2. How do science and technology competitions affect teaching practices in science?
3. How do science and technology competitions affect STEM curriculum?
4. What strategies should be employed to prepare students for science and technology competi-
tions?
5. How do science and technology competitions affect or promote the use of inquiry-based
instructional strategies?
6. How do science and technology competitions affect or promote the use of technology in
schools?
7. How will science and technology competitions influence change in the educational system
in Ireland?
III. Influence of Science Competitions (SciFest) on Students Pursuing STEM-Related
Subjects in Senior Cycle and/or in College and/or a STEM-Related Career
1. Have you noticed changes in interest in STEM-related fields by students who participate in
science and technology competitions? How about teachers? Educational leaders?
2. How do science and technology competitions affect student interest in continuing their study
in STEM fields in senior cycle and/or in college, if at all?
3. How do science and technology competitions affect student preparedness for STEM-related
career fields, if at all?
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 179
Appendix D
School Leader Interview Protocol
Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Information:
Length of Time in Your Position:
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]
During this conversation, we hope to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your experiences
with regard to changes in the education system in Ireland. This study’s ultimate goal is to under-
stand how schools and SciFest are helping students to develop 21st-century skills. These 21st-
century skills may be defined as skills that students need to compete in a global workforce and
economy, including critical thinking, collaboration, adaptability, initiative, effective oral and
written communication skills, ability to access and analyze information, and curiosity and imagi-
nation. We are particularly interested in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and maths
(STEM).
Your comments will remain confidential. We would like to record this interview to ensure the
accuracy of our conversation. The recording will be used only by our research team to review
responses and to provide an opportunity to code themes among the various respondents. The
information recorded will never be made public by any means. Do we have your consent to
record?
This interview will last approximately 45 minutes. Do you have any questions before we begin?
I. Influence of Globalization and Multinational Corporations on Educational Policy,
STEM, and Development of 21st-Century Skills
1. What is your opinion of the importance of science, technology, engineering, and maths
education, or STEM, and 21st-century skills development?
2. Describe changes in educational policy that have occurred as a result of globalization in
Ireland.
3. How has the influence of multinational corporations (MNCs) created an increased need for
students to acquire 21st-century skills, particularly those in STEM fields?
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 180
4. What should be the role of MNCs and other business and industry in promoting STEM and
21st-century skills development in schools in Ireland?
5. How can STEM education help Ireland’s economic future, if at all?
6. What is the importance of 21st-century skill development and its influence on the economic
future of Ireland?
7. Some people say that to promote development of 21st-century skills and STEM education,
current educational policy in Ireland must change. How would you respond to that?
II. Influence of Science and Technology Competitions (SciFest) on Development of 21st-
Century Skills and the Use of STEM and Inquiry-Based Learning Strategies
1. What has been your school’s experience with the science and technology competitions, such
as SciFest?
2. How has SciFest affected teaching practices in science at your school, if at all?
3. How has SciFest affected STEM curriculum at your school, if at all?
4. What strategies are employed to prepare students for SciFest at your school?
5. How has SciFest affected or promoted use of inquiry-based instructional strategies at your
school, if at all?
6. How has SciFest affected or promoted the use of technology at your school, if at all?
7. How has SciFest influenced change in the educational system in Ireland, if at all?
III. Influence of Science Competitions (SciFest) on Students Pursuing STEM-Related
Subjects in Senior Cycle and/or in College and/or a STEM-Related Career
1. What changes have you noticed in interest in STEM-related fields by students who partici-
pate in science and technology competitions, if any? How about teachers interest in STEM-
related fields? Educational leaders’ interest in STEM-related fields?
2. How has SciFest affected student interest in continuing their study in STEM fields in Senior
Cycle and/or in college, if at all?
3. How has SciFest affected student preparedness for STEM-related career fields, if at all?
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 181
Appendix E
Teacher Interview Protocol
Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Information:
Length of Time in Your Position:
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]
During this conversation, we hope to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your experiences
with regard to changes in the education system in Ireland. This study’s ultimate goal is to under-
stand how schools and SciFest are helping students to develop 21st-century skills. These 21st-
century skills may be defined as skills that students need to compete in a global workforce and
economy, including critical thinking, collaboration, adaptability, initiative, effective oral and
written communication skills, ability to access and analyze information, and curiosity and imagi-
nation. We are particularly interested in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and maths
(STEM).
Your comments will remain confidential. We would like to record this interview to ensure the
accuracy of our conversation. The recording will be used only by our research team to review
responses and to provide an opportunity to code themes among the various respondents. The
information recorded will never be made public by any means. Do we have your consent to
record?
This interview will last approximately 45 minutes. Do you have any questions before we begin?
I. Influence of Globalization and Multinational Corporations on Educational Policy,
STEM, and Development of 21st-Century Skills
1. What is your opinion of the importance of science, technology, engineering, and maths
education, or STEM, and 21st-century skills development?
2. Are you aware of any changes in educational policy that have occurred as a result of global-
ization in Ireland?
3. How has the influence of multinational corporations (MNCs) created an increased need for
students to acquire 21st-century skills, particularly those in STEM fields?
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 182
4. What should be the role of MNCs and other business and industry in promoting STEM and
21st-century skills development in schools in Ireland?
5. How can STEM education help Ireland’s economic future, if at all?
6. What is the importance of 21st-century skill development and its influence on the economic
future of Ireland?
7. Some people say that to promote development of 21st-century skills and STEM education,
current educational policy in Ireland must change. How would you respond to that?
II. Influence of Science and Technology Competitions (SciFest) on Development of 21st-
Century Skills and the Use of STEM and Inquiry-Based Learning Strategies
1. What has been your school’s experience with science and technology fairs, such as SciFest?
2. How has SciFest affected teaching practices in science, if at all?
3. How has SciFest affected STEM curriculum in your classroom, if at all?
4. What strategies are employed to prepare students for SciFest at your school and in your
classroom?
5. How has SciFest affected or promoted the use of inquiry-based instructional strategies at
your school and in your classroom, if at all?
6. How has SciFest affected or promoted the use of technology at your school?
7. How has SciFest influenced change in the educational system in Ireland, if at all?
III. Influence of Science Competitions (SciFest) on Students’ Pursuit of STEM-Related
Subjects in Senior Cycle and/or in College and/or a STEM-Related Career
1. What changes have you noticed in the interest in STEM-related fields in students who
participate in SciFest, if any? How about teachers? Educational leaders?
2. How has SciFest affected student interest in continuing study in STEM in Senior Cycle
and/or in college, if at all?
3. How has SciFest affected student preparedness for STEM-related career fields, if at all?
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 183
Appendix F
Student Interview Protocol
Interviewer: Date:
Interviewee: Location:
Job Title: Contact Information:
Length of Time in Your Position:
Start Time: End Time:
Introduction:
[Introduce yourself and your affiliation.]
During this conversation, we hope to learn more about [insert affiliation] and your experiences
with regard to changes in the education system in Ireland. This study’s ultimate goal is to under-
stand how schools and SciFest are helping students to develop 21st-century skills. These 21st-
century skills may be defined as skills that students need to compete in a global workforce and
economy, including critical thinking, collaboration, adaptability, initiative, effective oral and
written communication skills, ability to access and analyze information, and curiosity and imagi-
nation. We are particularly interested in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and maths
(STEM).
Your comments will remain confidential. We would like to record this interview to ensure the
accuracy of our conversation. The recording will be used only by our research team to review
responses and to provide an opportunity to code themes among the various respondents. The
information recorded will never be made public by any means. Do we have your consent to
record?
This interview will last approximately 45 minutes. Do you have any questions before we begin?
I. Influence of Globalization and Multinational Corporations on Educational Policy,
STEM, and Development of 21st-Century Skills
1. What is your opinion of the importance of science, technology, engineering, and maths
education, or STEM, and 21st-century skills development?
2. How has globalization and multinational corporations [may need to explain these concepts]
in Ireland affected what is taught and what is expected from you, if at all?
3. How has the influence of multinational corporations (MNCs) created an increased need for
you to acquire 21st-century skills, particularly those in STEM fields?
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 184
4. What should be the role of MNCs and other business and industry in promoting STEM and
21st-century skills development in schools in Ireland?
5. How can STEM education help Ireland’s economic future, if at all?
6. What is the importance of 21st-century skill development and its influence on the economic
future of Ireland?
7. Some people say that to promote development of 21st-century skills and STEM education,
current educational policy in Ireland must change. Based on your experience as a student,
how would you respond to that?
II. Influence of Science and Technology Competitions (SciFest) on Development of 21st-
Century Skills and the Use of STEM and Inquiry-Based Learning Strategies
1. What has been your experience with SciFest?
2. How have your science lessons prepared you for SciFest? What about lessons in other
subjects?
3. Have any particular classroom or laboratory activities been helpful in preparing you for
SciFest?
4. How do your teachers help you to prepare for SciFest?
5. What are some examples of inquiry-based lessons that you have had in any of your subjects
[may need to explain this concept]?
6. To what extent has SciFest affected or promoted your use of technology in your courses?
7. How has SciFest influenced change in the educational system throughout Ireland, if at all?
III. Influence of Science Competitions (SciFest) on Students’ Pursuit of STEM-Related
Subjects in Senior Cycle and/or in College and/or a STEM-Related Career
1. What changes have you noticed in the interest in STEM-related fields in students who
participate in SciFest, if any? How about teachers or principals?
2. How has SciFest affected your interest in continuing your study in STEM in Senior Cycle
and/or in college, if at all?
3. How has SciFest affected your interest and preparedness for a STEM-related career field, if
at all?
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 185
Appendix G
Classroom Observation Protocol
Date: Location of Observation:
Teacher Observed: Time of Observation:
Class Size (total students): Males Females
Class Title and Grade Level:
DESCRIPTION/DIAGRAM OF
CLASSROOM
! Position of student desks
! Position of teacher’s desk
! Whiteboard
! Grouping of students
! Technology
! Tables, computers, shelves
! Wall displays, decorations
* Reflection on how physical
space promotes 21st-century
skills
FRONT OF CLASSROOM
Overview of Lesson (Learning Objective for the Day):
Instructional Materials Used:
Additional Classroom Information:
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 186
21st-Century Skills
(Wagner, 2008)
STEM/Inquiry-
Based (Slough &
Milam (2013)
Actions and Comments
Observed Observer Comments
Critical Thinking and
Problem Solving
Making Content
Accessible
Collaborating Across
Networks
Making Thinking
Visible
Agility and Adapt-
ability
Helping Students
Learn From Oth-
ers
Initiative and Entre-
preneurialism
Promoting Au-
tonomy and Life-
long Learning
Effective Oral and
Written Communica-
tion
Accessing and Ana-
lyzing Information
Curiosity and Imagi-
nation
Other Observations
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 187
Reflection Questions:
1. RQ1: To what extent do STEM curriculum and 21st-century skills development exist?
2. RQ2: To what extent does the teacher utilize elements of SciFest in the curriculum?
3. RQ2: To what extent are 21st-century skills embedded in the lesson and/or instructional
strategy?
4. RQ2: What is the teacher’s role in the learning process?
5. RQ2: What is the evidence that inquiry-based learning strategies exist?
6. RQ2: How does student-led conversation influence participation in class?
7. RQ2: How is technology used in the classroom?
8. RQ3: To what extent is the teacher (student) engaged in the STEM curriculum?
9. Are there additional questions for the teacher?
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 188
Appendix H
SciFest Observation Protocol
Date: Location of Fair:
Time of Observation:
Number of Students Participating: Males Females
DESCRIPTION/DIAGRAM OF
FAIR
! Position of student projects
! Grouping of students/themes
! Technology
! Tables, computers
! Wall displays, decorations
* Reflection on how physical
space promotes 21st-century
skills
FRONT OF FAIR
Overview of Events/Themes:
Additional SciFest Information:
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 189
21st-Century Skills
(Wagner, 2008)
STEM/Inquiry-
Based (Slough &
Milam (2013)
Actions and Comments
Observed Observer Comments
Critical Thinking and
Problem Solving
Making Content
Accessible
Collaborating Across
Networks
Making Thinking
Visible
Agility and Adapt-
ability
Helping Students
Learn From Oth-
ers
Initiative and Entre-
preneurialism
Promoting Au-
tonomy and Life-
long Learning
Effective Oral and
Written Communica-
tion
Accessing and Ana-
lyzing Information
Curiosity and Imagi-
nation
Other Observations
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 190
Reflection Questions:
1. RQ1: To what extent do STEM curriculum and 21st-century skills development exist?
2. RQ2: To what extent does the teacher utilize elements of SciFest in the curriculum?
3. RQ2: To what extent are 21st-century skills embedded in the lesson and/or instructional strategy?
4. RQ2: What is the teacher’s role in the learning process?
5. RQ2: What is the evidence that inquiry-based learning strategies exist?
6. RQ2: How does student-led conversation influence participation in class?
7. RQ2: How is technology used in the classroom?
8. RQ3: To what extent is the teacher (student) engaged in the STEM curriculum?
9. Are there additional questions for the teacher?
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 191
Appendix I
Survey Protocol for School Administrator or Teacher
Date: Location of Survey:
Select One: School Administrator Teacher
Directions: Please read the terms and definitions below prior to proceeding to the questions. Once you
have read the terms and definitions, proceed to survey items 1–22 and rate your opinion next to each
statement.
STEM: Science, Technology, Engineering, and Maths.
21st-Century Skills: Skills that students need to compete in a global workforce and economy, including
critical thinking, collaboration, adaptability, initiative, effective oral and written communication skills,
ability to access and analyze information, and curiosity and imagination.
Inquiry-Based Learning: A teaching method in which students gain knowledge and skills by working
for an extended period of time to investigate and respond to an engaging and complex question, problem,
or challenge.
MNC: Multinational corporation.
Globalization: The increased interaction and integration of multinational companies from other coun-
tries and their influence on education and policy in Ireland (Ex., Intel).
SA = Strongly Agree; A = Agree; N = Neutral; D = Disagree; SD = Strongly Disagree; DK = Don’t Know
1. STEM education is important. SA A N D SD DK
2. The development of 21st-century skills is important. SA A N D SD DK
3. Globalization has influenced the demand for STEM education
and the development of 21st-century skills. SA A N D SD DK
4. MNCs have influenced the demand for STEM education and
development of 21st-century skills. SA A N D SD DK
5. MNCs should support and promote STEM education and the
development of 21st-century skills in schools in Ireland. SA A N D SD DK
6. STEM education and 21st-century skill development are
important to the economic future of Ireland. SA A N D SD DK
7. Changes to current educational policy in Ireland should occur
to ensure that students development 21st-century skills and
receive a STEM education. SA A N D SD DK
8. Science and technology fairs positively influence participation
in STEM education and development of 21st-century skills. SA A N D SD DK
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 192
9. Science and technology fairs have positively increased the
use of inquiry-based learning as an instructional strategy. SA A N D SD DK
10. Schools prepare students well for science and technology fairs. SA A N D SD DK
11. Science curriculum prepares students for participation in
science and technology fairs. SA A N D SD DK
12. Science and technology fairs promote the use of technology
in schools. SA A N D SD DK
13. Students benefit from participating in science and technology
fairs. SA A N D SD DK
14. As a result of science and technology fairs, there has been an
increase in teachers’ knowledge of STEM education. SA A N D SD DK
15. Teachers benefit by participating in science and technology
fairs. SA A N D SD DK
16. Educational leaders benefit by promoting participation in
science and technology competitions. SA A N D SD DK
17. Science and technology fairs have improved the educational
system in Ireland. SA A N D SD DK
18. Science and technology fairs have been beneficial in preparing
students for Senior Cycle education. SA A N D SD DK
19. Science and technology fairs have been beneficial in preparing
students for the labour force. SA A N D SD DK
20. Interest in STEM and the development of 21st-century skills
has increased as a result of science and technology fairs. SA A N D SD DK
21. Students who participated in science and technology fairs show
increased interest in studying STEM-related subjects in Senior
Cycle. SA A N D SD DK
22. Students who participated in science and technology fairs show
increased interest in studying STEM-related fields in college. SA A N D SD DK
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 193
Appendix J
Survey Protocol for Political Leader or Business Leader
Date: Location of Survey:
Select One: Political Leader Business Leader
Directions: Please read the terms and definitions below prior to proceeding to the questions. Once you
have read the terms and definitions, proceed to survey items 1–22 and rate your opinion next to each
statement.
STEM: Science, Technology, Engineering, and Maths.
21st-Century Skills: Skills that students need to compete in a global workforce and economy, including
critical thinking, collaboration, adaptability, initiative, effective oral and written communication skills,
ability to access and analyze information, and curiosity and imagination.
Inquiry-Based Learning: A teaching method in which students gain knowledge and skills by working
for an extended period of time to investigate and respond to an engaging and complex question, problem,
or challenge.
MNC: Multinational corporation.
Globalization: The increased interaction and integration of multinational companies from other coun-
tries and their influence on education and policy in Ireland (Ex., Intel).
SA = Strongly Agree; A = Agree; N = Neutral; D = Disagree; SD = Strongly Disagree; DK = Don’t Know
1. STEM education is important. SA A N D SD DK
2. The development of 21st-century skills is important. SA A N D SD DK
3. Globalization has influenced the demand for STEM education
and the development of 21st-century skills. SA A N D SD DK
4. MNCs have influenced the demand for STEM education and
development of 21st-century skills. SA A N D SD DK
5. MNCs should support and promote STEM education and the
development of 21st-century skills in schools in Ireland. SA A N D SD DK
6. STEM education and 21st-century skill development are
important to the economic future of Ireland. SA A N D SD DK
7. Changes to current educational policy in Ireland should occur
to ensure that students development 21st-century skills and
receive a STEM education. SA A N D SD DK
8. Science and technology fairs positively influence participation
in STEM education and development of 21st-century skills. SA A N D SD DK
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 194
9. Science and technology fairs have positively increased the
use of inquiry-based learning as an instructional strategy. SA A N D SD DK
10. Schools prepare students well for science and technology fairs. SA A N D SD DK
11. Science curriculum prepares students for participation in
science and technology fairs. SA A N D SD DK
12. Science and technology fairs promote the use of technology
in schools. SA A N D SD DK
13. Students benefit from participating in science and technology
fairs. SA A N D SD DK
14. As a result of science and technology fairs, there has been an
increase in teachers’ knowledge of STEM education. SA A N D SD DK
15. Teachers benefit by participating in science and technology
fairs. SA A N D SD DK
16. Educational leaders benefit by promoting participation in
science and technology competitions. SA A N D SD DK
17. Science and technology fairs have improved the educational
system in Ireland. SA A N D SD DK
18. Science and technology fairs have been beneficial in preparing
students for Senior Cycle education. SA A N D SD DK
19. Science and technology fairs have been beneficial in preparing
students for the labour force. SA A N D SD DK
20. Interest in STEM and the development of 21st-century skills
has increased as a result of science and technology fairs. SA A N D SD DK
21. Students who participated in science and technology fairs show
increased interest in studying STEM-related subjects in Senior
Cycle. SA A N D SD DK
22. Students who participated in science and technology fairs show
increased interest in studying STEM-related fields in college. SA A N D SD DK
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 195
Appendix K
Survey Protocol for Educational Policymaker
Date: Location of Survey:
Title:
Directions: Please read the terms and definitions below prior to proceeding to the questions. Once you
have read the terms and definitions, proceed to survey items 1–22 and rate your opinion next to each
statement.
STEM: Science, Technology, Engineering, and Maths.
21st-Century Skills: Skills that students need to compete in a global workforce and economy, including
critical thinking, collaboration, adaptability, initiative, effective oral and written communication skills,
ability to access and analyze information, and curiosity and imagination.
Inquiry-Based Learning: A teaching method in which students gain knowledge and skills by working
for an extended period of time to investigate and respond to an engaging and complex question, problem,
or challenge.
MNC: Multinational corporation.
Globalization: The increased interaction and integration of multinational companies from other coun-
tries and their influence on education and policy in Ireland (Ex., Intel).
SA = Strongly Agree; A = Agree; N = Neutral; D = Disagree; SD = Strongly Disagree; DK = Don’t Know
1. STEM education is important. SA A N D SD DK
2. The development of 21st-century skills is important. SA A N D SD DK
3. Globalization has influenced the demand for STEM education
and the development of 21st-century skills. SA A N D SD DK
4. MNCs have influenced the demand for STEM education and
development of 21st-century skills. SA A N D SD DK
5. MNCs should support and promote STEM education and the
development of 21st-century skills in schools in Ireland. SA A N D SD DK
6. STEM education and 21st-century skill development are
important to the economic future of Ireland. SA A N D SD DK
7. Changes to current educational policy in Ireland should occur
to ensure that students development 21st-century skills and
receive a STEM education. SA A N D SD DK
8. Science and technology fairs positively influence participation
in STEM education and development of 21st-century skills. SA A N D SD DK
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 196
9. Science and technology fairs have positively increased the
use of inquiry-based learning as an instructional strategy. SA A N D SD DK
10. Schools prepare students well for science and technology fairs. SA A N D SD DK
11. Science curriculum prepares students for participation in
science and technology fairs. SA A N D SD DK
12. Science and technology fairs promote the use of technology
in schools. SA A N D SD DK
13. Students benefit from participating in science and technology
fairs. SA A N D SD DK
14. As a result of science and technology fairs, there has been an
increase in teachers’ knowledge of STEM education. SA A N D SD DK
15. Teachers benefit by participating in science and technology
fairs. SA A N D SD DK
16. Educational leaders benefit by promoting participation in
science and technology competitions. SA A N D SD DK
17. Science and technology fairs have improved the educational
system in Ireland. SA A N D SD DK
18. Science and technology fairs have been beneficial in preparing
students for Senior Cycle education. SA A N D SD DK
19. Science and technology fairs have been beneficial in preparing
students for the labour force. SA A N D SD DK
20. Interest in STEM and the development of 21st-century skills
has increased as a result of science and technology fairs. SA A N D SD DK
21. Students who participated in science and technology fairs show
increased interest in studying STEM-related subjects in Senior
Cycle. SA A N D SD DK
22. Students who participated in science and technology fairs show
increased interest in studying STEM-related fields in college. SA A N D SD DK
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 197
Appendix L
Survey Protocol for Student Participant in SciFest
Date: School:
Directions: Please read the terms and definitions below prior to proceeding to the questions. Once you
have read the terms and definitions, proceed to survey items 1–22 and rate your opinion next to each
statement.
STEM: Science, Technology, Engineering, and Maths.
21st-Century Skills: Skills that students need to compete in a global workforce and economy, including
critical thinking, collaboration, adaptability, initiative, effective oral and written communication skills,
ability to access and analyze information, and curiosity and imagination.
Inquiry-Based Learning: A teaching method in which students gain knowledge and skills by working
for an extended period of time to investigate and respond to an engaging and complex question, problem,
or challenge.
MNC: Multinational corporation.
Globalization: The increased interaction and integration of multinational companies from other coun-
tries and their influence on education and policy in Ireland (Ex., Intel).
1. Have you taken part in a SciFest@School science fair: Yes No
2. Have you taken part in a SciFest@College science fair: Yes No
SA = Strongly Agree; A = Agree; N = Neutral; D = Disagree; SD = Strongly Disagree; DK = Don’t Know
3. STEM education is important. SA A N D SD DK
4. The development of 21st-century skills is important. SA A N D SD DK
5. Globalization has influenced the demand for STEM education
and the development of 21st-century skills. SA A N D SD DK
6. MNCs have influenced the demand for STEM education and
development of 21st-century skills. SA A N D SD DK
7. MNCs (businesses) should support and promote STEM education
and development of 21st-century skills in schools in Ireland. SA A N D SD DK
8. STEM education and 21st-century skill development are
important to the economic future of Ireland. SA A N D SD DK
9. Changes to current educational policy in Ireland should occur
to ensure that students development 21st-century skills and
receive a STEM education. SA A N D SD DK
10. Science and technology fairs positively influence my participa-
tion in STEM education and my development of 21st-century
skills. SA A N D SD DK
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 198
11. I have teachers who use inquiry-based learning as a teaching
method. SA A N D SD DK
12. My science courses have prepared me well for the SciFest
science and technology fair. SA A N D SD DK
13. My school prepared me well for the SciFest science and
technology fair. SA A N D SD DK
14. Technology was an important part of my preparation for the
SciFest science and technology fairs. SA A N D SD DK
15. Students benefit from participating in science and technology
fairs. SA A N D SD DK
16. As a result of science and technology fairs, my teachers have
a better knowledge of STEM education. SA A N D SD DK
17. My teachers benefit by participating in science and technology
fairs. SA A N D SD DK
18. Educational leaders benefit by promoting participation in
science and technology fairs. SA A N D SD DK
19. The SciFest science and technology fairs have improved the
educational system in Ireland. SA A N D SD DK
20. The SciFest science and technology fairs have been beneficial
in preparing students for Senior Cycle education. SA A N D SD DK
21. The SciFest science and technology fairs have been beneficial
in preparing me for the labour force. SA A N D SD DK
22. My interest in STEM and the development of 21st-century skills
has increased as a result of the SciFest science and technology
fairs. SA A N D SD DK
23. After participating in the SciFest science and technology fair,
I have increased interest in studying STEM-related subjects in
Senior Cycle. SA A N D SD DK
24. After participating in the SciFest science and technology fair,
I have increased interest in studying a STEM-related field in
college. SA A N D SD DK
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 199
Appendix M
Information/Fact Sheet for Exempt Nonmedical Research
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089
THE INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION, ECONOMICS, AND EDUCATIONAL POLICY
ON DEVELOPMENT OF 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS AND EDUCATION IN SCIENCE,
TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING, AND MATHEMATICS EDUCATION THROUGH
PROJECT-BASED LEARNING AND SCIENCE
You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who vol-
untarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should
ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to examine the influence of globalization and educational policy on
the curriculum and instructional practices in schools in Ireland. The study will also examine how
science fairs and competitions influence the use of inquiry-based instructional strategies, such as
project-based learning (PBL), by teachers in the classroom to prepare students for a 21st-century
workforce in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM).
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a 15-minute survey, a
45-minute audiotaped interview, a 45-minute classroom observation, and/or a 10-minute SciFest
observation. You do not have to answer any questions that you don’t want to answer.
ALTERNATIVES TO PARTICIPATION
You may elect to participate in the interview process and not be audio recorded. You may elect
not to participate at all. Your relationship with your school/employer will not be affected by
whether or not you participate in this study.
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 200
CONFIDENTIALITY
Survey and observation data will be anonymous for all groups. Interview protocols for teachers,
principals, and students will collect identifiers. However, any identifiable information obtained
in connection with this study will remain confidential. Responses will be coded with a false
name (pseudonym) and maintained separately. The audio tapes will be destroyed once they have
been transcribed. Interview protocols for business leaders, government officials, and educational
policymakers will collect identifiers (participant names/job titles/time in position, and contact
information), but only names and titles will be identifiable in the study. The audio tapes will be
destroyed once they have been transcribed.
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, only the above-
mentioned identifiable information will be used. Aggregate reports of findings will be shared
with SciFest and school site participants upon request.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Principal Investigator:
Dr. Michael Escalante, University of Southern California, mescalan@usc.edumailto:mescalan@usc.edu;
mailto:mescalan@usc.edu
Co-investigators:
Kevin Hryciw, Assistant Superintendent, Arcadia Unified School District, hryciw@usc.edu
Alejandro Alvarez, Deputy Superintendent, Compton Unified School District, alva332@usc.edu
Colleen Hawkins, Assistant Superintendent, Compton Unified School District, chawkin@usc.edu
Arthur Cunha, Assistant Superintendent, Temple City Unified School District, acunha@usc.edu
Mathew Holton, Superintendent, Chaffey Joint Union High School District, mgholton@usc.edu
Owen Crosby, Assistant Superintendent, Huntington Beach Union High School District, crosby@usc.edu
Paul Gothold, Superintendent, Lynwood Unified School District, pgothold@usc.edu
Darin Brawley, Superintendent, Compton Unified School District, dbrawley@usc.edu
Froilan Mendoza, Superintendent, Baldwin Park Unified School District, fnmendoz@usc.edu
Karen Reed, Assistant Superintendent, South Pasadena Unified School District,
rkaren@usc.edumailto:hryciw@usc.edu
Sheryl Barnd, Superintendent/Principal, Mupu Elementary School District, sheryl.barnd@mupu.org
Edward Zuniga, Assistant Superintendent, El Monte Union High School District, edwardz@usc.edu
Michelle King, Superintendent, Los Angeles Unified School District, kingml@usc.edu
Shelley Adams, Superintendent, Baldy View Regional Occupational Program, shelleya@usc.edu
Steven Martinez, Superintendent/Principal, Hughes-Elizabeth Lakes Union School District, stevenfm@usc.edu
Steven Miller, Assistant Superintendent, Lawndale Elementary School District, millersr@usc.edu
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA
90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu
INFLUENCE OF GLOBALIZATION 201
Appendix N
Information Letter to Parents
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089
Dear Parents,
The purpose of this letter is to inform you of a study that will be conducted at your child’s school
on April 20 and 21. Sixteen doctoral students from the University of Southern California (USC)
will travel from USC to Ireland as part of a research team led by Dr. Michael Escalante.
This study’s ultimate goal is to understand how schools and SciFest are helping students to
develop 21st-century skills, particularly in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and
math (STEM). We are interested in STEM education as a means of producing knowledge-ready
workers for 21st-century jobs. Furthermore, we aim to understand the influence of globalization
and multinational corporations on schools throughout Ireland.
If your child agrees to take part in this study, he or she will be asked to participate in a 15-minute
survey, a 45-minute audiotaped interview, and/or a 45-minute classroom observation. Students
do not have to participate or answer any questions that they don’t want to answer.
Survey and observation protocols will not collect any identifiable information about the students.
Interview protocols for students will collect identifiers, such as name and school location, but any
identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential. Re-
sponses will be coded with a false name (pseudonym) and maintained separately. The audio
tapes will be destroyed once they have been transcribed. As an alternative, your child may elect
to participate in the interview process and not be audio recorded.
Please know that participation during our visit will be entirely voluntary and nonevaluative.
Thank you for considering participation in this study.
Sincerely,
USC Doctoral Research Team

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of globalization and foreign direct investment (FDI) by multinational corporations (MNCs) on the educational policy, curriculum, and instructional practices of secondary schools in Ireland. The study also examined how science fairs and competitions, such as SciFest, influence the use of inquiry-based instructional strategies, such as PBL, by teachers in the classroom to prepare students for a 21st-century workforce in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). ❧ Results from the research study indicated that globalization and MNCs have a measure of influence on educational policy in Ireland with respect to the needs for a workforce able to perform with 21st-century skills in STEM career areas. However, the needs of employers and the response by the Irish government are misaligned. Employers expressed interest in wanting reforms to occur more quickly with emphasis on real-world skills, while current educational policy in Ireland remains focused on preparing students for a Leaving Certificate, a summative assessment, which is the only gateway to college and university placement. Preparation for the Leaving Certificate leaves little time for inquiry-based instruction

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Asset Metadata

Creator Adams, Shelley C. (author)

Core Title The influence of globalization, economics, and educational policy on development of 21st-century skills in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics education through project-based learni...

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 02/13/2017

Defense Date 02/03/2017

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag 21st-century skills,educational policy,Engineering,foreign direct investment,Globalization,Ireland,Leaving Certificate,mathematics,multinational corporations,OAI-PMH Harvest,project-based learning,Science,science competitions,STEM,Technology

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael (committee chair), Cash, David (committee member), Gothold, Stuart (committee member)

Creator Email sca51s49b@gmail.com,sca51s49b@yahoo.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-336493

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Document Type Dissertation

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