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Stereotypes of selected white college students concerning Negroes
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Stereotypes of selected white college students concerning Negroes
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STEREOTYPES OF SELECTED WHITE COLLEGE STUDENTS CONCERNING NEGROES A D i s s e r t a t i o n P r e s e n te d to th e F a c u lty o f th e G ra d u a te S ch o o l The U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a I n P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f th e R e q u ire m e n ts f o r th e D egree D o c to r o f P h ilo s o p h y by J . W a lte r Cobb June 1953 UMI Number; DP31717 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Disssitatien mmitgmng UMI DP31717 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 PK-D Oo '53 c This dissertation, written by ...................J ? ... W ”11 e r.. C.pbb................................ under the guidance of h.%.^...Faculty Committee on Studies, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Council on Graduate Study and Research, in partial ful fillment of requirements for the degree of D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y Committee on Studies TâBLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I . STEREOTYPE: A CONCEPT IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY. . 1 P o i n t s o f m a jo r em phasis i n s t u d i e s o f s t e r e o t y p e s ...................................................................... 9 A n a ly s is and p o in t of view f o r p r e s e n t s t u d y ...................................................... 10 I I . THE SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF STEREOTYPES CONCERNING AMERICAN N E G R O E S ................................... 19 S o c i o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f N egro s t e r e o t y p e s ...................................................................... 20 Common b e l i e f s o f w h ite s r e g a r d i n g N eg ro es , 21 S o u rc e s o f Negro s t e r e o t y p e s ................................... 35 The p s y c h o lo g ic a l and s o c i a l f u n c t i o n s of N egro s t e r e o t y p e s ....................................................... 56 S u m m a r y ..................................................................................... 70 I I I . THE «REALITY” OF NEGRO STEREOTYPES......................... 73 I n t e l l i g e n c e ........................................................................... 75 I g n o r a n c e ................................................................................ 80 S ense o f h u m o r ............................. 85 M usic a b i l i t y .............................. 88 C l e a n l i n e s s and o d o r ....................... 91 Speed o f m o v e m e n t ............................................................ 94 S u p e r s t i t i o n ........................................................................... 96 i v CHAPTER PAGE G e n e ra l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g N egro s t e r e o t y p e s ...................................................................... 101 Summary and c o n c lu s io n s .......................... 115 IV. VARIATIONS OF NEGRO STEREOTYPES AMONG COLLEGE STUDENTS OF FIVE SCHOOLS............................................. 118 The p ro b lem and te c h n iq u e s u s e d .......................... 118 F i n d i n g s ....................... 122 I n t e l l i g e n c e ...................................................................... 122 I g n o r a n c e ........................................................................... 124 S u p e r s t i t i o n ...................................................................... 12? S en se o f r h y t h m ............................................................ 129 » Amount o f l a u g h t e r ....................................................... 131 Speed o f m o v e m e n t ....................................................... 133 C l e a n l i n e s s ...................................................................... 135 L a z i n e s s ................................................................................ 137 F e a r o f t h e d a r k ............................................................ 139 E ase o f f r i g h t e n i n g .................................................. 141 S l e e p i n e s s o f n a t u r e .................................................. 143 F l a s h i n e s s o f c l o t h e s ............................................. 145 "H a p p y -g o -lu c k y " te n d e n c y ................................... 148 Q u a lity a s s e r v a n t s ..........................’...................... 150 E ase o f p l e a s i n g ............................................................ 152 N e a t n e s s ................................................................................ 154 V CHAPTER PAGE Wide awake t e n d e n c y .................................................. 156 A m b i t i o n ................................................................................ 15# T h r i f t i n e s s ...................................................................... 160 E x te n t and com ponents o f g e n e r a l Negro s t e r e o t y p e ........................................................................... 162 S i g n i f i c a n c e o f d i f f e r e n c e s betw een g ro u p s . I 64 I n t e n s i t y o f c o n v ic ti o n ............................................. 166 E v a lu a tio n of t r a i t s ........................................ I 69 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e s a m p l e .............................. 172 Summary and c o n c lu s io n s ........................................ 183 V. DISCUSSION OF FIN D IN G S....................................................... 187 L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h i s s t u d y ........................................ 187 C om parison w ith o t h e r s t u d i e s .............................. 192 S t e r e o t y p in g and s o c i o l o g i c a l th e o r y . . . . 202 V I. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.................................................. 206 BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................ 212 APPENDIX...................................................................* ................................ 220 LIST OF TABLES TABLE . PAGE I . Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s of R e sp o n se s o f S tu d e n ts i n R egard to th e Q u e s tio n , "Who a r e More I n t e l l i g e n t ? " ..................................................................123 I I . Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s of R e sp o n se s o f S tu d e n ts i n R egard to th e Q u e s tio n , "Who a r e More I g n o r a n t ? " ............................................................................125 I I I . Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s of R e sp o n se s o f S tu d e n ts i n R egard t o t h e Q u e s tio n , "Who a r e More S u p e r s t i t i o u s ? " .............................................................128 TV. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s ‘o f S tu d e n ts i n R egard to t h e Q u e s tio n , "Who Have More S en se of R h y t h m ? " ................................................ 13C V. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s of S tu d e n ts i n R egard to t h e Q u e s tio n , "Who Laugh M o r e ? " ..................................................................... . 132 V I. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s o f S tu d e n ts i n R egard to th e Q u e s tio n , "Who Move More S l o w l y ? " ........................ 134 V U . Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s o f S tu d e n ts i n R eg ard to t h e Q u e s tio n , "Who a r e More C l e a n ? " .................................................................................136 o f "Who a r e o f "Who a r e o f "Who a r e TABLE V i l l . Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s o f S tu d e n ts i n R egard to t h e Q u e s tio n , "Who a r e More L azy?" .................................................. 12, Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s S tu d e n ts i n R eg ard to th e Q u e stio n More A f r a id o f t h e D ark ?" . . . . X. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s S tu d e n ts i n R eg ard to th e Q u e stio n More E a s i l y F r ig h te n e d ? " . . . . X I. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s S tu d e n ts i n R egard to th e Q u e stio n More S le e p y -N a tu re d ? " ......................... X U . Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s S tu d e n ts i n R egard t o th e Q u e stio n Wear More F la s h y C lo th e s ? " . . . X I I I , Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s S tu d e n ts i n R egard to t h e Q u e s tio n a r e More H a p p y -g o -lu c k y ? " . . . . XIV. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s S tu d e n ts i n R eg ard to th e Q u e stio n a r e B e t t e r S e r v a n ts ? " ......................... XV, Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s o f S tu d e n ts i n R eg ard to th e Q u e s tio n , "Who of "Who o f "Who of "Who V ll PAGE 138 140 142 144 147 149 151 v i l l TABLE PAGE a r e More E a s i l y P le a s e d ? " ................................153 XVI. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n ses o f S tu d e n ts i n R egard to t h e Q u e s tio n , "Who a r e More N e a t ? " .......................................................................... 155 » X V II. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s o f S tu d e n ts i n R egard to t h e Q u e s tio n , "Who a r e More Wide A w a k e ? " ............................................ 157 X V III. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s o f S tu d e n ts i n R egard to t h e Q u e s tio n , "Who a r e More A m b i t i o u s ? " .............................................................159 XIX. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s o f S tu d e n ts i n R egard to t h e Q u e s tio n , "Who a r e More T h r i f t y ? " ..................................................................I 6l XX. P r o p o r t i o n o f 1230 S tu d e n ts A s s ig n in g G iven T r a i t s to N eg ro es When C om paring Them w ith W h ites . ............................................................................163 XXI. S i g n i f i c a n c e o f D i f f e r e n c e s i n P r o p o r t i o n s Among S tu d e n t G roups i n D i f f e r e n t R e g io n s i n Terms of C hi S q u a r e ........................................................16$ X X II. R an k in g o f S c h o o ls a s t o S tr e n g th o f Con v i c t i o n R e g a rd in g R ig h tn e s s o f R e sp o n se s to Each o f th e 19 Q u e s t i o n s ..............................................167 I X TABLE PAGE X X III. R anking o f S c h o o ls a s t o P e r c e n ta g e o f S tu d e n ts R e a c tin g E i t h e r F a v o ra b ly o r U n fa v o ra b ly t o Each o f t h e 19 T r a i t s . . • 170 XXIV. R a n k in g of S tu d e n t G roups a s to P e r c e n ta g e H aving Known N eg ro es i n S t a t e d Types o f A s s o c i a t i o n and a s t o P e r c e n ta g e Showing G r e a t e s t F r i e n d l i n e s s o f A s s o c ia t io n w ith N e g r o e s ................... ‘ ...................................................173 XXV. R anking o f S tu d e n t G roups A c c o rd in g to S t a te d C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ............................................. 176 XXVI. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f S tu d e n ts w ith S p e c if i e d R e li g i o u s Background ......................... I 8 l XXVII. Laws o f th e F iv e S t a t e s A g a in s t N e g ro - W hite I n t e r m a r r i a g e and P e r c e n ta g e of N egroes i n th e P o p u l a t i o n ............................................200 XXVIII. .Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f S tu d e n ts i n S p e c i f i e d Age Groups i n t h e F iv e C o lle g e s ....................................................................................233 XXIX. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f S tu d e n ts i n th e F iv e C o lle g e s A c c o rd in g to Sex . . . . 234 XXX. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f S tu d e n ts i n th e F iv e C o lle g e s A c c o rd in g t o M a r i t a l S t a t u s ................................................................. 235 ---------------------------------------------------------- j------------------------------------------------------------------------- X TABLE PAGE XXXI. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s of S tu d e n ts i n th e F iv e C o lle g e s , A c c o rd in g t o W orld War I I S t a t u s ...................................................................................236 XXXII. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f S tu d e n ts i n S p e c if i e d Y e a rs i n S ch o o l f o r th e F iv e C o l l e g e s ................................................................................... 237 X X X III, Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f S tu d e n ts w ith S p e c i f i e d R e li g i o u s B ackground f o r th e F iv e C o lle g e s ..................................................... 238 XXXIV. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s of S tu d e n ts w ith D i f f e r e n t F req u en cy of C hurch A tte n d a n c e Among S tu d e n ts R e p o rtin g from th e F iv e C o l l e g e s ...................................................................................239 XXXV. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s of S tu d e n ts w ith D i f f e r e n t F re q u en c y o f Sunday C hurch S ch o o l A tte n d a n c e Among S tu d e n ts R e p o r tin g from th e F iv e C o l l e g e s ................................................ 240 XXXVI. Numbers a n d .P e r c e n ta g e s o f S t u d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o lle g e s , Who Q u it A tte n d in g Sunday C hurch S ch o o l a t S p e c i f i e d Age P e r i o d s ...................................................... ‘ . ............................241 XXXVII. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s of S tu d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o lle g e s , who R esponded i n X I TABLE PAGE D i f f e r e n t C a te g o r ie s on a S c a le to M easure " R e lig io u s n e s s " ........................................ 242 XXXVIII. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s of S t u d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o lle g e s , A c c o rd in g to th e D i f f e r e n t D e g ree s of R e s i d e n t i a l M o b i l it y a s t o Number of S t a t e s L iv e d i n . 243 XXXIX. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s of S tu d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o l le g e s , A c c o rd in g to th e D i f f e r e n t D e g ree s of M o b ility a s to Number o f S t a t e s T r a v e lle d i n ...........................244 XL. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f S t u d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o l le g e s , A c c o rd in g to th e Number o f C o u n tr ie s L iv ed i n O u tsid e o f U n ite d S t a t e s ..............................................................245 XLI. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s of S t u d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o lle g e s , A c c o rd in g t o Number o f C o u n t r ie s T r a v e lle d in d u r in g th e War . ................................................................................... 246 X L II. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s of S tu d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o l le g e s , A c c o rd in g t o Number o f C o u n tr ie s T r a v e lle d i n O u tsid e U n ite d S t a t e s ............................. 247 x i i TABLE PAGE X L I I I . Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s o f S t u d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o l le g e s , R e g a rd in g S t r e n g th o f F e e li n g a s t o C o r r e c tn e s s o f R e sp o n se s to th e Q u e s tio n , "Who a r e More N e a t ? " ................................................... 248 XLIV, Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s of R e sp o n se s o f S t u d e n ts , from t h e F iv e C o l le g e s , R eg ard in g S t r e n g th o f F e e lin g ' a s t o C o r r e c tn e s s o f R e sp o n se s to th e Q u e s tio n , "'Who a r e More C l e a n ? " ......................................................................... 249 XLV. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s of R e sp o n se s o f S t u d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o l le g e s , R eg ard in g S t r e n g th o f F e e li n g a s to C o r r e c tn e s s o f R esponse to th e Q u e s tio n , "Who Move More S l o w l y ? " ......................................................................... 250 XLVI. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s of S t u d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o lle g e s , R e g ard in g S t r e n g th o f F e e li n g a s t o C o r r e c tn e s s o f R esp o n se t o th e Q u e s tio n , "Who a re B e t t e r S e r v a n ts ? " .............................................................. 251 XLVII. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s o f S t u d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o lle g e s , R e g ard in g S t r e n g th o f F e e li n g a s to C o r r e c tn e s s x i i i TABLE PAGE o f R esp o n se t o t h e Q u e s tio n , "Who a r e More E a s i l y F r i g h t e n e d ? " ...............................................252 X L V III. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s of R e sp o n se s o f S t u d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o lle g e s , R e g ard in g S t r e n g t h o f F e e li n g a s to C o r r e c tn e s s o f R esp o n se to t h e Q u e s tio n , "Who a r e More I n t e l l i g e n t ? " .............................................................. 253 XLIX. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s of R e sp o n se s o f S t u d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o lle g e s , R e g ard i n g S t r e n g t h o f F e e li n g a s t o C o r r e c tn e s s o f R esp o n se to t h e Q u e s tio n , "Who a r e More S l e e p y - N a t u r e d ? " ........................ 254 L. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s of R e sp o n se s o f S tu d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o lle g e s , R e g a rd in g S t r e n g t h o f F e e li n g a s to C o r r e c tn e s s o f R esp o n se to t h e Q u e s tio n , "Who a r e More I g n o r a n t ? " .......................................................................255 L I . Numbers a n d ,P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s o f S tu d e n ts , from t h e F iv e C o l le g e s , R e g ard in g S t r e n g t h o f F e e li n g a s t o C o r r e c tn e s s o f R esp o n se to th e Q u e s tio n , "Who a r e More Wide A w a k e ? " ..................................................................256 X IV TÂBLE PAGE L U . Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s o f S tu d e n ts , from t h e F iv e C o lle g e s , R e g a rd in g S t r e n g th o f F e e l i n g a s to C o r r e c tn e s s of R esp o n se to th e Q u e s tio n , "Who a r e More A m b i t i o u s ? " .............................................................................. 257 L I I I . Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s o f S t u d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o lle g e s , R e g a rd in g S t r e n g th o f F e e li n g a s t b C o r r e c tn e s s o f R esp o n se to th e Q u e s tio n , "Who a r e More H appy-go-L ucky?" ................................................................... 258 LIV. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s of R e sp o n se s o f S tu d e n ts , fro m t h e F iv e C o lle g e s , R e g a rd in g S t r e n g th o f F e e li n g a s t o C o r r e c tn e s s o f R esponse to th e Q u e s tio n , "Who Wear More F la s h y C lo th e s ? " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 LV. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s o f S tu d e n ts , from t h e F iv e C o lle g e s , R e g a rd in g S t r e n g th o f F e e li n g a s t o C o r r e c tn e s s o f R esp onse to th e Q u e s tio n , "Who Laugh M o re ?". 260 LVI. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s o f S tu d e n ts , from th e F i v e C o l l e g e s / R e g a rd in g S tr e n g th o f F e e li n g a s t o C o r r e c tn e s s o f R esp o n se t o th e Q u e s tio n , "Who Have More XV TABLE PAGE S ense o f R h y t h m ? " ................................................................261 L V II, Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s o f S t u d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o lle g e s , R e g a rd in g S t r e n g t h o f F e e li n g a s t o C o r r e c t n e s s of R esp o n se t o t h e Q u e s tio n , "Who a r e More T h r i f t y ? " ............................. '..............................262 LVI 1 1 . Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s o f S tu d e n ts , from t h e F iv e C o l le g e s , R e g a rd in g S t r e n g th o f F e e l i n g a s t o C o r r e c t n e s s o f R esp o n se to t h e Q u e s tio n , "Who a r e More L a z y ? " ............................................................................................. 263 LIX. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s o f S t u d e n ts , from t h e F iv e C o lle g e s , R e g a rd in g S t r e n g th o f F e e lin g a s t o C o r r e c tn e s s of R esp o n se to th e Q u e s tio n , "Who a r e More S u p e r s t i t i o u s ? " ........................................................... . 264 LX. Numbers an d P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s o f S t u d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o l le g e s , R e g a rd in g S tr e n g th o f F e e l i n g a s to C o r r e c t n e s s o f R esp o n se t o th e Q u e s tio n , "Who a r e More A f r a id o f th e D ark ?" ......................... 265 LXI. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s o f S t u d e n ts , from t h e F iv e C o l le g e s , R e g a rd in g -4- X V I TABLE PAGE S t r e n g th o f F e e li n g a s t o C o r r e c t n e s s o f R esp o n se t o t h e Q u e s tio n , "Who a r e More E a s i l y P le a s e d ? " .................... ............................................ 266 L X II. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s of S t u d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o l le g e s , i n R egard to t h e Number o f N eg ro es Known a s C lo se F r i e n d s . 26? L X III. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f S t u d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o lle g e s , i n R egard to I n tim a c y o f T o ta l E x p e rie n c e w ith N e g ro es a s C lo se F r i e n d s ..........................................................................268 LXIV. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f S tu d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o l le g e s , i n R egard to Number o f N e g ro es Known a s F e llo w C lub Members . . . . 269 XXV. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f S t u d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o lle g e s , i n R egard to I n tim a c y o f T o ta l E x p e rie n c e w ith N egro F e llo w C lub M e m b e r s ...............................................................................270 XXVI. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f S t u d e n ts , fro m th e F iv e C o l le g e s , i n R eg ard to Number o f N e g ro e s Known a s N e i g h b o r s ...........................................271 LXVII. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f S t u d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o l le g e s , i n R egard to In tim a c y of T o ta l E x p e rie n c e w ith N egro N e ig h b o rs . . • 272 TABLE x v i i PAGE IX V III, Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f S tu d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o lle g e s , i n R egard to Number o f N e g ro es Known a s S ch o o l M a t e s .................................... 273 LXIX. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f S t u d e n ts , from t h e F iv e C o lle g e s , i n R egard to I n tim a c y o f T o ta l E x p e rie n c e w ith N egro S ch o o l M a t e s ................................................................................................274 LXX, Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f S t u d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o l le g e s , i n R egard t o Number o f N e g ro es Known a s B u s in e s s o r P r o f e s s i o n a l A s s o c i a t e s ........................................................................... i LXXI, Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f S t u d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o lle g e s , i n R eg ard to In tim a c y o f T o ta l E x p e rie n c e w ith N egro B u s in e s s o r P r o f e s s i o n a l A s s o c i a t e s ................................... 276 LXXII. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f S t u d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o lle g e s , i n R eg ard t o Number o f N e g ro e s Known a s F e llo w W orkers i n Jo b s o t h e r th a n B u s in e s s o f P r o f e s s i o n a l . . . . L X X III. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f S t u d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o lle g e s , i n R eg ard to In tim a c y o f T o ta l E x p e rie n c e w ith N egro W orkers i n J o b s o t h e r th a n B u s in e s s o r P r o f e s s i o n a l 27£ 275 277 x v i i i TABLE PAGE LXXEV. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f S tu d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o lle g e s , i n R eg ard to Number o f N e g ro es Known a s S e r v a n ts o r E m p l o y e e s ...............................................................................279 LXXV, Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s of S tu d e n ts , fro m th e F iv e C o l le g e s , i n R egard to In tim a c y o f T o ta l E x p e rie n c e w ith Negro S e r v a n ts o r E m ployees 280 LXXVI, Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s of S t u d e n ts , fro m th e F iv e C o l le g e s , i n R eg ard to Number o f N e g ro es Known a s S e r v i c e m e n .............................281 LXXVII, Numbers and P e r c e n t a g e s o f S tu d e n ts , from t h e F iv e C o lle g e s , i n R egard to In tim a c y o f T o ta l E x p e rie n c e w ith Negro S e r v i c e men ............................................................................................. 282 LXXVIII. Numbers and P e r c e n t a g e s o f S tu d e n ts , from t h e F iv e C o lle g e s , i n R egard to Number o f N e g ro es Known a s C a su a l A c q u a in ta n c e s . 283 LXIIX, Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s of S tu d e n ts , fro m th e F iv e C o lle g e s , i n R egard to In tim a c y o f T o ta l E x p e rie n c e w ith N eg ro es a s C a su a l A c q u a i n t a n c e s ......................................................284 X IX TABLE PAGE LXXX. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f S tu d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o lle g e s , i n R egard to Number o f N e g ro es Known i n a l l O th e r Ways . . . 285 LXXXI. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s of S t u d e n ts , fro m t h e F iv e C o l le g e s , i n R egard to In tim a c y o f T o ta l E x p e rie n c e w ith N egro es Known i n A l l O th e r R e l a t i o n s h i p s .......................................286 UQQCII. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s of S tu d e n ts , fro m th e F iv e C o lle g e s , i n R egard to th e E s tim a te o f T o ta l Number o f N egroes K n o w n .........................................................................................28? LXXXIII. Numbers and P e r c e n t a g e s of S t u d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o lle g e s , i n R egard to In tim a c y i n G e n e ra l o f T o ta l E x p e rie n c e w ith A l l th e N e g ro es E v er K n o w n .................................................288 LXZZIV. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s of R e sp o n se s o f S t u d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o lle g e s , i n R eg ard to How F a v o ra b ly They Would Look upon N e a tn e s s Among T h e ir A s s o c i a t e s . 289 LXXXV. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s of R e sp o n se s o f S t u d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o l le g e s , i n R eg ard to How F a v o ra b ly They Would Look upon C l e a n l i n e s s Among T h e ir A s s o c i a t e s . • 290 -4- XX TABLE PAGE LSXZVI. Numbers an d P e r c e n ta g e s of R e sp o n se s o f S t u d e n ts , from t h e F iv e C o lle g e s , i n R egard t o How F a v o r a b ly They Would Look upon Slow Movement Among T h e ir A s s o c i a t e s ...................................................................291 LXXXVII. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s of S tu d e n ts , from t h e F iv e C o l le g e s , i n R eg ard to How F a v o ra b ly They Would Look upon Good S e r v a n ts Among T h e ir A s s o c ia t e s 292 LXXXVIII. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s o f S t u d e n ts , from t h e F iv e C o lle g e s , i n t R eg ard to How F a v o r a b ly They Would Look upon b e in g E a s i l y F r ig h te n e d Among T h e ir A s s o c i a t e s ...........................................................293 LXXXIX, Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s of S t u d e n t s , from th e F iv e C o lle g e s , in R eg ard to How F a v o r a b ly They Would Look upon I n t e l l i g e n c e Among T h e ir A s s o c i a t e s . 294 XC. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s o f S t u d e n ts , from t h e F iv e C o l le g e s , i n R e g ard to How F a v o r a b ly They Would Look upon b e in g S le e p y -N a tu re d Among T h e ir A s s o c i a t e s ..........................................................................295 x x i TABLE PAGE XGI. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s o f S t u d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o lle g e s , i n R egard to How F a v o r a b ly They Would Look upon Ig n o ra n c e Among T h e ir A s s o c i a t e s . . . 296 X C II. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s of R e sp o n se s o f S t u d e n ts , from t h e F iv e C o lle g e s , i n R egard to How F a v o ra b ly They Would Look upon b e in g Wide Awake Among T h e ir A s s o c i a t e s .......................................................................... . 297 X C III. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s of R e sp o n se s o f S t u d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o lle g e s , i n R egard to How F a v o ra b ly They Would Look upon A m b itio n Among T h e ir A s s o c i a t e s . . . . 2ÇS XCIV. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s of R e sp o n se s o f S t u d e n ts , from t h e F iv e C o lle g e s , in R egard to How F a v o r a b ly They Would Look upon b e in g H a p p y -g o -lu c k y Among T h e ir A s s o c i a t e s , ................................................. 299 XCV. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s o f S t u d e n ts , from t h e F iv e C o lle g e s , i n R egard t o How F a v o r a b ly They Would Look upon F la s h y D r e s s in g Among T h e ir A s s o c i a t e s . 300 • • • 301 x x i i TABLE PAGE XCVT. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s o f S tu d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o lle g e s , i n R egard to How F a v o r a b ly They Would Look upon L a u g h te r Among T h e ir A s s o c i a t e s XCVII. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s o f S t u d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o l le g e s , i n R eg ard to How F a v o ra b ly They Would Look upon S ense of Rhythm Among T h e ir A s s o c i a t e s . ....................................................................... 302 X CY III. Numbers an d P e r c e n t a g e s o f R e sp o n se s of S t u d e n t s , from th e F iv e C o l le g e s , i n R egard t o How F a v o ra b ly They Would Look upon T h r i f t i n e s s Among T h e ir A s s o c ia t e s . . XCIX. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s of R e sp o n se s o f S t u d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o l le g e s , i n R eg ard to How F a v o ra b ly They Would Look upon L a z in e s s Among T h e ir A s s o c ia t e s C. Numbers a n d .P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s of S t u d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o lle g e s , i n R eg ard to How F a v o ra b ly They Would Look upon b e in g S u p e r s t i t i o u s Among T h e ir A s s o c i a t e s .................................................................................305 303 304 XXlllI TABLE PAGE G I. Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s of R e sp o n se s o f S t u d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o lle g e s , i n R egard t o How F a v o ra b ly They Would Look upon F e a r o f t h e D ark Among T h e ir A s s o c i a t e s , 306 C I I . Numbers and P e r c e n ta g e s o f R e sp o n se s o f S tu d e n ts , from th e F iv e C o lle g e s , i n R egard to How F a v o ra b ly They Would Look upon b e in g E a s i l y P l e a s e d Among T h e ir A s s o c i a t e s ................................................................................30? CHAPTER I STEREOTYPE: A CONCEPT IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY The p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y was t o compare s t e r e o ty p e s c o n c e rn in g N eg ro es a s e x p re s s e d by w h ite c o ll e g e s t u d e n t s i n f i v e d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , In th e p r o c e s s o f c a r r y i n g o u t t h i s o b j e c t i v e , a second p u rp o se h a s em erged— t h a t o f e s t a b l i s h i n g a s o c i o l o g i c a l fram e o f r e f e r e n c e f o r s t u d i e s o f s t e r e o t y p e s . F in d in g s i n c o n n e c tio n w ith th e seco nd o b j e c t i v e w i l l be g iv e n f i r s t i n t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n . T h is c h a p te r w i l l d e a l w ith th e p ro b lem o f d e f i n i n g th e te rm " s t e r e o t y p e , " C h a p te r I I w i l l be d e v o te d to a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f s t e r e o t y p e s o f A m erican N e g ro e s. In C h a p te r I I I w i l l be fo u n d a re v ie w o f p r e v io u s f i n d i n g s c o n c e rn in g th e " r e a l i t y " o f Negro s t e r e o t y p e s . The m a jo r problem f o r i n v e s t i g a t i o n , te c h n iq u e s u se d , an d f i n d i n g s w i l l be r e p o r t e d i n C h a p te r IV , The p ro b lem o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e f i n d i n g s w i l l be th e them e o f C h a p te r V, The f i n a l c h a p te r w i l l be d e v o te d to summary and c o n c l u s i o n s . An a d e q u a te d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e te rm " s t e r e o t y p e " i s n o t r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e . T h is i s t r u e i n s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e te rm h a s been u sed w id e ly i n r e c e n t y e a r s i n 2 s o i e n t i f i e and s c h o l a r l y p u b l i c a t i o n s a s w e ll a s i n p o p u la r w r i t i n g s and s p e e c h e s . I n t h i s c h a p t e r an a tte m p t w i l l be made to i l l u s t r a t e th e w ide v a r i e t y o f u s e s and m ean in g s o f t h e c o n c e p t and to d e v e lo p an i n t e g r a t e d d e f i n i t i o n w hich w i l l s e r v e th e p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y . The c o n c e p t o f th e s t e r e o t y p e h a s been i n c r e a s i n g l y u se d i n s o c i a l p sy c h o lo g y s in c e W a lte r Lippmann^ i n tr o d u c e d t h e te rm . D i f f e r e n t m ean in g s hav e been a s s o c i a t e d w ith i t a c c o r d in g to th e p u rp o se o f th e p e rs o n u s in g i t . " S te r e o " came from a G reek word m eaning " s o l i d . " I t i s d e f in e d a s "co m b in in g form m eaning s o l i d , h a r d , f i r m ." O r i g i n a l l y , " s t e r e o t y p e " m eant " a p l a t e made by t a k i n g a m old o f a p r i n t i n g s u r f a c e and m aking from t h i s a c a s t i n ty p e m e t a l . " I n t h e form o f a v e r b , i t m eant " to f i x i n l a s t i n g form ; make p e r m a n e n t T h e te rm p ro v e d to be u s e f u l i n d e s c r i b i n g th e t e n a c i o u s a n d e m o tio n a liz e d " p i c t u r e s i n t h e i r h e a d s" w hich a r e h a b i t u a l l y u sed by i n d i v i d u a l s to d e f i n e t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith t h e i r f e l l o w s . W a lte r Lippm ann, P u b lic O p in io n (New Y ork: The M acm illan Company, 1 9 2 2 ). See N. S . S h a l e r 's d i s c u s s i o n o f th e " c a t e g o r y ," The N e ig h b o r (B o sto n : H oughton M i f f l i n and Company, 1 9 0 4 )• 1 9 3 2 . ^ W e b ste r* s C o l l e g i a t e D i c t i o n a r y , F o u rth E d i t i o n , 3 G reg o ry h a s made a summary s ta te m e n t t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t i n m ost c a s e s s t e r e o t y p e s a r e d e f in e d a s " i d e a s h e ld by a m a j o r i t y o r a l l o f c e r t a i n p o p u l a t i o n s t h a t p e rs o n s i n v a r i o u s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s have c e r t a i n t r a i t s and a b i l i t i e s i n common."3 H a t t^ r e f e r s to t h r e e k in d s o f em phases i n d e f i n i t i o n s o f s t e r e o t y p e s a s f o llo w s : (1) L i t t e r e r and G reg o ry u se d Lippm ann*s s ta te m e n t r e g a r d i n g " p i c t u r e s i n t h e h e a d ." (2) E m phasis was p la c e d on " r e s p o n s e s " i n s t u d i e s by E dw ards, K atz and B r a ly , M eenes, and B ay to n . (3) M enefee and B ain t r e a t e d th e " s t i m u l u s " a s th e s t e r e o ty p e , and Edw ards d e f in e d i t s p e c i f i c a l l y a s a s t i m u l u s . The f o llo w in g g ro u p o f d e f i n i t i o n s w i l l s e rv e to i l l u s t r a t e f u r t h e r d i f f e r e n c e s and s i m i l a r i t i e s w hich have a p p e a r e d . Lee d e f i n e s " s t e r e o t y p e " a s f o llo w s : A f o l k - b e l i e f . Group a c c e p te d im age o r i d e a , u s u a l l y v e r b a l i z e d and c h a rg e d w ith e m o tio n . S i m p l i f i e d , even c a r i c a t u r i z e d c o n c e p tio n o f a c h a r a c t e r , p e r s o n a l i t y , a s p e c t o f s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e . ^ W. S . G re g o ry , * * A S tu d y o f S te r e o ty p e d T h in k in g ," J o u r n a l o f S o c i a l P s y c h o lo g y . 1 3 :9 9 , F e b r u a r y , 1 9 41. ^ P a u l H a t t , " S t e r e o t y p e s and M in o r ity Group C o n f l i c t , " S o c io lo g y and S o c i a l R e s e a r c h . 3 1 :1 1 0 , November^ D ecem ber, 1946• o r s o c i a l program w hich s ta n d s i n th e p la c e o f a c c u r a t e im ag es i n o u r m i n d s , 3 He d e f i n e s a p e r s o n a l i t y s t e r e o t y p e a s a " p r e ju d ic e d and o v e r s i m p l i f i e d e s t im a t e o f th e way i n w h ich a p e rs o n i s o r g a n i z e d . "6 A s t e r e o t y p e re s p o n s e i s d e f in e d by Lee a s f o llo w s : "A r e s p o n s e i n th e fo rm o f w ords o r a c t i o n s t h a t i s p ro v id e d f o r a g iv e n s tim u lu s by th e f o i k - b e l i e f s o f a # g ro u p o r s o c i e t y . I t c o n t r a s t s w ith r e s p o n s e s d e f in e d by n o n - c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s , s i t u a t i o n a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l ." ? W arren d e f i n e s s t e r e o t y p e d r e s p o n s e s a s " c h a r a c t e r i z in g c e r t a i n r e s p o n s e s w hich a r e a lw ay s p e rfo rm e d i n su b s t a n t i a l l y th e same m a n n e r." # He f u r t h e r d e f i n e s " s t e r e o t y p e " a s "a p a t h o l o g i c a l phenomenon c ô n s i s t i n g i n th e e n d le s s r e p e t i t i o n o f f ra g m e n ta ry o r a p p a r e n t l y s e n s e l e s s w o rd s, a p p a r e n t l y u s e l e s s m ovem ents, o r o f c e r t a i n p o s t u r e s . "9 Young d e f i n e s a s t e r e o t y p e from d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s o f . v ie w . (1) In h i s g e n e r a l d e f i n i t i o n he s e e s i t a s a ^ A l f r e d McClung Lee i n H enry P r a t t F a i r c h i l d , e d i t o r . D i c t i o n a r y o f S o c io lo g y (New Y ork: P h i l o s o p h i c a l L ib r a r y , 1 9 4 4 ), p . 308. ^ L o c. c i t . 7 I b i d . . p . 2 5 8 . , H. C. 1/farren, e d i t o r , D i e t i o n a r y o f P sy c h o lo g y (B o sto n : H oughton M i f f l i n and Company, 1 9 3 4 )• ^ L o c. c i t . 5 " g r o u p - a c c e p te d im age o r i d e a u s u a l l y e x p re s s e d i n v e r b a l form w ith w hich i s a s s o c i a t e d a s tr o n g f e e l i n g - e m o t i o n a l t o n e , " ! ^ (2) O p e r a t i o n a l l y i t i s " th e im a g in a i c o r e - c a r r i e d c h i e f l y i n w ords o r v i s u a l im a g e s— from w hich a t t i t u d e and a c t i o n s p r i n g . "11 (3) I n r e l a t i o n t o p r e j u d i c e , i t i s s e e n a s "a f a l s e c o n c e p t; a word o r a p h ra s e i s u sed t o g iv e to a p e rs o n o r a g ro u p g e n e r a l and a b s t r a c t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w hich a r e n o t s u p p o rte d by r a t i o n a l r e a s o n o r s c i e n t i f i c f a c t s . "12 K lin e b e r g d e f i n e s r a c i a l p r e j u d i c e i n te rm s o f s t e r e o t y p e s , p r a c t i c a l l y e q u a tin g th e te rm s . . . . r a c i a l p r e j u d i c e i s a g e n e r a l i z e d s e t of s t e r e o t y p e s o f a h ig h d e g re e o f c o n s i s t e n c y w hich i n c l u d e s e m o tio n a l r e s p o n s e s t o r a c e nam es, a b e l i e f i n t y p i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s s o c i a t e d w ith r a c e nam es, and an e v a l u a t i o n o f such t y p i c a l t r a i t s . 13 L a P ie re and F a rn s w o rth i n d i c a t e t h e o r i g i n and f u n c t i o n o f s t e r e o t y p e s on th e i n d i v i d u a l l e v e l . I n d i v i d u a l s t e r e o t y p e s . . . a r e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s K im b a ll Young, S o c i a l P sy c h o lo g y (New Y ork: F . S C r o f t s and Company, I n c . , 19 4 5 I , P • 565. I b i d . , p . 190. 12 I b i d . , p p . 2 5 7 -5 8 . O tto K lin e b e r g , S o c i a l P sy c h o lo g y (New Y ork: H enry H o lt and Company, 1 9 4 0 ), p . 353* £ £ • D. K atz and K. W. B r a ly , " R a c ia l P r e j u d i c e and R a c ia l S t e r e o t y p e s ," J o u r n a l o f S o c i a l P s y c h o lo g y , 3 0 :1 9 0 , 1935. 6 from one o r a s m a ll number o f d i r e c t and s p e c i f i c e x p e r i e n c e s . . . a g e n e r a l i z a t i o n from e x p e rie n c e w ith one member o f a c a te g o r y t o i n c lu d e a l l members o f t h a t c a te g o r y . T h is c o n s i s t s o f p u t t i n g a p e rs o n i n t o a sim p le p e r s o n a l i t y " ty p e " and t r e a t i n g him i n te rm s o f th e "known" ty p e a t t r i b u t e s , r a t h e r th a n a tte m p tin g t o t r e a t him i n te rm s o f h i s a c t u a l , b u t unknown, p e r s o n a l i t y , . . S t e r e o t y p in g i s th e u se on th e i n d i v i d u a l l e v e l o f t h e same p r o c e s s t h a t i s in v o lv e d i n th e c l a s s i f y i n g o f p e o p le i n t o i n g ro u p s and o u t - g r o u p s . I t r e s u l t s i n t r e a t i n g th e i n d i v i d u a l i t y a t t r i b u t e s o f p e r s o n a l i t y a s th o u g h th e y conform ed to some p a t t e r n of t y p i c a l i t y . B ogardus sa y s t h a t " s t e r e o t y p e s a r e th e 'p i c t u r e s * t h a t a p e rs o n h a s i n th e back o f h i s h e ad and t h a t a r e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s o f p a s t e x p e r i e n c e ."15 Hermens s a y s , "T hese s i m p l i f i e d , s ta n d a r d i z e d and e m o tio n a liz e d m e n ta l p i c t u r e s a r e among th e m ost common o f human f a i l i n g s . ^ R ic e r e f e r s to a "c o m p o s ite of r e a l and im puted c h a r a c t e r " and c o n ti n u e s , "The e le m e n t i n th e c o m p o site w hich i s p r e e x i s t e n t o r s t o r e d — w h ic h ,d o e s n o t c o n s i s t R ic h a rd T. L a P ie re and P a u l R. F a rn s w o rth , S o c i a l P sy c h o lo g y (New Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, Inc 1 9 4 2 ), p p . 1 9 0 -9 4 . ^5 Emory S . B o g a rd u s, S o c io lo g y (New Y ork: The M acm illan Company, 1 9 4 4 ), p . 8o . 1 6 F e rd in a n d A. H erm ens, "The D anger o f S t e r e o t y p e s i n V iew ing G erm any," P u b lic O p in io n Q u a r t e r l y , 9 :4 1 8 , 1945. 7 o f im m ed iate s e n s e im p re s s io n s --m a y be r e g a r d e d a s a s t e r e o t y p e . ”17 S te r e o ty p e was d e f in e d by C r e s p i , f o r h i s s p e c i a l p u rp o s e , i n te rm s o f an e s tim a te o f p u b l ic o p i n io n . "The te rm s t e r e o t y p e i s em ployed . . . to em brace th e view t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s p o s s e s s a b o u t p u b lic o p in io n on an i s s u e . S t e r e o t y p e s a r e r e f e r r e d to by McDonagh a s " a d v e r s e and e m o tio n a liz e d g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s . "19 M ey ering e m p h a siz e s th e o b s t r u c t i v e c h a r a c t e r o f s t e r e o t y p e s . "M ental s t e r e o t y p e s . . . a r e . . . g ro u p s of i d e a s so u n c r i t i c a l l y b e lie v e d t h a t th e y p r e v e n t u n b ia s e d o b s e r v a t i o n o r c l e a r t h i n k i n g a b o u t s i t u a t i o n s . "20 W ith a s i m i l a r e m p h a sis, A l l p o r t d e f i n e s a s t e r e o ty p e a s f o llo w s ; W henever a p r e e x i s t i n g a t t i t u d e i s so s t r o n g and i n f l e x i b l e t h a t i t s e r i o u s l y d i s t o r t s p e r c e p t i o n and Judgm ent, r e n d e r i n g them i n a p p r o p r i a t e to th e demands 17 S t u a r t A . R ic e , Q u a n t i t a t i v e M ethods i n P o l i t i c s (Mew Y ork: A l f r e d A. K nopf, 1 9 2 8 ), p p . 5 4 -5 5 . Leo P . G r e s p i, " P u b lic O p in io n to w ard C o n sc ie n t i o u s O b j e c t o r s ," J o u r n a l o f P s y c h o lo g y , 1 9 :2 5 7 , A p r i l , 1945. Edward C. McDonagh, " A s i a t i c S t e r e o t y p e s and N a tio n a l D i s t a n c e ," S o c io lo g y and S o c i a l R e s e a r c h , 2 3 :4 7 4 , May, 1939. 2^ H a rry R . M e y e rin g , "The T u rk is h S t e r e o t y p e s ," S o c io lo g y and S o c i a l R e s e a r c h , 2 2 :1 1 2 , Novem ber, 1937. 8 o f th e o b j e c t i v e s i t u a t i o n , t h e s o c i a l p s y c h o lo g is t u s u a l l y d e s i g n a t e s t h i s te n a c io u s a t t i t u d e a s a s t e r e o t y p e . . . .21 A lso e m p h a siz in g d i s t o r t i o n , A lb ig s a y s , " S t e r e o t y p e s a r e p r e c o n c e p tio n s a c q u ir e d from th e c u l t u r e ; th o s e r e i f i c a t i o n s and s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s w hich a r e c u r r e n t op i n l a r g e g r o u p s ." A g ain d e a l i n g w ith r e s p o n s e , E l i o t d e f in e d s t e r e o ty p e d re s p o n s e a s " r e s p o n s e p a t t e r n e d by a d e f i n i t i o n of th e s i t u a t i o n o r c o n c e p tio n of r o l e p r e v i o u s ly h a b i t u a t e d i n th e r e s p o n d in g p e r s o n 's m in d ."23 E dw ards, o s t e n s i b l y to a v o id " c ir c u m lo c u tio n " r e s u l t i n g from Lippm ann*s d e f i n i t i o n , e m p h a size s th e s t i m u l u s : "A s t e r e o t y p e i s a s tim u lu s w hich a ro u s e s s t a n d a r d i z e d p r e c o n c e p tio n s w hich a r e i n f l u e n t i a l i n d e te r m in in g o n e 's re s p o n s e to th e s t i m u l u s ." He e l a b o r a t e d by e x p la in in g t h a t " t h e i n t e r a c t i o n betw een t h e s tim u lu s and th e s ta n d a r d i z e d p r e c o n c e p tio n s i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h i s d e f i n i t i o n , "24 21 C ite d by N athan S c h o e n fe ld , "An E x p e rim e n ta l S tu d y o f Some P ro b lem s R e l a t i n g to S t e r e o t y p e s ," A rc h iv e s o f P s y c h o lo g y . No. 270 , p . 1 2 , 1942. 22 W illia m A lb ig , P u b lic O p in io n (New Y ork: McGraw- H i l l Book Company, I n c . , 1 9 3 9 ), p p . 5 8 -5 9 . Thomas Dawes E l i o t i n H enry P r a t t F a i r c h i l d , o p . P i t . ; p . 2 5 8 . 9 B r i t t , f o llo w in g E dw ards, s a y s , " S t e r e o t y p e s a r e s t i m u l i w hich a ro u s e s ta n d a r d i z e d p r e c o n c e p tio n s w hich a r e i n f l u e n t i a l i n d e te r m in in g o n e 's b e h a v i o u r ."25 POINTS OF MAJOR EMPHASIS IN STUDIES OF STEREOTYPES E x a m in a tio n o f th e above d e f i n i t i o n s a s w e ll a s e x p e r im e n ta l and d e s c r i p t i v e s t u d i e s d e a l i n g w ith s t e r e o ty p e s w i l l make i t c l e a r t h a t s t e r e o t y p i n g i s a p r o c e s s to be u n d e rs to o d i n te rm s o f s e v e r a l p o i n t s of view . F o llo w in g i s a l i s t o f some o f t h e s e p o i n t s o f v iew : 1 . C l a s s i f i c a t i o n and g e n e r a l i z a t i o n . 2 . S i m p l i f i c a t i o n . 3 . M e n ta l im a g e ry . 4 . E m o tio n a l in v o lv e m e n t. 5 . A s s o c ia t io n w ith sy m b o ls. 6 . F o rm a tio n o f a c o m p o s ite . 7 . I n a c c u r a c y . 8 . U n if o r m ity . 9 . s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n . 4 A. L . E dw ards, " S t u d i e s o f S t e r e o t y p e s : I . The D i r e c t i o n a l i t y and U n if o rm ity of R e sp o n se s t o S t e r e o t y p e s ," J o u r n a l of S o c i a l P s y c h o lo g y . 1 2 :3 5 7 -6 6 , November, 1940. 25 s t e u a r t H en d erso n B r i t t , S o c i a l P sy c h o lo g y o f M odern L if e (New Y ork: R in e h a r t and Company, 1 9 4 6 ), p . 2 02. 1 0 1 0 . A s s o c i a t i o n w ith p r e j u d i c e . 1 1 . I n f lu e n c e o f th e " h a lo e f f e c t . " 1 2 . I n f lu e n c e f o r s o c i a l c o n t r o l . 1 3 . C o n c e p tio n s o f p u b lic o p i n io n . ANALYSIS AND POINT OF VIEW FOR PRESENT STUDY Edwards* d e f i n i t i o n o f a s t e r e o t y p e h a s become s u f f i c i e n t l y w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d i n e x p e r im e n ta l l i t e r a t u r e t h a t a p r o p o s a l to d i s c a r d i t r e q u i r e s c a r e f u l , c r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s . He i n t r o d u c e s h i s d e f i n i t i o n a s f o llo w s : . . . W hile Lippm ann*s d e f i n i t i o n o f a s te r e o ty p e a s a s t a n d a r d i z e d p i c t u r e i n t h e h e a d would n e c e s s i t a t e a d i s t i n c t i o n betw een t h e s t i m u l u s a r o u s in g th e s t e r e o t y p e and th e s tim u lu s i t s e l f , n e v e r t h e l e s s f o r a l l b e h a v i o r a l p u rp o s e s th e s tim u lu s and th e s t e r e o ty p e c o u ld be c o n s id e r e d a s i d e n t i c a l , B e h a v io r a lly , th e s tim u lu s i s , f o r th e i n d i v i d u a l r e s p o n d in g to i t , w h a te v e r he t h i n k s i t i s . The word f a s c is m , f o r exam ple, may a ro u s e c e r t a i n p r e c o n c e p tio n s w hich a r e p r o j e c te d to th e w ord, and th e i n d i v i d u a l w i l l th e n re sp o n d t o th e word a s th o u g h i t w ere t h e same a s h i s p r e c o n c e p tio n s o f i t . To a v o id th e c o n fu s io n and c ir c u m lo c u tio n w hich an a c c e p ta n c e o f Lippm ann*s d e f i n i t i o n would in v o lv e , we p ro p o se d t h a t a s t e r e o ty p e be d e f in e d a s : "a s tim u lu s w hich a ro u s e s s t a n d a r d iz e d p r e c o n c e p tio n s t h a t a r e i n f l u e n t i a l i n d e te r m in in g o n e 's r e s p o n s e s to t h e s t i m u l u s ." 2 o The above q u o t a t i o n r i g h t l y e m p h a siz e s t h a t be h a v io r i s to be u n d e rs to o d by a r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t an 2^ A lle n L . E dw ards, "F o u r D im ensions i n P o l i t i c a l S t e r e o t y p e s ," J o u r n a l o f A bnorm al and S o c i a l P sy c h o lo g y . 3 5 :5 6 7 , O c to b e r, 1 940. 1 1 i n d i v i d u a l r e a c t s to h i s p e r c e p t i o n o f th e w o rld a b o u t him . However, i t w ould seem t h a t t h e r e i s some d i s a d v a n ta g e i n d e t r a c t i n g a t t e n t i o n from th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l p r o c e s s o f s t e r e o t y p i n g by c a l l i n g th e s t e r e o t y p e a " s t i m u l u s . " E x p re s s io n s such a s th e f o llo w in g a r e f r e q u e n t l y se e n i n l i t e r a t u r e : " th e J a p a n e s e s t e r e o t y p e , " " th e common s t e r e o t y p e o f N e g ro es'," " th e M exican s t e r e o t y p e . " An i l l u s t r a t i o n may r e v e a l a l i m i t a t i o n o f E d w ards' d e f i n i t i o n f o r a s tu d y o f r a c i a l s t e r e o t y p e s . Suppose John Doe, who i s accu sto m ed to c a t e g o r i c a l t h i n k i n g , i s s i t t i n g i n a room when a N egro e n t e r s . John Doe lo o k s up from h i s n e w sp a p er and s e e s a d a r k - s k in n e d i n d i v i d u a l w ith b la c k , c u r l y h a i r and t h i c k l i p s . I f E dw ards' d e f i n i t i o n w ere a p p l i e d t o t h i s s i t u a t i o n , t h e s tim u lu s I w ould be th e p e rs o n w ith N e g ro id c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . T h ere f o r e , th e Negro p e rs o n would be th e s t e r e o t y p e . However, i f L ip p m an n 's d e f i n i t i o n — o r a more r e f i n e d one m eaning th e same th in g - ~ w e r e a p p l i e d t o t h i s s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n , th e p re s e n c e o f th e N egro w ould be se e n t o in v o k e i n t h e mind o f Jo h n Doe a c o m p o site s t o r e d i n memory, p lu s f e e l i n g s and r e a c t i o n s d e r iv e d from p a s t e m o tio n a l e x p e r i e n c e s . T hus, John Doe may be e x p e c te d t o r e a c t , n o t to t h e Negro a s a p e rs o n , n o r ev en t o t h e word " N e g ro ," b u t to h i s own 1 2 s t e r e o t y p e , h i s own p r e c o n c e p tio n s o f w hat i n d i v i d u a l s who have N egro p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e supp osed to be l i k e , When one w is h e s to d i s c o v e r how s t e r e o t y p e s d e v e lo p i n i n d i v i d u a l s and g ro u p s and how th e y o p e r a t e i n s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s , he i s n o t c o n c e rn e d w ith a sim p le s t i m u l u s - r e s p o n s e ty p e o f r e l a t i o n s h i p . He i s d e a l in g w ith an a s p e c t o f th e e x tre m e ly com plex p ro b lem o f t h e o r i g i n , c h a r a c t e r , and f u n c t i o n o f human i d e a s . N o th in g i s t o be g a in e d by d e f i n i n g a com plex s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s i n such a way a s t o l i m i t i t to t h a t w hich i s e x t e r n a l to t h e i n d i v i d u a l . A c o n c e p t i n s o c i a l p sy c h o lo g y m u st be a p p l i c a b l e t o s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s . I t sh o u ld be u s e f u l i n r e s e a r c h to i n c r e a s e u n d e r s ta n d in g o f s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s and t h e i n t e r a c t i o n betw een p e r s o n a l i t y and s i t u a t i o n . C o n tra r y to E dw ards, i t may be c o n c lu d e d t h a t s t e r e o t y p e s a r e n o t s t i m u l i which a ro u s e s t a n d a r d i z e d p r e c o n c e p tio n s . S t e r e o t y p e s a r e s t a n d a r d i z e d p re c o n c e p t i o n s . They p ro v id e n e c e s s a r y m e n ta l economy. They e n a b le one t o d e f i n e s i t u a t i o n s . They a r e g u id e p o s ts f o r a c t i o n . They r e n d e r a com plex s i t u a t i o n m a n a g e a b le . Y et t h e y may l e a d t o d i s t o r t i o n s i n p e r c e p t i o n and ju d g m e n t. S t e r e o ty p e s a r e m e n ta l c a t e g o r i e s . They a r e com p o s i t e im p r e s s io n s d e riv e d from p a s t e x p e r ie n c e s t h a t a r e s t o r e d i n memory o r i n th e form o f c o n s c io u s o r u n c o n s c io u s 13 s u r v i v a l s o f p a s t e m o tio n s. They a r e " th e a u t h o r i t i e s to w hich new f a c t s and e x p e r ie n c e s a r e a u t o m a t i c a l l y r e f e r r e d f o r e v a l u a t i o n . " 2 7 They a r e b ro a d , i n c l u s i v e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s s i g n i f y i n g t h a t p a r t i c u l a r p e rs o n s o r s o c i a l v a lu e s h ave c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w hich conform t o p re c o n c e p tio n s o f q u a l i t i e s w hich b e lo n g to members of th e c l a s s i n w hich have been c a t e g o r i z e d a l l s i m i l a r p e rs o n s o r v a l u e s . They a r e b e l i e f s a c q u ir e d by i n d i v i d u a l s r e g a r d in g th e t r a i t s o f t o t a l g ro u p s o f p e o p le who can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from th e i n - g r o u p . S te r e o ty p in g by g ro u p s c o n s i s t s o f b e l i e f s a b o u t an o u t- g r o u p w hich a r e e x p re s s e d so o f t e n and by so many members of th e in - g r o u p t h a t th e s e b e l i e f s become s o c i a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . S t e r e o t y p e s a r e a c o e r c iv e e le m e n t i n e v e ry s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n . They may become h a b i t u a t e d or " f ix e d " i n th e i n d i v i d u a l . They form common p a t t e r n s i n g ro u p s . They may be a b a s ic f a c t o r i n t h e fo rm in g o f g ro u p o p in io n . They a r e p a s s e d on th ro u g h t r a d i t i o n s . They may become a p a r t of th e m o re s . They make b i a s and p r e j u d i c e r e l a t i v e l y p e rm a n e n t. They a r e " c o lo r e d g l a s s e s " th ro u g h w hich p e o p le se e each o t h e r . The " s o c i a l p r o c e s s " o f f e r s a u s e f u l t h e o r e t i c a l 27 ^ Emory S . B o g a rd u s, F u n d a m en tals of S o c i a l P sy c h o lo g y (New Y ork: The C e n tu ry Company, 1 9 3 1 ), p . 359. 14 28 fram ew ork f o r a s tu d y o f th e dev elo p m en t o f s t e r e o t y p e s , A s o c i a l p r o c e s s r e p r e s e n t s an " o n - g o in g ," a d ev elo p m en t from one s ta g e o r a s p e c t t o a n o th e r i n a c o n n e c te d s e r i e s o f human e v e n t s . The t r a n s i t i o n from one s ta g e o r a s p e c t to a n o th e r i s o f t e n i n d e f i n i t e . The e le m e n ts of an e a r l i e r s ta g e may i n f l u e n c e r e l a t i o n s i n a l a t e r s t a g e . H ow ever, i t may be p o s s i b l e to d i s t i n g u i s h th e e le m e n ts w hich make up th e p r i n c i p a l o r m o st e s s e n t i a l p a r t of each s t a g e . C le a r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s t a g e s i n d e v e lo p m ent o f a s t e r e o t y p e m ust w a i t upon r e s e a r c h . How ever, i t may be p o s s i b l e to s u g g e s t t e n t a t i v e l y f i v e o f t h e s e s t a g e s : (1) The f i r s t s o r t o f m e n ta l a c t i v i t y i n w hich one en g ag e s when he f i r s t m e e ts a co m p lete s t r a n g e r i s an a tte m p t to i d e n t i f y . Some s i m i l a r i t y t o o n e 's a c q u a i n t a n c e s i s so u g h t i n t h e s t r a n g e r . (2) N ext comes a n e f f o r t a t c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n . What t r a i t s d o e s t h i s p e rs o n e x h i b i t ? (3) T h ird i s a n e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e s e q u a l i t i e s , a p r e l i m i n a r y judgm ent a s to t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . (4) The f o u r t h s ta g e c l o s e l y f o llo w s th e t h i r d . I t i n v o lv e s e m o t i o n a l i z a t i o n . T h is may a r i s e d u r in g th e 2# See d i s c u s s i o n o f "S m all and th e S o c i a l P r o c e s s , " i n Emory S . B o g ard u s, The D evelopm ent o f S o c i a l Thought (New Y ork: Longmans, G reen and Company, 1 9 4 0 ), p p . 436- 4 8 . 15 d e l i b e r a t i o n i n w hich f u r t h e r f a c t s and e x p e r ie n c e s a r e C o n s id e re d . O b s e rv a tio n and i n q u i r y hav e n o t e n t i r e l y c e a s e d . (5) The f i f t h and f i n a l s ta g e i s s o l i d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s t e r e o t y p e u n t i l i t becomes r i g i d o r s t a b l e th ro u g h t i m e . Once th e s t e r e o t y p e h a s re a c h e d t h i s s t a g e , i t s h o l d e r d e fe n d s i t b e ca u se he w is h e s h i s p r e v io u s a c t s and e x p r e s s io n s t o a p p e a r c o n s i s t e n t to h i s f e l l o w s and b e c a u se th e s t e r e o t y p e h a s a n e m o tio n a l m eaning to him . The breakdow n o f a s t e r e o t y p e p ro b a b ly a ls o comes a b o u t g r a d u a l ly and th ro u g h s t a g e s , e x c e p t when a sudden change i n p o i n t o f v iew r e s u l t s from a c r i s i s . (1) New f a c t s , u s u a l l y g a i n i n g r e c o g n i t i o n b e c a u se o f some v i v i d o r s t r i k i n g e x p e r i e n c e , may come to th e a t t e n t i o n . (2) U n c o n sc io u s m o d i f i c a t i o n f o llo w s . (3) R e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f o n e ’ s c o n c e p tio n o f th e s t e r e o t y p e d o b j e c t may be th e r e s u l t o f d e l i b e r a t i o n . (4) Then r e - e v a l u a t i o n of th e f a c t s i s m ade. (5) F i n a l l y , t h e l a s t s t a g e i n th e b re a k down o f th e s t e r e o t y p e i s re a c h e d i n w hich e i t h e r a new s t e r e o t y p e i s g iv e n e m o tio n a l s u p p o r t . o r e l s e e m o tio n a l a v e r s i o n a g a i n s t s t e r e o t y p i n g w hole g ro u p s o f p e o p le a t t a i n s a dom inant p o s i t i o n . An a v e r s i o n may become e s t a b l i s h e d a g a i n s t c o n s i d e r i n g a g iv e n p e rs o n p r i m a r i l y a s a t y p e . Such an a t t i t u d e would demand t h a t th e i n d i v i d u a l s t r a n g e r be t r e a t e d i n te rm s o f h i s i n d i v i d u a l i t y and 16 t h a t o n e ’ s a s s o c i a t e s be d e a l t w ith i n term s o f t h e i r u n iq u e p e r s o n a l i t i e s .29 Lippmann h a s a " c o n ju n c tu r e th e o r y " o f th e o p e r a t i o n o f a s t e r e o t y p e i n s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , ^ ^ He s a y s : The a n a l y s t o f p u b lic o p in io n m ust b e g in th e n , by r e c o g n i z i n g th e t r i a n g u l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een th e sc e n e o f a c t i o n , th e human p i c t u r e o f t h a t s c e n e , and th e human r e s p o n s e to t h a t p i c t u r e w orkin g i t s e l f o u t upon t h e sc en e o f a c t i o n ,31 S te r e o t y p in g i n v o lv e s c o n ju n c tu r e o f t h r e e t h i n g s : (1) th e i n d i v i d u a l ’ s p r e d i s p o s i t i o n , h i s fram e o f r e f e r e n c e , h i s ad vance d e f i n i t i o n w hich c o l o r s a s i t u a t i o n even b e fo re he comes to i t ; (2) th e a c t u a l s i t u a t i o n a s i t r e a l l y i s ; and (3) an e v e n t w hich i s th e c u lm in a tio n o f th e i n d i v i d u a l ’ s a c t i n g upon th e en v iro n m en t a s he s e e s i t , fo llo w e d by c o n se q u e n c e s i n th e e n v iro n m en t a s i t r e a l l y i s . In a v e r y r e a l s e n s e , Lippmann was a f o r e r u n n e r o f th e s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s who a r e g iv e n c r e d i t f o r d e v e lo p in g w hat i s known a s " f i e l d th e o r y " i n s o c i a l C f. N, S . S h a l e r , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 9 6 -2 2 2 ; a l s o see L eopold von W iese and Howard B e c k e r, S y s te m a tic S o c io lo g y (New Y ork; John W iley and S o n s, 1 9 3 2 ), p p . 1 5 8 -5 9 . See C la re n c e M arsh C a se , E s s a y s i n S o c i a l V alu es (Los A n g e le s : The U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1 9 4 4 ), p p . 6 1- 6 3 . Lippm ann, p p . c i t . , p p . I 6 - I 7 . 17 p s y c h o l o g y . ^2 A c c o rd in g to t h i s th e o r y , s o c i a l b e h a v io r c an be u n d e rs to o d by s tu d y in g th e " l i f e sp a c e " o r "p sy c h o l o g i c a l f i e l d " o f i n d i v i d u a l s i n i n t e r a c t i o n . The e s s e n t i a l e le m e n ts a r e (1) p e r s o n a l i t y , (2) s i t u a t i o n , an d (3) p e r c e p t io n o f th e s i t u a t i o n . I t i s i n c o n n e c tio n w ith " p e r c e p t io n o f t h e s i t u a t i o n " t h a t s t e r e o t y p e s p la y a v i t a l p a r t i n s o c i a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n . A s t e r e o t y p e i s d e f in e d , f o r p u rp o s e s o f t h i s s tu d y , a s a c o m p o site m e n ta l im age d e r iv e d from c o n ta c t w ith r e a l o r im a g in a ry i n d i v i d u a l s who a r e c o n s id e r e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f an e n t i r e g ro u p . As u se d p re d o m in a n tly i n t h i s s tu d y , t h e c o m p o site s t e r e o t y p e c o n s i s t s o f a s e r i e s o f l o o s e l y r e l a t e d b u t som etim es c o n t r a d i c t o r y e th n o c e n t r i c ju d g m en ts r e g a r d i n g t r a i t s of a n o u t- g r o u p . I n d i v i d u a l t r a i t s a r e , how ever, d is c u s s e d a s s t e r e o t y p e s . F r e q u e n tly th e a s s ig n m e n t o f t r a i t s p e rfo rm s th e f u n c t i o n o f r e l e g a t i n g th e o u t- g r o u p t o a p o s i t i o n o f i n f e r i o r s o c i a l s t a t u s . B ecause of th e com plex n a t u r e of an i n c l u s i v e s t e r e o t y p e , i t c o n s i s t s , n o t o f a s i n g l e p r e j u d i c e , b u t o f a w hole s e r i e s o f p re ju d g m e n ts o r p r e c o n c e p ti o n s . T hese p r e j u d i c i a l p r e c o n c e p tio n s te n d to 32 j . F . Brown, P sy ch o lo g y and th e S o c i a l O rder (New Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, I n c . , 1 9 3 6 ). X. Lew in, P r i n c i p l e s o f T o p o lo g ic a l P s y c h o lo g y (New Y ork; McGraw- H i l l Book Company, I n c . , 1 9 3 6 r- 1 8 i n f l u e n c e p e r c e p t i o n o f r e a l , c o n c r e te members o f th e o u t- g r o u p . They a ls o e n t e r i n t o p u b lic o p in io n an d p u b lic d e c i s i o n s r e g a r d i n g th e l i m i t a t i o n s t o be p la c e d upon th e o u t- g r o u p and th e o p p o r t u n i t i e s to be a llo w e d them . I n t u r n , d i s c r i m i n a t i o n te n d s to " j u s t i f y " th e s t e r e o t y p e and th e s t e r e o t y p e " j u s t i f i e s " th e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . CHAPTER I I THE SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF STEREOTYPES CONCERNING AMERICAN NEGROES A p o r t i o n o f th e l i t e r a t u r e d e a l i n g w ith th e f o llo w i n g q u e s t io n s w i l l be re v ie w e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r : (1) I s s t e r e o t y p i n g o f N eg ro es by w h ite s a f i t t i n g s u b j e c t f o r s o c i o l o g i c a l in q u ir y ? (2) 11/hat a r e th e m ost common b e l i e f s o f w h ite A m erican s r e g a r d i n g N eg ro es? (3) How a r e th e s e common b e l i e f s a c q u ire d ? (4) H/hat a r e th e p s y c h o lo g ic a l and s o c i a l f u n c t i o n s o f t h e s e b e l i e f s ? T h is re v ie w w i l l c o n s i s t p r i m a r i l y o f a c o m p ila tio n o f p u b l i c a t i o n s d e a l in g w ith t h e s e q u e s t i o n s . I t i s f e l t t h a t a s a g e n e r a l r u l e t h e a u th o r s o f c o n t r i b u t i o n s p e r t i n e n t to t h e s u b j e c t sh o u ld be p e r m i tt e d to sp eak f o r th e m s e lv e s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e a r e f r e q u e n t d i r e c t q u o ta t i o n s . T hese q u o t a t i o n s l a r g e l y c o n s t i t u t e th e d a ta f o r t h i s c h a p t e r . F o llo w in g p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e d a ta i n th e form of s ta te m e n ts o f a u th o r s i n th e w ords o f th e a u th o r s them s e l v e s , t h e r e a r e p r e s e n te d a num ber o f p r o p o s i t i o n s b ased on t h e d a ta g iv e n i n th e body o f t h e c h a p t e r . These p r o p o s i t i o n s c o n s t i t u t e a summary and f i n d in g s r e s u l t i n g from a s tu d y o f th e l i t e r a t u r e . 2 0 The e d i t o r i a l comments w i l l p e rh a p s s e rv e to r e l a t e th e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f th e v a r i o u s a u t h o r s and to i n t e g r a t e and o r i e n t t h e s e c o n t r i b u t i o n s i n r e l a t i o n t o th e q u e s tio n u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . SOCIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF NEGRO STEREOTYPES C h a r le s H o rto n C o oley p o i n t s t h e d i r e c t i o n f o r s o c io l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h i n th e f o llo w in g c l a s s i c s ta te m e n t; I c o n c lu d e . . . t h a t th e im a g in a tio n s w hich p e o p le h av e o f one a n o th e r a r e th e s o l i d f a c t s o f s o c i e t y , and t h a t to o b s e rv e and i n t e r p r e t t h e s e m ust be a c h i e f aim o f s o c io lo g y . I do n o t mean m e re ly t h a t s o c i e t y m ust be s t u d i e d ^ th e im a g in a tio n — t h a t i s t r u e of a l l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t h e i r h i g h e r r e a c h e s — b u t t h a t th e o b j e c t o f s tu d y i s p r i m a r i l y an im a g in a tiv e id e a o r group o f i d e a s i n th e m ind, t h a t we have t o im ag in e i m a g i n a t io n s . The i n t i m a t e g r a s p o f an y s o c i a l f a c t w i l l be found to r e q u i r e t h a t we d i v i n e what men t h i n k o f one a n o t h e r . 1 W. I . Thomas2 em phasized th e im p o rta n c e of " th e d e f i n i t i o n o f th e s i t u a t i o n " b o th f o r u n d e r s ta n d in g c o n c r e t e a c t s and f o r u n d e rs ta n d in g p e r s o n a l i t y d e v e lo p m e n t. The c e n t r a l r o l e of b e l i e f s i s em phasized by G unnar M yrdal a s f o llo w s : ^ C h a r le s H o rto n C o o le y , Human N a tu re and th e S o c ia l O rder (New Y ork: C h a r le s S c r i b n e r ’ s S o n s, 1922j , p p . l& l 22, i t a l i c s i n o r i g i n a l , 2 W illia m I . Thomas, The U n a d ju s te d G i r l (B o sto n ; L i t t l e , Brown, and Company, 1 9 2 5 ), P* 4 2 . 2 1 I t sh o u ld by t h i s tim e be c l e a r t h a t i ^ th e p o p u la r b e l i e f s , and th e y o n l y , w hich e n t e r d i r e c t l y i n t o th e c a u s a l m echanism o f i n t e r r a c i a l r e l a t i o n s . The s c i e n t i f i c f a c t s o f r a c e and r a c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e Negro p e o p le a r e o n ly o f se c o n d a ry and i n d i r e c t im p o rta n c e f o r th e s o c i a l p ro b le m u n d er s tu d y . . . I n th e m s e lv e s th e y a r e o n ly v i r t u a l b u t n o t a c t u a l s o c i a l f a c t s . 3 Some o f th e b e l i e f s of A m erican w h ite s r e g a r d in g N e g ro e s , a s p r e s e n t e d by v a r i o u s a u t h o r s , a r e i n d i c a t e d below . COM M ON BELIEFS OF lEITES REGARDING NEGROES Jerom e D a v is r e f e r s to a p am p h let by D r. Law rence R e d d ic k , C u r a to r o f t h e Schom berg C o l l e c t i o n a t t h e New York L i b r a r y , i n w hich i s g iv e n th e f o l lo w in g l i s t of w h ite s t e r e o t y p e s of N e g ro e s: The sav ag e A f r i c a n , th e happy s l a v e , th e d e v o te d s e r v a n t , th e c o r r u p t p o l i t i c i a n , t h e i r r e s p o n s i b l e c i t i z e n , th e p e t t y t h i e f , th e s o c i a l d e l i n q u e n t , th e v i c i o u s c r i m i n a l , th e s e x u a l superm an, th e s u p e r i o r a t h l e t e , th e unhappy n o n - w h ite , th e n a t u r a l b o r n cook, t h e n a t u r a l b o r n m u s ic ia n , th e p e r f e c t e n t e r t a i n e r , th e s u p e r s t i t i o u s c h u rc h g o e r, th e c h ic k e n and w a term elo n e a t e r , t h e r a z o r and k n i f e t o t e r , th e u n i n h i b i t e d e x p r e s s i o n i s t , and th e m e n ta l i n f e r i o r . 4 A s tu d y p u b lis h e d i n 1920 by N a th an and Mencken ^ Gunnar M y rd a l, An A m erican Dilemma (New Y ork: H a rp e r and B r o th e r s , 194^7, p . 110, i t a l i c s i n o r i g i n a l . ^ Jerom e D a v is , C h a r a c te r A s s a s s i n a t i o n (New Y ork: P h i l o s o p h i c a l L i b r a r y , 1950)> P« 5 5 . 2 2 e n t i t l e d The A m erican C redo^ (Knopf) g i v e s a t o t a l o f 488 s ta te m e n ts w hich t h e y b e li e v e d w ere t y p i c a l o f th e t h in k i n g o f A m erican s c o n c e rn in g q u e s t io n s th e y w ere s t u d y i n g . T h ir t e e n o f t h e s e s t a te m e n t s r e f e r to th e N egro: 1 . T hat a l l m ale N eg ro es can s i n g . 2 . T h at e v e ry c o lo r e d cook h a s a l o v e r who n e v e r w o rk s, and t h a t sh e f e e d s him by s t e a l i n g th e b e s t p a r t o f e v e ry d i s h she c o o k s . 3 . T hat e v e ry N egro who w ent to F ra n c e w ith th e army had a l i a i s o n w ith a w h ite woman and w on’ t lo o k a t a " n ig g e r " wench any m o re . 4 . T hat a N e g ro ’ s v o te may a lw a y s be r e a d i l y b o u g h t f o r a d o l l a r . 5 . T hat i f one h i t s a Negro on th e h e ad w i t h a c o b b le s to n e , t h e c o b b le s to n e w i l l b re a k . 6 . T hat a l l N eg ro es b orn s o u th o f th e Potomac p la y t h e b a n jo and a r e e x c e l l e n t d a n c e r s . 7 . T hat vÆienever a N egro i s e d u c a te d , he r e f u s e s t o w ork and becomes a c r i m i n a l . 8 . T hat e v e ry N egro s e r v a n t g i r l sp e n d s a t l e a s t h a l f o f h e r w ages on p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r t a k i n g th e k in k o u t o f h e r h a i r . 9 . T hat a l l N egro p r i z e f i g h t e r s m arry w h ite women, and t h a t a f t e r w a r d s th e y b e a t them . 1 0 . T hat a l l N eg ro es who show any i n t e l l i g e n c e w h a te v e r a r e a c t u a l l y t w o - t h i r d s w h ite and th e so n s o f U n ite d S t a t e s s e n a t o r s , 1 1 . T hat w henever P r o h i b i t i o n i s e n fo r c e d i n a C ite d i n Naomi F ried m an G o l d s t e in , The R o o ts o f P r e j u d i c e A g a in s t t h e Negro i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s ( Bo is t on : B o sto n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1943T, p . 135* 23 r e g i o n p o p u la te d by N e g ro e s , t h e y ta k e to m o rp h in e , h e r o i n and o t h e r p o w e rfu l d r u g s . 1 2 , T hat th e moment a " n ig g e r " g e t s e ig h t d o l l a r s , he g o es to a d e n t i s t and h a s one o f h i s f r o n t t e e t h f i l l e d w ith g o ld . 1 3 . T hat a N egro b a l l a lw ay s ends up i n a g ra n d f r e e f o r a l l f i g h t , i n w hich s e v e r a l "c o o n s" a r e m o r t a l l y s la s h e d w ith r a z o r s . T h is l i s t i s n o t p r e s e n te d a s a r e l i a b l e s o u rc e o f s c i e n t i f i c in f o r m a tio n c o n c e rn in g th e b e l i e f s o f w h ite s r e g a r d i n g N e g ro e s, b u t i t d o e s p r e s e n t th e s a l i e n t f e a t u r e s o f th e s t e r e o t y p e N egro w hich may be found i n l i t e r a t u r e , com ic s t r i p s , a d v e r t is e m e n t s , m o v ie s, e t c . As G o ld s te in p o i n t s o u t , ite m s 2 , 4 , 7> 11» 1 2 , and I 3 r e f e r to th e p e c u l i a r v i c e s a t t r i b u t e d to t h e N e g ro . Ite m s 3 , 8 , 9 , and 10 s t r e s s h i s su p p o sed d e s i r e t o be w h i t e . Ite m s 1 and 6 a s s i g n s p e c i a l v i r t u e s to th e N eg ro . The b e l i e f t h a t N e g ro es l a c k i n t e l l i g e n c e i s s t r e s s e d by ite m 5# A p ro m in e n t Nègro w r i t e r d e s c r i b e s th e w h ite s t e r e o ty p e o f N eg ro es a s f o llo w s : The com m on-denom inator t h i n k i n g a b o u t th e Negro i n A m erica— i f we may c a l l i t t h i n k i n g — i s done i n s t e r e o t y p e s . T hese s t e r e o t y p e s v a ry to t h e p o in t o f c o n t r a d i e t o r i n e s s . "The N e g ro ," and t h a t i n c l u d e s a l l N e g ro e s , " i s l a z y , s h i f t l e s s , and u n r e l i a b l e ; he i s an i r r e s p o n s i b l e c h i l d , a p a t h e t i c a l l y u n c o n s c io u s p i l f e r e r , h e i s in c a p a b le o f m e n ta l and m o ra l d e v e lo p m en t, he i s a b r u t a l and d e g e n e ra te c r i m i n a l . " One o r m ore o f t h e s e s t e r e o t y p e s e n t e r i n t o fo rm in g th e i d e a s a b o u t Negro A m erican s h e ld by t h e a v e ra g e w h ite A m e ric a n .o 24 W r i t e r s o f f i c t i o n have d e v e lo p e d " s to c k c h a r a c t e r s " w hich te n d to p o p u l a r i z e s t e r e o t y p e s o f N e g ro e s. A N egro , j o u r n a l i s t , G eorge S . S c h u y le r , h a s s a t i r i z e d t h e s e p o p u la r s t e r e o t y p e s a s f o llo w s : W e E th i o p s , one g a t h e r s from t h i s m ass o f e v id e n c e , a r e a c h i l d i s h , s h i f t l e s s , im m o ral, p r i m i t i v e , i n c u r a b l y r e l i g i o u s , g e n i a l l y i n c o m p e te n t, i n c r e d i b l y o d o r i f e r o u s , i n h e r e n t l y m u s i c a l, c h r o n i c a l l y e x c i t a b l e , m e n ta lly i n f e r i o r p e o p le w ith p ron o u n ced h o m ic id a l t e n d e n c i e s . We a r e in c a p a b le o f s e lf -g o v e r n m e n t o r s e l f - r e s t r a i n t and i r r e s p o n s i b l e e x c e p t when le d by w h ite f o l k s . W e p o s s e s s a p e n c h a n t f o r a s s a u l t i n g w h ite fe m a le s and a n i n o r d i n a t e a p p e t i t e f o r c h ic k e n , g i n , and w a te rm e lo n . W hile i t i s f i n a l l y and r e l u c t a n t l y a d m itte d t h a t we b e lo n g to t h e human r a c e , we a r e a c c o rd e d o n ly t h e lo w e s t p o s i t i o n i n th e s p e c i e s , a n o tc h o r two above th e g r e a t a p e s . W e make good d o m e s tic s b u t h o p e le s s e x e c u t i v e s . Even a t t h i s l a t e d a t e , a l l coons lo o k a l i k e t o th e g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f N o rd ic A m e ric an s, and even th e h i g h e s t ty p e o f Negro i s u n d e r no c o n s i d e r a t i o n to be a c c o rd e d a h ig h e r p o s i t i o n th a n th e lo w e s t ty p e o f w h i t e . In s h o r t , from ex am in in g th e b u lk o f th e e v id e n c e , th e i m p a r t i a l i n v e s t i g a t o r m ust c o n c lu d e t h a t th e Negro h a s a lm o s t a m onopoly o f a l l th e more d i s c r e d i t a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of m an k in d . But a t th e same tim e one i s e f f u s i v e l y in fo rm e d t h a t h e i s d e e p ly lo v e d and th o r o u g h ly u n d e r s to o d , e s p e c i a l l y by h i s p o rk -s k in n e d f r i e n d s o f S o u th e rn d e r i v a t i o n . 7 The a n a l y s i s by M a rg a re t H a lse y ^ o f th e p ro b lem of ^ Jam es W eldon Jo h n s o n , Negro A rn e ric an s, What Now? Y ork: The V ik in g P r e s s , 193477 P* 9 1 . ? Q uoted i n M au rice R. D a v ie , N eg ro es i n A m erican S o c ie ty (New Y ork: M cG raw -H ill Book Company, 1 9 4 9 ), p . 366. ^ M a rg a re t H a ls e y , C o lo r B l i n d : A W hite Woman Looks a t th e Negro (New Y ork: Simon and S c h u s t e r , 1 9 4 6 ), p . 8 4 . 2 5 t e n s i o n betw een w h ite s and N eg ro es p r e s e n t s a h y p o th e s is r e g a r d in g t h e "A m erican Dilemma" w hich i s w o rth y o f n o te : What m akes w e l l - i n t e n t i o n e d p e o p le i l l a t e a s e i n t h e i r f i r s t c o n ta c t w ith N eg ro es on a f o o t in g o f e q u a l i t y i s a c o n f l i c t betw een two o p p o sin g a s p e c t s o f t h e c i v i l i z a t i o n t h a t form ed them . On th e one h a n d , t h e s e p e o p le have been t a u g h t , and have ta k e n s e r i o u s l y , th e d e m o c ra tic c o n c e p t o f e q u a l i t y and th e r e l i g i o u s c o n c e p t o f b r o th e r h o o d . On th e o t h e r h a n d , th e y h av e a l s o b een t a u g h t - - i n a th o u sa n d t i n y , s u b t l e ways and r e g a r d l e s s o f w h e th e r o r n o t th e y w ere b ro u g h t up i n t h e S o u th — to a s s o c i a t e d a rk s k in w ith S p i r i t u a l s B ig f e e t I r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y D e p lo ra b le (from th e p o i n t o f v iew o f A n g lo - Saxon r e s t r a i n t ) t a s t e i n c l o t h e s U ncle Tom ' A unt Jemima R o c h e s te r P ullm an p o r t e r s I n e x h a u s t i b l e s e x u a l i t y " C o a l- b la c k " b a b ie s In t h e i r e x t r a o r d i n a r y stu d y o f th e s t a t u s of N eg ro es i n C h ic a g o , D rake and C ayton d id n o t ig n o r e th e r o l e o f w h ite b e l i e f s a s th e y a f f e c t th e l i v e s o f N e g ro e s. S in c e th e e a r l y d a y s o f th e s la v e t r a d e , d a rk s k i n - c o l o r h a s b een c o n s id e r e d a m ark o f i n f e r i o r i t y — s o c i a l , econom ic, and p o l i t i c a l — i n t h e A n g lo - 2 6 A m erican w o rld . A f r i c a h a s become th e m a s t e r - symbol o f b e n ig h te d n e s s and s a v a g e ry , i t s p e o p le b e in g th o u g h t o f a s lo w e st i n th e s c a l e o f c u l t u r e and c i v i l i z a t i o n — p e rh a p s even n o t f u l l y human. A vague b e l i e f p e rm e a te s th e s o c i e t y t h a t N eg ro es a r e " c l o s e r to th e a p e s . ” F o lk - th o u g h t i n v e s t s them — th e d e s c e n d a n ts o f A f r i c a n s l a v e s — w ith a n a u r a o f " p r i m i t i v e n e s s . " They a r e c o n s id e r e d im p u ls iv e , c h i l d l i k e , o v e r - e m o tio n a l, o v e rs e x e d , and s h o r t on b r a i n s and i n i t i a t i v e . They a r e th o u g h t to be d o c i l e , e a s i l y f r i g h t e n e d , i n c r e d i b l y s u p e r s t i t i o u s , b u t g i f t e d w ith a s u r e s e n s e o f rhythm ( p e rh a p s i n c o m p e n sa tio n f o r l a c k o f g ra y m a t t e r ) . These b a s ic b e l i e f s a r e r e i n f o r c e d by th e o b j e c t i v e f a c t t h a t , th e w o rld a ro u n d , th e d a r k e r p e o p le s a r e p r e d o m in a n tly "back w ard" vhen ju d g e d by W este rn E u ro p ean s t a n d a r d s . - The low c u l t u r a l and econom ic s t a t u s of N e g ro es i n A m erica seems to c o n firm t h i s e s t i m a te . Q uick ju d g m en ts a r i s i n g from l i m i t e d c o n t a c t s w ith N e g ro e s , and from th e p i c t u r e o f N egro l i f e p r e s e n t e d by th e p r e s s , r a d i o , and s c r e e n , p e r p e t u a t e th e s t e r e o t y p e . E p i t h e t s l i k e " n i g g e r , " " d a r k e y ," " s h i n e ," "sm o k e," " s p a d e ," " d i n g y ," e x i s t i n th e c u l t u r e and may be u sed a s s h o r t - c u t sym bols to e x p re s s a l l t h e co n tem p t c o n c e n tr a te d i n th e p o p u la r e s t im a t e o f th e N eg ro . K inky h a i r , t h i c k l i p s , and d a rk s k in become th e e s t h e t i c a n t i t h e s i s o f s t r a i g h t h a i r , s m a ll l i p s , w h ite s k i n , and th e s e p h y s i c a l t r a i t s a r e th o u g h t to be c o r r e l a t e d w ith a l l of t h e u n sa v o ry c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n d i c a t e d a b o v e .9 A n o th e r stu d y made a few y e a r s b e fo re t h a t o f D rake and C ayton d e a l t w ith th e same g e n e r a l them e o f th e r o l e and s t a t u s o f N e g ro es i n s o c i e t y . T h is s tu d y so u g h t to d e s c r i b e Negro l i f e i n th e Deep S o u th and t h e b e l i e f s ^ S t . C l a i r D rake and H orace R. C a y to n , B la c k M e tr o p o lis (New Y ork: H a r c o u r t, B race and Company, 1 9 4 5 ), p p . 266-6*?, p a r e n t h e s e s i n o r i g i n a l . 27 o f w h ite s c o n c e rn in g N e g ro e s , L ess of a siammary t h a n th e s ta te m e n t q u o ted a b o v e , th e fo llo w in g e x c e r p t d i s c u s s e s one p r e v a i l i n g b e l i e f r e g a r d i n g N egroes h e ld by s o u th e r n w h i t e s . The b e l i e f i n o r g a n ic i n f e r i o r i t y o f t h e Negro r e a c h e s i t s s t r o n g e s t e x p r e s s io n i n t h e common a s s e r t i o n t h a t N e g ro es a r e " u n c l e a n .” In s p i t e o f t h e i r w id e s p re a d u se a s n u r s e s and s e r v a n t s , t h e r e re m a in s a s tr o n g f e e l i n g t h a t th e c o l o r o f th e N eg ro es i s a b h o r r e n t and t h a t c o n ta c t w ith them may be c o n ta m in a tin g . T here i s g e n e r a l l y a s tr o n g f e e l i n g a g a i n s t e a t i n g o r d r i n k in g from d i s h e s u se d by N e g ro e s, and m ost o f t h e w h ite s p ro v id e s e p a r a t e d i s h e s f o r th e u se o f t h e i r s e r v a n t s . The i d e a o f u n c l e a n l i n e s s i s a l s o e x te n d e d to any c l o t h i n g worn by N e g ro e s , a s was d r a m a t i c a l l y shown when a N egro c u sto m e r r e t u r n e d a c o a t w hich she had bought from a w h ite c l o t h i n g m e r c h a n t. The c l e r k was u n w i l li n g t o a c c e p t th e c o a t and when th e a s s i s t a n t m anager a c c e p te d i t , t h e c l e r k s a i d to a n o th e r c l e r k ; " T h is i s p e r f e c t l y t e r r i b l e ; I t h i n k i t i s a w f u l. We c a n ’ t p u t t h a t c o a t back i n s t o c k . " The l a t t e r s a i d ; " I know i t , Who w a n ts a n i g g e r c o a t? I d o n 't f e e l l i k e show ing t h a t c o a t t o an y o n e; nobody w a n ts to buy a n ig g e r c o a t . Some l i t t l e w h ite g i r l w i l l p r o b a b ly come i n and buy i t and n o t know i t i s a n ig g e r c o a t , "10 - R e tu r n in g once m ore t o C hicago a s a s e t t i n g and a g a in to a more g e n e r a l s ta te m e n t o f b e l i e f s r e g a r d i n g N e g ro e s, i t can be se e n t h a t th e C hicago Com m ission on Race R e l a t i o n s o f t h e e a r l y t w e n t i e s re c o g n iz e d t h a t s te r e o t y p e d 0 A l l i s o n D a v is , B u r le ig h B. G a rd n e r, and Mary R , G a rd n e r, Deep S o u th (C h icag o : U n i v e r s i t y o f C hicago P r e s s , 1 9 4 1 ), p p . 15 ^16, 2 8 b e l i e f s r e g a r d i n g N eg ro es c o n t r i b u t e d to r a c e r i o t s . The a u t h o r s c l a s s i f y b e l i e f s c o n c e rn in g N eg ro es i n t o two gro ups, n am ely , p rim a ry b e l i e f s and s e c o n d a ry b e l i e f s . Among th e p rim a ry b e l i e f s a r e d i s c u s s e d th e f o llo w in g : (1) m e n ta lity ,, (2) m o r a l i t y , (3) c r i m i n a l i t y , (4) p h y s i c a l u n a t t r a c t i v e n e s s , and (5) e m o t i o n a l i t y . Q u o ta tio n s u n d er each o f t h e s e h e a d in g s and from e i g h t s ta te m e n ts o f " s e c o n d a ry b e l i e f s " fo llo w : M e n t a l i t y . — The c h i e f of t h e s e i s t h a t th e mind o f th e N egro i s d i s t i n c t l y and d i s t i n c t i v e l y i n f e r i o r to t h a t o f th e w h ite r a c e , and so a r e a l l r e s u l t i n g f u n c t i o n i n g s o f h i s m in d . M o r a l i t y .-^ A n o th e r o f t h e s e p rim a ry b e l i e f s i s t h a t N e g ro es a r e n o t y e t c a p a b le o f e x e r c i s i n g th e s o c i a l r e s t r a i n t s w hich a r e common t o th e m ore c i v i l i z e d w h ite p e r s o n s . C r i m i n a l i t y . — The a s s u m p tio n back o f m ost d i s - c u s s i o n s o f Negro crim e i s t h a t t h e r e i s a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r w eak n ess i n N e g ro es and a c o n se q u e n t p r e d i s p o s i t i o n to s e x u a l c rim e s , p e t t y s t e a l i n g , and c rim e s o f v i o l e n c e . P h y s i c a l u n a t t r a c t i v e n e s s . - - O b j c o tio n s to c o n t a c t a r e o f t e n a t t r i b u t e d to p h y s i c a l law s w h ich , i t i s s a i d , make th e s i g h t o r o t h e r s e n s o ry im p r e s s io n o f th e N egro u n b e a ra b ly r e p u l s i v e . E m o tio n a lity . — T h is i s commonly r e g a r d e d a s e x p la in i n g f e a t u r e s o f c o n d u c t i n N e g ro e s , some o f w hich a r e b e a u t i f u l i n t h e i r e x p r e s s io n w h ile o t h e r s a r e u g ly and d a n g e ro u s . The su p posed Negro g i f t o f song i s t h u s an a c c e p te d a t t r i b u t e of h i s e m o tio n a l n a t u r e . So w ith h i s r e l i g i o u s i n c l i n a t i o n . T h is same e m o tio n a lis m i s b e lie v e d to le a d him t o d r i n k and i s f r e q u e n t l y made to a c c o u n t f o r " h i s q u ic k , u n e a l o u la t e d c rim e s o f v i o l e n c e . " H 29 Some o f th e se c o n d a ry b e l i e f s o f w h ite s r e g a r d i n g A m erican N eg ro es a r e g iv e n by th e C hicago Com mission o f th e t w e n ti e s a s f o llo w s : 1 . T hat N eg ro es a r e l a z y ; t h a t t h e y a r e i n d is p o s e d t o , th o u g h n o t in c a p a b l e o f , s u s ta i n e d p h y s i c a l e x e r t i o n . 2 . T hat th e y a r e h a p p y -g o -lu c k y ; t h a t t h e i r im p ro v id e n c e i s d e m o n s tra te d i n t h e i r e x tra v a g a n c e ; and t h a t t h e i r r e c k l e s s d i s r e g a r d f o r t h e i r w e lf a r e i s shown i n a l a c k o f f o r e s i g h t f o r th e e s s e n t i a l s o f w e l l - b e i n g . I t i s a s s e r t e d t h a t th e y do n o t p u rc h a s e homes and do n o t sa v e t h e i r money; t h a t th e y spend l a v i s h l y f o r c l o t h e s to th e n e g l e c t o f home c o m fo rts and th e demands even o f t h e i r h e a l t h ; t h a t t h e y w ork by t h e d a y , and b e fo re th e week i s ended c o n fu s e b o o k -k e e p in g by dem anding t h e i r p ay . 3 . T hat th e y a r e b o i s t e r o u s . H i l a r i t y i n p u b lic p l a c e s and e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e i r own g a t h e r in g s i s th o u g h t to be common . . . 4 . T hat t h e y a r e b u m p tio u s; t h a t when a Negro i s p la c e d i n a p o s i t i o n o f un accustom ed a u t h o r i t y r e l a t i v e to h i s g ro u p he h a s an u n d u ly e x a g g e ra te d se n se o f h i s own im p o rta n c e an d m akes h im s e lf u n b e a r a b l e • 5 . T hat th e y a r e o v e r a s s e r t i v e ; t h a t c o n s t a n t h a rp in g on c o n s t i t u t i o n a l r i g h t s i s a h a b i t of N e g ro e s , e s p e c i a l l y o f th e new er g e n e r a t i o n ; t h a t i n t h e i r demands f o r e q u a l r i g h t s and p r i v i l e g e s th e y a r e egged on by a g i t a t o r s o f t h e i r own r a c e and a r e o v e r i n s i s t e n t i n t h e i r dem ands; t h a t th e y r e s e n t im a g in a ry i n s u l t s and a r e g e n e r a l l y s u p e r s e n s i t i v e . 1 1 C hicago Com m ission on Race R e l a t i o n s , The Negro i n C hicago (C h ica g o : U n i v e r s i t y of C hicago P r e s s , 1 9 2 2 ), p p . 43^*^39 • 6 . T hat t h e y a r e la c k in g i n c i v i c c o n s c io u s n e s s . 7 . T hat t h e y u s u a l l y c a r r y r a z o r s . . • 8 . T h at t h e y h a b i t u a l l y " s h o o t c r a p s . . . ” N eg ro es a r e b e lie v e d to be f l a s h y i n d r e s s , lo v in g b r i l l i a n t and gaudy c o l o r s , e s p e c i a l l y v i v i d r e d . A g a in , th e y a r e b e lie v e d by w h ite u n i o n i s t s to be n a t u r a l s t r i k e b r e a k e r s w ith d e l i b e r a t e i n t e n t i o n s to underm ine w h ite l i v i n g s t a n d a r d s . S i m i l a r l y th e y a r e b e lie v e d t o be fond o f g i n . P a u p e rism among them i s b e lie v e d to be u n d u lv h i g h , and th e y a r e th o u g h t to have no home l i f e . 1 2 The fo llo w in g p a s s a g e from Odum g i v e s a p i c t u r e of s o u th e r n b e l i e f s w hich i s s t r i k i n g l y s i m i l a r t o th o s e q u o te d above from D rake and C ayton and from th e C hicago Com mission on R ace R e l a t i o n s . I t was assum ed t h a t th e N egro, when k e p t w i t h in h i s r i g h t f u l s p h e r e , sh o u ld n o t be t r e a t e d u n k in d ly o r u n j u s t l y ; t h a t he s h o u ld be g iv e n f a i r t r i a l s and p r o t e c t e d by law ; and t h a t he s h o u ld be p a id a l i v i n g wage ( s i n c e , h ow ever, h i s s ta n d a r d s o f l i v i n g w ere lo w e r , h e c o u ld l i v e on l e s s t h a n a w h ite man c o u l d ) . I t was assum ed t h a t , i f g iv e n to o much p a y , t h e Negro would w a s te th e money and g e t o u t of bounds to h i s own harm a s w e l l a s to th e d e tr i m e n t o f th e S o u th ; t h a t he was by n a tu r e i n c l i n e d to c r i m in a l b e h a v io r , p a r t l y b e ca u se o f h i s a n im a l n a t u r e and p a r t l y b e ca u se o f h i s i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and im m o r a lity . M o re o v er, th e N egro was b e t t e r o f f i n th e S o u th w here he was " u n d e r s to o d ," and w here h i s b e s t f r i e n d s w e re . I t was assum ed t h a t , w h ile a s a r a c e t h e Negro was i n f e r i o r and g e n e r a l l y u n t r u s t w o r t h y , a s an I b i d . , p p . 4 4 0 -4 5 . 31 i n d i v i d u a l he was o f t e n h o n e s t , l o y a l , l o v a b l e , c a p a b le , and even t a l e n t e d and d i s t i n g u i s h e d ( y e t t h i s was th e e x c e p ti o n ) ; t h a t h i s m u sic , h i s c a r e f r e e , p a t i e n t d i s p o s i t i o n , h i s hom ely p h ilo s o p h y added i n t e r e s t and c o l o r and r i c h n e s s to th e c u l t u r e o f th e S o u th ; t h a t r e c o g n i t i o n sh o u ld be g iv e n t o th e Negro f o r h a v in g made o u t s t a n d i n g p r o g r e s s i n many f i e l d s s in c e b e in g f r e e d from s l a v e r y ( y e t th e -N egro i n g e n e r a l was n o t c a p a b le o f t a k i n g g r e a t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o r o f assu m in g l e a d e r s h i p ) ; t h a t no s e l f - r e s p e c t i n g s o u th e r n e r w ould work u n d e r N egro s u p e r v i s i o n . 13 The w r i t i n g s o f s e r i o u s s c h o l a r s and s c i e n t i s t s r e g a r d i n g N e g ro es som etim es r e v e a l th e e x t e n t to w hich th e common b e l i e f s have i n f lu e n c e d su p p o s e d ly o b j e c t i v e s t u d i e s . The work o f I n a C o rin n e B row n,14 upon w hich th e f o llo w in g d i s c u s s i o n i s b a se d , d e s c r i b e s th e c h an g e s w hich o c c u r re d i n s c h o l a r l y p u b l i c a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g N eg ro es betw een I 9OO and 195 0 . Books w r i t t e n a b o u t N eg ro es and t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s d u r in g th e f i r s t d ecad e o f th e l a s t h a l f c e n t u r y a r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from th o s e p u b lis h e d by r e p u t a b l e p u b l i s h in g h o u se s d u r in g th e l a s t d ecade o f th e h a l f c e n t u r y . Howard W. Odum, The Way o f th e S o u th (New Y ork: The M acm illan Company, 1947)> p p . 5 1 -5 2 . In a C o rin n e Brown, The S to r y o f th e A m erican N egro (New Y ork: F r i e n d s h i p P r e s s , 1 9 5 ^ > p p . 1 6 7 -7 i . F o r a d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e change o f s t a t u s o f A m erican N eg ro es s in c e I 9OO and a l s o changed i d e a s and a t t i t u d e s o f w h ite s r e g a r d i n g N e g ro e s , s e e F r e d e r i c k Lew is A l l e n , The Big Change (New Y ork: H a rp e r and B r o th e r s , 1 9 5 2 ), C h a p te r 1 2 . 32 The change i n s c i e n t i f i c w r i t i n g s i s n o th in g s h o r t of r e v o l u t i o n a r y . H a rd ly more th a n a dozen books o f any s ta n d in g to d a y w ere p u b lis h e d a b o u t A m erican N e g ro es from I 9 O O to 1910. Among t h e s e a r e a few h i s t o r y books and Ray S ta n n a r d B a k e r 's F o llo w in g th e C o lo r L in e and G eorge M e r ria m 's The Negro and t h e N a t i o n . O u ts ta n d in g among N egro s t u d e n t s o f th e r a c e p ro b lem a t t h a t tim e w ere B ooker T. W ash in g to n , W. E . B. D uB ois, and K e lly M i l l e r . S o u th e rn w r i t e r s u s in g d i g n i t y and r e s t r a i n t d u r in g t h o s e y e a r s in c lu d e d Thomas N elso n P a g e , A l f r e d S to n e , and G ard n er M urphy; h o w e v e r, t h e s e men n e v e r q u e s tio n e d th e p r e v a i l i n g b e l i e f a b o u t th e i n n a t e i n f e r i o r i t y o f th e N e g ro . Among t h e b ia s e d p u b l i c a t i o n s a t t h e t u r n o f th e c e n tu r y w hich w ould h a r d l y be a c c e p te d by a r e p u t a b l e p u b l i s h e r to d a y i s an a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d "Some R a c i a l P e c u l i a r i t i e s o f th e Negro B r a in ” p u b lis h e d i n The A m erican J o u r n a l of Anatomy i n I 9 0 6 . I t was l a t e r d is c o v e r e d t h a t th e b ia s of th e a u th o r had so i n f lu e n c e d th e f i n d i n g s a s to make th e s tu d y c o m p le te ly i n v a l i d . The P o l i t i c a l S c ie n c e F a c u lt y a t C olum bia U n i v e r s i t y a c c e p te d a book f o r p u b l i c a t i o n i n 1 9IO u n d e r t h e t i t l e o f The S o c i a l and M en tal T r a i t s o f th e N e g ro . T h is p u b l i c a t i o n d e s c r ib e d th e Negro i n th e f o llo w in g te rm s : 33 L i t t l e . . . lo v e o f home . . . no p r i d e of a n c e s t r y . . . he i s n o t i n f lu e n c e d by th e l i v e s o f g r e a t men . . . l i t t l e c o n c e p tio n o f th e mean i n g o f v i r t u e , t r u t h , h o n o r, manhood, i n t e g r i t y . . . s h i f t l e s s , u n t i d y , and i n d o l e n t . . . im p r o v id e n t and e x tr a v a g a n t; l a z y . . . o f t e n d i s h o n e s t and u n t r u t h f u l . . . o v e r - r e l i g i o u s and s u p e r s t i t i o u s . . . h i s m ind d o es n o t c o n c e iv e of f a i t h i n h u m a n ity --h e d o es n o t com prehend i t . 15 By t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n th e a u th o r o f t h i s C olum bia U n i v e r s i t y p u b l i c a t i o n d id n o t i n t e n d t o im p ly t h a t th e s e q u a l i t i e s a p p li e d t o c e r t a i n N e g ro es o n l y . To t h e con t r a r y , he p r e s e n te d them a s " c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of th e r a c e . " He r e p e a t e d a common b e l i e f o f t h a t day t h a t " a s a r u l e , a f t e r N egro c h i l d r e n become o l d e r t h a n t e n o r tw e lv e y e a r s . . . m e n ta l a b i l i t y . . . i s crow ded o u t by t h e c o a r s e r p h y s i c a l g ro w th . In a fu r th e r a n a l y s is Brown r e f e r s t o a book p u b lis h e d by a r e t i r e d m ajor i n th e M ed ical D epartm ent o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s Army e n t i t l e d The N e g ro , A Menace t o A m erican C i v i l i z a t i o n . T h is book c o n te n d s t h a t . . . In th e Negro c r a n i a l bones a r e d en se and u n u s u a lly t h i c k , c o n v e r tin g h i s head i n t o a v e r i t a b le b a t t e r i n g ram . M oreover t h e c r a n i a l s u t u r e s u n i t e f i r m l y v e ry e a r l y i n l i f e . T h is ch ec k s th e develop m ent o f t h e b r a i n lo n g b e fo r e t h a t t a k e s p la c e i n o t h e r r a c e s . . .17 ' Brown, c i t . , p . 167 & 0G " Git. I b i d . . p . 168. 34 Such a r e some o f th e b e l i e f s r e g a r d i n g th e Negro w h ich w ere p a s s e d on by r e p u t a b l e men i n p o s i t i o n s o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a l i t t l e o v e r f o r t y y e a r s a g o .l& When, i n 1 9 1 1 , F ra n z Boas p u b lis h e d h i s Mind o f P r i m i t i v e Man, i t sto o d a lo n e among books o f w h ite a u t h o r s i n i t s d e n i a l o f i n n a t e l y i n f e r i o r and s u p e r i o r r a c e s . The c o n t r a s t betw een t h e s e r i o u s w r i t i n g s o f s c h o l a r s and s c i e n t i s t s o f to d a y and th o s e o f y e s t e r d a y i s d r a m a t i c a l l y shown by th e l a t e r r e v e r s a l s o f s c h o l a r s who once w ro te a b o u t th e N e g r o 's i n f e r i o r i t y . The a u th o r q u o te d above who so c o n f i d e n t l y c a ta lo g u e d th e m e n ta l and s o c i a l t r a i t s of th e Negro i n 19IO had by 1940 jo in e d w ith h i s f e l l o w a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s i n d e c l a r i n g t h a t t h e r e i s no s c i e n t i f i c e v id e n c e to s u p p o rt th e b e l i e f i n th e r a c i a l i n f e r i o r i t y o f t h e N eg ro . A l a r g e number o f books and a r t i c l e s have been p u b lis h e d i n r e c e n t y e a r s r e f u t i n g th e n o t io n o f r a c i a l i n f e r i o r i t y . Among t h e s e a r e O tto K l i n e b e r g 's R ace D i f f e r e n c e s , M e l v i l l e H e r s k o v i t s ' Myth o f t h e Negro P a s t . S eelfeh d erso n H. D on ald, The N egro Freedm an (New Y ork: H enry Schuman, 1952) a s an exam ple of a r e c e n t a p p a r e n t l y s c h o l a r l y p u b l i c a t i o n w hich i s more com parable to th e l i t e r a t u r e r e f e r r e d to above th a n i t i s to t h a t p u b lis h e d by s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s i n g e n e r a l i n 1952. 35 and A sh le y M o n ta g u 's M a n 's M ost D angerous M yth . These p u b l i c a t i o n s have g iv e n s u p p o r t to th e s ta te m e n t o f F ra n z B oas, " I f th e m ost i n t e l l i g e n t , c a p a b le , and e m o tio n a lly s t a b l e t h i r d o f m ankind sh o u ld be s e l e c t e d a l l th e m a jo r r a c e s w ould be r e p r e s e n t e d . A s tu d y o f th e e x te n t to w hich t h e g e n e r a l p o p u la tio n o f w h ite s i n A m erica to d a y m a in ta in b e l i e f s i n t h e i n f e r i o r i t y o f th e N egro sh o u ld be a m ea su re o f th e c u l t u r a l l a g betw een th e a c q u i s i t i o n of r e l i a b l e , v a l i d know ledge r e g a r d i n g N e g ro es and th e a b s o r p t io n o f t h i s know ledge by w h ite A m e ric a n s. A f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s o f " s c i e n t i f i c " s t u d i e s r e g a r d in g N e g ro e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th o s e com paring N e g ro es and w h ite s , i s g iv e n i n C h a p te r I I I . The d i s c u s s i o n below i d e n t i f i e s c e r t a i n s t e r e o t y p e s and d e a l s w ith t h e i r o r i g i n . SOURCES OF NEGRO STEREOTYPES H i s t o r i c a l l y , N egro s t e r e o t y p e s h ad t h e i r o r i g i n i n t h e p e r i o d o f s l a v e r y when i t was c o n s id e r e d n e c e s s a r y t o s e p a r a t e N e g ro es from w h i t e s . Any g ro u p w hich i s s e g r e g a te d and d i s c r i m i n a t e d a g a i n s t a s a r e s u l t o f s la v e Brown, o p . c i t . , p . 17 1 . -3 ^ s t a t u s I s l i k e l y to be s u b j e c t e d to s t e r e o t y p i n g by th e dom inant g ro u p . G o ld s te in g iv e s a summary o f t h e i n f l u e n c e s w hich r e s u l t e d i n t h e common s o c i a l norm s r e g a r d i n g th e Negro w hich p e r s i s t i n some d e g re e i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s to d a y . 1 . A m erican a t t i t u d e s to w a rd s th e Negro c an n o t be e x p la in e d s a t i s f a c t o r i l y w ith o u t r e f e r e n c e to h i s u n iq u e p o s i t i o n a s a member of th e o n ly e th n ic g ro u p w hich o c c u p ie d a s l a v e s t a t u s in A m erican h i s t o r y . 2 . P r e s e n t a t t i t u d e s o f p r e j u d i c e and h o s t i l i t y can be t r a c e d to t h e i n s t i t u t i o n o f s l a v e r y which depended f o r i t s e x is te n c e upon a l e g a l a n d p sy c h o l o g i c a l s e p a r a t i o n o f Negro an d w h ite . 3. The t r a d i t i o n s , cu sto m s and b e l i e f s en g en d ered i n th e p e r io d of s l a v e r y form a norm w hich i s s u c c i n c t l y e x p re s s e d i n a few s t e r e o t y p e s o f th e Negro w hich a r e to be found i n a l l a s p e c t s o f A m erican c u l t u r e . 4 . The e x p r e s s io n o f p r e j u d i c e and h o s t i l i t y to w a rd s th e Negro i s s o c i a l l y f a c i l i t a t e d i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s , e s p e c i a l l y th ro u g h th e medium of hum or. R e f u s a l to conform t o t h e norm , w h ic h i s r a c i s t i n c o n s t r u c t i o n , h a s l e d , and l e a d s to l o s s o f i n d i v i d u a l p s y c h ic a s w e ll a s p h y s i c a l w e l l b e i n g .20 The same a u th o r p r e s e n t s v e r y r e v e a l i n g m a t e r i a l r e g a r d i n g c e r t a i n b a s ic s t e r e o t y p e s o f N e g ro es w hich have been p r e v a l e n t s in c e th e d a y s o f s l a v e r y . A few o f th e s e a r e w o rth e x a m in a tio n h e r e . Naomi F ried m an G o ld s te in , The R o o ts o f P r e ju d ic e A g a in s t t h e Negro i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s (B o sto n : B oston U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 ^ ), p . 20. 37 The " c o n te n te d s l a v e " s t e r e o t y p e . The Negro d u rin g s l a v e r y , a c c o rd in g to many l i t e r a r y a c c o u n ts , p la y s , novels, and o th e r means of com m unication, was a sim ple-m inded, e a sy -g o in g , e a s i l y - p l e a s e d c r e a t u r e who was c o n te n t and even happy a s lo n g a s a bare s u b s is ta n c e was p ro v id e d f o r him. As e a r l y a s 17&1 a s la v e owner a d v e r t i s e d a s fo llo w s : To be s o ld , an e x tr a o r d i n a r y l i k e l y Negro wench, 17 y e a r s o ld , she can be w a rra n te d to be s tr o n g , h e a l t h y and g o o d -n a tu re d , h a s no - n o tio n o f free d o m , h a s alw ays been used to a F a r m e r's k i tc h e n and d a i r y , and i s n o t known to have any f a i l i n g , but bein g w ith c h i l d , which i s th e o n ly cau se o f h e r b ein g s o l d . ^ The " c o n te n te d s la v e " s t e r e o t y p e i s obvious i n th e fo llo w in g q u o ta tio n from a book p u b lis h e d i n 1908: In many r e s p e c t s th e Negro i s a model p r i s o n e r — th e b e s t i n t h i s c o u n try . He a c c e p t s th e s i t u a t i o n — g e n e r a l l y sp e a k in g — b e a rs no m a lic e , c h e r i s h e s no i l l w i l l o r re s e n tm e n t, and i s c h e e r f u l under con d i t i o n s to which th e w h ite man r e f u s e s to r e c o n c i l e h i m s e l f . T his a d a p t a b i l i t y of th e Negro h a s an imm ediate b e a rin g on t h e q u e s tio n b e fo re u s . I t e x p la in s why t h e Negro m asses i n the S o u th e rn s t a t e s a re c o n te n t w ith t h e i r s i t u a t i o n , or a t l e a s t n o t d i s t u r b i n g th em se lv e s s u f f i c i e n t l y o v e r i t to a tte m p t t o u p s e t t h e e x i s t i n g o rd e r . . . The m asses, j u s t one g e n e r a t i o n out of s l a v e r y and th o u sa n d s o f them s t i l l l a r g e l y c o n t r o l l e d by i t s i n f l u e n c e s , a c c e p t t h i s r e l a t i o n o f s u p e r io r and i n f e r i o r , a s a mere m a t t e r of c o u rs e — a s p a r t of t h e i r l i v e s — a s som ething n e i t h e r t o be I b i d . . p p . 1 3 8 -1 5 5 . 38 q u e s tio n e d , wondered a t , o r w o rried o v e r.2 2 An i n t e r e s t i n g th e o r y r e g a r d i n g the happy and m e n ta lly h e a l th y s la v e i n c o n t r a s t to th e f e a r f u l and f r u s t r a t e d so u th e rn w h ite i s p r e s e n te d by L i l l i a n Sm ith. The " c o n te n te d s l a v e ” s t e r e o t y p e i s p r e s e n t , but i t i s used a s a v e h ic le o f c r i t i c i s m o f w h ite s , r a i s i n g a s e r i o u s q u e s tio n a s to w hether t h e m ores of th e so u th e rn w h ite s were n o t a c t u a l l y i n f e r i o r to th o se ado pted by th e s la v e s a s an a d a p t a t i o n to th e c o n d itio n s of s l a v e r y . By th e h i s t o r i c a l " a c c i d e n t ” o f s l a v e r y , our s la v e - h o ld in g p u r i t a n a n c e s t o r s were Ju x tap o sed to a d ark p e o p le , n a t u r a l , v ig o ro u s , unashamed, f u l l of l a u g h t e r and song and dance, who, w ith o u t aw areness t h a t sex i s " s i n , " had rea ch e d g e n i t a l m a t u r i t y . These s o - c a l l e d p r i m i t i v e s "whose c u l t u r e had so many s o p h i s t i c a t e d elem ents i n i t " were n o t, we m ust remember, bro ugh t i n to t h i s c o u n try and h id d en away i n g h e t t o s . They were brought i n t o our back y a rd s and l e f t t h e r e fo r g e n e r a t i o n s . They w ere everyw here, and h i g h ly con sp ic u o u s n o t o n ly because o f t h e i r c o l o r but because o f t h e i r l i v e l i n e s s which th e c h a in s of s l a v e r y n e v er subdued. From a l l t h a t we know o f them th e y seem to have h a d , even a s some have now, a m arv elo u s lo v e o f l i f e and p la y , a p h y s ic a l g race and rhythm and a p sy ch o se x u al v ig o r t h a t must have made th e w h ite r a c e by c o n t r a s t seem a w ashed -out p e o p le , d r a in e d o f so much t h a t i s good and l i f e - g i v i n g , and l e f t w ith so l i t t l e save t h e i r g u i l t and greed and a g g r e s s io n . I t was n a t u r a l t h a t th e w h ite man was drawn to them . L a u g h te r, song, rhythm , s p o n ta n e ity were l i k e a c am p fire in a d a rk ta n g le d A lfre d Hold S to n e , S tu d ie s i n th e American Race Problem (New York; D oubleday, Page and Company, 1908), pp. 236- 3 7 . 39 f o r e s t f u l l o f s i n s and boredom and f e a r s . So b r i g h t , so n e a r . . . But the b ack -y ard te m p ta tio n was a ls o a menace— n o t so much a "menace to o u r women” ( t h a t p o iso n o u s id e a flo w ere d l a t e r ) but a menace to th e b a s ic b e l i e f s of w h ite c u l t u r e . In th e f r o n t yard was a p a t r i a r c h a l system ; i n th e back y a rd a m a t r ia r c h y . In th e f r o n t y ard th e l e s s o n s on s i n , se x , and s e g r e g a tio n and th e v a lu e of money were t a u g h t , i n th e back yard th e c h i l d r e n seemed alw ays to be h a v in g r e c e s s from l e s s o n s , and f o r r e a s o n s no one co uld u n d e rsta n d were h e a l t h y and se re n e in n a t u r e , l e s s a g g r e s s iv e , l e s s g re e d y th an th e w h ite c h i l d r e n . I n th e b ig w h ite house a w h ite la d y was c o r s e t i n g h e r f e e l i n g s and th o s e o f h e r c h i l d r e n i n an e f f o r t to be " p u r e " — and s e t t l i n g back f i n a l l y in f la b b y ig n o ra n c e . But i n th e back y a rd , l i f e went on, naked and un asham ed. L i t t l e b la c k c h i l d r e n did a l l th e n a u g h ty t h in g s l i t t l e w h ite c h il d r e n were p u n ish ed f o r , d id them and p ro sp e re d i n body and m ind. I am n o t f o r g e t t i n g t h a t th e y were s l a v e s o r t h a t , th e y worked lo n g h o u rs and were b r u t a l l y d riv e n on many p l a n t a t i o n s . I am h e re concerned n o t w ith how th e w hite man t r e a t e d th e Negro, b ut w ith how th e Negro t r e a t e d h im s e lf and e s p e c i a l l y how b la c k m o th ers t r e a t e d t h e i r c h i l d r e n . F or t h e r e i s a s t o r y h e r e , t h a t we know o n ly i n fra g m e n ts , which i s s u r e l y w orth th e t e l l i n g . I t h i n k th e s e o ld b la c k m a t r ia r c h s knew s e c r e t s o f c h ild r e a r i n g and s e c r e t s o f s a n i t y t h a t our p s y c h i a t r i s t s have been l e a r n i n g th e h a rd way f o r th e p a s t s i x t y y e a rs th ro u g h r e s e a r c h , and t h a t w h ite m o th ers s t i l l know to o l i t t l e a b o u t. Un confused by a church* s r i g i d system of s p l i t t i n g s p i r i t from body and i n j e c t i n g s i n i n to b o d ily n e e d s, unconfused by a p a t r i a r c h a l - p u r i t a n i c system which p s y c h i c a l l y c a s t r a t e d i t s women, who i n t u r n p s y c h i c a l l y c a s t r a t e d t h e i r c h i l d r e n , male and fem a le , by th e burden of a n x ie ty th e y l a i d on t h e i r m inds— th e s e women knew i n t u i t i v e l y , o r from o ld l o r e , th e psychosom atic t r u t h s t h a t we w h ite s a r e g ro p in g awkwardly toward to d a y . The r e s u l t s i n t h e i r c h i l d r e n were a s t a b i l i t y , a h e a l t h , a c a p a c i t y f o r a c c e p tin g s t r a i n , an ex u b eran c e , and 40 a l a c k of sadism and g u i l t t h a t no Anglo-Saxon g rou p, to my knowledge, h a s e v er shown. Throughout th e o r d e a l of s la v e r y th e y rem ained p eo ple of easy d i g n i t y , k in d ly , humorous, bending o n ly when n e c e s s a r y , d e ep ly h u r t and sad (as t h e i r s p i r i t u a l s make us know), but sane a t th e c o re a s n e i t h e r a v e n g e fu l n o r a c r i n g i n g p eo p le can b e . 23 That so u th e rn w h ite s envied what th e y c o n s id e re d th e g r e a t e r freedom of N egroes in m a t t e r s of m o ra ls i s a ls o shown i n a more s c i e n t i f i c stu d y e n t i t l e d Deep S o u th . A lth o u g h , to t h e w h ite s , t h i s a ll e g e d c h i l d l i k e n e s s i s i n d i c a t i v e of i n h e r e n t i n f e r i o r i t y , i t n e v e r t h e l e s s a r o u s e s a c e r t a i n amount of envy. F o r g e t t i n g th e p o w erfu l r e s t r i c t i o n s e x e r te d upon N egroes by s y s te m a tic s o c i a l s u b o r d in a tio n , w h ite p e o p le o f t e n t h in k o f th e Negro a s c o m p le te ly f r e e from a l l irksom e s o c i a l c o n t r o l s and o b l i g a t i o n s ; a s l i v i n g e n t i r e l y i n th e p r e s e n t , w ith no r e g r e t s f o r t h e p a s t or f e a r s f o r the f u t u r e ; a s e n jo y in g to th e f u l l e s t a l l p h y s i c a l s a t i s f a c t i o n s . The Negro can e a t h u g e ly w ith no th o u g h t of m anners; he can la u g h lo u d ly ; he can e x p re s s h i s jo y o r h i s a n g er i n d i r e c t v e r b a l and p h y s i c a l a c t i o n ; and he can seek and en jo y h i s se x u a l e x p e rie n c e s c o m p le te ly f r e e from e x t e r n a l r e s t r a i n t s o r p e rs o n a l i n h i b i t i o n s . I t i s n o t u nu su al to h e a r a w h ite p e rso n rem ark t h a t he w ished he could be " a s c o n te n te d a s th o se n i g g e r s s i t t i n g i n th e s u n ; " o r , a s one w h ite man e x p re ss e d i t : "I o f t e n th in k th e N egroes a r e h a p p ie r th a n th e w h ite s no m a t t e r how l i t t l e th e y h ave. You alw ays see them s m ilin g and happy as lo ng a s th e y have a l i t t l e to e a t . One re a s o n th e y a re so c a r e f r e e i s t h a t th e y have no m o ra ls t o worry ab o u t and th e y d o n 't have to keep up t h e i r good name." L i l l i a n Sm ith, K i l l e r s of th e Dream (New York: W. W. N orton and Company, 1 9 4 9 ), pp. 112-13. 41 One p l a n t e r s a id , "Speaking o f s l a v e s , the Negro i s no lo n g e r th e s la v e , bu t th e p l a n t e r i s . We have t o w orry o v e r t h e c ro p , over f in a n c in g the t e n a n t and e v e r y th in g l i k e t h a t , w h ile he j u s t lo o k s to us t o ta k e c a re o f him and h a s n 't a worry a s lo n g a s he i s f e d . "24 The " b r u te b a r b a r i a n " s t e r e o t y p e . An extrem e form o f th e s t e r e o t y p e o f th e Negro a s a " b r u te b a rb a r ia n " was p re s e n te d a t th e t u r n of the c e n tu r y by C a r r o l l . The t i t l e page of C a r r o l l ' s book re a d i n p a r t a s fo llo w s : The Negro a B e a s t, o r In the Image o f God. The R eason er o f the Age, the R e v a la to r o f th e Century*. The B ib le a s i t i s t The Negro and h i s r e l a t i o n to the human fa m ily . The Negro a b e a s t , but c re a te d w ith a r t i c u l a t e speech and h a n d s, t h a t he may be o f s e r v i c e to h i s m a s te r , th e White man. The Negro n o t th e son Ham, n e i t h e r can i t be p rov en by th e B ib le , and th e argum ents of th e th e o lo g ia n s who would c la im such, m e lt to m is t b e fo re th e th u n d ero u s and c o n v in c in g argum ents o f t h i s m a s t e r f u l book by C h a rle s C a r r o l l , who h a s sp e n t f i f t e e n yegps of h i s l i f e , and # 2 0 ,000 ,000 i n i t s c o m p ila tio n . G o ld s te in ^ ^ d e s c r i b e s how New York new spapers i n th e s p r in g of 1943 c a p i t a l i z e d upon th e b r u te b a rb a r ia n s t e r e o t y p e to d e v elo p what ap p ea re d to be a wave o f "m u ggin gs.” There was n o th in g unique o r s p e c i a l ab out t h e p a r t i c u l a r c rim e s , ran g in g from a s s a u l t and b a t t e r y to a tte m p te d l a r c e n y and schoolboy f i g h t s , e x cep t t h a t D a v is, e t a l . , o£. c i t . . p . 19 25 C ite d i n G o ld s te in , op . c i t . , p . I 6 3 . I b i d . . p p . 161- 6 4 . 42 N egroes had com m itted them. T his l a t t e r f a c t th e news p a p ers emphasized by p l a c in g th e word "n eg ro " (no c a p i t a l i z a t io n in o r i g i n a l ) o r " c o lo re d " a f t e r t h e name o f th e a c c u se d . The New York Times of A p r i l 2, 1943> r e p o r t e d t h a t t h i r t e e n w hite y o u th s had rap ed a w h ite g i r l i n a t h e a t r e . The same i s s u e r e p o r t e d t h a t two Negro y o u th s had committed a ro b b e ry o f e ig h t d o l l a r s and s e v e n t y - f i v e c e n t s . The f i r s t s t o r y r a t e d a o n e - l i n e , l i g h t - f a c e d h e a d lin e ; th e second was headed by a tw o - lin e h e ad in g i n b old f a c e and i t a l i c s . D uring th e same s p r in g i n New York, a w h ite woman r e p o r t e d to p o l ic e t h a t she had been a s s a u l t e d and a v ic tim of a tte m p te d r a p e . The c rim in a l was r e p o r t e d to be an u n i d e n t i f i e d Negro. However, f u r t h e r q u e s tio n in g r e v e a le d t h a t t h e woman's husband was the r e a l c u l p r i t and t h a t she had th o u g h t h e r s t o r y was a l i k e l y one. Soon a f t e r t h i s i n c i d e n t , a number of schoolboys r e p o r t e d to p o l ic e t h a t th e y had been a s s a u l te d by some N e g ro es. L a t e r th e boys c o n fe ss e d and e x p la in e d t h a t th e y had been i n a f i g h t and t h a t th e y were a f r a i d to have t h e i r p a r e n ts f i n d o u t so th ey made up th e s to r y a b o u t th e N egroes a t t a c k i n g them. Thus th e s t e r e o t y p e of th e ‘" b r u te Negro" was u t i l i z e d i n o r d e r to fin d a s c a p e g o a t. 43 The "comic Negro" s t e r e o t y p e . G o l d s t e i n 's d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e s t e r e o t y p e of th e Negro as a comic c h a r a c t e r i s i n i m i t a b l e . T h e re fo re , i t i s quoted below; The most im p o rta n t s i n g l e s t e r e o t y p e of th e Negro p e rv a d in g American c u l t u r e from th e end o f th e e ig h t e e n t h c e n tu r y , and assum ing p r e eminence o v e r a l l o t h e r s a t p r e s e n t a s a g e n e ra t o r of p r e j u d i c e and h o s t i l i t y , i s t h a t of th e Comic N e g ro . The s te r e o t y p e embodies a l l of t h e r e a s o n s why th e Negro was c o n te n te d a s a s la v e and w re tc h ed a s a f r e e man— h i s lo v e o f fu n , i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , dependence upon w h ite f o l k s , e t c . The Comic Negro co m prises a whole s c a le of v a lu e s in which th e N e g r o 's c o n te n tio n f o r e q u a l i t y w ith th e w h ite man i s e q u ated w ith t h a t of a donkey f o r the/ same. I t im p lie s a shrugged s h o u ld e r w ith an in d u lg e n t "What can you expect from such c h i l d r e n , see how happy th e y a r e w ith such l i t t l e th in g s '." The v a u d e v i ll e s k i t , th e r a d io p la y , th e news p a p er and m agazine c a r to o n , th e a d v e r tis e m e n t, th e g r e e t i n g c a r d - - a l l th e s e a re p o p u la r forms .of i n d o c t r i n a t i o n i n a s o c i a l norm i n which th e Negro i s th e o b j e c t of a t t e n t i o n no t g iv en any o t h e r group i n p r o p o r t io n to i t s im portance on th e American s c e n e . The v a lu e i n h e r e n t in each o f th e s e p r e s e n t a t i o n s i s t h a t of c o n d esc en sio n and amuse- m e n t--a dan gero us v a lu e i n an e ra i n which th e m in o r i t y group i s demanding the r i g h t s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of a d u lth o o d . 27 G o ld s te in c o n tin u e s th e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e comic Negro s te r e o t y p e by p o in tin g o u t t h a t i t h a s alw ays been a c a r i c a t u r e , alw ays in v o lv in g e x a g g e ra tio n of Negro c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s such as p h y s ic a l f e a t u r e s to such a degree t h a t t h e r e s u l t i s r i d i c u l o u s . Thick w h ite or r e d l i p s , 2 7 I b i d . . p p . 168- 6 9 . 44 d ra w lin g sp e e c h , and kin k y h a i r a r e g iv en g r e a t em phasis. Thus th e comic Negro i s an o b j e c t of h e a r t y la u g h s a t th e expense o f th e r e a l f l e s h - a n d - b lo o d N egro. Even g r e e t i n g c a rd s ten d to promote s t e r e o t y p e s , a c c o rd in g to th e fo llo w in g passag e from G o ld s te in : The c a r i c a t u r e of th e Negro a s a comic f i g u r e i s e v id e n t n o t o n ly i n s t y l i z e d form s l i k e th e c a rto o n and comic s t r i p , but i n such i n c i d e n t a l s o f r e f i n e d l i v i n g a s g r e e t i n g c a r d s . W ith th e e x c e p tio n of c a rd s d e sig n e d f o r such s p e c i a l h o lid a y s a s S t . P a t r i c k ' s Day, no o t h e r group i n American l i f e i s s u b j e c t to p r e s e n t a t i o n on g r e e t i n g c a r d s w ith such a b s o lu te c o n s is te n c y a s th e N egro. I n each c a s e , th e Negro a p p e a rs on a "funny" c a rd : none a re to be found on s e r i o u s c a r d s , a lth o u g h p e o p le a r e f r e q u e n t l y d e p ic te d on th e l a t t e r . . . A lthough th e y a re o n ly a sm a ll p a r t o f th e t o t a l g r e e t i n g c a rd p r o d u c tio n , th e y a r e im p o rta n t f o r two r e a s o n s : (1) No o th e r group i s so f r e q u e n t l y p r e s e n te d , and (2) Whenever a card d e p i c t s a Negro, i t i s a humorous c a r d . The e x te n t o f s te r e o ty p y i s re m a rk a b le , a lth o u g h th e s e a r e th e p ro d u c ts of many m a n u f a c tu r e r s . N otew orthy a r e th e u n if o r m ity i n draw ing of m outh, eyes and h a i r , th e d i a l e c t , and th e " p l a n t a t i o n - s t y l e " c l o t h i n g . In each c a s e , th e s e n tim e n t e x p re sse d i s in i t s e l f n o t humorous, e .g . r e g r e t a t i l l n e s s , l o n e l i n e s s , e t c . S im ila r c a r d s w ith w h ite c h a r a c te r s ,d e p e n d on c le v e r puns, o r rhymes f o r t h e i r humor. I n t h i s c a s e , t h e elem ent o f comedy l i e s w h olly i n th e p r e d i s p o s i t i o n to c o n s id e r th e Negro a s f u n n y .28 Humor u t i l i z i n g the " r a c i a l " theme i s to be found i n two o u ts ta n d in g m agazine d i g e s t s , th e R e a d e r 's D ig e s t and th e Negro D i g e s t . G o ld ste in 2 9 r e p o r t s a few I b i d . . p p . 1 8 2 -8 3 . 45 a s t o n i s h i n g f a c t s c o n c e rn in g th e n a tu r e of th e humor i n th e two d i g e s t s . In th e y e a r 1942 t h e r e were tw en ty -o n e ite m s i n t h e R e a d e r 's D ig e s t which r e f e r r e d to t h e N egro. Of t h e s e , e i g h t were a r t i c l e s and t h i r t e e n were j o k e s . In n i n e t y p e r c e n t of th e jo k e s , th e N egroes in v o lv e d spoke i n d i a l e c t . R e p r e s e n ta tiv e of th e ty p e of Negro jo k e s i s th e f o llo w in g : Propped up a g a i n s t a t r e e on th e bank o f a stre a m , were two c o lo re d l a d s h o ld in g f i s h i n g r o d s . F i n a l l y one nudged h i s slum b erin g p a l . "Say, Sam," he yawned, "Yo' h a s a f i s h b i t i n ' a t de end of yo' l i n e . " - The o t h e r opened one ey e. "Doggone,^ he sig h e d u n h a p p ily , "Ah knew we p ick e d o u t de wrong s tr e a m . "30 S t o r i e s r e g a r d in g Negro m o ra ls a r e common i n t h i s m ag azin e. The same may be s a id of such p r o f e s s i o n a l j o u r n a l s a s Modern M e d ic in e . The Negro D ig e s t h a s a type o f humor d i f f e r e n t from t h a t d e s c r ib e d above. F or exam ple, none o f th e jo k e s a r e in d i a l e c t as a r u l e . There was n o t one c ase of d i a l e c t o u t of se v e n ty -s e v e n humorous ite m s from November 1943 to A p r i l 1944. In th e jo k e s p u b lis h e d i n t h i s j o u r n a l , a w h ite man i s u s u a l l y in v o lv e d and i n a way t h a t g iv e s th e Negro th e la u g h a t th e expense o f th e w h ite man. An I b i d . . pp. 188-89. 30 jrom R e a d e r '3 D ig e s t ZLIV, 1943, P« 34, G o ld s te in , o p . c i t . , p. 46 example o f th e ty pe of humor i n t h i s j o u r n a l fo llo w s : A p o r t l y c o lo re d woman was se a te d in a s t r e e t c a r and h e r w h ite n e ig h b o r asked h e r to g e t up. She r e f u s e d . "You know what I ' d do i f I had you down S o u th ," he began. " I know e x a c t l y what y o u 'd d o ," was th e s w if t r e j o i n d e r . "You'd come around to my back d oor a t n i g h t and I ' d say " n o . " 3 1 The Negro D ig e s t a ls o s e e s humor i n c e r t a i n s i t u a t i o n s which r e v e a l th e a b s u r d i t y o f th e p re c o n c e p tio n s and e x p e c ta tio n s of w h ite s r e g a r d in g th e N e g ro . For exam ple, the r e a d e r s of th e jo u r n a l a re l i k e l y to be amused over a r e p r i n t from a newspaper s t o r y r e g a r d i n g th e n e c e s s i t y f o r w h ite members of c o lo re d F l e t c h e r H e n d e rso n 's band to p u t on b la c k fa c e in Alabama where mixed o r c h e s t r a s a r e n o t a llo w e d . G o ld ste in 3 2 b e li e v e s t h a t the pu nish m en ts w hich p re v e n t f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s between N egroes and w h ite s in th e U n ite d S t a t e s a r e l a r g e l y n o n - l e g a l . I n th e f i r s t p l a c e , o p p o r tu n ity f o r f r i e n d l y s t i m u l a t i o n between the two groups i s l a c k i n g . Secondly, the t h r e a t o f s o c i a l d is a p p r o v a l and w ith d ra w a l of a f f e c t i o n i s a s tr o n g c o n t r o l l i n g i n f l u e n c e . T his in f lu e n c e i s l i k e l y t o be a n ti-N e g ro i n e f f e c t because the c u l t u r a l norms a r e Quoted i n G o ld s te in , op. c i t . , p. 190. 3^ I b i d . . pp. 203- 2 0 4 . 47 s u b s t a n t i a l l y a n ti- N e g r o . These norms, a s i n d i c a t e d above, f i n d e x p re s s io n i n l i t e r a t u r e , a r t , th e s t a g e , m ovies, and w i t . However, th e m ost fu ndam ental i n f lu e n c e i n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e a n ti-N e g ro norms c o n s i s t s of th e in fo r m a l l e a r n i n g i n C hildhood o f - th e im portance o f c o n fo rm ity to e s t a b l i s h e d p a t t e r n s of b e h a v io r and b e l i e f . B efore th e c h i l d i s e v er exposed to a program o f form al e d u c a tio n , he h a s a l r e a d y a c q u ir e d , c o n s c io u s ly o r u n c o n s c io u s ly , p a t t e r n s of th o u g h t and b e h av io r co n cern in g th e N egro. He h a s le a r n e d th e norms i n th e p rim a ry g ro u p s. C o n sid e r th e e f f e c t of such sa y in g s a s th e fo llo w in g upon t h e a d u l t r e a c t i o n s of p e rs o n s who a s c h i l d r e n h e ard them r e p e a te d many, many tim e s . Go t o s l e e p — i f you d o n ’ t th e o ld n i g g e r . w i l l c a r r y you o f f . The old n i g g e r ’ s coming. How u gly you a r e - - y o u a r e l i k e a l i t t l e n i g g e r . You w i l l be a s poor and ig n o r a n t a s a n i g g e r . N ig ger s e a t s i n a c la ssro o m ( r e a r ) N ig g er pew ( r e a r o r balcony) N igger p r i e s t Eeny-m eenie mynie-mo, c a t c h a n ig g e r by th e to e . . . N igg er i n th e w oodpile 4 8 T h a t’ s w h ite (d ecen t) o f y o u .^ ^ Add to t h i s such s a y in g s a s , " L a st one i n i s a n ig g e r b a b y ," and o t h e r c a tc h y l i t t l e p h r a s e s in n o c e n tly r e p e a te d by most w h ite American c h i l d r e n i n i m i t a t i o n of t h e i r e l d e r s or t h e i r p la y m a te s, and t h e r e i s r e v e a le d a f a c t o r of c o n s id e r a b le s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r i n t e r r a c i a l r e l a t i o n s i n th e U nited S t a t e s . Thus t h e seed of the s t e r e o t y p e i s p la n te d and n o u r is h e d . Vague a t f i r s t , th e im p re s s io n s g a in e d a s a r e s u l t o f c o n s ta n t exposure to s t i m u l i b a s i c a l l y a n ti-N e g ro ( f r e q u e n t l y w ith o u t c o n sc io u s aw areness on th e p a r t of t h e p e rso n from whom the s t i m u l i come) become c h r y s t a l l i z e d a s th e i n d i v i d u a l a p p ro ach es a d u lth o o d . A f a s c i n a t i n g r e s e a r c h f i e l d f o r s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g is ts would be t h e stu d y of Negro s t e r e o t y p e s i n l i t e r a t u r e and a r t s . Some s i g n i f i c a n t l i t e r a r y c o n t r i b u t i o n s i n t h i s f i e l d have been made, but th e p o t e n t i a l i t i e s of the s c i e n t i f i c approach a r e y e t to be e x p lo r e d . M yrdal^^ c i t e s an example of th e p ro c e s s by w hich a p r e j u d i c i a l s t e r e o t y p e may d e v elo p a s a r e s u l t o f no n- m a lic io u s f i c t i o n . Booth T a rk in g to n ’ s Penrod h a s been I b i d . . p p . 204- 2 0 5 . M yrdal, o £ . c i t . . p . 101. w id e ly re a d by a d m its and c h i l d r e n a l i k e s in c e i t s f i r s t p u b l i c a t i o n in m agazines in s e r i a l form b e g in n in g i n 1913. The s e t t i n g o f th e s t o r y i s a m id d le -s iz e d M idw estern tow n. P enrod, tw elve y e a rs of age and o f m iddle c l a s s w h ite p a re n ta g e , i s th e h ero o f t h e s t o r y . H is Negro p lay m ate s a r e Herman and Verman. Even th e names s u g g e s t a Negro s t e r e o t y p e . The d e s c r i p t i o n of a f i g h t between Herman and Verman and a w h ite man, Rupe C o l l i n s , i s l i k e l y to p e r p e t u a t e p r e j u d i c e , a c c o rd in g to M yrdal. The i n c i d e n t i n th e s t o r y quoted by M yrdal i s a s fo llo w s : E x p re ss in g v o c a l ly h i s i n d ig n a t io n and th e e x tr e m ity of h i s p ain ed s u r p r i s e , Mr. C o l l i n s ste p p ed backward, h o ld in g h i s l e f t hand o v er h i s n o se , and s t r i k i n g a t Herman w ith h i s r i g h t . Then Verman h i t him w ith th e r a k e . Verman s t r u c k from b e h in d . He s t r u c k as h a rd a s he c o u ld . And he s t r u c k w ith th e t i n e s down. For in h i s s im p le , d i r e c t A f r i c a n way he w ished to k i l l h i s enemy, and he 'm sh e d to k i l l him a s soon a s p o s s i b l e . That was h i s s i n g l e . e a r n e s t p u rp o s e . On t h i s a c c o u n t, Rupe C o l li n s was p e c u l i a r l y un f o r t u n a t e . He was p lu ck y and he enjo yed c o n f l i c t , but n e i t h e r h i s a m b itio n s n o r h i s a n t i c i p a t i o n s had e v er in c lu d e d m u rd er. He had n o t le a r n e d t h a t an h a b i t u a l l y a g g r e s s iv e p erso n ru n s th e danger of c o l l i d i n g w ith b e in g s i n one of th o se lo w er s t a g e s o f ev o fu h io n w h erein t h e o r i e s about "h i t t i n g below th e b e l t " have n o t y e t made t h e i r ap p ea ra n c e . . . . The s t r u g g l e in c r e a s e d i n p r i m i t iv e s i m p l i c i t y : Time and a g a in th e how ling Rupe g o t to h i s kn ees o n ly to go down a g a in a s th e e a r n e s t b r o t h e r s , i n t h e i r own way, a s s i s t e d him t o a more r e c l i n i n g p o s i t i o n . P rim a l f o r c e s o p e ra te d h e r e , and th e two b la n c h e d , s l i g h t l y h ig h e r p ro d u c ts o f e v o l u t i o n . 50 Sam and P enrod, no more th o u g h t of i n t e r f e r i n g th a n th e y would have th o u g h t o f i n t e r f e r i n g w ith an e a r th q u a k e ,35 An example o f a r t which p e r p e t u a t e s th e s te r e o ty p e Negro to th e p o s s ib le d e tr im e n t o f th e r e a l Negro i s t o be seen i n a p a i n t i n g developed f o r a t h e s i s a t the U n i v e r s i ty o f S o u th ern C a lif o r n ia .3 & The body of t h e t h e s i s c o n s i s t s o f a s e r i e s o f 18 " p l a t e s " showing v a r io u s s t a g e s i n the c r e a t i o n of th e p i c t u r e . The com pleted o i l p a i n t i n g shows f o u r N egroes w ith p ic k s and s h o v e ls . Each man has h i s head bowed. Each f i g u r e i s f a i r l y " r e a l i s t i c , " though the f e e t a r e u n u s u a lly l a r g e and t h e arms u n u s u a lly lo n g . The e f f e c t i s a s te r e o ty p e d p i c t u r e of th e l a b o r i n g Negro i n an u n s k i l l e d jo b . To be s u r e , th e scene i n c l u d e s such modern m achinery a s a tr u c k and a b u l ld o z e r , but th e m en ial n a tu r e o f th e work i s o b v io u s. This a r t i s t i c a l l y e x c e l l e n t o i l p a i n t i n g would n o t be a n y th in g b u t an e x c e p t i o n a l l y w e ll- b a la n c e d and s k i l l f u l l y i n t e g r a t e d work o f a r t i f th e human r e l a t i o n s elem ent were n o t in v o lv e d . As a m a t t e r o f f a c t , th e fo llo w in g s ta te m e n t of p urpose i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e a r t i s t i s m o tiv a te d Dog»Qi i . ( i t a l i c s i n o r i g i n a l . ) L i l l i a n Joy G a r r is o n , ^ O il P a i n t i n g D e p ic tin g a Group of Negro W orkers. T h e sis f o r M aster o f F in e A r ts D egree, U n i v e r s i ty of S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 1951• 51 by an i n t e r e s t i n im proving in te r g r o u p r e l a t i o n s . C olo r p r e j u d i c e , i n g e n e r a l , h a s p re c lu d e d p e rs o n a l grow th, e d u c a tio n a l advancem ent, and employment o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r th e Am erican N egro. T his p r o j e c t i s an a tte m p t to show p i c t o r i a l l y th e a t t i t u d e of a group o f Negroes i n a common w orking s i t u a t i o n , w ith th e hope t h a t a g r e a t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g among people w i l l r e s u l t .37 The a u th o r o f th e above s ta te m e n t o b v io u s ly had good i n t e n t i o n s ; y e t h e r work may n o t a c t u a l l y have th e e f f e c t in te n d e d . The r o l e of th e s c re e n i n s t e r e o t y p i n g of Negroes i s v ig o r o u s ly c r i t i c i z e d by P e t e r N o ble. Cinema a u d ie n c e s re g a rd th e co lo u re d man a s a clown, a b u ffo o n , an i d i o t and a s u p e r s t i t i o u s f o o l ; and t h e i r f e e l i n g of contem pt f o r him i s a r e s u l t of th e manner i n which he i s i n v a r i a b l y p o r tr a y e d on t h e s c r e e n . The o rd in a ry film g o e r has h i s whole o u tlo o k fo rm u la te d by th e f ilm ; p o l i t i c a l l y , s o c i a l l y , i n t e l l e c t u a l l y he form s h i s o p in io n s u n c o n s c io u s ly th ro u g h d i r e c t and i n d i r e c t f i lm propaganda . . . In f o r c i n g c o lo u re d a c t o r s and a c t r e s s e s to d e p ic t ig n o r a n t s e r v a n t s , la z y j a n i t o r s , s u p e r s t i t i o u s t o i l e t - a t t e n d a n t s , n i t - w i t m aids, v a l e t s , s h o e -s h in e boys, f a i t h f u l r e t a i n e r s , tram ps and n o - a c c o u n ts , and Uncle Tom r o l e s of every d e s c r i p t i o n , th e f i lm p ro d u c e rs a re m ere ly c a r r y in g o u t a p o l ic y which seems to them to be a n a t u r a l one— th e debasem ent of th e N egro, i n th e p u b lic mind, to t h a t o f an i n f e r i o r . None o f th e s e f i lm - c h a r a c t e r s i s a llo w ed to d e m o n stra te a l i v e l y i n t e l l i g e n c e ; a l l a re m ere ly c in e m a tic p u p p e ts, em pty-headed, g r in n in g d o l t s w ith c o n v e r s a tio n c o n s i s t i n g of th o se s o - c a l l e d " q u a in t" i n a n i t i e s w ith which a l l f ilm g o e rs a r e by now f a m i l i a r . 38 I b i d . , p. 1 ( i t a l i c s n o t i n o r i g i n a l ) . P e t e r N oble, The Negro i n F ilm s (London: Knapp, D rew ett and Sons, L t d . ) , p. 3* 52 P e t e r Noble p o i n t s o u t t h a t a number o f E n g lis h f a m i l l e s were amazed when th e y d isc o v e re d American Negro tr o o p s t o be o r d i n a r y and l i k e a b l e human b e in g s r a t h e r th a n th e " i g n o r a n t , sub-human c r e a t u r e s " d e p ic te d by Hollywood f i l m s . 39 Lena H orne, th e t a l e n t e d Negro a r t i s t and a c t r e s s , t e l l s how s t e r e o t y p i n g of N egroes h a s a f f e c t e d h e r c a r e e r ; Barney Josep h so n had s a i d on t h a t f i r s t day, "We want you t o be y o u r s e l f h e r e . M iss H orne. We want you to l e t y o u r own p e r s o n a l i t y come o u t i n your p e rfo rm an ce. Our a u d ie n c e s d o n 't e x p e c t to see s t e r e o t y p e s . We have made a p r a c t i c e of p r e s e n tin g Negro a r t i s t s a s th e y r e a l l y a r e , and th e p u b lic a p p r e c i a t e s th e k in d o f show we p u t o n ." I w a s n 't a t a l l su re what to make of t h a t . E x p erien c e had ta u g h t me t h a t t h i s was too good to be t r u e . I ' d alw ays h e ard t h a t w h ite people ex pected Negro p e rfo rm e rs to " g e t h o t'." When I ' d been w ith Noble S i s s l e , th e m anagers of t h e t h e a t r e s and dance h a l l s we played u s u a l l y t o l d us th e a u d ie n ce wanted us to " g e t h o t . " Each time I ' d come o u t to s in g o r dance w ith t h a t o r c h e s t r a , some man on th e dance f l o o r would c a l l o u t to me: "Get h o t I" The m anagers i n th o se sm art c a f e s where I ' d a u d itio n e d in my jo b - h u n tin g days had made i t c l e a r t h a t th e y th o u g h t t h e i r custom ers e x p e c te d Negro p e rfo rm e rs to lo o k and sound and behave a s a l l N egroes a r e supposed to lo o k and sound and behave. And when th o s e c o lo re d m anagers i n t h e Harlem c lu b s t o l d me w h ite custom ers " w o u ld n 't go f o r a Negro in g e n u e ," th e y were saying th e same t h i n g — t h a t th e y th o u g h t t h e i r custo m ers wanted a sh o u t s in g e r who knew how to " g e t h o t . " I knew, to o , t h a t I w a s n 't th e o n ly one who’ d had t h i s kind o f e x p e r ie n c e . Erom my v e ry f i r s t I b i d . . p . 1 0 . 53 days a t th e C o tto n Club, I ' d h e ard p e rfo rm e rs d i s c u ss t h i s . You had to be a b ig name to g e t a manager to l e t you put a song a c r o s s a s you f e l t i t , t h e y 'd say w ith angry d e s p a i r . O therw ise you had t o " g e t h o t " — o r e l s e . And m ost p e rfo rm e rs i n e v i t a b l y re a c h e d th e p o in t where th e y to o k i t f o r g r a n t e d . 40 M iss Horne r e f e r s above to h e r " jo b - h u n tin g days" d u r in g t h e d e p re s s io n when she was t r y i n g to g e t a job a s a s i n g e r . At a lu x u r io u s New York club to which h e r a g e n t had ta k e n h e r f o r an a u d i t i o n , th e in te r v ie w between th e a g e n t and th e c lu b manager ended t h i s way, " S o rry , c a n 't use h e r . S h e 's too r e f i n e d f o r a Negro. S in ce a c h ie v in g stardom i n Hollywood, M iss Horne h a s t r i e d f o r y e a r s to o b t a i n an a c t i n g r o l e which would n o t r e q u i r e h e r to be bound by th e Negro s t e r e o t y p e . When, a f t e r much e f f o r t , she was unable t o o b t a i n a r o l e from M etro-G oldw yn-M ayer, she ask ed f o r r e l e a s e from h e r c o n t r a c t i n o r d e r to a c c e p t o f f e r s from o t h e r s t u d i o s . The Communists have n o t p a sse d up th e o p p o r tu n ity to make th e m ost o f r a c i a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n Hollywood f i l m s . A Communist pam phlet by Jerom e42 g iv e s an a n a l y s i s , H elen A r s t e i n and C a r lto n Moss, ^ P e rso n - -Lena Horne (New York: G reenberg, 1 950), pp. 173*74. I b i d ., p . 147. V. J . Jerom e, The Negro i n Hollywood F ilm s (New York: M asses and M ainstream ^ 195^077 54 from th e Communist p o in t of view , of fo u r r e c e n t f ilm s r e g a r d in g N eg ro es. The f ilm s a re H ollyw ood-produced. The pam phlet acknow ledges t h a t th e film s have s e t a new de p a r t u r e from the p re v io u s m e n ia l o r comic r o l e s of N egroes i n f i l m s . However, i t em phasizes f o r th e r e a d e r t h a t th e s e f ilm s m erely p r e s e n t th e " c h a u v i n i s t i c , " " c a p i t a l i s t i c , " " r a c i s t " p h ilo so p h y i n a more s u b t l e and hence more e f f e c t i v e way. The pam phlet c lo s e s w ith a d i r e c t bid f o r su p p o rt o f th e Communist P a r t y program f o r e li m in a ti n g d i s c r i m i n a t i o n and s e g r e g a tio n i n f ilm s and l i b e r a t i n g the Negro so he can ta k e h i s f u l l p la c e i n a " s o c i a l i s t A m e ric a ." T his pam phlet i s o n ly one i l l u s t r a t i o n of the way i n which Communists m a n ip u la te th e w eaknesses and r e a l i t i e s of Am erican i n te r g r o u p r e l a t i o n s f o r t h e i r own propaganda p u rp o s e s . By m a in ta in in g th e Negro s t e r e o t y p e , and by t o l e r a t i n g s o c i a l r e s t r i c t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e s t e r e o t y p e , American s o c i e t y weakens i t s p o s i t i o n i n th e i d e o l o g i c a l s t r u g g l e w ith Communism. In a d d i t i o n to t h e in fo rm a l p ro c e d u re s by which s t e r e o t y p e s a r e a c q u ir e d , t h e r e are^'form al ways of l e a r n in g to s t e r e o t y p e N eg ro es, The te a c h e r may be i n c l i n e d t o s t e r e o t y p e , and h i s i d e a s may be a s s i m i l a t e d by th e p u p i l . H i s t o r y te x tb o o k s may d e s c r i b e th e ig n o ra n c e , l a z i n e s s , s u p e r s t i t i o n , and c i v i c incom petence o f th e Negro d u rin g 55 s l a v e r y and d u rin g r e c o n s t r u c t i o n and th e n f a i l to d e s c r ib e th e p r o g r e s s N egroes have made i n th e l a s t h a l f - c e n t u r y o r to p o in t ou t t h a t t h e r e were many N egroes in th e n i n e t e e n t h C e n tu ry who d id n o t f i t th e s t e r e o t y p e . 43 Thus, s in c e the s t e r e o t y p e Negro i s i n some t e x t s th e l a s t and o n ly Negro th e c h i l d re a d s a b o u t, t h e f a c t s r e g a r d in g the r e a l s t a t u s o f th e Negro i n American s o c i e t y a r e n o t b ro u g h t to h i s a t t e n t i o n ; and th e vague s t e r e o t y p e rem ains i n th e mind o f th e c h i l d . A su rv e y made i n 1940^^ r e v e a le d t h a t th e c u rr ic u lu m f o r t e a c h e r s was v ery in a d e q u a te i n many sc h o o ls i n r e g a r d to th e r o l e o f th e Negro i n Am erican l i f e . U n less t e a c h e r s a r e aware of t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s and problem s o f A m e ric a 's l a r g e s t e th n ic m in o r i t y , i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t th e sc h o o l w i l l make a s u b s t a n t i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n to g r e a t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g and m u tual a p p r e c i a t i o n between N egroes and w h i t e s . ^3 See M arie E li z a b e t h C a r p e n te r , The T reatm ent of t h e Negro i n American H is to r y S chool Textbooks (Nenasha. W isconsin: George Banta P u b l i s h i n g Company, 1 9 4 1 ). Edna Meade C o lso n , ^ A n a ly s is of th e S p e c if i c R e fe re n c e s to N egroes i n S e le c te d C u r r i c u l a f o r th e E d u c a tio n of T eachers %Ëew York: T each ers C o lle g e , Columbia U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 4 0 ). 56 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL FONCTIONS OF NEGRO STEREOTYPES The above d i s c u s s i o n of the n a tu r e of Negro s t e r e o ty p e s and t h e o r i g i n and p e r p e t u a t i o n of th e s e s t e r e o t y p e s i s based upon s e l e c t e d so u rc e s which r e p r e s e n t a v e ry sm all p a r t of t h e v a s t amount o f p u b lis h e d m a t e r i a l p e r t i n e n t to th e s u b j e c t . I f space were a v a i l a b l e , o th e r so u rc e s m ight w e ll be r e f e r r e d to ; f o r exam ple, i t would be w orth w h ile to i n v e s t i g a t e th e p o r t r a y a l o f Negroes i n r a d io and t e l e v i s i o n shows. Such r a d io c h a r a c t e r s a s Amos *N Andy, B eulah, and R o c h e s te r v e ry d e f i n i t e l y p la y a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t i n developm ent and p e r p e t u a t i o n of id e a s c o n ce rn in g t h e t r a i t s o f N egroes a s a g ro u p . However, s u f f i c i e n t m a t e r i a l h a s been p r e s e n te d to show t h a t s t e r e o t y p in g r e g a r d in g N egroes i s v e ry e x te n s iv e and s o c i a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . A c l a r i f i c a t i o n of th e r o l e o f Negro s te r e o t y p e s i n in te r g r o u p r e l a t i o n s i n the U n ite d S t a t e s may be o b ta in e d by b e g in n in g w ith a d e s c r i p t i o n of th e f u n c tio n s ^ o f r a c i a l a t t i t u d e s i n South A f r i c a , where r a c i a l t e n s i o n s a r e p e rh a p s more c r i t i c a l th a n th e y a r e i n th e U n ited S t a t e s to d a y . P r o f e s s o r I . D. MacGrone o f th e U n i v e r s i ty o f Johan n esb u rg i n South A f r i c a g iv e s th e fo llo w in g 57 a n a l y s i s of th e fu n c tio n of r a c i a l a t t i t u d e s i n t h a t c o u n try : I t a p p e a rs p o s s ib l e to d i s t i n g u i s h no l e s s th a n s i x f u n c tio n s which a r e se rv ed by th e group a t t i t u d e . They a r e n o t a l l e q u a lly im p o r ta n t, and some, no d o u b t, w i l l be more prom inent th a n o t h e r s a c c o rd in g to c irc u m s ta n c e s . A l l , however, a r e p r e s e n t t o some d e g re e , and may be e x p ec te d to come i n t o p la y a t one tim e o r a n o th e r . In th e f i r s t p l a c e , th e a t t i t u d e s e r v e s d i r e c t l y th e f u n c t i o n of group p r e s e r v a t i o n i n a narrow s e n s e . I n th e Union o f South A f r i c a a r e l a t i v e l y sm a ll w h ite group f i n d s i t s e l f surrounded by a l a r g e b la c k gro u p , and outnumbered by more th a n t h r e e to o ne. On t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t th e b e s t form o f d efence i s a t t a c k , th e w h ite group te n d s to ta k e ad v an tag e of i t s s u p e r i o r p o s i t i o n to keep th e n a t i v e i n h i s p l a c e , to p re v e n t him from ev er bein g i n a p o s i t i o n to t h r e a t e n , o r c h a lle n g e , th e e x is te n c e o f th e w h ite group a s he h a s done i n th e p a s t . Thus, th ro u g h th e o p e r a t io n o f what we may c a l l a f e a r m o tiv e , th e group a t t i t u d e comes t o s e rv e th e f u n c tio n o f p r e s e r v in g th e s e c u r i t y o f th e group a g a i n s t a t t a c k from an enemy o r a t any r a t e , a p o t e n t i a l enemy. In th e second p l a c e , th e a t t i t u d e s e r v e s th e f u n c t i o n of group p r e s e r v a t i o n i n a s o c i a l s e n s e . I n th e South A f r i c a n c o n t e s t , group and c o lo u r p r e j u d i c e a r e i d e n t i c a l , so t h a t we f i n d th e w h ite group, h ig h ly c o n s c io u s of th e c o lo u r d i f f e r e n c e which d i s t i n g u i s h e s i t from t h e b la c k group, s t r i v i n g to m a in ta in i t s d i s t i n c t i v e group c o lo u r , o r r a c i a l e x c lu s iv e n e s s , by k e ep in g i t s e l f a t a d i s t a n c e from , and above, th e o t h e r g ro u p . Hence th e group a t t i t u d e t h a t s tr e n u o u s ly d e n ie s any kind o f e q u a l i t y which may p re p a re th e way f o r s o c i a l e q u a l i t y and so le a d on to m is c e g e n a tio n . In the t h i r d p l a c e , th e a t t i t u d e s e r v e s th e f u n c t i o n of group p r e s e r v a t i o n i n a w id er s e n s e . As p a r t of t h e s o c i a l h e r i t a g e o f a w e l l- d e f in e d and h ig h ly s e l f - c o n s c i o u s group which i s c h a r a c t e r iz e d by i t s c o n s e r v a tiv e s p i r i t , th e a t t i t u d e s tr e n g th e n s th e f e e l i n g of group c o n t i n u i t y . By 5 8 means of i t s p r e s e n t a t t i t u d e tow ards th e n a t i v e , th e group can i d e n t i f y i t s e l f more r e a d i l y w ith i t s l i v i n g p a s t , and so s ta n d su p e r a n ti q u a s v i a s . In th e f o u r t h p l a c e , th e a t t i t u d e p r e s e r v e s group u n i ty and i d e n t i t y . I t i s a commonplace i n group psycho log y t h a t th e u n i ty o f a group depends upon th e ways of b e li e v i n g , f e e l i n g , and a c t i n g which a re sh a re d i n common by i t s i n d i v i d u a l members. The a t t i t u d e tow ards th e n a t i v e i s one such way; hence any ten dency to d e v ia te on th e p a r t o f an i n d i v i d u a l member h as v e ry l i t t l e chance of d e v e lo p in g so long a s he w ish e s to r e g a r d h i m s e l f , o r to be re g a rd e d , a s a member o f a g ro u p . In o th e r w ords, t h e a t t i t u d e tow ards th e n a t i v e becomes the c r i t e r i o n of group membership and so e n s u re s th e u n i t y of th e g ro u p . And, s in c e the a t t i t u d e i n q u e s tio n i s a n e g a tiv e o r h o s t i l e one, d i r e c t e d upon an o u t- g ro u p , i t p ro v id e s an o u t l e t f o r th e d is c h a r g e o f h o s t i l e im p u lse s which m ight o th e rw is e ten d to weaken th e u n i t y of th e in - g r o u p . With re g a rd to th e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f group i d e n t i t y , t h e f u n c tio n o f th e a t t i t u d e becomes c l e a r when we b ear i n mind t h a t th e group i n q u e s tio n h a s lo n g been c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h i s a t t i t u d e , and t h a t i t s h o s t i l e c r i t i c s have alw ays s e l e c t e d th e a t t i t u d e a s a t a r g e t f o r t h e i r c r i t i c a l s h a f t s . The only e f f e c t of c r i t i c i s m coming from such a sou rce h a s been to s t r e n g th e n , r a t h e r th a n to weaken, the a t t i t u d e , sin c e i t h a s become bound up w ith th e p r e s e r v a ti o n o f group i d e n t i t y a s a g a i n s t o u t s i d e i n t e r f e r e n c e . In th e f i f t h p l a c e , th e a t t i t u d e s e rv e s th e p u rp o se s of economic and c l a s s m o tiv e s . In a s o c i a l system i n which th e w h ite group o c c u p ie s a s u p e r i o r s t a t u s i n r e l a t i o n to a b lac k g roup, th e economic i n t e r e s t s of th e dominant group a r e s e rv e d , and p r e s e r v e d , by i n s i s t i n g t h a t the c o lo u r - l i n e s h a l l be i d e n t i c a l w ith a h o r i z o n t a l d i v i s i o n i n th e economic and p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s of South A f r ic a n so c ie ty . . . . F i n a l l y , th e a t t i t u d e a s s i s t s the p ro c e s s of a d ju stm e n t to th e n a t i v e on th e p a r t of i n d i v i d u a l members of th e group. S in ce th e group a t t i t u d e c a t e g o r i c a l l y d e f i n e s th e n a t i v e a s a s o c i a l o b j e c t , th e i n d i v i d u a l w i l l f o llo w th e p a th o f l e a s t 59 r e s i s t a n c e by a c c e p tin g th e d e f i n i t i o n and a c t in g a c c o r d in g ly . There i s no need f o r him to d is c o v e r f o r h im s e lf what a d ju s tm e n ts to make; he i s spared th e e f f o r t by th e r i g i d g r o n p - d e f i n i t i o n which p r e s c r i b e s th e p la c e o f the n a t i v e i n th e scheme o f t h in g s and how he i s to be d e a l t w i t h . And i n t h i s c u t - a n d - d r i e d scheme t h e r e i s no room f o r t h e n a t i v e a s an i n d i v i d u a l , such a s th e w h ite man i s h i m s e l f , but o n ly f o r th e n a t i v e a s a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f an a l i e n group o r c l a s s . Hence th e sim ple and e asy a d ju s tm e n t to what i s , a f t e r a l l . n o t th e r e a l n a t i v e , but o n ly a n a t i v e - s t e r e o t y p e i n th e mind of t h e w h ite man.45 "" The same s o c i a l and p s y c h o lo g ic a l f o r c e s o p e ra te i n N eg ro -w h ite r e l a t i o n s i n the U n ited S t a t e s . White men i n th e U n ited S t a t e s know N egroes, n o t a s human b e in g s , b u t a s s t e r e o t y p e s , a c c o rd in g to E. F r a n k l in F r a z i e r . A ls o , N egroes r e a c t , n o t to w h ite peo ple a s th e y a r e , but to w h ite s t e r e o t y p e s . F r a z i e r c o n tin u e s the d i s c u s s i o n a s f o llo w s : S o u th ern w h ite s know th e s t e r e o t y p e of th e Negro which p ro v id e s a c e r t a i n m oral j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e w h i t e 's b e h a v io r and a t t i t u d e s tow ard N egroes. Nor has th e n o r t h e r n w h ite known th e Negro s in c e he h a s o n ly r e a c t e d to a d i f f e r e n t s t e r e o t y p e . White A m ericans do n o t know N egroes f o r t h e sim ple re a so n t h a t p r e j u d i c e and d i s c r im i n a t io n have p re v e n te d norm al human i n t e r c o u r s e between t h e two r a c e s . The s o - c a l l e d l i b e r a l w h ite man o r " f r i e n d " of the Negro g e n e r a l l y view s the Negro w ith a f e e l i n g of p a th o s o r a p a tr o n i z i n g a t t i t u d e . F o r example, th e e m o tio n al g i f t s of th e Negro have been e x a lte d w h ile h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l i n f e r i o r i t y h a s been a c c e p te d I . D. MacGrone, Race A t t i t u d e s i n South A f r ic a (London: Oxford U n i v e r s i ty P r e s s , 1 9 3 7 ), pp. 254*56, ( i t a l i c s n o t i n o r i g i n a l ) . 60 a s t r u e . O ften i n a p p r a i s i n g th e i n t e l l e c t u a l and a r t i s t i c ach iev em en ts of N egroes, t h e r e i s a ten dency to a p p r a i s e them a c c o rd in g to s ta n d a rd s i n f e r i o r to th e g e n e r a l l y a c c e p te d s t a n d a r d s . The u n e x p re ssed p a th o s seems to be: i t i s good f o r th e poor Negro . . . . . . The Negro khows w h ite p eople o n ly throug h s t e r e o t y p e s , e x ce p t where f o r h i s own p r o t e c t i o n he m ust a d j u s t h i s b e h a v io r to r e a l w h ite p e o p l e . 4 o As i n d i c a t e d by t h e above q u o t a t i o n , s e g r e g a tio n of w h ite s and N egroes te n d s to r e s u l t i n each g r o u p 's r e a c t i n g to s te r e o t y p e s r a t h e r th a n to " r e a l i t y " i n t h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n w ith th e o t h e r gro u p . The r o l e of s e g r e g a t io n i n p ro d u cin g s t e r e o t y p e s may w e l l be d is c u s s e d a t l e n g t h . However, the fo llo w in g a n a l y s i s g iv e s one e x p la n a tio n of th e b a s i s f o r s e g r e g a t io n . The t i t l e of th e book from which th e q u o ta tio n i s ta k e n i s s i g n i f i c a n t . I f th e people who clam or f o r s e g r e g a tio n knew what th e y were r e v e a l i n g about th em selv es and, by i m p l i c a ti o n , abo u t th e women th e y want to keep " p u r e ," th ey would su b s id e i n an agony of b lu s h e s . F or th e r e a l b a s is o f s e g r e g a tio n i s n o t r e p u l s i o n , bu t a t t r a c t i o n . You do n o t have to p u t a w a ll between y o u r s e l f and any o b j e c t by which you a re g e n u in e ly r e p e l l e d . . . The w a l l s - - s o c i a l , economic and e d u c a tio n a l- - w h ic h we have e re c te d between o u r s e lv e s and the Negro American were n o t put t h e r e because of a f e a r t h a t th e Negro would g r a v i t a t e toward u s . They were p ut t h e r e because of a f e a r t h a t we would g r a v i t a t e toward th e N egro. E . F r a n k l in F r a z i e r , The Negro, i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s (New York: The M acm illan Company, 1 9 4 9 ) , p p . 6 ? 7 * W . 61 . . . When a c a s t e system p l a c e s th e Negro male o u t s i d e t h e humdrum e n v iro n s of democracy, he becomes an unlcnown, h a l f - l e g e n d a r y , l a r g e r - t h a n - l i f e f i g u r e swathed i n th e awesome and im p re ss iv e d r a p e r i e s of ta b o o . In t h a t p o s i t i o n , he produces i n th e w h ite woman a r e a c t i o n t h a t i s sim ple and c h i l d l i k e , but d e v a s t a t i n g . He makes h e r c u r i o u s . She w ants to know. She w ants to f i n d o u t . " I s i t t r u e , what th e y say about D ix ie ? " S ince h e r t r a i n i n g u s u a l l y compels h e r to su p p re ss t h i s c u r i o s i t y , and n o t even adm it i t to h e r s e l f , she v e ry o f t e n h a t e s th e Negro f o r a ro u s in g i t and th u s making h e r te n s e and uneo m f o r ta b le .47 Thus t h e e x p ec te d f u n c tio n of the f e a r f u l , s e x u a lly a g g re s s iv e Negro s te r e o ty p e may boomerang and perform th e f u n c t i o n o f c a u s in g w h ite s to become e m o tio n a lly d i s t u r b e d because o f t h e i r own u n a c c e p ta b le im a g in in g s and u r g e s . M a rg are t H a lse y c o n te n d s t h a t i f th e w a lls of s e g r e g a tio n were removed, th e em o tio n al d is t u r b a n c e would d is a p p e a r a lo n g w ith t h e s t e r e o t y p e . I n th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between w h ite s and N egroes, " th e p r i n c i p a l problem i s th e problem o f th e w h ite m in d ," a s M aurice R. Davie p o i n ts o u t . D a v ie ’ s p e n e t r a t i n g a n a l y s i s c o n tin u e s a s fo llo w s : The b e l i e f i n th e i n f e r i o r i t y o f th e Negro i s an a r t i c l e o f f a i t h , in d ep e n d en t of r a t i o n a l p ro o fs or d i s p r o o f s , in th e mind o f th e t y p i c a l S o u th e rn w h i t e . I t heads th e l i s t i n th e S o u th e rn c re d o , a s r e p o r t e d by such s t u d e n t s a s B a ile y , Powdermaker, and Odum. . . . ^ M arg are t H a lsey , C o lo r B lin d ; A White Woman Looks a t th e Negro (New York: Simon and S c h u s te r , 1946), pp. 103% E T 62 Two th in g s should be n o ted ab out such b e l i e f s . F i r s t , th e y h o ld t h a t th e a lle g e d t r a i t s of th e Negro a r e n o t due to environm ent o r e x p e rie n c e but a r e in b o rn , t h a t i s , b i o l o g i c a l or r a c i a l . This was c l e a r l y e x p re ss e d by Thomas N elson Page when he s a i d : "There a r e some th in g s so w e ll u n d e rsto o d by th o se who know th e N egroes, a s to app ear to them alm ost tr u is m s , f o r exam ple, t h a t th e w h ite r a c e i s s u p e r io r to th e Negro r a c e , n o t a c c i d e n t a l l y and because o f s u p e r io r t r a i n i n g , but i n h e r e n t l y and fu n d a m e n ta lly ." S econdly, to such b i o l o g i c a l i n h e r i t a n c e i s a s c r ib e d n o t o n ly i n f e r i o r i n t e l l i g e n c e or m en tal c a p a c i ty but p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s and b eh av io r p a t t e r n s a s w e l l . Thus th e w h ite man, e s p e c i a l l y th e w h ite S outh e r n e r , rem ains l a r g e l y convinced t h a t when th e Negro i s i l l i t e r a t e , u n s k i l l e d , d is e a s e d , and la w le s s , i t i s because he i s a Negro and n o t because of th e h a n d ic a p s t h a t come from b e in g a Negro. The n o tio n t h a t i n f e r i o r s t a t u s means g e n e r a l b i o l o g i c a l i n f e r i o r i t y becomes a j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r denying e q u a l i t y of o p p o r tu n ity . P r e ju d ic e and d i s c r im i n a t i o n h o ld th e Negro back, and h i s backw ardness i s used to j u s t i f y th e p r e j u d i c e and d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . Thus th e c la im of r a c i a l i n f e r i o r i t y i s r e i n f o r c e d , and th e b e h a v io r toward th e Negro i s r a t i o n a l i z e d .48 Not o n ly do b e l i e f s re g a rd in g th e Negro have th e e f f e c t of j u s t i f y i n g and r a t i o n a l i z i n g th e c a s t e system a s a w hole, but s p e c i f i c b e l i e f s have s p e c i f i c r a t i o n a l i z e t i o n p u r p o s e s , 49 The f o llo w in g m atched l i s t s o f b e l i e f s and t h e i r p u rp o se s a r e i l l u s t r a t i v e o f t h i s p o i n t . 4^ M aurice A. D avie, Negroes i n A m erican S o c ie ty (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 19 4 9 ), pp. 364- 6 5 . 4 9 I b i d . , p p . 365- 6 6 . 63 Common B e l i e f s ab out Negroes 1 . Development of N egro’ s mind i s l i m i t e d . 2. Negro i s c h i l d l i k e , s e r v i l e , la c k s i n i t i a t i v e . 3. Negro l a c k s m e c h a n ic a l a p t i t u d e . 4. Negro h as an u n p le a s a n t o d o r. P ro c e d u re s J u s t i f i e d by t h e B e l i e f s 1 . Negro should be edu cated o n ly to use h i s h a n d s. 2. Negro sh ould n o t v o te or assume r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . 3. He sh o u ld be k e p t ou t of s k i l l e d i n d u s t r i a l j o b s . 4. He sh o u ld n ’ t m ix w ith w h ite s i n p u b lic p l a c e s . 5. Negro i s g i f t e d i n m u sic . 5. He sh o u ld e n t e r t a i n w h ite s . 6 . Negro i s c l e v e r i n hand l i n g a n im a ls. 7 . Negro i s l o y a l a s a s e r v a n t, happy and r e l i g i o u s by n a t u r e . 6. He shou ld do th e " d i r t y work" i n t h e b a rn s . 7 . He sho u ld be k e p t so by "k eep in g him i n h i s p l a c e ."50 The l a s t t h r e e f r i e n d l y b e l i e f s l i s t e d above a r e p e r m is s ib le because th e y do n o t t h r e a t e n th e s u p e r i o r s t a t u s of th e w h i t e s . They te n d to add w e ig h t to th e j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r k eep in g th e Negro s u b o rd in a te t o th e w h ite . They ap pear to r e f u t e a c c u s a tio n s t h a t th e p eo p le h o ld in g th e f i r s t fo u r b e l i e f s a r e mean and unkind to t h e N egro. The tend en cy to make q uick judgm ents r e g a r d in g th e t r a i t s of t h e Negro group i s i l l u s t r a t e d by th e way an i n d i v i d u a l ’ s perform ance i s g e n e r a l i z e d and c o n s id e re d ^ The l a s t t h r e e ite m s on th e r i g h t were added by th e p r e s e n t w r i t e r , and th e arrangem ent of t h e ite m s i s h i s . The m ajor p a r t of th e c o n te n t i s from D a v ie , l o o . c i t 64 r e p r e s e n t a t iv e of h i s grou p . T his i s shown by an e x p e r ie n c e of E slanda Goode R obeson, w ife o f P aul R obeson. M rs. Robeson t e l l s of b ein g h ir e d d u rin g World War I a s a ch em ist and te c h n ic ia n i n t h e S u r g ic a l P a th o lo g y Department P r e sb y te r ia n H o s p it a l, New York. She was th e f i r s t Negro and th e f i r s t woman to ev er h o ld such a p o s i t i o n . . . . They never had any d is c r im in a to r y p o lic y toward p a t i e n t s , and I remember one o f the r e a so n s I was proud to work th e r e was because th ey had a bronze p la t e on the fa c e o f th e b u ild ih g s t a t i n g th a t th e y welcomed p a t i e n t s w ith ou t regard to r a c e , c r e e d , o r c o lo r . I knew t h a t , a s th e " f i r s t , " I would be c o n sid er ed an example o f my race and s e x , and th a t was a g r e a t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y — i f I d id n 't do w e ll a t my jo b , i t would n ot mean t h a t I a s an in d iv id u a l person was in c a p a b le , l a z y , s tu p id , or ir r e s p o n s ib le ; i t would mean th a t N egroes and women were in c a p a b le , l a z y , s tu p id , or ir r e s p o n s i b l e . A l l N eg ro es, and many women, have to bear t h i s burden, e s p e c i a l l y th o s e who a r e " f i r s t " a t a n y t h in g .51 Carey M cW illiams shows th e s i m i l a r i t y betw een r a c i a l s t e r e o ty p in g and th e d i f f e r e n t i a l p e r c e p tio n by dominant groups o f "accu rsed groups" who h old b e l i e f s unpopular w ith th e dominant group. In the p r o c e ss he g i v e s a p e n e tr a tin g a n a l y s is of th e p r a c tic e of s t e r e o t y p in g o u t g rou p s. The p r o c e ss by which "accursed groups" are fa sh io n e d i s q u ite s im ila r t o t h a t by which r a c i a l ^ P e a r l S . Buck, American Argument w ith Eslanda Goode Robeson (New York: The John Day Company, 19 49), pp. 14-15. 65 s t e r e o ty p e s are fa s h io n e d . C e r ta in t r a i t s which th e m in o r ity p o s s e s s e s , a lo n g w ith a l l o th e r p e o p le , a re s e l e c t e d and combined to form a com p o s it e p o r t r a it o f a m ost u n d e sir a b le ty p e . In d iv id u a l members of the m in o r ity are then d e sc r ib e d w h o lly in term s o f t h i s s te r e o ty p e and are b e lie v e d to p o s s e s s c e r t a in " in n a te and h e r it a b le and th e r e fo r e unchanging and unchange able" t r a i t s s o l e l y because th ey a re members o f th a t m in o r it y . The t r a i t s s e l e c t e d are in v a r ia b ly th o se which im pute i n f e r i o r i t y and th e re b y " j u s t if y " assign m en t to a secondary s o c i a l r o l e . The s t e r e o type has th e fu r th e r fu n c tio n of making i t alm ost im p o ssib le fo r members of the dominant group to g e t a c le a r v iew o f the i n d iv id u a ls who make up th e m in o r ity . I t becomes a " s e l f - f u l f i l l i n g prophecy," a prophecy th a t comes tr u e alth ou gh i t i s based on a d e l u s i o n . 5 2 A d is c u s s io n w i l l f o llo w l a t e r reg a r d in g the accuracy or " r e a lity " o f s te r e o ty p e s reg a r d in g th e Negro* One sou rce o f erro r in s t e r e o ty p in g o f N egroes may be th a t th e p erso n s doing th e s te r e o t y p in g may have a p sy c h o lo g ic a l need to do s o . S te r e o ty p in g o f a m in o r ity may have th e fu n c tio n o f m a in ta in in g m en tal and em otion al e q u ilib r iu m when th e l a t t e r i s th r e a te n e d by uncom fortable f e e l i n g s o f se lf-c o n d e m n a tio n . P r o j e c t io n i s a m en tal procedure by w hich e q u i l i brium may be m a in ta in ed when f e e l i n g s o f g u i l t and inadequacy a r i s e . An example of p r o je c tio n by Southern w h ite s i s g iv en by F r a z ie r , The meaning o f th e in c id e n t Carey M cW illiam s, Witch Hunt ; The R e v iv a l of H eresy (Boston: L i t t l e , Brown and Company, 1950J, p. 269. 66 depends upon th e f a c t t h a t i n American s o c i e t y i t i s un p o p u la r to be f e a r f u l . One who i s f e a r f u l or cow ardly i s l i k e l y to l o s e s t a t u s w ith th e g ro u p . The i n c i d e n t a s t o l d by F r a z i e r fo llo w s: That th e Negro h a s no monopoly of f e a r was a d m ira b ly d e m o n stra te d in A t l a n t a , w here, a y e ar o r so ago, w h ite p e o p le were f l e e i n g from a h a u n te d ro a d w h ile N egroes were c o o ll y ro b b in g g ra v e y a rd s ! T his same m e n ta l p r o c e s s would e x p la in why w h ite men c o n s t a n t l y l a y crim es onto Negroes when t h e r e i s no evidence w h atev er t o i n d i c a t e th e r a c e of t h e c r i m in a l . Can we n o t f i n d h e re a ls o an e x p la n a tio n o f th e u n w arranted a n x ie ty which w h ite men f e e l f o r t h e i r homes because o f th e Negro? I s t h i s a n o th e r p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e i r own u n a c c e p ta b le complexes? In the South th e w h ite man i s c e r t a i n l y a g r e a t e r menace to th e N e g ro 's home th a n th e l a t t e r i s to h i s . 53 In th e above s ta te m e n t F r a z i e r d is p o s e s of one s t e r e o t y p e and r e p l a c e s i t by a n o th e r . Then he r i g h t l y shows how i t , i n t u r n , i s u n r e a l i s t i c . To th e p r e ju d ic e d w h ite , e i t h e r of th e two s t e r e o t y p e s w i l l se rv e the pu rp o se of d e m o n s tra tin g to h i s s a t i s f a c t i o n t h a t th e Negro i s i n f e r i o r . That s t e r e o t y p e s a r e f r e q u e n t l y based upon r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n and p r o j e c t i o n i s too w e l l known to r e q u i r e f u r t h e r d o c u m e n ta tio n . However, th e s o c i a l p a th o lo g y of a d v e rse s t e r e o t y p i n g o f N egroes by l a r g e numbers of w h ite s i s a 33 E. F r a n k lin F r a z i e r , "The P a th o lo g y o f Race P r e j u d i c e , " i n S t e r l i n g A. Brown, e d . . _The Negro C aravan (New York: Dryden P r e s s , 1 941 ), p. 67 t o p i c w hich may w e ll s ta n d f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . When r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n and p r o j e c t i o n a r e u se d e x t e n s i v e l y by l a r g e num bers o f w h ite s t o j u s t i f y s e g r e g a t i o n an d d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a g a i n s t N e g ro e s , c an i t be s a id t h a t t h e r e i s a form of g ro u p o r s o c i a l p a th o lo g y p r e s e n t among t h e s e w h ite p e o p le ? F r a z i e r p ro p o s e s t h a t such i s th e c a s e . From a p r a c t i c a l v ie w p o in t, i n s a n i t y m eans s o c i a l i n c a p a c i t y . S o u th e rn w h ite p e o p le a f f l i c t e d w ith th e N egro -com plex show th e m s e lv e s in c a p a b le o f p e r fo rm in g c e r t a i n s o c i a l f u n c t i o n s . They a r e , f o r i n s t a n c e , in c a p a b le o f r e n d e r i n g j u s t d e c i s i o n s when w h ite and c o lo r e d p e o p le a r e in v o lv e d ; and t h e i r v e ry c la im t h a t th e y "know" an d " u n d e rs ta n d " th e Negro i n d i c a t e s a f i x e d sy ste m o f i d e a s r e s p e c t i n g h im --w h e re a s a sane and j u s t a p p r a i s a l o f th e s i t u a t i o n w ould in v o lv e th e a s s i m i l a t i o n o f.n e w d a t a . The d e lu s io n s o f t h e sa n e a r e g e n e r a l l y s u p p o rte d by t h e h e r d , w h ile t h o s e of th e in s a n e a r e o f t e n a n t i - s o c i a l . T e t- - f r o m th e p o i n t o f v iew o f N e g ro e s , who a r e m u rd ered i f t h e y b e l i e v e i n s o c i a l e q u a l i t y o r a r e maimed f o r a s k in g f o r an i c e cream so d a , and o f w h ite p e o p le , who a r e t h r e a t e n e d w ith s i m i l a r v i o le n c e f o r n o t s u b s c r i b in g to th e S o u t h e r n e r 's d e l u s i o n s — such b e h a v io u r i s d i s t i n c t l y a n t i - s o c i a l . The in m a te s o f a m adhouse a r e n o t ju d g ed i n s a n e by th e m s e lv e s , b u t by th o s e o u t s i d e . The f a c t t h a t abnorm al b e h a v io u r to w a rd s N e g ro es i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a w hole g ro u p may be an exam ple i l l u s t r a t i n g N i e t z s c h e 's o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t " i n s a n i t y i n i n d i v i d u a ls i s so m e th in g rare^— b u t i n g ro u p s , p a r t i e s , n a t i o n s , and epochs i t i s th e r u l e . "54 Why do p r e j u d i c e s i n th e form o f s t e r e o t y p e s c o n tin u e t o e x i s t , p a r t i c u l a r l y s in c e f r e q u e n t l y th e s t e r e o t y p e s can be d e m o n s tra te d to be w h o lly o r p a r t i a l l y 5^ I b i d . . p . 909. 68 f a l s e ? The an sw er g iv e n by A l f r e d J . Marrow i s a s f o llo w s : B ecause o f th e n e e d s th e y s e r v e . S te r e o ty p e s a r e p ic k e d up e a r l y i n l i f e . C h ild r e n . . . a b s o rb them r e a d i l y . A c h i l d ' s im m ediate f a m ily and o t h e r s of h i s i n - g r o u p a r e r e a l to him , b u t th e p e rs o n s i n th e o u t- g r o u p a r e m ore l i k e im a g es. H is s t e r e o t y p e s , c a r r i e d o v e r i n t o a d u l t y e a r s , save him from o b s e rv i n g , a n a ly z in g , t h i n k i n g . They s e r v e to m a in ta in t h e s t a t u s q u o . An i n gro u p w a n ts t o b a r r i c a d e i t s e s t a b l i s h e d ways o f l i f e a g a i n s t i n f i l t r a t i o n from an o u t- g r o u p , a s th e N o rth a f t e r th e C i v i l War, o r t h e S o u th to d a y . The g r o u p 's s t e r e o t y p e s r i d i c u l e o r d i s c r e d i t o u t s i d e r s on g ro u n d s o f r a c e and r e l i g i o n . They s e t bounds to any m i n o r i t y w hich seem s l i k e l y t o m o d ify t h e i n t e r e s t s o f th e m a j o r i t y . I f th e y do n o t a l r e a d y e x i s t th e y a r e c r e a t e d . 55 One o f t h e m eans by w h ich a s e n s e o f s u p e r i o r i t y i s a c h ie v e d among w h ite s i s to engage i n an exchange o f w it on N egro th e m e s . T h is exchange t a k e s th e form o f t e l l i n g " n ig g e r s t o r i e s " o r jo k e s a t t h e ex p en se o f a " d a r k i e . " The b a s i s o f "hum orous" s t o r i e s and jo k e s r e g a r d in g N eg ro es i s th e s e t o f s t e r e o t y p e d b e l i e f s r e g a r d i n g N egroes w hich p r e v a i l i n t h e m in ds o f th o s e who s h a r e i n t h e l a u g h t e r . G o ld s te in i n t h e f o llo w in g p a s s a g e exam ines th e m o tiv e s o f th o s e who t e l l jo k e s and s t o r i e s a t t h e expense o f N e g ro es: The p e rs o n who t e l l s a " n ig g e r " s t o r y f o llo w s e i t h e r o f two m o tiv e s . A l f r e d J . M arrow, L iv in g W ith o u t H ate (New Y ork: H a rp e r and B r o t h e r s , 1 9 4 1 ), p p . 5 0 -5 1 . 69 1 . The d e s i r e f o r s o o i a l a p p ro v a l and c o n f o r m ity . One e d u c a te d s t u d e n t o f r a c e p ro b lem s was a s t o n i s h e d t o l e a r n t h a t a N egro member o f h i s a u d ie n c e had been o ffe n d e d by a s t o r y he had t o l d : h i s o n ly d e fe n s e was t h a t t h e o n ly good s t o r i e s he knew w ere a b o u t N e g ro e s --a n d he n e v e r th o u g h t t h a t anyone w ould be o f f e n d e d . He la c k e d s e n s i t i v i t y to t h e p o t e n t i a l m eaning o f an a p p a r e n t l y " h a r m le s s ” s o c i a l d i v e r s i o n . The Negro member o f t h e a u d ie n c e r e a l i z e d t h a t , no m a t t e r what t h e i n t e n t o f th e t e l l e r , t h e n e t r e s u l t o f th e s t o r y - t e l l i n g e p is o d e was t h a t he had been i s o l a t e d a s a member o f a g ro u p , a b o u t whom one c o u ld be f a c e t i o u s . 2 . The need to b o l s t e r s e l f - e s te e m . A m erican s o c i a l an d econom ic h i s t o r y h a s d e v e lo p e d a s o c i a l code i n w hich th e N egro i s th e i n f e r i o r o f th e w h ite m an. I n any s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n i n w hich t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i s m a in ta in e d — w here N e g ro es a r e a b s e n t , p r e s e n t i n s m a ll num bers o r i n i n f e r i o r s t a t u s — th e o p p o r t u n it y i s a v a i l a b l e f o r th e imhite man to a s s e r t . 56 The s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of s t e r e o t y p e s r e g a r d in g th e N egro and th e o r i g i n s and f u n c t i o n s o f such s t e r e o t y p e s i n i n d i v i d u a l s and g ro u p s i s r e v e a le d i n a s ta te m e n t by M yrdal r e g a r d i n g g e n e r a l b e l i e f s c o n c e rn in g N e g ro e s . T ry in g to d e fe n d t h e i r b e h a v io r to o t h e r s , and p r i m a r i l y t o th e m s e lv e s , p e o p le w i l l a tte m p t t o c o n c e a l th e c o n f l i c t b etw een t h e i r d i f f e r e n t v a l u a t i o n s o f w hat i s d e s i r a b l e and u n d e s i r a b l e , r i g h t o r w rong, by k e e p in g away some v a l u a t i o n s from a w a re n e ss and by f o c u s in g a t t e n t i o n on o t h e r s . F o r th e same o p p o rtu n e p u rp o s e , p e o p le w i l l t w i s t and m u t i l a t e t h e b e l i e f s o f how s o c i a l r e a l i t y a c t u a l l y i s . In o u r s tu d y we e n c o u n te r w hole sy ste m s o T " firm ly e n tre n c h e d p o p u la r b e l i e f s co n c e r n in g th e N egro and h i s r e l a t i o n s to t h e l a r g e r s o c i e t y , w hich a r e b l u n t l y f a l s e and w hich c an o n ly be u n d e rs to o d when we rem ember th e o p p o r t u n i s t i c G oldstein, op. c i t . . pp. 191-92 ( i t a l i c s in o r i g i n a l ) . 70 ad hoc p u rp o s e s t h e y s e r v e . T hese " p o p u la r t h e o r i e s , " b e c a u se o f th e r a t i o n a l i z i n g f u n c t i o n t h e y s e r v e , a r e h e a v i l y lo a d e d w ith e m o tio n s . But p e o p le a l s o w ant to be r a t i o n a l . S c i e n t i f i c t r u t h - s e e k i n g and e d u ca t i o n a r e slo w ly r e c t i f y i n g th e b e l i e f s and th e r e b y a l s o i n f l u e n c i n g th e v a l u a t i o n s . I n a r a t i o n a l i s t i c c i v i l i z a t i o n i t i s n o t o n ly t h a t t h e b e l i e f s a r e shaped by th e v a l u a t i o n s , b u t a l s o t h a t t h e v a l u a t i o n s depend upon t h e b e l i e f s . 57 SUMMARY The p u rp o se o f t h i s c h a p te r h a s been t o d i s c o v e r how s i g n i f i c a n t i s s t e r e o t y p i n g o f N eg ro es from th e s o c i o l o g i c a l p o i n t of v ie w . Why and i n w hat ways a r e N egro s t e r e o ty p e s s o c i a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t ? F o llo w in g a r e p r o p o s i t i o n s b a sed upon th e d a ta p r e s e n te d i n th e c h a p te r ; 1 . S t e r e o t y p e s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t b e ca u se th e y c o n s i s t o f " im a g in a tio n s w hich p e o p le have o f one a n o t h e r ." T hese im a g in a tio n s have s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e a p a r t from t h e i r a c c u r a c y b e ca u se t h e y , n o t r e a l i t y , a r e th e b a s i s f o r b e h a v io r . 2 . These im a g in a tio n s and b e l i e f s a r e s o c i a l l y a c q u ir e d and p erfo rm s o c i a l f u n c t i o n s i n a d d i t i o n t o p s y c h o lo g ic a l f u n c t i o n s . S te r e o ty p e d b e l i e f s have th e e f f e c t o f j u s t i f y i n g and r a t i o n a l i z i n g th e c a s t e sy ste m , w ith N eg ro es c a t e g o r i c a l l y p la c e d i n th e s u b o r d in a te c a s t e ; 57 M y rd a l, o p . c i t . , p . x l i x . / 71 and s p e c i f i c b e l i e f s h ave s p e c i f i c r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n p u r p o s e s . 3 . B e l i e f s r e g a r d in g N egro i n f e r i o r i t y (w hich may have some b a s i s i n f a c t ) , a r e used a s r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n s f o r d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , w hich i n t u r n te n d s t o m a in ta in i n f e r i o r p e rfo rm an c e o f N e g ro e s , w h ich i s a g a in c i t e d a s e v id e n c e o f i n f e r i o r i t y . T hus, t h e r e i s a c i r c u l a r r e in f o r c e m e n t o f th e s t e r e o t y p e s . 4 . The e x te n s iv e l i t e r a t u r e r e v e a l i n g Negro s t e r e o ty p e s i s e v id e n c e t h a t such s t e r e o t y p e s a r e v e ry w id e sp re a d i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s . 5 . Negro s t e r e o t y p e s a r e a c q u ir e d in f o r m a ll y i n c h ild h o o d from p a r e n t s and p l a y g ro u p s and th ro u g h m ass m edia o f com m u n icatio n , a l l o f w hich p a s s on a n ti-N e g r o c u l t u r a l norm s, f r e q u e n t l y w ith o u t m a l i c i o u s i n t e n t and o f t e n w ith o u t a w a re n e ss o f c o n se q u e n c e s by th e " t e a c h e r s " o r t h e " t a u g h t . " 6 . N egro s t e r e o t y p e s o r i g i n a t e d h i s t o r i c a l l y d u r in g th e p e r io d o f s l a v e r y and have s u r v iv e d th ro u g h e m a n c ip a tio n and r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , w ith m o d i f i c a t i o n s , to th e p r e s e n t d a y . 7 . S e g r e g a tio n a p p e a r s t o p ro d u ce N egro s t e r e o t y p e s , and t h e s e r e s u l t i n e m o tio n a l d i s t u r b a n c e and u n r e a l i s t i c b e h a v io r among w h ite s i n t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s 72 w ith N e g ro e s . 8 . T here i s n o t a s i n g l e , c o n s i s t e n t s t e r e o t y p e of N e g ro es b u t a v a r i e t y o f s t e r e o t y p e s . H ow ever, c o m p o site and som etim es vague b u t e m o tio n a lly c h a rg e d im ages com p r i s e p r e j u d i c e a g a i n s t th e N eg ro . 9 . S t e r e o t y p e s f r e q u e n t l y a r e p r o j e c t i o n s o f weak n e s s e s of th o s e h o ld in g them . 1 0 . The p r e v a le n c e o f Negro s t e r e o t y p e s o p en s th e way f o r e f f e c t i v e Communist p ro p ag a n d a d i r e c t e d a t N eg ro es and o t h e r m i n o r i t y o r s u b o r d in a te g ro u p s . 1 1 . F orm al e d u c a tio n p la y s an im p o r ta n t r o l e i n p a s s in g on N egro s t e r e o t y p e s ; how ever, f r e q u e n t l y i t i s overshadow ed i n t h i s r e s p e c t by i d e a s and im p r e s s io n s p a sse d on i n in f o r m a l p rim a ry g r o u p s . 1 2 . As th e s c i e n t i f i c m ethod h a s been used i n c r e a s i n g l y s in c e 1900 i n th e s tu d y o f N e g ro es and N e g ro -w h ite r e l a t i o n s , th e am ount o f s t e r e o t y p i n g o f N egroes i n books p u b lis h e d by r e p u t a b l e p u b l i s h e r s h a s d im in is h e d . CHAPTER I I I THE "REALITY" OF NEGRO STEREOTYPES T hree a s p e c t s o f th e " r e a l i t y " o f N egro s t e r e o t y p e s need to be d i s t i n g u i s h e d . I n th e f i r s t p l a c e , t h e r e i s no d o u b t t h a t Negro s t e r e o t y p e s e x i s t . I t can be s t a t e d o b j e c t i v e l y t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s do f r e q u e n t l y make g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s r e g a r d in g th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e N egro " r a c e . " C a te g o r ic t h i n k i n g i s so w id e sp re a d t h a t i t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y to p r o v id e e l a b o r a t e " p r o o f s " t h a t i t r e a l l y d o e s o c c u r and t h a t su c h t h in k i n g i s done i n r e f e r e n c e to N e g ro e s . I n th e second p l a c e , s te r e o ty p e d b e l i e f s have a " r e a l i t y " f o r th e p e rs o n s h o ld in g th em . I n o r d e r to u n d e r s ta n d b e h a v io r , one n e e d s t o know, n o t th e f a c t s r e g a r d in g o b j e c t i v e r e a l i t y , b u t th e f a c t s r e g a r d i n g th e way i n d i v i d u a ls p e r c e iv e r e a l i t y . S t e u a r t H en d erso n B r i t t s t a t e s t h i s p r i n c i p l e a s f o l lo w s : In t h e w o rld of t a n g i b l e s , i t m akes a l o t of d i f f e r e n c e w h e th e r so m eth in g i s a c t u a l l y t r u e or n o t . In s o c i a l p s y c h o lo g y , how ev er, th e p rim a ry c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s n o t w h e th e r so m eth in g i s t r u e w hich p e o p le b e li e v e to be t r u e . The im p o r ta n t t h in g i s t h a t w h a te v e r p e o p le b e l i e v e to be t r u e i s t r u e f o r th e m .l ^ ^ S t e u a r t H en d erso n R r i t t , S o c i a l P sy c h o lo g y o f Modern L if e (New Y ork: R in e h a r t and Company, 1 y40] , p . 196 74 The t h i r d c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n r e g a r d t o th e r e a l i t y of Negro s t e r e o t y p e s i s w h e th e r o r n o t th e y c o rre s p o n d t o o b j e c t i v e r e a l i t y . The p u rp o se of t h i s c h a p t e r i s t o r a i s e q u e s t io n s a s to th e d e g re e of c o r r e l a t i o n betw een b e l i e f s r e g a r d i n g N eg ro es and th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f l i v i n g N eg ro es i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s to d a y . The fu n d a m e n ta l q u e s t i o n i s t h i s : A re commonly h e ld N egro s t e r e o t y p e s v a l i d and d e p e n d a b le a s g u id e s f o r p u b lic p o l i c y , a s a b a s i s f o r fo lk w a y s and m ores o f s o c i a l g ro u p s i n A m erica, and a s a i d s i n m aking p e r s o n a l a d ju s tm e n t to N eg roes i n s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s ? Does th e s t e r e o t y p e N egro c o rre sp o n d to th e r e a l N egro? How much t r u t h i s t h e r e i n t h e a s s e r t i o n t h a t N e g ro es a r e i n h e r e n t l y " d i f f e r e n t ” from w h i t e s , n o t o n ly i n r e g a r d to o b s e r v a b le p h y s i c a l f e a t u r e s b u t i n r e g a r d to m e n ta l c a p a c i t i e s an d p e r s o n a l i t y a t t r i b u t e s ? I f th e Negro d o es have a d i s t i n c t i v e p e r s o n a l i t y , why i s t h i s so? I n w hat ways have A m erican N e g ro es changed s in c e th e m ass m ig r a tio n o f W orld War I? These a r e o n ly a few o f t h e q u e s t io n s t h a t have a b e a r in g upon th e r e a l i t y o f N egro s t e r e o t y p e s . The f o llo w in g p a ra g r a p h s w i l l exam ine i n d i v i d u a l l y some o f th e s t e r e o t y p e d c o n c e p tio n s r e g a r d i n g A m erican N e g ro e s . 75 INTELLIGENCE M arion J . Mayo i n t h e y e a r 1913 th o u g h t t h a t she had d e m o n s tra te d s c i e n t i f i c a l l y t h a t " i n m e n ta l c o n s t i t u t i o n " th e w h ite " r a c e " i s s u p e r i o r to t h e Negro " r a c e . " The m ethod u sed was to compare s c h o o l m arks o f w h ite p u p i l s i n t h e New York C ity H igh s c h o o ls w i t h s c h o o l m arks o f N eg ro es i n th e same s c h o o ls . She f e l t t h a t e n v iro n m e n ta l f a c t o r s w ere co m p arab le f o r th e two g ro u p s and t h a t t h e r e f o r e any d i f f e r e n c e s i n s c h o o l m arks was due t o h e r e d i t y . I n th e f o llo w in g s ta te m e n t of th e c o n c lu s io n s , th e b ia s i s c l e a r : . . . We a r r i v e a t th e c o n c lu s io n t h a t a s r e g a r d s th e m e n ta l h e r e d i t y of th e n e g ro and w h ite r a c e s a s r e p r e s e n te d i n o u r N o rth e rn S t a t e s , th e a v e ra g e m e n ta l a b i l i t y of th e w h ite r a c e , so f a r a s t h i s a b i l i t y i s e x e r c i s e d i n s c h o o l s t u d i e s , i s h i g h e r , b u t n o t a g r e a t d e a l h i g h e r , th a n t h a t o f t h e c o lo re d r a c e ; and t h a t a s r e g a r d s th e m a t t e r o f m e n ta l v a r i a b i l i t y , th e w h ite r a c e i s m ore v a r i a b l e , b ut n o t a g r e a t d e a l m ore v a r i a b l e , th a n i s t h e n e g ro r a c e . But th e im p o rta n c e o f s m a ll d i f f e r e n c e s i n h e r e d i t a r y t r a i t s i s n o t t o be o v e rlo o k e d . I n th e s tr u g g l e f o r suprem acy o r s u r v i v a l , th e s e s m a ll d i f f e r e n c e s may b e , and no d o u b t o f t e n a r e , th e d e te r m in in g f a c t o r . The m a t t e r of g r e a t e r v a r i a b i l i t y i s o f c h i e f ad v an ta g e to th e r a c e b e ca u se o f i t s f u r n i s h i n g a b a s i s f o r a w id e r d e p a r t u r e from th e a v e ra g e o f f s p r i n g , and c o n s e q u e n tly f o r t h e p r o d u c tio n o f a g r e a t e r num ber of h i g h ly g i f t e d i n d i v i d u a l s . I t i s by th e p r o d u c tio n o f th e s e h ig h ly g i f t e d i n d i v i d u a l s t h a t s o c i a l p r o g r e s s and r a c i a l suprem acy a r e a s s u r e d . , . . T here seem to be no s t a t i s t i c a l g ro u n d s f o r h o ld in g t o th e view o f s u b s t a n t i a l r a c i a l 76 m e n ta l e q u a l i t y . Our d a t a p o in t c l e a r l y to a m e a su ra b le d e g re e o f m e n ta l d i f f e r e n c e . And t h i s i s b e lie v e d t o be th e v iew t h a t w i l l be u l t i m a t e l y g a in e d from a p u r e l y s c i e n t i f i c s tu d y o f th e q u e s t io n , s t r i p p e d , on t h e one h a n d , o f p h i l a n t h r o p i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , a n d , on t h e o t h e r , o f r a c i a l b i a s . 2 I n 1927 Edward Byron R e u te r made th e f o llo w in g s t a t e m ent: A second f a c t t h a t sh o u ld be r e c o g n iz e d and ta k e n i n t o a c c o u n t i n any program o f r a c i a l a d ju s tm e n t i s th e e s s e n t i a l e q u a l i t y i n m e n ta l a b i l i t y o f d i f f e r e n t r a c i a l g r o u p s . The p o p u la r i d e a t h a t th e N eg ro es la c k th e i n h e r e n t m e n ta l c a p a c i t y n e c e s s a r y f o r c u l t u r a l a c h ie v e m e n t i s a d i r e c t i n f e r e n c e from t h e r e t a r d e d c u l t u r e and th e a b s e n s e o f h i s t o r i c a c h ie v e m e n t. I t i s p e rh a p s i n e v i t a b l e t h a t such b e l i e f s sh o u ld a r i s e and p e r s i s t . The c u l t u r a l and h i s t o r i c f a c t s a r e p a t e n t and common se n se o p e r a t e s on th e b a s i s o f g r o s s phenom ena. M oreover, th e p o p u la r l o g i c h a s had th e s u p p o r t o f much s c h o l a r l y w r i t i n g . U n t i l v e ry r e c e n t l y t h e r e h a s been no a tte m p t a t a s c i e n t i f i c a n a l y s i s and s tu d y o f th e s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l p r o c e s s e s .3 T hat " i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s " do n o t a c t u a l l y m easu re i n n a t e " i n t e l l i g e n c e " b u t t h a t th e f i n d i n g s o f such t e s t s v a ry a c c o rd in g to th e c lim a te and c o n te n t o f l e a r n i n g , a c c o r d in g to c u l t u r a l b a ck g ro u n d , a c c o rd in g t o m o ti v a ti o n ^ M arion J . Mayo, The M ental C a p a c ity of th e A m erican N egro (New Y ork: The S c ie n c e P r e s s , 1 9 1 3 . A rc h iv e s o f P sy c h o lo g y , No. 2 8 , Novem ber, 1913, e d i t e d by R . 8 . W oodworth) , p p . 6 9 -7 0 . ^ Edward Byron R e u te r , The A m erican Race P roblem (New Y ork: Thomas Y. C ro w e ll Company, 1 9 2 7 ), PP. 4 2 7 -2 8 . 77 o f th e s u b j e c t s , and a c c o rd in g to th e d e g re e o f e x p o su re to u rb an s t i m u l i h a s been d e m o n s tra te d by num erous s t u d i e s i n r e c e n t y e a r s . Army s t u d i e s d u r in g th e r e c e n t W orld War have r e v e a l e d a num ber o f s t r i k i n g t h i n g s a b o u t th e q u a l i t i e s o f th e A m erican p o p u l a t i o n . Army i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s came up w ith t h e f o llo w in g s t a r t l i n g d is c o v e r y a s to th e r e l a t i v e s c o r e s o f N o rth e rn N eg ro es and S o u th e rn w h ite s : S o u th e rn W h ite s: M i s s i s s i p p i 41.25 K entucky 4 1 .5 0 A rk a n s a s 4 1 .5 5 N o r th e r n N e g ro es: New York 4 5 .0 2 I l l i n o i s 4 7 .3 5 . Ohio 4 9 .5 o4 The above s t a t i s t i c s e v i d e n t l y r e v e a l more a b o u t th e sy ste m s o f e d u c a tio n i n t h e v a r i o u s s t a t e s th a n th e y do a b o u t " r a c e . " I f i t i s t r u e t h a t th e i n n a t e m e n ta l a b i l i t y o f t h e Negro " r a c e " i s i n f e r i o r to t h a t o f th e w h ite " r a c e , " why d o es g e o g ra p h y r e v e r s e th e f i n d i n g s of i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s ? Even th o u g h i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s do n o t m ea su re an e l u s i v e e n t i t y c a l l e d " i n t e l l i g e n c e , " th e y no d o u b t do p r o v id e a m easu re o f e d u c a ti o n a l a c h ie v e m e n t i n th e b r o a d e s t s e n s e ; an d e d u c a ti o n a l a c h ie v e m e n t c o u p le d 4 R oi O t t l e y , B lack O dyssey (New Y ork: C h a r le s S c r i b n e r ’ s S o n s, 194Ô ), p . 2 3 1 , 78 w ith an a b i l i t y to e x p r e s s i t e f f e c t i v e l y c o n s t i t u t e s what m ig h t be term ed " e f f e c t i v e i n t e l l i g e n c e . " The a b i l i t y to e x p re s s o n e ’ s com petence e f f e c t i v e l y i n a t e s t s i t u a t i o n d epen ds upon th e s t r e n g t h o f h i s m o tiv a tio n and th e a b se n c e o f d i s t r a c t i n g s t i m u l i . R e se a rc h i n s o c i a l p s y c h i a t r y h a s r e v e a l e d th e im p o rta n c e o f t h e s e f a c t o r s i n t h e p e rfo rm a n c e o f N eg ro es on i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s . T h e ir im p o rta n c e i s p a r t i c u l a r l y em phasized by K a r d in e r and O vesey, who sa y : The d is c r e p a n c y betw een p o t e n t i a l and e f f e c t i v e i n t e l l i g e n c e i s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e d iv id e d a t t e n t i o n , th e d e s t r u c t i o n o f s p o n t a n e i ty , th e v i g i l a n c e con sumed i n a n t i c i p a t i o n of h o s t i l e s t i m u l i and th e n e c e s s i t y to c u rb a g g r e s s iv e r e s p o n s e . 5 A c c o rd in g t o t h e s e r e s e a r c h e r s , t h e b e h a v io r of N eg ro es may g iv e an im p r e s s io n o f lo w e re d i n t e l l i g e n c e b e ca u se th e trem en d o u s s o c i a l p r e s s u r e s become to o g r e a t f o r some o f them and th e y become fla m b o y a n t, t h u s s e e k in g a sy m bolic e q u iv a le n t o f th e s t a t u s w h ich t h e y r e a l l y d e s i r e b u t c a n n o t a c h i e v e . I n th e p r e s e n c e o f w h ite s th e Negro m ust a lw a y s be on h i s g u ard i n o r d e r t o c o n t r o l h i s b e h a v io r and p r e v e n t d i s p l e a s i n g w h i t e s , w h ich many N eg ro es have l e a r n e d t o t h e i r so rro w r e s u l t s i n r e t a l i a t o r y ^ Abram K a rd in e r and L io n e l O vesey, The Mark o f O p p re ssio n (New Y ork: W. W. N o rto n and Company, 195ÎT , p . 331. 79 m e a s u re s . Thus N e g ro e s , o p p re s s e d by e x t r a o r d i n a r y s o c i a l c o n t r o l s n o t e x p e r ie n c e d by w h i t e s , a r e som etim es u n a b le to d i r e c t t h e i r f u l l a t t e n t i o n to th e t a s k a t h a n d . I t may be c o n c lu d e d , on t h e b a s i s of t h e a v a i l a b l e f a c t s , t h a t th e s t e r e o t y p e d b e l i e f r e g a r d i n g th e i n f e r i o r i t y o f i n n a t e m e n ta l a b i l i t y o f N egroes i n c o m p a riso n w ith w h ite s i s n o t a v a l i d g u id e f o r p u b lic p o l i c y o r f o r th e b e h a v io r o f i n d i v i d u a l s o r g ro u p s i n r e l a t i o n t o N e g ro e s . C l e a r l y , p e rs o n s who t h i n k t h a t N eg ro es a s a " r a c e " a r e la c k in g i n m e n ta l a b i l i t y a r e v i c t i m s o f t h e i r own i l l u s i o n s . The te rm " v ic tim s " i s a p p r o p r i a t e b e ca u se o f t h e c o n se q u e n c e s o f b e h a v io r b ased upon a f a l s e assum p t i o n . I f e d u c a tio n i s d e n ie d to N eg ro es on th e b a s i s o f t h e i r supposed i n a b i l i t y to re s p o n d a d e q u a te ly to i t , th e e d u c a ti o n a l l e v e l o f th e e n t i r e community i s r e t a r d e d ; among th e c o n se q u e n c e s o f ig n o ra n c e a r e p o v e r ty , d i s e a s e , and s o c i a l d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n . The w hole com m unity, i n c l u d i n g w h ite s a s w e ll a s N e g ro e s , s u f f e r s from th e c o n se q u e n c e s o f b e h a v io r b ased upon a n i l l u s i o n . P ro b a b ly th e " m e n ta lly d u l l N egro s t e r e o t y p e " i s more b a s ic th a n any o f t h e o t h e r s t e r e o t y p e s . T h is i s t r u e b e c a u se th e o t h e r s t e r e o t y p e s , such a s th e " c h i l d r a c e " c o n c e p t, th e s t e r e o t y p e o f th e " u n c le a n " N eg ro , th e s t e r e o t y p e o f th e " b r u te N e g ro ," th e s t e r e o t y p e o f th e " s u p e r s t i t i o u s N e g ro ," t h a t o f th e "com ie N e g ro ," and many o f th e o t h e r common s t e r e o t y p e s of th e Negro d is c u s s e d above a p p e a r to be p l a u s i b l y e x p la in e d by th e N e g ro ’ s h e r e d i t a r y m e n ta l i n c a p a c i t y . The whole fram ew ork o f r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n f o r u n e q u a l t r e a tm e n t of N eg ro es i n a c a s t e sy ste m c o l l a p s e s w ith th e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h i s one p i l l a r of th o u g h t. The p i l l a r i s c ru m b lin g w ith e v e ry new s c i e n t i f i c ad v an ce i n human r e l a t i o n s and w ith e v e ry new s t e p i n th e p r o g r e s s of th e A m erican Negro to w a rd f u l l and u n f e t t e r e d p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n A m erican s o c i e t y . IGNORANCE " Ig n o ra n c e " i s a vague and e l u s i v e c o n c e p t b u t no l e s s d e v a s t a t i n g a s an a c c u s a t i o n on t h a t a c c o u n t. The te rm may h ave some e x a c tn e s s o f m eaning i f a p p li e d i n r e g a r d to am ount o f "know ledge" c o n c e rn in g c e r t a i n s p e c i f i c f a c t s . A m erican fa r m e rs hav e t r a d i t i o n a l l y lo o k e d upon v i s i t o r s from th e c i t y a s " i g n o r a n t " i n r e g a r d to s k i l l s , v a l u e s , and p r a c t i c a l know ledge w hich i s commonplace f o r t h e members o f r u r a l c o m m u n itie s. S i m i l a r l y , th e fa rm e r who h a s seldom v i s i t e d a c i t y o f any s i z e i s f r e q u e n t l y c o n s id e r e d by c i t y d w e lle r s to be " i g n o r a n t ." Numerous o t h e r exam ples c o u ld be c i t e d to show t h a t ig n o ra n c e i s h i g h ly r e l a t i v e i n te rm s o f tim e , p l a c e , and c ir c u m s ta n c e s . 81 In th e m inds o f m ost A m ericans " ig n o r a n c e " p ro b a b ly h a s t o do w ith la c k o f e d u c a tio n (fo rm a l o r in f o r m a l) o r w ith i l l i t e r a c y . I t may be assum ed t h a t th e d e g re e of " ig n o r a n c e " i s a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e d e g re e and q u a l i t y o f e d u c a ti o n . I n t h i s r e g a r d , trem en d o u s c h an g e s have o c c u r re d f o r th e A m erican N egro d u r in g th e p a s t few d e c a d e s . T h is i s shown by th e i n c r e a s i n g p e r c e n ta g e of N egroes betw een th e a g e s o f f i v e and tw e n ty who a r e a t t e n d i n g s c h o o l. I n t h i s r e s p e c t , N e g ro es a r e r a p i d l y a p p ro a c h in g w h ite s i n r e g a r d to t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f " ig n o r a n c e ." SCHOOL ATTENDANCE IN THE UNITED STATES AGES 5- 20, BY RAGE, 1850- 1940* N e g ro es W h ites P e r c e n t o f P e r c e n t o f Y ear Number p o p u la tio n p o p u la tio n ag ed 5-20 ag ed 5*20 1850 2 6 ,4 6 1 1 .7 5 2 .9 1860 3 2 ,6 2 9 1 .8 5 6 . 0 ' 1870 1 80,372 9 .2 5 1 .2 1880 8 5 6 ,0 1 4 3 2 .5 5 8 .2 1890 9 9 9 ,3 2 4 3 2 .0 5 5 .4 1900 1 ,0 8 3 ,5 1 6 3 1 .0 5 3 .6 1910 1 ,6 4 4 ,7 5 9 4 4 .7 6 1 .3 1920 2 ,0 3 0 ,2 6 9 5 3 .5 6 5 .7 1930 2 ,4 7 7 ,3 1 1 6 0 .0 7 1 .5 1940 2 ,6 9 8 ,9 0 1 6 4 .4 7 1 .6 ^ G u n n a r M yrdal . An A m erican Dilemma (New Y ork: H a rp e r and B r o th e r s , 1 9 4 4 ), p . 942 • Though th e above p e r c e n ta g e s a r e im p r e s s iv e , th e y 82 may be q u i t e m is le a d i n g . T h is i s due t o th e f a c t t h a t s c h o o ls i n th e S o u th a r e i n g e n e r a l i n f e r i o r t o th e s c h o o ls e ls e w h e re i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s i n te rm s o f t r a i n in g o f p e r s o n n e l, l i b r a r y r e s o u r c e s , b u i l d i n g s , e t c . I t i s a l s o w e ll known t h a t s c h o o ls p ro v id e d f o r N eg ro es i n th e S outh a r e i n many c a s e s " s e p a r a t e b u t u n e q u a l” to th e s c h o o ls p ro v id e d f o r w h ite c h i l d r e n . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e i s a m arked im provem ent i n r e g a r d to th e amount of e d u ca t i o n N eg ro es a s a group h av e r e c e i v e d s in c e I 85O. I l l i t e r a c y i s a n o th e r m ea su re o f " ig n o r a n c e ." As th e C i v i l War e n d e d , p ro b a b ly a b o u t h a l f o f th e " f r e e " N e g ro es w ere a b le t o re a d and w r i t e , b u t m ost o f th e s l a v e s c o u ld n o t . P e rh a p s a b o u t 5 p e r c e n t o f th e e n t i r e Negro g ro u p was l i t e r a t e a t t h a t tim e . M au rice R. Davie^ q u o tes the cen su s r e p o r ts on i l l i t e r a c y (d e fin e d a s i n a b i l i t y t o w r ite ) and g iv e s th e f o llo w in g data f o r Negro i l l i t e r a c y : Year Per c en t i l l i t e r a c y 1870 8 1 .4 1880 7 0 .0 1890 5 7 .1 1900 4 4 .5 1910 3 0 .4 1920 2 2 .9 1930 1 6 .3 ^ M aurice R. D a v ie, N egroes in American S o c ie t y (New York; McGraw-Hill Book Company, I n c . , 1 9 4 9 ), p . 139. 83 The p e r c e n t of i l l i t e r a c y f o r n o n - w h ite s (m o stly N egroes) i n 1947 was e s tim a te d by a sam ple s u rv e y o f th e B ureau o f t h e C ensus a s 1 1 .0 p e r c e n t . Negro i l l i t e r a c y h a s v a r i e d c o n s i d e r a b ly i n d i f f e r e n t s e c t i o n s o f th e c o u n tr y , among d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l c l a s s e s , and a c c o rd in g to age g ro u p s . I l l i t e r a c y i n 1930 was tw ic e a s g r e a t among N eg ro es i n fa rm in g a r e a s a s among u rb a n N e g ro e s; i l l i t e r a c y i n N o rth e rn and W estern s t a t e s was l e s s th a n o n e - f i f t h o f t h a t i n S o u th e rn s t a t e s ; and i l l i t e r a c y was much g r e a t e r among th e o l d e r g e n e r a tio n th a n among Negro young p e o p le .? The above d a ta r e f e r s to ig n o ra n c e c o n s id e r e d f o r m a lly a s l a c k o f acad em ic a b i l i t y . On t h e "common s e n s e " l e v e l , h o w ev er, a s p o in te d o u t p r e v i o u s l y , th e c o n c e p t h a s a d i f f e r e n t m ea n in g . W hite p e rs o n s a r e o f t e n c o n s id e r e d " i g n o r a n t " by N e g ro e s . Lena H orne^ e x p la in s how, i n W ash in g to n , D. C . , w h ile on a c o n c e r t t o u r a s a s i n g e r she and h e r com panion N egro m u s ic ia n s w ere r e f u s e d a r i d e by a cab d r i v e r a t th e r a ilw a y d e p o t and s e n t to a " c o lo r e d " c a b , how th e a r t i s t s r e c e i v e d h e a r t y a p p la u s e from a u d ie n c e s and a c c la im by t h e ^ L b i d . , p . 1 4 0 . a H e len A r s t e i n and C a r lt o n M oss, ^ P e rs o n - -L ena H orne (New Y ork: G re e n b e rg , 1 9 5 0 ), p p . 85-SFI 84 c r i t i c s b u t c o u ld n o t go n e x t d o o r f o r c o f f e e betw een num bers o r f in d a p la c e to e a t w here th e y w ere a d m itte d w i t h in b lo c k s o f w here th e y p e rfo rm e d a lth o u g h t h e r e w ere many e x c e l l e n t e a t i n g p l a c e s n e a r b y , and how h e r m o th e r a tte m p te d t o c o m fo rt h e r by s a y in g t h a t " ig n o r a n c e " was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r w h ite d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a g a i n s t N e g ro e s . E sla n d a Goode Robeson^ p o i n t s o u t t h a t i n h e r o p in io n N e g ro e s , who have been used by w h ite s so much a s s e r v a n t s , know a g r e a t d e a l m ore a b o u t th e p e r s o n a l f o i b l e s and w e ak n e sses o f w h ite s th a n t h e w h ite s know a b o u t N e g ro e s . The p r o p o s i t i o n may be w o rth c o n s i d e r i n g t h a t N e g ro e s , who a r e p r o d u c ts o f th e A m erican c u l t u r e , r e a d th e books and o t h e r p u b l i c a t i o n s o f w h ite s much m ore th a n w h ite s r e a d th e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f N eg ro es i n b o o k s, j o u r n a l s , I and n e w sp a p e rs . T hus, th e h y p o t h e s is may be s t a t e d t h a t N e g ro es have more a c c u r a t e know ledge o f w hat w h ite p e o p le a r e t h in k i n g i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s to d a y th a n th e w h ite s hav e r e g a r d i n g Negro t h i n k i n g . I t may be c o n c lu d e d t h a t " ig n o ra n c e " o f N eg ro es i n co m p ariso n w ith w h i t e s , i n te rm s of i l l i t e r a c y and l a c k o f ^ P e a r l S . Buck, A m erican A rgum ent w ith E s la n d a Goode R obeson (New Y ork: The John Day Company, 1 9 4 9 ), P • 44# 85 e d u c a tio n , i s becom ing l e s s and l e s s a d i s t i n g u i s h i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a s N eg ro es r a p i d l y a c q u i r e an e d u c a tio n . A ls o , t h e r e may be a n im p o r ta n t f i e l d o f k n o w led g e, nam ely, th e c o n se q u e n c e s o f s e g r e g a t io n and d i s c r i m i n a t i o n b ased upon r a c e , o f w hich N eg ro es a r e more f u l l y aw are th a n w h i t e s . SENSE OF HUM OR The j o u r n a l i s t E a r l C on rad, who s e n s e d th e s i g n i f i c a n t "new s" v a lu e o f th e p ro b lem o f t h e r e a l v e r s u s th e s t e r e o t y p e Negro i n t h e U n ite d S t a t e s to d a y and i t s im p o rt f o r d o m estic and i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s s u e s o f dem ocracy, d e s c r i b e s th e b e l i e f i n t h e N e g ro ’ s e x t r a o r d i n a r y se n se o f humor a s a "m y th ." F o llo w in g a r e h i s comments: The m yth o f t h e N e g ro ’ s se n se o f humor i s one o f th e m ost m is ta k e n . From th e N e g ro ’ s v ie w p o in t t h i s s t e r e o t y p e i s i t s e l f m ost l a u g h a b le . Some w h ite s b e li e v e t h a t th e Negro j u s t i s n ’ t o r c a n ’ t be a t h o u g h t f u l p e rs o n o r s e r i o u s . O th e rs a r e n a iv e enough to b e lie v e t h a t t h e Negro i s i n n a t e l y such an in g e n e o u s s o r t t h a t h e j u s t la u g h s o f f h i s s e g r e g a te d s t a t u s u n c o n c e rn e d ly . O th e rs form t h e i r im p r e s s io n o f Negro " l i g h t h e a r t e d n e s s " from r a d i o and m ovie com ics l i k e " R o c h e s te r ," p a s s in g judgm ent on a l l N eg ro es on t h e b a s i s of such a v e ry u n t y p i c a l and even u n iq u e i n d i v i d u a l . N eg ro es d a i l y d i s c u s s th e s e t w i s t e d r e a c t i o n s of w h ite p e o p le . # i e n t h e y r e l a t e t h e i r e x p e r ie n c e s w ith th e Jim Crow p a t t e r n and th e c o n fu s io n o r u n c e r t a i n t y o f w h ite A m e ric a n s, o r th e u n u su a l c o n t r a d i c t i o n s t h a t o f t e n d e v e lo p , I h av e found them to p o s s e s s a s u p e rb s e n s e o f i r o n y . T h is i r o n y h a s assum ed t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f an a e s t h e t i c v a lu e o f g r e a t im p o rta n c e to t h e N egro; i t i s a s t o i c t h i n g t h a t 86 I have n e v e r e n c o u n te re d among my w h ite f r i e n d s b e c a u se t h e r e i s no e s p e c i a l n eed f o r them to p o s s e s s i t . I t i s ir o n y on a p h i lo s o p h ic l e v e l . I t i s a s a f e t y v a lv e , a c a p a c i t y t o la u g h , b u t to la u g h a t th e s p l i t p e r s o n a l i t y of th e w h ite w o rld . I t i s a la u g h t h a t c o n ta in s a huge c r i t i c i s m and in d ic tm e n t a t th e same tim e t h a t i t conv eys a l i t e r a l Jim Grow t w i s t . T h is c a p a c i ty f o r h a v in g " th e l a s t la u g h " h a s e n a b le d N eg ro es " to bend, i n s t e a d o f t o b r e a k ," a s someone p u t i t to me, and i t h a s e n a b le d them to k eep t h e i r m o ra le a l i v e a t moments when th e odds would seem i n s u p e r a b l e . 10 The a u th o r s o f Deep S o u th ^^ i n d i c a t e t h a t f r e q u e n t l y th e N egro a p p e a rs g o o d -n a tu re d and c h e e r f u l a s a form of e x p e d ie n c y , a s a c o v e r-u p f o r h i s r e a l f e e l i n g s , a s a g e s t u r e o f c o m p lian ce w ith w h ite dem ands. The N egro m u st n o t o n ly obey th e r u l e s o f b e h a v io r d i c t a t e d by w h i t e s ; he m u st conform and l i k e i t ; he m ust be c h e e r f u l o r e l s e . The p r e v io u s d i s c u s s i o n of t h e modes o f e x p r e s s io n o f th e "com ic N egro" s t e r e o t y p e shows t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n b etw een t h e N egro and humor i s l a r g e l y an in v e n t i o n o f w h ite s who f i n d i n humor a te c h n iq u e f o r m a i n t a i n in g a s u p e r i o r s t a t u s . I t c an be d e m o n s tra te d t h a t w h ite s la u g h a g r e a t d e a l a t th e N e g r o 's e x p e n se ; h ow ev er, t h a t N eg ro es la u g h a s much a b o u t th e m s e lv e s and t h e i r s u b o r d in a te s t a t u s E a r l C o n rad , Jim Crow A m erica (New Y ork: Due 11, S lo a n and P e a r c e , 1947)> p p . 1 3 1 -3 2 . A l l i s o n D a v is , B u r le ig h B. G a rd n e r, and Mary R. G a rd n e r, Deep S o u th (C h ica g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f C hicago P r e s s , 1 9 4 1 ), p . 2 3 . 87 may w e ll be d o u b te d . As s u g g e s te d i n C h a p te r I I , when th e y do show a g e n u in e se n se o f humor c o n c e rn in g N e g ro -w h ite c o n t a c t s i n th e form o f jo k e s and s t o r i e s , t h e i r te n d e n c y i s to s h a re th e l a t t e r o n ly among th e m s e lv e s . L ik e th e w h i t e s , N eg ro es f i n d i n humor a s t a t u s - a c h i e v i n g d e v ic e , w h ich , i n t h i s case» g iv e s a v i c a r i o u s e x p e rie n c e of im p o r ta n c e . F o llo w in g i s a h y p o th e s is r e g a r d i n g th e " s e n s e of humor" o f N e g ro e s: Humor s e r v e s e s s e n t i a l l y th e same f u n c t i o n among N eg ro es a s among w h i t e s , nam ely , th e f u n c t i o n o f g i v in g a s e n s e o f s t a t u s . A s s o c ia te d w ith t h i s h y p o t h e s is i s a n o th e r , t h a t humor among w h ite s i n r e g a r d to N eg ro es s e r v e s th e f u n c t i o n o f m u f f lin g th e v o ic e o f c o n s c ie n c e r e g a r d in g tr e a tm e n t o f N egro es and a llo w s r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n t h a t N eg ro es c o u ld n o t be ta k e n s e r i o u s l y a s human b e in g s on t h e same l e v e l a s w h ite s ; w h e rea s " r a c e humor" among N e g ro es s e r v e s th e p u rp o se o f " d e f l a t i n g " th e s u p e r i o r i t y o f w h ite s i n o r d e r t o c o v e r up a f e e l i n g o f i n f e r i o r i t y . O b v io u sly , how ever, " s e n s e o f humor" a s a g e n e r a l c o n c e p t i s much b ro a d e r th a n m e re ly hum orous r e a c t i o n to h y p o t h e t i c a l o r r e a l s i t u a t i o n s w here " r a c e " i s a th em e. I n any e a s e , i t may be c o n c lu d e d t h a t th e N e g r o 's " s e n s e o f humor" i s e x a g g e ra te d by m i n s t r e l show s, m o v ie s, r a d i o . SB t e l e v i s i o n , and o t h e r form s o f e n te r ta i n m e n t and communica t i o n . These e x a g g e r a t io n s te n d to p ro d u c e a common s t e r e o ty p e w hich d o es n o t conform t o r e a l i t y . MUSIC ABILITY The r e f o r m in g s p i r i t o f E a r l C onrad i s o b v io u s i n th e f o llo w in g s t a t e m e n t , y e t t h i s d o e s n o t d e t r a c t from t h e f a c t t h a t he i s an a l e r t j o u r n a l i s t who h a s a c c u m u la te d some s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t s and who p r o v i d e s keen i n s i g h t s r e g a r d i n g t h e b a s i s o f t h e " m u s ic a l N egro" s t e r e o t y p e . . , . The r e a s o n why N e g ro es a r e fo u n d so o f t e n i n th e m usic w o rld i s b e c a u se s l a v e r y i t s e l f p r o duced th e t r a d i t i o n t h a t a d m its N e g ro es t o t h e w o rld o f so n g : th e t r a d i t i o n t h a t w a n ts them to s i n g , l e t s them i n when th e y c a n s in g w e l l . . . N e g ro es have u t i l i z e d t h e w o rld o f a r t and th e s p h e re o f m u s ic , and i t i s r i g h t t h a t t h e y have w alked up t h i s a v e n u e , f o r m ost o t h e r s h a v e been c lo s e d t o them . Even now t h e y c a n n o t g e t i n t o th e M e t r o p o li t a n O pera Company, and a s a c o n s e quence th e y h av e t h e i r own N a t io n a l N egro O pera Company. I f a N egro c a n make a l i v i n g s i n g i n g , i f a h o s t i l e w h ite econom ic and co m m ercial w o rld w i l l co ck i t s e a r to w ard th e Negro when he s i n g s , i t i s n a t u r a l t h a t a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e num ber w i l l a tte m p t t o g e t econom ic s e c u r i t y th r o u g h t h i s m eans. L e t i t go on s o , t o o , b u t i t i s w ise f o r w h ite A m e ric an s to b ro a d e n t h e i r c o n c e p tio n s so a s to c e a s e t h i n k i n g i n n a rro w te rm s o f t h e a b i l i t i e s o f t h e N e g ro . W e l e a r n e d i n W orld War I I t h a t th e N egro c o u ld ru n any k in d o f a m achin e t h a t a w h ite man c o u ld r u n ; t h a t N e g ro es w ork ed, i n a s c i e n t i f i c c a p a c i t y , on th e atom-bomb p r o j e c t . N e g ro e s , l i k e t h e r e s t o f th e r e a s o n in g c r e a t u r e s o f th e w o rld , a r e th e same human b e in g s , o r a n im a ls , w h ic h e v e r one c h o o s e s . I f we bury o u r h e a d s i n th e sand and l i m i t them to "They can s i n g , " and f o r g e t t h a t th e y c an a l s o ru n m a c h in e s and a i r p l a n e s , we a r e m o st o b v io u s ly o s t r i c h e s . 12 A tte m p ts to s c i e n t i f i c a l l y com pare N e g ro es and w h ite s i n r e g a r d to m u s ic a l a b i l i t y a r e re v ie w e d by K l i n e b e r g .13 He d i s c u s s e s a s tu d y by S t r e e t , ^4 who compared th e r e s u l t s o f 637 w h ite and 678 Negro c h i l d r e n on th e S e a s h o re T e s ts o f Rhythm and C o n so n an ce. T hese c h i l d r e n w ere a t t e n d i n g th e t h i r d and f o u r t h g r a d e s o f t h e p u b lic s c h o o ls o f New Y ork C i t y . The p e rfo rm a n c e o f t h i s gro u p o f N egro c h i l d r e n on th e s e two t e s t s was s l i g h t l y s u p e r i o r to t h a t o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r g ro u p o f w h ite c h i l d r e n . How e v e r , t h e d i f f e r e n c e was h a r d l y n o t i c e a b l e and i n s i g n i f i c a n t , and th e d i f f e r e n c e s w h ich w ere n o te d w ere th o u g h t by S t r e e t t o p ro b a b ly be due to d i f f e r e n c e s i n s o c i a l e n v iro n m e n ts . K lin e b e rg th e n c i t e s a num ber o f t e s t s o f m u s ic a l a b i l i t y , th e r e s u l t s o f w hich e i t h e r show low r e l i a b i l i t y o r ( i n th e c a s e o f K. L. Bean, who s t u d i e d m usic a b i l i t y C o n rad , p ^ . c i t . . p . 13 8 . O tto K lin e b e r g , e d . . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e A m erican Negro (New Y ork: H a rp e r and B r o th e r s , 1 9 4 4 ), p p . 126- 2 8 . R . S t r e e t , "A C om parison o f W hite and Negro C h ild r e n i n Rhythm and C o n so n a n c e ," J o u r n a l o f A p p lie d P s y c h o lo g y , 1 5 :5 3 - 7 1 , 1 931. 90 o f Negro s t u d e n t s i n B aton R ouge, L o u is ia n a , i n com p arison w ith m usic s t u d e n t s — w h ite — i n m usic i n a S o u th e rn U n i v e r s i ty ) in a d e q u a te m o tiv a tio n o f N e g ro e s . These t e s t s show i n f e r i o r i t y o f N eg ro es i n e v e r y th in g e x c e p t rh y th m . He a l s o re v ie w s a s tu d y by O liv e r o f th e m u s ic a l a b i l i t y o f E a s t A f r i c a n N eg ro es i n c o m p a riso n w ith p e rs o n s o f E urop ean d e s c e n t . T h is s tu d y seem s to s u g g e s t a c u l t u r a l e x p la n a tio n f o r s u p e r i o r i t y o f N e g ro es i n i n t e n s i t y , tim e , and rhythm and i n f e r i o r i t y i n p i t c h , c o n so n a n c e , and memory f o r t o n e s . K l i n e b e r g 's c o n c lu s io n i s a s fo llo w s : The s t e r e o t y p e o f t h e Negro a s m u s ic a l i s n o t s u b s t a n t i a t e d by th e s e t e s t r e s u l t s , s in c e th e Negro s c o r e s a r e i n g e n e r a l i n f e r i o r to th o s e o f th e w h i t e s . Only i n rhythm s c o r e s do th e N egroes a p p e a r to be s u p e r i o r and even t h e r e t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e f o r th e m ost p a r t s m a ll and i n s i g n i f i c a n t .15 K a rd in e r and Ovesey a c c e p t th e p o p u la r b e l i e f t h a t N eg ro es hav e a s p e c i a l t a l e n t f o r m usic and d a n c in g and p ro p o se th e f o llo w in g p s y e h i a t r i o a l l y - o r i e n t e d e x p la n a tio n ; I t [ t h e N e g r o 's d a n c in g ] a p p e a rs t o us a s a form o f h e d o n i s t i c abandonm ent and o u r en jo y m en t o f i t i s due t o o u r ig n o ra n c e o f i t s m o t i v a t i o n a l s o u r c e . I t i s by v i r t u e o f t h i s t h a t t h e N egro h a s become t h e v i c a r i o u s v e h ic le th ro u g h w hich we e x p r e s s a h e d o n i s t i c abandonm ent. The same i s t r u e o f h i s rh y th m ic and r h a p s o d ic j a z z i n v e n t i o n s and h i s s p e c i a l i z a t i o n i n " b lu e s " s o n g s . Negro h e d o n i s t i c abandonm ent i n song and d an ce e x i s t s on a d e n i a l b a s i s , f o r i t c a n n o t h av e any b a s i s i n K lineberg, pjg. c i t .. p. 128. 91 h i s a c t u a l f e e l i n g o f w e l l - b e i n g , tr iu m p h , o r e u p h o ria . I t i s a s t r a n g e p a ra d o x t h a t a by p ro d u c t of Negro s u f f e r i n g and d e n i a l s h o u ld have become a v e h ic le f o r th e e x p re s s io n o f a e u p h o ric abandonm ent w hich i s i d e n t i f i e d th e w o rld o v e r a s an A m erican c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t. D ancing a l s o h a s o th e r m eaning s i n a d d i t i o n to th e s ip h o n in g o f f o f a g g r e s s i o n . I t u n d o u b te d ly s e r v e s a s a p e r m i s s ib l e v e h ic le f o r o th e r w is e c o n s t r i c t e d a f f e c t i v i t y no m a t t e r what th e s o u r c e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i n th e c a se of th e N egro, th e p r e dom inant em o tio n w hich f i n d s e x p r e s s io n th r o u g h d a n cin g i s r a g e . l 6 A gain a b r i e f p e r u s a l o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e , b o th p o p u la r and m ore o r l e s s s c i e n t i f i c , seem s to s u g g e s t t h a t th e g e n e r a l l y - h e l d w h ite s t e r e o t y p e r e g a r d i n g th e " m u s ic a l N egro" i s a n e x a g g e r a tio n o f a t r a i t w hich i s more a p p a r e n t th a n r e a l , more im a g in a ry th a n s t r i c t l y f a c t u a l . T h is a p p l i e s to t h e much la u d e d Negro " s e n s e of rhythm " a s w e ll a s to o t h e r m u s ic a l a b i l i t i e s . The c o n c e p t t h a t N eg ro es a s a " r a c e " a r e e x c e p t i o n a l l y " m u s ic a l" by n a tu r e a p p e a r s to be l a r g e l y an i n v e n t i o n o f th e w h ite im a g in a tio n CLEANLINESS AND ODOR T hat N eg ro es have a d i s t i n c t i v e o d o r- -w h ic h , i t i s alw ay s s u g g e s te d , i s o f f e n s iv e to w h ite p e o p le - - i s a f a v o r i t e argum ent of th e p e o p le who w ant s e g r e g a t i o n . B ut w hat t h e s e p e o p le d e s c r i b e a s a s p e c i f i c Negro o d o r u s u a l l y t u r n s o u t , upon i n v e s t i g a t i o n , to be m e re ly t h e o do r o f p o v e r ty . K a rd in e r and O vesey, p p . c i t . , p p . 333*34. 92 P e rs o n s o f a n y c o lo r who l i v e i n i l l - v e n t i l a t e d h o u s e s , who c a n n o t a f f o r d to send t h e i r c lo t h e s to th e c l e a n e r , and who e a t t h e u n b a la n c e d d i e t s o f th e v e ry p o o r, a r e l i k e l y to h av e an arom a. How ever, i t h a s n o t y e t been p ro v e d , by e i t h e r s c i e n t i s t s o r lay m en , t h a t t h e r e i s one odor f o r w h ite p o v e r ty and a n o th e r s e p a r a t e and d i s t i n g u i s h a b le o d o r f o r N egro p o v e r ty . . . . S c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h on th e q u e s t io n o f a s p e c i f i c Negro odor i s a s y e t in c o m p le te and o f f e r s no f i n a l and c o n c lu s iv e e v id e n c e e i t h e r way. But in a book c a l l e d Race D i f f e r e n c e s , by O tto E . K lin e b e r g , th e a u th o r r e f e r s to a n e x p e rim e n t c o n d u c te d by a s c i e n t i s t "who c o l l e c t e d i n t e s t tu b e s a l i t t l e o f th e p e r s p i r a t i o n o f W hite and C o lo re d s t u d e n t s who had j u s t been e x e r c i s in g v i o l e n t l y i n t h e gym nasium . T hese t e s t tu b e s w ere th e n g iv e n t o a number of W hite s u b j e c t s w ith i n s t r u c t i o n s to ra n k them i n o r d e r o f p l e a s a n t n e s s . The r e s u l t showed no c o n s i s t e n t p r e f e r e n c e f o r th e W hite sa m p le s; th e t e s t tu b e c o n s id e r e d th e m ost p l e a s a n t and th e one c o n s id e re d th e m ost u n p le a s a n t w ere b o th ta k e n from W h ite s ."17 As M arrow^^ p o i n t s o u t , i t i s v e r y commonly b e li e v e d among w h ite s t h a t N eg ro es a r e n o t a s c le a n a s imdiites. P o p u la r e x p r e s s io n s l o o s e l y u sed by w h ite s su ch a s "He i s b la c k a s a n i g g e r , " o r "He i s a s d i r t y a s a n ig g e r " te n d to p e r p e t u a t e th e s t e r e o t y p e . I n A m erican c u l t u r e " w h ite " i s a s s o c i a t e d w ith " c le a n " and " b la c k " w ith " d i r t y . " T h is a s s o c i a t i o n , though i t may on many o c c a s io n s be c o m p le te ly f a l s e , i s th e n M a rg a re t H a ls e y , C o lo r B lin d ; A W hite Woman Looks a t t h e N egro (New York: Simon and S c h u s te r , 1 9 4 6 ), p p . 5 0 -5 2 . A l f r e d J . M arrow, L iv in g W ithout H ate (New Y ork: H a rp e r and B r o t h e r s , 1 9 5 1 ), p . 11 2 . 93 c a r r i e d o v e r i n t o human r e l a t i o n s i n th e form o f ju d g in g d a r k e r - s k in n e d p e o p le a s l e s s c le a n th a n w h ite - s k in n e d p e o p le . K a r d in e r and Ovesey o b s e rv e t h a t among N eg ro es t h e y s t u d i e d t h e r e p r e v a i l e d t h e same i d e a s on c l e a n l i n e s s t h a t a r e known to p r e v a i l among th e d om inant g ro u p i n A m erican c u l t u r e . In h i s a c c e p ta n c e o f w h ite i d e a l s , t h e Negro o f t e n o v e r s h o o ts t h e m ark . He o v e rd o e s th e se x m ores so t h a t th e in c id e n c e o f f r i g i d i t y i n t h e women i s v e ry h ig h . I n h i s a c c e p ta n c e o f t h e w h ite m an’ s c l e a n l i n e s s o b s e s s io n , th e N egro en d s by i d e n t i f y i n g h im s e lf w ith f e c e s , and becomes e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y c le a n and m e tic u lo u s . How ever, th e o b s t r u c t i o n s t o th e a c c o m p lish m e n ts o f w h ite i d e a l s le a d to i n c r e a s e i n a g g r e s s io n , a n x i e t y , d e p r e s s io n o f s e l f - e s t e e m , and s e l f - h a t r e d . T h is com pels him t o pu sh h a r d e r a g a i n s t th e s o c i a l b a r r i e r s , to d r i v e h im s e lf h a r d e r , and ends w ith m ore f r u s t r a t i o n and m ore s e l f - h a t r e d . T h is v i c i o u s c i r c l e n e v e r e n d s .19 By way o f summary, th e f o llo w in g h y p o th e s is r e g a r d in g th e r e l a t i v e c l e a n l i n e s s of N eg ro es and w h ite s may be s t a t e d : T h ere i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n c l e a n l i n e s s betw een N eg ro es and w h ite s o f th e same economic and s o c i a l l e v e l . I t may a ls o be t r u e t h a t among N eg ro es who a r e s t r i v i n g f o r e q u a l i t y , who a r e "clim bin g*’ to im prove t h e i r s t a t u s , t h e r e i s m ore c a r e and c o n c e rn r e g a r d i n g c l e a n l i n e s s th a n among w h ite s i n a s i m i l a r r a c e 1 9 K a rd in e r and O vesey, p p . c i t ., p . 317. 94 f o r s o c i a l r e c o g n i t i o n . SPEED OF MOVEMENT E lin e b e rg ^ O re v ie w s a number o f s t u d i e s u s in g th e Downey W ill-T em peram ent T e s t o r m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f i t t o t e s t , among o t h e r t h i n g s , t h e r e l a t i v e sp eed of movement o f N eg ro es i n co m p ariso n w ith w h i t e s . S in c e th e t e s t i s i n d i s r e p u t e among p s y c h o l o g i s t s to d a y , th e r e s u l t s a r e n o t c o n s id e r e d c o n c l u s i v e . How ever, t h e f i n d i n g s may be c i t e d b r i e f l y . Sunne made a s tu d y w hich a g re e d w ith a n o th e r by McFadden and D a s h i e l l i n f i n d i n g th e N egro slo w e r i n movem ent. A p io n e e r r e a c t i o n - t i m e s tu d y by Bache i n 1895 i s d e s c r i b e d by K lin e b e r g . I n t h i s s tu d y t h e a u th o r found th e I n d ia n s t o be q u i c k e s t i n r e a c t i o n tim e , th e N eg ro es n e x t , and th e w h ite s s l o w e s t . Bache th e n r a t i o n a l i z e s h i s f i n d i n g s t h u s ; I t i s th e lo w e r, and n o t t h e h ig h e r man, who i s m ore r e s p o n s iv e to s t i m u l i o f th e s o r t w hich a r e r e l a t e d to se c o n d a ry r e f l e x a c t i o n ; men, i n p r o p o r t io n t o t h e i r i n t e l l e c t u a l i t y , te n d l e s s and l e s s to q u ic k n e s s o f r e s p o n s e i n th e a u to m a tic s p h e re ; t h e r e f l e c t i v e man i s th e slo w e r b e i n g . 21 K lin e b e r g , p p . c i t . , p p . 1 2 1 -2 2 . 21 Ibid., p. 122. 95 More r e c e n t l y , s tu d y in g r e a c t i o n tim e o f C a u c a s ia n , C h in e s e , J a p a n e s e , and p a rt-H a w a iia n s t u d e n t s a t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f H a w a ii, L iv e s a y and L o u t t i t found a low and i n c o n s i s t e n t s u p e r i o r i t y of th e C a u c a s ia n s o v e r th e o t h e r s . K lin e b e r g c o n c lu d e s t h a t p ro b a b ly speed i s a c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t, r a t h e r th a n a r a c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . By t h i s he m ean s, n o t t h a t i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s do n o t e x i s t i n t h i s r e g a r d , b u t t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s betw een l a r g e g ro u p s can be a c c o u n te d f o r by d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s . In a n e x p e r im e n ta l s tu d y by K lin e b e rg ^ ^ i t was fo u n d t h a t A m erican I n d i a n s a t t e n d i n g H a s k e ll I n s t i t u t e r e a c t e d much f a s t e r th a n I n d ia n s l i v i n g on t h e Yakima R e s e r v a tio n i n t h e s t a t e o f W ash in g to n . The same s o r t o f f i n d i n g s w ere o b ta in e d to show th e i n f l u e n c e o f u r b a n i z a t i o n when New Y ork N eg ro es w ere found to be q u ic k e r th a n West V i r g i n i a N e g ro e s . A " r a c i a l " i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n c e s i n r e a c t i o n tim e i s n e g a te d by f i n d i n g s o f F o le y ^ 3 t h a t speed o f r e a c t i o n d i f f e r s g r e a t l y among d i f f e r e n t o c c u p a tio n a l g r o u p s . K lin e b e r g , p p . c i t . , p p . 1 2 1 -2 2 . 23 K lineberg, pp. c i t ., p. 122. 96 I t a p p e a rs t h a t sp eed o f movement, a s w e ll a s " l a z i n e s s " o r " i n d u s t r i o u s n e s s " v a r y w ith c li m a t e and c u l t u r e r a t h e r t h a n w ith " r a c e . " I t seems t o be d o u b tf u l t h a t a g ro u p w hich h a s made so much p r o g r e s s a g a i n s t trem en d o u s odds a s th e N egro A m erican s i n th e p a s t 100 y e a r s c o u ld be a c c u r a t e l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s " l a z y . " SUPERSTITION N egroes a r e o f t e n s a i d to be " s u p e r s t i t i o u s . " W hether m odern N e g ro es a s a g ro u p a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d m ore by t h i s t r a i t t h a n w h ite s a p p e a r s to be a t l e a s t d e b a t a b l e . » P re su m a b ly , th e s u p e r s t i t i o n and m agic o f A f r ic a n t r i b e s from w hich A m erican N eg ro es came s t i l l i n f lu e n c e m odern N e g ro e s. How ever, t h i s b e l i e f assum es a c u l t u r a l c o n t i n u i t y betw een n a t i v e c u l t u r e s i n A f r i c a and th e c u l t u r e o f t h e Negro to d a y . T here i s v e ry s l i g h t e v id e n c e f o r t h i s c u l t u r a l c o n t i n u i t y b e ca u se t h e s la v e t r a d e e f f e c t i v e l y broke o ff. f o r N e g ro es t h e i r t i e s w ith th e c u l t u r e s o f t h e i r a n c e s t o r s . T r i b a l g ro u p s w ere d e m o lish ed , f a m i l i e s w ere b ro k en up, and g r a d u a l ly th ro u g h t h e g e n e ra t i o n s o f s l a v e s , th e o n ly c u l t u r e r e m a i n i n g ‘was t h a t o f th e A m erican . T h e r e f o r e , th e A m erican Negro s h a r e s a common c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e n o t w ith t h e t r i b e s o f A f r i c a , 97 w ith t h e i r p r i m i t i v e s u p e r s t i t i o n s and t h e i r m agic, but w ith th e e a r l y s e t t l e r s of t h e Am erican c o l o n i e s . Even though t h e r e may be some s u r v i v a l s o f A f r ic a n s u p e r s t i t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y among N egroes i n th e i s o l a t e d r u r a l S ou th, such s u p e r s t i t i o n s p ro b a b ly do n o t in f lu e n c e t h e l i v e s of modern N egroes any more th a n t h e s u p e r s t i t i o n s of a p re v io u s p e r io d in f lu e n c e th e l i v e s of modern American w h ite p e o p le . 24 Ind eed , i t h a s been claim ed by both Negro and w h ite a u th o r s t h a t th e b e l i e f s of Am erican w h ite s r e g a r d in g American N egroes a r e " s u p e r s t i t i o u s . " C. V. Roman^^ made t h i s charge i n 1916, q u o tin g a B r i t i s h West I n d ia n who found th e p o p u la r w hite a t t i t u d e o f mind " s u p e r s t i t i o u s , i f no t h y s t e r i c a l . " M a rg aret H a lsey p o i n ts o u t th e need fo r e d u c a tio n and c a n d id d i s c u s s i o n i n b re a k in g th e power o f " o ld wives* t a l e s and s u p e r s t i t i o n s " which g iv e w h ite s an uncom fortable ^ Gunner M yrdal, An Am erican Dilemma (New York: H arper and B r o th e r s , 1 9 4 4 T 7 pp. 9 6 4 * 6 5 ; M aurice R. D avie, N egroes i n American S o c ie ty (New York: McGraw-Hill Company, I n c . , 1 9 4 9), pp. 175*7 6 . For an example of th e e x te n t of s u p e r s t i t i o n among American w h ite s , see James W est, P l a i n v i l l e , U. S. A. (New York: Columbia U n i v e r s i ty P r e s s , 1945 ) . - - - C. V. Roman, American C i v i l i z a t i o n and th e Negro ( P h i l a d e lp h i a : F . A. D avis Company, 1 916 ), P* 227. M a rg a re t H a ls e y , o p . c i t . , p . 5 2 . 98 f e e l i n g of c o n s t r a i n t i n t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith N egroes. Three b e l i e f s s u p p o r tin g s e g r e g a tio n and d i s c r i m i n a t i o n may t u r n o u t, upon i n v e s t i g a t i o n , to be based upon f a l s e a ssu m p tio n s, t h e r e f o r e c o n s t i t u t i n g , i n a s e n s e , " s u p e r s t i t i o n s . " The f i r s t of th e s e b e l i e f s i s t h a t p r e ju d ic e d p e rs o n s w i l l n o t t o l e r a t e employment of Negro p e rs o n n e l i n o f f i c e s and s a l e s d e p a rtm e n ts . T his b e l i e f was p u t to a s c i e n t i f i c t e s t by G e rh a rt Saenger and Em ily G ilb e r t^ ? i n New York a f t e r th e p a s s in g o f th e s t a t e F a i r Employment P r a c t i c e s Law i n 1945. An im p o rta n t f i n d in g of t h i s stu d y was t h a t th e h i r i n g o f q u a l i f i e d Negro c l e r k s d id n o t red u c e s a l e s . White p e o p le d id buy th e t h i n g s th e y needed from Negro c l e r k s . The second s te r e o ty p e d b e l i e f which re se m b le s a s u p e r s t i t i o n i s t h a t N egroes a r e bad t e n a n t s and bad home ow ners. A lf r e d J . Marrow c i t e s some s i g n i f i c a n t f i n d in g s on t h i s s u b j e c t . Now l e t us i n s p e c t a common s t e r e o t y p e of a n o th e r m in o r ity g ro u p . I t i s urged r e p e a t e d l y t h a t Negroes a re bad homeowners. What a r e th e f a c t s a s r e p o r t e d by th e people who do b u s in e s s w ith Negroes and stand t o win or lo s e by a c t in g G e rh a rt Saenger and Em ily G i l b e r t , "Customer R e a c tio n s to t h e I n t e g r a t i o n o f Negro S a le s P e r s o n n e l," I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l of A t t i t u d e and Opin io n R esea rc h , 1950, V ol. 4, PP- 57-7FT 99 on th e t r u t h ? The N a tio n a l A s s o c ia t io n of R eal E s t a t e Boards ( h a rd ly pro-N egro) made a survey o f e ig h te e n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e c i t i e s . Here a re some answ ers t o s i g n i f i c a n t q u e s tio n s : Does th e Negro make a good home buyer and c a r r y h i s p u rc h a se th ro u g h to com pletion? "Y es," s a id s e v e n te e n , "No," s a i d one, a sm a ll s o u th e rn r e s i d e n t i a l c i t y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e . Does th e Negro abuse p r o p e r ty or does he ta k e a s good c a r e a s o th e r t e n a n t s of a com parable s t a tu s ? E leven c i t i e s say he t a k e s a s good c a r e and i n many c a s e s b e t t e r th a n o t h e r t e n a n ts o f h i s economic g ro u p . I t was a ls o rem arked t h a t overcrow ding (a consequence of s e g re g a tio n ) p rod uces c o n d itio n s t h a t a r e bound to d isc o u ra g e good m a in te n a n c e . T h r e e - q u a r te r s of the c i t i e s , in c lu d in g m e t r o p o l i s e s , r e p o r t e d no re a so n why in s u ra n c e companies should n o t f r e e l y p u rc h a se m ortgages upon homes and r e n te d b u ild in g s to be o ccupied by Negroes where such accommodations a re p r o p e r ly l o c a te d and m anaged.28 Marrow summarizes r e s u l t s o f a stu d y which prove th e inadequacy of th e b e l i e f t h a t N egroes and w h ite s cannot p e a c e f u l ly l i v e t o g e t h e r i n th e same n eighb orhoo d. The stu d y i s t h a t of Morton D eutsch and Mary Evans C o l l i n s . I t c o n s i s t s o f a com parison o f s e g re g a te d and i n t e g r a t e d h o u sin g p r o j e c t s equated i n ev ery im p o rta n t f a c t o r (geo g rap h ic l o c a t i o n , p h y s ic a l f a c i l i t i e s , urban e n v iro n - A lf r e d J . Marrow, L iv in g W ithout Hate (New York: H arp er and B r o th e r s , 19 5 1 ), p . 50. Morton D eutsch and Mary Evans C o l l i n s , I n t e r r a c i a l H o u sin g : A Study of a S o c ia l Experim ent ( U n iv e r s ity of M innesota P r e ¥ s , 1 9 5 1 T T 100 m ent, and Negro and w h ite r a t i o s ) ex ce p t occupancy p a t t e r n s . In th e in t e g r a te d u n i t s , th ere was no se g re g a t io n o f " r a c e s," and Negro and w h ite f a m i l i e s l i v e d sid e by s id e i n d is c r im in a t e ly . In th e se g r e g a te d u n i t s , N egroes were se p a r a ted from w h it e s . In th e in t e g r a t e d u n i t s , a t t i t u d e s toward N egroes and toward h avin g Negro n eig h b o rs became more fa v o r a b le d u rin g the p erio d o f th e exp erim en t. By c o n t r a s t , in the se g r e g a te d u n it s th e r e d ev elop ed g r e a te r h o s t i l i t y toward N egroes and g r e a te r p r e fe r e n c e fo r s e g r e g a t io n . A t e n t a t i v e c o n c lu s io n reg a rd in g th e r e l a t i v e d egree o f " s u p e r s titio n " among N egroes in com parison w ith w h ite s f o llo w s ; Modern American N egroes are probably no more s u p e r s t it i o u s than w h ite s , p a r t i c u la r ly when N egroes and w h ite s b ein g compared a re equated in regard to s o c i a l and economic p o s i t i o n . Groups may be found, both among w h ite s and N eg ro es, where s u p e r s t it i o n , r a th e r than know le d g e and r a t io n a l c o n t r o l, i s an im portant elem en t in th e l i v e s o f members o f the groups. That ste r e o ty p e d b e l i e f s reg a r d in g N egroes are o ft e n e s s e n t i a l l y s u p e r s t i t i o u s i s a f a c t which i s fr e q u e n tly d isregard ed .^ ® The above d is c u s s io n o f the " r e a lity " o f s t e r e o ty p e s reg a r d in g N egroes cou ld be e la b o r a te d much m ore, but perhaps i t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y , nor i s th e r e sp a c e , to g iv e 101 e x h a u s tiv e in fo r m a tio n r e g a r d in g each o f t h e s e v a r io u s b e l i e f s o r o t h e r s which may a l s o be in c lu d e d . The purpose h e re has been t o r a i s e some c r i t i c a l q u e s tio n s ab o u t a few o f t h e s e common b e l i e f s and su g g e st a few h y p o th e se s fo r f u r t h e r c o n s i d e r a ti o n e lsew h ere beyond th e scope o f t h i s s tu d y . a m m A L c o n s i d e r a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g n e g ro s t e r e o t y p e s Numerous pronouncem ents r e g a r d in g th e g e n e r a l q u e s tio n of th e v a l i d i t y of Negro s t e r e o t y p e s have been made, some s t r i v i n g toward s c i e n t i f i c o b j e c t i v i t y , some a p p a r e n t l y a n ti- N e g ro ( i f n o t i n i n t e n t , p erh ap s i n e f f e c t ) and o t h e r s l i b e r a l o r pro-N egro. Only a p o r tio n o f t h e e x te n s iv e l i t e r a t u r e on t h i s s u b j e c t can be examined h e r e . Guy B. Johnson b e li e v e s t h a t th e Negro s te r e o ty p e i s a s t a r t i n g - p o i n t f o r r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e q u e s tio n of s c i e n t i f i c a l l y d e te rm in in g th e a c t u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of th e Am erican N egro. F o llo w in g i s Jo h n s o n ’ s s ta te m e n t, i n th e m id s t of which i s given i n f u l l a f o o tn o te i n j e c t e d by " S u p e r s t i t i o n " i s d e fin e d by W ebster’ s New I n t e r - n a t i o n a l D ic tio n a r y o f th e Eng l i s h Language ( G . a n d C. Merriam Company, 1 9 3 ^ , a s ’’( 1 ) an e x c e s s iv e re v e ra n c e f o r , o r f e a r o f , t h a t which i s unknown o r m y s te rio u s ; hence, th e a t t i t u d e of mind of a p e rso n o r p e rso n s whose b e l i e f s a re r e g a rd e d a s f a l s e and a s l e a d in g t o i d l e o r f o o l i s h p r a c t i c e s . . . " .U niversity of S outhern California L ibrai^ 102 th e e d i t o r . The p o in t h e re being made . . . i s t h a t th e s t e r e o t y p e s which a dom inant group d e v e lo p s c o n c e rn in g th e t r a i t s of a s u b o r d in a te group w i l l be to some e x te n t based upon o b s e rv a b le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t h e s u b o rd in a te g roup , and t h a t w h ile th e s t e r e o t y p e s may be perm eated w ith p r e j u d i c e and w ith th e id e o lo g y of i n f e r i o r i t y th e y may s t i l l r e f l e c t a c e r t a i n amount of t r u t h co n ce rn in g th e s u b o r d in a te g rou p. In o t h e r words, i f we can deduct from th e p o p u la r s t e r e o t y p e s th e m oral judgm ents and the i m p l i c a ti o n s of i n f e r i o r i t y and the e x a g g e r a tio n s , we may have l e f t a body of b e l i e f and o p in io n which a f f o r d s c o n s i d e r a b le i n s i g h t i n to th e t r a i t s o f th e s u b o r d in a te g ro u p . E d i t o r ’ s f o o t n o te : "The p o in t made by Johnson i s a p l a u s i b l e one, b u t . i t must be k e p t i n mind t h a t i t i s so f a r u n v e r i f i e d . As a m a t t e r o f f a c t , a stu d y by M. S c h o e n fe ld on s t e r e o t y p e s w ith r e f e r e n c e to p ro p e r names ( *An E x p erim e n tal Study of Some Problem s R e l a t i n g t o S te r e o ty p e s ,* A rc h iv e s of P s y c h o lo g y . No. 270, 1942), a p p e a rs to i n d i c a t e th e e x is te n c e o f r a t h e r c o n s i s t e n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n th e p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s c r i b e d to names l i k e *Mary* and ’A gatha,* a lth o u g h i n t h i s c a se i t i s e x tre m e ly u n l i k e l y t h a t th e f a c t s co rresp o n d i n any way to th e s t e r e o t y p e s , ” The o t h e r q u e s t io n h a s to do w ith th e t h in k in g of th e Negro on th e s u b j e c t o f h i s own t r a i t s . . . i t may be t h a t i f a m in o r i t y group even i n i t s p r i v a t e o r i n t r a - g r o u p t h in k i n g on th e s u b j e c t h o ld s to much th e same b e l i e f s c o n c e rn in g i t s own c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s th e dom inant group h o ld s c o n c e rn in g th o se c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t h e r e i s more th a n a s l i g h t p r e sum ption i n f a v o r of th e r e a l i t y of th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , 31 The ’’k e r n e l of t r u t h th e o r y ” i s a l a b l e which has been used to d e s c r i b e th e k ind of s ta te m e n t r e g a r d in g Negro Guy B, John son , ’’The S te re o ty p e of th e American N e g ro ,” in O tto K lin e b e rg , o p . c i t , , p . 17. 103 s t e r e o t y p e s which i s quoted ab ove. T h is th e o ry h o ld s th a t th e r e i s some b a s is in f a c t fo r th e s te r e o ty p e d b e l i e f s . To g iv e a com plete p ic tu r e of Johnson’ s purpose and p o s it io p a fu r th e r statem en t i s quoted below , fo llo w e d by a l i s t o f Negro c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s he has com piled w ith s te r e o ty p e s a s a so u r c e . W e may th en su g g e s t the fo llo w in g a s a " b o ilin g down” o f popular n o t io n s , common-sense o b s e r v a tio n s , and s e m i - s c i e n t i f i c pronouncements w ith r e s p e c t to th e p e r s o n a lit y and behavior o f th e N egro. Let us r e p e a t once more th a t t h i s i s not a l i s t o f " race” c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Any attem pt to make a co m p o site, s c i e n t i f i c p r o f i l e o f Negro t r a i t s would be im mature in th e p r e se n t s t a t e o f our know ledge. This l i s t i s a d e s c r ip t iv e l i s t , based upon a f a i r d egree o f c o n se n su s, o f the i n t e r e s t s , h a b it s , and te n d e n c ie s which m ight serv e to c h a r a c t e r iz e the ’’t y p i c a l ” N egro. In so fa r a s i t h as any v a l i d i t y , i t i s o f cou rse more a p p lic a b le t o th e Negro m asses than t o th e m in o r ity o f h ig h ly s o p h is t ic a t e d and a c c u ltu r a te d N e g r o e s. M en ta l: R e l a t i v e ly low i n t e l l e c t u a l i n t e r e s t s ; good memory; f a c i l e a s s o c i a t i o n s o f id e a s . Temperamental: G reg a rio u sn ess o r h igh i n t e r e s t in s o c i a l c o n ta c t s ; p h ilo s o p h ic a l or g e t-th e -m o s t- o u t - o f - l i f e type o f adju stm ent; h ig h a e s t h e t ic i n t e r e s t s ; lo v e o f s u b t le t y and i n d ir e c t io n ; a d a p t a b i l it y . E m o tio n a l: Warmer em otion al to n e in ev ery sphere o f l i f e ; l e s s i n h i b i t i o n o f th e e x p r e s s io n o f em otion . A e s t h e t ic ; Love of m usic and dance; o r a to r y and power o f s e l f - e x p r e s s i o n ; h ig h i n t e r e s t in an a p p r e c ia tio n o f th e a r t i s t i c . Economic : R e l a t i v e l y low i n t e r e s t in m a te r ia l t h in g s , such a s care o f money, p r o p e r ty , t o o l s , etc.; l i n e o f l e a s t r e s is t a n c e i n h a b it s o f work; 104 r e l a t i v e la c k o f s e l f - r e l i a n c e . P e r so n a l M o ra ls; Double standard o f m orals and e t h i c s , i . e . , one f o r h i s b ehavior toward N egroes and a n oth er fo r h i s b eh avior toward w h ite s ; p e r so n a l h o n e s ty , e . g . , not up to standard in b ehavior toward w h ite s ; in se x u a l co n d u ct, h ig h er i n t e r e s t in se x , high se x u a l in d u lg e n c e , and la r g e r sphere of p e r m issiv e se x r e l a t i o n s . Fam ily and Home L i f e : R e l a t i v e ly low s o l i d a r i t y ; h ig h freq u en cy o f common-law m atings and se p a r a tio n s ; r o le o f m other str o n g ; warmth of a f f e c t i o n toward c h ild r e n ; h igh r a t e o f i l l e g i t i m a c y . R e lig io n and th e S u p e rn a tu r a l; R ather h igh em otion al to n e ; p e r s o n a liz a t io n o f God and s a i n t s ; high i n t e r e s t in " s u p e r s tit io n " — i . e . , b e l i e f in v a r io u s su p ern a tu ra l f o r c e s and ways o f c o n t r o l l in g them. • Law O bservance: R e l a t i v e l y h igh in c id e n c e o f s o c i a l d is o r d e r ; d run kenn ess, f i g h t i n g , gam bling, p e t ty s t e a l i n g , etc.; resen tm en t a g a in s t the w h ite man’ s law . P u b lic M anners: Tendency toward e x tr o v e r s io n in p u b lic c o n ta c ts ; e a sy s o c i a b i l i t y , loud t a l k ; r e l a t i v e c a r e le s s n e s s in sp eech and d r e s s . Race P r i de : Not y e t h ig h ly d evelop ed ; i n f e r i o r i t y f e e l i n g s common; a c ce p ta n c e of w h ite sta n d a rd s of p h y s ic a l beauty to a la r g e e x te n t . Race C o n sc io u sn ess and L e a d e rsh ip : Lack o f c o h e sio n ; h igh in tr a g ro u p c o n f l i c t and c le a v a g e ; d i s t r u s t of le a d e r s ; la c k o f .s t r o n g r a ce-w id e le a d e r s h ip . The above p r o f i l e o f t r a i t s i s s t i l l fa r from s a t i s f a c t o r y . I t c o n ta in s much th a t in v o lv e s p e r so n a l judgment and i t makes r a th e r sw eeping sta te m e n ts which d is r e g a r d c l a s s and c u lt u r a l d if f e r e n c e s w ith in th e Negro group. I t i s sub m it te d , how ever, a s a b a s is f o r fu r th e r d i s c u s s io n and r e s e a r c h , w ith f u l l knowledge th a t i t i s in need of a good d e a l o f r e v i s i o n . 3 2 105 In c o n t r a s t to th e p o s i t i o n of Johnson, whose own s ta te m e n ts a r e qu oted above a t l e n g t h to a s s u r e a c c u r a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , i s th e p o s i t i o n ta k e n by S c h o e n fe ld , who p o i n t s o u t t h a t " i n the g r e a t m a j o r i t y of s t e r e o t y p e s , no m easure of t r u t h h as e v er been d e m o n s tra te d ." ^ ^ T his s ta te m e n t of S c h o e n fe ld ’ s i s ta k e n from the same so u rce a s th e s i g n i f i c a n t f o o tn o te of K lin e b e rg quoted i n , t h e m id s t 1 ; • of the f i r s t d i s c u s s i o n o f Johnson above. ■ K lin e b e rg r e f e r s to an e x p e rim e n ta l s tu d y made by S ch o en feld in o r d e r to o b j e c t i v e l y p u t t o a t e s t th e a s s u m p tio n - th a t s t e r e o t y p e s a r e a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y t r u e . When S c h o en feld found t h a t t h e r e were r a t h e r d e f i n i t e s t e r e o t y p e s o f p e rs o n s w ith names of Mary o r A g ath a, he f e l t t h a t i t was v e ry u n l i k e l y t h a t th e s t e r e o t y p e s in t h i s i n s t a n c e could be " t r u e " and t h a t t h e r e f o r e he had shown t h a t a l l s t e r e o t y p e s a re i n a c c u r a t e . The l a t t e r c o n c lu s io n may o r may n o t be j u s t i f i e d by h i s d a t a . However, th e p r e s e n t rev ie w of th e l i t e r a t u r e a p p a r e n tly does n o t r e f u t e i t . Norman Daymond H u m p h r e y 3 4 made an e m p ir ic a l stu d y I b i d . . pp. 18-19. 32 Nathan S c h o e n fe ld , "An E x p e rim e n ta l Study o f Some Problem s R e la ti n g to S t e r e o t y p e s ," A rc h iv e s of P s y c h o lo g y . No. 270, 1942, p. 13. Norman Daymond Humphrey, "The S te re o ty p e and th e S o c ia l Types of M exican-Am erican Y o u th ," J o u r n a l of S o c ia l P s y c h o lo g y , 2 2 :6 9 -7 8 , A u gust, 1945, p. 78. 106 o f s o c i a l ty p e s o f M exican-Amerlea n youth and found th a t th e s e s o c i a l ty p e s d iv e rg e d g r e a t ly from th e common "pachuco" s t e r e o t y p e . I t i s r a th e r common f o r two c o n c lu s io n s regard in g th e i n f e r i o r i t y o f N egroes to be a s s o c ia t e d w ith each o th e r — o n e, t h a t N egroes are a c t u a l ly i n f e r i o r , and, two, th a t t h i s i n f e r i o r i t y i s o f b i o l o g i c a l o r i g i n . Myrdal^^ and Brown^^ p o in t out th a t th e la r g e numbers of N egroes w ith low er c l a s s s t a t u s , w ith p o v e r ty , w ith h ig h m o r t a lit y , poor i n t e l l i g e n c e perform ance, and low er s o c i a l sta n d a rd s, tend to show th a t th e Negro a c t u a l ly i s i n f e r i o r to the w h ite and th a t th u s th e s te r e o ty p e i s r e in f o r c e d . F u rth er, i t i s d i f f i c u l t f o r N egroes to improve t h e i r s t a t u s and t h e i r stan d ard s b ecau se se g r e g a tio n on a r a c i a l b a s is f o r c e s th e " s o c ia l clim b ers" among N egroes to a s s o c ia t e w ith p erso n s o f low er sta n d a r d s. S t r iv in g to a c h ie v e a h ig h er s o c i a l s t a t u s fo r c h ild r e n under t h e s e c o n d itio n s becomes d i f f i c u l t even when Negro p a r e n ts have the economic r e so u r c e s n eed ed . ^ As to th e b i o l o g i c a l o r ig in o f i n f e r i o r i t y , however, th a t i s an oth er q u e s tio n e n t i r e l y . That N egroes are M yrdal, op. c i t . , p. 97. In a C orinne Brown, The S to r y o f th e American Negro (New York: F r i e n d s h ip P r e s s , 1 9 5 Q T 7 P« l 6 0 . 107 i n f e r i o r i n a number of o b se rv a b le and m ea su rab le ways does n o t g iv e any s u p p o rt w hatev er to t h e p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t N egroes a re i n n a t e l y and by n a tu r e i n f e r i o r a s a g rou p. Brewton B e rry , in a book p u b lis h e d i n 1951, h a s a p e c u l i a r c om b ination o f th e two p r o p o s i t io n s s t a t e d above. He q u o te s pronouncem ents of em inent s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s r e g a rd in g th e e s s e n t i a l e q u a l i t y of in n a te i n t e l l i g e n c e and a b i l i t y and th e n p ro c e e d s to r e f u t e them. The q u o t a t i o n s and th e c o n c lu s io n s a r e w orthy to be n o ted h e re in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e p r e s e n t d is c u s s i o n r e g a r d in g th e r e a l i t y of s t e r e o t y p e s . S o c i o l o g i s t s , who a t one tim e a c c e p te d th e p o p u la r b e l i e f t h a t some r a c e s were by n a tu r e i n t e l l e c t u a l l y s u p e r i o r to o t h e r s , r e a c t e d a g a i n s t such a view , and began 'to espouse th e d o c t r i n e of e q u a l i t y and to speak o f th e "myth of s u p e r i o r i t y . " Thus a g e n e r a tio n ago M i l l e r was sa y in g , " I n h e r e n t r a c i a l i n f e r i o r i t y i s a myth . . . I t h as no b a s i s in f a c t " and D avis and B arnes s t a t e d in a w id e ly used te x tb o o k : " I t i s h a rd ly f a i r to assume t h a t we can now say d e f i n i t e l y t h a t t h e r e i s a sound b a s is to th e myth of w h ite s u p e r i o r i t y . We now re c o g n iz e t h a t th e id e a i s m ere ly a phase o f group egoism . . . One hundred p e r c e n t p a t r i o t i s m and w h ite s u p e r i o r i t y a re p ro b a b ly d e fe n se complexes which we use when we t r y t o J u s t i f y our own co u rse o f a c t i o n , " More r e c e n t l y Cuber, i n h i s immensely p o p u la r book, d e c l a r e s : "The id e a has been common i n America t h a t N egroes, a s a w hole, a r e i n f e r i o r i n i n t e l l i g e n c e to w h i t e s , a s a w hole. S u p e r f i c i a l l y , i t a p p e a rs 108 to many t h a t such a c o n c lu s io n i s t r u e . . . Numerous t e s t s . . . have shown c o n c lu s iv e ly t h a t t h e r e a r e no s i g n i f i c a n t n a t i v e i n t e l l i gence d i f f e r e n c e s between N egroes and w h i t e s . " F i n a l l y , A rnold and C a r o lin e Rose go so f a r a s to s t a t e , "Modern s c ie n c e h o ld s t h a t a l l r a c e s a r e b i o l o g i c a l l y equ al so f a r a s t h e i r m ental and em o tio n al p o t e n t i a l i t i e s a r e c o n c e rn e d ." Such s ta te m e n ts , fo r a l l of t h e i r good and d e m o c ratic i n t e n t i o n s , can h a r d l y be su p p o rted (See James W. Woodward, "Some I m p li c a t io n s from Our P r e s e n t Knowledge Concerning P r e j u d i c e , " American S o c i o lo g i c a l R eview , V ol. 11, No. 3, p. 344 f f . ) . S c ie n c e , in d e e d , h a s n o t been a b le to prove any r a c e s u p e r io r t o the o t h e r s ; b u t i t does n o t fo llo w t h a t r a c e s a r e t h e r e f o r e e q u a l. Nor has s c ie n c e been a b le to prove t h a t r a c e s a re e q u al i n t h e i r i n n a te a b i l i t i e s , b u t t h i s f a i l u r e does n o t j u s t i f y one i n c o n c lu d in g t h a t th e y a r e t h e r e f o r e u n e q u a l. The fo llo w in g would seem to be th e s a f e s t c o n c lu s io n s we can re a c h on th e m a t t e r : ' 1. R aces and r a c i a l and e th n ic groups p o s s ib l y do d i f f e r i n i n n a te a b i l i t y . Group d i f f e r e n c e s do i n v a r i a b l y ap p ea r in any m ea su ra b le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . However, a s Hooton s a y s , " U n til we know e x a c tly how to d i s t i n g u i s h a r a c e and e x a c tl y what i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s t e s t , we s h a l l have t o h o ld i n su s p e n s io n th e problem of r a c i a l m e n ta l d i f f e r e n c e s . " 2. I t can h a r d l y be d e n ie d t h a t t h e r e a re s i g n i f i c a n t p s y c h o lo g ic a l d i f f e r e n c e s between r a c i a l and e th n ic g ro u p s. The numerous l i f e h i s t o r i e s , th e r e p o r t s of e t h n o l o g i s t s , and th e s t u d i e s of " n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r " a l l p o in t i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n . Groups do have many o f th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w ith which th e y a r e p o p u la r ly c h arg ed , su ch a s a g g r e s s iv e n e s s , m e d io c r ity , s h i f t l e s s n e s s , and so on, S te r e o ty p e s a re n o t e n t i r e l y w ith o u t f o u n d a t i o n . 3. D i f f e r e n c e s , however, a re alw ays m a t t e r s of d e g re e , and n o t of k in d . 4 . D if f e r e n c e s a r e s l i g h t , and on th e a v e ra g e . 109 5. O v e rla p p in g s f a r outw eigh th e d i f f e r e n c e s . 6. Most of t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a re n o t i n n a t e , but a r e alm ost c e r t a i n l y th e p ro d u c t o f h i s t o r i c a l and en v iro n m en ta l f a c t o r s . 37 C l e a r ly , B erry n o t o n ly b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e r e a re d i f f e r e n c e s but t h a t t h e s te r e o t y p e s have a " k e r n e l of t r u t h " i n them and t h a t a t l e a s t some of th e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e " i n i n n a te a b i l i t y . " A f a c t B erry i g n o r e s i s t h a t i t h a s not been shown t h a t group d i f f e r e n c e s i n i n n a te a b i l i t y a re due to r a c e . M oreover, when s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s a r e c a n c e lle d o u t by e q u a tin g Negro and w hite groups r e g a r d in g them, th e f i n d i n g s of numerous s t u d i e s have shown t h a t group d i f f e r e n c e s i n a b i l i t y and p e r s o n a l i t y a re m inor and i n s i g n i f i c a n t , and th e more p r e c i s e th e c o n t r o l s become th e g r e a t e r the s i m i l a r i t y between th e g ro u p s. I t i s one th in g to say t h a t "group d i f f e r e n c e s do i n v a r i a b l y appear i n any m easurab le c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ; " i t i s q u ite a n o th e r to i n f e r t h a t group d i f f e r e n c e s i n a b i l i t y a re due to r a c e . S te r e o ty p in g of N egroes and m e n ta lly p la c in g them a s a group in a low er c a te g o ry i s n a t u r a l enough f o r th e w h ite "man on th e s t r e e t . " 'White people seldom come i n ^ Brewton B e rry , Race R e la tio n s (New York: Houghton M i f f l i n Company, 1 951), p p . 94-96 ( i t a l i c s n o t i n o r i g i n a l ) . 110 c o n ta c t w ith Negroes in o t h e r th a n m enial p o s i t i o n s ; and th e p u b lic m edia of com m unication, as we have se e n , p o r tr a y the l o w - s t a t u s N egro. As Davis and D o lla rd ^ ^ p o i n t o u t , w h ite s a r e l i k e l y to conclude t h a t " a l l N egroes a re a l i k e , " because w h ite s have n o t p a r t i c i p a t e d i n Negro s o c i e t y and l e a r n e d to d i f f e r e n t i a t e between th e v a r io u s gro ups which make up th e Negro p o p u l a t i o n . These r e s e a r c h e r s found t h a t Negroes do d i f f e r s o c i a l l y a v ery g r e a t d e a l . A n o th er th in g which may len d p l a u s i b i l i t y to th e id e a t h a t N egroes r e a l l y a r e th e type of p eo p le con ceiv ed of th ro u g h s te r e o ty p in g i s th e f a c t t h a t many Negro a r t i s t s make a l i v i n g t r y i n g to l i v e up to th e n o tio n s of w h ite s co n c e rn in g N e g r o e s .^9 R e tu rn in g to th e q u e s tio n a s to w hether t h e r e a re r e a l p e r s o n a l i t y d i f f e r e n c e s between N egroes and w h ite s , a stu d y by Leonard H. Langer^O found t h a t 14 tw e lv e - y e a r - o l d Negro boys did n o t d i f f e r s t a t i s t i c a l l y on R orschach A l l i s o n D avis and John D o lla r d , C h ild ren o f Bondage (W ashington, D. C.: American C ou n cil on E d u ca tio n , p. 256. ^9 Conrad, p p . c i t . , p. 133* Leonard H. L anger, "A Comparison of Twelve-Year- Old W hite and Negro Boys on the R orschach T e s t ," (un p u b lis h e d M a s te r ’ s t h e s i s . The U n i v e r s i t y o f S outhern C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g e les, 1951), p . 20. I l l t e s t s from 14 t w e lv e - y e a r - o ld w h ite boys. B e sid e s a g e, th e f a c t o r s o f sc h o o l, n eig h b o rh o o d , and socio-eco nom ic s t a t u s were ro u g h ly e q u a te d . T his stu d y would have been more c o n c lu s iv e i f l a r g e r numbers had been s t u d i e d . R o rsch ach s i n th e l a r g e r stu d y by K a rd in e r and Ovesey^l d id n o t a g r e e w ith c l i n i c a l f i n d in g s r e g a rd in g p s y c h o lo g ic a l d i f f e r e n c e s among Negroes alo n g c l a s s l i n e s . In s p i t e of t h i s p e rp le x in g d is c re p a n c y , th e a u th o r s b e lie v e t h a t t h e i r f i n d i n g s show w ith o u t doubt t h a t th e A m erican Negro has a d i s t i n c t i v e p e r s o n a l i t y because of th e s p e c i a l l i f e c o n d it i o n s he must a d j u s t t o . The a u th o r s e x p re ss t h e i r c o n c lu s io n s t h i s way: I s t h e r e such a th in g a s a b a s ic p e r s o n a l i t y f o r th e Negro? T his work p ro v es d e c id e d ly t h a t t h e r e i s . Though he l i v e s in Am erican c u l t u r e , th e Negro l i v e s under s p e c i a l c o n d itio n s which g iv e t h i s p e r s o n a l i t y a d i s t i n c t i v e c o n f i g u r a t i o n . Taking a s o u r base l i n e th e w h ite m iddle c l a s s , th e c o n d itio n s o f l i f e f o r the Negro a r e so d i s t i n c t i v e t h a t t h e r e i s an a c t u a l a l t e r a t i o n of th e p r e s s u r e s t o which he must a d a p t. Hence, he d e v elo p s a d i s t i n c t i v e p e r s o n a l i t y . T h is b a s ic Negro p e r s o n a l i t y i s , however, a c a r i c a t u r e o f th e c o rre sp o n d in g w h ite p e r s o n a l i t y , because th e Negro m ust a d a p t to th e same c u l t u r e , must a c c e p t th e same s o c i a l g o a ls , but w ith o u t th e a b i l i t y to a c h ie v e them. T his l i m i t a t i o n i n s o c i a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s a c c o u n ts f o r th e d i f f e r e n c e i n p e r s o n a l i t y c o n f i g u r a t i o n . *2 K a rd in e r and Ovesey, p p . c i t . , p . 331. I b i d . . p . 317. 112 Though K a rd in e r and Ovesey s t r e s s " c o n d itio n s o f l i f e " and " l i m i t a t i o n i n s o c i a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s " a s c a u s a l f a c t o r s r e s u l t i n g i n t h e N egro’ s d i s t i n c t i v e p e r s o n a l i t y which c o n s t i t u t e s " th e mark of o p p r e s s io n ," t h e r e i s a tend en cy f o r them to g e n e r a l i z e abou t " th e Negro" on th e b a s is of t h e i r sm all sample of lo w e r - c l a s s Negroes^^ and, in d e e d , to ig n o re o r underem phasize th e c l a s s d i f f e r ences which t h e i r own stu d y shows. They may t h e r e f o r e be accused o f s t e r e o t y p in g to some e x t e n t , but th e y a t t r i b u t e th e d i f f e r e n c e s which th e y found between th e p e r s o n a l i t i e s o f N egroes and w h ite s to th e o p p r e s s io n of th e form er by th e l a t t e r . The p s y c h o s o c ia l e x p re s s io n s of th e Negro p e r s o n a l i t y t h a t we have d e s c r ib e d a re th e i n t e g r a t e d end p ro d u c ts of the p r o c e s s of o p p r e s s io n . Can th e s e be changed by e d u c a tio n o f th e Negro? The answer i s , n o . They can n e v e r be e r a d i c a te d w ith o u t rem oving th e f o r c e s t h a t c r e a t e and p e r p e tu a te them. O bvio usly , Negro s e l f - e s t e e m cannot be r e t r i e v e d , nor Negro s e l f - h a t r e d d e s tro y e d , a s lo n g a s th e s t a t u s i s quo. What i s needed by the Negro i s n o t e d u c a tio n , b u t r e - i n t e g r a t i o n . I t i s th e w h ite man who r e q u i r e s t h e e d u c a tio n . There i s o n ly one way t h a t th e p ro d u c ts of o p p re s s io n can be d i s s o l v e d , and t h a t i s to s to p th e 0 5 p f e 5 s I 5 i . i a : ------------------------------------------------------- That N egroes a c t u a l l y do f u n c t i o n e f f e c t i v e l y , when p e r m itte d , i n a l l m ajor o c c u p a tio n a l g ro u p in g s i s a f a c t ^3 I b i d . . p . 313. I b i d . . p . 387. 113 which c o n t r a d i c t s th e s t e r e o t y p e o f th e immature and i r r e s p o n s i b l e N egro. The fo llo w in g t a b l e (p re p a re d by Dr. A lba M. Edwards of th e Bureau of th e Census) shows t h a t N egroes p a r t i c i p a t e i n a l l m ajo r o c c u p a tio n a l g ro u p s; and i t a ls o shows t h a t , in com parison w ith w h i t e s , a s m a lle r p e rc e n ta g e of N egroes a r e employed i n e v e ry o c c u p a tio n a l group e x cep t t h a t of u n s k i l l e d w o rk e rs, N egroes o p e ra tin g farm s a re in c lu d e d in th e p e rc e n ta g e o p p o s ite " p r o p r i e t o r s , m anagers and o f f i c i a l s . " I f th e 300,000 Negro s h a r e c ro p p e rs were in c lu d e d i n th e c a te g o ry o f " u n s k i l le d w o rk e rs ," se v e n ty p e r c e n t of Negro w ork ers would be c l a s s e d a s u n s k i l l e d . EMPLOYED WORKERS IN THE UNITED STATES CLASSIFIED INTO SOCIAL-ECONOMIC GROUPS, BY COLOR, 1940* S o cial-eco n o m ic grou ping P e r c e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n by c o lo r Negro White P r o f e s s i o n a l p e rs o n s , 2 . 6 7 . 5 P r o p r i e t o r s , m anagers, o f f i c i a l s 1 6 , 1 2 0 . 2 C le rk s and k in d re d w ork ers 2 . 2 1 9 . 5 S k i l l e d w orkers and forem en 2 . 9 1 2 . 4 S e m is k ille d w orkers 1 2 . 3 2 1 . 4 U n s k ille d w orkers 6 3 . 9 1 9 . 0 T o ta l 1 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 0 * M aurice R. D avie, Negroes i n A m erican S o c ie ty (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, I n c . , 1 9 4 9 ) , P* 1 1 1 . 114 A c tu a l numbers of N egroes employed i n v a r io u s " u p p er” o c c u p a tio n a l l e v e l s a r e quoted by P e t e r Noble a s f o llo w s ; The 1940 Bureau of Census S t a t i s t i c s shows t h a t t h e r e were i n th e U, S, A. a t t h a t tim e t h r e e th ousan d f i v e hundred and tw e n ty -fo u r p h y s i c ia n s and su rg e o n s; two thousand t h r e e hundred and t h i r t y - n in e c o lle g e p r e s i d e n t s and p r o f e s s o r s ; one thousand and f i f t y - t w o law y ers and ju d g e s; one hundred and t h i r t y - t w o thousand one hundred and te n c ra fts m a n and foremen i n i n d u s t r i e s ; and s i x th ousan d e ig h t hundred and one t r a i n e d n u r s e s . 45 T h is d a ta i s i n sh a rp c o n t r a s t to th e s te r e o ty p e d c o n c e p tio n s of N egroes which a r e common among w h ite s . C o n c lu sio n s d e riv e d from s c i e n t i f i c s t u d i e s of N eg ro -w h ite d i f f e r e n c e s a r e s t a t e d by Myrdal a s f o llo w s : The l a r g e amount of o v e rla p p in g brought o u t th e f a c t t h a t both N egroes and w h ite s belonged to th e same human s p e c ie s and had many more s i m i l a r i t i e s th a n d i f f e r e n c e s . The a v e ra g e s th e m se lv e s ten ded to come n e a r e r each o t h e r when th e m easurem ents were r e f i n e d to exclud e more and more th e i n f l u e n c e s o f d i f f e r e n c e s i n en viro n m en t, such a s e d u c a tio n , c u l t u r a l background and e x p e r ie n c e , s o c io economic c l a s s ; and th e s o c i a l f a c t o r s i n th e t e s t s i t u a t i o n i t s e l f , such a s m o tiv a tio n and r a p p o r t w ith t h e t e s t e r . The i n t e n s i v e s t u d i e s of t h e s e l a s t i n f l u e n c e s p ro v ed , i n a d d i t i o n , t h a t no p s y c h o lo g ic a l t e s t s y e t in v e n te d come even c lo s e to m easuring in n a t e p sy c h ic t r a i t s , a b s o l u t e l y u n d i s t o r t e d by th e s e i n f l u e n c e s . They r a t h e r re n d e re d i t p ro b a b le t h a t a v e ra g e d i f f e r e n c e s would p r a c t i c a l l y d is a p p e a r i f a l l en v iro n m en ta l f a c t o r s c o u ld be c o n t r o l l e d . P e t e r N oble, The Negro i n F ilm s {London: Knapp, D rew ett and Sons, L t d . , n . d .T , p . 11. 115 P s y c h o lo g is ts a r e coming to r e a l i z e t h a t th ey a r e n o t , and p ro b a b ly nev er w i l l b e, m ea su rin g in n a t e t r a i t s d i r e c t l y but a r e , r a t h e r , m easurin g p e r formance i n a l i m i t e d number o f s e l e c t e d t a s k s , and t h a t perform ance i s d e te r m in e d - - in a most complex f a s h i o n - - b y many i n f l u e n c e s b e s id e s i n n a te c a p a c i t y .4 6 The fo llo w in g r e c e n t s ta te m e n t o f Davie c o n t r a d i c t s th e u s u a l s t e r e o ty p e d th in k in g r e g a r d in g N egroes. The d o c t r i n e o f i n n a t e i n f e r i o r i t y h a s been g a in s a id by t h e advancem ent of th e Negro and undermined by s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h . . . A b a sic cause of t r o u b l e , i n th e N o rth a s w e ll a s i n th e S o uth, i s t h a t th e Negro w i l l n o t keep h i s p l a c e . He i s r e s t l e s s and a m b itio u s ; he wants c i v i l , p o l i t i c a l , and economic e q u a l i t y . He w i l l n o t c o n te n t h im s e lf w ith th e p la c e of i n f e r i o r i t y . A c t u a l ly , he h a s d ev eloped more r a p i d l y t h a n " h i s o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n American l i f e have w idened. W hites f e e l c a l l e d upon to j u s t i f y t h e i r s ta n d and to r a t i o n a l i z e t h e i r p r e j u d i c e s and d i s c r im i n a t o r y a c t s . 47 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The p urpose of t h i s c h a p te r h a s been to r a i s e and g iv e answ ers to c e r t a i n q u e s tio n s r e g a r d in g th e v a l i d i t y o f Negro s t e r e o t y p e s . F ollo w in g a re a number of t e n t a t i v e c o n c lu s io n s re a c h e d a f t e r a re v ie w o f th e l i t e r a t u r e . 1 . The s te r e o ty p e d b e l i e f re g a r d in g the i n f e r i o r i t y of in n a t e m ental a b i l i t y of Negroes i n com parison w ith M yrdal, ojg. c i t . , p . 147. D avie, op. c i t . , pp. 382-83. 116 w h ite s i s n o t a v a l i d guid e f o r p u b lic p o l ic y o r f o r th e b e h av io r of i n d i v i d u a l s o r g ro u p s in r e l a t i o n to N egroes. 2. " Ig n o ra n c e ” of N egroes in com parison w ith w h ite s , i n term s of i l l i t e r a c y and la c k o f e d u c a tio n , i s becoming l e s s and l e s s a d i s t i n g u i s h i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a s N egroes r a p i d l y a c q u i r e an e d u c a tio n . There may be an im p o rta n t t o p i c , nam ely, t h e consequences o f s e g r e g a tio n and d i s c r i m i n a t i o n based upon r a c e , of which N egroes a r e more f u l l y aware th a n w h i t e s . 3. Humor s e rv e s th e same f u n c tio n among N egroes a s among w h i t e s , th e f u n c t i o n o f g iv in g a se n se o f s t a t u s . The N e g ro 's " se n se of humor" i s much e x a g g e ra te d by m i n s t r e l shows, m ovies, r a d io c h a r a c t e r s , and o th e r means of com m u n ic a tio n . These e x a g g e ra tio n s tend to produce a common s t e r e o t y p e which does n o t conform to r e a l i t y . 4 . The g e n e r a l l y - h e l d w h ite s t e r e o ty p e o f th e "m u sica l Negro" i s an e x a g g e ra tio n of a t r a i t which i s more a p p a re n t th a n r e a l , more im ag in ary th a n s t r i c t l y f a c t u a l . The i l l u s i o n t h a t N egroes a r e m u s c ia l i s due to th e f a c t t h a t o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r N egroes i n o t h e r f i e l d s o f endeavo r a r e l i m i t e d and t h a t t h e r e f o r e a d is p r o p o r t i o n a t e number o f N egroes p a r t i c i p a t e i n m u sic. 5« There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n c l e a n l i n e s s between N egroes and w h ite s of th e same economic and 117 s o c i a l l e v e l . I t may a ls o be t r u e t h a t among N egroes who a re s t r i v i n g f o r e q u a l i t y , who a r e "c lim b in g " to improve t h e i r s t a t u s , t h e r e i s more c a r e and co n cern re g a r d in g c l e a n l i n e s s th a n among w h ite s i n a s i m i l a r r a c e f o r s o c i a l r e c o g n i t i o n . 6 . Speed of movement, a s w e ll a s " l a z i n e s s " o r " i n d u s t r io u s n e s s " v a ry w ith c lim a te and c u l t u r e r a t h e r th an w ith " r a c e . " 7 . Modern Am erican N egroes a re p ro b a b ly no more s u p e r s t i t i o u s th a n w h ite s , p a r t i c u l a r l y when N egroes and w h ite s b e in g compared a re eq uated i n r e g a r d to s o c i a l and economic p o s i t i o n . That s te r e o ty p e d b e l i e f s and consequent a c t i o n s o f w h ite s r e g a r d in g N egroes a r e o f te n e s s e n t i a l l y s u p e r s t i t i o u s i s a f a c t which i s f r e q u e n t l y d is r e g a r d e d . 8 . That s t e r e o t y p e s r e g a r d in g N egroes a re o f te n in a c c u r a te h a s been d e m o n stra te d i n a v a r i e t y of ways. C e r ta in e th n o c e n t r i c b e l i e f s of w h ite s r e g a r d i n g N egroes a r e n o t j u s t i f i e d by s c i e n t i f i c f i n d i n g s . T his i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e of b e l i e f s r e g a r d in g th e in n a t e m en tal and s o c i a l i n f e r i o r i t y o f N egroes i n com parison w ith w h i t e s . C H A PTER IV VARIATIONS OF NEGRO STEREOTYPES AMONG COLLEGE STUDENTS OF FIVE SCHOOLS THE PROBLEM AND TECHNIQUES USED This stud y i s a com parison of Negro s t e r e o t y p e s a s e x p re ssed by s e l e c t e d w h ite c o lle g e s t u d e n ts a t t e n d i n g f i v e i n s t i t u t i o n s of h ig h e r e d u c a tio n . The sample c o n s i s t e d of 18? s t u d e n ts of t h e U n i v e r s i ty o f F l o r i d a a t G a i n e s v i l l e ; 414 s t u d e n ts in c l a s s e s a t the U n i v e r s i ty o f N orth D akota, Grand F o rk s; 188 Yale U n i v e r s i ty s t u d e n ts a t New Haven, C o n n e c tic u t; 222 s tu d e n ts a t t e n d i n g Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e a t Ames; and 219 U n i v e r s i ty o f S o u th ern C a l i f o r n i a s t u d e n ts a t Los A n g e le s. The t o t a l s tu d e n t sample c o n s is te d of 1230 s t u d e n ts a tt e n d i n g v a r i o u s s o c i a l s c ie n c e and o t h e r c l a s s e s d u rin g the c o lle g e y e a r s of 1950-51 and 1951-52. Q u e s tio n n a ire s were com pleted by th e s t u d e n ts d u rin g r e g u l a r c l a s s s e s s io n s w ith i n s t r u c t o r s a c t i n g a s p r o c t o r s . W ithin a tw e n ty -m in u te tim e l i m i t , s u b j e c t s respo nded to 97 ite m s on th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e . The fo rem at of t h e q u e s t io n n a ir e e x p la in e d t h a t the stu d y was a survey o f o p in io n r e g a r d in g w h ite A m ericans and American N egroes a s r a c i a l g ro u p s . I t e x p la in e d t h a t / 119 th e f i r s t r e a c t i o n s o f s u b j e c t s were d e s i r e d , and t h a t answ ers were anonymous sin c e names were n o t c a l l e d f o r . The f i r s t page of th e q u e s t io n n a ir e c a l l e d f o r in ? fo rm a tio n such a s th e f o llo w in g : ag e, se x , m a r i t a l s t a t u s , r a c i a l d e s c e n t. World War I I s e r v i c e s t a t u s , y e a r i n c o l l e g e , u n d e rg ra d u a te m a jo r, g ra d u a te m ajor ( i f a n y ), church membership o r p r e f e r e n c e , church and Sunday church sc h o o l a tte n d a n c e , s e l f - e s t i m a t e of d egree o f r e l i g i o n or r e l i g i o u s n e s s , t r a v e l , and r e s i d e n t i a l m o b il i ty . The m ajor p a r t of t h e q u e s t io n n a ir e c o n s i s t e d of 19 " s t e r e o t y p e q u e s tio n s " a s to w h e th er N egroes or w h ite s were more c h a r a c t e r i z e d by g iv e n t r a i t s . Response a l t e r n a t i v e s were a s fo llo w s: " W h ite s ," "N eg ro es," "No D i f f e r e n c e , " "D o n 't Know." T r a i t s in c lu d e d i n th e q u e s tio n s were a s fo llo w s : I n t e l l i g e n c e L a z in e s s Ig n o ran ce F e a r o f t h e Dark S u p e r s t i t i o n E ase of F r ig h te n in g Sense of Rhythm S l e e p in e s s of N ature Amount of L au g h ter F l a s h i n e s s of C lo th e s Speed of Movement "H appy-go-lucky" ten d e n cy C l e a n li n e s s Q u a lity a s .S e r v a n t s Ease of P le a s in g A m bition N e a tn e ss T h r i f t i n e s s 120 "Wide-Awake" ten d en cy F o llo w in g each o f th e s t e r e o ty p e q u e s tio n s was th e fo llo w in g i n t e n s i t y q u e s tio n : "How s t r o n g l y do you f e e l t h a t your answer i s c o r r e c t ? " The answ ers were "Very s t r o n g l y , " " S t r o n g l y ," " F a i r l y s t r o n g l y , " "Not a t a l l s t r o n g l y , " and "No r e s p o n s e ." In fo rm a tio n r e g a r d i n g f a m i l i a r i t y w ith N egroes was o b ta in e d by a s e r i e s of ^ p o s t f a c t o s o c i a l d i s t a n c e q u e s tio n s a s to number of N egroes known a s c lo s e f r i e n d s , f e l l o w c lu b members, n e ig h b o rs , sch o o l m a te s, b u s in e s s o r p r o f e s s i o n a l a s s o c i a t e s , f e llo w w o rk e rs, s e r v a n t s or em ployees, servicem en, c a s u a l a c q u a in ta n c e s , and t o t a l number of N egroes known i n t h e p a s t . An e f f o r t was made to m easure d egree o f in tim a c y w ith N egroes i n each o f th e above ty p e s o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s by a s k in g f o r re s p o n s e s in th e fo llo w in g c a t e g o r i e s : " I n t i m a t e ," " F r i e n d l y ," " I n d i f f e r e n t , " " T o l e r a n t ," " A n t a g o n i s ti c ," and "No ' R e sp o n se ." S u b je c ts were a s k e d , f i n a l l y , to e v a lu a te th e 19 s t e r e o ty p e t r a i t s by a s k in g th e m se lv e s, "How fa v o ra b ly would I lo o k upon t h i s t r a i t among my a s s o c i a t e s ? " The a l t e r n a t i v e s were "Very f a v o r a b l y ," " F a v o ra b ly ," "U nd ecid ed," " U n fa v o ra b ly ," "Very u n f a v o r a b ly ." Thus, the s u b j e c t s were asked to g iv e background 121 in f o r m a tio n c o n c e rn in g th e m s e lv e s , in c l u d i n g t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith N egroes i n th e p a s t ; th e y were asked to compare N egroes and w h ite s i n re g a rd to 19 t r a i t s ; and th ey were asked to i n d i c a t e how f a v o r a b ly th e y looked upon each o f th e t r a i t s . The c e n t r a l q u e s tio n being i n v e s t i g a t e d i n th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h i s t h i s : How do w h ite c o ll e g e s tu d e n ts a t t e n d i n g c l a s s e s i n d i f f e r e n t re g io n s compare w ith r e s p e c t to t h e i r answ ers to s te r e o ty p e q u e s tio n s r e g a r d in g th e t r a i t s o f N egroes a s compared w ith w h ite s ? The p r i n c i p a l f i n d i n g s of th e p r e s e n t stu d y have to do w ith re s p o n s e s o f s tu d e n ts to each o f th e t r a i t q u e s t io n s . These r e s p o n s e s a re a n a ly z e d i n term s of p e rc e n ta g e s of s t u d e n ts re sp o n d in g i n each o f th e f o u r answ er c a t e g o r i e s . The s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of d i f f e r e n c e s between s t e r e o t y p e s o f s t u d e n ts i n th e d i f f e r e n t r e g io n s w i l l be p r e s e n te d i n term s o f Chi S q u are. The f i n d i n g s o f an e x p lo r a to r y e f f o r t to d e v is e a s c a l e f o r e th n o c e n tr is m w i l l be p r e s e n te d i n C h ap ter V. A n a ly s is o f th e f i n d in g s i s enhanced by the v a r i e t y of in f o r m a tio n c o n c e rn in g th e s t a t u s and background of t h e s u b j e c t s and th e d i r e c t i o n and i n t e n s i t y of a f f e c t i v i t y a s s o c i a t e d w ith each of th e t r a i t q u e s t io n s . 122 FINDINGS INTELLIGENCE S tu d e n t re s p o n s e s to th e q u e s t io n "Who a r e more i n t e l l i g e n t ? " a r e i n d i c a t e d in Table I . The t a b l e g iv e s a com parison, i n a c t u a l numbers and i n p e rc e n ta g e s , of th e answ ers of th e f i v e s tu d e n t g ro u p s. The s tu d e n t group most f r e q u e n t l y say in g w h ite s a r e more i n t e l l i g e n t th an N egroes was th e group a t t e n d i n g th e U n i v e r s i t y of F l o r i d a . F i f t y n in e p e r cen t o f th e F l o r i d a U n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n ts gave t h i s re s p o n s e , w hereas s t u d e n ts from th e o t h e r s c h o o ls gave t h i s re sp o n se i n th e f o llo w in g p e r c e n ta g e s : th e U n i v e r s i ty o f N o rth Dakota group, 32 p e r c e n t; Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e s t u d e n t s , 29 p e r c e n t; both Yale and U n i v e r s i ty o f S o u th ern C a l i f o r n i a s t u d e n t s , 28 p e r c e n t . The sc h o o l w ith th e h i g h e s t p e r cen t of "No D if f e r e n c e " re s p o n s e s was th e U n i v e r s i ty of S o u th ern C a l i f o r n i a w ith 6 l p e r c e n t answ erin g i n t h i s c a te g o r y . S tu d e n t sample p e rc e n ta g e s in th e o t h e r sc h o o ls were a s f o llo w s : Y a le , 59 p e r c e n t; Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e , 55 p e r c e n t; U n i v e r s i ty of N o rth D akota, 51 p e r c e n t; and F l o r i d a U n i v e r s i t y , 29 p e r c e n t . S tu d e n t groups were q u i te comparable i n re g a rd to M 0 e-f 1 Î3 O * H E -j S MM E h O S M E -i E -i C O M I - S w OCC3 04 < JJ co M O p sj g |X| & o cos" m o Ü M « a j E -4 il O O ’ Ww Ph K E- 5 co * = > ïs; o +) < D (tf b O 4> 0 > C Ù M 0 O ^ O O M •S * Ï0 > •H ê m § P* o I ; & E S rÛ 4a m i P4 o h ÏSrÛ ■ P P u O I l à î> » -p +a O ig I ! p ) O S +a P 4 O I 5 s ,q 0 § Pu o 1 ; & f e r P C Q 0) •H Pi O O bO A Q) 0 3 + a 0) ctf N o 1 2 3 to C\i o \ rH C M - t vO C M C M t o C M to to rH O r - rH vO C M 0 \ C M C M rH 124 re s p o n s e s in th e "D o n 't Enow" c a te g o r y . However, i f th e re s p o n s e s i n th e "No D if f e r e n c e " and "D o n 't Know" c a t e g o r i e s a r e combined f o r th e s tu d e n t sample from each s c h o o l, g r e a t e r d i f f e r e n c e s a re seen , a s fo llo w s : U n i v e r s i ty of S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a and Y a le , 72 p e r c en t each; Iowa S t a te C o lle g e , 71 p e r c e n t ; U n i v e r s i ty of N orth D akota, 67 per c e n t ; and U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a , 41 p e r c e n t . The a c t u a l numbers i n each of th e f o u r answer c a t e g o r i e s f o r each o f th e schoo l groups a r e g iv en to th e l e f t of th e p e rc e n ta g e s i n T able I . These numbers were used f o r th e t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e of d i f f e r e n c e s . The Chi Square of 80 shows t h a t th e d i f f e r e n c e s in re s p o n s e s on th e q u e s tio n o f i n t e l l i g e n c e a r e h ig h ly s i g n i f i c a n t , a Chi Square o f 26 b eing s u f f i c i e n t to re a c h s i g n i f i c a n c e a t th e 1 p e r c e n t l e v e l (P e q u a l .0 1 ) . Com parisons of Chi Square v a lu e s f o r T ab les I th ro u g h XIX w i l l fo llo w p r e s e n t a t i o n o f p e rc e n ta g e d a t a . IGNORANCE The c o o p e ra tin g s tu d e n ts a t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a , a s may be seen i n T able I I , more f r e q u e n t l y th a n any o t h e r s tu d e n t group resp ond ed in th e "Negroes" c a te g o ry i n r e g a rd to th e q u e s tio n "Who a r e more ig n o r a n t? " S ix ty f i v e p e r c en t o f th e s tu d e n t group a t th e U n i v e r s i ty o f H H s m g g I m Pi % M s: O ) E -« E -* g§ E -* S m o M k OM |S S M O P c î M O pc;g P > u s = o to S g s « s < î E h E h 0 0 O O* p c 5 g g EH to U s a «H O 0 P pj .H P i 0 i - ^ P Pi S3 0 0 •H 0 Pi PU O 1 W 4 3 O iU P < + H 0 0 «ri t O 1 —1 É Pi •H t O 0 B 0 O £ ? 0 p 43 0 Pi 0 0 bO 0 0 43 0 PU O C O H H 0 O 1 ^ O É ^ O B 0 M ! s ; 4 3 ü •H <D C Q tt3| • H g ( 0 > , -P +3 O •H rW O Q C ü Pi «H Q 0 ) O .5 a 4 3 4 ^ Pt O S > » c d ■ P T) •H *p4 C Q Pi Pi O y.mr-1 « H O p PU o I s 4 3 P PU o I 1^43 i£ 0 0 O u ü I ife a 43 8 0 » H 0 Pi “ I Ü i 4 3 0 0 p c î O a m -4 - u\ o\ s C M rr\ to o\ VN O to H C M kf\ : vO a ir\ - 4 O O n c ^ N O to O n H H O - C M C M C M - 4 : - 4 C M -4 vr\ - 4 rH m m C M t o -oo iT \ m N O to V TV O C M 0 ü 0 0 Pi O 0 0 0 4 4 M 0 0 4 4 0 0 O •ri P H p Pi T i 0 •H bO 0 p 0 O O o 5 2 ! a m E h 125 i H C M 8 H C M C M C M I to to o o H - 4 5 8 rH iH 126 F l o r i d a thought t h a t N egroes a r e more i g n o r a n t . S tu d e n t groups from th e o th e r s c h o o ls gave t h i s re sp o n se i n th e f o llo w in g p e rc e n ta g e s : Y a le , 52; U n i v e r s i ty o f N o rth D a k o ta , 44; U n i v e r s i t y o f S ou th ern C a l i f o r n i a , 43; and Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e , 40. F o r th o se re s p o n d in g i n th e "No D iffe re n c e " ' c a t e gory th e p e rc e n ta g e s fo r th e f i v e sch o o l g rou ps were a s fo llo w s : U n i v e r s i ty of S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 45; Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e , 44; U n i v e r s i t y o f N orth D akota, 41; Y ale, 38; and U n i v e r s i ty of F l o r i d a , 22. S tu d e n t sample p e rc e n ta g e s re s p o n d in g i n t h e combined "No D if f e r e n c e " and "D o n 't Know" c a t e g o r i e s were a s fo llo w s : Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e , 59; U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 5 6 ; U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth D akota, 55 ; Y ale U n i v e r s i t y , 4 6 ; and t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a , 33. A p o s s ib l e e x p la n a tio n o f th e r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e p e rc e n ta g e o f U n i v e r s i t y of F l o r i d a s tu d e n ts re sp o n d in g in th e "Negroes" c a te g o r y may be t h a t th e N egroes w ith whom th e s e s tu d e n ts have a s s o c i a t e d have been c h a r a c t e r ^ iz e d by a r e l a t i v e l y h ig h l e v e l of i l l i t e r a c y and a low e d u c a tio n a l l e v e l . 127 SUPERSTITION Table I I I shows r e sp o n se s to the q u e stio n ”Who are more s u p e r s t it i o u s ? ” Each s t u d e n t sam ple i n a r e l a t i v e l y h ig h p e rc e n ta g e re sp o n d e d t h a t N eg ro es a r e m ore s u p e r s t i t i o u s . The U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth D akota g ro u p , w here s t u d e n ts have had l i t t l e p e r s o n a l c o n ta c t w ith N e g ro e s , more n e a r l y a p p ro x im a te d th e s t u d e n ts o f th e U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a , w here N egroes a r e num erous, th a n d id th e o t h e r s t u d e n t g ro u p s , whose d e g re e o f c o n ta c t w ith N egroes was i n betw een th e two e x tre m e s . S tu d e n t g ro u p s re s p o n d e d t h a t N eg ro es a r e more s u p e r s t i t i o u s i n th e fo llo w in g p e r c e n ta g e s : U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a , 7 9 ; U n i v e r s i ty o f N o rth D a k o ta , 71; Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e , 68; Y ale U n i v e r s i t y , 55; and th e U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 5 4 . A p o s s i b l e e x p la n a tio n o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e of 25 p e r c e n ta g e p o i n t s betw een t h e U n i v e r s i t y of F l o r i d a g roup and th e g ro u p a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a on t h i s q u e s tio n i s t h a t th e s t u d e n t s a t U . S . C. w ere more accu sto m ed to a s s o c i a t i n g w ith N e g ro es whose s o c i a l and econom ic l e v e l m ore n e a r l y a p p ro x im a te d t h e i r own. Un d o u b te d ly N e g ro es i n t h e co m m u n ities from w hich U. S . C. s t u d e n t s came had become more f u l l y a s s i m i l a t e d i n A m erican H H I E h ° c d l>> f l *H ■P ÎH C ♦ H Q ) (0 X ! p - P « H ® îU -H > O r H •H c o £d Ü O £ 3 eu o t l y ÎSÎP 0> 43 43 < % ) U a C d w C D Q) 43 (D eu o CO H rH 0 O 1 ^ O g u o g 0) H !>> 43 43 U q •H < D Q > 0) 03 e u o rH 0 Q > H > 1 •H g u g 0) £ 3 a p 0 43 P 43 o a •H 0 0 0 0 eu o £l « H Q ' 0 O > p 1 •H P g u A £, g < D ► D O s p S |>» 0 P p t j S U « •H «H 0 0 0 k e u ü ^4 O 0 H > |X| t •H g £i 0 4 4 g 0 £ 3 O % p % < D ® «H m U § & P ( D M 4 3 ( D C d 04 O O o - 4 ’ H tO \ 0 N H i r \ p H its ir \ rH fH ï > vO - 4 < y ^ C M r4 0N - 4 vO m On o fH -C O iH rH C M 5 C M m o n O to H to C M O N O C M O «H C M C M C M rH C M O rH U f\ O N O - < r \ ir\ ir\ iH O N 0 o A 0 k O 0 C J 0 4 4 0 0 4 4 0 0 O •H p rH p • > 0 •H 5 b P 0 o o O P % 5 2 5 e 3 E h O S S C M 8 fH C M C M C M 8 iH t o t o fH § - 4 8 fH t o fH 129 s o c i e t y th a n th o s e w ith whom U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a s t u d e n t s had been a c q u a in te d . SENSE OF RHYTHM In T able IV a r e shown th e r e s p o n s e s f o r e a c h c o ll e g e gro u p t o t h e q u e s tio n r e g a r d in g s e n s e o f rh y th m . M ost o f th e s t u d e n t s i n a l l t h e s c h o o ls a p p a r e n t l y b e lie v e d t h a t N eg ro es have a g r e a t e r s e n s e of rhythm th a n w h i t e s . A m easu re o f d e g re e o f r e s i s t a n c e to t h i s s t e r e o t y p e i s th e fre q u e n c y of " n o n -N e g ro e s” r e s p o n s e s . The p ro p o r t i o n o f s t u d e n ts i n each g ro u p r e s i s t i n g th e s t e r e o t y p e i s i n d i c a t e d by th e f o llo w in g p e r c e n ta g e s : Y ale U n i v e r s i t y , 39; U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 26; U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth D ak o ta, 20; Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e , 18; and U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a , 16 p e r c e n t . S tu d e n ts a t Y a le U n i v e r s i t y and a t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a a r e a p p a r e n t l y m ore accustom ed t o s e e in g N eg ro es p la y r o l e s o t h e r th a n m u s ic a l r o l e s th a n a r e th e s t u d e n t s a t th e o t h e r s c h o o l s . Even i f t h e r e may be some b a s i s f o r a b e l i e f t h a t N eg ro es h av e a g r e a t e r s e n s e o f rhythm th a n w h i t e s , t h e r e i s no s c i e n t i f i c b a s i s f o r th e a ssu m p tio n t h a t t h i s t r a i t i s o b s e rv e d i n N egro es m ore th a n i n w h ite s b e ca u se o f > H 4 4 O 0 P > > 0 ’ H Î 4 S 3 rH C M <r\ o P ^ 4 a 0 0 C M o •H 0 04 O rH W P O P 4 h 0 0 « H 1 ► > O rH à u m to x > - O •r4 c e 0 3 0 iH vO - t H a o a p H C M £3 0 p p 0 £, S 3 C M C M H irv O 0 b û 0 0 to H O P © 04 O H C O r H 1 — 1 0 O 1 ^ O É ^ -4* CA UN O C M O 3 0 to C M H C M H a p iH C M > * p P £ » S 3 O H C M O •H 0 0 v O C < N O <D 0) 04 O rH -a u r H > 1 • H É ^ O -4- H ON to 3 0 iH vO iH to £3 a p H rH 0 >» P p P O Î H S 3 H O UN -4" O •r4 0 0 to H o 0 0 % ü rH ^ 4 4 A 0 O > P t •iH P É ^ \ 0 O C < N \ 0 -4 g £i 3 0 C M vO H H £3 O a P m -4 a î > » 0 p p S 4 a C M -4 O U N O •r4 *r4 0 0 to O 0 £, 04 o rH ^4 O 0 r H > k 1 • r H g Î 4 O N - C O c?\ 0 44 3 0 UN rH to a O a p H rH 0 O S 3 0 0 ^ 0 U o 0 « H 0 S 3 0 ^ 0 44 S 3 o 0 0 44 0 O b û 0 O * H P 1 — 1 A 0 p J U - C d 0 P •H b O S 3 P 0 0 P 0 O O o 03 o p a a Q E h 131 ”r a c e . ” N egroes a r e e x p e c te d to have an e x t r a o r d i n a r y s e n s e o f rh yth m and a r e rew ard ed when th e y d e v e lo p t h e i r s k i l l i n r e g a r d to t h i s t a l e n t , AMOUNT OF LAUGHTER A nsw ers to th e q u e s tio n a s t o w hich " r a c i a l ” gro u p la u g h s th e m ost a r e i n d i c a t e d i n T able V. F o r ty - s e v e n p e r c e n t o f th e U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a s t u d e n t s s t a t e d t h a t N eg ro es la u g h more th a n w h i t e s . P e r c e n ta g e s f o r th e o t h e r s c h o o ls w ere a s f o llo w s : U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 30; Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e , 27; U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth D a k o ta , 26; and Y ale U n i v e r s i t y , 2$, Y ale U n i v e r s i t y and U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a s t u d e n t s l e d i n p e r c e n ta g e s s a y in g t h e r e was no d i f f e r e n c e r e g a r d i n g amount o f l a u g h t e r , t h e i r p e r c e n ta g e s b e in g 53 and 51 r e s p e c t i v e l y . N o rth D akota U n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n ts had th e h i g h e s t p e r c e n ta g e s i n th e "W h ites" and th e "Don’ t Know” c a t e g o r i e s , w ith 12 and 20 p e r c e n t r e s p e c t i v e l y , F l o r i d a U n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n ts l e a s t f r e q u e n t l y s a id "Don’t Know” on t h i s q u e s t io n , th e p e rc e n ta g e b e in g 12 p e r c e n t . F o r each s t u d e n t group e x c e p t t h a t o f th e U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a th e r e s p o n s e c a te g o r y w ith th e m ost f r e q u e n t re s p o n s e r e g a r d i n g th e q u e s tio n a s to amount o f l a u g h t e r was th e "No D if f e r e n c e " c a t e g o r y . o o «H O C d P ^ S 3 •P Î H S 3 < D ( D •r\ G > U 0 -4 t) C Q X i O Î H -P «H (D 0 ,H 1 > O H à S 4 •H C O C d 3 0) « Ü s p C D p +5 Q > Î H S 3 C d w 0) m P < D di o C O H 1 — 1 cd o 1 ^ o É k o 3 Û ) H a p > * p p S4 S3 •H C D C D C D 03 PH O H Î-I C d C D >H > 1 •H â ^ q 3 C D o % p cd >> P P p o S4 S3 •H 03 g C D o S^<H Q C D O t> p 1 •H p g S h S 3 k 3 C D t o o a p C d P P T3 Î H S 3 •H »H C D C D 03 J H PH O S4 O C D H > k 1 •H É k 3 C D J=> O a p m o cr\ V O NO H H C V i -j" r4 C V i V O i> - U N C V i m to H -j" C V i vO rH C V i O Ov i r \ O rH U N C s- ov O V to rH UN UN VO C < N >- vO C D g 03 s C D k C D H C D 03 k 03 4 4 q O 03 C D 4 4 O bO C D O *H a , C D P S H 03 p •H bO C D C d P C D O Pd o p s ; s VO rH UN rH ON rH V O rH rH vO O O N rH UN rH O V to O V C V i O C V I O N C V i to rH C V I rH C V i C V I I § a 8 rH C V i C V i C V i O O iH to to rH -4- 8 rH 03 •p 1 3 2 133 P o s s i b l y th e s t e r e o t y p e re s p o n s e would have been more f r e q u e n t i f th e q u e s tio n w ere s t a t e d d i f f e r e n t l y , f o r exam ple, "Who la u g h m ore lo u d ly ? " T h is w o rd in g would p e rh a p s more a c c u r a t e l y r e f l e c t th e s t e r e o t y p e a s d i s c u sse d i n C h a p te r I I . SPEED OF MOVEMENT T able VI i n d i c a t e s r e s p o n s e s o f s t u d e n t s on th e q u e s tio n of slo w n e ss o r sp e e d o f movement* The U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a s t u d e n t s l e d t h e o t h e r s i n r e g a r d to f re q u e n c y o f re s p o n d in g t h a t N eg ro es move m ore slo w ly th a n w h i t e s . P e r c e n ta g e s o f s t u d e n t s g iv in g t h i s r e s p o n s e a r e i n d i c a t e d a s f o llo w s ; U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a , 50; U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth D a k o ta , 4 6 ; Y a le , 37; Iowa S t a t e , 37; and U n i v e r s i t y of S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 34. When th e "No D i f f e r e n c e " r e s p o n s e s o f th e s t u d e n t s to t h i s q u e s tio n w ere com pared, p e r c e n ta g e s f o r th e g ro u p s ran k e d a s f o llo w s : U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 52; Y a le U n i v e r s i t y , 50; Iowa S t a t e , 44; N o rth D akota U n iv e r s i t y , 37; and F l o r i d a U n i v e r s i t y , 2 9 . The U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a g ro u p le d th e l i s t t h i s tim e i n p e rc e n ta g e s a y in g w h ite s move more s lo w ly . The d i s c u s s i o n i n C h a p te r I I I r e g a r d in g speed of movement c a l l s a t t e n t i o n to t e s t s o f r e a c t i o n tim e . From > g I m Q d ÎS Î M C O S E - « m I s coco OCCI o CO M 1 * M O dsg s o CO jz; M O O H < * ; E -I E4 CO SM M 5 OOP &4 Q 44 O 0 p ^ (3 * « 4 u a P Î1 0 0 •ri Q > U Ai Ü w P p k P 4 4 0) 0 .H 1 > O r4 •i4 C O 0 3 0 rt o % p ,® p < D cd bO p Q > GO rH I — I 0 O ^ O O H Û L , O I I f e f e p > > p p u c •i4 0 0 0 0 A, o rH P i 0 0 H > 1 •H É u a 3 0 13 S P 0 >> P P O ig à 'S « > •H ë A . O I § Q) i ^ P > > 0 P TJ •H O i > I •H ë 51 44 O P Q) 0 A , O (0 ® ® -H W k O O O bO A ® M P ® 0 P ti O -4" -4 cn •C O UN UN O- C M C M H to U N m o o vO vO - 4 UN C M C M O v rH r4 O r4 UN iH - 4 C M ON C M O UN iH UN H I —I C M r 4 - 4 - 4 - 4 rH to O O N C f N O to UN m vo O n iH iH NO UN - 4 rH O n O C M iH -4 to UN rH 0 O s Pi o 0 a 0 4 4 A : 0 0 4 4 0 0 O • H p rH p k •o #. 0 b O P P 0 O o O a a n E - » 134 o o H O •H C M O O iH C M C M C M 8 I — f to to rH O O rH ■ 4 8 I — I to rH 135 th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e d a ta one c a n n o t t e l l w h e th e r th e s u b j e c t s w ere th in k in g o f speed o f movement i n te rm s o f r e a c t i o n tim e o r i n te rm s of b e h a v io r p a t t e r n s . How ever, th e e x p e r im e n ta l s t u d i e s r e p o r t e d i n C h a p te r I I I seem t o be d i r e c t e d a t th e v a l i d i t y o f t h e b e l i e f t h a t N eg ro es move more slo w ly b e c a u se of p h y s i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s . T h e r e f o r e , t h i s b e l i e f i s p ro b a b ly w id e ly h e l d . CLEANLINESS D ata on t h e q u e s t io n of c l e a n l i n e s s a r e g iv e n i n T ab le V I I . W h ite s , a c c o rd in g t o 7B p e r c e n t of th e F l o r i d a U n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s r e p o r t i n g , a r e more c le a n t h a n N e g ro e s . O th e r g ro u p s re s p o n d e d w ith t h i s an sw er i n th e f o llo w in g p e r c e n ta g e s ; U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth D a k o ta , 46 p e r c e n t ; Y ale U n i v e r s i t y , 4 6 ; Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e , 4I p e r c e n t ; and U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 34 p e r c e n t . On t h i s q u e s t io n , f i f t y p e r c e n t o f th e S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a s t u d e n ts b e lie v e d t h e r e was no d i f f e r e n c e . P e r c e n ta g e s f o r th e o t h e r s tu d e n t g ro u p s i n t h i s c a te g o r y w ere a s f o llo w s : Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e , 39; Y a le , 39; N o rth Dakota U n i v e r s i t y , 35; and U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a , 1 6 . Very few ( t h r e e p e r c e n t) o f th e s t u d e n ts a t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e y d id n o t know th e M 0 E-4 1 s S CO c - M M CO M M O O g; CO M mpd CO - 4 s 2 § M s 03 M CO E-I 8 g S M O S 3 g "" Q CO I s 4 4 o 0 P î 3 * r H k S -4 H o U N O P k g j 0 0 O N U N f H O • H 0 J L ,A ü H rap O b p C H 0 3 H 1 ^ o r H É ^ -4 O N O C M O H C O 0 3 0 D - r H O N H a o a p r H C M £ 3 0 p p 0 Î H a r H H C J N C J v O 0 b O 0 0 -4 O N r H O p 0 A o H C O r H r H 0 o 1 ^ o § ^ O O N v O O N C M o p 0 O N to -4 C M H S P C M t » P P k P v O C M C J N O N O • H 0 0 -4 O N i H O 0 0 P H ü r H i H p 4 0 0 M > 1 . • H É k O N O N U N to a 3 0 to C M to t > I S P r H 0 > » P p P Ok a v O r H U N to O • H ^ 0 0 •4 O N f H o 0 0 P h o r H P h 4 4 Q ' 0 O > P 1 H P É ^ i H -4 O N v O -4 a u 3 0 C h -4 C ^ r H tD O s p r H r H •4 > - » 0 p P f H a to O N v O O N O • H * H 0 0 H O 0 P 4 A o r H S - i O 0H > M 1 • H g u U N O U N C ^ a 4 4 3 0 -4 O N to £ 3 o s p H H 0 o 0 ^ 0 0 ^ 0 U O 0 « H 0 Ü 0 k 0 4 4 . M f l O 0 0 4 4 0 O b O 0 O . H P r H O r 0 P p P - 0 0 P • H b o a P 0 0 P 0 O O O 0 3 ü ^ a S Q H 136 137 answer to t h i s q u e s tio n . R egarding t h i s q u e s tio n (and a ls o some of the o t h e r s ) , knowledge a s to w hether the s u b j e c t s were th in k in g o f in n a te c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e two r a c e s b e in g compared or o f a c tu a l o b se r v a b le f a c t s regard in g them would g iv e th e answ ers more m eaning. N a tu r a lly , when a h ig h er pro p o r tio n of N egroes than w h ite s a re employed in manual la b o r , equal stan d ard s o f s a n it a t io n cannot be m ain tain ed ; but th e c r u c ia l q u e s tio n i s , "How do N egroes and w h ite s o f th e same c l a s s and o c cu p a tio n compare reg a r d in g c l e a n l i n ess?" lAZINlSS In Table V III w i l l be seen th e r e sp o n s e s to the q u e s tio n as to who are more l a z y . H ig h est p e r c e n ta g e s are in t h i s in s ta n c e in th e "No D iffe r e n c e " c a te g o r y , w ith th e U n iv e r s it y o f Southern C a lif o r n ia stu d e n ts le a d in g th e l i s t w ith 61 per c e n t and th e o th e r s fo llo w in g in order a s f o llo w s : Y ale U n iv e r s it y , 57; Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e , 49; U n iv e r s it y of North D akota, 4 6 ; and U n iv e r s it y o f F lo r id a , 35. F lo r id a U n iv e r s it y stu d e n ts most fr e q u e n tly checked "N egroes," w ith a p ercen ta g e in t h i s c a te g o r y o f 44 . Other stu d e n t groups checked "Negroes" a s f o llo w s : M i— I + > u •H < D 2 5 ^ •H C O c iJ Ü O î = > ( D 4J Q ) (0 b O +> (D eOr4 rH 0 O ^ O O H ^ U A , O I IS! S ,û +> A« O I I S ; > » +> +> (4 Ü •H 0 0 0 0 A 4 0 1 3 S; ÏH > 1 •H É u 0 3 0 S 3 s JA 0 >» 43 +> 0 •H 0 0 ^ «H 0 0 0 > ; 0 •H 4^ a £ 3 0 > » 0 •P T3 •H «H 2 ^ < D iH > P w *H 0 0 A , ü ■ P 0 0 Al O I § 0 S rO 0 0 •H O h O A l 0 0 + > 0 0 P 4 o 1 3 ^ rH m rH m 0 C M VO H 0 rH C M 0 -4 - en OV w\ en en rH rH C M C M 0 C h OV 0 m -4* rH 0 H L T \ c^ to C M C M - vO 0 C M H C M C M v \ C ^ vO 0 C M tf\ iH 3 « -d - VO to 0 to -4- 0 en to 1 — 1 rH rH v r\ vO to 0 cr\ -4* rH 0 rH vO C r \ C M en -4 - 0 H rH rH -d - \ 0 -4 - v r\ m 0 - d " en rH 0 rH rH C f \ VO r > - (H to VO C M to rH 0 0 0 U 0 0 53 0 4 4 M 0 0 4 4 0 0 0 •H 45 rH +3 U 7 3 #» 0 •H hû (3 +3 f* { 0 0 0 0 a Q E 4 139 U n i v e r s i t y of N o rth D a k o ta , 35; Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e , 30; Y ale U n i v e r s i t y , 25; and t h e U n i v e r s i t y of S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 23. The p r o p o s i t i o n was made i n C h a p te r I I I t h a t " l a z i n e s s " o r " i n d u s t r i o u s n e s s " v a ry w ith c lim a te and c u l t u r e r a t h e r th a n w ith " r a c e . " "L azy" i s a d e s c r i p t i v e te rm w hich p e rs o n s o f a dom inant g ro u p f r e q u e n t l y a p p ly to members o f a s u b o r d in a te g ro u p . What i s te rm e d " l a z i n e s s " i s p ro b a b ly v e ry o f t e n due to l a c k o f m o ti v a ti o n because re w a rd s which can be f o r e s e e n a r e jud g ed n o t t o be w o rth th e e f f o r t o f s t r u g g l i n g f o r them . As th e d i s c u s s i o n i n C h a p te r I I I show s, a s o p p o r t u n i t i e s open up f o r A m erican N e g ro e s, th e y e n e r g e t i c a l l y s t r i v e to ta k e a d v a n ta g e o f them . FEAR OF THE DARK T able IX g iv e s th e d a ta r e g a r d in g f e a r of th e d a rk . S tu d e n ts a t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a resp o n d e d i n th e "No D i f f e r e n c e " c a te g o r y i n th e p r o p o r t io n o f 58 p e r c e n t . The o t h e r s tu d e n t g ro u p s fo llo w e d i n th e p e r c e n ta g e s i n d i c a t e d below : Y ale U n i v e r s i t y , 4 6 ; Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e , 43; U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth D a k o ta , 43; and U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a , 34. U n i v e r s i t y of F l o r i d a s t u d e n ts le d th e way w ith t h e X H g m 4 4 o 0 P X O'H $4 C 3 H ^ - e o vo 0 • P ^ 0 0 0 H U\ C s ï 0 *r-| (3) ^ Ph o rH 0 4 3 O U 4 3 4 4 0 0'H 1 > O r 4 È U C M C M to O v •H CO 0 B 0 m C M H 53 O rH C M £ 5 0 p + 3 0 u d \0 K f \ \0 0 0 bû 0 0 C M ^ C M 0 p 0 Pr O H CO rH iH 0 o 1 p o É ^ C M v O v O to C M O p 0 rH OV C M H Sî P C M S p ■ P - 4 “ vO t>- 0 •H 0 0 iH -4" 0 0 0 P h o iH rH $4 0 0 > 4 > 1 *H à U v O 0 - 0 to a p 0 C M t o to tD % p H 0 > » 4^ p P O k d v O to m 0 • H 4 4 0 0 C M -4 C M 0 0 ^ 0 4 ü iH Î 4 44 Q 0 O > Xt 1 •H P É u v O v O to -4 -4 0 *4 p 0 C M M OV iH ÎZ> O is; P H rH 4- a > > 0 P p * 0 u d v O q -4 0 0 •H «H 0 0 - 4 <vv C M 0 0 U 0 4 V iH U O 0 H > pt, 1 •H § (4 rH v O cr\ C^ a 4 4 p 0 rH v O Cf\ to t = > o rH 0 0 d 0 0 ^ 0 u 0 © V4 © d 0 k 0 44 ^ a o 0 0 44 0 o bû 0 0 *H P rH P 4 0 P R 1 0 0 P • H bû d P 0 0 ^ 0 0 0 0 Ph o ^ g ; s 0 ' E-i 140 141 h i g h e s t p e r c e n ta g e o f r e s p o n s e s i n t h e "N eg ro es" c a te g o r y r e g a r d i n g th e q u e s t io n a s t o f e a r o f th e d a r k . T h e ir p e rc e n ta g e was 4 0 . The o t h e r s w e re: N o rth D akota U n i v e r s i t y , 28; Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e , 25; U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 15; and Y ale U n i v e r s i t y , 1 4 . The sc h o o l w ith t h e lo w e s t p e r c e n ta g e i n t h e "Don’ t Know" c a te g o r y was th e U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a , w ith 20 p e r c e n t ; and th e h i g h e s t p e r c e n ta g e of "Don’ t Know" r e s p o n s e s was i n th e Y ale colum n, w ith 37 p e r c e n t . The r e l a t i v e l y h ig h fre q u e n c y o f n o n - s te r e o ty p e d r e s p o n s e s i n r e g a r d to t h i s q u e s tio n f o r a l l of t h e s c h o o l g ro u p s seems to i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s t e r e o t y p e in v o lv e d in t h i s i n s t a n c e i s n o t v e ry p ro n o u n c e d . EASE OF FRIGHTENING- The d a ta above d e a l w ith a s p e c i f i c f e a r , nam ely, f e a r o f th e d a r k . D ata on a more g e n e r a l t r a i t , " e a s i l y f r i g h t e n e d , " a r e g iv e n i n T ab le X. The h i g h e s t p e r c e n ta g e i n T ab le X a p p e a r s i n th e F l o r i d a U n i v e r s i t y colum n and i n t h e "N eg ro es" row , th e p e rc e n ta g e b e in g 5 9 . S tu d e n t r e s p o n s e s i n t h i s c a te g o r y f o r th e o t h e r s c h o o ls w ere a s f o llo w s : U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth D a k o ta , 40; Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e , 36; U n i v e r s i ty o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 27; and Y a le U n i v e r s i t y , 26 p e r c e n t . X a 9 E h P 3 K c - H § C O W H E h w S P H g g CO co << w w C O a w | i P3M W < a { 8 g 9 " B § § H S W P QO? 4 4 O 0 P >» d »H k d P k d 0 0 •H 0 d Oh O 0 P O U P 4 h 0 d - H 1 > O r H É k ♦H CO 0 B 0 d o a p p 0 p p 0 k d 0 bO 0 0 p 0 O h O CO rH O H H O O I gS; tSirO p P k d •H 0 0 0 0 Oh O rH d 0 0 X > 1 •H É (4 d 3 0 p a p 0 >* P p o h4 0 C m 0 d o P 0 > P •H P d d P O a > » 0 P T 3 •H "H 0 d 0 H > W •H 044 P O 0 0 A, Ü I IS ! t e p p Oh O I I ^ è ; p 0 0 0 *H 0 U o & A 0 0 P 0 0 O h O 142 t o V f\ so U N O s H UN v O C M S 3 to v O C M vO rH •4 O s U N to O iH rH C M UN H C M 0 0 P •H 0 0 & 0 < n UN H -4 ^ iH C * \ C M C M r- UN rH e ~ . C M O s c r \ - 4 0 s ON iH Os fH ON to rH O UN 0 O § «H 4 4 8 O s I o o rH O S H C M O O H C M C M C M O O rH to t o rH § 3 o rH & H § p 0 ■ 3 p o E h 143 Over h a l f o f th e s t u d e n t s from two s c h o o ls , nam ely, t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a and Y a le U n i v e r s i t y , s a i d t h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e betw een w h ite s and N egroes a s f a r a s t h i s t r a i t i s c o n c e rn e d , 52 p e r c e n t from each o f th e two g ro u p s g iv in g t h i s r e s p o n s e . P e r c e n ta g e s f o r th e o t h e r s tu d e n t g ro u p s i n t h i s c a te g o r y w ere a s f o llo w s : Iowa S t a t e , 37; U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth D a k o ta, 34; and U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a , 2 7 , A r e l a t i v e l y h ig h p e rc e n ta g e o f s t u d e n t s o f a l l s c h o o ls r e s i s t e d t h i s s t e r e o t y p e . The a v e r a g e number s a y in g w h ite s a r e m ore e a s i l y f r i g h t e n e d was a b o u t 5 p e r c e n t . When t h e p e r c e n ta g e s i n th e "No D i f f e r e n c e " and "Don’ t Know" c a t e g o r i e s a r e com bined, th e ra n g e i s from 72 p e r c e n t to 37 p e r c e n t , SLEEPINESS OF NATURE The m ost c o n t r a s t betw een s tu d e n t g ro u p s i n t h e i r r e s p o n s e s t o th e q u e s tio n "Who a r e m ore s l e e p y - n a tu r e d ? " was i n th e "No D if f e r e n c e " c a t e g o r y . T h is i s shown i n T ab le XT. The h i g h e s t p e rc e n ta g e i s 56 i n th e U n i v e r s i ty o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a colum n, th e o t h e r s i n o r d e r b e in g a s f o llo w s : Y ale U n i v e r s i t y , 52; Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e , 42; U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth D a k o ta , 38; and U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a , 3 6. M « M 0 0 p > * d -H •p ^ a 0 0 •H 0) ^ 4 04 0 0^0 k p (H 0 ^ «H 1 > OrH É U •HtO 0 9 0 ri 0 s p ri> < D 4 3 0 m H I — I g o ^ o o H U B 0 0 04 Ü I >> p p ri ri •H 0 0 0 0 04 0 H ri 0 0 H > 1 •H à ri ri 3 0 ri> > > 0 p p 0 -M r i« H Q 0 0 > rri •H P ri ri t = > 0 S (0 S 04 O b > » 0 p P T ) ri ri •H »H 0 0 0 ri 04 0 ri 0 0 rH > k 1 •H â ^ r i< r i 3 0 t > 0 0 0 • H O b O A 0 ra + 3 0 0 .ffî o 144 O m U N C M C V Î 0 \ C M UN -d" I — I C J\ \0 0^ -cf to O N C M C M C M H C M UN U N H to to < *N ON ON UN ON C M C * N ON t o ON ON 3 C M to C M vO UN t o vG t o vO O ON ON C M C M to 145 The u s u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n s tu d e n t r e s p o n s e s i n th e "N eg ro es" c a te g o r y a r e n o t p r e s e n t i n t h i s i n s t a n c e . The U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a , U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth D ak o ta, and Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e g ro u p s a r e p r a c t i c a l l y e q u a l i n r e g a r d to p r o p o r t io n s o f s t u d e n t s s a y in g N e g ro es a r e m ore s le e p y - n a tu r e d th a n w h i t e s . A s l i g h t l y lo w e r p e rc e n ta g e of s t u d e n ts a t th e U n i v e r s i t y of S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a and Y ale U n i v e r s i t y gave t h i s r e s p o n s e . H ow ever, a lm o s t o n e - t h i r d o f th e s t u d e n t s i n th e l a t t e r two s c h o o ls s a i d N egroes a r e more s l e e p y - n a t u r e d . When t h e "No D if f e r e n c e " and " D o n 't Know" r e s p o n s e s o f th e s tu d e n t g ro u p s a r e com bined. U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a and Y ale U n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s show th e h i g h e s t p e r c e n t a g e s , 6? p e r c e n t f o r each o f th e two s c h o o ls . Combined p e r c e n ta g e s o f t h e o t h e r s c h o o ls fo llo w : U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth D a k o ta, $8; Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e , 57; and U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a , 5 6 . FLASHINISS OF CLOTHES S i x t y - e i g h t p e r c e n t o f th e Y ale s t u d e n ts said t h a t N eg ro es w ear m ore f l a s h y c l o t h e s th a n w h i t e s . O th e r s c h o o l g ro u p s i n o r d e r w ere a s f o llo w s : U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth D a k o ta , 63; U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a , 62; U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 59; and Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e , 58 p e r 146 c e n t . T h is , a l s o , i s d i f f e r e n t from th e u s u a l p a t t e r n . Y ale U n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s , r a t h e r th a n th o s e o f th e U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a , le a d th e l i s t w ith t h e h i g h e s t p e rc e n ta g e o f a t r a i t a t t r i b u t e d to N e g ro e s . How ever, i t may be n o te d t h a t w e ll o v e r h a l f o f t h e s t u d e n t s i n a l l th e s c h o o ls c o n s id e r e d N eg ro es to be more f l a s h y i n d r e s s . {See T a b le X II) U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a s t u d e n ts s a i d , l e s s f r e q u e n t l y th a n would be p r e d i c t e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y , t h a t w h ite s a r e more f l a s h y d r e s s i n g , a n d , m ore f r e q u e n t l y , t h a t t h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e , th e p e r c e n ta g e s b e in g r e s p e c t i v e l y 2 and 3 3 , The com bined "No D if f e r e n c e " and " D o n 't Know" p e r c e n ta g e s f o r t h e U n i v e r s i ty o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a g ro u p w ere q u i t e a b i t h i g h e r a t 39 p e r c e n t th a n th o s e f o r t h e o t h e r g ro u p s . I t i s p ro b a b ly o f c o n s i d e r a b le s i g n i f i c a n c e s o c i a l l y t h a t o v e r 60 p e r c e n t o f t h e e n t i r e s tu d e n t sam ple b e li e v e d N eg ro es w ear m ore f l a s h y c l o t h e s th a n w h i t e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y s in c e t h e m a j o r it y o f t h e s e s t u d e n t s c o n s id e r e d th e w e arin g o f f l a s h y c l o t h e s to be an u n f a v o r a b le t r a i t . ^ ^ See A ppendix 147 (\! O m \0 m < D Q > di O O C V i m r 4 + 3 0 ) C d h O + 3 < D CO H H •to ir v v O u\ C V i ^ 8 g L , O O V\ 0\ ( Y V C V i c\! U\ H C V I M -4' to vO to to iH U g C D Q ) O h o (v\ O vO C V I ov C V ! 0 \ v O to C V i C V I ^■S •H "H C O k ^ O C V i C M -4* vO C M to 0 « H & G § ë G b O A G M + 3 G C d 148 «HAPPY-GO-LUCKT” TENDENCY U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a s t u d e n t s , a s i n d i c a t e d i n T ab le X I I I , had th e h i g h e s t p e rc e n ta g e f o r any g iv e n c a t e g o r y , t h i s re s p o n s e b e in g th e "N e g ro e s” r e s p o n s e and th e p e r c e n ta g e b e in g 65 p e r c e n t . P e r c e n ta g e s i n t h i s c a te g o r y f o r t h e o th e r s c h o o ls w ere a s f o llo w s ; Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e , 4 4 ; U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 43; U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth D a k o ta , 43; Y ale U n i v e r s i t y , 3 7 . The w id e sp re a d b e l i e f among w h ite s t h a t N eg ro es a r e b& PPy-go~lucky and e a s y -g o in g by n a t u r e was d is c u s s e d a t l e n g t h i n C h a p te r I I . The p re d o m in a n t em otion w hich i s a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h i s b e l i e f among w h ite s seems to be envy, r a t h e r th a n d i s g u s t , a n g e r , o r even d i s p l e a s u r e . T h is c o n c lu s io n seem s to be c o n firm e d by b o th th e l i t e r a t u r e and th e f i n d i n g s o f t h i s s tu d y . Though T ab le X I I I r e v e a l s t h a t th e e n t i r e s tu d e n t sa m p le , ta k e n a s a w hole, c o n s id e r e d N eg ro es more h a p p y -g o -lu c k y th a n w h ite s , a s a t o t a l g ro u p th e y c o n s id e r e d t h i s t r a i t a f a v o r a b le one f o r t h e i r a s s o c i a t e s t o p o s s e s s . T ab le XCIV i n th e A ppendix shows t h a t a lm o s t 60 p e r c e n t o f t h e s t u d e n t s a t th e U n i v e r s i t y of F l o r i d a con s i d e r e d " h a p p y -g o -lu c k y " a f a v o r a b l e t r a i t . T h at t h i s same s tu d e n t gro u p sh o u ld le a d t h e o t h e r s i n b o th ju d g in g N egroes t o be h a p p y -g o -lu c k y and i n ju d g in g t h i s t r a i t t o : ------- 4 4 O C d •p >> S3 *H u d +> Î4 d C D C D •H © d 0-t O C O ^ O d +> C h < D 1 > O fH è d •H CO cd 3 ® d o d ) C D +3 +) C D U d C d h O C D C D +> C D O 4 ü C O H r4 çd O 1 ^ O S S 4 O 3 C D M s X i î > > + 3 + 3 k d •H C D C D C D C Q (1, 0 rH S h C d 0) H > 1 •H 1 U d p C D d> a X) C d X 4 3 43 0 * H 0) c d S H 44 Q C D 0 > X 3 ♦i4 4 3 d U P3 0 a 0 S 0U o I à Xi >» c d 4 3 u d •H «H C D < D C Q d eu 0 d 0 C D rH > *rl 1 d 44 É p3 0 p C D a x 3 ( Q Q ) •H & A ( D m +5 ( D c d oj ü (A vO I —I -d- cf\ to VO H I —I to -4- H (v\ - t O -j" -d" «H ir\ vO 0\ ov to O V C ~ - O c~- 3 to c~ - vo rH ir\ vO ir \ - t O cf\ C V 2 02 02 02 02 -4- 02 02 2 > - -4 " 02 H O O vO C O O H - t to to H O I —I V O C O 02 -j" I —I ir\ ov < D 0 d C D * 4 0 C D d ( Q 44 M ( Q Q ) 44 C O Q > 0 ♦rl 4 3 rH P U t ) # » c d •H b Q d 4 3 0) 0 0 0 a a Q E4 149 § S 02 02 02 02 8 r— I to to rH 8 r— I -d" H -d" O O rH • Ü O H 150 be a fa v o r a b le one i s o f c o n s id e r a b le i n t e r e s t . QUALITY" AS SERVANTS Table XIV g iv e s the d ata fo r th e q u e s tio n , "Who are b e t t e r serva n ts?" About h a l f , o f th e stu d e n ts in th r e e o f th e sc h o o l groups sa id th a t N egroes are b e tt e r s e r v a n t s . The stu d e n ts from T a le U n iv e r s it y and the U n iv e r s it y of Southern C a lif o r n ia t r a i l w ith p e r c e n ta g e s o f and 35 r e s p e c t i v e l y . W ell over a m a jo r ity of the stu d e n t groups ( U n iv e r s ity o f F lo r id a , U n iv e r s it y o f N orth Dakota, and Iowa S ta te C o lle g e ) who m ost fr e q u e n tly s a id N egroes are b e t t e r se r v a n ts a l s o looked upon t h i s t r a i t a s a fa v o r a b le t r a i t . T h is f in d in g cou ld be in te r p r e te d in two w ays. In th e f i r s t p la c e , i t i s p o s s ib le t h a t th e s tu d e n ts would r e a d il y a s s o c i a t e in o th e r ways w ith p erson s who have d evelop ed s k i l l a s s e r v a n ts . On th e o th e r hand, some of th e stu d e n ts probably would be v ery p le a se d to have N egroes who have develop ed s k i l l a s s e r v a n ts w a it on them but would become v ery h o s t i l e i f N egroes attem pted to a s s o c i a t e w ith them in r o l e s o th e r than th a t o f se rv a n t or em ployee. There may be r e g io n a l d i f f e r e n c e s as to p o in t o f view on t h i s q u e s tio n , but such d i f f e r e n c e s are beyond th e scope o f th e f in d in g s r ep o rted B 3 Eh 44 O c6 p } > » S 3 «H * 4 P to L C \ 0\ to o +3 $ 4 p © © m m H o 'H Q ) k C L , O 1 — 1 W X 3 O ^ +3 44 0) p .H 1 > O H è ^ to -4 - o o •i4 C Q c6 P © H to --t H P O S X) C M Î3 < D p p < D J H P - 3 * H to O eg hO © © u\ C V 2 H o p < D C U O H CQH 1 — ! c d o 1 ^ o s ^ O N 02 vo C M o p © H vO C M H !2Î X » H C M > > +3 +3 Î4 P C O l \ 0 vO , O •H © © H H O 0) G O C L , O H H ^ 4 a s © >4 > I •H è k -4- 0 - O to p B © C S Ï v O v O c r \ to P 3 a x ) H C d >» +3 ■p p <3 p W N H vO to O •H ^ © © Lf\ C N 2 H O W ^ C L , O rH ^ 44 O © o f> X3 1 •H + > É U C M H v O LA H )" P U p © C M H O 0 * - rH Ï3 O C M H -4 S >» (d p p ts f4 P v O H C M H o • H H © © H Lf\ C M H o 0 3 ^ d t o rH U O © H > N 1 •H â ^ O L A C M O C^ P 44 p © C A O -4 - C M to tD O S X 3 H © O 0 3 § ^ © P O © H © P © S h © 44 ^ P O © © 44 0 3 O hfl © O H P rH a © P ÎH 'O •- a s 0 3 p •H f c t O P P © C d X © o O o 0 3 o ^ ^ ^ E h 151 152^ h e r e . msi OF PLEASn^G T ab le Z\T shows t h a t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a s t u d e n ts l e d th e r e s t i n s a y in g t h a t N egroes a r e more e a s i l y p le a s e d th a n v d iite s . The p e r c e n ta g e s w ere a s f o llo w s ; U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a , 63; U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth D a k o ta , 43; Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e , 40; U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 33; and Y ale U n i v e r s i t y , 32 p e r c e n t . S tu d e n t g ro u p s who s a id t h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e betw een N eg ro es and w h ite s a s to who a re more e a s i l y p le a s e d may be ran k e d a s f o llo w s by p e r c e n ta g e s : U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 44; Y ale U n i v e r s i t y , 39; Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e , 31; U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth D a k o ta , 27; and U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a , 2 2 . T h is t r a i t i s v e ry s i m i l a r to and i s a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e t r a i t o f b e in g " h a p p y - g o - lu c k y ." When, a s th e re v ie w o f th e l i t e r a t u r e showed, w h ite p e rs o n s make s t a te m e n t s to th e e f f e c t t h a t N eg ro es a r e happy a s lo n g a s th e y h a v e a l i t t l e food to e a t , th e a s s u m p tio n i s t h a t N eg ro es a r e e a s i l y p l e a s e d . Such p e rs o n s e v i d e n t l y f e e l t h a t i t t a k e s v e ry l i t t l e to make a Negro h a p p y . W ell o v e r 60 p e r c e n t o f t h e e n t i r e , s tu d e n t sam p le, a c c o rd in g to T ab le O il i n th e A p p en d ix , c o n s id e r t h i s O ■ p S 3 * H u a +) k a 0 0 •H < 1 > î-i o 0 3 Æ O k +)(H 0 0 .H 1 > O r - i i u •H C O g 0 c o s JO ÎZ> 0 43 43 0 a s bO 0 0 43 0 P4 ü 0 2 iH H 0 O 1 P O à u o 3 0 M a jo >> 4 3 • H 0 0 0 0 fX o 1 — 1 k 0 0 1 • H g U a p 0 E 3 S ^ 0 X 43 P 43 O S h P •H ^ 0 0 W ^ fü O Î h «H Q 0 O > Xi 1 •ri 43 g k « S U 3 0 O & P S > » 0 P 43 np k 0 •H »H 0 0 (0 k eu o S U O 0 H I • H g s u G44 3 0 O O % p m < ù • H I fX Q ) 0 3 +> Q ) c t f o 153 C M -4 rH o €*\ -4 C M O rH -4- (V \ v O v O O c^ o\ -4 rH C M -± o rH trs O -4- C M O rH q to O ir\ C M rH to v O ir \ C M C M C M C M o\ C n. O cr\ C M O rH - t o m rH to VO to rH \ 0 o c ^ - 4 O - 4 C M C M O rH C M N -4 C M C ^ rH O rH H rH rH -4 if\ m C M O O vû C M 1 — 1 O rH O to O o\ 1 —1 r U -4 rH to 1 — 1 rH 0 0 0 0 U O 0 0 0 « H 0 0 44 0 0 o •H P 1 — 1 P s u t3 # . 0 •H b D 0 P 0 O O O 1 2 ; S Q E - » 154 t r a i t to be a fa v o r a b le o n e. NE&TNE88 Table X\TI shows th a t 77 per c e n t o f th e U n iv e r s it y o f F lo r id a s tu d e n ts c o n sid e r e d w h ite s more n e a t than N e g ro e s. The o th er stu d e n t groups w ith t h i s b e l i e f con s i s t e d o f th e f o llo w in g p e r c e n ta g e s: Y ale U n iv e r s it y , 50; N o rth D akota U n i v e r s i t y , 49; Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e , 45; and th e U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 37. The n o n -s te r e o ty p e r e sp o n se s in th e v a r io u s sc h o o ls are in d ic a te d in th e f o llo w in g p e r c e n ta g e s: U n iv e r s ity o f Southern C a lif o r n ia , 62; Iowa S ta te C o lle g e , 52; U n iv e r s it y o f North Dakota and Y ale U n iv e r s it y , 49; and th e U n iv e r s it y o f F lo r id a group, 2 2 . Table LXXXIV in th e Appendix shows th a t over 95 per cen t o f th e s tu d e n ts from the e n t ir e sample co n sid ered n e a tn e s s a fa v o r a b le t r a i t . T h er efo r e, th e stu d e n t group a s a whole made a com parison between N egroes and w h ite s in t h i s c a se w hich i s u n fa v o ra b le to th e N eg ro es. However, many o f the s tu d e n ts who made t h i s u n fa v o ra b le com parison r e c o g n iz e d the c u lt u r a l o b s t a c le s to th e N egro’ s m a in ta in in g a h ig h l e v e l o f perform ance i n regard to t h i s c u lt u r a l v a lu e . T his i s in d ic a te d by v o lu n ta r y n o te s w r itt e n on th e q u e s tio n n a ir e s by some s u b j e c t s . s g 9 E -i 0 E H 1 « C O E H s a M E h gs 15® ça ë | t o MM COM s < * ; 2 o g g M m o % 0 5 H 8^5 < x { pq o M M œ M E h 44 O 0 P > * 0 « H k 0 P ÎH 0 0 0 •H 0 fn A, o 0 Æî O 0 P 4 4 0 P « H 1 > O r4 É u •H C O 0 B 0 0 O 0) 0 p P 0 S h 0 0 bO 0 0 p 0 eu ü COM rH 0 O 1 ^ O É ^ O 3 0 H 125 ^ P p U 0 •H 0 0 0 0 e u o H U 0 0 1 •H É U 0 p 0 tD S X i 0 > * P P P O 0 •H Jid 0 0 0 d eu ü 0 4 4 e:) - 0 o > Xi 1 •H P É ^ 0 U 3 0 0> O s Æ S > % 0 P 'd •H * H 0 J U > M •H a 44 C 3 O I I b 0 0 0 * H 0 O O bû 0,0 0 P 0 0 M O 1 5 5 rH t o - 4 o cf\ - 4 H o rH o < r\ iTv rH ON to q m rH rH C M i r \ C M i c \ O 4 * <r\ rH O rH rH V T V m m C M O t o m C M rH C M O rH i r \ - 4 O i r \ r f \ rH O rH i r \ C M trv NO t o ON vO C M t o rH ON C M C M l> - O -4 C'A rH O H -4 t o iH rH -4 O cr\ H N iH - 4 rH NO NO O C ^ rH O rH iTv C M O n rH -4 C M rH t o rH rH 0 ü 0 0 ÏH O 0 0 m 4 4 cM 0 0 4 4 m 0 P 2 P *• y •H bo 0 p 0 o 0 o P s a EH 156 WIDE AW AKE TENDENCY The h i g h e s t p e r c e n ta g e s in T ab le XVII a r e i n th e ”No D i f f e r e n c e ” c a te g o r y . U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a lifo rn is . s t u d e n t s l e d th e o t h e r s i n s a y in g t h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e betw een w h ite s and N e g ro es i n re g a r d t o who a r e m ore wide aw ake. P e r c e n ta g e s of s t u d e n t s from t h e v a r i o u s g ro u p s g i v in g t h i s r e s p o n s e w ere a s f o llo w s : U n i v e r s i t y of S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 61; Y a le U n i v e r s i t y and Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e , 49; U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth D a k o ta , 46; an d U n iv e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a , 34 p e r c e n t . F i f t y two p e r c e n t of th e U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a s t u d e n t s b e lie v e d w h ite s to be more w ide awa‘k e , w h e rea s th e p e r c e n ta g e s i n t h e o t h e r s c h o o ls w ith t h i s b e l i e f were a s f o llo w s : U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth D akota and Y ale U n i v e r s i t y , 35; Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e , 34; and U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 2? p e r c e n t . The t r a i t o f b e in g w ide awake and a l e r t i s one o f w hich w h ite A m ericans a r e e v i d e n t l y p ro u d . Over 86 p e r c e n t o f th e e n t i r e s t u d e n t sam ple, a c c o r d in g to T able XCII i n th e A p p en d ix , lo o k e d upon t h i s t r a i t a s a f a v o r a b le o n e . 157 0 - 1 ü Cvi vO -j" *f\ m c v i + > < D € 0 b O OlH I —I 0 O ^ o o M m vO c v i c v i c v i O 4 u < D (0 > H > vO V O (Vi t o Ov C V i c v i \Q o - cf\ -4' H H O -4’ 3 U A <D 0 ) O4 o to O < D »H C Q $ 4 0 O O bO A 0 ) C Q + ) 0 ) 0 158 AMBITION T hree s tu d e n t g ro u p s w ere v e ry s i m i l a r i n th e way th e y re sp o n d e d to t h e q u e s t io n , "Who a r e more a m b itio u s ? " T h is i s shown i n T ab le X V III. The t h r e e s c h o o ls a r e th e U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth D a k o ta, Y a le U n i v e r s i t y , and Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e . I f i t w ere n o t f o r th e c o n t r a s t betw een th e r e s p o n s e s o f U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a s t u d e n t s and U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a s t u d e n t s , t h e r e would have been a re m a rk a b le u n i f o r m i t y i n r e s p o n s e s f o r th e t o t a l s tu d e n t sam ple on t h e q u e s tio n o f a m b itio n . E x ce p t f o r U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a s t u d e n t s , th e m a j o r i t y o f s t u d e n ts i n each s c h o o l c o n s id e r e d w h ite s m ore a m b itio u s th a n N e g ro e s . I t i s w e ll known t h a t a m b itio n i s a v e ry h i g h ly v a lu e d t r a i t i n A nglo-A m erican s o c i e t y . Over 85 p e r c e n t o f th e s t u d e n t s i n th e t o t a l sam ple f o r t h i s s tu d y , a c c o rd in g t o T a b le X C III i n th e A p p en d ix , b e li e v e d a m b itio n to be a f a v o r a b le t r a i t . When th e s e w h ite c o ll e g e s t u d e n ts i n a s u b s t a n t i a l m a j o r i t y sa y t h a t w h ite s a r e m ore a m b itio u ë th a n N e g ro e s , t h e r e f o r e , t h e y a re com paring N e g ro es un f a v o r a b l y w ith w h i t e s . I f t h e y had r e f l e c t e d upon th e N e g r o 's p r o g r e s s d u r in g th e l a s t h a l f c e n t u r y , a t t a i n e d u n d e r v e ry d i f f i c u l t c o n d i t i o n s , p e rh a p s t h e i r a n sw e rs w ould have been more f a v o r a b l e to th e N eg ro . I n t h i s M S g g M O 43 >» Cî *H S 3 C N i V \ 0 0 ^ ü 0 0 - 4 -4" rH 0 •H 0) ^ P« ü rH W 43 o J -l -p «H ® 0 * H 1 > O < H g U C V i r - t o N O V •H C O 0 3 0 0 \ 0 cvî rH S 3 O S 4 3 (V f £3 0) 43 +3 ( D £l P rsf - 4 csf (V f 0 0 bO 0 0 ifv iH 0 -P 0 P , O rH C O H rH 0 O 1 ^ O à u vO OV iH vO (V f O 3 0 rH C V f (V f H 53 ,p iH (V f >» 43 +3 k p Ifv cr\ (V f 0 0 •H 0 0 lA (A rH 0 0 0 p4 o rH 3 ® H > 1 •H à k CA VA H Ov t o S 3 p 0 0 vO H t o £3 s ^ rH H 0 >» 43 43 43 O U Ü VA (A (A Ov 0 •H ^ 0 0 VA (A 0 0 0 P4 O iH S ^ «M Q 0 O > Æ 1 •H 43 É ^ t o (A vo S 3 U 3 0 (V f H <A CA H £D O a 43 (V f rH - 4 % >> 0 43 43 T3 k 0 r - (A CA £>- 0 •H r l 0 0 vO (V f 0 0 P , ü iH ( H O 0 rH > p t| 1 "H , É ( 4 vO V fV CA CA a «H p 0 (V f - 4 rH t o £3 O : s 4 3 rH rH 0 0 0 0 0 ^ 0 U 0 0 -H 0 0 0 0 «H Jk j g O 0 0 <H 0 O bO 0 0 .H 4 3 1 — 1 Pi 0 4 3 $4 D - 0 0 43 •H bO 0 4 3 0 0 43 0 0 0 0 P4 O ^ S 5 2 ; Q E -* 159 160 i n s t a n c e , th e y had no tim e t o r e f l e c t . THRIFTINESS S tu d e n ts re s p o n d e d i n h i g h e s t p e r c e n ta g e s i n t h e "W h ites" c a te g o r y to th e q u e s t io n , "Who a r e more t h r i f t y ? " T h is i s i n d i c a t e d i n T able XIX. F l o r i d a U n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s l e d th e way w ith a h ig h p e rc e n ta g e o f 63* P e r c e n ta g e s f o r t h e o t h e r s t u d e n t g ro u p s w ere a s f o llo w s : U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth D a k o ta, 43; Y a le U n i v e r s i t y and Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e , 42; and U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 37 p e r c e n t . S tu d e n ts i n t h e v a r i o u s g ro u p s who s a i d t h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e betw een w h ite s and N eg roes r e g a r d i n g t h r i f t i n e s s c o n s t i t u t e d t h e f o llo w in g p e r c e n ta g e s : U n i v e r s i t y of S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , 3 6 ; Y ale U n i v e r s i t y , 3 0 ; Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e , 29; U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth D ak o ta, 2 6 ; and U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a , 15 p e r c e n t . I t i s w e ll known t h a t w h ite com m un ities i n d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s of th e U n ite d S t a t e s d i f f e r i n r e g a r d to t h e i r e v a l u a t i o n o f th e t r a i t o f t h r i f t i n e s s . S tu d e n ts a t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a and a t Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e v a lu e d t h i s t r a i t m ore h i g h l y , a c c o rd in g to T ab le XCVIII i n th e A p p en d ix , th a n d i d th e s t u d e n ts i n t h e o t h e r s c h o o l s . However, the d i f f e r e n c e s betw een th e s t u d e n t 16 1 cf\ vO -4’ ct\ C M d, O o C M to C D ISrO 4" 0\ CM C M ■p Q) C Ü bO + 3 © W H r-4 cd o 1 “ M O n < r\ v O vO u \ v O P-i O o g C O M S « o<< d, C O O > H > to to to -4 O C M r 4 cr\ 0\ V\ (V \ v O H H N O 0\ Q ) * H C Q k A O O bO A Q ) 0) P 0) cd « o 162 g ro u p s i n t h i s r e s p e c t w ere n o t g r e a t , and o v e r 80 p e r c e n t o f th e e n t i r e s tu d e n t sam ple c o n s id e r e d t h r i f t i n e s s a d e s i r a b l e ,t r a i t . EXTMT Am) COMPONENTS OF GENERAL NEGRO STEREOTYPE The t r a i t s in c lu d e d i n th e s t e r e o t y p e q u e s tio n s f o r t h i s s tu d y w ere s e l e c t i v e . I f th e s u b j e c t s w ere g iv e n an o p p o r t u n i t y to f r e e l y d e s c r i b e N egro es i n c o m p a riso n w ith w h ite s , th e y p ro b a b ly w ould s e l e c t o t h e r t r a i t s . Those w hich w ere chosen f o r t h i s stu d y w ere found to be th e m ost p ro m in e n t t r a i t s a t t r i b u t e d to e i t h e r N eg ro es or w h ite s by s u b j e c t s of a s tu d y made by B lake and D en n is^ i n w hich a te c h n iq u e s i m i l a r t o t h a t of t h i s s tu d y was u s e d . T h e r e fo r e , t h i s s tu d y i s l i m i t e d a s a v e h i c l e f o r p o r t r a y in g a g e n e r a l w h ite A m erican s t e r e o t y p e r e g a r d in g N e g ro e s. How ever, a c c u m u la tio n of p e r c e n ta g e s a s to th e way s t u d e n t s com pared N e g ro e s* w ith w h ite s i n th e fram ew ork of th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e u se d i n t h i s s tu d y may g iv e some i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e q u a l i t y and e x te n t of a g e n e r a l Negro s t e r e o ty p e among a l l s t u d e n ts c o o p e r a tin g i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y . T ab le XX i s p r e s e n te d from t h e p o i n t o f v ie w o f th e R. B lake and W. D e n n is, "D evelopm ent o f S t e r e o t y p e s C o n c ern in g th e N e g ro ," J o u r n a l o f A bnorm al and S o c i a l P s y c h o lo g y . 3 8 :5 2 5 -3 1 , O c to b e r, 1943. 163 TABLE X X PROPORTION OF 1230 STUDENTS ASSIGNING GIVEN TRAITS TO NEGROES WHEN COMPARING THEM WITH WHITES T r a i t P e r c e n t a s s i g n i n g t r a i t t o N egroes 1 . More s e n s e o f rhythm 76 2 . More s u p e r s t i t i o u s 6a 3 . Wear more f l a s h y c l o t h e s 61 4 . L ess a m b itio u s 54 5 . L ess n e a t 51 6 . L ess c le a n 4a 7 . More i g n o r a n t 47 8# More h a p p y -g o -lu c k y 46 9 . B e t t e r s e r v a n t s 46 1 0 . L ess t h r i f t y - 45 1 1 . More e a s i l y p le a s e d 42 1 2 . Move m ore s lo w ly 41 •13. More e a s i l y f r i g h t e n e d 37 •14. More s l e e p y - n â tü r é d 36 1 5 . L ess w id e awake 36 1 6 . L ess i n t e l l i g e n t 34 1 7 . More la z y 31 l a . Laugh m ore 30 1 9 . More a f r a i d o f th e d a rk 25 1 6 4 way N eg ro es a p p e a re d to t h e s u b je c t's i n co m p ariso n w ith w h i t e s . SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GROUPS T able XKI g iv e s in f o r m a tio n a s to th e s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f d i f f e r e n c e s i n p r o p o r t io n of r e s p o n s e s o f th e s t u d e n t s from th e f i v e s c h o o ls to each o f t h e 19 s t e r e o t y p e q u e s t i o n s . H ig h ly s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w ere fo u n d among th e s c h o o ls f o r v i r t u a l l y e v e ry q u e s tio n . In some i n s t a n c e s o n ly 1 o r 2 s c h o o ls d e v ia te d from th e o t h e r s s u f f i c i e n t l y on c e r t a i n ite m s to b r in g a b o u t s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s f o r th e e n t i r e s e t o f r e s p o n s e s ; i n o t h e r c a s e s , th e d i f f e r e n c e s o f o p in io n w ere a p p a r e n t among a l l th e s c h o o ls . U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a s t u d e n t s much more c o n s i s t e n t l y gave r e s p o n s e s c o n fo rm in g to s t e r e o ty p e s th a n d id th e o t h e r s ; and f r e q u e n t l y , som etim es s t r i k i n g l y , U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a s t u d e n t s r e s i s t e d th e s t e r e o t y p e d r e s p o n s e i n fa v o r o f a no n s te r e o ty p e d r e s p o n s e . T ab le XXI p r e s e n t s o n ly th e m ost s t r i k i n g d e v i a t i o n s c o n t r i b u t i n g to s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s of r e s p o n s e s among s t u d e n ts o f th e f i v e s c h o o l s . T r a i t s i n th e l e f t colum n a r e l i s t e d i n th e same o r d e r a s T a b le s I t o XIX so t h a t th e t a b l e s may be r e a d i l y in s p e c te d to s g 9 E -» © I 03 ê d o •H -P C tf -P O < D ë 6 C Q d o •H : > © %) d o • o +> •H © d E h *© * © C M d •H W 43 7 i ë © o o — o c ^ cd 73 © iH d •H ra 43 r4 S rH O © O O '— <r\ 'S d ^ © © iH d •H 03 rO n i © o o '—" c r\ " g - © tj © H d •H C Q r£ 3 © O ü LT\ M 03 d p o 43 d • H d © © P d b O P •rl (H O • H d P O a M © © 1 —1 d d © 43 © o © © W ) P d 04 d d^ d bû d © C ü M H C O C O H? , 1 —1 C M -4 i r \ bO d > o s o I — I C O n O s © rH O M r- s © T) rH d •H W r© rH 0 rH O © ü ü — 'C^ C M t o o o \ C M - 4 ir \ i r \ - 4 0 rH e © C ü © O © © > » © d © S © 73 •H p ü © d c d © © d •H d d o t: © 0 P d d 1 © © © o . © ^ © 0. © © 0 0 © d d C h © •rl O d w P •H a C h d © © C h © d d o © 0 P •H > <H •H d d 0 4 d d - rH K •H C h Q o © © © © © w d •H f c «H p © K Q d © 0 © d ) 0 0 © •rl - d 03 © P P S © (H © d © 43 C h •H d •H • 0 C o © bû 0 K 0 P (H a d è 73 S d O d Q 03 d d • H p © p © s: ' rH bO © s © bû 0 © 73 r 43 r: +> rH © d rH 0 © % bû P ü © © S d © d S d © 7 3 d © © •H a P © © bû bû C «H © 73 d 0 73 A d © 43 © d © 0 rH •H © C O •H M d î>* p d © a d d © 0 X P d o iH C P X © 0 t Ch 0 Ch p •rl o A • H P © rH © 0 rH d •H •H © © C O © î>»rH W •H d © ( 3 4 © rH © d bû © P iH d W 0 0 >> 43 © d © d <H d •rl © © d Oh C h d p Ch p 0 © © > © o © a > © © 0 bû^H 0 _ d > •rl rH e ' d © •H > © © © © d o •H d ^ > * © © d "H d d >> d d S d d ) X p ü > •' d ) d P R © P O © d3 rH •rl d •H © t=> c ‘ »H > •H S 4 3 (D © © rH © © d w © w © d •H W P W © © 73 © d d d> d •© •%© d © d d © d d 7 3 d •rl d © © 0 •H © p © © d> © © 0 0 •H 0 d © > C h © 0, d bû^H |> ^ 03 t> d CO Oh d 0, O d •H C h •H 03 0 d c d •H P 7 3 w • H O 03 0 © rH d d •H © © tH © ^ d © d © d OhCh © iH © 9 d>« ÎH d M Z tu 4 3 © rH d ) © 0 d p*4 d & g to '2 d ' © T) © C M d •H 03 43 rH S rH O © O O - 0 H 0 - 4 Ch 0 - 4 t o t o - 4 m t o if \ i>- t o e © 03 © © i Q ) © <H d © 1 © 0 c i rH 0 >» 0 d d d d > 0 © p Or 0 0 b û © 0 0 © 1 •H W OnCH & © © >» d 43 P 0 © © © w •H © © % © P © k t © ü •H d ••» © d d d © fH bû © e d •H •H •H •» © © bû © •H © d © d 0 . 0 © d P d w d © © d > e ' 0 © d rH On d d - d © 1 — 1 © S © d © C •H © S _^rH b û H W © © © © 0 d 0 © rH > c d 0 W © d © © d > Ch 0 C h d © •H 0 C H d © tu P © d © S a d •H •H C D •H 0 d © On •H 0 p •H P © © # © d rH t fH O h bû d ) bû © rH O h •rl • • 'td •H 43 d tu © © © d d © © © (d P 0 © >>© 0 73 0 © w 0 p © d 0 © p 0 Oh b û P 0 © d d © a 0 rH d K p K O © d •H d 73 d © d w © 43 t d 0 © C O © © W © •H d d e d P © ^ d c © © •H © d rH d d d © & ' © © 0 d 73 © 73 0 © © 73 Oh d 73 C h © © 0 4 3 © 43 0 Oh 0 © 0 •H d Jd 0 •H X d •H 0 K N > C h rH © p 0 p d © •H d a d W P d d © 0 73 d ^ © p •H C h k © 0 d 0 © © d © 0 0 © 0 Ch © 0 > » o •H d •H d 0 © O d d •H p © rH p 0 d rH d •H P rH P d © d ) a d 0 CO d CO © O h p © ( % H — CO © ü pCH^H © d ^ 0 Oh © C h c 0 © p d C h © 03 d © © 0 •H © <H (H «H C h w ü © Ch 0 Ch Ch Ch P 0 On C h d © > r H s p © 0 Ch 0 •H © C h 03 •H 0 CD 0 •H 0 X 0 ® Ch •H © S © d •H C D p 0 • t> s = C D © d © t> C h d H •H >>CD k» •H © © t>» >* > > d d ^ • H •H tu © > & P © p 0 ^ >* d 7 3 P rH P 0 P O © d P d C D bû © © •H 0 © •H a p p 0 •iH rH •rl % •H a 43 © •H tu © « ^ d 7 3 © 03 S 03 w c c *H •H © © © © s: © P 4 3 © 0 73 © © 0 d s: d d d P 73 d a d d © 0 p d ••'S ï •H W rH d d © 0 © © rH © © •H © © © © © © 0 © © K d d _ 0 bû t> 43 O h > bûrH O h •H d t> > bû > dco © t> bû 0 0 7 3 •r-) © •H bû W •H d © © > 0 •H 73 •H d •H 0 © •fH d © rH O h d © a d •H © d © a •H © rH d d d © d On C H © d © •H p C H W © s s?- îd> 43 d d ) rH © C D CDC*4 d > © d> rH tu w 0 rH tu rH d I C h O © -4 O © s w •H •H C Q o T$ © +> d I k © © 53 I —I rH 03 © 5 O 73 03 © si C M rH 0 1 § ) É g or\ rH © I © +> « m 4 - rH 73 © © g ■ a >» fH •rl © if \ I — I v û © î © 73 îH o \ C M © © *H § g R ch 03 * H (D M d © O C © © d W © d d +> © cd •H 43 rH n CO © 73 (h •H O d ^ , p tH .H «: © © C h d O © > Î> » * H +> d d ••'•H © © Q > bO •H d O d © % d > H S © © d o A © © © d 0 •H +> •H 1 to «H _ O I e d w >, © © + 5 C h +5 *H (H • iH © » iH z > o •H s d © © ••' bO 03 d © © © W rH d O © di*H se (H & M © O © H d © © 73 •H d O I — I !>, O O 04 ■P d © •H b O d < I > © © d d d % © © s: 4 3 C > 4J © •H d O ê © (O © >» S •H I o I d a I d © q3 > © I — I I ^ < d © d -4 o o 165 © 43 +> © I d o © >> © © 03 • ° C + > © d f H © rH O © •H ü (H C flCH bO O •H © d o w H ■ ^ 1 vG d C M H « n 'a ^ 8 © P d p o* CO(H o !d d o o •H <tî p HE 1 6 6 determ ine rea so n s f o r the s i g n i f i c a n t s t a t i s t i c a l fin d in g s shown in the r ig h t colum n. However, th e c e n te r column i d e n t i f i e s the d i r e c t io n o f the m ost ob viou s d e v ia t io n s from p r o p o r tio n s which would be "expected" i f th e r e were no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e s between r e sp o n s e s of th e stu d en t groups from d i f f e r e n t r e g io n s . In com puting Chi square th e re were tw enty " c e l l s , " fo u r fo r each o f the f i v e sc h o o l g ro u p s. The fo u r c e l l s fo r each group corresponded to th e fo u r answer c a t e g o r ie s in the q u e s tio n n a ir e {"W hites," "N egroes," "No D if f e r e n c e ," "Don't Know"). When one of th e fou r c a t e g o r ie s had to o few r e s p o n s e s , t h i s c e l l fo r a l l s c h o o ls was combined w ith an oth er a s in d ic a te d in p a r e n th e se s in th e r i g h t column. INTENSITY OF CONVICTION F o llo w in g each o f th e s te r e o ty p e q u e s tio n s in th e q u e s tio n n a ir e , th e r e was a q u e s tio n s t a t e d as f o llo w s : "How s t r o n g ly do you f e e l th a t your answer i s c o rrect? " The a l t e r n a t i v e s were a s fo llo w s : Very s tr o n g ly ____ _ S tr o n g ly ________________________ F a ir ly s tr o n g ly ______ Not a t a l l s tr o n g ly ______ No resp o n se ______ Table XXII p r e s e n ts a rankin g o f th e stu d en t groups from th e v a r io u s s c h o o ls in regard to i n t e n s i t y o f con - cr\o o -4 O N to 0 C ^ -4 C M 0 2 vxm oin O -4 C ^ sO r > -r ^ ir N « N v O iT v»r\vO U W 0 \ 0 ‘4N|fNNO U M > .v O I I I I I I I I I I I I I i / X L I I. I O - 4 C ^ H c^LTv tf w O ifW O O t r v O v O f O - 4 ( M r H O - u \ . - 4 _ 4 v O - 4 - 4 - 4 0 ^ - 4 - 4 1 0 - 4 - 4 1 - 4 - 4 - 4 ‘^ - 4 PQ g 5 I 005 M S P 3 O I — I a E - » OCO MM E h £ U OOP M t> o S M O O M è a k k CO O S ^ 2 COCO < 4 M OT** M M O O o _ M CO O C O COM k g O g O M S P h 8 03 ® d bO © P d A d % © Ü p •H C Q > I © © • H g O g p M § 3 C O © o p © © bO p © CO M H © O g O O M > > P •H © © H > •H d d> © >* p P o •H © © d <H Q © o > 43 •H P d d o O s >> © P 73 •H •H © d d O © H > M •H d «H O © g 1 6 7 mmrr\4CMCMCM(MmCMMmCM4(M(MMmCM 44CM C M 44 o ^ 4CM o^44<r\r^c«^c^44r^ C M C M A r \c r \c v ^ r ^ _ ^ (y \^ .4 -f r v c v 2 _ ^ c M 44c^C M 4 I b O P • H d iH d r a P 0 ^ O 43 • H d P , • H C h P O © © d O d Ad b O 0 © © 8 0 ® 4 3 © b O © 0 > © O I 73 < 4 4 o TS © d © 73 p © 4 3 d b O 0 • H P 6 7 3 > * d . © t> > © ‘H © N d © _r4©44©MM M H C O C O h 3 ^ O M < < M 0 5 M œ C Q © © >% P © .X d o P 0 OI— I o W) ^ p © M d o © © © © 1 © ■3. & © I © I •H P < P « H P © * H « H © © 73P d © © M S 4 3 M S M 168 v i c t i o n a s to th e r i g h t n e s s of a n sw e rs g iv e n t o th e s t e r e o ty p e q u e s t i o n s . I n o r d e r to r o u g h ly r a n k t h e d i f f e r e n t g ro u p s i n t h i s r e g a r d , th e p e r c e n ta g e f o r each group re s p o n d in g i n th e "V ery s t r o n g l y " c a te g o r y was added to th e p e rc e n ta g e re s p o n d in g i n th e " S tr o n g ly " c a t e g o r y . The s tu d e n t gro u p w hich i n th e h i g h e s t p e r c e n ta g e checked « t h e s e com bined c a t e g o r i e s , r e v e a l i n g s t r o n g c o n v ic ti o n a s to r i g h t n e s s o f a n sw e rs to a g iv e n q u e s t i o n , was g iv e n a r a n k in g o f "1" f o r t h a t q u e s t io n . The o t h e r g ro u p s a r e g iv e n lo w e r r a n k in g s i n th e o r d e r o f d e c r e a s in g c o n v ic t i o n , w ith th e gro u p w ith a r a n k in g o f " 5 ” th e one w ith th e lo w e s t c o n v ic ti o n r e g a r d in g th e q u e s t i o n . The r i g h t column g iv e s th e ra n g e from th e lo w e st p e r c e n ta g e , l e a s t c o n v i c t i o n , to th e h i g h e s t p e r c e n ta g e , g r e a t e s t c o n v i c t i o n . The f i n d i n g s g iv e n i n T ab le XXII a r e re m a rk a b le i n a number o f w ays. I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , t h e s tu d e n t g ro u p s w hich d i f f e r e d th e m ost i n r e g a r d to r e s p o n s e s t o s t e r e o ty p e q u e s t io n s ra n k f i r s t and second on s t r e n g t h of c o n v i c t i o n . In th e second p l a c e , th e s t u d e n t g ro u p w hich was second to th e U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a i n fre q u e n c y of a t t r i b u t i n g c e r t a i n t r a i t s to N e g ro es ( l e s s i n t e l l i g e n t , more s u p e r s t i t i o u s , move more s lo w ly , l e s s c l e a n , more 1 / 169 la z y , a fr a id o f th e dark, e a s i l y fr ig h te n e d , b e t t e r s e r v a n ts , more e a s i l y p le a s e d , l e s s wide awake, l e s s a m b itio u s, l e s s t h r i f t y ) h e ld t h e ir o p in io n s w ith th e l e a s t c o n v ic t io n . This was the U n iv e r s it y o f North Dakota group. In th e th ir d p la c e , the column on th e r ig h t in Table XXII shows th a t th ere was a r a th e r wide range o f p ercen t a g e s from the lo w e s t , showing l e a s t c o n v ic t io n , to th e h ig h e s t , showing s t r o n g e s t c o n v ic t io n . EVALUATION OF TRAITS Table XXIII g iv e s th e rankin g of the stu d e n t groups in regard to e v a lu a tio n of th e t r a i t s . The group w ith the h ig h e s t p ercen ta g e o f fa v o r a b le (in c a se more fa v o r a b le than u n favorab le r e sp o n se s were g iv e n ) r e sp o n se s i s g iv e n th e f i r s t ra n k in g , th e group w ith th e l e a s t p ercen ta g e the f i f t h ra n k in g . The sam e’procedure was used fo r predom i n a n tly u n favora b le an sw ers. U n ifo rm ity o f . d i r e c t i o n i s e v id e n t among th e sc h o o ls i n e v a l u a t i o n o f each o f the 19 t r a i t s . Whenever th e p r e dom inant s e n tim e n t was i n f a v o r of a t r a i t among a s t u d e n t g ro u p , a l l o t h e r g ro u p s a g re e d i n t h a t f a v o r a b l e r e s p o n s e s p re d o m in a te d o v e r u n fa v o ra b le o n e s . On o th e r t r a i t s , u n fa v o ra b le r e s p o n s e s f o r a l l s tu d e n t g ro u p s p re d o m in a te d P 1 7 0 © 0 to C M iH 4 C M rH GM f\O l>.ir\cr\© 4 r H O O v O »4\ b O © O tO vOtO 4 O 'û 0 iCMCMC\|>-C~-vO 0 0 0 ^ * 0 0 S % O 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 en 4 O tO to rHC^O<nCM044CMCMvOvOQvO © rH C d d OC------ c n O C ' - 4 4 4 c n M \ 4 v O o ' b o t o r - p © © A © d © o s H > 03 o © © M © C h 0 td >> d •H 0 o E h P d 0 * 0 •H M •H © d P M © 43 O C M 4 c n 4 r H lf\rHM\UMf\tf\(MCM(nWM-H(n4(n 0 O d 4J (H 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 © © 0 0 5 © 0 •H M t u t u M M t u M t u t u t u t u t u M M M M M M M p © S E h ^ O rH p d M H •H C O © E h <i3 0 O © © o « tu rH 0 ^EH p © M © © CdO © d 8 H p © o C O © bD > d E h M P © 4 C M C M rH m < n 4 4 < n c n r H 4 c n 4 r H c m m c m c m © © S ffi C O rH 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 H P M E h rH M tu tu M M tu Ed lu tu tu tu tu M M M M M M M g Q © O © 0 O M ^ o d 0 Eh o o o C O M 53 0 M o © © H O <3 H d d H n M P © H M •H ë © M Ü O © © P W < H E h rH d rHrH4>4N4CMcnrHrHCMcnrHUMrN44CM«n«n © p E h © © 1 1 1 1 1 vl 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 d a H H > M tu tu M M 53 M tu tu 0) tu tu M M M M M M M © © M M M . •H p d M O C Q 0 p O m Pd tu H < a j M p rj © © E -i A O © © p ^ > H P p O < a P O © K Eh m •H ü tu © © •H C C O tu d C h C D lC\fnrHCMlf\rHir\(nCMrHCMlf\rH C M cniTVrH < n 4 73 << © o 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 P3 > 43 M tu tu M M t u M t u t u t u t u t u M M M M M M M •H • c o o ♦H P P 0 d d •H • , O H 0) O © © © O M S p d rH 53 C Q P P O <4 H © © C O C d P 73 0 © d p •H H • O M > © d cn*4N»T\cnCM<nCMCM444<n4rHCMC^4rHrH M bOI> d O 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 : 0 © © H M tu tu M M tu M 0> tu tu tu tu M M M M M M M •H H M O > M d 73 0 S •H 73 d 0 H 0 C h © © © W tu O g 0 © p bb >> S Æ /% * © 73 © 73 p © fH © P j L t P ® ® 4 * î 0 © d P C d 0 © 0 H © 43 d 43 Ç ) © © 0 4 3 X 73 bO 0 P 0 > © •H d ©rH . H P O H d © © P dfe H d © r H l © H Jd© © 8 H 0 © © © 0 © «H b Û P ‘H « H O O O H 0 O O © A © 0 © 0 s •H 0 P O S _ i 1 ^ bO ^ O H p O O rH © © © 73 H H •?> 1 d H © -H P A73 p fH d d ©43 0 -H H A 43 H © H P C h K © © •iH © O © © b 0 © © H © * H © © A P *H P © «H «H M © d © P 0 A 0 0 > © N d © © © AP © © 73 P d d A d 0 bO0 © © OrH ©(H©rHrH © © © © M 8 P M _H .M .C 0_05.M .S_O .M ^.M Ç 0.fe-îi;.C 9M S.^4.EH _ ■ îf 171 over the fa v o r a b le o n e s. T r a it s c o n sid ered predom inantly fa v o r a b le by a l l stu d e n t groups were a s fo llo w s ; I n t e l l i g e n t E a s ily p le a se d Sense o f rhythm Neat Laughter Wide awake C lean A m b itious H appy-go-lucky T h r ifty Good se r v a n ts T r a it s reg a rd in g which u n fa v o ra b le r e sp o n se s pre dominated over fa v o r a b le ones fo r a l l stu d e n t groups were a s f o llo w s ; Ign oran t A fr a id o f dark S u p e r s t it io u s E a s ily fr ig h te n e d Slow moving S le ep y natu red Lazy F la sh y c lo t h e s D if f e r e n c e s among stu d e n t grou p s, a s shown by Table XXIII, were n ot i n d ir e c t io n but in i n t e n s i t y . I n t e n s i t y i s measured rou gh ly in t h i s t a b l e , and a ranking fo r i n t e n s i t y i s g iv e n . No c o n s is t e n t p a tte r n app ears in Table XXIII s im ila r to th a t o f Table XXII, where groups r e p e a te d ly f e l l in t o the same rank. Every group ranked f i r s t a s to per cen ta g e o f r esp o n se s ( e i t h e r fa v o r a b le or u n favo rab le) fo r th r e e or more t r a i t s . On th e o th e r hand, each group, reg a rd in g one or more t r a i t r e s p o n s e s , ranked f i f t h . The range in p e r c e n ta g e s among th e sch o o l groups i s n ot v ery g r e a t as fa r as e v a lu a tio n of some o f th e t r a i t s i s con cern ed . The range i s sm a ll fo r th e fo llo w in g t r a i t s ; 172 T r a i t Range P e r c e n t I n t e l l i g e n t 93-98 L a u g h te r 88-92 C lea n 97-99 N e at 96-99 Wide awake 8 6 -9 0 S in c e e ac h o f t h e above t r a i t s was c o n s id e r e d f a v o r a b l e f o r each o f th e s t u d e n t g ro u p s , e v i d e n t l y e ach i s a p o s i t i v e s o c i a l v a lu e i n a l l th e r e g i o n s from w hich a s t u d e n t sam ple was o b t a i n e d . I n f a c t , p e rh a p s th e y a r e p o s i t i v e A m erican s o c i a l v a lu e s . $ CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SAMPLE S o c ia l d i s t a n c e d a t a . C e r t a i n ^ p o s t f a c t o in f o r m a tio n r e g a r d in g d e g re e o f f a m i l i a r i t y i n t h e p a s t betw een th e s u b j e c t s and N eg ro es was o b ta in e d . These d a ta a r e sum m arized i n T able XXIV. More co m p lete in f o r m a tio n may be o b ta in e d by c o n s u l t i n g t h e A ppendix. U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a s t u d e n t s ran k ed f i r s t i n o n ly t h r e e o f t e n s u b c a t e g o r ie s show ing number o f N e g ro es known i n p a r t i c u l a r ways even th o u g h th e t o t a l number o f N eg ro es known by t h i s s t u d e n t group was h i g h e r .th a n t h a t o f a n y o t h e r s tu d e n t g ro u p . F l o r i d a U n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s ra n k e d f i r s t a s to number o f N eg ro es known a s " c l o s e f r i e n d s . " TABLE XXIV 173 RANKING OF STUDENT GROUPS AS TO PERCENTAGE HAVING K N O W N NEGROES IN STATED TYPES OF ASSOCIATION AND AS TO.PERCENTAGE SHOWING GREATEST FRIENDLINESS OF ASSOCIATION WITH NEGROES Type o f a s s o c i a t i o n U n iv e r s ity o f F lo r id a U n iv e rs ity o f N orth D akota Y ale U n iv e rs ity Iowa S ta te C o lle g e U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th e rn C a li f o r n ia - Num b e r F r ie n d - l i n e s s Num b e r F rie n d l i n e s s Num b e r F rie n d l i n e s s Num b e r F rie n d l i n e s s Num b e r F rie n d l i n e s s C lo se f r i e n d s 1 I 5 V 3 I I I 4 IV 2 I I F e llo w c lu b members 5 V 4 IV 3 I I I 1 I 2 I I N eighbo rs 5 V 4 IV 1 I 3 I I I 2 I I S ch o o l m ates 5 V 4 IV 2 I I 3 I I I 1 I B u sin e ss o r p r o f e s s i o n a l a s s o c i a t e s 2 I I 5 V 4 IV 3 I I I 1 I F e llo w w o rk e rs 1 I I 5 V 2 I 4 IV 3 I I I S e r v a n t s , em ployees 1 I 5 V 2 I I 4 IV 3 I I I Servicem en 3 IV 2 I I I 5 V 4 I I 1 I C asu al a c q u a in ta n c e s 3» IV 5 T 4 I I I 1 I I 2 I O th er ways 4 V 2 I I I 5 IV 3 I I 1 I T o ta l number known IV 5 V 3 I I 4 I I I 2 I th e "10 o r m ore" c a te g o ry was U n iv e r s ity o f F l o r i d a , b u t Iowa S t a te C o lle g e had t h e lo w e st p e rc e n ta g e o f s t u d e n ts who had n e v e r known N egroes a s c a s u a l a c q u a in ta n c e s . ** Ranked r e g a r d in g h ig h e s t p e rc e n ta g e knowing 25 o r more N egroes. 174 They a l s o ranked f i r s t r e g a r d in g number o f N egroes known a s " fe llo w workers" and a s " s e r v a n ts or em p loyees." How e v e r , th e y ranked f i f t h in regard to number o f N egroes known a s " fe llo w clu b members," a s " n eigh b o rs," and a s " sch o o l m a tes." They ranked in between th e two extrem es in regard to f a m i l i a r i t y w ith N egroes in o th e r ty p e s o f a s s o c i a t i o n s . U n iv e r s it y o f North Dakota s tu d e n ts c o n s i s t e n t l y had a low ran k in g in regard to number o f N egroes known in th e p a s t , ex cep t f o r Negro servicem en known. In t h i s c a te g o r y . U n iv e r s it y of North Dakota stu d e n ts ranked seco n d . S tu d e n ts a t the U n iv e r s it y o f Southern C a lifo r n ia c o n s i s t e n t l y ranked h igh in regard to number o f N egroes known in th e p a s t . However, th e y had a medium ran k in g as to number o f N egroes known a s f e llo w workers and a s s e r v a n ts or em p loyees. U n iv e r s it y o f Southern C a lif o r n ia stu d e n ts appeared to le a d th e o th er stu d e n t groups in regard to v a r ie t y o f ty p e s o f a s s o c i a t i o n s in which th e y rep o rted h avin g known i N egroes in th e p a s t . R esp onses of l o m s tu d e n ts seem to in d ic a t e a s p e c ia l f a c t o r in f lu e n c in g the number o f stu d e n ts havin g known N egroes a s f e llo w clu b members, a s t h i s i s one of 175 o n ly two c a t e g o r ie s in which Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e stu d e n ts le d the o th e r g ro u p s. A cqu ain tance w ith N egroes a s n e ig h b o rs seems to c h a r a c te r iz e th e Y ale U n iv e r s it y s tu d e n ts more than th e o t h e r s . Roman num erals in th e r ig h t hand column o f Table XXIV g iv e th e ra n k in g s a s to " f r ie n d lin e s s " o f a s s o c ia t io n w ith N egroes in th e p a s t . I t should be r ec o g n ize d th a t th e p ercen ta g e o f stu d e n ts g iv in g r e sp o n se s in d ic a t in g f r i e n d l i n e s s o f a s s o c i a t i o n i s a fu n c tio n o f the number o f N egroes known. T h er efo r e, th e ra n k in g s fo r f r i e n d l i n e s s f o llo w r a th e r c l o s e l y th e ran k in gs fo r numbers o f N egroes known. In s p i t e o f t h i s ex p ected c o r r e la t io n , how ever, th e r e a re fo u r ty p e s o f a s s o c i a t i o n s in which U n iv e r s ity o f F lo r id a s tu d e n ts ranked low er f o r f r i e n d l i n e s s than th e y d id fo r number o f N egroes known. These ty p e s are a s f o llo w s ; " fe llo w w ork ers," "servicem en," " casu al a c q u a in ta n c e s," and "other w ays." Other c h a r a c t e r i s t i e s . Table XXV g iv e s a ranking o f the stu d e n t groups in regard to d egree or p ro p o rtio n of c e r ta in s ta te d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . U n iv e r s ity o f Southern C a lif o r n ia s tu d e n ts com p let in g q u e s tio n n a ir e s were o l d e s t , Y ale U n iv e r s it y stu d e n ts g PQ « a j M m o M E -i 05 M M M 0 1 o g M 4 5 o e-i o 05 M § 8 O 4 2 0 > § M ê E ”* 05 M O § S 4 P 3 W) § « o . «H O © î>» 0 ‘tH +> U 0 •H © 0 W 43 O 0 + > H © p 'H > O rH •H 05 © 0 O tu © 4^ © © bO +> © 05 H rH © O g O O H M © © rH p4 © © M > •H g © î>* 4^ 4 ) O •H © 0 «H Q © O > 4 3 •H 4U 0 U t u O s >* © + ) 7 3 •H ’H © 0 } h o © rH > M •H 0 H t u O 1 S 4 U ü © 4 ^ 0 © © ‘H Xi o vG o \ r - rH 4 D - CA CA O D - 4 VA CA C - o \ CA VA vO \ o C M 4 CA t o CA H CA VA 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 CA VA 4 CA vû VA rH vO O <J\ t o CA D - rH C M 4 CA H C M 4 H C M C M I O —* u o Ac m b © © © > bO O u _ © 0 rH O '« — '•H +> © U b û O <jJ PL , 4 © © rH i © M m (M m C M c r \ C M 73 © •H U i h M C M lA V A C M (A VA (A C M VA VA C M C M VA (A C M VA VA C M (A CA VA C M C M CA a S CA CA (A C M rH CA CA M- -ch -ch VA +> 43 © 0 © © 1 0 O © 0 1 0 1 © •rl > r— * O -P © 0 o © bû O rH © 0 © 0 0 © 0 •P 0 © O 0 0 rH A •rl 0 73 © 4 3 73 0 0 0 0 0 O U 0 © © 43 © 1 — 1 1 iH î> » •rl 0 © > © © © 4 3 © rH © © •rl O O 73 O rH 0 O 73 •rl © 1 © 0 © rH © 4 3 > © © © © © © © U 4^ •rl X 0 0 O © © 0 43 © bû 0 © 73 > © 0 m •rl 0 •rl "H 0 •H > 0 •rl © © 0 © © O O A © © © © © 0 > © O > 4 3 rH 0 0 H H 0 0 © 0 0 +> ü 0 JU ■P 43 o 43 0 •rl © ' > © rH 4 3 P 0 P © 0 •O •P O 0 43 43 © 43 43 © © •rl 43 0 4 3 C M © 4 3 0 0 4 3 0 p P p > 73 0 © 0 © © 0 © © 0 0 © •rl 0 0 iH 0 43 0 © 0 0 (g 0 P 0 p © u o © © ü © 43 © O 0 0 rH O © © 0 •rl © 0 © 0 0 © 0 U © 43 O © 43 0 A © rH O •rl 1 cy A ^rl © O © 0 © 0 0 ü ü 0 © 0 ü © © X >1 — 1 ü o © •rl O ü o bOH bû © © © > 4 3 73 ■§ U 8 © U 0 0 73 © © O 0 0 •rl 1 — 1 43 © •rl 43 0 43 43 0 0 0 0 © 1 — 1 0 © p 0 © © ■ ^3 > 0 © 0 0 0 O 0 43 © •rl rH © 0 0 1 — 1 © © © © © p © 0 0 © 0 © © 0 p © © 43 A © 43 © 0 © O A O © W © O © 43 A 4 3 4 3 A 7 3 0 A 0 G A 0 p A 0 s H rH o A o 43 O A © bO P 3 O •rl 0 C O © 0 5 © 0 a a A a 176 177 th e y o u n g e st, o f the f i v e stu d e n t g ro u p s. See th e Appendix fo r a break-down o f th e age grou p s. Y ale U n iv e r s it y had the l a r g e s t number o f m ales in th e stu d en t sample and the U n iv e r s it y o f Southern C a lif o r n ia th e s m a lle s t p r o p o r tio n o f m a le s. The l a r g e s t p r o p o r tio n o f m arried stu d e n ts were found in th e U n iv e r s it y o f Southern C a lif o r n ia stu d en t group. There were few er m arried s tu d e n ts in the Y ale group than in th e o t h e r s . The group a t the U n iv e r s it y of Southern C a lifo r n ia had a g r e a te r p ro p o rtio n o f v e te r a n s o f World War I I than d id the o th e r stu d e n t groups, and th e s m a lle s t p ro p o rtio n o f v e te r a n s was found in the Y ale U n iv e r s it y group. The sc h o o l group w ith th e g r e a t e s t p ro p o rtio n o f s tu d e n ts o f Ju n ior l e v e l o r above was t h a t of the U n iv e r s ity o f Southern C a lif o r n ia , The l e a s t advanced group a s fa r a s e d u c a tio n a l l e v e l i s concerned was the stu d e n t group a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f N orth Dakota. Iowa S ta t e stu d e n ts le d th e o th e r s in frequ en cy o f church a tte n d a n c e , whereas Y ale U n iv e r s it y s tu d e n ts r e ported l e s s freq u en t church a tten d a n ce than any of the o t h e r s . A gain , the sc h o o l groups r e p o r tin g th e g r e a t e s t and the l e a s t Sunday Church S ch ool a tten d a n ce were Iowa S ta te and Y ale r e s p e c t i v e l y . These two sc h o o l groups 178 showed a s im ila r r e l a t io n s h ip in regard to p e r s is t a n c e of Church School a tten d a n ce ; how ever, here Iowa S t a te ranked second and F lo r id a U n iv e r s it y f i r s t . When th e stu d e n ts r a te d th em selv es as to how ^ r e lig io u s " th ey co n sid er ed th e m se lv e s, Iowa S ta te ranked f i r s t , and Y ale U n iv e r s it y had the lo w e s t r a n k in g . As to number o f s t a t e s stu d e n ts had l iv e d i n , Y ale U n iv e r s it y ranked f i r s t and th e U n iv e r s it y o f North Dakota f i f t h . U n iv e r s ity o f Southern C a lif o r n ia stu d e n ts in d ic a te d th ey had tr a v e le d through more s t a t e s o f th e Union than the o th er grou p s, and the l e a s t m obile group in t h i s r e s p e c t was the group a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f North D akota. U n iv e r s ity o f Southern C a lifo r n ia stu d e n ts le d the o th e r s in regard to the number o f c o u n tr ie s th ey had l i v e d i n , and Iowa S ta te stu d e n ts had th e lo w e st ranking in t h i s r e s p e c t . D uring World War I I , U n iv e r s ity o f Southern C a lif o r n ia s tu d e n ts rep o rted th a t th e y had t r a v e le d througt more c o u n tr ie s than th e o th e r stu d e n t grou p s. Y ale U n iv e r s it y s tu d e n ts had more fr e q u e n tly t r a v e le d in o th e r c o u n t r ie s s in c e th e war than th e o th e r s , and U n iv e r s ity of F lo r id a stu d e n ts in d ic a te d the l e a s t amount o f p ost-w ar fo r e ig n t r a v e l . 179 The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e sc h o o l group doin g th e l e a s t s te r e o ty p in g o f N egroes { U n iv e r s ity of Southern C a lif o r n ia ) and th o se of th e stu d e n t group doing the most s te r e o ty p in g o f N egroes (U n iv e r s ity o f F lo r id a ) may su g g e st p o s s ib le e x p la n a tio n s of th e d if f e r e n c e s o th e r than r e g io n a l v a r ia t i o n s . U n iv e r s it y o f Southern C a l i f o r n ia stu d e n ts were o ld e r , had a h ig h er p ro p o rtio n of women s tu d e n ts , and a h ig h e r p r o p o r tio n o f them were m arried . They ranked f i r s t in regard to number o f v e te r a n s and in regard t o th e number o f y e a rs o f e d u c a tio n . They ranked f i r s t in regard to s t a t e s tr a v e le d i n , c o u n tr ie s l i v e d i n , and c o u n tr ie s tr a v e le d in during th e war. They ranked second in regard to number o f s t a t e s l i v e d in and in regard to number o f c o u n tr ie s v i s i t e d s in c e th e w ar. They ranked th ir d in regard to church sc h o o l a tten d a n ce and in regard to p e r s is t e n c e o f a t te n d ance a t church s c h o o l. They ranked fo u r th in regard to church a tten d a n ce and on s e l f - r a t i n g s o f " r e lig io u s n e s s ." U n iv e r s it y of F lo r id a s tu d e n ts , in c o n tr a s t to U n iv e r s it y o f Southern C a lif o r n ia s tu d e n ts , m ost fr e q u e n t l y ranked t h i r d , t h i s ranking b ein g in d ic a te d reg a rd in g number m a les, number v e te r a n s , y e a rs o f e d u c a tio n , church a tte n d a n c e , r e l i g i o u s n e s s , and s t a t e s l iv e d i n . U n iv e r s it y o f F lo r id a stu d e n ts ranked f i f t h in postw ar t r a v e l and 180 f o u r t h r e g a r d in g th e f o llo w in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : s t a t e s t r a v e l e d i n , c o u n t r i e s l i v e d i n , and number o f c o u n t r i e s t r a v e l e d i n s in c e th e w a r. They ra n k e d seco n d a s to a g e , number m a r r ie d , and c h u rc h s c h o o l a t t e n d a n c e . They ra n k e d f i r s t o n ly i n r e g a r d to p e r s i s t e n c e of c h u rc h sc h o o l a t t e n d a n c e . R e lig io u s a f f i l i a t i o n was to o c o m p lic a te d to sum m arize i n T ab le XXV and i s c o n s e q u e n tly g iv e n s e p a r a t e l y i n T a b le XXVI. T h is t a b l e shows t h a t B a p t i s t s , M e th o d is ts , and P r e s b y t e r i a n s made up o v e r h a l f of th e s tu d e n t g ro u p a t th e U n i v e r s i ty o f F l o r i d a , w here e le v e n p e r c e n t had a C a th o lic background and n in e p e r c e n t i n d i c a t e d th e y w ere J e w is h . S ix p e r c e n t o m itte d t h e q u e s tio n s r e f e r r i n g to r e l i g i o u s p r e f e r e n c e . A s t r i k i n g th in g a b o u t th e d a ta on r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n f o r th e N o rth D akota U n i v e r s i t y g ro u p i s t h a t 40 p e r c e n t w ere L u th e r a n s . T h is i s th e l a r g e s t p e r c e n ta g e f o r any r e l i g i o u s group among th e s t u d e n t s s t u d i e d . E q u a lly n o te w o rth y i s th e f a c t t h a t th e p e rc e n ta g e o f L u th e ra n s i s n e g l i g i b l e i n a l l t h e o t h e r s tu d e n t g ro u p s e x c e p t t h a t o f Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e , where 14 p e r c e n t i n d i c a t e d L u th e ra n p r e f e r e n c e o r a c t i v e m em bership . U n i v e r s i t y of N o rth D akota s t u d e n ts a l s o l e d th e o t h e r s a s to p e rc e n ta g e M O m a. m S 3 Ê H W i HQ Q O II S 3 C O C O MQ C Î 3 O < H H C 5 !S M MQ OM G Ü P 3 «H 0 _ 0 P !>» 0 «H Î4 0 P k 0 0 0 H 0 )L , II4 Ü 0 X Î 0 0 P < W 0 0 ‘H 1 > O H i u H €0 0 3 0) 0 0 s ^ s 0 4 3 0 0 f c tO 43 0 COM I — I 0 O ^ o o M + 2 0 0 PL , Ü I I S ! s p p ^ 0 •rl 0 0 0 0 P4 Ü H (L , 0 0 ÎSH > 1 •H É 0 0 3 0 s s ^ >, -p P o ig > •H â Æ I s ' i i (u o I I S ! I S rO > » 0 43 T j •H rl 0 k Î H O 0 H > fx , •rl P 3 (H Q O + 2 S ! § ^ Ü I S ^ § •H b O •H iH 0 « H iH H H to (\! -tO\tO C^rHrH 0 - r H rH Csi OOiH 0 \ r 4 r 4 -4" ( * \\Q C M vO 1— I r 4 «H r 4 r 4 O H C O C M cor--4*-4-vOtO O O H C M coO- H C O C M OC—tH U O C M D -r-oto O O H C M H H to C M 0\ C M O -j^coH OvO C O H H CO H H ic\H H H to HH O C O C M -d^-j-O tA C M O H -j" H H v O C M M P v O -4*OwO\0 H O ^O ^O D — v O ifN H H -4 " H HOCMCMOCMOO-CMr-CM^ H C M C M H H C O C O to H H C O C M -4 C O H C M H C O -4 H C M H H O •H H t O I - ^ X S 0 0 0 ■^o 0 a 0 o 0 * -P » H & â-p 0 O > > I n b O 0 0 U •H S! _ “ P a 0 0 * H + 3 Î-I TP 0 _ . . 0 O-H Î H S S >P bO 0 0 0 -P P Q 0 0 0 O C P.W ^0.S_0_ tJ 0 P P •H 8 8 H C M 8 H C M C M C M O O H to to H O o H -4 H ■ 4 O O H to H 0 p o H 181 p g s p 5 •H <2 p a 0 p 0 0 p o 6 T 5 0 p 0 O •H 'g •H 0 1 0 rt 0 b P h 0 0 b O 4 4 P 0 0 u & II Xi 0 Tf S: p bO & P 0 » H P , > > 0 < 4 4 0 H P O O 0 6 g” s s 182 o f s t u d e n ts i n d i c a t i n g C a th o lic f a i t h . A l l o t h e r P r o t e s t a n t g ro u p s com bined do n o t e q u a l t h e L u th e ra n s n u m e r ic a lly i n th e N o rth D akota s tu d e n t sa m p le . A h ig h e r p e r c e n ta g e o f s t u d e n ts a t Y ale i n d i c a t e d E p is c o p a lia n p r e f e r e n c e th a n any o t h e r r e l i g i o u s p r e f e r e n c e . Y ale s t u d e n t s r e p o r t e d th e h i g h e s t p r o p o r tio n o f Je w ish s t u d e n t s , w ith 17 p e r c e n t i n d i c a t i n g Je w ish b a c k g ro u n d • T h i r t y - t h r e e p e r c e n t o f th e Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e g ro u p showed M e th o d is t p r e f e r e n c e . T h is i s a h ig h e r p r o p o r tio n of M e th o d is ts th a n w ere fo u n d i n any o t h e r s tu d e n t g ro u p . C a th o l i c s and M e th o d is ts had an e q u a l p e rc e n ta g e i n t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a s tu d e n t g ro u p , th e p e rc e n ta g e b e in g 14 i n each c a s e . The h i g h e s t p e r - j c e n ta g e i n th e U. S . C. column i s i n th e " O th e r" c a te g o r y , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e r e was a r a t h e r h ig h p r o p o r t io n o f s t u d e n ts i n t h i s g ro u p who w ere n o t a f f i l i a t e d w ith any o f t h e t h r e e m a jo r r e l i g i o u s f a i t h s i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s . Y ale U n i v e r s i t y ra n k e d f i r s t a s to number o f s tu d e n ts who i n d i c a t e d no r e l i g i o u s p r e f e r e n c e , and th e U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a g ro u p was second i n t h i s r e s p e c t , th e p e r c e n ta g e s b e in g 10 and 7 r e s p e c t i v e l y . 183 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Twelve h u n d red t h i r t y s t u d e n ts a t t e n d i n g c l a s s e s i n f i v e d i f f e r e n t c o l l e g e s o r u n i v e r s i t i e s l o c a t e d i n w id e ly s c a t t e r e d r e g io n s o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s w ere a sk e d i n q u e s t i o n n a i r e s to com pare N eg ro es and w h ite s w ith r e s p e c t to 19 t r a i t s . These s t u d e n t s a ls o i n d i c a t e d how s t r o n g l y th e y w ere c o n v in c e d t h a t t h e i r an sw ers to th e t r a i t q u e s t io n s w ere c o r r e c t an d i n a d d i t i o n gave an e v a l u a t i o n o f each o f th e t r a i t s . C e r t a i n background in f o r m a tio n was o b ta in e d i n o r d e r to d is c o v e r th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of th e sam ple w hich seemed to be p e r t i n e n t t o t h e c e n t r a l p ro b lem o f r e g i o n a l v a r i a t i o n s i n s t e r e o t y p i n g o f N egroes when com paring them w ith w h i t e s . A s e r i e s o f ^ p o s t f a c t o s o c i a l d i s t a n c e q u e s tio n s w ere d e s ig n e d to o b t a i n in f o r m a tio n r e g a r d i n g th e ' number o f N eg ro es known i n e ac h o f a v a r i e t y o f r e l a t i o n s h ip s and th e d e g re e o f f r i e n d l i n e s s w hich th e s t u d e n t s b e lie v e d had c h a r a c t e r i z e d th e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . F in d in g s of th e s tu d y may be sum m arized a s f o llo w s : & /' 1 . S t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s betw een r e s p o n s e s o f s tu d e n t g ro u p s from d i f f e r e n t s c h o o ls w ere found i n r e g a r d to v i r t u a l l y a l l o f th e s t e r e o t y p e q u e s t i o n s . 2 . The U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a gro u p was t h e one 184 w hich m ost f r e q u e n t l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d betw een N e g ro es and w h ite s i n r e g a r d to th e t r a i t s in c lu d e d i n th e s tu d y . T h is m eans t h a t o f th e f o u r a l t e r n a t i v e s (" W h ite s ," " N e g ro e s ," "No D i f f e r e n c e , " " D o n 't Know") F l o r i d a U n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n ts re s p o n d e d w ith a n sw e rs i n th e f i r s t two c a t e g o r i e s more f r e q u e n t l y t h a n d id s t u d e n t s from th e o t h e r fo u r s c h o o ls . 3 . S tu d e n ts a t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a r e p e a t e d l y l e d th e o t h e r s c h o o l g ro u p s i n r e g a r d to th e number r e s p o n d in g i n t h e "No D if f e r e n c e " c a te g o r y and i n th e com bined "No D if f e r e n c e " and " D o n 't Know" c a t e g o r i e s . They l e s s f r e q u e n t l y gave a n sw e rs i n th e "W h ites" o r "N eg ro es" c a t e g o r i e s . 4 . As to s t r e n g t h o f c o n v ic ti o n r e g a r d i n g c o r r e c t n e s s o f an sw ers to s t e r e o t y p e q u e s t i o n s , U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a s t u d e n ts le d th e o t h e r s , w ith th e U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a g ro u p r a n k in g n e x t i n t h i s r e g a r d . U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth D akota s t u d e n t s , whose a n sw e rs t o th e s t e r e o t y p e q u e s t io n s m ost f r e q u e n t l y re se m b le d th o s e o f U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a s t u d e n t s , w ere l e a s t s u re of th e c o r r e c t n e s s o f t h e i r a n s w e rs . 5 . T here was re m a rk a b le u n if o r m ity o f r e s p o n s e s i among t h r e e s t u d e n t g ro u p s i n r e g a r d to th e q u e s t i o n , "Who a r e m ore a m ib tio u s ? " These t h r e e s c h o o l g ro u p s w ere th e U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth D akota g ro u p and th o s e o f Iowa S t a t e 185 C o lle g e and Y ale U n i v e r s i t y . The s t u d e n ts a t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a and th e U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a d e v ia te d from t h i s p a t t e r n of u n if o r m ity , th e fo rm e r i n th e d i r e c t i o n of a l a r g e r number b e li e v i n g w h ite s m ore a m b itio u s and th e l a t t e r i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of few er b e l i e v i n g w h ite s a r e m ore a m b itio u s . 6 . Y ale U n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n ts ra n k e d f i r s t i n p r o p o r t i o n b e l i e v i n g t h a t N eg ro es w ear more f l a s h y c l o t h e s . Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e and U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth D akota s t u d e n t s w ere s l i g h t l y i n th e l e a d i n r e g a r d to p r o p o r t io n b e l i e v in g N e g ro es a r e more s l e e p y - n a tu r e d th a n w h i t e s . U n i v e r s i t y o f N o rth D akota and Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e s t u d e n ts t i e d U n i v e r s i t y of F l o r i d a s t u d e n ts i n r e g a r d to p e rc e n ta g e b e l i e v i n g N eg ro es b e t t e r s e r v a n t s th a n w h i t e s , th e p e rc e n ta g e b e in g 51 i n each g ro u p . 7 . Over h a l f o f th e e n t i r e s tu d e n t sam ple from a l l f i v e s c h o o ls b e lie v e d N egroes t o have more se n se of rh y th m , to be more s u p e r s t i t i o u s , to w ear more f l a s h y c l o t h e s , to be l e s s a m b itio u s , and l e s s n e a t th a n w h i t e s . S o c i a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t p e r c e n ta g e s o f s t u d e n t s a s s ig n e d c e r t a i n o t h e r t r a i t s e i t h e r to w h ite s o r N eg ro es i n com paring t h e s e two " r a c i a l " g r o u p s . H ence, t h i s stu d y g iv e s s u p p o rt to t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e r e i s a w id e ly - h e ld , c o m p o site Negro s t e r e o t y p e among w h ite s i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s . 186 8 . A nsw ers of th e s t u d e n t sam ple i n r e g a r d to e v a l u a t i o n o f th e t r a i t s i n th e s t e r e o t y p e q u e s t io n s c l e a r l y c l a s s i f i e d th e t r a i t s i n t o two g ro u p s , nam ely , th o s e t r a i t s w hich w ere c o n s id e r e d by a p re d o m in a n t group o f s t u d e n t s to be f a v o r a b l e t r a i t s f o r o n e 's a s s o c i a t e s a n d , s e c o n d ly , th o s e c o n s id e r e d u n fa v o ra b le by a p r e dom inant gro u p o f s t u d e n t s . R e sp o n se s of th e e n t i r e s t u d e n t sam ple seem to i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e r e i s a f a i r l y u n ifo rm s e t of p e r s o n a l i t y and s o c i a l v a lu e s p r e s e n t i n th e t h in k i n g o f s t u d e n t s i n a l l f i v e r e g i o n s w here s t u d e n t s c o o p e r a te d i n t h i s s tu d y . P e rh a p s s i g n i f i c a n t l y , th e s tu d e n t sam ple a s a w hole re s p o n d e d f a v o r a b ly t o c e r t a i n t r a i t s w hich many of them had a s s ig n e d to N eg ro es i n p r e f e r e n c e to w h i t e s . T hese t r a i t s a r e " s e n s e o f rh y th m ," " la u g h m o re ," " h a p p y - g o -lu c k y ," " b e t t e r s e r v a n t s , " and " e a s i l y p l e a s e d ." They re sp o n d e d u n f a v o r a b ly to e i g h t t r a i t s w hich l a r g e num bers of them had a s s ig n e d t o N e g ro e s . 9 . R e g io n a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n s t e r e o t y p i n g r e g a r d in g N e g ro es a r e d e f i n i t e l y i n d i c a t e d by t h e f i n d i n g s of t h i s s tu d y , b ut th e s tu d y d oes n o t p r e c i s e l y m easu re th e s e d i f f e r e n c e s n o r d o es i t f u l l y d e s c r i b e th e q u a l i t y o f t h in k i n g r e g a r d i n g N e g ro es w hich i s p r e s e n t i n th e d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s . / CHAPTER Y DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS LIMITATIONS OF THIS STUDY There i s no a s s u ra n c e t h a t th e s tu d e n ts c o o p e ra tin g i n t h i s s tu d y were r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e s tu d e n t body a s a whole in any o f th e f i v e c o l l e g e s or u n i v e r s i t i e s . T here f o r e , and a ls o because c o ll e g e s t u d e n ts i n g e n e r a l a r e a " s e l e c t " g ro up, th e p a r t i c u l a r c o lle g e s t u d e n ts who f i l l e d i n th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s used i n t h i s stud y a r e p ro b ab ly n o t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of th e g e n e r a l p o p u la tio n i n th e re g io n s where th e sc h o o ls a re l o c a t e d . Not a l l o f th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s p re s e n te d by the o r i g i n a l group o f 1422 s tu d e n ts i n the t o t a l sample could be u se d . Twenty-two o f th e s t u d e n ts i n th e c l a s s e s c o o p e r a tin g were N egroes. Twelve of them were of O r i e n t a l d e s c e n t. Seven did n o t answ er th e q u e s tio n r e g a r d in g r a c i a l d e s c e n t . The q u e s t io n n a ir e s from th e s e t h r e e group s were e lim in a te d by d e f i n i t i o n . The s t a t i s t i c a l f i n d i n g s p r e s e n te d i n th e p re c e d in g y c h a p te r a re d e riv e d from n i n e t y p e r c e n t of the forms r e tu rn e d by w h ite c o lle g e s t u d e n t s . The rem ainin g t e n p e r c e n t f i l l e d i n by w h ite s t u d e n ts were d i s q u a l i f i e d due to e r r o r s which would have s e r i o u s l y i n t e r f e r e d w ith 1 8 8 s t a t i s t i c a l co m p u tatio n . These e r r o r s c o n s i s t e d of o m issio n o f some ite m s i n t h e q u e s t io n n a ir e and o f ambiguous answ ers to some q u e s t io n s . I t would have been of i n t e r e s t to know th e o p in io n s o f th e s tu d e n ts whose q u e s t io n n a ir e s were e lim in a te d p r i o r t o t a b u l a t i o n of th e s t a t i s t i c s . The p re se n c e -of a t o t a l o f 18 Negro s t u d e n ts i n th e c la ssro o m s v here q u e s t io n n a ir e s were com pleted by th e U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th ern C a l i f o r n i a s t u d e n ts may have in f lu e n c e d th e re s p o n s e s o f th e w h ite s t u d e n ts i n t h i s g rou p. In a d i f f e r e n t ty p e o f group s i t u a t i o n t h e i r answ ers may have been d i f f e r e n t . About s i x p e r cen t of th e s tu d e n ts i n each c o lle g e group w rote q u a l i f y i n g n o te s w ith t h e i r answ ers o r s t a t e m ents c r i t i c a l of th e type of q u e s t io n n a ir e u se d . The q u e s t io n n a ir e c a l l e d f o r c a t e g o r i c a l answ ers to q u e s tio n s r e g a r d in g t r a i t s o f Negroes a s a t o t a l group i n comparison w ith w h ite s a s a t o t a l g ro u p . Some s t u d e n ts ex p re ssed r e s i s t a n c e to th e ty p e o f q u e s t io n n a ir e by p o i n ti n g o u t i n t h e i r v o lu n ta r y n o t e s t h a t the answ er to a g iv en q u e s tio n depended upon th e s i t u a t i o n , t h a t t h e r e a re i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s among Negroes a s w e ll a s among w h ite s , t h a t th e y th o u g h t th e s t e r e o t y p e q u e s tio n s u n f a i r , o r t h a t t h i s ty p e of stu d y la c k e d v a l i d i t y . The r e s u l t s 189 may have been q u i t e d i f f e r e n t i f th e s tu d e n ts had been g iv en an o p p o r tu n ity to g iv e more q u a l i f i e d answ ers or t o e x p re ss t h e i r o p in io n s i n t h e i r own way. The f in d in g s r e p o r t e d i n C h ap ter IV su g g e st t h a t c e r t a i n f a c t o r s , such a s se x , ag e, World War I I s e r v i c e s t a t u s , t r a v e l , r e s i d e n t i a l m o b il i ty , number o f y e a rs of e d u c a tio n ( p a r t i c u l a r l y in s o c io lo g y o r p s y c h o lo g y ), and v a r i e t y and numbers of e x p e rie n c e s w ith N egroes a s p e rs o n s , may a f f e c t th e amount o f s t e r e o t y p i n g . The q u e s t io n n a ir e was s e t up so t h a t p e rs o n s i n c l i n e d to make com parisons r e g a r d in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t o t a l e th n ic g ro u p s, p a r t i c u l a r l y w ith l i t t l e tim e fo r r e f l e c t i o n , would do so when g iv en a tim e l i m i t and asked to g iv e t h e i r f i r s t r e a c t i o n s . The s t e r e o t y p e q u e s tio n s and q u e s tio n s r e g a r d in g s t r e n g t h of " f e e l i n g " con cernin g r i g h t n e s s of answ ers were e m o tio n a lly c h a rg e d . In view of th e s e q u a l i t i e s o f th e q u e s t io n n a ir e which would ten d to p r e d is p o s e th e unwary s u b j e c t to s t e r e o t y p i n g , a s s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s f r e q u e n t l y do, the r e s u l t s of th e stu d y may w e ll be c o n sid e re d a m easure of deg ree o f r e s i s t a n c e to s t e r e o t y p in g a s w e ll a s a m easure o f d egree of s t e r e o t y p i n g . The q u e s t io n n a ir e was c o n s tr u c te d i n such a way t h a t s c a l a b i l i t y o f th e s t e r e o t y p e q u e s tio n s could be / 190 t e s t e d by th e C o r n e ll Technique of s c a le a n a l y s i s . ^ An a tte m p t was made to d e v is e a s c a le f o r e th n o c e n trism based upon th e d a ta of t h i s stu d y . The system of w e ig h tin g d e v is e d to o k i n t o a c c o u n t n o t on ly answ ers t o s te r e o t y p e q u e s tio n s but a l s o e v a lu a tio n of th e t r a i t s in c lu d e d i n th e q u e s t io n s . An example w i l l i l l u s t r a t e th e p ro c e d u re . Con s i d e r th e q u e s tio n , "Who have more sen se of rhythm?" The a l t e r n a t i v e s were "W h ites," "N e g ro es," "No D i f f e r e n c e ," "D o n 't Know." L a te r th e q u e s t io n n a ir e asked th e s tu d e n t to e v a lu a te the t r a i t "se n se o f rhythm" by say in g he would lo o k upon t h i s t r a i t among h i s a s s o c i a t e s "Very F a v o r a b ly ," " F a v o ra b ly ," "U ndecided," "U n fa v o ra b ly ," o r "Very U n fa v o ra b ly ." F ollow ing i s th e key to s c o rin g of each i n d i v i d u a l s u b j e c t 's answ ers re g a r d in g the q u e s tio n of " se n se of rh y th m " : Score ’ Meaning of Score 0 - - s t e r e o t y p e v e ry f a v o r a b le to N egroes (answ ers i n d i c a t e b e l i e f t h a t N egroes have a g r e a t e r sen se o f rhythm and t h a t se n se of rhythm i s a v e ry f a v o r a b le t r a i t ) 1— s t e r e o t y p e f a v o r a b le to Negroes (answ ers i n d i c a t e b e l i e f t h a t Negroes have a g r e a t e r sense of 1 L ouis Guttman, "The C o rn e ll Technique f o r S c a le and I n t e n s i t y A n a l y s i s ," E d u c a tio n a l and P s y c h o lo g ic a l M easurem ent, V I I : 247-79, Summer, 1947. 191 rhythm and t h a t sense of rhythm i s a f a v o ra b le t r a i t ) 2— n o n - s te re o ty p e re sp o n se (answ ers i n d i c a t e t h a t s u b je c t d id n o t d i f f e r e n t i a t e between N egroes and w h ite s on t h i s q u e s tio n , r e g a r d l e s s o f how th e t r a i t was e v a lu a te d ) 3— s t e r e o t y p e re s p o n se but n e u t r a l a f f e c t i v i t y (answ ers i n d i c a t e e i t h e r N egroes o r w h ite s a re b e lie v e d to have more sense of rhythm b ut t h a t th e s u b j e c t i s undecided a s to e v a l u a t i o n of th e t r a i t ) 4—‘S te re o ty p e u n fa v o ra b le to N egroes (Negroes b e lie v e d to have more sense of rhythm and t h i s t r a i t b e lie v e d to be an u n fa v o ra b le one) 5— s t e r e o ty p e v e ry u n fa v o ra b le to N egroes (Negroes b e lie v e d t o have more sense of rhythm and t h i s t r a i t b e lie v e d to be v e ry u n fa v o ra b le ) Twelve of th e 19 s t e r e o t y p e q u e s tio n s used i n th e q u e s t io n n a ir e were t e s t e d f o r r e p r o d u c i b i l i t y a c c o rd in g t o th e C o r n e ll te c h n iq u e f o r s c a le a n a l y s i s . The q u e s tio n s f a i l e d to p ass t h i s t e s t f o r s c a l a b i l i t y when 100 s t u d e n ts : from Iowa S t a t e C o lle g e were used a s a t e s t sam ple. The p e r c e n t o f r e p r o d u c i b i l i t y ra n g e d from 72 to 85 p e r c e n t f o r th e tw elve q u e s t io n s . Perhaps i t would be p o s s ib l e to d is c o v e r a s e r i e s of s t e r e o ty p e q u e s tio n s which would be s c a l a b l e and to use th e r e s u l t i n g s c a l e s c o r e s a s a means to m easure the in f lu e n c e of a g iv en s o c i a l f a c t o r upon s t e r e o t y p i n g . However, t h e l i m i t a t i o n s of t h i s s tu d y a r e such t h a t th e p r e c i s e m easurement of the i n f lu e n c e of s e p a r a te 192 s o c i a l f a c t o r s upon s t e r e o t y p i n g of N egroes i s im p o s s ib le . The d a ta g iv en in C h a p te r IV r e g a r d in g s t e r e o t y p i n g on th e one hand and s o c i a l background on th e o th e r a r e o n ly s u g g e s tiv e . In a d d i t i o n to th e s p e c i f i c l i m i t a t i o n s m entioned above, t h i s stu d y i s s u b j e c t to th e g e n e r a lly - r e c o g n iz e d l i m i t a t i o n s of q u e s t io n n a ir e s t u d i e s and s t u d i e s u sin g c o lle g e s t u d e n ts a s s u b j e c t s . The v a l i d i t y of th e f i n d in g s need s to be t e s t e d by s t u d i e s of dynamic s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s and of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sam ples o f th e g e n e r a l p o p u la tio n . I f a c o n tr o l- g r o u p te c h n iq u e were t o be used, s e v e r a l im p o rta n t q u e s tio n s o n ly r a i s e d by th e stu d y r e p o r t e d h e re could be t e s t e d . COMPARISON WITH OTHER STUDIES T his s tu d y may be most r e a d i l y compared w ith t h a t o f Blake and D e n n i s . 2 The n in e te e n t r a i t s used i n the s te r e o ty p e q u e s tio n s i n t h i s stu d y were s e l e c t e d from t h e f i n d in g s of Blake and D ennis t h a t 75 p e r c e n t o r more of c e r t a i n groups i n t h e i r sample ( e s p e c i a l l y h ig h sc h o o l j u n i o r s and s e n io r s ) a t t r i b u t e d th e s e t r a i t s to e i t h e r ^ R. Blake and W. D en n is, "Development o f S t e r e o ty p e s C oncerning th e N e g ro ," J o u r n a l o f Abnormal and S o c ia l P s y c h o lo g y . 3 8 :5 25-31 , 1943. 193 Negroes o r w h ite s when com paring them on th e b a s is o f th e same type o f q u e s tio n s a s were used i n t h i s s tu d y . The study o f K atz and B raly ^ i n 1933 was th e f i r s t d e f i n i t i v e one d e a l in g w ith th e s u b j e c t of th e Negro s t e r e o t y p e . They f i r s t asked tw e n ty - f iv e P r in c e to n u n d e r g r a d u a te s to " l i s t a s many s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o r t r a i t s a s you th in k a re t y p i c a l o f th e fo llo w in g r a c i a l and n a t i o n a l g r o u p s ." No t r a i t s were su g g e ste d . The a u th o r s to o k t h e r e s u l t i n g l i s t , added a few t r a i t s which th e y knew had been e x p re sse d c o n c e rn in g c e r t a i n g ro u p s, and gave th e r e s u l t i n g combined l i s t of t r a i t s to 100 o t h e r P r i n c e t o n s t u d e n t s . These s t u d e n ts were asked to ra n k i n o rd e r o f im p ortan ce the 12 most c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t r a i t s of s p e c i f i e d n a t i o n a l o r r a c i a l g ro u p s, u sin g th e t r a i t s p ro v id ed i n t h e l i s t . E ig h ty - f o u r per c e n t of th e s e s tu d e n ts s a id t h a t N egroes a r e " s u p e r s t i t i o u s , " and s e v e n ty f i v e p e r c e n t of them s a id t h a t Negroes a r e " l a z y . " "Americans" ( r e f e r r in g to American C aucasians) were ch a ra c- \ t e r i z e d most f r e q u e n t l y a s being " i n d u s t r i o u s , " " i n t e l l i g e n t , " " m a t e r i a l i s t i c , " and "a m b itio u s" (p e rc e n ta g e s 49, 4 8 , 3 3, and 3 3 ). ^ D a n ie l Katz and Kenneth B ra ly , " R a c ia l S te r e o ty p e s of 100 C o lle g e S t u d e n ts ." J o u r n a l of Abnormal and S o c ia l P sy c h o lo g y , 28 :28 0 -9 0 , 1933. 194 Blake and. Dennis d e cid ed th a t' i t would be a d v a n ta g eous to a s k t h e i r s u b j e c t s to compare two g rou ps (Negroes and w h ite s ) i n o r d e r t h a t a l l s u b j e c t s would have a common and d e f i n i t e frame of r e f e r e n c e . These a u th o r s f e l t t h a t th e P r in c e to n s tu d e n ts may have been com paring each n a t i o n a l i t y group i n t u r n w ith a d i f f e r e n t group (av erag e A m ericans, i d e a l p e rs o n s , e t c . ) . Blake and Dennis used a l i s t of 60 t r a i t s d e riv e d from Katz and B raly * s stu d y and asked t h e i r s u b j e c t s to make a check mark i n one of the fo llo w in g fo u r c a t e g o r i e s f o r each t r a i t q u e s tio n : "W h ite s ," "N e g ro es," "No D i f f e r e n c e ," "D o n 't Know." They th e n developed a sim ple d e v ic e f o r i n t e r p r e t i n g th e d a ta . T his c o n s i s t e d o f c a l c u l a t i n g the p e rc e n ta g e o f re s p o n s e s i n the "Negroes" c a te g o ry and in th e "W hites" c a te g o r y and s u b t r a c t i n g th e l e s s e r p e rc e n ta g e from th e g r e a t e r i n o rd e r to f in d a "prepond erance index" a s a m easure of th e d e g re e o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n " b e t w e e n N egroes and w h ite s by th e s u b j e c t s r e g a r d in g each t r a i t . T his in d e x was c a l l e d a PWI when the l a r g e r p e rc e n ta g e was in th e "W hites" c a t e go ry and PNI when th e"N eg ro es" c a te g o ry had th e l a r g e s t p e rc e n ta g e of r e s p o n s e s . The developm ent of Negro s te r e o t y p e s among sch o o l c h il d r e n from th e f o u r t h th ro u g h th e e le v e n th g ra d e s i n c l u s iv e was th e problem of m ajo r concern f o r Blake and 195 D en nis. They found t h a t th e d e g r e e ’ o f s t e r e o t y p in g was much g r e a t e r among h ig h school s t u d e n t s th an among p u p i l s in th e low er g r a d e s . T his s u g g e s ts t h a t Negro s t e r e o ty p e s a r e le a r n e d and t h a t s t e r e o t y p in g i n c r e a s e s a s th e a d o le s c e n t i s i n c r e a s i n g l y exposed to th e g e n e r a l norms o f t h in k in g o f th e a d u l t p o p u la tio n . The g e n e r a l group s te r e o ty p e of Negroes h e ld by th e 1230 w h ite c o ll e g e s tu d e n ts a t t e n d i n g th e f i v e sc h o o ls co o p e r a t in g i n t h i s stu d y {as shown by T able XX i n C h apter XV) r e v e a l s t h a t th e s e c o lle g e s t u d e n ts did l e s s s t e r e o ty p in g o f N egroes th a n did the 63 s t u d e n t s of Blake and D e n n is' study who were a tt e n d i n g th e t e n t h and e le v e n th g r a d e s . Even th e s t u d e n ts a t t e n d i n g th e U n i v e r s i t y of F l o r i d a d id n o t g iv e s te r e o ty p e d an sw ers a s f r e q u e n t l y a s did th e h ig h sch o o l s tu d e n ts of Blake and D ennis' s tu d y . N e ith e r did th e y a s f r e q u e n t l y say t h a t Negroes a re " s u p e r s t i t i o u s " o r " la z y " a s d id the c o lle g e s tu d e n ts o f Katz and B r a l y 's stu d y . There a r e s e v e r a l p o s s ib l e e x p la n a tio n s of th e d i f f e r e n t f i n d i n g s of t h i s stu d y and th o s e of th e s t u d i e s c i t e d . F in d in g s from t h i s c o lle g e stu d y may d i f f e r from th o se of th e e le m e n ta ry and h ig h sc h o o l stu d y because r a c i a l s t e r e o t y p e s develop and change th ro u g h th e low er g rad e s and re a c h t h e i r peak d u rin g h ig h sc h o o l and t h a t 196 t h e r e a f t e r th e y d e c re a s e a s t h e amount of h i g h e r e d u c a tio n i n c r e a s e s . Then, to o , d u rin g th e p a s t two decades th e s t a t u s o f th e Negro i n A m erican s o c i e t y has s t e a d i l y r i s e n ; and t h i s advancement i n s t a t u s i s no doubt accompanied by m o d if ic a tio n of th e i d e a s o f w h ite p e rso n s r e g a r d in g Negroes. Any com parison o f th e f i n d in g s of t h i s stu d y and th o s e p r e v io u s ly r e p o r t e d i s m erely s p e c u l a t i v e , however, because o f th e d i f f e r e n c e s in s i z e and ty p e of sam ple, tim e , and o th e r c ir c u m s ta n c e s . One p o s s ib l e e x p la n a tio n of th e d i f f e r e n c e s in r e s u l t s from th e v a rio u s s tu d e n t groups of t h i s s tu d y , p a r t i c u l a r l y d i f f e r e n c e s between th e group a t th e U n iv e r s i t y of S ou thern C a l i f o r n i a and th e group a t th e U n iv e r s ity o f F l o r i d a , may be t h a t th e S o uthern C a l i f o r n i a group was r e l a t i v e l y o l d e r and in c lu d e d a h ig h e r p r o p o r tio n of g ra d u a te s t u d e n t s . Tijese g ra d u a te s tu d e n ts were a t t e n d i n g advanced c o u rs e s in s o c io lo g y . They c o n s t i t u t e d 24 p e r c e n t of th e U n i v e r s i ty of S o u th ern C a l i f o r n i a sam ple. Only 2 p e r c e n t of th e U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a sample were g ra d u a te s t u d e n ts , and 50 p e r c e n t of them were freshm en o r sophom ores. The convenience of t h e c o o p e r a tin g d e p a r t m en ts, r a t h e r th a n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s of th e sam ple, was th e d e te rm in in g f a c t o r i n s e l e c t i o n of the sample fo r t h i s 197 s t u d y . A ccording to the f i n d in g s of a p re v io u s stu d y , s tu d e n ts t a k i n g advanced s o c io lo g y c o u rs e s d i f f e r from n o n -s o c io lo g y s t u d e n ts and from s t u d e n ts i n th e freshm an l e v e l i n r e g a r d to r a c i a l s t e r e o t y p i n g . 4 P o r t e r f i e l d ^ o b ta in e d s i m i l a r f i n d in g s r e g a r d in g e d u c a tio n and r a c e a t t i t u d e s . D i f f e r e n c e s between s t u d e n ts i n d i f f e r e n t y e a r s in c o lle g e i n re g a r d t o r a c i a l id e a s or a t t i t u d e s may n o t be due to changes brought about by c o lle g e c l a s s e s , even i n s o c io lo g y , psychology , o r r e l i g i o n . Such d i f f e r e n c e s may be due t o s e l e c t i v e f a c t o r s , a s H orow itz^ p o i n ts o u t. One of th e c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s between s tu d e n t group s a t t e n d i n g th e sc h o o ls which c o o p e ra te d i n t h i s stu d y was t h a t o f r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n . T h is may be a ; s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e , a s th e fo llo w in g q u o ta tio n from ^ J . W alter Cobb, "Development o f a Technique f o r Comparing S o c i a l E x p e rie n c e s a s th e y I n f lu e n c e the F o rm u la tio n of S te r e o ty p e s r e g a r d in g J a p a n e s e ," un p u b lis h e d M aster* s t h e s i s . The U n i v e r s i ty of S o uth ern C a l i f o r n i a , 1947. ^ A u s tin P o r t e r f i e l d , "E d u ca tio n and Race A t t i t u d e s , " S o c io lo g y and S o c ia l R e s e a r c h , 2 1 :5 3 8 -4 3 , Ju ly -A u g u st, 1937. ^ Eugene L. H orow itz, " A t t i t u d e s and P e rs o n a l F ac t o r s , " i n O tto K lin e b e rg , e d .. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e American Negro (New York: H arper and B r o th e r s , 1944), p. 234. 198 H orow itz i n d i c a t e s : I t seems c l e a r t h a t t h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n c e s i n " r a c e " a t t i t u d e a s s o c i a t e d w ith ch u rch a f f i l i a t i o n . A r e c e n t s tu d y by M erton i n s i x c o ll e g e s and a n o th e r by Murphy and L i k e r t i n fo u r u n i v e r s i t i e s su g g e st t h a t w ith r e s p e c t to g e n e r a liz e d a t t i t u d e toward N egroes, Jews a r e m ost t o l e r a n t , P r o t e s t a n t s n e x t, and C a th o l i c s l e a s t . S tu d e n ts who d e s c r ib e them s e lv e s a s h av in g no r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n , as being a n t i r e l i g i o u s o r i n d i f f e r e n t , te n d toward th e t o l e r a n t extrem e, bein g r e p o r t e d by M erton a s r a n k in g above th e Jew ish group i n to le r a n c e and by Murphy and L i k e r t , j u s t below. . . . In M e l t z e r ’ s stu d y of S t . L ouis c h i l d r e n of p u b lic sc h o o l ag e, where th e sam ples may be somewhat more com parable, th e ra n k in g o f r e s p o n d e n ts from most l i b e r a l r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n to l e a s t was: C o n g re g a tio n - a l i s t , Je w ish , C a t h o l i c , P r o t e s t a n t {denom ination u n d e s ig n a te d ) . B a p t i s t , L u th e ra n . An i n t e r e s t i n g , though i n c o n c lu s iv e , a n a l y s i s o f church i n f l u e n c e s i s found in B oyd's s tu d y . R e g u la r a t t e n d a n t s a t church showed a tendency to be l e s s l i b e r a l th a n th o s e who w ere i r r e g u l a r i n a tte n d a n c e o r who d id n o t a t t e n d a t a l l . . . . We may n o te o n ly th e ab sen ce of e v id en ce c o n c e rn in g any p o s i t i v e v a lu e o f church a c t i v i t i e s f o r th e i n c u l c a t i o n of l i b e r a l and t o l e r a n t r a c i a l a t t i t u d e s . 7 L eg al a c t i o n on th e p a r t of th e s t a t e s where t h e f i v e c o ll e g e s o r u n i v e r s i t i e s a r e l o c a te d i n re g a rd to N egro-w hite in te r m a r r i a g e may be a m easure o f c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n p a r t r e s p o n s i b l e f o r d i f f e r e n t r e a c t i o n s to r a c i a l q u e s t io n s . W irth and Goldhamer^ have shown i n ^ I b i a . . pp. 230- 3 1 . ® L o u is Wirth. and H e rb e rt Goldhamer, "L egal R e strio - t i o n s on Negro-W hite I n t e r m a r r i a g e ," i n O tto K lin e b e rg , e d . , C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of th e Am erican Negro (New York: H arper and B r o th e r s , 1944J7 P. 361# 199 ch art form the s t a t e s which have law s a g a in s t N egro-w h ite in te r m a r r ia g e , a s w e ll a s s t a t e s which have d e fe a te d or r ep e a le d such l e g i s l a t i o n . These data fo r th e f i v e s t a t e s r e p r e se n te d in t h i s stu d y are g iv en in Table XXVII. Horowitz^ has summarized th e f in d in g s o f s t u d ie s r e gard in g se x d if f e r e n c e s in r a c i a l a t t i t u d e s . The f in d in g s are i n c o n s i s t e n t , but i t i s p o s s ib le th a t se x d if f e r e n c e s may have accou nted fo r part of th e v a r ia t io n in s t e r e o ty p in g found in th e p r e se n t stu d y .' T his stu d y a g r ee s w ith a number o f o th e r s , which have been review ed by H orow itz, reg a rd in g r e g io n a l d if f e r e n c e s in b e l i e f s con cern in g Negro i n t e l l i g e n c e as compared w ith the i n t e l l i g e n c e of w h it e s . H orow itz summarizes h i s d is c u s s io n a s f o llo w s : For our p r e se n t p u rp o ses, we need not t r y to r e c o n c ile th e minor i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s which appear. The g e n e r a liz a t io n s th a t s e c t i o n a l d if f e r e n c e s e x is t .a n d th a t S o u th ern ers th in k l e s s w e ll of Negro i n t e l l i g e n c e than N orth ern ers and W esterners seem u n q u e s tio n a b le . I f N egroes a re i n f e r i o r i n t e l l e c t u a l l y , to what i s t h i s a t t r i b u t a b l e ? I f r a c i a l i n e q u a l i t i e s e x i s t , i s i n te r m a r r i a g e between th e r a c e s d e s i r a b l e o r u n d e s ir a b le ? The F o rtu n e Survey i n Septem ber, 1939, asked th o se who b e lie v e d Negroes t o be i n f e r i o r to w h ite s i n i n t e l l i g e n c e , "Do you t h i n k t h i s i s be cau se: (1) th e y have lack ed o p p o r t u n i t i e s , o r (2) th e y a r e b orn l e s s i n t e l l i g e n t , o r (3) both?" y £ £ • £ Ü * > P* 228. 200 TABLE XXVII LAWS OF THE FIVE STATES AGAINST NEGRO-WHITE INTERMARRIAGE AND PERCENTAGE OF NEGROES IN THE POPULATION S t a t e L egal a c t i o n Per c e n t Negroes i n p o p u la tio n F l o r i d a Has a law , Negro d e fin e d as 1 / 8 or more Negro d e s c e n t, punishm ent n o t more th a n $1000 and 10 y e a rs 4 1 .0 N orth Dakota Has a law , Negro l / 8 o r more, punishm ent n o t more th a n $2000 o r more th a n 10 y e a r s 0 . 1 G o n n e e tie u t D e fea te d su ch a law 1 . 4 Iowa D e fea te d such a law 0 . 7 C a l i f o r n i a Has a law , Negro n o t d e f i n e d , no p e n a lty 0 . 9 201 The s o u th e rn re s p o n d e n ts tended to emphasize h e r e d i t a r y f a c t o r s more th a n did the n o r th e r n and w e s t e r n . l o The f r e q u e n t s i m i l a r i t y between th e s te r e o ty p e r e s p o n s e s of s tu d e n ts a t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a and th o se a t th e U n i v e r s i ty o f N o rth Dakota and th e d a ta r e g a rd in g s t r e n g t h o f c o n v ic tio n of t h e s e two g ro u p s (as shown by T ab les I-XIX and T able XXII) te n d s to su p p o rt th e f i n d i n g of Guttman and F o a ^ l t h a t c o n ta c t w ith a group does n o t a f f e c t d i r e c t i o n of a t t i t u d e but on ly i n t e n s i f i e s e x i s t i n g a t t i t u d e . The f i n d in g s of Table XXIV su g g e st t h a t type o f a s s o c i a t i o n or c o n ta c t needs to be ta k e n i n t o a cc o u n t a s w e ll a s mere amount of c o n t a c t . The U n i v e r s i ty o f F l o r i d a s t u d e n ts i n t h i s stu d y knew many more Negroes by p e r s o n a l c o n ta c t th an d id any of th e o t h e r s tu d e n t g ro u p s; y e t t h e i r c o n ta c t s were r e s t r i c t e d l a r g e l y t o N egroes w ith a low economic and s o c i a l s t a t u s . Q u a lity o f c o n ta c t may be more s i g n i f i c a n t th a n q u a n t i t y of c o n ta c t i n i n f l u e n c i n g a t t i t u d e s . U n i v e r s i ty of N o rth Dakota s tu d e n ts d e riv e d t h e i r Eugene L. H orow itz, "'Race* A t t i t u d e s , " i n O tto K lin e b e rg , e d .. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of th e American Negro (New York: H arper and B r o th e rs , 1 9 4 4 T 7 PP* 1 9 8 - 9 9 . 44 L ou is Guttman and U r i e l G. Foa, " S o c ia l C o n tac t and an I n te r g r o u p A t t i t u d e , " P u b lic Opinion Q u a r t e r l y , 15 : 4 3 - 5 3 , S p rin g , 1 9 5 1 , p. 4 4 * 202 id e a of N egroes p r e t t y l a r g e l y second-hand, and t h e i r id e a s were q u ite s im ila r to th o se o f s tu d e n ts a t th e U n iv e r s it y o f F lo r id a , who had known many N egroes but o n ly in r e s t r i c t e d ty p e s of a s s o c i a t i o n . The i n t e n s i t y w ith w hich th e U n iv e r s ity of F lo r id a s tu d e n ts h eld t h e ir b e l i e f s was g r e a te r than th a t o f the s tu d e n ts a t the U n iv e r s it y o f N orth D akota. STEREOTYPING AND SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY The f in d in g s of t h i s stu d y have s o c i o l o g i c a l meaning when s te r e o ty p in g i s c o n sid ered a s a dynamic elem ent in in te r g r o u p r e l a t i o n s , A s te r e o ty p e i s d e fin e d a s a com p osite m ental image d e r iv e d from c o n ta c t w ith r e a l or im aginary i n d iv id u a ls who are c o n sid ered r e p r e s e n ta t iv e o f an e n t ir e group. The degree o f u n ifo r m ity o f th e s e m en tal im ages w ith in a s o c i e t y may g iv e a c lu e to the c h a r a c te r o f th e g e n e r a l s o c i a l norms in th a t s o c i e t y in regard to in te r g r o u p r e l a t i o n s . The d ir e c t io n and in t e n s i t y o f em otion al ton e a s s o c ia t e d w ith a s te r e o ty p e preva le n t in th e th in k in g o f a group may be a measure of the t e n a c it y w ith which th e group w i l l c l i n g to t h e i r e s t a b l is h e d fo lk w a y s and mores in d e a lin g w ith th e ou t-grou p which i s the o b je c t o f th e s t e r e o t y p e . The c o n te n t of th e s te r e o t y p e , i n term s of the p a r t ic u la r t r a i t s which 203 make i t up, d e f in e s th e exp ected s o c i a l r o le o f members o f th e o u t-g r o u p . S te r e o ty p in g i s e s s e n t i a l l y e th n o c e n tr ic . In f a c t , eth n o cen trism may be d e fin e d as th e p r o c e ss o f un fa v o r a b ly s te r e o ty p in g an ou t-g ro u p in com parison w ith an in -g r o u p . The c o n te n t of a group s te r e o ty p e r e p r e s e n ts the s o c i a l v a lu e s o f the group h o ld in g i t , and group a t t i t u d e s are r e v e a le d in the d ir e c t io n and i n t e n s i t y o f e m o tio n a l to n e a s s o c ia t e d w ith th e s t e r e o t y p e . N e g a tiv e s o c i a l v a lu e s are r e p r e se n te d by s t e r e o t y p e s judged u n fa v o r a b le , and p o s i t i v e s o c i a l v a lu e s are r e f l e c t e d by s t e r e o t y p e s judged f a v o r a b le . A g e n e r a liz e d and com posite s te r e o ty p e o f an o u t-grou p ten d s to in c lu d e a predominance o f un fa v o r a b le t r a i t s or n e g a tiv e s o c i a l v a lu e s . In com parison w ith th e o u t-g ro u p , the in -g r o u p ten d s to have a s s ig n e d to i t a predominance o f p o s i t i v e s o c i a l v a lu e s . S te r e o ty p e s ten d to r e f l e c t th e d egree o f s o c i a l d is ta n c e between th e group doin g th e s te r e o t y p in g and the group which i s b ein g s te r e o ty p e d . A g e n e r a liz e d p r e ju d ic e toward an oth er group may be a n a lyzed i n term s o f th e s te r e o ty p e t r a i t s which are a t t r ib u t e d to th a t group and th e way in which the t r a i t s are e v a lu a te d . 204 S te r e o ty p e s o f a su p ero rd in a te group reg a r d in g a su b ord in ate group have th e fu n c tio n o f d efen d in g th e su p e r io r s t a t u s o f th e su p ero rd in a te group. S te r e o ty p e s o f a su b ord in ate group reg a rd in g th e su p ero rd in a te group may c o n s t i t u t e an e x a g g e r a tio n o f th e t r a i t s which the su b o rd in a te group are s t r i v i n g fo r in order to improve t h e i r s t a t u s . The m o tiv a tio n o f s te r e o ty p e d th in k in g may som etimes be e x p la in e d i n term s o f p r o je c tio n o f th e i n d iv i d u a l 's or th e g ro u p 's own w eakn esses upon o t h e r s . S te r e o ty p e s ten d to d e fin e s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s be cau se th ey in d ic a t e ex p ected s o c i a l r o l e s . I n d iv id u a ls in a s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n r e a c t to o th e r s on th e b a s is o f t h e ir own s t e r e o ty p e s reg a r d in g the o t h e r s . A ls o , in determ in in g what r o le th ey should p la y in r e l a t i o n to o th e r s ; in d iv id u a ls ten d to a c t i n accordance w ith t h e i r s t e r e o typ e o f t h e ir own t r a i t s in com parison with^what th e y con c e iv e to be th e t r a i t s o f o th e r s w ith whom th e y i n t e r a c t . P eo p le not o n ly c l a s s i f y o th e r s w ith whom th e y a s s o c ia t e in t o c e r t a in s te r e o ty p e c a t e g o r ie s ; th e y a ls o c l a s s i f y th e m se lv e s. The member o f th e " su p e r io r ” group may th u s a c t in co n fo rm ity w ith h i s own ste r e o ty p e d c o n c ep tio n o f h i s su p e r io r r o l e . L ik e w ise , a member of an i n f e r i o r group may p la y a r o le which conforms to h i s s te r e o ty p e o f h is 205 own group. S te r e o ty p e s tend to be i d e a l t y p e s . They u s u a lly are e x a g g e r a te d . They show g r e a te r s i m i l a r i t y to c a r i c a tu r e s than to a c tu a l s o c i a l t y p e s . I t i s l i k e l y th a t the v a r i e t i e s o f s o c i a l ty p e s among both th e in -g r o u p and th e ou t-g rou p f a l l somewhere between the s te r e o ty p e s of th e ou t-grou p on the one hand and the s t e r e o t y p e s of the in -g r o u p on th e o th e r . The s t e r e o ty p e s h eld by the sub o r d in a te group reg a rd in g the su p ero rd in a te group and reg a rd in g th e m se lv e s may, how ever, be q u ite s im ila r to th e s t e r e o t y p e s held by th e su p e ro r d in a te group i f the su b ord in ate group i s in t e r e s t e d in com peting fo r s t a t u s . This may be th e c a se a s f a r a s N egroes in American s o c i e t y are co n cern ed . S te r e o ty p e s are g e n e r a liz a t io n s which do n o t take ; in t o acco u n t in d iv id u a l d if f e r e n c e s between members of th e group s te r e o ty p e d . S te r e o ty p e s in f lu e n c e p u b lic o p in io n on c o n tr o v e r s i a l i s s u e s in v o lv in g r e l a t i o n s between e th n ic groups by a s s ig n in g to th e su b ord in a te group c e r t a i n u n favorab le p e r s o n a lit y or s o c i a l t r a i t s which are supposed to s e t them ap art a s d i f f e r e n t and i n f e r i o r to th e dominant group. S te r e o ty p e s lend w eig h t to argum ents fa v o r in g s e g r e g a tio n and d is c r im in a t io n . CHAPTER VI SUM M ARY AND CONCLUSIONS The purpose o f t h i s stu dy has been tw o -fo ld , f i r s t , to e s t a b l i s h a s o c i o l o g i c a l frame o f r e f e r e n c e fo r s t u d ie s o f s te r e o ty p e s and, secon d, to compare s t e r e o t y p e s regard in g N egroes a s ex p ressed by s e le c t e d w h ite c o lle g e stu d e n ts a tte n d in g f i v e d i f f e r e n t i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h ig h e r e d u ca tio n in d i f f e r e n t r e g io n s in the U n it e d ‘S t a t e s , The f i r s t purpose i s su b o rd in a te to the second and may be s t a te d b r i e f l y a s f o llo w s : In ord er to d e v ise a s o c i o l o g i c a l frame of r e fe r e n c e fo r a stu d y of t h i s k in d , i t was n e c e s s a r y to fin d or c o n s tr u c t a d e f i n i t i o n o f a s t e r e o t y p e . A d e f i n i t i o n was c o n s tr u c te d , a s te r e o ty p e being co n sid er ed as a com posite m ental image d eriv ed from c o n ta c t w ith r e a l or im aginary in d iv id u a ls who are con sid e r e d r e p r e s e n t a tiv e o f an e n t ir e group. T his d e f i n i t i o n has been im plemented in terms o f th e q u e s tio n n a ir e used in t h i s stu d y . The p r in c ip le co n ten t of the d i s s e r t a t i o n i s .based on a statem en t of the answ ers g iv e n to a l l p o in ts covered in th e q u e s tio n n a ir e , th e se b e in g compared in such a way as to t e s t the h y p o th e s is o f r e g io n a l v a r ia t io n s in s t e r e o ty p e s o f w h ite s regard in g N eg ro es. 207 The m ajor f in d in g s of t h i s stu d y fo llo w ; The U n iv e r s it y o f F lo r id a stu d e n t group m ost f r e q u en tly made d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s between N egroes and w h ite s in regard to th e t r a i t s in c lu d e d in t h i s stu d y . T h is means th a t the F lo r id a stu d e n t group was r e l a t i v e l y more prone to th in k in term s o f s te r e o ty p e s o f N egroes than were the o th e r groups in t h i s stu d y . In c o n tr a s t to th e U n iv e r s it y of F lo r id a s tu d e n ts , th o s e a t th e U n iv e r s it y o f Southern C a lif o r n ia fr e q u e n tly avoid ed s t e r e o ty p in g N egroes in com parison w ith w h ite s by e it h e r in d ic a t in g la c k o f knowledge or by sa y in g th e r e i s no d if f e r e n c e between th e s e two groups. G r e a test i n t e n s i t y o f c o n v ic tio n was e x p r essed by th e U n iv e r s ity o f F lo r id a group. L ea st c e r t a in o f t h e i r answ ers were th e stu d e n ts a t th e U n iv e r s it y o f N orth Dakota, though t h e ir answ ers to th e s te r e o ty p e q u e s tio n s most n e a r ly resem bled th o s e o f th e U n iv e r s it y of F lo r id a group. S t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e g io n a l d if f e r e n c e s were found in regard to each of th e n in e te e n s te r e o ty p e q u e s t io n s . T h is was true of the q u e s tio n , "Who a r e more a m b itio u s? " , even though the d i s t r i b u t io n s o f r e sp o n se s w ith in th r e e o f the stu d e n t groups were rem arkably s im ila r . In d e a lin g w ith t h i s q u e s tio n , th e c o n tr a s t between the answ ers g iv e n by the F lo r id a U n iv e r s it y stu d e n ts and th o s e 208 a t the U n iv e r s ity o f Southern C a lif o r n ia r e s u lt e d in s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t f i n d in g s . As e x c e p tio n s to th e g e n e ra l f in d in g , th a t i s , th a t the U n iv e r s it y o f F lo r id a stu d e n ts tended to s te r e o ty p e N egroes more than d id th e o th e r grou p s, may be c it e d th e f in d in g s rega rd in g th e t r a i t s of " fla s h y c lo t h e s ," " s le e p y - n a tu red ," and " b e tte r s e r v a n ts ." Y ale U n iv e r s it y stu d e n ts ranked f i r s t in th e b e l i e f th a t N egroes wear more f la s h y c l o t h e s . Iowa S ta te C o lle g e and N orth Dakota U n iv e r s ity stu d e n ts were s l i g h t l y in th e le a d in regard to the propor t i o n b e lie v in g th a t N egroes are mors sle e p y -n a tu r e d than w h it e s . U n iv e r s ity of North Dakota stu d e n ts and Iowa S t a te C o lle g e stu d e n ts t i e d w ith U n iv e r s it y of F lo r id a s tu d e n ts in b e l ie v i n g th a t N egroes are b e t t e r se r v a n ts than w h it e s . Over h a lf o f th e e n t ir e stu d e n t sample from a l l f i v e c o l l e g e s b e lie v e d N egroes t o have more sen se of rhythm, to be more s u p e r s t i t i o u s , to wear more f la s h y c lo t h e s , to be l e s s a m b itio u s, and l e s s n e a t, than w h it e s . S o c i a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o r tio n s o f stu d e n ts a ssig n e d c e r t a in o th e r t r a i t s e it h e r t o w h ite s or N e g ro e s. T r a it s in c lu d e d in th e s te r e o ty p e q u e s tio n s were e v a lu a ted by th e resp o n d en ts and c l a s s i f i e d by them in t o two grou p s, nam ely, th o s e th ey c o n sid ered fa v o r a b ly and th o s e th ey judged u n fa v o ra b ly . E v a lu a tio n s r e v e a le d t h a t 209 t h e r e a r e f a i r l y u n ifo rm s e t s o f p e r s o n a l i t y v a lu e s and s o c i a l v a lu e s p r e s e n t i n the th in k i n g of s t u d e n ts in a l l f i v e r e g i o n s . The s tu d e n t sample a s a whole respon ded f a v o r a b ly to th e t r a i t s enum erated below, which many of them had a s s ig n e d to N egroes i n p r e f e r e n c e to w h ite s : " se n se o f rh y th m ," " e a s i l y p l e a s e d ," "lau g h m o re," "happy- g o - lu c k y ," and " b e t t e r s e r v a n t s . " They respon ded un f a v o r a b ly to e ig h t o t h e r t r a i t s which l a r g e numbers o f them had a s s ig n e d t o N egroes, v i z . : " i g n o r a n t , " " s u p e r s t i t i o u s , " "slow m oving," " l a z y , " " a f r a i d of th e d a r k ," " e a s i l y f r i g h t e n e d , " " s le e p y n a t u r e d ," and " f l a s h y c l o t h e s . " C o n clusions o f t h i s stu d y a re a s fo llo w s : 1 . The concept of th e s t e r e o ty p e may be i n t e g r a t e d m e a n in g fu lly i n t o th e c o n c e p tu a l framework o f contem porary s o c i o l o g i c a l t h e o r i e s . S tu d ie s of s t e r e o t y p e s , t h e r e f o r e , o f f e r a f r u i t f u l f i e l d f o r f u r t h e r developm ent o f s o c i o l o g i c a l th e o r y and r e s e a r c h as w e ll a s a rew ard in g source of in f o rm a tio n i n human r e l a t i o n s . 2 . The key to th e s u b o rd in a te s o c i a l p o s i t i o n of Negroes i n the U n ite d S t a t e s i s th e s te r e o ty p e d th in k in g of w h ite s . 3. Negro s t e r e o t y p e s which were v ery w id e sp rea d in th e p a s t have become l e s s p r e v a l e n t a s Negroes have been p e rm itte d to p a r t i c i p a t e more f u l l y in American s o c i e t y . 210 The s t a t u s o f th e Negro i n America h a s undergone a rem ark a b le change s in c e the t u r n o f t h e c e n tu r y , and t h i s change h a s been r e f l e c t e d and made p o s s ib l e by both th e changed a t t i t u d e s o f w h ite s toward Negroes and th e s u c c e s s f u l p e r formance of N egroes in f i e l d s p r e v io u s ly c lo s e d to them. 4 . The f i n d in g s o f t h i s stu d y tend to co nfirm th e f i n d in g s of p re v io u s s t u d i e s i n which i t was shown t h a t th e N o rth e r n e r s and W este rn ers were more f a v o r a b le i n t h e i r judgm ents o f N egroes th an were th e S o u th e r n e rs . However, t h e so u th e rn s tu d e n ts in t h i s stu d y were n o t a s u n fa v o ra b le tow ard N egroes a s were the n o r t h e r n s tu d e n ts i n an e a r l i e r w ell-know n s tu d y . In d eed , im p o rta n t changes i n N egro- w h ite r e l a t i o n s in t h e South have brought ab o u t changes i n what c o n s t i t u t e s " s t e r e o t y p e s , " and t h e s t e r e o t y p e s once re g a rd e d a s r e f l e c t i n g " t y p i c a l " so u th e rn w h ite a t t i t u d e s ^ ' tow ard N egroes a r e becoming o b s o l e t e . 5. N e v e r th e le s s , Negro s t e r e o t y p e s s t i l l a r e an im p o rta n t s o c i a l in f lu e n c e i n a l l r e g i o n s r e p r e s e n te d in t h i s stjiidy. 6. T his stu d y shows t h a t c o n c lu s io n s o f p re v io u s s t u d i e s based on l i m i t e d l o c a l sam ples would l a c k v a l i d i t y a s g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s f o r th e c o u n tr y a s a w hole. 7 . R e g io n a l s t u d i e s of r a c i a l s t e r e o t y p e s a re needed, which w i l l c o n tr o l th e e x tra n e o u s i n f lu e n c e s i n 211 s t e r e o t y p in g n o t due to th e r e g i o n a l f a c t o r . 8 . F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h may le a d to i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of s p e c i f i c s o c i a l d e te rm in a n ts o f s te r e o ty p e d b e l i e f s con c e rn in g N eg ro es. 9. T his s tu d y s u g g e s ts t h a t th e method of s c a le a n a l y s i s may be u s e f u l i n i d e n t i f y i n g th e d e te rm in a n ts o f s t e r e o t y p e s . 10. S tu d ie s of th e r o l e of r a c i a l s t e r e o t y p i n g in th e community could be used to t e s t the v a l i d i t y o f t h i s s tu d y . BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY A lb ig , W illiam , P u b lic O p in io n . New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, I n c . , 1939. A l l e n , F r e d e r ic k Lew is, The Big Change. New York: H arper and B ro th e rs , 1952. A r s t e i n , H elen, and C a r lto n Moss, Pa P e rso n —Lena H o rn e . New York: G reenberg, 1950. B ain, Read, "V erbal S te r e o ty p e s in S o c i a l C o n tr o l," S o c io lo g y and S o c i a l R e s e a r c h , 23: 1938-39. Bayton, J . A ., "The R a c i a l S te r e o ty p e s of Negro C o lle g e S t u d e n ts ," J o u r n a l of Abnormal and S o c ia l P sy c h o lo g y , 36 :97 -1 02, J a n u a ry , 1941. 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S a p p e n f ie ld , B e r t R . , "T he A t t i t u d e s a n d A t t i t u d e E s tim a te s o f C a t h o l i c , P r o t e s t a n t , and J e w is h S t u d e n t s ," J o u r n a l o f S o c i a l P s y c h o lo g y . 1 6 :1 7 3 -9 7 , N ovem ber, 1 9 4 2 . S c h o e n fe ld , N a th a n , "An E x p e r im e n ta l S tu d y o f Some P ro b le m s R e l a t i n g to S t e r e o t y p e s ," A r c h iv e s o f P s y c h o lo g y , N o. 2 7 0 , 1 9 4 2 . S h a l e r , N . S . , The N e ig h b o r . B o sto n ; H o u g h to n , M i f f l i n a n d Com pany, 1 9 0 4 . 219 S h é r i f , M ., "An E x p e rim e n ta l S tu d y o f S t e r e o t y p e s ," J o u r n a l o f A bnorm al and S o c ia l P s y c h o lo g y , 2 9 :3 7 1 -7 5 . 1 9 3 4 . S m ith , L i l l i a n , K i l l e r s o f th e D ream . New Y o r k : . W. W. N o rto n an d Com pany, 1 9 4 9 . S ta g n e r , R o s s , and C h a r le s E . O sgood, " Im p a c t o f War on a N a t i o n a l i s t i c Fram e o f R e f e r e n c e : I . C h an g es i n G e n e ra l A p p ro v a l and Q u a l i t a t i v e P a t t e r n i n g o f C e r t a i n S t e r e o t y p e s ," J o u r n a l o f S o c ia l P s y c h o lo g y , 2 4 :1 8 7 -2 1 5 , 1 9 4 6 . S to n e , A lf r e d H o ld , S t u d i e s i n th e A m erican R ace P ro b le m . New Y o rk : D o u b le d a y , P age and Com pany, Ï 9 0 8 . S t r e e t , R . , "A C o m p ariso n o f W hite an d N egro C h ild r e n i n Rhythm and C o n s o n a n c e ," J o u r n a l o f A p p lie d P s y c h o lo g y , 1 5 :5 3 - 7 1 , 1 9 3 1 . Thom as, W illia m I . , The U n a d ju s te d G i r l . B o sto n : L i t t l e , B row n, and Com pany, 1 9 2 5 . von V ie s e , L e o p o ld , and Howard B e c k e r, S y s te m a tic S o c io lo g y . New Y o rk ; Jo h n W iley and S o n s, 1 9 3 2 . W a rre n , H.C ., e d i t o r . D i c t i o n a r y o f P s y c h o lo g y . B o sto n : H o u g h to n , M i f f l i n and Company, 1 9 3 4 . W e b ste r* s C o l l e g i a t e D i e t i o n a r y , F o u r th E d i t i o n , 1 9 3 2 . W e b s te r 's New I n t e r n a t i o n a l D i c ti o n a r y o f t h e E n g lis h L a n g u a g e . G. and C . M e rria m Company, 1 9 3 0 . W ern er, H e in z , "A bnorm al and Subnorm al R i g i d i t y , " J o u r n a l o f A b n o rm a l-and S o c i a l P s y c h o lo g y . 4 1 :1 5 - 2 4 , J a n u a r y , 194^ W est, Ja m e s, P l a i n v i l l e , U . S . A . New Y o rk : C olum bia U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 5 . Y oung, K im b a ll, S o c i a l P s y c h o lo g y . New Y o rk : F . S . C r o f ts and Company, I n c . , 1 9 4 5 . , S o u rc e Book f o r S o c i a l P s y c h o lo g y . New Y o rk : F . 8 . C r o f t s a n d Company, 1935 APPENDIX OPINION SURVEY AND TABLES OPEÜCM BQM EY mRAŒ RELAYONS This I s a survey o f opinion regarding White Americans and American Negroes as ra c ia l groups (Not as in d iv id u a ls .) Please answer opinion questions according to your f irs t, re a c tio n s. Answer a l l questions, whether w ith a check mark, a number, a name, or u n d erlin in g , as in d ic a te d . Any inform ation o r opinion which you express w ill be kept s t r i c t l y c o n fid e n tia l as you are not required to sign your name. Please f i l l in space or check ( ) appropriate item s below. Age Sex ] y a r i t a l sta tu s Male Female Single Marri ed Widowed Divorced R acial Descent Negro White O riental Other World War I I service sta tu s: Veteran Non-Veteran Underline college year; F resh ., Soph., J r . , S r., 1 st y r. Grad., 2nd, 3rd. Undergrade major _________________ ; minors______________________ Graduate major ___________________ ; minors____________ __________ ( i f not a member) Of what church are you a member?_______ Preference ____________________ How o ften do you a tten d church serv ices: (a t le a s t) once per week ; once per mo,_; once annually ; le s s than once a n n u a lly . How o ften do you a tte n d Sunday Church School; (a t le a s t) once per week ; once per mo.___; once annually ; le s s than once annually » I f not now attending, a t what age did you la s t a tten d Sunday School___ , In which of th e follow ing categ o ries would you c la s s if y yourself: Very re lig io u s ; Quite re lig io u s ; F a irly re lig io u s ; Not re lig io u s . S ta te s liv e d in (give number o f years a c tu a lly liv e d in Alabama Indiana Nebraska _ __Iowa _Kansa8 ^Kentucky ^L ouisiana __Maine ^Maryland M assachusetts _Arizona ^Arkansas jC alifornia jColorado Connecticut _Delaware D. o f Columbia _Nevada _N ew Hampshire JJew Jersey _N ew Mexico _N ew York _No. C arolina No. Dakota each): __8o. C arolina _So. Dakota _^Temessee JTexas [jJtah ^Vermont [V irg in ia ""Washington 222 F lorida ^Georgia Idaho I l li n o i s JH chigan ^Minnesota ^M ississippi JÆis so u ri Montana jOhio _Oklahoma jOregon Pennsylvania Rhode Islan d ¥ . V irginia Jfi sconsin Wyoming Now underline s ta te s in # iic h you have tra v e le d . Names of countries liv e d in (outside o f the sta te s) and number o f years o f residence in e a c h __________________________________ Wartime tra v e l (Name co u n tries); Other tra v e l outside U.S. (Name co u n tries); Check one answer to each sectio n o f each question below. Answer a l l questions. I f you check "Don't Know" in section (a) o f a q uestion, answer section (b) anyway. 1. (a) W ho are more neat? (b) H ow strongly do you fe e l th a t your answer i s correct? 2, (a) W ho are more clean? (b) H ow strongly do you f e e l th a t your answer i s correct? Whites Negroes No D ifference Don't know Very strongly Strongly F a irly strongly Not a t a ll strongly No response Whites Negroes No D ifference Don't know Very stro n g ly Strongly F a irly strongly Not at a l l strongly No rei^onse 223 3. (a) W ho move more slowly? (b) How stro n g ly do you f e e l th a t your answer i s co rrect? 4. (a) W ho are b e tte r servants? (b) How strongly do you fe e l th a t your answer i s co rrect? 5, (a) W ho are more e a s ily frightened? (b) How stro n g ly do you fe e l th a t your answer i s correct? 6. (a) W ho are more in te llig e n t? (b) How stro n g ly do you fe e l th a t your answer i s correct? Whites Negroes No difference Don't know Very strongly Strongly F a irly strongly Not a t a l l strongly No response White Negroes No difference Don't know Very s tr o n ^ y Strongly F a irly strongly Not a t a l l strongly No response Whites Negroes No difference Don't know Very strongly Strongly F a irly strongly Not a t a l l strongly No response Whites Negroes No difference Don't Know Very strongly Strongly F a irly strongly Not a t a l l strongly No response 224 7. (a) W ho a re more sleepy-natured? Whites Negroes No d iffe re n c e Don't Know (b) How strongly do you f e e l th a t your answer i s correct? 8. (a) W ho are more ignorant? Very stro n g ly Strongly F a irly strongly Not a t a l l strongly No response Whites Negroes No d ifferen c e D on't know (b) How strongly do you fe e l th a t your answer i s correct? 9, (a) W ho are more wide awake? Very stro n g ly Strongly F a irly strongly Not a t a l l stro n g ly No response Whites Negroes No d ifferen ce Don't know (b) H ow strongly do you fe e l th a t your answer i s co rrect? 10. (a) W ho are more ambitious? (b) How stro n g ly do you f e e l th a t your answer i s co rrect? Very stro n g ly Strongly F a irly stro n g ly Not a t a l l strongly No response Whites Negroes No d ifferen ce D on't know Very stro n g ly Strongly F a irly stro n g ly Not a t a l l strongly No response 225 H . (a) W ho are more happy-go-lucky? (b) How stro n g ly do you fe e l th a t your answer i s correct? 12. (a) W ho wear more flashy clothes? (b) H ow strongly do you fe e l th a t your answer i s co rrect? 13. (a) W ho laugh morel (b) How strongly do you fe e l th a t your answer i s co rrect? 14, (a) W ho have more sense o f rhythm? (b) How s tr o n ^ y do you fe e l th a t your answer i s correct? Whites Negroes No difference Don't know Very strongly Strongly F a irly strongly Not a t a l l strongly No response W hites Negroes No difference Don't know Very stro n g ly Strongly F a irly strongly Not a t a l l strongly No response Whites Negroes No differen ce Don't know Very strongly Strongly F a irly stro n g ly Not at a n strongly No response Whites Negroes No difference Don't know Very stro n g ly Strongly F a irly strongly Not a t a n strongly No response 226 15. (a) W ho are more th rif ty ? Whites Negroes No differen ce D on't know (b) H ow stro n g ly do you f e e l th a t your answer i s co rrect? 16. (a) W ho are more lazy? (b) How stro n g ly do you fe e l t h a t your answer i s correct? 17. (a) W ho are more su p e rstitio u s? (b) How stro n g ly do you fe e l th a t your answer is correct? 18. (a) W ho are more a fra id of th e dark? (b) How strongly do you f e e l th a t your answer i s c o rre ct? Very strongly Strongly F a irly stro n g ly Not a t a l l strongly No response Whites Negroes No d ifference D on't know Very stro n g ly Strongly F a irly strongly Not a t a l l strongly No response W hites Negroes No differen ce D on't know Very stro n g ly Strongly F a irly stro n g ly Not a t a l l strongly No response Whites Negroes No d ifferen ce D on't know Very stro n g ly Strongly F a irly strongly Not a t a l l strongly No response 227 19. (a) W ho are more e a s ily pleased? (b) H ow strongly do you fe e l th a t your answer i s correct? Whites Negroes No d ifferen ce Don*t know Very strongly Strongly F a irly strongly Not a t a l l strongly No response In answering th e follow ing questions, in d ic a te the number o f Negroes you have known according to the re la tio n sh ip in d ic ate d in each question; and then in the second p a rt of each question in d ic a te the degree of intim acy w ith which you have known th e Negroes in th a t same category. Answer a l l questions. I f you answer "None" to sectio n (a) of a question, check "No response" in section (b) o f th a t question. 1 . (a) No. of Negroes you have known as close frien d s: None 1-3 4-6 7-9 10 or more (b) Intim acy o f to ta l experience w ith Negroes as clo se frien d s (in comparison to th a t With other "close frie n d s." Intim ate Friendly In d iffe re n t T olerant A ntagonistic No response (a) No. of Negroes known as fellow club members None 1-3 4— 6 7-9 10 o r more 22Ô (b) Intim acy of t o t a l experience w ith Negro fello w club members: 3* (a) No. o f Negroes known as neighbors (on your s tr e e t or block or in th e same ru ral neighborhood: (b) Intim acy of t o ta l experience w ith Negro neighbors: 4 . (a) No. of Negroes known as school mates: (b) Intim acy of to ta l experience w ith Negro school m ates: 5. (a) No# o f Negroes known as business o r p ro fessio n al asso ciates: Intim ate Friendly In d iffe re n t Tolerant A ntagonistic No response None 1-3 4-6 7-9 10 o r more Intim ate Friendly In d iffe re n t Tolerant Antagoni s tic No response None 1-3 4— 6 7-9 10 or more Intim ate Friendly In d iffe re n t T olerant A ntagonistic No response None 1-3 4-6 7-9 10 or more 229 (b) Intim acy of t o ta l experience with Negro business or p rofessional a sso ciates: 6. (a) No. of Negroes known as fellow \ woikers in jobs other than business or p rofessional: (b) Intim acy of t o t a l experience with Negro workers in jobs other than business or p ro fessio n al: 7. (a) No. of Negroes known as servants or employees: (b) Intim acy o f t o t a l experience w ith Negro servants or employees: \ ^ (a) No. o f Negroes known as servicemen: Intim ate F riendly Indi ffe re n t T olerant A ntagonistic No response None 1-3 4-6 7-9 10 or more Intim ate F riendly Indi ffe re n t T olerant A ntagonistic No response None 1-3 4-6 7-9 10 or more Intim ate F riendly In d iffe re n t T olerant A ntagonistic No response None 1-3 4— 6 7-9 10 or more 230 (b) Intim acy o f t o ta l experience with Negro servicemen: 9. (a) N o:, o f Negroes known as casual acquaintance s : (b) Intim acy o f t o t a l experience, with Negroes as casual acquaintances: 10. (a) No. of Negroes known in a l l other ways not included above (specify in space below): (b) Intim acy of to ta l experience w ith Negroes known in re la tio n sh ip s sp e cified in 10 (a): 11. (a) Estim ate of the t o t a l number o f Negroes you have known: Intim ate F riendly In d iffe re n t Tolerant A ntagonistic No response None 1-3 4-6 7-9 10 or more Intim ate F riendly In d iffe re n t T olerant A ntagonistic No response None 1-3 4-6 7-9 10 o r more Intim ate Friendly In d iffe re n t T olerant A ntagonistic No response None 1-25 26-50 51-75 over 75 231 (b) Intim acy in general of t o ta l exper ience w ith a l l th e Negroes you have ever known: Intim ate F riendly In d iffe re n t T olerant A ntagonistic No response Please evaluate the follow ing t r a i t s . For each t r a i t ask your s e lf , "How favorably would I look upon th is t r a i t among my asso ciates?" Very Un- Un- Very Favorably Favorably decided favorably unfavor ably 1. Neat 2. Clean 3. Slow moving 4* Good servants 5* E asily frig h ten ed 6. In te llig e n t 7. Sleepy-natured C. Ignorant 9. Wide awake 10. Ambitious EL. Happy-go-lucky 12# Flashy-dressing 13. Laughing 14. Sense of rhythm 15# T h rifty . 16. Lazy 17. S u p erstitio u s 232 Very ün-y Un- Very Favorably Favorably decided favorably unfavor ably 18. Fear o f Dark ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ 19. E asily pleased ____ ____ ____ ____ ?o O N c t V * ) W O v n O o c3 f-b p p . b ç j < 1 H C D O 4 hi C Q p. p. Pi c+ p « < vn o O ) O ) 09 vn w vn M -N j O -s] vn P » -s] w O P tJ H > h i P w î? r H * o hj ® ® p y c+ < 1 H p P 4 M P P H S o ^ O P cr is! 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O 02 C O 0 4 O N I — I On rH «H -jt to n O 0 2 •H -P © © w + 3 0 C Q H O CO to CO CO 02 0 2 - 4 - 02 to CO CO O V Û 02 CO O lO , CO to to to LO t o t o rH 02 ■ P O •H M m © d Q © O ON (O' UO LO ON vO •H I —I 02 > s © P f© •H *H © A d O 0 rH > •H d < N p O rH O LO 0 2 to » 0 vO On CO -4- CO ON CO rH «0 W © d 0 0 Î H P University of S o u th e rn California Library
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to compare stereotypes concerning Negroes as expressed by white college students in five different regions of the United States. In the process of carrying out this objective, a second purpose has emerged -- that of establishing a sociological frame of reference for studies of stereotypes.
Linked assets
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Cobb, J. Walter
(author)
Core Title
Stereotypes of selected white college students concerning Negroes
School
Sociology
Degree
Doctor of Philosophy
Degree Program
Sociology
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
ambition,cleanliness,clothes,fears,Ignorance,intelligence,Laziness,music ability,neatness,Negro stereotypes,OAI-PMH Harvest,sense of humor,Social Sciences,superstition,thriftiness,wide awake tendency
Place Name
educational facilities: University of Florida
(geographic subject),
educational facilities: University of Iowa
(geographic subject),
educational facilities: University of North Dakota
(geographic subject),
educational facilities: Yale University
(geographic subject),
University of Southern California
(geographic subject),
USA
(countries)
Format
application/pdf
(imt),
xxiii, 307 leaves : ill. ; 29[?] cm.
(aacr2)
Language
English
Contributor
Digitized by ProQuest
(provenance)
Advisor
Nordskog, John E. (
committee chair
), McDonagh, Edward C. (
committee member
), Metferd, Milton (
committee member
), Neumeyer, Martin H. (
committee member
), Sabagh, Georges (
committee member
)
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-m26
Unique identifier
UC11253065
Identifier
DP31717.pdf (filename),usctheses-m40 (legacy collection record id),usctheses-c36-760857 (legacy record id),usctheses-m26 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
DP31717.pdf
Dmrecord
760857
Document Type
Dissertation
Format
application/pdf (imt),xxiii, 307 leaves : ill. ; 29[?] cm. (aacr2)
Rights
Cobb, J. Walter
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA
Tags
ambition
cleanliness
fears
intelligence
music ability
neatness
Negro stereotypes
sense of humor
thriftiness
wide awake tendency