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From nescience to science and beyond: A critical investigation of 'building' in cyclone prone areas

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From nescience to science and beyond: A critical investigation of 'building' in cyclone prone areas

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Content FROM N ESCIEN CE TO SCIEN CE AND BEYOND: A CRITICAL INVESTIGATION O F ‘BUILDING’ IN CYCLONE PRONE AREAS by S rin iv as M. V. R ao A T h e sis P re se n te d to th e FACULTY O F TH E SCHOO L O F ARCHITECTURE UNIVERSITY OF SO U TH ERN CALIFORNIA In P a rtia l F u lfillm en t of th e R e q u ire m e n ts for th e D egree M ASTER O F BUILDING SC IEN C E D e c e m b e r 1991 U M I Number: EP41426 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI EP41426 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code u e st' ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 use #) ARCHITECTURE R2I5 APPROVAL FOR FINAL TYPING and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Dean of The School o f Architecture, and is ready fo r final typing, in partial fulfillm ent o f the requirements fo r the degree of M ASTER OF BUILDING SCIENCE This thesis, written by SRINIVAS M. V. R A O under the direction o f h i s Thesis Committee, D ean Date , J?91 THESIS COMMITTEE versify of Southern California School of Architecture W att Hall 204 Los Angeles, California 90089-0291 (213) 740-2723 Fax (213) 740-8884 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful to the School of Architecture, University of Southern California for giving me an opportunity to carry out this work. My deepest respects and thanks to Prof. G. G. Schierle whose extraordinary qualities as a teacher and personality have always guided me. My sincere thanks to Prof. Pierre Koenig for his valuable guidance with the wind tunneling and also to Prof. Ralph Knowles for his useful tips. My deepest heartfelt respects to my Mother and Father who gave me an education which none of my degrees equal, and to Shina Mehta without whom nothing would have been possible. I also thank Prof. Shamsul Haque and Prof. Subhash Sharma in company of whom I learnt a lot. Last but not the least my deepest and sincere obeisances to my Guru, M ahatm a Gandhi whose writings, ideals and practices continue to give me strength and faith. TABLE OF CONTENTS iii I INTRODUCTION 1.1 Intoduction 1 1.2 Propositions 2 1.3 Hypothesis 3 1.4 Stage I 4 1.5 Stage II 4 1.6 Stage III 4 1.7 Objectives of Study 4 II CITIES IN THE ‘KALI YUGA’ 2.1 Title 6 2.2 Introduction to Stage I 6 2.3 Methodology 10 2.4 NesciencefTamas) in Kali Yuga 12 2.5 Planning Theories 20 2.6 Professionals and the Concept of Professionalism 26 2.7 Technology, Exploitation, and Architecture 32 2.8 Modem Education 38 2.9 A Case of Bombay 40 III VILLAGES IN THE “KRITA YUGA” 3.1 Title 47 3.2 Introduction to Stage II 47 3.3 From Nescience to Science 48 3.3.1 The Vedic Theory of Development 3.3.1.1 Vam ashram a-dharma 3.3.1.2 The Goal and it’ s Transitory Phases 3.4 Evaluation of Modernism through The Vedic Theory 3.4.1 Haque’ s Emancipatory Theory of Development 3.4.2 Development in Modem Bharat(India) 3.5 Application of the Vedic Ideal 3.5.1 Satyagraha IV CYCLONES IN •BHARAT* 4.1 Introduction to Stage III 66 4.2 Cyclones: A Histographic Social Analysis 67 4.3 Cyclones: An Empirical study of dwellings 70 4.3.1 Possibilities of Research 71 4.3.2 Scope 75 4.3.3 Cyclone as a function of 76 4.3.4 Cyclones in North Indian oceans 79 4.3.5 Movement of cyclones and Coastal Effects 80 4.3.6 Storm Wave 83 4.3.7 Rural Settlements 84 4.3.8 The Andhra Cyclone 85 4.3.9 Wind Tunnel Studies 87 4.3.10 Dwelling Configurations 88 4.3.11 Pressure Isobars 90 4 8 50 58 59 59 61 63 63 4.3.11.1 Conf. 01 4.3.11.2 Conf. 02 4.3.11.3 Conf. 03 4.3.11.4 Conf. 04 4.3.11.5 Conf. 05 4.3.11.6 Conf. 06 4.3.12 Analytical Graphs 4.3.13 Conclusion 4.3.13.1 Inferences 4.3.13.2 Recommendations 4.3.13.3 Simulation Model 4.3.13.4 Observations BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDICES A APPENDICES B 1 C hapter I INTRODUCTION 1.1 In tro d u ctio n T h e e x is tin g p o litica l, e co n o m ic , a n d s o c io -c u ltu ra l c ris e s all o v e r th e w o rld , e .g ., “d e c lin in g g ro w th , in c r e a s in g in e q u a lity , m o u n tin g d e b t a n d d e p e n d e n c e ” in d e v e lo p in g c o u n tr ie s ; a n d “c rim e s, d ru g s , m o ra l d e g ra d a tio n , a n d e n v iro n m e n ta l d is a s te r s ” in d ev elo p ed n a tio n s , in d ic a te a co m p lete “p h ilo so p h ic a l, th e o re tic a l, a s w ell a s p ra c tic a l b a n k ru p tc y ” of p r e s e n t d e v e lo p m e n t th in k in g . T h is s tu d y , a p a r t fro m s u b s c r ib in g to H a q u e ’s d e m o n s tr a tio n a n d ju s tif ic a tio n of c la im s t h a t “b o th th e o re tic a l a n d p ra c tic a l c ris e s of d e v e lo p m e n t h a v e b e e n e ith e r c re a te d , w o rs e n e d , le g itim iz e d o r m is in te rp re te d d u e to th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l d o m in a tio n of p o sitiv is m ”, g o es f u r th e r a n d c a lls th e m o d e rn c iv iliz atio n a s a d is e a s e , t h a t e m erg ed a s a d ire c t c o n se q u e n c e of in d u stria liz a tio n . T h is s tu d y trie s to p o rtra y h o w p o sitiv ism h a s m a n ife s te d itse lf th ro u g h th e v o ta rie s of th e d ise a se k n o w n a s m o d e rn civilization. T he s tu d y a im s to ju s tify th a t a m o n g th e s e v o ta rie s a re p ro fe s sio n a ls (like A rc h ite c ts, L aw yers, etc.), s c ie n tis ts , a n d te c h n o lo g ists, w h o d ire c tly o r in d ire c tly , in te n tio n a lly o r u n in te n tio n a lly give im p e tu s a n d ju s tific a tio n to ex p lo itatio n a n d g lo rificatio n of e x p lo itatio n . T he s tu d y fu rth e r cla im s th a t sin c e m o d e rn civilization is o ne c o m p lex tis s u e of in te rtw in e d evils, n o p la n of p a rtia l a n d g ra d u a l re fo rm fro m w ith in th e s y s te m c a n p ro d u c e a la s tin g re m e d y . T h e s tu d y te n ta tiv e ly 2 p ro p o s e s a G a n d h i a n w ay o r in o th e r w o rd s th e w ay of tr u th to co m p letely d e stro y th is sy ste m th ro u g h Satya graha. T h e s t u d y tr ie s to e s ta b lis h c la r ity in th e la b r y n th ic a l c o rre la tio n of a rc h ite c tu r e , a n d te c h n o lo g y a n d th e d e c a d e n c e of m o d e rn civ ilizatio n , w h ic h fin ally e n d s in te n ta tiv e p ro p o s a l for all p ro fe s s io n a ls to slo w ly do a w a y w ith th e p r o fe s s io n a lis m w ith in th e m s e lv e s , a n d th u s d iso b e y th e d e m a n d s o f m o d e rn c iv iliz a tio n th ro u g h th e m ode of Satyagraha. T h e s tu d y fin ally p ro p o s e s th e V e d ic id e a l of v a m a s h r a m a - d h a r m a a s th e o n ly a n s w e r fo r In d ia ’s p ro g re s s . R e fu sin g ev en a p p ro p ria te te c h n o lo g y a s a e u p h e m is m of d e g ra d a tio n , th e s tu d y c la im s th e n a tu r a l m a te ria ls to b e m o re effective a n d c o rre c t th a n a p p ro p r ia te te c h n o lo g y . S e e in g th e d e c lin in g fa ith in v e r n a c u la r m a te ria l d u e to th e s p re a d in g v iru s of m o d e rn civilization, th e s tu d y u s e s a n a v e n u e of m o d e rn civilization its e lf --th e m a c h in e --to ju s tify th e to ta l d is c o n tin u a tio n o f m o d e rn m e th o d s re s u ltin g in th e r e e s ta b lis h m e n t of th e flow of th e n a tu r a l p ro c e ss of ev o lu tio n ; ex actly a s a p o iso n is u se d to kill p o iso n to le t th e blood flow p u re ly a g ain . T h e s tu d y fin ally u n d e rta k e s th is p ro d ig io u s ta s k a t a v ery p re lim in a ry level a n d th e re b y e s ta b lis h e s a u th e n tic ity of th a tc h ro o f h u ts in cy clo n e p ro n e a re a s , a s th e a p p ro p ria te m a te ria l for h ig h w in d s. 1.2 P ro p o sitio n s I. M o d e rn S c ie n c e & T e c h n o lo g y in A r c h ite c tu r e is a m a n ife s ta tio n of w h a t c a n b e se e n a s th e ro o t c a u s e of to d a y ’s w orld 3 c ris e s. S c ien c e c a n re m a in sc ie n c e a s lo n g a s it is ‘R u ra l’. O n ce it b e c o m e s ‘M o d e m ’, it c e a s e s to b e S cien ce. II. T h e decisio n s fo r action , the action, a n d th e eva lu a tio n o f action in p la n n in g , a rc h ite c tu re , a n d re la te d sc ie n c e a n d tech n o lo g y - a r e s u lt of p la n s , p ro je c ts , s tra te g ie s e tc ., b e in g c a rrie d o u t b y th e re s p e c tiv e g o v e rn in g b o d ie s of n a tio n s , a re g u id e d b y m o d e ls o r th e o rie s of d e v e lo p m e n t b a s e d o n th e ‘legacy o f p o sitiv ism ' to w a rd s “m o d ern civilization ”, d u e to w h ic h , th e w o rld c ris e s, b o th e m in e n t a n d la te n t is given a n im p e tu s a s well a s a ju stific a tio n . III. T h is p ro b le m m a y b e re so lv e d o n ly w h e n th e o rie s a re m a n ife s te d th ro u g h sc ie n c e s in a rc h ite c tu re a n d p la n n in g , in a w ay t h a t is n e ith e r “m o d e rn ” n o r “p rim itiv e ” b u t “t r a n s c e n d e n t a l ”- a ru r a l w ay th a t tra n s c e n d s th e th e s e m u tu a lly co n flictin g a p p ro a c h e s ”. 1.3 H yp oth esis B a s e d o n th e ab o v e p ro p o s itio n th e follow ing h y p o th e s is is p r e s e n te d , “N atural m a teria ls are b e tte r to r e sis t n atu ral fo rc es th a n artificial o n e s.” T h is s tu d y p ro c e e d s to p u t th e ab o v e p ro p o s itio n s to c ritic a l re a so n in g , a n d verify th e h y p o th e s is in th re e sta g e s . T h is H y p o th e sis d o e s n o t claim its a u th e n tic ity b a s e d u p o n e m p iric a l d a ta a lo n e , b u t a lso fro m th e s to ry b e h in d it. T h e a im of th is s tu d y is to a ch iev e c o m p r e h e n s iv e n e s s . 4 1.4 S ta g e I T h e f ir s t s ta g e a im s a t e s ta b lis h in g th e c la im t h a t in th e “ M odern C ivilization” th e ‘ w a y ’ (p h ilo so p h y , th e o ry , a n d p ra c tic e ) of sc ie n c e a n d te c h n o lo g y in a rc h ite c tu re a n d p la n n in g is p o sitiv istic in n a tu r e , a n d th e r e b y le a d s to “m a l d e v e l o p m e n t ” [o rig in a l ita lic s ] (H aque, 1989: 338) o f th e society. 1.5 S ta g e II T h e s e c o n d s ta g e a im s a t s e e k in g th e ‘n a t u r a l ’ w a y of th e n a tu r e o f sc ie n c e a n d te c h n o lo g y in a rc h ite c tu r e -- b y u n c o v e rin g from th e d e p th s o f o u r “ R a ja s ”- th e lo n g lo s t ru ra lis m . It d ra w s its n o u r i s h m e n t fro m “T h e E m a n c ip a to ry th eo ry o f d e v e lo p m e n t ” [original italics] (H aque, 1989: 3 4 7 -3 6 5 ) 1.6 S ta g e HI T h e th ird s ta g e a im s a t d e te rm in in g a n d m a n ife s tin g th e tru e sc ie n c e o f b u ild in g in th e p la in s o f th is lo n g d is m is s e d r u r a lis m in th e In d ia n c o n te x t, for, fro m th e ir a lo n e c a n th e riv e r of a ltr u is m s p ro u t a g a in to w a s h th e s in s of m o d e m civilization. T h is w o u ld d ire c t to w a rd s a fea sib ility te s t o f th e p ro p o s a l for b u ilt-u p a re a s in d is a s te r p ro n e p a rts of India. 1.7 O bjectives o f S tu d y I. To p u t th e u n d e rly in g P h ilo s o p h ic a l a s s u m p tio n in th e b a c k d ro p o f its m a n if e s ta tio n s in A rc h ite c tu re a n d S c ie n c e , a n d in v e stig a te h o w th e y c o -d e te rm in e e a c h o th e r. 5 II. To u n d e r ta k e a c ritic a l s tu d y of th e in te n tio n s , o b jec tiv e s a n d c o n se q u e n c e s of “m o d e m civ ilizatio n ” , a n d th e re b y se e h o w it is given im p e tu s b y ‘m o d e rn sc ie n c e ’ in A rc h ite c tu re a n d P la n n in g . U n co v erin g th e tr u e n a tu r e of sc ie n c e in a rc h ite c tu re a n d p la n n in g to d ay . E s ta b lis h in g th e fa c t t h a t th e in te n tio n s o f th e p r o p o n e n ts a re s e lfis h r a th e r t h a n s e lfle s s ; t h a t th e o b je c tiv e is to d e riv e p h y s ic a l p l e a s u r e in e v e ry d im e n s io n of life a t th e c o s t of o th e r ’s w ell-b ein g ; t h a t th e c o n s e q u e n c e s w o u ld b e th e d e m ise of all form of life on e a rth . III. To p u t th e c u rr e n t tre n d of m o d e m sc ie n c e in A rc h ite c tu re a n d p la n n in g to c ritic a l re a s o n in g a n d in tr o d u c e th e c o g en c y a n d a u th e n tic ity of “ R u ra l S c ien c e ” in A rc h ite c tu re a n d p la n n in g . IV. To c a rry o u t tr u e re s e a rc h in S c ie n c e t h a t is “I m m o d e r n ” a n d ex em p lify th e n e e d of A ltru is m in th e field s of A rc h ite c tu re & P lan n in g . V. T h ro u g h r e s e a r c h , in v e s tig a tio n , a n d te s tin g , fin a lly , to c o n trib u te to th e sc ie n c e of ‘ b u ild in g ’ in th e cy clo n e p ro n e p a r ts of B harat. 6 C hapter II CITIES IN THE ‘KALI YUGA* 2 .1 Title: T h e K ali Y uga o r Age w a s s u p p o s e d to h a v e s ta r te d on th e 1 8 th of F e b ru a ry 3 1 0 2 B.C. T he V ish n u P u ra n a d e sc rib e s it th u s - T h e o b se rv a n c e of o rd e r, a n d in s titu te s w ill n o t p re v a il in th e K ali age, n o r w ill t h a t o f th e c e re m o n ia l e n jo in e d b y th e S a m a , R ik , a n d th e Y a ju r V e d a s . M a rria g e s in th is age w ill n o t be c o n fo rm a b le to th e r itu a l, n o r w ill th e r u le s t h a t c o n n e c t th e s p ir itu a l p re c e p to r a n d h is d isc ip le b e in force. T h e la w s t h a t re g u la te th e c o n d u c t of h u s b a n d a n d w ife w ill b e d isre g a rd e d , a n d o b la tio n s to th e g o d s w ith fire n o lo n g er b e offered. In th e K ali age, fa stin g , a u s te rity , lib e ra lity , p ra c tis e d a c c o rd in g to th e p le a s u r e of th o s e b y w h o m th e y a re o b se rv e d , w ill c o n tin u e r ig h te o u s n e s s . P rid e of w e a lth w ill be in s p ire d b y v ery in sig n ific a n t p o s s e s s io n s . W ives w ill d e s e r t th e ir h u s b a n d s , w h e n th e y lo se th e ir p r o p e rty ; a n d th e y o n ly w h o a re w e a lth y w ill b e c o n sid e re d b y w o m e n a s th e ir lo rd s. He w h o gives aw ay m u c h m o n e y w ill b e th e m a s te r of m e n . A c c u m u la te d t r e a s u r e s w ill b e e x p e n d e d o n (o s te n ta tio u s ) d w e llin g s, th e m in d s of m e n w ill b e w h o lly o c c u p ie d in a c q u irin g w e a lth ; a n d w e a lth w ill b e s p e n t s o le ly o n s e lfis h g ra tific a tio n s . W o m en w ill follow th e ir in c lin a tio n s , a n d b e ever fo n d of p le a s u re . M en will fix th e ir d e s ire s u p o n ric h e s , ev en th o u g h d is h o n e s tly a c q u ire d . No m a n w ill p a r t w ith th e s m a lle s t fra c tio n o f th e s m a lle s t c o in , th o u g h e n tr e a te d b y a frie n d . In t r u th th e r e w ill b e n o t r u e p l e a s u r e a n d h a p p i n e s s in th e K a li y u g a [V ish n u P u ra n a ; w ritte n 3 0 0 0 /4 0 0 0 B.C.] (W ilson, 1961: 4 8 8 ). T he o th e r th re e Y ugas a re Krita, Treta, a n d D w apara. 2 .2 In tro d u ctio n to S tag e I T h is s t u d y is b a s e d th e c ritic a l a n a ly s is o f th e m o d e rn d e v e lo p m e n t th in k in g m a d e b y H a q u e . T h is s tu d y u s e s th e sa m e 7 m eth o d o lo g y to p u t fo rw ard i t ’s a rg u m e n ts so t h a t it’s re la tio n to th e s o u rc e is c o n s ta n tly m a in ta in e d . T h e d e s c rip tio n of th e m e th o d o lo g y u s e d b y H a q u e is re p ro d u c e d h e re in p a r t s to se rv e th e s a m e p u rp o se . T h e s e a rc h for a b e tte r to m o rro w a n d th e u rg e to ‘d ev elo p ’ w a s p r e v a le n t th r o u g h o u t th e h is to ry of h u m a n k in d . E v e n in a n c ie n t tim e s, g re a t civ ilizatio n s like A ztec, In d ia n , C h in e se , E g y p tia n , G reek, R o m a n , e tc . s triv e d for a b e tte r life. ‘ A b e tte r life’ a ls o k n o w n a s d e v e lo p m e n t o r p r o g r e s s a lth o u g h w a s c o m m o n to a ll th e s e c iv iliz a tio n s , i t ’s d e fin itio n v a rie d fro m p e rio d to p e rio d ; o n e g e o g ra p h ic a l reg io n to a n o th e r; o n e c iv iliz atio n to a n o th e r, a n d so fo rth . T o d ay how ever, P ro g re ss or D e v elo p m en t, a s N isb e t (1980: 10- 46) p u ts it “in its c o n c e p t, th e o ry a s w ell a s m o d el a n d s tra te g y is p re d o m in a n tly E u ro p e a n , w h o se o rig in s c a n b e tr a c e d b a c k to th e G re ek p e rio d ’ ’ (See H a q u e , 1989: 33). M o d e m d e v e lo p m e n t th in k in g s ta r ts , how ever a t a tim e in h is to ry w h e n fe u d a lism w a s a t it’s d eclin e a n d d u e to th e a d v e n t o f s c ie n tific a n d te c h n o lo g ic a l re v o lu tio n , c o lo n iz a tio n , a n d th e in d u s tr ia l re v o lu tio n , E u ro p e a n m e rc a n tilis m w a s e m e rg in g . W h ic h th e n , s a w th e ris e of I n d u s tr ia l C a p ita lism . L a te r it h a d to p a s s th r o u g h in te r n a l p ro b le m s lik e th e G re a t D e p r e s s io n 1 a n d a lso th ro u g h e x te rn a l p ro b le m s th e ris e of R a d ic al S o c ia lis t Id e a s a n d th e s p r e a d of S o c ia lis t re v o lu tio n a ll o v e r th e H h e critical depression starts because of the continuous growth in capitalism resulting in income inequality, causing huge expansion of savings without further investment because the factors of production arc already fully employed and thus no investment opportunity is available. This was the situation in the Great Depression. The Keynesian theory was an effort to overcome this depression (Haque, 1989: 59-61). 8 w o rld . F in a lly , a s H a q u e d e s c r ib e s it, “it m a d e a th e o r e tic a l a d ju s tm e n t w ith th e c h a n g in g w o rld o f id e o lo g ic a l a n d e c o n o m ic c o m p e titio n a n d th e d e c o lo n iz a tio n o f th e th ir d w o rld ” (H aq u e; 1989: 3 3 -3 4 ). H o w e v e r, s in c e W o rld W a r II, a ll th e n e w ly in d e p e n d e n t c o u n tr ie s h a v e b e e n u n d e r ta k in g m a s s iv e d e v e lo p m e n t e ffo rts, re s u ltin g in e n o rm o u s v a rie tie s of d e v e lo p m e n t m o d e ls , a p p r o a c h e s , a n d s t r a t e g i e s to u c h in g a lm o s t ev ery a s p e c t of so c ie ty ; in d u s tr y a n d a g r ic u ltu r e , S c ie n c e a n d te c h n o lo g y , p o p u la tio n a n d h e a lth ,c o m m u n ic a tio n a n d t r a n s p o r t , e d u c a tio n a n d tr a in in g etc. A cad em ically , in n u m e ra b le b o o k s, jo u r n a ls , re p o rts , p a p e rs , a n d p la n d o c u m e n ts h a v e b e e n p u b lis h e d to e x p la in th e c o n c e p ts , t h e o r ie s a n d m o d e ls o f d e v e lo p m e n t, f o r m u la te d b y v a r i o u s d i s c ip l i n a r y a d h e r e n ts . B u t, th e e x istin g eco n o m ic p o litica l, a n d c u ltu ra l c r is e s a ll o v e r th e w o rld , e .g ., d e c lin in g g ro w th , in c re a s in g in e q u a lity , m o u n tin g d e b t a n d d e p e n d e n c e in d e v e lo p in g c o u n tr i e s ; a n d c r im e s , d r u g s , m o r a l d e g ra d a tio n , a n d e n v iro n m e n ta l d is a s te r in d e v e lo p in g n a tio n s , in d ic a te th e fa ilu re a n d in a d e q u a c y o f th e p r e s e n t d e v e lo p m e n t th in k in g (H a q u e ; 1989: 3 3 -3 4 ). T h ere h a s b e e n , in th e re c e n t y e a rs a n a w a re n e s s a n d c o n c e rn a m o n g th e in te lle c tu a ls , w ith th e e x is tin g th e o rie s a n d m o d e ls of d e v e lo p m e n t, w h ic h th e y c o n s id e r u n r e a l i s t i c , n a r r o w a n d E u ro c e n tric (P alm er, 19 7 8 : 9 5 -9 6 ; W ia rd a , 1 9 8 1 : 1 9 1 -9 2 ). H a q u e e x p la in s th a t, b o th th e o re tic a l a n d p ra c tic a l c ris e s 2 of d e v e lo p m e n t 2 One is quite aware of the deteriorating conditions of poverty, hunger, illiteracy, etc. in most of the African, Asian and Latin Am erican countries, despite the efforts of various international agencies like, WHO, Unesco, World Bank, UNDP, FAAO, etc.) to assist them with capital, technology and know how; despite the efforts of their respective national planning agencies by m eans of developm ent plans, policies, program m es and projects undertaken. Today in the third world countries, one billion live below the poverty line, one billion are inadequately housed, 12 to 15 million infants and small children die every year from disease and hunger, seven hundred million people do not get enough food, and three quarters of the population have no access to standard health and nutrition ( see Sivard, 1986: 21-23; Jennings 9 h a v e b e e n e ith e r c re a te d , w o rs e n e d , le g itim iz e d o r m is in te r p re te d d u e to th e p h ilo s o p h ic a l d o m in a tio n of P o s itiv ism 3 in th e field.H e f u r th e r e x p la in s th a t, th e p re v a ilin g p o litic o -e c o n o m ic a n d so c io c u ltu r a l c ris e s c a n b e re so lv e d o n ly b y o v e rc o m in g th is th e o re tic a l p o v e rty of d e v elo p m e n t. T h e n e e d to u n d e r s t a n d t h e s e u n d e r ly in g p h ilo s o p h ic a l a s s u m p tio n s th a t m o d el th e th e o rie s of d e v e lo p m e n t w h ic h , all fields c a te r to; so m e of th e m o s t im p o rta n t b e in g a rc h ite c tu r e , p la n n in g , a n d re la te d sc ie n c e a n d te c h n o lo g y , is p a r a m o u n t to d a y . W ith th is b a c k d ro p , th e first sta g e of th is s tu d y trie s to e s ta b lis h th e claim th a t th e s c ie n c e a n d te c h n o lo g y in a r c h i te c t u r e a n d p la n n in g is P o sitiv istic in n a tu r e a n d th e re fo re th e p ro p o n e n ts in th e field te n d to b e o n to lo g ic a lly o b je c tiv is t, a x io lo g ic a lly v a l u e - n e u t r a l i s t , e p is te m o lo g ic a lly e m p ir ic is t, m e th o d o lo g ic a lly n a t u r a l i s t , a n d & Weiss, 1982: 115; Urquidi, 1988: 86). Developed, industrialized countries arc experiencing their ow n different but nevertheless profound crises. In addition to a significant degree of third world syndrome (i.e., poverty, homelcssness, income inequality, budget deficit, wealth crises) in some of the richest countries like America, there are alarming crises in cultural and spiritual dim ensions of life. The listing includes different forms of violent crimes; alcohol and drug abuse; Pre-marriage pregnancy and child abuse; broken families, alienation, loneliness and identity crises (Agazzi, 1988: 24; Diwan & Lutz, 1985: 3-4; Baran & Swcezy, 1964: 281). In the western intellectual community, these critical but real problems are often denied. As Diwan & Lutz (1985: 4) mention in regard to these crises of developed countries, "The elite economists and scientists, more often than not, ignore the existence of these facts." 3 Positivism is a tradition of philosophy, which emerged in Europe, took concrete shape during the late 18th century and the early 19th century and continued cither in revised forms (e.g., logical positivism and logical empiricism) or w as absorbed in other philosophical traditions (e.g., pragm atism and linguistic philosophy) depending on tim e and context (Haque, 1989: 6-9). The net result is the "legacy" of positivism, which exists in contemporary thought in terms of convictions and attitudes, problems and techniques, concepts and theories (McCarthy, 1978: 137-138). And this all-pervasive legacy of positivism exists in theories of developm ent and under development. However, in a synthesized form, as Haque (1989: 158- 189) reasons, positivist philosophy tends to be ontologically objectivist, axiologically value- neutralist, epistem ologically empiricist, m ethodologically naturalist, and histographically evolutionist. 10 h is to g ra p h ic a lly e v o lu tio n is t (H aque; 1989) in th e d o m a in s 4 of th e ir p h ilo so p h ic a l a s s u m p tio n s u n d e rly in g th e ir a c tio n s. 2 .3 M eth od ology T h e c rite r ia o f r e s e a r c h in th is s tu d y a re n o t to s tu d y th e d e v e lo p m e n t th e o rie s . R a th e r th e fu n d a m e n ta l a s s u m p tio n of th e s e th e o rie s a re b r o u g h t in to th e b a c k d ro p of s u c h v iew s a n d th e ir m a n i f e s t a t i o n s 5 . T h e p u r p o s e is n o t to v e rify o r fa ls ify th e d e v e lo p m e n t th e o rie s ,o r s u c h view s, b u t to s u b je c t th e ir u n d e rly in g a s s u m p tio n s a n d m a n ife s ta tio n a n d th e ir in te rd e p e n d e n c y to c ritic a l a n a ly sis a n d e x am in a tio n . B e c a u s e of its a im s to e x a m in e c ritic a lly th e c o -d e te rm in a tio n of th e ir m a n ife s ta tio n s (A rc h ite c tu re a n d p la n n in g ); a n d to e x p la in th e m fro m o th e r p h ilo s o p h ic a l p e rs p e c tiv e s; a n d to r e c o n s tr u c t a n d re d e fin e th e m a n if e s ta tio n s ; fin ally , th is s tu d y a d o p ts a c ritic a l m e th o d o f r e s e a r c h . A s W in d e lb a n d m e n tio n s , th e m e th o d of 4 The basic dom ains of philosophy are believed to be, O n tology; dealing with what is 'ultimate reality' and it's nature, Axiology, determining the origin of values and norms and their place in reality, Epistemology ; dealing with the sources and nature of know ledge about reality, Methodology; concerned with 'how' that know ledge of reality can be acquired most effectively), and Philosophy of history; dealing with the patterns, dynam ics and destination of change of perceived reality (Lavine, 1984: 1-6; Machan, 1977: 25-30; Titus & Smith, 1974: 98). 5 Based on a certain set of assumptions, a theory is proposed, accepted and put into practice. These theories materialize in the physical world in the form of cities, their economic, social and physical structure, which in turn develop a certain routine of life am idst physical entities, such as high rises, cars, freeways, industries, ready tellers, vending machines etc. All of these manifestations are a result of an effort to solve a particular problem(s) whose dccision(s) and strategy(s) is an outcom e of an presumed reality which is of particular importance. A socio- cultural change in time may occur in such a way. Though this view may be confused with physical determinism, the study shall try to portray the differences, dissimilarities, and the radical difference in their intention and basis. 11 p h ilo s o p h y “is n e ith e r rational n o r e m p ir ic a l , b u t critical [o rig in al ita lic ].” (q u o ted in M a c h lu p , 1978:14) W hile, in th e c a se of e m p iric a l m e th o d , th e c la im s o f t r u t h o r f a ls ity a r e b a s e d o n o b s e r v a tio n o r e x p e r im e n ta tio n , in c a s e o f c ritic a l m e th o d s , t h e s e c la im s a re b a s e d on, w h a t T o u lm in a n d H a b e rm a n s ’ call, th e “s u b s ta n tia l a rg u m e n ts " --a rg u m e n ts w h ic h se rv e a s s ta te m e n ts to s u p p o r t c o n c lu s io n s o r c la im s. A lth o u g h s u b s ta n tia l a rg u m e n ts a re m ore te n ta tiv e th a n d e d u ctiv e ly ‘p ro v e n ’ s ta te m e n ts ; th e ir s o u n d n e s s , v a lid ity , co g en cy , o r s tr e n g th d e p e n d s u p o n th e q u a lity o f th e r e a s o n s (F ischer, 1982: 18 ). T h u s to e s ta b lis h th e cla im s of tr u th , t h i s c ritic a l m e th o d w ill u s e a r g u m e n ts (b a s e d o n re a s o n s ) a s th e re s e a r c h s tra te g y . T h e s e a r g u m e n ts o n th e o th e r h a n d , w ill b e s u p p o rte d b y a v a ila b le lite ra tu re in c lu d in g b o o k s, a rtic le s, p a p e r, d o c u m e n ts , re p o rts , etc. T h e n a t u r e o f t h is c r itic a l m e th o d s is a ls o n o rm a tiv e , h is to r ic a l, d ia le c tic a l,a n d c o m p a ra tiv e (see H a q u e, 1989: 21-22 ). It is n o rm a tiv e b e c a u s e its c rite ria of a n a ly sis a re h o w th e b a sic a s s u m p t i o n s o r b e lie f s in d e v e lo p m e n t t h e o r i e s a n d t h e i r m a n if e s ta tio n s in A r c h ite c tu r e a n d p la n n in g c o -d e te rm in e e a c h o th e r; it is h is to ric a l b e c a u s e it h a s to re v e a l th e h is to ric a l ro o t of th e s e m a n if e s ta tio n s w ith th e ir a s s u m p tio n s (p o sitiv istic ) in th e b a c k d ro p ; It is c o m p a ra tiv e b e c a u s e it a im s a t c o m p a rin g a n d e v a lu a tin g d if f e r e n t s t r a t e g i e s w h ic h m a n i f e s t a lt e r n a t iv e p h ilo s o p h ic a l in te rp re ta tio n s of d ev elo p m en t; a n d it is d ia le c tic a l b e c a u s e it trie s to sy n th e siz e d iffe re n t a n d o p p o sin g stra te g ie s. In th is re s p e c t, th e c ritic a l m e th o d , a s d e s c rib e d h e re , is m e th o d o lo g ic a lly e c le c tic b e c a u s e it c o m b in e s in g re d ie n ts fro m v a rie tie s of r e s e a r c h m e th o d s , s u c h a s n o rm a tiv e , d ia le c tic , c o m p a ra tiv e a n d e m p iric a l a t th e sa m e tim e (see H a q u e, 1989: 2 1 -2 2 ). 12 B y a d o p tin g th is stra te g y , th e s tu d y r e a s o n s f u r th e r to d isco v er h o w “m a ld e v e lo p m e n t 6”[o rig in al ita lic s] (H aq u e, 1 9 8 9 : 338) o c c u rs d u e s u c h m a n ife sta tio n s. 2 .4 N e sc ie n c e (Tam as) in K ali Y uga M a n k in d h a s b e e n liv in g in c o m m u n itie s s in c e im m e m o ria l tim e s . A ll th e s e c o m m u n itie s , u n d e r a s e t o f c o n d itio n s a n d c ir c u m s ta n c e s c a m e to b e k n o w n a s c itie s. W h a t m a k e s a city --“A C ity”-- n o o n e k n o w s; p ro b a b ly th e p o p u la tio n , o r is it th e tra d e a n d c o m m e rc e ? , o r m a y b e its j u s t th e g la m o u r a n d th e m o n e y . T h is p ro b le m o f d e fin in g a c ity h a s b e e n th e re for a g e s. A risto tle in h is “Politics” d e s c rib e s it th u s - T h e city o f o u r s ta te , a s w e a lre a d y n o tic e d , s h o u ld b e , so fa r a s c irc u m s ta n c e s p e rm it, a c o m m o n c e n te r, lin k e d to th e w h o le of th e te rrito ry , in te rn a lly , a n d in its ow n la y o u t, w e o u g h t to p la n th e id ea l o f o u r c ity w ith a n eye to fo u r c o n s id e ra tio n 7 F ro m t h e n till n o w , th e c ity h a s r e m a in e d a m y th o f ‘c iv iliz a tio n ’, p ro b le m s h a v e w o rs e n e d , a n d in r e c e n t tim e s th e y se e m to h a v e c ro s s e d t h a t lim it too. R e g a rd in g L o n d o n ’s irr a tio n a l g ro w th b efo re th e w a r, G id eo n c o m m e n ts, 6 Development means simultaneous emancipation from three forms of domination — natural (material), social (politico-economic), and cognitive (cultural-ideological-spiritual)—that exists at both national and international levels. Each form of em ancipation is important; when all three forms of emancipation exist, it is development; when none of these forms of emancipation exist, it is underdevelopment or undevelopment; when only one or two of these forms of emancipation exist, it is distorted development; and w hen one form of emancipation reduces another form(s) of emancipation, it is maldevelopment [original italics] (Haque, 1989: 309). 7The four things as described by Newman seem to be health, adaptation to the needs of political life, adaptation to those of war, and beauty ( See Barker, 1946: 307) 13 L o n d o n d e v elo p ed w ith a n a lm o s t to ta l d is re g a rd fo r d e fin ite a x is. Its g ro w th w a s a t th e m e rc y of th e divisive in flu e n c e of th e g re a t la n d o w n e rs, of th e cro w n , th e n o b ility , th e c h u rc h . Its la c k of g u id in g a x e s s u c h a s th o s e w h ic h m a k e P a ris so e a sy to su rv e y m a k e s it a lm o st im p o s s ib le to o r ie n t o n e s e lf. O n th e o th e r h a n d , n u m e r o u s s m a ll d is tr ic ts in to w h ic h L o n d o n re s o lv e s its e lf a c t a s re fu g e s from th e s h e e r im m e n s ity o f a city w h ic h h a s o u tg ro w n th e h u m a n sc ale . A lth o u g h w e se e h e re , a re c o g n itio n of th e fa c to rs, a t th e m erc y of w h ic h , L o n d o n w a s grow ing, its “s h e e r im m e n s ity ”, a n d it h a v in g “o u tg ro w n ” th e h u m a n sc ale, w e find n o im p ro v e m e n t in th e cities of to d ay . T h e p lig h t of th e c itie s h a s b e e n th e sa m e , ev en th o u g h w e see th a t m e n like A risto tle, 2 0 0 0 y e a rs ago, p ro p e rly trie d to a p p ly to h u m a n fa b ric a tio n s of th e city th e im p o r ta n t le s s o n h e h a d le a r n t fro m th e o rg a n ic w o rld ; th e le s s o n of c o n tro lle d g r o w th 8 . B u t so m eh o w , th e p ro b le m still p e rs is ts in a m u c h w o rse form . T o d ay th e city h a s d ra s tic a lly c h a n g e d th e n a tu r e of its form , c o n te x t a n d in te n tio n . It is a n e x p re s s io n o f d o m in a n c e a n d e x p lo ita tio n ; a sy m b o l o f p o w er; a n d a c o n c e n tr a tio n of g re e d , w h e re in th e m o s t im m a tu re of c iv iliz a tio n s--th e in d u s tr ia l-- “m o d e m c iv iliz atio n ”. H ere in th e c itie s dw ell p eo p le w h o s in in th e n a m e of god a n d freed o m , a n d leg itim ize it b y d is trib u tin g th e to ta l a c tiv ity in to d ifferen t p ro fe ssio n s (w hich sh a ll b e d e a lt a t a la te r sta g e in th is c h a p te r). 8 In every biological species, there is a limit to size; and Aristotle points out that this is equally true of hum an artifacts. If a boat is too sm all it cannot perform the functions of a boat, that is, carry passen gers or cargo; if too big, it cannot be handled or moved. There is a range of sizes, then proper to the art of navigation. If the city over p asses the bounds of growth, absorbing more people than it can properly house, feed, govern, or educate, then it is no longer a city; for its ensuring disorganization keeps it from cariying on a city’ s functions (Mumford, 1961: 184) . 14 It h a s b e e n s e e n th a t, larg e c itie s a re a s n a r e a n d a u s e le s s e n c u m b ra n c e a n d t h a t p eo p le a re n o t h a p p y in th e m , t h a t th e r e a re g a n g s of th ie v e s a n d ro b b e rs , p ro s titu tio n , a n d vice flo u ris h in g in th e m , a n d t h a t p o o r m e n a re ro b b e d b y th e ric h m e n ( M a h a tm a G a n d h i, 1946: 2 3 2 -2 3 3 ). It is a lso s e e n t h a t to d a y a fte r a p ro lo n g e d e x is te n c e of th e s e c o n d itio n s ,th e v e ry s a m e p e o p le w o u ld tr e a t s u c h ta lk a s u n s c ie n tific , p rim itiv e , a n d im p ra c tic a l. M o ra lity h a s b e e n d is c a rd e d n o t o n ly from b u s in e s s a n d p o litic s, b u t a lso fro m m u c h s e rio u s d im e n s io n s of life, s u c h a s m a rria g e , fam ilies etc. M o rality is e v en lo o k e d d o w n u p o n w ith a “W h a t a b o r e ” lo o k . S u c h is th e p itia b le c o n d itio n of th e m o d e rn civilization. H y p o crisy p re v a ils in all d im e n s io n s of life . P eople a re living in a n illu s io n of g la m o u r a n d s ta tu s ; w e a lth to d a y h a s b e co m e th e on ly s o u rc e of v irtu e . It is n o t e a sy to re v e rse th is d eca y in g p ro c e ss, a n d to realize o u r a rro g a n c e in h a v in g a p o sitiv istic o u tlo o k . A s a lre a d y se e n , a n y ta lk of m o ra lity is o fte n d is c a rd e d a s “re lig io u s ” a n d th e u s e of th is w o rd h a s to d a y b e co m e a s h ie ld to in tim id a te th e h u m b le a n d legitim ize “m o n e y ” a s th e so u rc e of v irtu e . T h e s itu a tio n of m o d e rn c iv iliz a tio n h a s b e c o m e so c o m p le x t h a t it is v ery d ifficu lt to conceive th e c o -re la tio n b e tw e e n th e so c io c u ltu ra l, p o litica l, a n d eco n o m ic d e c a d e n c e a n d th e im p e tu s it g e ts th ro u g h A rc h ite c tu ra l a n d te c h n o lo g ic a l n e s c ie n c e . T h e ro o ts of so m u c h d e g ra d a tio n in all d im e n s io n s of life la y v e ry d e e p in h u m a n c o n sc ie n c e itself. T h erefo re, it is im p e ra tiv e t h a t w e u n d e r s ta n d th e v e ry n a tu r e o f h u m a n s to fin a lly a rriv e a t a c le a r p ic tu re of th is la b ry n th ic a l c o -re latio n . 15 L et u s c o n s id e r tw o m e n s ittin g in fro n t of a lo a f of b re a d , one of w h o m h a s n o t e a t for te n d a y s a n d th e o th e r h a s b e e n h u n g ry for five d a y s. A n d a lso a n o th e r c a se of tw o dogs b o th h u n g r y for a sim ila r p e rio d a s th e ir h u m a n c o u n te r p a r ts w ith a n o th e r lo a f of b re a d . T he la te r w o u ld u n d o u b te d ly p o u n c e o n th e food w ith o u t e x ce p tio n . B u t a s for th e h u m a n s , a lth o u g h a sim ila r te n d e n c y ta k e s ro o t w ith in , th e re is a p o w e r b e s to w e d u p o n h u m a n s to e x e rc is e c o n tro l o v er th e ir n a tu r a l in s tin c ts . A p o w e r to ta lly a b s e n t in a n y o th e r life fo rm o n e a r th . T h e fa ilu re to e x e rc ise th is s e lf c o n tro l w o u ld re d u c e th e h u m a n s to w ild a n im a ls, h o w so ev er o u tw a rd ly s o p h is tic a tio n th e y m ay p o s s e s s . T h is is th e only tr u th a n d e v e ry th in g else I th in k , is a m ere p re te n s io n a n d se lf d eceit. T h is is th e c a se n o t o n ly w ith h u n g e r b u t w ith all in s tin c ts th a t d e m a n d s e n s e g ra tific a tio n --se x , ta s te , to u c h , e tc .--a ll th e s e c o m m o n to all a n im a ls. T he a b ility to c o n tro l o u r in s tin c ts a n d d e sire s for th e b e n e fit of o th e rs le a d s to th e c o n c e p t of “ta p a s c h a r y a ” o r se lf c o n tro l, th e re fo re it is c le a r t h a t ‘s e lf le s s n e s s ’ is ‘th e c h a r a c te r ’ w h ic h d is tin g u is h e s h u m a n b e in g s from o th e r life form s. T h e im p o te n c y of “r e a s o n ” to re c o g n iz e m o ra lity m a k e s th is d e fin itio n of th e h u m a n sp e c ie s very irra tio n a l. T h ere fo re , w h a t A dam S m ith d e s c rib e s a s “th e in v isib le h a n d ”9 is a b s o lu te ly ra tio n a l a n d ^Being in fluenced by the em erging industrial revolution and the exp an sion of industrial capitalism and being im pressed by the significant increase in productivity due to division of labour, Adam Sm ith very naturally considered capitalism as the highest form of society--the society in which the acquisitive and the selfish hum an desire (anim alistic) for wealth accum ulation (as he assum ed) could be realized.n Capitalism en su res the existence of a free com petitive market; a free m arket allows free com m odity exchange; free exchange provides for, and is required for, division of labour; division of labour increases productivity and production; production-increase provides more profit; and profit encourages further accum ulation. T hus, division of 16 a n im a lis tic . In tellig e n ce w ith o u t h u m ility le a d s to a rro g a n c e c a u s in g th e “A d a m S m ith S y n d ro m e ”. T h e re a re d o u b ts a b o u t th e o rig in of A c q u ire d Im m u n o D e fic ie n c y S y n d ro m e --w h e th e r it w a s fro m th e m o n k e y s o f A frica o r fro m th e U n ite d S ta te s , H ow ever, th e r e is little d o u b t t h a t th e A d a m S m ith S y n d ro m e s ta r te d w ith th e M e rc a n tile a n d In d u s tria l C ap italism . T o a s o m e w h a t s im ila r a lle g a tio n —’G r e e d y ’ b e h a v io r is n e c e s s a rily a n ti-so c ia l--T h e A s s is ta n t D e a n to th e S ch o o l of P la n n in g a t USC re s p o n d s; No. Y ou a re s e rv e d b e s t in m a r k e ts w h e re (‘g re e d y ’) s e lle rs c o m p e te for y o u r b u s in e s s . M o st of u s w o rk h a r d e r , lo n g e r a n d s m a r te r w h e n w e e x p e c t re w a rd s . S e lle rs b a il o u t b u y e rs . B u y e rs b a il o u t se lle rs. M o st im p o rta n tly , s tra n g e rs b a il o u t s tra n g e rs . D o w e sle ep b e tte r k n o w in g t h a t h u g e p ro fits a w a it th e d isc o v e re rs of a c u re for AIDS — a n d t h a t re s e a r c h e r s a r e u p la te ? H u n d r e d s o f fo o d s a r e n o w b e in g r e p r o c e s s e d b y m a n u f a c tu r e r s to re p la c e c h o le s te ro l- b e a rin g oils. W illie N elson sa y s h e p re fe rs so n g s to ric h e s. O f c o u rse h e h a s b o th . It is no a c c id e n t t h a t m a n y in th e failed e c o n o m ie s of E a s te r n E u ro p e no w p le a d for m o re g re e d y b e h a v io r. P e rs o n a l a m b itio n d is c ip lin e d b y c o m p e titio n e x p la in s th e b e n e f its o f th e ‘in v is ib le h a n d ’ T h is is s o c ia l ‘c o n tra d ic tio n ’ T h e a lte rn a tiv e is to w a it fo r e v ery o n e to s ta r t b e in g sa in tly . E v en in c a s e s of w elfare in te rd e p e n d e n c y (su c h a s th e c a r e o f c o m m o n a r e a s in c o m m u n itie s a n d c o n d o m in iu m s), g ree d y in d iv id u a ls b a rg a in th e ir w a y o u t labour and free market are the fundam ental factors: the former increases com m odity production and the latter provides the opportunity for free exchange of th ese com m odities. This exchange of com m odities takes place according to the law of dem and and supply w hich, on the other hand, is guided by the force of the “invisible hand”. If market price (price actually exists in the market) is higher than ‘natural price’ (determ ined by exchange value com prising wage, profit and rent); profit goes up to the extent that it attracts other producers (because of invisible hand of desire and gain); w hich increases supply and, thus, reduces market price to the level of natural price again. (Haque, 1989:47) 17 o f p r i s o n e r ’s d ile m m a s i t u a t i o n s (by s p o n ta n e o u s ly o rg a n iz in g a s s o c ia tio n s a n d ru le s of b e h av io r) w h e n e v e r th e y g e t th e c h a n c e . (Prof. P e te r G o rd o n ’s le c tu re o n Nov. 2 8 th 1 9 9 0 a t USC) B e in g a m o d e rn m a n - “a m a n of r e a s o n ” o n e is m e s m e riz e d w ith th e c a p a c ity of th e h u m a n in te lle c t a n d is c o n v in c e d t h a t b y re a s o n in g , all c a n b e a tta in e d , a n d th e re fo re h e n a tu r a lly b e lie v e s w h a t h e s a y s to b e tru e . B ein g o b s e s s e d w ith m a te ria l p ro s p e rity (A to ta l a b se n c e of S a ttv a 10 a n d a d o m in a n c e of Tam as) h e w o u ld alw ays find a rg u m e n ts in s u p p o rt of it. W e ra re ly find p eo p le a rg u in g a g a in s t th e m se lv e s. T h o se w h o a re in to x ic a te d by m o d e rn c iv ilizatio n a re n o t lik ely to w rite a g a in s t it. T h e ir c a re w ill b e to fin d o u t fa c ts a n d a rg u m e n ts in s u p p o r t of it, a n d th is th e y do u n c o n sc io u s ly , believing it to b e tru e . A m a n , w h ils t h e is d re a m in g , b e lie v e s in h is d re a m ; h e is u n d e c e iv e d o n ly w h e n h e is a w a k e n e d from h is sle e p . A m a n la b o u rin g u n d e r th e b a n e of c iv iliz atio n is lik e a d re a m in g m a n . W h a t w e u s u a lly re a d a re th e w o rk s o f d e fe n d e rs of m o d e rn c iv iliz a tio n , w h ic h u n d o u b te d ly c la im s a m o n g it...s v o ta rie s v ery b rillia n t a n d even so m e v e ry good m en . T h e ir w ritin g s h y p n o tiz e u s . A nd so, o n e b y o n e w e a re d ra w n in to th e v o rtex . (M a h a tm a G a n d h i, 1946: 212) T h e is s u e in q u e s tio n h e re is n o t a n e w o n e. It w a s a d d re s s e d to J e s u s tw o th o u s a n d y e a rs ago. S t. M ark h a s vividly d e s c rib e d th e sc e n e . J e s u s is in h is s o le m n m o o d ; h e is e a r n e s t. H e ta lk s of e te rn ity . H e k n o w s th e w orld a b o u t h im . He is h im s e lf th e g r e a te s t e c o n o m ist of h is tim e . He su c c e e d e d in eco n o m iz in g tim e a n d sp a c e - -h e tra n s c e n d e d th e m . It is to h im a t h is b e s te th o n e c o m es ru n n in g , k n e e ls d o w n a n d a s k s : ‘G ood M a ste r, w h a t s h a ll 1 do t h a t I m a y in h e rit e te rn a l life?’ A nd J e s u s sa id u n to h im : ‘W hy c a lle s t th o u m e good? T h e re is n o n e good b u t one, t h a t is G od. T h o u k n o w e s t th e 10 Sattva (Goodness), Rajas (Passion), and Tamas (Ignorance) are the three material m odes of nature. See Chapter III for elaboration. 18 c o m m a n d m e n ts . D o n o t c o m m it a d u lte ry , Do n o t kill, D o n o t b e a r fa lse w itn e s s , D e fra u d n o t, H o n o r th y f a th e r a n d m o th e r .’ A n d h e a n sw e re d a n d sa id u n to h im : ‘M a ste r, all th e s e I h a v e o b se rv e d from m y y o u th .’ T h e n J e s u s b e h o ld in g , loved h im a n d s a id u n to him : ‘O ne th in g th o u la c k e s t. Go th y w ay, sell w h a te v e r th o u h a s t a n d give to th e poor, a n d th o u s h a lt h a v e tr e a s u r e in h e a v e n --c o m e ta k e u p th e c ro ss a n d follow m e .’ a n d h e w a s sa d a t th a t sa y in g a n d w e n t aw ay g riev ed — for h e h a d g re a t p o s s e s s io n s (T here a p re s e n c e of S a ttv a b u t it is c o n tro lle d b y R a ja s. T a m a s how ever, h a d b e e n overcom e). A nd J e s u s looked ro u n d a b o u t a n d sa id u n to h is d iscip les: ‘H ow h a rd ly sh a ll th e y t h a t h a v e ric h e s e n te r in to th e k in g d o m of G o d .’ A n d th e d isc ip le s w ere a s to n is h e d a t h is w o rd s, b u t J e s u s a n s w e re th a g a in a n d s a ith u n to th e m : ‘C h ild re n , h o w h a rd it is for th e m t h a t t r u s t in ric h e s to e n te r in to th e k in g d o m of G od. It is e a s ie r for a c a m e l to go th ro u g h th e eye of a n e e d le t h a n for a ric h m a n to e n te r in to th e k in g d o m of G od!’ B u t a s fa r a s th e k in g d o m of m o d e rn c iv ilizatio n is c o n c e rn e d , th e re is c o m p lete freed o m . A n y b o d y c a n e n te r it a t h is ow n risk . T h e a v e n u e s ta k e a d v a n ta g e a n d e x p lo it u n d e r a ‘leg al p r e te n s e ’ of a n y p ro fe s s io n . O n c e th e r e is e x p e rtis e th e re is a p p lic a tio n a n d o n c e th e r e is th e a p p lic a tio n e x p lo ita tio n follow s. T h is is tr u e of ev ery p ro fe ssio n to d ay , even in c a se of p la n n e rs a n d a rc h ite c ts . U s in g t h e i r e x p e r tis e a n d k n o w le d g e , th e p l a n n e r s a n d a rc h ite c ts m a n ife s t th e d e v e lo p m e n t th e o rie s a n d s tr a te g ie s in to a p h y s ic a l r e a lity to p ro v id e a ll t h a t is re q u ire d of a s y s te m in a n e ffic ie n t w ay. A nd th u s , c itie s w ith fa c to rie s , c o lo n ie s , h ig h -ris e , 19 h o te ls , c a r s , fre e w a y s , w ith t h e i r s o p h is tic a te d g a d g e tr y lik e , te le v is io n , v c r ’s, v e n d in g m a c h in e s , w a s h in g m a c h in e s , (all w ith re m o te c o n tro ls , o f la te ) e tc ., c o m e in to e x is te n c e to fo rm w h a t M u m fo rd c a lls a s th e “b io te c h n ic s o c ie ty 11.” All in tro d u c e d to solve th e p ro b le m s (or in o th e r w o rd s to s a tis f y th e “n e e d s ”) o f th e g ro w in g c itie s a n d th e ir p o p u la tio n d e n s itie s . T h o u g h th e re a s o n for th e g ro w th (w hich is th e a c tu a l p ro b lem ) is n e v e r p u t to q u e s tio n , it is s e e n t h a t , a t th e m o s t, c itie s a re re lie v e d o f t h e i r b u r d e n m o m e n ta rily b y p u ttin g c o u n te r m a g n e ts 12 a ro u n d it, w h ic h in c o u rs e of tim e , th e m se lv e s, w o u ld grow a s b a d a s th e o rig in a l tu m o r 13 h a d b e e n . M o d e rn civ iliz atio n h a s d e fin ite ly giv en h u m a n fre e d o m in all w a lk s o f life, b u t u n fo rtu n a te ly , it h a s b e e n a n eq u a l opportunity to exercise fr e e d o m o f being se lfish rather th a n selfless. P la n n e r s a n d I h n a glossary, Mumford explains That the word ‘ biotechnic refers to’ an ‘ em ergent econom y’ in w hich the key inventions, on the m echanical side, are the airplane, the phonograph, the m otion picture and the m odem contraceptive, all derived directly in part, from a study of living organism s’. He goes on to observe that “the application of bacteriology to m edicine and sanitation , and of physiology of nutrition and daily regimen, are further m arks of th is order: parallel applications in psychology for the discipline of hum an behavior in very departm ent are plainly in d icated.” (Watkin, 1977: 48) 12 W hat we need during the next two decades is a holding action w hich involves increasing em ploym ent and incom es at the village and sm all town level and stim ulating the econom ic growth of m iddle sized tow ns and cities to act as counterm agnets to the big m etropolis. [Charles Correa on Bombay] (Cantacuzino, 1984: 46) 13W hat G andhi describes as the “plague" of m od em civilization in d u ces greed into people drag them to one place. T hus the conglom eration of su ch people would be a collection of all those who have been affected by the plague. Thus giving rise to a tumor in the nations heart in the form of a city. Therefore, putting counterm agnets is like putting another grain of sugar to decrease the num ber of ants on the earlier one. 20 a rc h ite c ts b e in g a p a r t of th e sa m e so c ie ty th in k in p ra c tic a l te rm s . S in c e w ro n g p r a c tic e d e m a n d s re fo rm s th e y a r e d is m is s e d a s im p ra c tic a l. T h e re fo re th e s e p r a c titio n e r s c a n n e v e r b e re fo rm is ts ; th e d a y th e y b e co m e, th e y will c e a se to p ra c titio n e rs . 2 .5 P la n n in g T h eo ries A s w e h a v e a lre a d y s e e n t h a t m e n a re “in to x ic a te d ” b y m o d e rn civ ilizatio n th ro u g h th e v o ta rie s of p o sitiv ism . S o m e of w h o m b e co m e p la n n e r s . M o d e rn th e o r y of p la n n in g k n o w n a s th e R a tio n a l C o m p re h e n siv e P la n n in g is a lso a v e ry p o sitiv is tic th e o ry su ffe rin g fro m th e d is e a s e o f m o d e rn c iv iliz a tio n . T h o u g h th e S c ie n c e of M u d d lin g th ro u g h is n o le s s affected b y th e d is e a s e of m o d e rn ism , it is in te r e s tin g to p o n d e r o v er th e r e a s o n of th e p o p u la r ity of th e ra tio n a l c o m p re h e n s iv e m o d el over th e sc ie n c e o f m u d d lin g th ro u g h (co m m o n ly k n o w n a s d isjo in te d in c re m e n ta lis m ). B efore try in g to e x p la in th e re a s o n for s u c h a p re fe re n c e of th e p r e s e n t d a y p la n n e r s , o n e m u s t u n d e r s ta n d t h a t a n y p e rs o n in a so c ie ty p re fe rs , c h o o s e s a n d s u p p o r ts a n y p a r tic u la r n o tio n o r a n a lte rn a tiv e b a s e d u p o n tw o fac to rs. O n e is th e v a lu e s y s te m in w h ic h h e h a s b e e n b ro u g h t u p -- d e a lin g w ith h is p e rc e p tio n of re a lity , a n d th e s e c o n d is th e d is tin c tio n b e tw e e n a n a ltr u is tic m o tiv e a n d a “good for a ll”14, p ro fe s sio n a l m otive. A s re g a rd s th e firs t fa c to r, m e n 14It is seen that decisions are taken in a way that benefits all to the m axim um extent, or benefits som e without affecting others which in practise however is not found to be true. The need for autom obiles for exam pie-everyone may get cheap cars but later pay the price through degradation of the environment. The building of dam s also n ecessitates rehabilitation of th ou san d s of rural folk. To the decision m akers the project seem s to be beneficial for all. But the villager values 21 a re g u id e d b y th e p o sitiv istic v a lu e sy s te m of th e ‘m o d e rn ’ s o c ie ty 15. T h e s u c c e s s e s of sc ie n tific m e th o d s in in c re a s in g o u r u n d e r s ta n d in g a n d c o n tro l ov er n a tu r a l fo rce s le a d s m a n y s c h o la rs to b eliev e t h a t s im ila r a p p ro a c h e s c o u ld b e a p p lie d to h u m a n so c ia l s y s te m s w ith e q u a l s u c c e s s . T h e r e s u lt is a g re a t flo u ris h in g of th e so c ia l s c ie n c e s a n d a p ro life ra tio n of u to p ia n e x p e rim e n ts s e e k in g to im p ro v e th e h u m a n c o n d itio n th r o u g h th e ra tio n a l p la n n in g a n d c o n tro l of so c ial in s titu tio n s . W hile firm ly ro o te d in th is tra d itio n , u r b a n p la n n in g is f u n c tio n in g u n d e r c o n d itio n s o f “im p e r fe c t k n o w le d g e , u n c le a r o b je c tiv e s , a n d u n c e r ta in m e a n s ” fo r a tta in in g th e s e o b je c tiv e s (C a ta n e se & S n y d e r, 1988: 48). T he d ic tio n a ry d e s c rib e s ‘ra tio n a l’ a s- of th e re a s o n : e n d o w ed w ith re a s o n : a g re e a b le to re a so n : n o tin g a q u a n tity e x a c tly e x p re ss e d b y n u m b e rs w ith o u t a ro o t sig n , a n d ra tio n a lity m e a n s th e sk ill to re o rg an iz e sc ien tific ally (e.g., in d u stry ) to re d u c e c o s t a n d effort. F ro m th is it c a n b e in fe rre d t h a t all th a t is m e a s u ra b le c a n b e ra tio n a l a n d his ancestral land more than m oney. We see him as an uneducated villager, and he does the sam e of us. For him to be a part of our decision’s effect, we m u st learn to be him first. 15It is conceivable that as a nam e for philosophy, positivism is no more a burning issu e, b u t its ‘sh adow ’ (assu m p tion s principles and su bstan ce) prevail in major d isc ip lin e s of a cad em ic k n ow led ge in W estern u n iv e r sitie s and research organizations (Bebek, 1982:3; Baliber, 1978: 14-16). Positivism exists in the form of recognition of verifiable and m easurable ‘ scientific’ (natural and social) knowledge and d isresp ect for any other form s of im aginative and em pirically unverifiable knowledge (Raman, 1987:63; Sabalo, 1977:317). The net result is the ‘legacy’ of positivism , w hich exists in contem porary thought in term s of convictions and attitudes, problems and techniques, concepts and theories. 22 all t h a t is ra tio n a l c a n b e m e a s u re d . A n d so is th e c a s e w ith th e ra tio n a l c o m p re h e n s iv e m o d el. M a n s u ffe rs fro m m a n y d e lu s io n s ; b u t n o n e so g re a t a s h is a tte m p t to fo rm u la te law s for th e c o n d u c t of o th e r m e n d is re g a rd in g th e effects of so c ia l affe ctio n , a s if th e y w ere on ly m a c h in e s a t w ork. T h a t w e c h e ris h s u c h a n illu s io n d o e s u s n o c re d it. Like o th e r fo rm s o f e rro r, th e law s o f p o litic a l eco n o m y a lso c o n ta in a n e le m e n t of p la u s ib ility . P o litic a l e c o n o m is ts a s s e r t t h a t s o c ia l a ffe c tio n s a re to b e lo o k e d u p o n a s a c c id e n ta l a n d d is tu rb in g e le m e n ts in h u m a n n a tu re ; b u t a v arice a n d th e d e s ir e fo r p r o g r e s s a re c o n s t a n t e le m e n ts . L et u s e lim in a te th e in c o n s ta n ts a n d , c o n sid e rin g m a n m e re ly a s a m o n e y -m a k in g m a c h in e , e x a m in e b y w h a t la w s o f la b o u r ,p u r c h a s e a n d sa le, th e g re a te s t a m o u n t of w e a lth c a n b e a c c u m u la te d (w ith m in im u m effort). T h o se la w s o n ce d e te rm in e d , it w ill b e for e a c h in d iv id u a l a fte rw a rd s to in tr o d u c e a s m u c h o f th e d is t u r b in g a ffe c tio n a l e le m e n ts a s h e c h o o ses. T h is w o u ld b e a c o n v in c in g a rg u m e n t if th e so c ia l a ffe ctio n s w ere of th e sa m e n a tu r e a s th e law s of d e m a n d a n d su p p ly . M a n ’s affectio n s c o n s titu te a n in n e r force, th e law s of d e m a n d a n d s u p p ly a re fo rm u la tio n s c o n c e rn in g th e e x te r n a l w o rld . T h e tw o, th e re fo re , a re n o t o f th e s a m e n a tu re . If a m oving b o d y is a c te d u p o n b y a c o n s ta n t fo rc e fro m o n e d ir e c tio n a n d a v a ry in g fo rc e fro m a n o th e r, w e w o u ld firs t m e a s u r e th e c o n s ta n t fo rce a n d th e n th e in c o n s ta n t. W e w ill b e a b le to d e te rm in e th e v elo city of th e b o d y b y c o m p a rin g th e tw o forces. W e c a n do th is b e c a u s e th e c o n s ta n t a n d th e in c o n s ta n t a re of th e sa m e k in d . B u t in so c ial d e a lin g s th e c o n s ta n t force of th e law s of d e m a n d a n d s u p p ly a n d th e a c c id e n ta l fo rce of so c ial affectio n a re fo rces th a t differ in k in d . A ffection h a s a d iffe re n t k in d o f effect o n m a n a n d a c ts in a d iffe re n t m a n n e r . It c h a n g e s m a n ’s n a tu r e so t h a t w e c a n n o t m e a s u r e its e ffe c t w ith th e la w s o f a d d itio n a n d s u b tr a c tio n (or b y c o s t-b e n e fit a n a ly sis), a s w e c a n th e effe cts o f d iffe re n t fo rce s o n th e v elo c ity o f th e b o d y . A k n o w le d g e o f th e la w s o f e x c h a n g e is o f n o h e lp in d e te r m in in g th e e ffe c ts o f m a n ’s s o c ia l a ff e c tio n s (G a n d h i, 1951: 4 1 1 -4 1 2 ). W e se e t h a t p la n n in g to d a y p rim a rily is ‘u r b a n ’ a n d o n ly of th o s e is s u e s th a t a re m e a s u ra b le a n d th e re fo re it is tru ly ra tio n a l. B u t 23 sin c e , a s it is s e e n o ften , in th e lo n g r u n , th e im m e a s u ra b le fa c to rs t u r n o u t to b e th e o n e s th a t m a tte r th e m o st, th e w h o le p u rp o s e of p la n n in g b e c o m e s m e a n in g le s s . T h e v e ry n a m e of th e m o d e l th e o ry - “r a tio n a l c o m p re h e n s iv e p la n n in g ” a p p e a r s iro n ic a l. T h a t w h ic h is p u re ly ra tio n a l c a n n e v e r b e c o m p re h e n siv e . T h e re fo re I lo o k a t th is a s a r a tio n a l p la n n in g w h ic h m a y b e c o m p re h e n s iv e w ith in th e sc o p e o f r a t i o n a l i t y its e lf , b u t n o t in th e a b s o l u t e s e n s e o f c o m p re h e n s iv e n e s s . T h e im p le m e n ta tio n o f c o m p le te ra tio n a lis m is th e p rim a ry a im of th e ra tio n a l c o m p re h e n siv e m o d el, th e s u c c e s s of w h ic h is th e d e c id in g fa c to r of th e p la n n in g v e n tu re . T h e re is a se n se of c o m p le te c o n tro l in p h y s ic a l te r m s (th ro u g h e q u a tio n s a n d a lg o rith m s ) -- th e p e rfe c t fit for th e s lo t c re a te d b y th e p r e s e n t e x p e c ta tio n s a n d d e m a n d s of th e le g a c y o f p o sitiv is m . W ith in th e b o u n d a r ie s o f m e a s u ra b ility , o f c o u rs e , r a tio n a l p la n n in g m a y b e c o m p re h e n siv e , th u s m a k in g it a m odel w ith h ig h c la rity of m e a n s a s w ell a s a h ig h c la rity of th e goals. T h e m o s t c o m m o n s itu a tio n is t h a t th e e n d s b e in g s o u g h t a s w ell a s th e m e a n s to ach iev e th e m a re u n c e r ta in . C h a rle s L in d b lo o m d e s c r ib e s th is r e a lis tic a lly 16 u n d e r th e c ir c u m s ta n c e s o f w h ic h ’ d e c isio n m a k in g w o u ld b e a se rie s of sm a ll in c re m e n ta l s te p s , ed g in g in to th e fu tu re . O ne w ill realize th a t th e in c re a s e in c o n c e n tra tio n of p e o p le , m o n e y , p o w e r, c rim e , a u to m o b i le s , p o l lu t i o n , e tc , 16Lindbloom calls this type of planning disjointed increm entalism , but it is known more popularly as m uddling through. He provides a very realistic picture of what usually happens with decision- and policy-making bodies: Legislators and their advisers (including planners) are contiguously confronted with a barrage of information, dem ands, crises, and short-term problem s and have very little time, money, or expertise to resolve them. The result is alm ost the antithesis of rational planning (See Lindbloom, 1959: 79-88) 24 n e c e s s ita te s p la n n in g , a n d th a t, in s u c h a s itu a tio n , h ig h u n c e rta in ty s u r r o u n d s th e p ro b le m d u e to w h ic h so m e fo rm of m u d d lin g th ro u g h is o fte n fo u n d to b e th e o n ly ‘r a tio n a l’ w a y to p ro c e e d . G ra n d io s e s c h e m e s a n d e la b o ra te a n a ly s e s a n d s tu d ie s w o u ld b e a w a s te of tim e o r m e re ly for th e s a k e of p re te n s io n if n e ith e r th e p la n n e r s n o r th e p u b lic n o r th e p o lic y m a k e r s re a lly u n d e r s t a n d w h a t is b e in g c o n s id e r e d a n d w h a t th e a lt e r n a t iv e s m a y b e . U n d e r th e s e c ir c u m s ta n c e s , th e re is a h ig h p ro b a b ility t h a t ‘r a tio n a lity ’ w o u ld its e lf s u g g e s t a tria l a n d e rro r m e th o d , e v e n tu a lly tra n s fo rm in g in to a d is jo in te d in c re m e n ta lis m . B u t for th o s e w h o p o sit th e id e a s a s c a u s e s , firstly , in se e k in g to g ra s p th e c a u s e s of th e th in g s a ro u n d u s , th e y in tro d u c e o th e rs e q u a l in n u m b e r to th e s e , a s if a m a n w ho w a n te d to c o u n t th in g s th o u g h t h e w o u ld n o t be a b le to do it w hile th e y w ere few, b u t trie d to c o u n t th e m w h e n h e h a d a d d e d to t h e i r n u m b e r (A ris to tle , M e ta p h y sic s, B ook 1, C h a p te r 9). D isjo in te d in c re m e n ta lis m rec o g n ize s th e c h a o s t h a t w o u ld b e c a u s e d b y th e r a tio n a l c o m p re h e n s iv e m o d el, b u t u n f o r tu n a te ly it d o es n o t p ro p o se a re fo rm ist m o d el, in s te a d it a c c e p ts th e s itu a tio n b e in g p la n n e d for a s a re a lity . T h o u g h it m a y g e t th e c re d it of b e in g h o n e s t, it’s p ro p o sa l is n o b e tte r th a n a n y of th e o th e rs . O n th e o th e r h a n d , s u p p o r te r s of th e r a tio n a l c o m p re h e n s iv e m o d el se e th e re a lity a s b e in g a m u ltitu d e o f m e a s u r a b le e n titie s , th in k in g it to b e tru e , th e y se e k c la rity in th e g o a ls a n d in th e m e a n s of a c h ie v in g th e m . W e se e m o re of s u c h s u p p o r te r s sin c e , p e o p le ’s b e liefs a ttitu d e s a n d c o n v ic tio n s a re b a s e d o n ra tio n a lis m . O ne n e e d n o t blow th e c o n c h of tr iu m p h fo r th is , w e se e t h a t m o re p e o p le go to th e b a r s a n d g a m b lin g d e n s, ev en c h ild re n a re ta k in g 25 d r u g s a n d c ig a re tte s ; th is d o e s n o t m e a n t h a t it is g o o d fo r th e so ciety . All t h a t c a te rs to th e w e a k n e s s e s of h u m a n s , b e co m e p o p u la r a n d a c c e p te d v e ry so o n . T h is is o n e o f th o s e in s ta n c e s , c a te rin g to th e u r g e in e v e ry m a n to b e th e c o n tr o lle r o f e v e r y th in g ; m a n ip u la tin g n a tu r e to p u ttin g th e u n i ts fo r a ffe c tio n in th e F P S s y s te m 17. M e th o d s h ith e rto a d o p te d h a v e failed b e c a u s e ro c k - b o tto m s in c e rity o n th e p a r t o f th o s e w h o h a v e s triv e n h a s b e e n la c k in g . N ot t h a t th e y h a v e re a liz e d th is la c k . P eace is u n a tta in a b le b y p a r t p e rfo rm a n c e o f c o n d itio n s , e v en a s a c h e m ic a l c o m b in a tio n is im p o s s ib le w ith o u t c o m p le te fu lfillm e n t o f th e c o n d itio n s o f a t t a i n m e n t th e r e o f (G a n d h i’s a n s w e r to th e T h e C o s m o p o lita n , H a rija n , 18 J u n e 1938). A p a rt fro m a ll th e s u c c e s s e s o f s c ie n tific th in k in g in th e h isto ry , R a tio n a l p la n n in g m o d els h av e b e e n m a n y tim e s s u c c e s s fu l in p u b lic h e a lth s itu a tio n s . S u c h a s e n s u r in g a d e q u a te s u p p lie s of d rin k in g w a te r, o r p re v e n tin g th e s p re a d of s m a llp o x . S im ila rly th e m e a n s o f a c h ie v in g th is w e re a ls o fa irly p r e d ic ta b le ; m o n e y , e q u ip m e n t, p e rs o n n e l a n d s tip u la te d tim e c o u ld b e c o n tro lle d to q u ite a n e x te n t. T h is a d d e d to th e efficien cy o f a ra tio n a l a p p ro a c h . L a te r, a n u m b e r o f q u a n tita tiv e te c h n iq u e s g o t in c o r p o r a te d in to r a tio n a l p la n n in g ; th e p la n n in g , p ro g ra m m in g , b u d g e tin g s y s te m (PPBS) w a s d e v e lo p e d o rig in a lly fo r n a tio n a l d e fe n se : CPM & PER T evolved a s a p a r t of th e sp a c e p ro g ram : L in e a r p ro g ra m m in g a n d co st- b e n e fit a n a ly s is w ere d e v elo p ed b y e n g in e e rs a n d e c o n o m is ts (See C a ta n e s e & S n y d e r, 1988: 4 7 -4 9 ). T h u s w e see th e in c o rp o ra tio n of 17FPS stan d s for foot-pound-seconds. It Is one of the system s of m easurem ent (like MKS, CGS & SI). 26 s u c h te c h n iq u e s to th e s y s te m of d e c isio n m a k in g w h e re so c ia l & c u ltu ra l v a lu e s w ere c o n c e rn e d . T h e p la n n in g m o d e ls will n o t a tta in c o m p re h e n s iv e n e s s u n le s s p la n n e r s give se lfle ss se rv ice r a th e r th a n p ro fe s sio n a l serv ice. T h e a im o f m a n in h is life is se lf re a liz a tio n . T h e on e a n d th e o n ly m e a n s of a tta in in g th is is to s p e n d o n e ’s life in se rv in g h u m a n ity in a tru e a ltru is tic s p irit a n d lose o n e s e lf in t h i s a n d re a liz e th e o n e n e s s o f life (G an d h i, 1929, H in d i N avajivan ). 2 .6 P ro fessio n a ls and T he C on cep t o f P ro fessio n a lism “tru e a ltr u is tic s p ir it” a n d “P ro fe ss io n a lis m ” a re a n to n y m s . W e h a v e a lre a d y s e e n th e field of p la n n in g a n d h o w it’s v o ta rie s a re in to x ic a te d b y m o d e rn civilization. S a m e h o ld s tr u e for all p ro fe s sio n s in c lu d in g A r c h ite c ts , L a w y e rs, D o c to rs , e tc . ‘p r o f e s s io n a l’ its e lf s u g g e s ts a n a c c e p te d a u th o r ity of a re s p e c ta b le fra u d , ‘p ro fe s s io n a l a p p r o a c h ’ m e a n s a n ‘im m o ra l a p p r o a c h ’. M en s u ffe rin g fro m th e d is e a s e o f “m o d e rn c iv iliz a tio n ” b e c a u s e o f th e le g a c y o f p o sitiv ism ta k e u p s u c h p ro fe s s io n s n o t for th e s a k e of h e lp in g o th e r s b u t in o rd e r to b e co m e w e a lth y a n d th e re b y in d u lg e in p h y s ic a l p le a s u re s . E v en L aw its e lf h a s b e co m e a tool to legitim ize e x p lo ita tio n . T h e re is n o fa lsity in th e s e s ta te m e n ts . T h e H in d u a n d th e M o h a m m e d a n s h a v e q u a rre le d . A n o rd in a ry m a n w ill a s k th e m to fo rg et a b o u t it; h e w ill tell th e m t h a t b o th m u s t b e a t fa u lt, a n d will a d v ise th e m n o lo n g e r to q u a rre l. B u t th e y go to law y ers. T h e la tte r ’s d u ty is to sid e w ith th e ir c lie n ts a n d to find o u t w a y s a n d a rg u m e n ts in fa v o u r of th e c lie n ts , to w h ic h th e y (the clien ts) a re o ften s tra n g e rs . If th e y do n o t do so, th e y will b e c o n s id e re d to h a v e d e g ra d e d th e ir p ro fe s s io n . T h e la w y e rs , th e re fo re , w ill, a s a ru le , a d v a n c e q u a r r e ls in s te a d of r e p re s s in g th e m . M oreover, m e n ta k e u p th a t 27 p ro fe s s io n , n o t in o r d e r to h e lp o th e r s o u t o f th e i r m is e rie s , b u t to e n r ic h th e m s e lv e s . It is o n e of th e a v e n u e s o f b e c o m in g w e a lth y a n d th e ir in te r e s t e x is ts in m u ltip ly in g d is p u te s . P e tty le a d e rs a c tu a lly m a n u f a c tu r e th e m . T h e ir to u ts , like so m a n y le e c h e s, s u c k th e b lo o d of th e p o o r p eo p le. L aw y ers a re m e n w h o h a v e little to do. L azy p eo p le, in o rd e r to in d u lg e in lu x u rie s , ta k e u p s u c h p ro fe ssio n s. T h is is a tru e s ta te m e n t. A ny o th e r a rg u m e n t is a m e re p r e te n s io n . It is th e la w y e rs w h o h a v e d isc o v e re d t h a t th e ir s is a n h o n o u ra b le p ro fe s s io n . T h ey fra m e law s a s th e y fra m e th e ir ow n p ra is e s . T h e y d e cid e w h a t fees th e y will c h a rg e a n d th e y p u t so m u c h sid e th a t p o o r p e o p le a lm o s t c o n s id e r th e m to b e h e a v e n -b o rn . W h y d o th e y w a n t m o re fe e s t h a n c o m m o n la b o u re r s ? W hy a re th e ir r e q u ire m e n ts g re a te r? In w h a t w a y a re th e y m o re p ro fita b le to th e c o u n tr y t h a n th e la b o u re rs ? A nd, if th e y h av e d o n e a n y th in g for th e c o u n try for th e s a k e of m o n ey , h o w s h a ll it b e c o u n te d a s go o d ? (M a h a tm a G a n d h i, 1946: 2 2 7 -2 2 8 ) T h e s e p r o f e s s io n s a r e v e ry s p e c ia liz e d a n d th e r e f o r e c o n tr i b u te t h r o u g h t h e i r o w n a v e n u e s , w h ic h a lo n e , a p p e a r m e s m e riz in g ly s o p h is tic a te d a n d c o n v in c in g ly p ro g re s s iv e . H ow ever w h e n th e n e t effect of all s u c h p ro fe s sio n s is s e e n y o u g e t th e fin e s t s p e c im e n o f m o d e r n c iv iliz a tio n c a u s in g w h a t is te r m e d a s “m a ld e ve lo p m en t." P ro fe ss io n s se rv e o n ly tw o p u r p o s e s u n d e r th e p r e te n s e of se rv ic e to th e so c ie ty --e x p lo ita tio n a n d th e g lo rific a tio n of e x p lo ita tio n . M o d e rn c iv iliz a tio n 18 th ro u g h i t ’s v o ta rie s , w h o a re 18 W hen the term 'Modern Civilization' is used, it im plies Mahatma Gandhi's definition of "civilization" through out this study. Let us consider what state of things is described by the word "civilization". Its true test lies in the fact that the people living in it make bodily welfare the object of life. We will take some examples. The people of Europe today live in better built houses than they did a hundred years ago. This is considered an emblem of civilization, and this also a matter to promote bodily happiness. Formerly they wore skins, and used spears as their weapons. N ow , they wear long trousers, and for em bellishing their bodies, they wear a variety of clothing, and, instead of spears, they carry with them revolvers containing five or more chambers. If people of a certain country, who have hitherto not been in the habit of wearing much clothing, boots, etc., adopt European clothing, they arc supposed to have become civilized out of savagery. Formerly, in Europe, people ploughed their lands m ainly by 28 manual labour. N ow . one man can plough a vast tract by m eans of steam engines and am ass great wealth. This is called a sign of civilization. Formerly, only a few men wrote valuable books. N ow , anybody writes and prints anything he likes and poisons people's minds. Formerly, men travelled in wagons. N ow , they fly through the air in trains at the rate of four hundred and more m iles per day. This is considered the height of civilization. It has been stated that, as men progress, they shall be able to travel in airships and reach any part of the world in few hours. Men will not need the use of their hands and feet. They will press a button, and they will have their clothing by their side. They will press another button, and they will have their newspaper. A third, and a motor car will be waiting for them. They will have a variety of delicately dished up food. Every thing w ill be done by machinery. Formerly, when people wanted to fight with one another, they measured between them their bodily strength; now it is possible to take away thousands of lives by one man working behind a gun from a hill. This is civilization. Formerly, men worked in the open air only as much as they liked. N o w thousands of workm en m eet together and for the sake of maintenance work in the factories and m ines. Their condition is worse than that of beasts. They are obliged to work, at the risk of their lives, at m ost dangerous occupations, for the sake of millionaires. Formerly, men were made slaves under physical com pulsion. N ow they are enslaved by temptation of m oney and of the luxuries that m oney can buy. There are now diseases of which people never dreamt before, and an army of doctors is engaged in finding out their cures, and so hospitals have increased. This is a test of civilization. Formerly, special m essengers were required and much expense was incurred in order to send letters; today anyone can abuse his fellow by means of a letter for one penny. True, at the same cost, one can send one's thanks also. Formerly, people had two or three m eals consisting of home made bread and vegetables; now, they require something to eat every two hours so that they have hardly leisure for anything else. What more need I say? All this you can ascertain from several authoritative books. These are true tests of civilization. And, if anyone speaks to the contrary, know that he is ignorant. This civilization takes note neither of morality nor of religion. Its votaries calm ly state that their business is not to teach religion. Some even consider it to be a superstitious growth. Others put on the cloak of religion, and prate about morality. But after twenty years experience I have come to the conclusion that immorality is often taught in the name of morality. Even a child can understand that in all I have described above there can be no inducement to morality. Civilization seeks to increase bodily comforts, and it fails miserably even in doing so. This civilization is irreligion, and it has taken such a hold of the people in Europe that those who are in it appear to be half mad. They lack real physical strength or courage. They keep up their energy by intoxication. They can hardly be happy in solitude. W omen who should be the queens of households, wander in the streets or they slave away in the factories, for the sake of pittance, half a million women in England alone are labouring under trying circumstances in factories or similar institutions, this awful fact is one of the causes of the daily growing suffragette movement. This civilization is such that one has to be only patient and it will be self-destroyed. According to the teaching of M ahom ed this w ould be considered a Satanic Civilization. H induism calls it the Black Age . I cannot 29 p ro fe s s io n a ls , e x p lo it th e w e a k e r se c tio n o f a s o c ie ty 19. O n e n a tio n e x p lo its th e o th e r in th e n a m e of “free m a r k e t”. S o m e b e c o m e ric h b y e x p lo itin g th e r e s t to m a k e th e m p o o r. It is tr u e ev en in c a se of n a tio n s also . F o rm erly , n a tio n s u s e d to b e p r e s e n t p h y sic a lly in o th e r n a tio n s to s u c k th e ir b lo o d . T o d ay th e s itu a tio n is m u c h w o rse . O ne n a tio n c o r r u p ts th e m in d s of th e “e d u c a te d ” few in a n o th e r , a n d e x p lo its th r o u g h th e s e “B ro w n S a h ib s 20". T h e e x p lo ite rs g r e a te s t give you an adequate conception of it. It is eating into the vitals of the English nation. It must be shunned. Parliaments arc really em blem s of slavery**. If you will sufficiently think over this, you will entertain the same opinion and cease to blame the English. They rather deserve our sym pathy, they arc a shrewd nation and I therefore believe that they will cast off the evil. They arc enterprising and industrious, and their m ode of thought is not inherently im m oral. N either arc they bad at heart. I therefore respect them . Civilization is not an incurable disease, but it should never be forgotten that the English people arc present afflicted by it. (Mahatma Gandhi, 1910:213- 214) * Mahatma Gandhi refers to Kali Yuga or the Dark Age here. ** In another instance Mahatma Gandhi compares the "Mother of Parliaments" (the English Parliament) to a sterile woman and a prostitute (Sec Mahatma Gandhi's Hind Swaraj ). 19 The plight of the people like Hite appears all the more disheartening because, while the poor grew poorer in the 1980's, the rich grew richer. The gap between the rich and the poor today is the w idest one since the World War II. The richest 20 % of the American households earned an average, after adjusting for inflation, of $9,109 more in 1988 Than they earned 10 years earlier. The poorest 20% of American families, m eanwhile, earned an average of $576 a year less. The poorest of the poor were at their worst state in the last 15 years. More than 11 m illion Am ericans, alm ost 5% of the population, were in families earning less than half the poverty-level income in 1988 (Los Angeles Times, 5th July 1990) 20 The cognitive dom ination (See footnote in Chapter I) is m ore effective at the international level, which began during the colonial rule as complementary devise to enhance social (politico-econom ic) dom ination (See Haquc, 1989:344). This is very clear from the intention expressed by a former British "ruler" in India ("Lord" McAulcy) in the 19th century - -the intention to form a class in India which is "Indians in blood and color, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect."(Goonatilake, 1988:104). Also known as "Brown Sahibs" 30 w e a p o n - - ’M a s s M e d ia 2 ^ - -c in e m a te le v is io n , c o m ic s , te c h n o lo g ic a l s t u n t s etc.; T h e in te n tio n --to c o rr u p t th e m in d s , ta s te s , c o n v ic tio n s, a n d a ttitu d e s a n d th e re b y m o u ld th e n e e d s of th e p e o p le of a n o th e r n a tio n ; T h e g o a l- - c a p tu r in g th e m a r k e t o f t h a t n a tio n a n d t h u s m a k in g it e te rn a lly d e p e n d a n t. T h e d is e a s e s of m o d e rn c iv iliz atio n c a n b e s e e n in th e m o s t “m o d e r n iz e d ” (d e v e lo p e d ) c o u n tr ie s in th e fo rm o f in e q u a lity , d is c r im in a tio n a n d d e p e n d e n c y ; p u b lic d e b t, b u d g e t a n d tr a d e d e fic its; m e n ta l d is o rd e rs , d ru g a n d a lc o h o l a d d ic tio n a n d su ic id e ; lo n e lin e s s a n d a lie n a tio n ; c a rd io v a s c u la r a n d o c c u p a tio n a l d is e a s e s All these examples are based upon common international stereotypes. Who can deny that the Peruvian is somnolent, sells pottery, sits on his haunches, eats hot peppers, has a thousand year old culture— all the dislocated prejudices proclaim ed by the tourist posters them selves? (In Inca-Blinca, Tribilin (Goofy), No. 104.) Disney docs not invent these caricatures, he only exploits them to the utmost. By forcing all peoples of the world in to a vision of the dom inant (national and international) classes, he gives this vision coherency and justifies the social system on which it is based. These cliches are also used by the mass culture media to dilute the realities com m on to these people. The only m eans the Mexican has of know ing Peru is through caricature, which also im plies that Peru is incapable of being anything else, and is unable to rise above this prototypical situation, im prisoned as it is m ade to seem , within its ow n exoticism . For Mexican and Peruvian alike, these stereotypes of Latin American peoples became a channel of distorted self-know ledge, a form of self consum ption, and finally, self-m ockery. By selecting the most superficial and singular traits of each people in order to differentiate them, and using folklore as a m eans to "divide and conquer" nations occupying the sam e dependant position, the com ic like all m ass media, exploits the principle of sensationalism. That is, it conceals reality by m eans of novelty, which not incidentally, also serves to promote sales. Our Latin American countries become trash cans being constantly repainted for the voyeuristic and orgiastic pleasures of the m etropolitan nations. Everyday, this very m inute, television, radio, m agazines, new spap ers, cartoons, new scasts, film s, clothing and records, from the dignified gab of history textbooks to the trivia of daily conversations, all contribute to weakening the international solidarity of the oppressed. We Latin Americans are separated from each other by the vision we have acquired of each other via the comics and the other mass culture media. This vision is nothing less than our ow n reduced and distorted image. (Dorfman and Mattclart, 1975:131) 31 a n d a c c id e n ts ; c rim e a n d v io len ce; re s o u rc e d e p le tio n , p o llu tio n a n d e n v iro n m e n ta l d e g ra d a tio n (H aque, 1 989 : 2 7 0 )22. T h e e x p lo ita tio n of p e o p le is d o n e th r o u g h la rg e c o m p a n ie s w h o se offices a re a lso s itu a te d in th e city. T h is u s u a lly fo rm s th e D o w n to w n . T h e c ity - s c a p e m o re o fte n t h a n n o t r e p r e s e n t s a g ra p h ic a l p ic tu re o f th e e x te n t of th e e x p lo ita tio n . T h e h ig h e s t is th e D o w n to w n --in th e fo rm of it’s h ig h -ris e s . T h e a c t th r o u g h p h y s ic a l r e p r e s e n ta tio n is g lo rified th ro u g h th e p rin c ip le o f s e n s a tio n a lis m . T h is is th e so le ro le of th e m o d e rn a rc h ite c t. T h e y a re m o re o fte n th a n n o t laz y p eo p le, w ho, in o rd e r to g a in w e a lth a n d fam e , w o rk u n d e r a se lf-illu sio n th a t th e y a re v ery in d u s tr io u s . T h ey w o rk n o t for h e lp in g p e o p le b u ild th e c o r r e c t w a y . W h e n e v e r i n s t a n c e s of a rc h ite c ts h a v in g d o n e good c a n be b r o u g h t fo rw a rd , it w ill b e fo u n d t h a t th e g ood is d u e to th e m a s m e n r a t h e r t h a n a s a r c h ite c ts . P ro fe ssio n m e a n s w o rk for pay. A p ro fe s s io n a l s u c h a s a n a r c h ite c t d e s ig n s w h a te v e r th e c lie n ts w a n t. H e e x e r c is e s n o p o w e r of ju d g e m e n t. H e is a m a n w h o h a s h a d n o e d u c a tio n , b u t o n ly k n o w how . T h is te c h n ic a l k n o w -h o w h e se lls a lo n g w ith a to u c h of fa n ta s y 22 Haque refers to, Agazzi, Evandro. "Philosophical Anthropology and the Objectives of D evelopm ent," in Unesco, ed., Goals of Development. Paris: Unesco, 1988), pp. 13-36 Galtung, Johan; Poleszynski, Dag; and Wemegah, Monica. "Why the Concerns with W ays of Life?" in Ian Miles and John Irvine, eds., The Poverty of Progress, (N ew York: Pergamon Press, 1982), pp. 11-35 Irvine, John and Miles, Ian. (eds.), Introduction, in their The Poverty of Progress. (N ew York: Pergamon Press, 1982), pp. 1-9 Ramos, Alberto G. (1981). The New Science of Organizations. ( Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1981) Seers, Dudley. (1979). "The Meaning of Development." in David Lehmann, ed., D evelopm ent Theory: Four Critical Studies ( London: Frank Cass and Company Limited), pp. 9-24 32 fo r a p ric e . H e w o u ld a lw a y s lo o k fo r m a x im u m m o n e y o u t of m in im u m w o rk . S o m e tim e s h e w o u ld w o rk d a y s a n d n ig h ts w ith o u t sle ep , b u t it w o u ld n o t b e w ith a n in te n tio n of d o in g it tru th fu lly , b u t w ith a n in te n tio n of m a k in g th e o b je c t of w o rk in s u c h a w ay t h a t h e w o u ld b e c o m e fa m o u s , w h e re b y h e c a n m u ltip ly h is w e a lth . . W ho n e e d s a n e c o n o m y o f m e a n s th e m o s t? It is th e p o o r. A sk th e a r c h ite c ts to u s e th e ir k n o w le d g e o f m a te r ia ls a n d c o n s tr u c tio n to h e lp th e n e e d y for th e s a k e of th e ir w elfare, a n d c h a rg e a re g u la to ry fee for th e ir se rv ic e s. T h ey w o u ld m a k e u p e x c u s e s a n d ta k e jo b s w h ic h s h a ll p a y th e h ig h e s t a n d w h ic h h a v e “f u tu r e p o te n tia l”. P r o s t i t u t e s a r e a ls o r e g a r d e d a s p r o f e s s io n a ls . In r e a lity a ll p ro fe s s io n a ls a re p r o s titu te s . T h ey sell th e m s e lv e s . T h e ir p ro fe s s io n te a c h e s th e m to do e v e ry th in g for m o n e y a n d th e y do a n y th in g for m o n e y . T h is is a t r u e s ta te m e n t. N ot b e in g a b le to se e th is is ig n o ra n c e . A so c ie ty w h o ’s e co n o m y r u n s o n s u c h p ro fe s s io n a ls a n d b e c o m e s e co n o m ic ally p ro s p e ro u s is a p r o s titu te eco n o m y . S u c h a n a lle g a tio n re q u ire s a n e x p la n a tio n . L et u s , th e re fo re e x a m in e it m o re c a re fu lly from th e g ra s s ro o ts. W e h a v e d is c u s s e d a b o u t th e e x p lo ita tio n t h a t g o e s o n i n te r n a tio n a lly a n d i n tr a - n a tio n a lly . A n d a lso , th e role o f p o sitiv is m b e in g th e c a u s e of “th e d is e a s e s of civ iliz atio n 23”. 2 .7 T ech n o lo g y , E x p lo ita tio n , and A rch itectu re H ow ever a s d is c u s s e d ab o v e, w h e n in T h ird w o rld c o u n trie s th e d e v e lo p m e n t c ris e s h a v e r e s u lte d fro m th e 23 Sec Eduard carpenter's Civilization: it's cause and cure, Mahatma G andhi's Hind Swaraj; and M alcolm Caldw ell's The Wealth of Some Nations. 33 p o s itiv is t d e v e lo p m e n t p o lic ie s u n d e r t a k e n b y t h e i r g o v e rn m e n ts , th e c ris e s in d ev elo p ed n a tio n s h a v e b e e n c o n trib u te d to n o t only by a c a d e m ic p o sitiv ism , b u t a ls o th e p o s itiv is t b e lie fs t h a t e x is t in s o c ie ty its e lf. T h e s e s o c ie ta l p o s itiv is t b e lie fs a re e v id e n t in H a r m a n ’s c h a r a c te r iz a tio n o f th e in d u s tr ia l ag e b y th e fo llo w in g f e a tu r e s : th e a p p lic a tio n a n d w e d d in g of th e s c ie n tific m e t h o d ( s c i e n t i s m ) ; t h e i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n a n d re p la c e m e n t of h u m a n la b o u r by m a c h in e s (in d u s tria lis m a n d te c h n ic is m ) ; th e a c q u is itiv e m a t e r i a li s m a n d e c o n o m ic - m a n im a g e ( v a lu e -fre e d o m ); c o n tr o l a n d m a n ip u la tio n (c a u sa l d e te rm in ism ); a n d th e p e rc e p tio n of so c ie ty a s a g g re g a te in d iv id u a ls (re d u c tio n ism ), e tc . (see H a rm a n , 1984: 8 -9 )2 4 . T h e se so c ie ta l b e lie fs in p o s itiv is t p r o g r e s s o r d e v e lo p m e n t, h o w e v e r, a re re in fo rc e d a n d m a i n t a i n e d b y th e a c a d e m ic p o s itiv is m in v a r io u s d is c ip lin e s (H aq u e, 1 9 8 9 :2 7 0 ). N a tu ra lly , th e e x iste n c e of p o verty, in e q u a lity a n d d o m in a tio n is d e n ie d in th e “d e v e lo p e d ” c o u n trie s , sin c e , b y n o t d o in g so, o th e r n a tio n s w h o a re d e p e n d a n t, w o u ld s to p follow ing a m o d e l w h ic h is a c c la im e d a s a d is a s te r. T h is w o u ld le a d to th e c o m p le te d o w n fall of it’s m a rk e t. F o r in s ta n c e , in th e U n ited S ta te s , tw o m illio n p e o p le a re w ith o u t s h e lte r (L am er, 1988: 34) a n d d u r in g th e m id - 1 9 8 0 ’s, 3 3 m illio n p e o p le lived b elo w th e p o v e rty lin e; a b o u t 3 5 m illio n p e o p le h a d n o m e d ic a l in s u r a n c e of a n y so rt; a n d a b o u t 2 0 m illio n p e o p le c o u ld n o t h a v e r e g u la r a d e q u a te n u tr itio n (S ivard, 1 9 8 6 :5 1 ; L am er, 1 9 8 8 :3 4 ; Los A n g eles T im es, 15 th J u ly 1990). It is s tr a n g e t h a t so m a n y p e o p le a re p o o r in s u c h a fflu e n t s o c ie tie s . T h e m a in c a u s e of th e ir p o v e rty is th e c o n c e n tr a tio n of in co m e in v ery few h a n d s 25. 24 Haque refers to, Harman, W illis W. "Key Choices," in David C. Kortcn and Rudi Klauss, eds. P eo p le- Centered D evelopm ent. (West Hartford, Connecticut: Kumarian Press, 1984), pp.7-20 25The super-rich (0.5%) of the U.S. hou seholds own 35% of the n ation ’s w ealth (Sivard, 1986:51). During the last fifteen years, while the incom e of the richest 1% has 34 A lth o u g h th e ro o t of th is in e q u a lity lie s in th e o rig in a l u n e q u a l o w n e rsh ip of p ro p e rty a n d o th e r fa c to rs, s u c h a s ra c ia l d is c rim in a tio n , it h a s b e e n ju s tif ie d a n d fa c ilita te d b y th e p rin c ip le of c o m p e titiv e c o n s u m e ris m b a s e d th e b e lie f t h a t th e h u m a n b e in g , b y n a tu r e , is s e lfis h a n d th e m a in p u r p o s e o f life is to m a x im iz e s a tis f a c tio n b y c o n s u m in g a s m u c h m a te r ia l g o o d s a s p o s s ib le th r o u g h m a r k e t c o m p e titio n . A t a d e e p e r p h ilo s o p h ic a l le v e l, h o w e v e r, t h i s b e lie f o f s e lf is h c o n s u m e ris m is b a s e d on v a lu e n e u tr a lis t u tilita r ia n is m a n d th e b e lie f o f c o m p e titio n is b a s e d o n s o c ia l D a rw in ism o r e v o lu tio n ism w h ich a s s u m e s ‘th e su rv iv a l of th e fitte s t-.2 6 (H aq u e, 1989 :2 7 2 ) A m o n g th e v o ta rie s of s e lfis h c o n s u m e r is m a n d c u t- t h r o a t m a r k e t c o m p e titio n a re th e p ro fe s s io n a l w h o in c lu d e a rc h ite c ts . L et u s c o n s id e r th e to p 1% of th e ric h w ho ow n m o re th a n 50% o f th e p ro p e rty in th e U n ited s ta te s . T h ere a re o n ly a few q u e s tio n s t h a t a re re q u ire d to fin d o u t th e tru th ; w h a t is th a t p ro p e rty ? ; w h o b u ild s t h a t rocketed 74%, the incom e of the poorest 20% h as dropped by 4.7% (Church, 1988:28- 29). In the report presented to the Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Hum an needs (US) , It is m entioned thal in a nalion in which the w ealthiest 1% p o ssess more than 8 tim es the wealth of the bottom 50% and 4 0 m illion people rem ain poor or near poor, sim ple food program s cannot end their poverty (see Caldwell, 1977:113). It is adding insult to injury. Such is (he hypocrisy of dem ocracy and freedom in the K ali Yuga (dark age or “m odem civilization). 26 H ow ever, because of this selfish utilitarian com petition, based on value neutralism and evolutionism , through different means (fair and unfair), many people could not survive the competition and have fallen into poverty and while a few have concentrated all the wealth. H ow ever, this 'social Darwinism' has created a myth of mobility, a myth that everybody who has the intelligence and skill is capable of w inning the rewards com petition, which justifies the existing social structure of inequality and poverty of the poor and status and power of the rich without questioning the defects of the system itself (Arnold and Goulet, 1982:47-50). Weaver (1973:106) goes further to mention that since economic growth requires a labour market and a labour market requires an inequality to do jobs for others, a country "which opts for econom ic growth opts for a permanent state of inequality and this is true whatever the ideology: . . . (W eaver, 1973:106). 35 p ro p e rty ? ; a n d , w h a t is th e in te n tio n b e h in d m a ltin g t h a t p ro p e rty in a p a rtic u la r w ay? D o w n to w n c o m p ris e s m o s tly o f s u c h p r o p e r tie s , s p e c ta c u la r p r o p e rtie s fo r “r e c r e a tio n ” like H ollyw ood, D is n e y la n d , o th e r “h ig h - te c h s t u f f ’. T h is is p ro b a b ly a s fa r a s th e ro le of a n a rc h ite c t is c e n t p e rc e n t. T h e o th e r fo rm s o f p ro p e rty in c lu d e in d u s tr ie s , w h ic h of c o u rs e , a re n o t d e s ig n e d e n tire ly b y a r c h ite c ts . A r c h ite c tu r e lik e m a s s m e d ia h a s a n im p a c t o n th e p e o p le . It p ro b a b ly is th e m o s t p o w e rfu l m a s s m e d ia , e s p e c ia lly s in c e it is n o t c o u n te d a s o n e. A rc h ite c tu re is a n a b s tr a c t s ta te m e n t w h ic h h a s a v e ry c o n c re te a n d p re c is e im p a c t o n th e m a s s e s . T h e re is a d iffe re n c e in th e m e s s a g e c o n v ey e d b y a lo a d -b e a rin g w all of m u d w all of a th a t c h ro o f h u t c o n s t r u c t e d b y a c o w h e rd , 2 0 k m . n o r t h o f t h e to w n o f M a c h u lip a tn a m in th e s ta te of A n d h ra P ra d e s h , a n d th e 3 0 -to n n e G e rb o re tte f a b ric a te d o u t o f x x x x s te e l to b a la n c e th e m o m e n ts g e n e ra te d b y th e floor o n th e 150 ft s p a n t r u s s of th e M u lti-M illio n D o lla r P o m p id o u s itu a te d rig h t in th e h e a r t of P a ris d e s ig n e d b y R ic h a rd R o g ers a n d R en zo P ian o . T he firs t is tr u th f u l s c ie n c e w h ile th e la te r is te c h n o lo g ic a l p o rn o g ra p h y . T h e la te r is b u ilt w ith a n in te n tio n o f e x p o su re a n d e x h ib itio n of tec h n o lo g y . It is tre a te d a s a n o b je c t o f a n a m u s e m e n t p a rk 27, w h e re in , th e m o re s e n s a tio n a l it is 27 Tony Bennett writes about Europe's greatest amusement park— Blackpool Pleasure Beach: During the pre- and im m ediately post-w ar years, the Pleasure Beach was not so much transformed as added to, mainly in the form of rides imported 'direct from America': the Mouse of Nonsense, containing 'over 60 of the latest Am erican A m usem ent Devices'; the Gee W hiz, 'The latest Invention and Most Intriguing Ride in Blackpool'. Even the past w as constructed under the sign of science. According to a contemporary report on a reproduction of the Battle of Monitor and Merrimac: 'With the aid of fine scientific appliances, history has been made to live.' This appeal to America, 36 th e m o re cro w d it w o u ld a ttr a c t, like a c o u rte s a n . In th e C ity ev ery p ie c e o f a r c h ite c tu r e is a n o b je c t o f th e a m u s e m e n t p a r k . T h e fre e w a y s a re th e ro lle r c o a s te r rid e s. S c ie n c e a n d te c h n o lo g y a re th e to o ls to m a k e th e s e s e n s a tio n a l. E a c h firm m u s t in d u lg e in th is in o rd e r to c o m p e te w ith o th e r firm s, a n d e a c h n a tio n m u s t in d u lg e in o rd e r to c o m p e te w ith o th e r n a tio n s . T h is e x tre m e c o n s u m e ris m a n d p ro fit-o rie n te d p ro d u c tiv is m h a s b e e n fa c ilita te d b y s c ie n c e a n d te c h n o lo g y . O n e o f th e e a rly b e liefs t h a t o n e d a y th e e m p iric is t sc ie n c e a n d sc ie n tific k n o w le d g e w o u ld m a s te r n a tu r e (S m ith, 1984:2-4) a n d w o u ld b e c o m e th e to o l of p ro d u c tiv e e ffo rt (R a p a c z y n sk i, 1987: 7 -8), h a s b e c o m e to d a y th e ta k e n fo r g ra n te d b e lie f o r v a lu e (H aq u e, 1 9 8 9 :2 8 3 ). T h ro u g h s u c h te c h n o lo g ic a l p o rn o g ra p h y th e s e b e liefs a n d c o n v ic tio n s a re c a te re d to. A rc h ite c tu re , a n d S c ie n c e th ro u g h te c h n o lo g ic a l p o rn o g ra p h y n o t o n ly glo rify b u t a lso th e p e rv e rt th e p e o p le w h o dw ell in th e s e c ities. T h e re is a rro g a n c e in every a c t t h a t is d o n e . T h e a rro g a n c e of c a p a b ility , lo o k in g a t th e g ig an tic 1 2 0 -sto re y b u ild in g s , tra v e llin g a t a s p e e d of 8 0 m p h in a n a ir-c o n d itio n e d M e rc e d e s, a n d w o rk in g o n a c o m p u te r w ith a few G e g a -b y te m em o ry , is e n jo y e d , a c c e p te d a n d p r o p a g a te d . A r c h ite c tu r e to d a y c a te r s to d e s ir e o f “c o n tr o l a n d to the future and to a super-modernity was not the only sign-enscm blc under which pleasure was reconstructed during this period. There was also and stillis a latent dem ocracy of pleasure. The social mixer aim ed to make 'Everybody Happy, Happy, I lappy.' 'Everybody's Doing it' proclaimed the H ouse of N onsense, and the local paper recom m ended the Joy W heel as a great social leveller: 'Nobody can be pom pous on the Joy Wheel: w e prescribe it as a cure for the swcllcd-head.' But the appeal to modernity was becom ing the dominant form of 'barking'. (Bennett, 1983:143-144). 37 p o w e r” w ith in th e p o sitiv is tic m in d s of th e p e o p le . T h e a ttitu d e of a p e rs o n c a n b e u n d e r s to o d m e re ly b y o b s e rv a tio n . T h e c h e w in g of G u m fo r e x a m p le . T h e e x p re s s io n w ith w h ic h th e g u m is c h e w e d , s h o w s a rro g a n c e a n d th e o v e r-c o n fid e n c e o f b e in g a b le to c o n tro l e v e ry th in g in th is w o rld . S im ila rly th e s u d d e n “J a m e s B o n d ” sty le a c c e le ra tio n a n d c h a n g e of g e a rs w ith th e ty re s s c re e c h in g in d ic a te s a la c k o f h u m ility a n d g e n tle n e s s . T h e fa c t t h a t th e r e la tio n b e tw e e n t h i s d e c a d e n t o u tlo o k , A r c h it e c t u r e a n d th e s o c io - e c o n o m ic c o n d itio n s is e x tre m e ly c o m p le x , m a k e s th e s i tu a tio n e v e n m o re w o rs e . A r c h ite c tu r e to d a y is o f th e e litis t, o f th e e x p lo ite r s , a n d th e re fo re g lo rifies a s s u c h . It is b o a s te d t h a t to d a y th r o u g h sc ie n c e a n d te c h n o lo g y w e h a v e b e tte r m a te ria ls , w h ic h b e tte r c o n tro l th e e n v iro n m e n t. T h is is e n tire ly a m is c o n c e p tio n . E v ery s te p c a lle d a s a p ro g re s s o f sc ie n c e is a s te p to rec tify th e m is ta k e s h ith e r to d o n e b y sc ie n c e itself. A t 105° F p e o p le w e a r a c o a t a n d a tie to s it in a n a ir c o n d itio n e d o ffice . S o la r p a n e ls a r e b e in g i n s t a l l e d e v e n in a p a r tm e n ts so t h a t lig h t e n e rg y from th e s u n c a n b e c o n v e rte d in to e le c tric a l e n e rg y to r u n w a s h in g m a c h in e s . P e o p le w h o d r y th e ir c lo th e s in o p e n field s d ire c tly in th e s u n a re b a c k w a rd , u n c iv iliz e d a n d p rim itiv e 28. 28 Karl Marx describes the 'Third World" countries (who have no Solar panels and machines to dry clothes) as "barbarian" and the industrialized W estern capitalist societies as "civilized"(Haque, 1989:224). He writes about the British intervention in Bengal: English interference having placed the spinner in Lancashire and the w eaver in Bengal, or sw eeping away both Hindoo spinner and weaver, d issolved these sm all sem i-barbarian, sem i-civilized com m unities, by blow ing up their economic basis and thus produced the greatest, and, to speak the truth, the only social revolution ever heard of in Asia.................................... 38 A c c o rd in g to H a q u e (1 9 8 9 : 2 5 2 -2 9 6 ), th e b e lie fs o f s c ie n tis m a n d r e d u c tio n is t s p e c ia lis m in in d u s tria liz e d s o c ie tie s h a v e c re a te d a n o th e r fo rm o f d o m in a tio n , i.e., “th e d ire c t c o n tro l o f th e so c ie ty b y a n elite of te c h n ic ia n s a n d s c ie n tis ts .......................... ” (S tan ley , 1 9 7 2 :2 7 8 ). H e f u r th e r re -a ffirm s th e c la im m a d e b y K lom pe (1 9 7 7 :1 7 6 ) t h a t th e s a m e sc ie n c e a n d te c h n o lo g y w h ic h c o n trib u te d to fre e in g m e n fro m n a tu r a l c o n s tra in ts , a lso c a u s e d th e e x p lo ita tio n o f a g re a t m a jo rity of in d u s tr ia l w o rk e rs in th e 1 9 th c e n tu ry , a n d n o w , “w e h a v e b e c o m e its s la v e s .” (q u o te d in H a q u e , 1 9 8 9 :2 7 3 ). S in c e th e d e v e lo p e d s o c ie tie s a re d o m in a te d c o g n itiv e ly b y s c ie n tific a n d te c h n o lo g ic a l k n o w le d g e, m o s t o f th e p u b lic a re b a s e d o n s c ie n tific a n d te c h n ic a l c rite ria . T h u s for p o licy m a k in g , ev en th e p u b lic r e p re s e n ta tiv e s h a v e in c r e a s in g ly b e c o m e d e p e n d e n t o n th e m a n a g e r ia l a n d te c h n ic a l e x p e rts . 2 .8 M o d e m E d u c a tio n T h e n e w e l i t e s o f e x p e r t i s e (“p r o f e s s i o n a l s ”, m o r e a p p ro p ria te ly ) a re a b le to ju s tif y th e “m a te r ia l a n d m a th e m a tic a l (p o sitiv istic) c r ite r ia o f ju d g e m e n t”, d u e to th e p o s itiv is t b e lie fs of s c ie n tis m a n d v a lu e -n e u tr a lis m in so c ie ty , a n d a c c o rd in g to S ta n le y ( 1 9 7 2 :2 9 6 ) ,t h e p e o p le a r e “d e c r e a s in g ly a b le to d i s c r im i n a t e b e tw e e n in fo rm a tio n a n d p ro p a g a n d a .” (q u o ted in H a q u e , 1 9 8 9 :2 7 3 ). T h e re s u lt, a s H a q u e p u ts it, “is th e in c re a s in g d o m in a tio n o f e x p e rt .......................................... The question is, can mankind fulfill its destiny without a fundamental revolution in the social state of Asia? If not, whatever may have been the crimes of England she was the unconscious tool of history in bringing about that revolution.(Marx, 1978:657) 39 e lite s o v e r ig n o r a n t p e o p le .” T ru e so , s in c e it is in i n te r e s t o f th e s e lfis h e lite s t h a t th e o th e rs a re ig n o ra n t. T h e ir s t a t u s is a r e s u lt of t h e i r ig n o r a n c e , a n d th e ir r ic h n e s s is o n a c c o u n t o f th e o th e r s p o v e r ty , o r v ic e v e r s a . S p e c i a l i z a t i o n m e a n s “in c o m p l e t e in fo rm a tio n ”. It c h a n n e liz e s th e in d iv id u a l rig h t fro m sc h o o l in s u c h a w a y t h a t th e id e a of q u e s tio n in g th e ta k e n -fo r-g ra n te d p r a c tis e d o e s n o t co m e to h is m in d . It b e c o m e s a n a c c e p te d fo rm o f “e d u c a tio n ” a n d p r a c tis e th e re a fte r. T h e re fo re , a s B loom p u ts it, “a n e d u c a tio n , o th e r t h a n p u re ly p ro fe s s io n a l o r te c h n ic a l, c a n e v en s e e m to b e a n im p e d im e n t.”H e e v e n c o n firm s t h a t n o n o f th e “p u b lic c a r e e r s ” th e s e d a y s — “n o t d o c to r n o r law y er n o r p o litic ia n n o r jo u r n a l is t n o r b u s in e s s m a n n o r e n te r ta in e r — h a s m u c h to w ith h u m a n e le a r n in g .” (B loom , 19 :3 3 8 -3 3 9 ). T h e r e a l p ro b le m is th o s e s t u d e n t s w h o c o m e h o p in g to fin d o u t w h a t c a re e r th e y w a n t to h a v e , o r a re s im p ly lo o k in g fo r a n a d v e n tu r e w it th e m s e lv e s . T h e re a r e p le n ty o f t h in g s fo r th e m to d o —c o u r s e s a n d d is c ip lin e s e n o u g h to s p e n d a life tim e o n . E a c h d e p a r tm e n t o r g r e a t d iv isio n o f th e u n iv e rs ity m a k e s a p itc h fo r itself, a n d e a c h offers a c o u rs e of s tu d y t h a t will m a k e th e s tu d e n t a n in itia te . B u t h o w to c h o o se a m o n g th e m ? H ow d o th e y r e la te to o n e a n o th e r ? T h e f a c t is th e y do n o t a d d re s s o n e a n o th e r, T h ey a re c o m p e tin g a n d c o n tra d ic to ry , w ith o u t b e in g a w a re o f it. T h e p ro b le m o f th e w h o le is u rg e n tly in d ic a te d b y th e v e ry e x is te n c e of th e sp e c ia litie s , b u t it is n e v e r s y s te m a tic a lly p o s e d . T h e n e t e ffe c t o f th e s t u d e n t ’s e n c o u n te r w ith th e co lleg e c a ta lo g u e is b e w ild e rm e n t a n d v e ry o fte n d e m o ra liz a tio n . It is j u s t a m a tte r o f c h a n c e w h e th e r h e fin d s o n e o r tw o p ro fe s s o rs w h o c a n give h im a n in s ig h t in to o n e o f th e g r e a t v is io n s o f e d u c a t i o n t h a t h a v e b e e n t h e d i s t in g u i s h in g p a r t o f e v e ry c iv iliz e d n a ti o n . M o s t p ro fe s s o rs a re s p e c ia lis ts , c o n c e rn e d o n ly w ith th e ir ow n fie ld s, in te r e s te d in th e a d v a n c e m e n t o f th o s e fie ld s in th e ir te rm s , o r in th e ir o w n p e rs o n a l a d v a n c e m e n t in a w o rld w h e r e a ll t h e r e w a r d s a r e o n t h e s id e o f 40 p r o f e s s i o n a l d i s t i n c t i o n . T h e y h a v e b e e n e n ti r e l y e m a n c ip a te d fro m th e old s t r u c t u r e o f th e u n iv e rs ity , w h ic h a tle a s t h e lp e d to in d ic a te th a t th e y a re in c o m p le te , o n ly p a r ts o f a n u n e x a m in e d a n d u n d is c o v e re d w h o le. So th e s tu d e n t m u s t n a v ig a te a m o n g a c o lle c tio n of c a rn iv a l b a r k e r s , e a c h tr y in g to lu r e h im in to a p a r t i c u l a r sid e sh o w . T h is u n d e c id e d s tu d e n t is a n e m b a r r a s s m e n t to m o s t u n iv e rs itie s, b e c a u s e h e se e m s to b e sa y in g , “I a m a w h o le h u m a n b e in g . H elp m e to fo rm m y s e lf in m y w h o le n e s s a n d le t m e dev elo p m y re a l p o te n tia l,” a n d h e is th e o n e to w h o m th e y h a v e n o th in g to s a y (B loom , 1 9 :3 3 9 ). T h is s tu d y is a p r o te s t a g a in s t, a n d a d is o b e d ie n c e o f th is p ra c tis e o f sp e c ia liz a tio n . W h a t m o re c a n b e s a id a b o u t m o d e rn c iv ilizatio n t h a t d w ells in c itie s . All t h a t h a s b e e n d is c u s s e d till n o w , th e la w y e rs , th e a rc h ite c ts , th e ‘d is e a s e o f m o d e m c iv iliz a tio n ’, a re in c re a s in g d a y b y d ay . th is d is e a s e lik e m a n y o th e r m o d e rn d is e a s e s is n o t in c u ra b le if d e te c te d e a rlie r. W o rse d a y s a re a lw a y s a ro u n d th e c o m e r if th e p a th its e lf is o f n e g lig en c e. 2 .9 T h e C ase o f B om bay B y th e y e a r 2 0 0 0 , th e r e w ill b e a lm o s t 5 0 c itie s in th e w o rld , e a c h w ith 15 m illio n in h a b ita n ts : 4 0 w ill b e in th e th ird w o rld , m o s t of th e s e in A sia; a n d o n e o f th e m w ill b e B o m b ay . B e tw ee n 1 9 0 0 a n d 1 9 4 0 B o m b a y 's p o p u la tio n in c re a s e d m a rg in a lly to a b o u t 1.8 m illio n . B y 1 9 6 0 it h a d s h o t u p to 4 m illio n a n d to d a y it h a s c ro s s e d 9 m illio n (C a n ta c u z in o & K h a n , 1982: 4 6 -5 2 ). M a s s m ig ra tio n to u r b a n a r e a s is n o th in g n ew : E u r o p e a n s o c ie ty w a s s im ila r ly r e s t r u c t u r e d b e tw e e n th e 1 7 th a n d 1 9 th c e n tu rie s (See W olf, 1923). T h a t p re c e d e n t h a d o n e m a jo r d ifferen ce: 41 th e E u r o p e a n s c o u ld d is tr ib u te th e m s e lv e s a r o u n d th e g lo b e -a n o p tio n n o t o p e n to A sia n c o u n trie s to d a y . To u n d e r s ta n d th is is to p e rc eiv e th e ro le t h a t o u r to w n s a n d c itie s a re a c tu a lly p lay in g : th e y s e e m to b e s u b s titu te s for e m ig ra tio n , fu n c tio n in g a s m e c h a n is m s for g e n e ra tin g e m p lo y m e n t, m a rg in a lly in in d u s tr ia l jo b s a n d fa r m o re w id ely in te rtia ry a n d b a z a a r s e c to rs (C a n ta c u z in o & K h a n , 1982: 4 6 - 52); B u t, in re a lity , it is s e e n t h a t th e cities firs t ro b th e p e o p le in th e c o u n try sid e off th e ir jo b s le a v in g th e m n o c h o ic e b u t to m ig ra te to th e city. U n d o u b te d ly , th e r e a re a lso th o s e w h o fall p re y to th e g ree d for m o n e y a n d g la m o u r. L ike m a n y s e a p o r ts th e c ity o f B o m b a y its e lf is o n e lo n g b r e a k w a te r , p r o te c tin g th e h a r b o u r fro m th e o p e n s e a . T h is lin e a r s tr u c tu r e p ro v id e d a n a tu r a l fu n c tio n a l fra m e w o rk w h ic h su ffic e d u p to W orld W a r II. S in c e th e n p o p u la tio n in c re a s e s h a v e s tr e tc h e d th is s t r u c tu r e f u r th e r a n d f u r th e r , u n til now , lik e a r u b b e r b a n d , it is re a d y to s n a p . A t th e s o u th e r n m o s t tip of th e is la n d lie s a n e n o rm o u s c o m p lex o f g o v e rn m e n t a n d c o m m e rc ia l o ffic e s -th e fin a n c ia l c e n te r o f th e e n tire n a tio n . T h e s e offices a n d th e v a s t te x tile m ills n e x t to th e m d a ily trig g e r m a s s iv e flo w s o f tra ffic ; s o u th w a r d in th e m o rn in g , n o rth w a r d in th e e v en in g . To av o id th is g ru e llin g c o m m u tin g (up to 4 h o u r s e a c h w ay) p e o p le try to live a s close a s p o ss ib le to th e s o u th e r n e n d in s q u a tte r s e ttle m e n ts o r in o v e rc ro w d e d s lu m s , 10 to 15 in a ro o m . M a n y g re a t m e n h a v e trie d to re so lv e th e s e ‘p ro b le m s o f th e c itie s ’, b u t u n fo rtu n a te ly , th e p ro b le m b y th e n a m e o f ‘c ity ’ c o n tin u e s 42 to th riv e o n th e g re e d o f h u m a n s . It is a p ity t h a t th e In te llig e n ts ia d o e s n o t w is h to rec o g n iz e th e tr u e n a tu r e o f th e p ro b le m 29. O n c e th e n a t u r e o f th e p ro b le m is u n d e r s to o d e ith e r o n e o f th e tw o a p p ro a c h e s m a y b e a d o p te d (See fo o tn o te 3). S u c h is th e c a s e w ith th e m o d e rn c iv ilizatio n w h ic h d w ells in th e c itie s t h a t a re th e s o u rc e a n d th e p ro b le m th e m se lv e s. B ein g th e n u c le i of p o w e r a n d d e c isio n m a k in g , th e y d ic ta te th e m s e lv e s a n d o th e rs , a n d th e re fo re a re n e v e r a tte m p te d to b e c o m p le te ly rem o v e d , b u t o n ly ‘c o n tro lle d ’. T h e c o n d itio n o f e v ery m o d e rn c ity in c lu d in g B o m b a y , w h o s e ro le , p u r p o s e , a n d p r o c e s s e s u s e d b y its p e o p le to c r e a te a n d tr a n s f o r m its p h y s ic a l fa b ric a re to d e th r o n e G o d a n d e n th r o n e m a te ria lis m ; a re to b e s e lfis h r a th e r t h a n se lfle ss; a re to h a te r a th e r t h a n love a fellow h u m a n . B y th e y e a r 2 0 0 0 , th e s e d e m o g ra p h ic c h a n g e s w ill h a v e b e g u n to sta b ilize ; w h a t w e n e e d d u rin g th e n e x t tw o d e c a d e s is a h o ld in g a c tio n w h ic h in v o lv e s in c r e a s in g e m p lo y m e n t a n d in c o m e s a t th e v illag e a n d s m a ll to w n lev el a n d s tim u la tin g th e e c o n o m ic g ro w th o f m id d le siz ed to w n s a n d c itie s to a c t a s c o u n te rm a g n e ts to th e b ig m e tro p o lis . B e c a u s e b o th th e s e s tr a te g ie s w o u ld h a v e a ta k e -o ff p e rio d o f a tl e a s t 10 to 15 y e a rs , a c tio n m u s t s im u lta n e o u s ly b e ta k e n to r e - s t r u c t u r e th e e x is tin g 2 9 Problem s m ay primarily be considered from two perspectives. For a person going for a w alk in the evening, rain would be a problem, and trash accum ulated over a w eek w ould also be a ‘unhygienic’ problem , both of w hich dem and a solution- either by w isdom or by technology, — preferably by both. Though he m ay see the rain as a problem at that m om ent, one knows that it is a boon for m ankind, and that answ er to th is problem lies in an Um brella, and not in a foolish glorification of scien ce by seeking m ethods to stop the rain itself. W hereas in the latter’s ca se the trash itself is the source of the problem. Here the situ ation dem ands a com plete rem oval of the source of the problem itself, rather than a proposal for a ‘solution’. 43 m e tro p o lis so t h a t th e y c a n fu n c tio n d u rin g th is in te rim p e rio d w h ile th e ir g ro w th r a te ta p e r s off. If th e tw o s tra te g ie s fail, it is p o ss ib le t h a t a city lik e B o m b a y w ill grow in to a v a s t c o n u rb a tio n c o n ta in in g 3 0 o r 4 0 m illio n b y th e tu r n of th e c e n tu ry . B u t even if th e y a re s u c c e s s fu l th e r e s till r e m a in s th e p ro b le m o f m a k in g B o m b a y fu n c tio n w ith a s m a n y a s 15 m illion in h a b ita n ts ( C h a rle s C o rre a o n B om bay) . T h o u g h th e re a s o n for th e g ro w th (w hich is th e a c tu a l p ro b lem ) is n e v e r p u t to q u e s tio n , it is s e e n th a t, a t th e m o s t, c itie s a re re lie v e d o f th e ir b u r d e n m o m e n ta rily b y p u ttin g c o u n t e r m a g n e t s a ro u n d it, w h ic h in c o u rs e of tim e, th e m se lv e s, w o u ld g ro w to b e a s b a d a s th e o rig in a l tum or 30 h a d b e e n . A s for “th e r e - s tr u c tu r in g of th e e x is tin g m e tro p o lis ” is c o n c e rn e d , little th o u g h t w o u ld re v e a l t h a t all s u c h s tra te g ie s w o u ld e v e n tu a lly lea d to th e s a m e p ro b le m , b u t only w ith a ‘d e la y fu s e ’ a tta c h e d to it. It is in e v ita b le t h a t s o o n e r o r la te r w e m u s t re tra c e o u r s te p s . It is s e e n t h a t th e re is a b r u ta l m is m a tc h b e tw e e n B o m b a y ’s s tr u c tu r e a n d th e lo a d it m u s t c a rry to d a y . Like m a n y a th ird w o rld city, u n fo rtu n a te ly , th e re a re a tte m p ts to in c re a s e th e h o ld in g c a p a c ity of B om bay, in ste a d of d is c o u ra g in g its g ro w th . It is s e e n t h a t th e g reed for m o n e y a n d m a te ria lis tic h a p p in e s s d ra g s p e o p le to o n e p la c e . O n ce it b e c o m e s ‘a g ro w in g c ity ’, th e r e is a c o n tin u o u s in flu x a n d it g e ts m o re a n d m o re ‘c iv iliz e d ’. G ro w th its e lf b e g in s to grow , c o n tro lle d o r n o t, it d o e s o e e u r, a n d th is a s c e n d s th e u n to u c h e d s k ie s to a c c o m m o d a te p e o p le , in a n a tte m p t to ‘c o n tro l’ th e g ro w th . W h en th is re a c h e s its b rim , c o u n te r m a g n e ts What M ahatm a Gandhi describes as the “plague” of m od em civilization in d u ces greed into people and drags them (o one place. T hus the conglom eration of such people would be a collection of all those who have been affected by the plague. Thus giving rise to a tum or in the nations heart in the form of a city. Therefore, putting counLerm agnels Is like putting another grain of sugar to decrease the num ber of ants on the earlier one. 44 a re in tr o d u c e d o r in c o m e s a n d e m p lo y m e n t a re in c r e a s e d a t th e v illag e a n d to w n level w h ic h e v e n tu a lly b e c o m e th e p a r e n t c ity ,a n d t h u s “civilization ” o c c u rs a n d sc ie n c e is g lo rified . P e o p le in c re a s e -- la n d i n c r e a s e s - - d i s t a n c e s in c r e a s e - - a u to m o b ile s a r e in v e n te d - - s c ie n c e is g lo r ifie d --p o llu tio n o c c u r s - b ig e n v ir o n m e n ta l c o n tr o l la b o r a to r ie s a re s e t u p (fully c o m p u te riz e d )--s c ie n c e is g lo rifie d -- a c c id e n ts in c r e a s e - - in s u r a n c e c o m p a n ie s a re s e t u p - - h o s p ita ls a re in c re a s e d --s c ie n c e a g a in is g lo rified . A p a rt fro m th e s e fa c to rs th e re a re m a n y m o re a n th ro p o g e n ic e ffe c ts31 d u e to w h ic h e a r th q u a k e s , c y clo n es a n d n e w e r d is e a s e s cro p u p . A t ev ery in s ta n c e , a p ro b le m is (i)It is believed that earthquakes are som etim es triggered off by anthropogenic (man made) effects. The Koyna earthquake in India is one such instance, caused due to the huge volum e of water trapped by I he dam, causing disturbances to the earths crust. ( See Kale, 1988; Koyna Earthquake, 11th Dec. 1967. Report of U nesco com m ittee of experts, vols I & II. New Delhi, Government of India Press, 1968). (ii)“ The juxtaposition of large urban com plexes that ca u se sm all scale perturbation (due to h eat isla n d s form ed in the atm osphere) to com b in e into large sca le perturbations can effectively cau se changes in the voracity at the guidance level of surface storm, resulting in changes in the path of storm , their in ten sity and in their num ber” (Ferrar, 1976: 43-102). This is believed to be one of the major reasons fro the increase in the num ber of floods, cyclones, etc. during the last couple of decades. (iii) Every year about 1,000 new ozone-destroying industrial chem icals are introduced and their production h a s been increased from 7 m illion ton s in 1950 to 2 5 0 m illion tons in 1985 (New Internationalist, 1982: 10). On the other hand, sin ce 1850, 140 billion ton s of carbon dioxide, causing the green-house effect, h a s b een released by burning fossil fuel and every year. 4.5 million tons more is dum ped into the sky (75% by industrialized cou n tries like the US, USSR and Europe) (New Internationalist, 1982: 10). (iv)” Our world is changing, and, especially in the past 40 years The air we breathe contains g ases and particles that never before entered the hum an lung. Our food h as chem icals designed to improve its taste, freshness, appearance— but w hich are strange to our in testin es, livers, kidneys, blood. We touch, ingest, inhale, absorb an ever- increasing num ber of synthetic m aterials and, in other circu m stan ces, agents w hich have existed on earth but were never part of the im m ediate h u m an environm ent. (Dr.Hammond and Dr. Selikolf, 1974; quoted in Caldwell, 1977: 115)”. (v) Linus Pauling (a w inner of the Nobel Peace Prize) writes about the effects of nuclear power station s in America: without better safety standards, every year there would be 90 ,0 0 0 additional deaths from cancer, 60,0 0 0 more prenatal deaths, 2 ,0 0 0 m ore ca ses of leuk aem ia, and 1 2 ,0 0 0 additional birth s of ch ildren w ith m en ta l p h ysical ab n orm alities (Caldwell, 1977: 114-115). And according to the World H ealth Organization, 85% of all cancers are caused by the chem icals and radioactive fall-out (Haque, 1989: 287). 45 c re a te d d ire c tly o r in d ire c tly b y th e m o d e rn m a n d u e to h is g re e d a n d s e lf is h n e s s , a n d e v ery s o lu tio n fo u n d is te rm e d ‘d e v e lo p m e n t’. A lth o u g h w h e n s e e n from th e eyes of o u r c o n s c ie n c e th e r e is h a rd ly a n y d e v e lo p m e n t. C o n sc ie n c e c a n n o t b e p ro v e n e m p iric a lly , th e re fo re p e o p le w ith th e m o d e rn , sc ie n tific a n d p re d o m in a n tly u r b a n o r ‘c ity ’ o u tlo o k w o u ld re fu s e to re c o g n iz e its e x is te n c e , a n d h e n c e w e se e t h a t th e y o fte n d e n y th e e x is te n c e o f s u c h a p a ro c h ia l a n d fa lse d e fin itio n of d e v e lo p m e n t. G e n e ra tio n a fte r g e n e ra tio n p eo p le c o n tin u e to s ta y in th is p u s h b u tto n -w o rld o f a m o d e rn city, a n d fo rg et th e p u rity , im p o rta n c e a n d th e n a tu r e of ‘N a tu re ’. W e a rc c o n v in c e d of o u r a b ility to c o n tro l a n d m a n ip u la te n a tu r e , a n d th e re b y dev elo p a g n o s tic te n d e n c ie s . It is a c rim e a g a in s t th e p r e s e n t g e n e ra tio n to ro b th e m o f th e in tim a c y of h u m a n s w ith n a tu r e . T h e g ro w th o f th e city d e m a n d s n e w se rv ic e s a n d h e n c e n e w p ro fe ssio n s. A s r e g a r d s th e is s u e o f B o m b ay , a n d th e p ro b le m s of m a n y o th e r s u c h c itie s in In d ia , th e re still is a h o p e --o f re a liz a tio n . M illions in In d ia live in r u r a l a r e a s a n d iro n ic a lly th e y a re p la n n e d for- b y “u r b a n ” p la n n e r s . T h is m a y a p p e a r to b e fa r fro m a c h a p te r o n ‘th e c ity ’ b u t, a s th e w a te r a n d m in e ra ls go from th e ro o ts th r o u g h th e t r u n k a n d th e b r a n c h e s to th e f r u i ts o n e m u s t a r r iv e a l t r u i s t i c a l l y a t a n u n d e r s ta n d in g of th e city. So d o in g a lo n e , s h a ll w e b e o f se rv ic e to o u r so ciety . O u r b o n e s a re d rie d u p , a n d o u r h o p e is lo st; w e a re c le a r c u t off (E zek . 3 7 . II). 46 B u t h o p e c a n n e v e r b e lo st. F ro m th e g ra v e y a rd o f exile Y ah w eh c a n b rin g h is p e o p le h o m e . A n d I w ill p u t m y s p ir it w ith in y o u , a n d y o u s h a ll live, a n d I w ill p lac e y o u in y o u r ow n la n d ; th e n y o u s h a ll k n o w t h a t I, th e LORD, h a v e sp o k e n , a n d I h a v e d o n e it, s a y s th e LORD (E zek. 3 7 . 14). In a w o rld w h e re G o d s c re a tiv e a n d re c re a tiv e s p irit is a t w ork, th e d e s p a ir a n d h o p e le s s n e s s of m e n c a n n e v e r h a v e th e la s t w o rd (The O ld T e s ta m e n t--G o d a n d th e F u tu re ). C h ap ter in VILLAGES IN THE “KRITA YUGA” 47 3 .1 T itle: K rita Y uga is also c alle d a s “S a t Y u g a”. “S a t” m e a n s tr u th . K rita Y u g a is th e “Age o f T r u th ”. 3 .2 In tro d u c tio n to S ta g e n T h e se c o n d sta g e a im s a t s e e k in g a b e tte r w a y a n d d ire c tio n b y s y n th e s iz in g th e s tr e n g th s a n d tr a n s c e n d in g th e lim ita tio n s o f th e m a n if e s ta tio n s w ith th e ir p a ro c h ia l p h ilo s o p h ic a l a n d th e o r e tic a l b a c k d ro p s . T h e e x is te n c e o f s u c h m a n ife s ta tio n s a s d e s c rib e d a n d c ritic a lly a n a ly z e d in th e f ir s t s ta g e w ill b e p u t to f u r t h e r c r itiq u e to u n d e r s t a n d it fro m a h o lis tic a s w ell a s fro m a ' B h a r a t i y a 32' p e rs p e c tiv e w h ic h w o u ld in c lu d e th e c la s s ic a l Vedic a n d G a n d h ia n th o u g h ts (w hich a re n o t too d is tin c t from e a c h o th er). T h e s tu d y p ro b e s in to th e is s u e s of s tra te g ie s w h ic h c o u ld b e a d o p te d b y a r c h ite c ts a n d p la n n e r s to p u t b r a k e s o n th e d e c a y in g p r o c e s s a n d th e r e b y g e ttin g tim e to tr e a d o n a p a t h w h ic h m e ta m o r p h o s iz e s th e s e l f is h n e s s o f m o d e r n c iv iliz a tio n in to se lfle s s n e s s . A fter lay in g o u t g u id e lin e s for th e s tra te g y a n d d iso b e d ie n c e of s tra te g ie s w h ic h gives im p e tu s to c iv ilizatio n in th e m o d e rn w ay , th e 32 The nam e "India" was given by the British. Original name is "Bharat"- Bharatiya m eans Indian. 48 s t u d y p ro c e e d s f u r th e r to th e fin a l s ta g e , in w h ic h , it is p u t to p ra c tic e in th e land o f the B haratas . 3 .3 N e sc ie n c e to S c ie n c e . . . . . . . b u t th e q u e s tio n r e m a in s — w h a t is tr u e p ro g re s s . W h a t is th e u ltim a te tr u th ? W h a t is B r a h m a n 33? T h e V e d a n ta - s u tr a s t a r ts w ith a n in v ita tio n a n d a d e c la ra tio n to e v ery o n e a th a to b r a h m a - jig n y a s a m e a n in g , "Now, th e re fo re a fte r a ll t h i s 34, le t u s in q u ire in to th e A b so lu te T ru th ." 3 .3 .1 T h e V ed ic T h eo ry o f D e v e lo p m e n t In a n c ie n t la n d of th e B h a ra ta s , h u m a n a d v a n c e m e n t m e a n t a d v a n c in g to w a rd s p ir itu a l re a liz a tio n . T h is V edic so c ia l o rd e r o r in s titu tio n is S^The Vedic literature d iscu sses "three aspects of the A bsolute Truth" (Goswami, 1977:21): Brahm an, Paramatma, and Bhagavan. While the B hagavad-G ita and the Piiranas focus upon Bhagavan, and the yoga system s upon Paramatma, the U pantshads focus upon the Brahm an. Srim ad B hagauatam (1.2.11) states that all three aspects are actually one, seen from different angles of vision: "Learned transcendentalists who know the Absolute Truth call this nondual su bstan ce Brahm an, Parmatma or Bhagavan." Brahm an refers to the im personal, all-pervasive aspect of the A bsolute Truth. The m ultifarious m anifestations of the cosm os-m oving and nonm oving m atter, atom s, bodies, planets, sp ace— are not ultim ate cau ses in them selves, nor are they eternal. All of them com e from the eternal Brahm an. The V edanta-Sutra (1.1.2) states, J a n m a d ya a s y a yatah: "the suprem e Brahm an is the origin of everything." Radhakrishnan w rites that Brahm an, "cannot be defined by logical categories or linguistic sym bols. It is the incom prehensible nirguna ("qualityless") Brahm an, the pure Absolute." The B rhad-aranyaka U panishad (3.9.26) describes the Brahm an philosophers as searching for the root of existence in the com ponents of m atter but finding only neti n e tt "That self is not this, not that." When one realizes Brahm an, he knows the im personal spirit in all things. athato m eaning, beyond what we already know, seem s to say "after all this m undane talk, about the w hat goals m ust be pursued by individuals in a society; after knowing that the four purposes should be Dharm a (religion or righteousness, Artha (econom ic development), Kama (sense gratification), what then?" T hus it goes forward to declare, 'This is is well understood now, com e then let u s see what is beyond this. " (From Mangu Koneti Rao's discourses on V edanta-Sntra- unpublished). 49 k n o w n a s v a r n a s r a m a - d h a r m a , w h ic h a rr a n g e s th e so c ie ty in e ig h t "g ro u p in g s" (G osw am i, 1 9 7 7 :6 3 ) To d e s c rib e th e v a r n a s r a m a so c ie ty S o c io lo g ist P itirim S o ro k in ’s w o rd s, it is a n “id e a tio n a l c u ltu re " -- “a c u ltu r e w h o se w o rld view is p rim a rily m e ta p h y s ic a l in s te a d of s e n s a te o r s e n s u a l .” (See G o sw a m i, 1 9 7 7 :6 3 ). T h e b e g in n in g s ta n z a of th e I s a v a s y a U p a n i s h a d 35 th is c u ltu r e ’s b a s ic id e a : “B y th e L ord is e n c o m p a s s e d all th is , w h a ts o e v e r c h a n g in g th e re is in th is c h a n g in g (w orld). T h ro u g h th e r e n u n c ia tio n of t h a t (world) m a y e s t th o u enjoy; c o v e te s t th o u n o t a n y o n e ’s r i c h e s t ^ ” (M a h ad e v an , 1 9 7 5 :4 6 ). T h u s is th e o r ie n ta tio n o f th e is a v a s y a , G o d -c e n te re d , S o c ie ty . ‘Isa v a sy a n T , th e b e g in n in g w o rd of th e te x t, m e a n in g th e S u p r e m e A b s o lu te P e rs o n , B h a g a v a n (isa ) (G osw am i, 1 9 7 7 :6 4 ), gives th e te x t it’s n a m e (M a h a d e v a n , 1 9 7 5 :4 5 ). V a r n a s r a m a - d h a r m a u p h o ld s t h a t b y d iv in e a rra n g e m e n t ev ery o n e w ill receiv e h is n e c e s s itie s , a n d t h a t th e re will b e n o s c a r c ity , p ro v id e d h u m a n i t y liv e s in its n a t u r a l , s a n e c o n d itio n 37. 3 ^The Isa-upanishad, or the Isa-upanishad, consisting of eighteen stanza’ s belongs to the V ajasaneyi school of the Yajur-veda. “It deals with the problem of the m aterial causality of the world and of m an’s relation thereto, the nature of the highest truth and the difference betw een reality and unreality and betw een knowledge and ignorance (Mahadevan, 1975:45).” 3 3 A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swam i Prabhupada translates this stanza in Sri- Isopan ish ad thus: Everything anim ate or inanim ate in this universe is controlled and owned by the Lord. One should therefore accept only those things necessary for him self, w hich are set aside as his quota, and one should not accept other things, knowing well to w hom they belong . This reinstates w hat we have already discussed in the previous chapter. W hatever “ justified” or “legal” m ean s one h as adapted to accum ulate w ealth w hich serves for more than his requirem ent, som ew here som eone is robbed either directly or indirectly, intentionally or ignorantly. 3 7 Similarly m ahatm a Gandhi believes that the Earth h a s enough resources to provide for hum an need, but not hum an greed. 50 A c c o rd in g to th e c o n c e p tio n o f is a v a s y a , fo u n d in Is a U p a n is h a d , b o th m a te r ia l n e e d s a n d t r a n s c e n d e n t a l a s p ir a tio n s fin d fu lfillm e n t in a G o d -c e n te re d so c ie ty . T h e re w a s n o p ro b le m o f h u n g e r o r u n e m p lo y m e n t u n d e r th e ru le o f V ed ic ra j a r s is (s a in tly k in g s), n o r w a s th e r e h e a v y in d u s tr ia liz a tio n t h a t c re a te d a rtific ia l n e e d s . T h e g o a l o f th e is a v a s y a s o c ie ty w a s n o t m e re ly p e a c e fu l m a te ria l life b u t full o p p o rtu n ity for ail to a tta in lib e ra tio n fro m s a m s a r a . (G osw am i, 197 5 :6 4 ) 3 .3 .1 .1 V am ash ram a-d h arm a T h e “e ig h t c a te g o rie s ” a s S a ts v a r u p a d a s a G o sw a m i c a lls it F o u r v a r n a s o r so c ia l o rd e rs a n d fo u r a s r a m a s o r s p ir itu a l o rd e rs , a n d h e n c e th e n a m e v a rn a s ra m a - d h a rm a . O b se rv in g t h a t T h o u g h th e w ord D h a rm a (law) is re la te d to b o th th e c o m p o n e n ts , v a r n a a n d a s r a m a , th e w o rd s a re ra re ly u s e d in s e p a ra tio n M a h a tm a G a n d h i p o in ts o u t t h a t “H in d u is m is b u t a n o th e r im p e rfe c t n a m e fo r v a r n a s h r a m a - d h a r m a 38” He held, therefore, that every m an, w om an, and child would eat adequately, clothe and shelter them selves comfortably, if there were a greater sharing of wealth in all parts of the world. Spum ing equally the insatiable acquisitiveness of capitalism and the m echanistic m aterialism of com m unism , Gandhi condem ned the veiy b a sis of m od em civilization. (Iyer, 1986:5) 3®Pointing out that the word Hindu w as coined by foreigners “having more geographical than any other content,” he observes that the dharm a (religion or law) that the B harata’s have “professed to observe is vam ashram adharm a”, and hence giving it “ethnic lab els” like Hindu or Aryan is “m isleading” (Mahatma Gandhi on “V am adharm a and True Socialism ”, Septem ber 23, 1934). One does not find the word “H indu” in any of the vedic scriptures. Noting this Embree com m ents: The physical setting is the land know n to the w estern world since ancient tim es as India, a word borrowed by the Greeks from the Persians, who, because of the difficulty they had with the initial “s ” called the great Sindhu River (the m odem Indus) the “H indu.” It w as this word that cam e to be applied by foreigners to the religion and culture of the people who lived in the land watered by the two rivers, the Indus and the Ganges, although the people them selves did not use the term. 51 T h e fo u r a s h r a m a s n o m o re e x is t in m o d e rn d a y s. T h e la w of a s h r a m a a s M a h a tm a G a n d h i p u ts it, “is e x tin c t, a lik e in p ro fe s s io n a n d in o b s e r v a n c e ”. T h e s e f o u r “s p i r i t u a l o r d e r s ” (G o s w a m i, 1 9 7 7 :6 6 ) o r “s ta g e s ” (M a h a tm a G a n d h i, 1 9 3 4 :5 6 0 ) a re th e life of a b r a h m a c h a r i (c e lib a te s t u d e n t life39), th e life of a G r ih a s ta (m a rrie d h o u s e h o ld e r life), th e life o f a v a n a p r a s th a (re tire d life), a n d th e life o f a s a n y a s i (re n o u n c e d life) th r o u g h w h ic h ev ery B h a r a tiy a h a s to p a s s to fu lfill h is p u r p o s e in life. M a h a tm a G a n d h i v e ry rig h tly o b s e rv e s t h a t th e firs t a n d th e th ir d a re “p ra c tic a lly n o n - e x is te n t” to d a y a n d t h a t th e fo u rth “m a y b e s a id to b e o b se rv e d in n a m e to a s m a ll e x te n t”. A s re g a rd s th e s e c o n d , it is p ro fe s s e d to b e o b se rv e d b y all to d ay , b u t it is “o b se rv e d in n a m e , n o t in s p irit”. R e g a rd in g th e f ir s t s p ir itu a l o rd e r (a s ra m a ) th e v e d ic sa g e Y a jn av a lk y a sa y s, “T h e vow of b ra h m a c h a ry a h e lp s o n e to a b s ta in from se x in d u lg e n c e in w o rk s , w o rd s , a n d m in d - - a t a ll tim e s , u n d e r all c irc u m s ta n c e s , a n d in a ll p la c e s .”(see G o sw am i, 1 9 7 7 :6 8 ) T h u s , th e o b se rv a n c e o f b r a h m a c h a r y a s ta r ts a t b irth , a n d a t th e age of five th e c h ild re n jo in th e g u r u k u la 40 w h e re , u n d e r th e g u id a n c e of th e G u ru ( s p iritu a l m a s te r) th e y a re e d u c a te d u n d e r th e s t r i c t d is c ip lin e of b r a h m a c h a r y a 41. T h is e d u c a tio n fo rm s o n e ’s c h a r a c te r fo r h is w hole life. 39 M ahatma Gandhi (1934:560) translates brahm acharya as “continent student life.” 40gurukula m eans a school. The children leave their hom e and go to the forest to the abode of the Guru to receive education by serving (seua) him. They leave the gurukula after they graduate, w hen they pay the guru a tribute in the form of gu rudaksh in a. 41 Regarding the observance of brahm acharaya Goswam i writes: 52 T h e s e c o n d s p i r i tu a l o rd e r, g r i h a s t h a ( h o u s e h o ld e r ) . T h e in te rre la tio n of th e firs t tw o s ta g e s —“b r a h m a c a r y a - g a r h a p a ty a ” (Bose, 1 9 6 6 :1 7 ) is a n e s s e n tia l p a r t o f th e v a r n a s r a m a - d h a r m a . B o se w rite s a b o u t “E d u c a tio n a n d H o u se h o ld Life”: T h e V ed ic c o n tro l o f th e fig h tin g in s t in c t in m a n b y b rin g in g it u n d e r th e d isc ip lin e o f R ita a s M o ral L aw — o r D h a rm a a s th e te rm c a m e to b e c a lle d in la te r tim e s — h a s h a d a p ro fo u n d in flu e n c e o n th e I n d ia n s y s te m of w a rfa re . S im ila r w a s th e c o n tro l o v e r se x -life , it w a s tw o fo ld : a lo n g p r e p a r a to r y p e rio d o f B r a h m a c a r y a (e d u c a tio n ) fo r y o u n g m e n a n d w o m e n , le a d in g to th e h e a lth y g ro w th of th e v irile sid e of n a tu r e , a c c o m p a n ie d b y c o n tin e n c e a n d s u b lim a tio n o f sex ; a n d th e r e a f te r m a rria g e b a s e d o n m u tu a l love a n d th e jo in t r u le r s h ip of th e h o u s e h o ld . T h e V e d a gives th e id e a l o f a m o n o g a m ic m a rria g e in w h ic h th e p a r tn e r s a re u n ite d in to a n a b id in g d u a lity (E.g. in R ig v ed a.X .8 5 .4 2 ). T h e V edic r itu a l re q u ire s th e p r e s e n c e o f b o th m a n a n d w ife. T h e b io lo g ic a l p u rp o s e of m a rria g e , fulfilled th ro u g h p a re n th o o d , is v ery c le a r ly r e c o g n iz e d . C o n ju g a l lo v e is h e ld s a c r e d (Rigveda.V III. 3 1 .9 , X. 8 5 .3 7 .) a n d th e w ife o n th e w a y to m a te rn ity is d e sc rib e d a s m o s t b lis sfu l (siv a ta m a ). (Bose, 1 9 6 6 :1 1 -1 2 ) During these early years, the spiritual m aster takes note of the stu d en ts propensities and determ ines the vam a* for w hich he is best suited. W hen a boy reaches twenty five , he m ay leave brahm achari life and the protection of the spiritual m aster in order to get married and take up household life. The idea is that, having undergone brahm achari training, he will in no circum stance becom e the victim of unrestricted sex. The Vedic m oralist Canakya Pandita says that the educated m an sees every wom an except his own wife as h is m other, he sees others’ property as garbage in the street, and he treats everyone as he would like to be treated him self. In the Vedic conception, restriction of sex is vital, the sex drive is the m ost binding m aterial desire. B ecau se of sex attachm ent, one returns to the m aterial world and undergoes m aterial m iseries in lifetim e after lifetime. To be sure, the vam asram a system does accom m odate the ji v a ’s (soul’s) deep- rooted desire for sen se gratification. In essen ce, the vam asram a system provides a life pattern in which one can satisfy h is desires and in w hich also, through regulation, one can gradually detach him self from m aterial bondage. (Goswami, 1977:68-69) *V am as or ‘the four social orders’ are discussed in detail in the following pages. 53 G o s w a m i d e s c r ib e s th e G r i h a s t h a (h o u s e h o ld e r) a s h a v in g “so m e lic e n s e for s e n s e p le a s u r e ” w h ic h is a b s e n t in th e o th e r th re e a s r a m a s . B u t, s e x is allo w ed o n ly w ith a n in te n tio n of p r o d u c in g c h i l d r e n 4 ^ T h u s ev en se x is re g u la te d so th a t th e g r ih a s th a c a n fulfill h is d e s ire s a n d y e t b e c o m e s p iritu a lly p u rifie d . T o d a y g r ih a s ta e x is ts on ly in n a m e a b o u t w h o m M a h a tm a G a n d h i c o m m e n ts: G r ih a s th a s o r h o u s e h o ld e r s of a k in d w e a ll a re , in a s m u c h a s w e e a t a n d d r in k a n d p ro p a g a te o u r k in d , like all c re a te d b e in g s . B u t in d o in g so, w e fulfil th e law of fle s h a n d n o t o f th e s p irit. O n ly th o s e m a r rie d c o u p le s w h o fulfil th e law of th e s p irit c a n be s a id o b se rv e th e law of g r ih a s ta - a s h r a m a . T h o se o b se rv e th e m e re a n im a l life do n o t o b se rv e th e law . T h e life of h o u s e h o ld e rs of to d a y is o n e of in d u lg e n c e . A n d a s th e fo u r s ta g e s r e p r e s e n t a la d d e r o f g ro w th a n d a re in te r d e p e n d e n t, o n e c a n n o t le a p to th e s ta g e of v a n a p r a s th a o r a sa n y a s i, u n le s s h e or s h e fu lfille d th e la w o f th e f i r s t tw o a s h r a m a s - - b r a h m a c h a r y a a n d g r i h a s th a . [M a h a tm a G a n d h i o n V a r n a d h a r m a a n d T ru e S o c ia lism S e p te m b e r 2 3 . 1934] (See Iyer, 1 9 8 6 :5 6 0 ) A t th e age of fifty o n e b r e a k s a w a y fro m all fam ily life a n d th e c o u p le in o rd e r to b e c o m e d e ta c h e d fro m h o m e , fam ily a n d b u s in e s s affa irs, tra v e l to g e th e r a s va n a p ra sth a s to p la c e s of p ilg rim ag e . T h is is o n e o f th e r e a s o n s p ilg rim a g e w a s s u c h a n im p o r ta n t p ra c tic e . A nd 42 It is a point worthy of attention. Even in married life a person h a s to exercise self control. W hen one h a s to have sex only to bear children, the im portance of having a planned num ber of children becom es important. The im portance given to sex to elevate it to a spiritual plane is noticed even in the erotic sculptures of som e tem ples. It w as considered the rightful place since the process of life in a m other’s womb starts with the entrance of that infinitesim al part (soul) of suprem e energy(supersoul or God). This act of sex establishes contact with that supersoul to draw the energy of life to earth. That is probably why sex is the highest form of physical pleasure given to m an--A capacity bestow ed to create new life, through hum an’s plea and god’s will. To prevent the m isu se of this capacity, to depict and to educate the sacredness of it’s intention, it is given a place in the representation of the abode of God— the Temple. 54 F in ally , th e m a n c o m p le te ly b r e a k s all fam ily c o n n e c tio n s to b e c o m e a sanyasU th e re n u n c ia to r. B e in g th e e m b o d im e n t o f re n u n c ia tio n , th e s a n y a s i is h e ld in h ig h e s te e m a n d is th e s p ir itu a l m a s te r o f a ll th e v a r n a s a n d a s h r a m a s . B u t th is s p ir itu a l o rd e r of th e a s h r a m a s , th e re fo re , a s M a h a tm a G a n d h i p u t s it “is a d e a d l e t t e r to d a y .” H e f u r t h e r c o m m e n ts t h a t “it c a n b e revived o n ly if th e law o f v a r n a , w ith w h ic h it is in tim a te ly in te rlin k e d , is re v iv e d .” In th e B h a g a v a d G ita L ord K ris h n a s a y s , c a tu r -v a rn y a m m a y a s r s t a m g u n a - k a r m a - v ib h a g a s a h : “A c c o rd in g to th e th r e e m o d e s of m a te r ia l n a t u r e 4 ^ a n d th e w o rk a s s o c ia te d w ith th e m , th e fo u r 43There are three m odes of material nature called the g u n a s— goodness (Sattva), p assion (rajas), and ignorance (tam as)--which “bind one to nature like three strong ropes”(Goswami, 1977:29). This quotation from Satsvarupa dasa G oswam i’s explanation gu n as explains clearly their meaning: The jiva attains different bodies according to the gunas in which he h as acted in the past, and each body in turn induces him to act according its predominant guna . Let u s consider a m an influenced by the m ode of goodness (as, for exam ple, a philosopher, a physician, or a poet). This m an lives with a sen se of full knowledge and, therefore, happiness. By cultivating knowledge of the m aterial world, he m akes his life pleasant; bound to that pleasant feeling by the rope of goodness, he does not attem pt spiritual elevation. As long as a person is attached to an advanced state of m aterial hap pin ess and works sim ply to improve m aterial conditions, he cannot attain liberation (though he m ay continue to attain bodies in the m ode of goodness). W hatever his m aterial opulence, he non eth eless faces the inevitable fourfold m iseries of birth, old age, disease, and death. Bhagavad-gita describes the m ode of passion (rajo-guna) as being “b o m of unlim ited desires and longings.”* Typifying this guna are sexual attraction and enjoyment. The jiva hankers for sex, and on achieving his desires he forms a hard knot of attachm ent to m aterial life. Gradually, his gross desires expand into subtler longings for honor, fam ily enjoym ent, m oney and so forth. The jiva h a s to work hard constantly to acquire and m aintain th ese things. According to the Vedic analysis, the achievem ents of great m aterialistic civilizations spring from rajo-guna. Lastly, tam o-guna, the m ode of ignorance, conditions the jiva to lazin ess and excessive sleep and , generally, to dejection and dependence on intoxicants. “ The result of this m ode is m adness. 55 d iv is io n s o f h u m a n s o c ie ty a r e c r e a te d b y m e .” ( P r a b h u p a d a : 1 9 8 6 :2 3 8 ). T h e s e fo u r v a r n a s o r so c ia l o rd e rs a r e —th e b r a h m a n a s ( t e a c h e r s , s c h o l a r s a n d s p i r i t u a l a d v i s o r s ) ,t h e k s h a t r i y a s ( a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a n d w a r r io r s ) , t h e v a i s h y a s ( f a r m e r s a n d b u s in e s s m e n ) a n d th e S h u d r a s (la b o u re rs a n d c ra ftsm e n ). T h e s e fo u r c a te g o rie s a re n o t b a s e d o n p o litic a l o r so c ial fa c tio n s, b u t a re n a tu r a l p a r ts to b e fo u n d in a n y civ ilizatio n . T h e B r ih a d a r a n y a k a U p a n is h a d s a y s t h a t “th e s e fu n c tio n s c a n b e s u c c e s s fu lly p e rfo rm e d w h e n all th e fo u r a re p e rfo rm e d s id e b y s id e a n d in a c c o rd a n c e w ith D h a r m a ( r i g h t e o u s n e s s ) ” (B o se , 1 9 6 6 :1 8 ). T h e s e f o u r c a t e g o r i e s a re m a n if e s ta tio n s o f th e e x is te n c e o f th e d iffe re n t m o d e s o f m a te r ia l n a tu r e (g u n as) in v a rio u s c o m b in a tio n . O n e h a v in g a d o m in a n c e of s a ttv a (g o o d n ess) is a b r a h m a n a . A p e rs o n w h o h a s c o n q u e re d h is ig n o ra n c e o r n e s c ie n c e (ta m a s ) d o e s n o t ta k e a n y s te p u n til h e fin d s th e t r u t h in to ta lity , a n d h e s h a ll do so w ith o u t a n y e x p e c ta tio n of p e r s o n a l g a in (a ltru is tic a lly ) s in c e h e h a s c o n q u e re d h is p a s s io n s (rajas) a n d t h u s d o e s n o t y e a rn fo r a n y m a te ria l p r o s p e rity o r s e n s e g ra tific a tio n . S u c h a p e rs o n , w h o h a s e le v ated h is m o ra l b e in g so a s to c o n tro l h is m in d a n d p a s s io n s is a lo n e fit to te a c h o th e r s , a n d b e c o m e a s c h o la r o r a s p ir itu a l a d v is o r in o th e r w o rd s to b e c o m e a b r a h m a n a . S e c o n d ly , a k s h a tr iy a ( a d m in is tra to r o r w a rrio r) is o n e At any given time, not one m ode alone but som e com bination of the m odes influences the jiva’s actions. At one tim e, rajas m ay dom inate over tam as; at another, sattva over rajas; at still another, tam as over rajas; and so forth. (Goswami, 1977:29- 30) T hus, everything in th is m aterial world resu lts from the interaction of these three gunas. As Chatteiji explains, “ The gu n as are the primal elem ents w hich com bine in different proportions to constitute all objects of the world” (quoted in Goswami: 1977:30). 56 w h o h a s d o m in a n c e o f s a ttv a ( g o o d n e s s ) b u t is m o tiv a te d b y raj a s (p assio n ). It is o b se rv ed t h a t a p e rs o n w h o h a s th e g u n a s in th e s e c o m b in a tio n s sh o w s, a s g iv en in th e B h a g a v a d -g ita th e q u a litie s of h e ro is m , p o w e r, d e te rm in a tio n , r e s o u r c e f u ln e s s , c o u ra g e in b a ttle , g e n e r o s ity , t r u t h f u l n e s s , r i g h t e o u s n e s s , a n d l e a d e r s h i p . T h e k s h a tr iy a s p ro te c t th e h e lp le s s a n d give g ifts in c h a rity . A lth o u g h th e y a re a ls o le a rn e d , th e y n e v e r a s s u m e th e p o s itio n o f th e te a c h e r s (sin c e th e q u a litie s la c k ). A s r e g a r d s th e v a is h y a s ( tr a d e s m e n , b u s in e s s m e n , etc.), th e y a re th o s e w h o a re m o tiv a te d b y b o th p a s s io n (rajas) a n d ig n o ra n c e (ta m a s). S u c h in d iv id u a ls c a n n o t a s s u m e th e ro le o f a b r a h m a n a a s it w o u ld b e d a n g e ro u s to th e so c ie ty . S u c h p e rs o n w o u ld a lte r tr u th , d u e to d o m in a n c e o f ra ja s , a c c o rd in g to th e m a te ria l b e n e fit h e w o u ld g et, a n d ev en o th e rw ise w o u ld b e u n a b le to a c t rig h te o u s ly s in c e h e is ig n o ra n t of th e t r u th in to ta lity . F in ally , th e p e r s o n s w h o a r e m o tiv a te d b y ig n o r a n c e (ta m a s ) a r e fit fo r o c c u p a tio n s in th e s e rv ic e s s u c h a s la b o u r e r s , c r a f ts m e n , s in c e c o m p le te ig n o ra n c e a n d d is in te r e s t in e v e ry th in g m a y c a u s e m o re h a r m t h a n a n y b e n e f it to th e so c ie ty , if e m p lo y e d in a n y o th e r o c c u p a tio n . E v en in te rm s o f m a te ria l d e v e lo p m e n t, th e g o al w a s b r a h m a n a - -a g e n tle m a n of p e rfe c t b e h a v io r a n d g e n u in e s p iritu a l k n o w led g e. O n th is L en n o y c o m m e n ts: T h e s p iritu a lly p e rfe c te d in d iv id u a l , h o w ev er, is p ro b a b ly w id ely id ea liz ed in In d ia to d a y a s h e ev er w a s, ev en if few live u p to th e m o d el. N o th in g of c o m p a ra b le m a s s a p p e a l h a s re p la c e d h im a s th e sy m b o lic h u b o f th e so c ia l w h eel, (q u o ted in G o sw am i, 1 9 7 7 :6 7 ) 57 T h e p re d o m in a n t fo rm in w h ic h th e law of v a r n a e x is ts to d a y is fa r fro m w h a t it in te n d e d to b e . M a h a tm a G a n d h i in h is ta lk o n v a m a d h a r m a p o in ts th is o u t a n d clarifies th e m is c o n c e p tio n s: B u t la b e ls n e v e r rev e al a m a n ’s c h a ra c te r, n o r d o e s th e fa c t t h a t a m a n clin g s to a la b e l sh o w t h a t h e d e se rv e s it. A b la c k m a n w ill n o t b e red , n o m a tte r h o w re p e a te d ly h e c a lls h im s e lf re d . In th e s a m e w ay , o n e d o e s n o t b e c o m e a b ra h m in b y c allin g h im s e lf a b ra h m in . N ot u n til a m a n re v e a ls in h is life th e a ttr ib u te s of a b r a h m in . N ot u n til a m a n re v e a ls in h is life th e a ttr ib u te s o f a b r a h m in c a n h e d e se rv e t h a t n a m e . C o n sid e re d in th is lig h t, v a rn a m a y b e s a id to b e e x tin c t. If w e m a y , in d e e d , c la im a lab e l, w e c a n call o u rse lv e s S h u d r a s , th o u g h re a lly w e a re n o t e n title d to t h a t n a m e e ith e r, in a s m u c h a s w e do n o t o b se rv e th e law of t h a t v a rn a . T h is law is th e la w of o n e ’s b e in g w h ic h o n e h a s to fulfil. T h e fu lfillm e n t s h o u ld b e s p o n ta n e o u s a n d n o m a tte r of h o n o r or s h a m e . H ow m a n y a r e t h e r e w h o a re fu lfillin g th e la w a s la w , i.e , s p o n ta n e o u s ly ? W e fulfil it b e c a u s e w e c a n n o t h e lp it, w e a re a ll se rfs, w h e th e r w e w ill o r n o . L et n o o n e c o n te n d t h a t v a r n a e x is ts to d a y , b e c a u s e a ll f u n c tio n s o f th e d iffe re n t v a r n a s a re b e in g p e rfo rm e d b y s o m e o n e o r th e o th e r a n d so m e h o w o r th e o th e r. V a rn a is in tim a te ly , if n o t i n d is s o l u b l y , c o n n e c te d w ith b i r t h , a n d th e o b se rv a n c e of th e law of v a rn a m e a n s th e follow ing o n th e p a r t o f u s a ll th e h e re d ita r y a n d tr a d itio n a l c a llin g o f o u r fo re fa th e rs in a s p ir it o f d u ty . T h o se w h o t h u s fulfil th e law o f th e ir v a r n a c a n b e c o u n te d o n o n e ’s fin g e rs ’ e n d s. T h is p e rfo rm a n c e o f o n e ’s h e re d ita ry fu n c tio n is d o n e a s a m a tte r o f d u ty , th o u g h it n a tu r a lly c a r rie s w ith it th e e a r n in g o f o n e ’s liv e lih o o d . T h u s , s e c u r e s h im h is livelihood. T h u s , th e fu n c tio n o f a B ra h m in is to s tu d y a n d to te a c h th e s c ie n c e of B ra h m in (or s p ir itu a l tr u th ) . H e p e rfo rm s th e fu n c tio n , a s h e c a n n o t do o th e rw ise , a s it is th e law o f h is b e in g . T h a t s e c u re s h im h is liv elih o o d , b u t h e w ill ta k e it a s a gift from G od. A K s h a triy a w ill p e rfo rm th e fu n c tio n of p ro te c tin g th e p e o p le in th e s a m e s p irit, a c c e p tin g fo r h is liv e lih o o d w h a te v e r th e p e o p le c a n afford to give h im . a V a ish y a w ill p u r s u e w e a lth -p ro d u c in g o c c u p a tio n s fo r th e w e lfa re o f th e c o m m u n ity , k e e p in g fo r h im s e lf e n o u g h fo r h is o w n m a i n t e n a n c e a n d re n d e rin g th e b a la n c e to th e c o m m u n ity in o n e s h a p e o r th e a n o th e r. A S h u d r a w ill p e rfo rm p h y sic a l la b o u r in th e s a m e s p irit o f serv ice. 58 V a rn a is d e te rm in e d b y b ir th , b u t c a n b e r e ta in e d o n ly b y o b se rv in g its o b lig a tio n s . O n e b o r n o f B r a h m in p a r e n ts w ill b e c a lle d a B ra h m in , b u t if h is life fa ils to re v e a l th e a ttr ib u te s o f a B ra h m in w h e n h e c o m e s o f age, h e c a n n o t b e c a lle d a B r a h m in . H e w ill h a v e fa lle n B ra h m in h o o d . O n th e o th e r h a n d , o n e w h o is b o m n o t a B ra h m in b u t re v e a ls in h is c o n d u c t th e a tt r ib u t e s o f a b r a h m in w ill b e re g a rd e d a s a B ra h m in , th o u g h h e w ill h im s e lf d isc la im th e lab el. V a rn a t h u s c o n c e iv e d is n o m a n - m a d e in s titu tio n b u t th e la w of life u n iv e rs a lly g o v e rn in g th e h u m a n fam ily. F u lfillm e n t o f th e la w w o u ld m a k e life liv a b le , w o u ld s p re a d p e a c e a n d c o n te n t, e n d a ll c la s h e s a n d c o n flic ts, p u t a n e n d to s ta r v a tio n a n d p a u p e r iz a tio n , so lv e th e p ro b le m of p o p u la tio n a n d ev en e n d d is e a s e a n d su ffe rin g . B u t if v a m a re v e a ls th e law o f o n e ’s b e in g a n d th u s th e d u ty o n e h a s to p e rfo rm , it c o n fe rs n o rig h t, a n d th e id e a o f s u p e rio rity o r in fe rio rity is w h o lly r e p u g n a n t to it. All v a rn a s a re e q u a l, for th e c o m m u n ity d e p e n d s n o le s s o n o n e t h a n o n a n o th e r. T o d a y v a rn a m e a n s g ra d a tio n s of h ig h a n d low. It is a h id e o u s tra v e s ty o f th e o rig in a l. T h e la w o f v a r n a w a s d isc o v e re d b y o u r a n c e s to r s b y s te r n a u s te ritie s . T h ey s o u g h t to live u p to th e law to th e b e s t of th e ir c a p a c ity . W e h a v e d is to rte d it to d a y a n d h a v e m a d e o u rs e lv e s th e la u g h in g - s to c k o f th e w o rld . No w o n d e r t h a t w e h a v e to d a y a m o n g s t th e H in d u s a se c tio n w h ic h is b e n d in g its e n e rg ie s to a d e s tr u c tio n o f th e i n s titu tio n w h ic h in th e ir o p in io n sp e lls th e r u in o f th e H in d u s . A n d c e r ta in ly o n e n e e d h a v e n o m e rc y fo r th e h id e o u s d is to r tio n , w h ic h m e a n s n o th in g b u t d e s t r u c t i o n o f H in d u is m . T h e p e o p le o f B h a r a t re g a rd e d v a m a s h r a m a d h a r m a a s a n id ea l m a te r ia l p la tfo rm fro m w h e re h u m a n s c o u ld ris e to th e s p ir itu a l p la tfo rm . U n fo rtu n a te ly , to d a y th e civ ilizatio n is g o n e a s tr a y o n to p of b e in g m o d e rn iz e d . 3 .3 .1 .2 T h e G oal and i t ’s T ran sitory P h a ses E c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t ( a r th a ) is a ls o a p a r t o f t h e d e v e lo p m e n t p ro c e s s , b u t it is n o t th e g o a l in th e v a r n a s h r a m a d h a rm a . S e n s e g ra tific a tio n (kam a) a lso h a s a p la c e in life, b u t s h o u ld 59 b e re g u la te d a s d e sc rib e d in th e g rih a s ta a s h r a m a . B o th s h o u ld alw ay s b e a c h ie v e d w ith r ig h te o u s n e s s (d h a rm a ) k e e p in g in m in d t h a t th e u ltim a te goal is s p iritu a l, t h a t is, lib e ra tio n (m o k sh a). 3 .4 E v a lu a tio n o f M od ern ism th r o u g h T h e V ed ic T h eo ry T o d a y e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t (a rth a ) is a c h ie v e d a t th e c o s t of e v e ry th in g e ls e d u e to th e in c a p a c ity o f th e p r e s e n t d e v e lo p m e n t th in k e r s to v isu a liz e in a to ta lita r ia n w ay. M illions a re b e in g e x p lo ited a n d h e n c e im p o v e ris h e d d u e to th e m o d e rn “p a ro c h ia l” (See H a q u e , 1989), a n d “im m a tu r e ” th e o rie s o f d e v e lo p m e n t. T h is s e e m s to sh o w a n in v o lu tio n o f th e c a p a c ity o f th e h u m a n m in d to th in k , d is c rim in a te , a n d c o n tro l. 3 .4 .1 H aqu e's E m a n cip a to ry T h eory o f D e v e lo p m e n t D e v e lo p m e n t in th e m a te r ia l s e n s e to d a y s h o u ld in c lu d e e m a n c ip a tio n fro m e x p lo ita tio n o r d o m in a tio n . H a q u e d e fin e s it a s s im u lta n e o u s e m a n c ip a tio n fro m th re e fo rm s o f d o m in a tio n —n a tu r a l ( m a te r ia l) , s o c ia l (p o litic o -e c o n o m ic ) a n d c o g n itiv e ( c u l t u r a l - id e a lo g ic a l-s p iritu a l)—t h a t e x is t a t b o th n a tio n a l a n d in te r n a tio n a l levels. F lo o d s, c y c lo n e s, e a r th q u a k e s , d r o u g h t, fire, s to rm , a n im a ls , cold te m p e ra tu re , h e a t, g e rm s o f d is e a s e , e tc . a re so m e of th e n a tu r a l fo rc e s w h ic h c a u s e h a v o c in h u m a n s a n d th e ir s e ttle m e n ts , a g a in s t w h ic h th e r e is c o n s ta n t s tru g g le . E m a n c ip a tin g fro m th e s e n a tu r a l d e v a s ta tin g fo rc e s h a s b e e n o n e o f th e i m p o r t a n t g o a ls fo r all so c ie tie s. S c ien c e h a s a lw a y s b e e n th e w a y to b e tte r w h a t w a s p r e s e n t 60 e a rlie r. B u t it is good o n ly to th e e x te n t t h a t it s u c c e s s fu lly m e d ia te s “b e tw e e n h u m a n e x is te n c e a n d th e e x is te n c e o f N a tu re r a t h e r th a n d e s tr o y th e N a tu re a n d b r in g th e d e m is e o f h u m a n k i n d its e lf .” (H aq u e, 1 9 8 9 :3 3 9 ). A s w e h a v e a lre a d y s e e n S c ie n c e in th e m o d e rn c iv iliz a tio n h a s c a u s e d m o re h a r m t h a n g o o d , le a d in g to th e “in te r n a tio n a l c o g n itiv e d o m in a tio n in th is e ra o f h ig h - te c h m a s s c o m m u n ic a tio n .” (H aq u e, 1 9 8 9 :3 3 9 ). S o c ia l e m a n c ip a tio n r e q u ir e s a c o lle c tiv e a n d in te g r a te d so c ie ty to w h ic h e a c h in d iv id u a l w ill c o n trib u te a s h is fa m ily a n d in t u r n g e t w a r m th a n d a ls o g o o d s fo r h is s u b s is te n c e , w ith o u t b e in g u n d e r th e d o m in a tio n o f a few s tro n g , ric h a n d p o w e rfu l (H aq u e, 1 9 8 9 :3 4 1 ). T h is e m a n c ip a tio n is n o t o n ly fro m th e d o m in a tio n w ith in a so c ie ty b u t a lso in te rn a tio n a lly . S o cial d o m in a tio n e x is ts b e c a u s e of th e m o d e rn in d iv id u a ls in d u lg e n c e in e x ce ssiv e r a ja s w h ic h le a d s to g re e d a n d a ls o ta m a s b e c a u s e o f th e ir n e s c ie n c e ; a n d a ls o d u e to c o m p le te n e s c ie n c e (ta m a s ) o f w h a t is th e r e a lity , a n d d o in g a c c o rd in g to th e p r e s e n t tr e n d o r ” j u s t d o in g w h a t e v e ry b o d y t h u s ”. T h u s w e se e t h a t m o d e rn so c ie ty c o m p ris e s of m a in ly s h u d r a s a n d a few v a is h y a s , so m e, h o w ev er do n o t q u alify for s h u d r a - v a r n a also . E m a n c ip a tio n fro m co g n itiv e d o m in a tio n “sig n ifie s th e fre e d o m o f v a rio u s in d iv id u a ls , g ro u p s , c la s s e s , so c ie tie s o r n a tio n s fro m th e c u ltu ra l, id eo lo g ical, re lig io u s, s p ir itu a l o r in te lle c tu a l d o m in a tio n s of a n o t h e r in d iv id u a l, g ro u p , c la s s , s o c ie ty , o r n a t i o n ”. (H a q u e , 1 9 8 9 :3 3 8 ) E a c h of th e s e u n i ts s h o u ld h a v e rig h t to e x e rc is e its its ow n c u ltu re , ideology, relig io n , v a lu e s , e tc .-- a rig h t w h ic h e x is ts only 61 in n a m e to d a y in t h is d e c a d e n t m o d e rn c iv iliz a tio n . T h e r e a s o n b e h in d th is d o m in a tio n is a lso th e p re d o m in a n c y o f ra ja s a n d ta m a s . H a q u e c a lls th e s im u lta n e o u s e m a n c ip a tio n fro m all th re e fo rm s of d o m in a tio n a s d e v e lo p m e n t. H ow ever, in s u c h a c a se it c a n o n ly b e c a lle d a s a c c o m p lis h m e n t o f th e r e q u ir e m e n ts fo r a r t h a , w h ile th e la te r tw o c a n o n ly r e s u lt in c a s e o f a p re d o m in a n c e o f s a ttv a in th e s o c ie ty in g e n e ra l, w h ic h s u g g e s ts t h a t th e g o a l o f th e s o c ie ty is e c o n o m ic p r o s p e r i t y t h r o u g h t h e o b s e r v a n c e o f d h a r m a (rig h te o u s n e s s ) a n d th e fin a l g o al of e a c h in d iv id u a l is to b e c o m e a b r a h m a n a . T h u s th e th o u g h t of s u c h a s ta te of so c ie ty its e lf r u le s o u t th e p o s s ib ility o f b o th c a p ita lis t a n d c o m m u n is t th e o rie s . T h e fin a l s ta g e w h ic h s e e m s to b e m is s in g in H a q u e ’s d e fin itio n is th e g o al of lib e ra tio n (m o k sh a ). W e h a v e o b se rv e d th e s p ir itu a l, c u ltu r a l, a n d m o ra l b a n k r u p tc y o f th e m o d e rn c iv iliz a tio n c o m in g o u t o f w h ic h , th ro u g h th e id e a l fo rm o f d e v e lo p m e n t in V ed ic te rm s , m a y b e in th e c o n te x t o f B h a r a t o n ly . B u t th e b a s ic a s s u m p tio n s o f th e V e d ic d e fin itio n o f d e v e lo p m e n t ( v a r n a s h r a m a - d h a r m a ) is t r u e fo r a ll h u m a n k in d . 3 .4 .2 D e v e lo p m e n t in M o d e m B h arat (India) In B h a r a t , w e fin d t h a t t h e i r n e e d fo r m a in ly n a t u r a l e m a n c ip a tio n , th e o th e r tw o fo rm s o f d o m in a tio n e x is t o n ly to th e e x te n t th e v iru s o f m o d e rn c iv ilizatio n h a s s p re a d . S o m e p a r ts h a v e s u c c u m b e d , b u t still w e fin d t h a t th e ir is a s u b c o n s c io u s r e s is ta n c e , so m e c all it a n in c a p a c ity to c h a n g e w ith tim e . It is a c h a rg e , a s M a h a tm a G a n d h i p u ts it, “a g a in s t o u r m e r it”. W h a t w e h a v e te s te d a n d fo u n d tr u e o n th e a n v il o f e x p e rie n c e w e d a re n o t c h a n g e . W e 62 n o tic e t h a t m in d is a r e s tle s s b ird ; th e m o re it g e ts th e m o re it w a n ts (m o tiv a tio n b y ta m a s ), a n d s till r e m a in s u n s a tis f ie d . T h e m o re w e in d u lg e o u r p a s s io n s , th e m o re u n b r id le d th e y b e c o m e . O u r a n c e s to r s , th e re fo re , s e t a lim it to o u r in d u lg e n c e s . T h e y s a w t h a t h a p p in e s s w a s la rg e ly a m e n ta l c o n d itio n . A m a n is n o t n e c e s s a rily h a p p y b e c a u s e h e is ric h , o r is u n h a p p y b e c a u s e h e is p o o r. T h e ric h a re o fte n s e e n to b e u n h a p p y , th e p o o r to b e h a p p y . M illio n s w ill a lw a y s r e m a in p o o r a n d live in v illa g e s. O b s e rv in g a ll th is , o u r a n c e s to rs d is s u a d e d u s from lu x u rie s a n d p le a s u re s . W e u s e th e sa m e k in d of p lo u g h , s a m e k in d of c o tta g e s t h a t w e h a d th o u s a n d s of y e a rs ag o . W e h a v e h a d n o s y s te m of life c o rro d in g c o m p e titio n . E a c h follow ed h is ow n tr a d e (v a m a s), a n d c h a rg e d a re g u la tio n fee. It w a s n o t t h a t w e d id n o t k n o w h o w to in v e n t m a c h in e r y ; b u t o u r fo re fa th e rs k n e w th a t, if w e s e t o u r h e a r t a fte r s u c h th in g s , w e w o u ld b e c o m e s la v e s a n d lo se o u r m o ra l fib re. T h ey , th e re fo re , a fte r d u e d e lib e ra tio n , d e c id e d t h a t w e s h o u ld o n ly do w h a t w e c o u ld w ith o u r h a n d s a n d fe e t. T h e y s a w t h a t o u r r e a l h a p p in e s s a n d h e a lth c o n s is te d in a p ro p e r u s e of o u r h a n d s a n d feet, a n d b y w h ic h ev ery th in g w o u ld b e w ith in re a c h . T h e y f u r th e r r e a s o n e d t h a t p e o p le c a n flo u ris h in v illa g e s a lo n e , w h e re th e p o p u la tio n s to p p e d a t th e p o in t w h e n a n e w c o m e r w e n t u n n o tic e d , a n d n o t in B o m b a y ’s a n d D e lh i’s ( M a h a tm a G a n d h i, 1 9 4 6 : 2 3 1 -2 3 3 ). C o m p a rin g it th is r u r a l so c ie ty , th e v illa g e , a n d its a r c h ite c tu r e , B o u rg e o is c o m m e n ts a b o u t th e in d u s tria liz e d w orld: S h a k e n b y e n v ir o n m e n ta l d a m a g e , in c r e a s in g c o s ts , a n d p ro lo n g e d re c e s s io n , th e in d u s tr ia liz e d w o rld is frig h te n e d a s th e d re a m of e x tra v a g a n c e fa d e s. O fficially 63 a n d e m o tio n a lly id e n tify in g h a p p in e s s w ith c o n s u m p tio n , w e fe a r t h a t a p p ro p ria te te c h n o lo g y is a e u p h e m is m fo r d e g ra d a tio n . S u c h fe a r d e s e rv e s c o m p a s s io n , n o t v itrio l. V e rn a c u la r a rc h ite c tu r e ’s b e a u ty a n d in g e n u ity re m in d u s t h a t s im p lic ity o f m e a n s is n o t p o v e rty o f m e a n s . Its d ig n ity r e a s s u r e s u s t h a t w e c a n le a r n to o v e rc o m e o u r d re a m s o f g re e d a n d d o m in a n c e , t h a t w e c a n g ro w p a s t o u r illu s io n t h a t w e a lth a n d p o w e r n e e d to c o n q u e r n a tu r e . (B o u rg eo is, 198 3 :9 1 ) 3 .5 A p p lica tio n an d R ev iv a l o f th e V ed ic Id eal O n ce w e rea liz e t h a t th e c ities a re a c u rs e for h u m a n ity , w e c a n slow ly do a w a y w ith th e m , in s te a d o f a d o p tin g “o in tm e n t” s o lu tio n s a s w e do now . T h e re is n o d o u b t t h a t w e s h a ll to go b a c k to th e e x te n t to w h ic h w e h a v e im b ib e d m o d e rn c iv iliz a tio n . T h is p a r t o f th e ta s k is th e m o s t d iffic u lt o n e , b u t it w ill h a v e to b e d o n e . W h en w e ta k e a w ro n g p a th th e re is n o a lte rn a tiv e b u t to go b a c k . W e h a v e g o t to free o u rse lv e s fro m a tta c h m e n t to th e th in g s w e a re e n jo y in g . F o r th is , it is n e c e s s a r y t h a t w e b e g in to feel d is g u s t for th e m . W h a te v e r m e a n s a n d i n s t r u m e n t s a p p e a r to u s to b e b e n e fic ia l a re n o t g o in g to b e g iv e n u p . O n ly h e w h o re a liz e s t h a t th e r e is m o re h a r m t h a n th e a p p a r e n t b e n e fit fro m a p a r tic u la r th in g w ill give it u p (M a h a tm a G a n d h i’s le tte r to C h a g a n la l, 2 n d A pril 1910) . 3 .5 .1 Satyagraha T h e p a th t h a t M a h a tm a G a n d h i h a d o b s e rv e d a n d p r e a c h e d m u s t b e o b se rv e d b y th e e d u c a te d few in th e so c iety . T h e w e a p o n to fig h t th e d is e a s e o f th is m o d e r n c iv iliz a tio n m u s t b e u s e d - - th e w e a p o n o f S a t y a g r a h a . S a t y a g r a h a m e a n s s o u l- f o r c e , p a s s iv e re s is ta n c e , a n d d iso b e d ie n c e of w h a t o n e b e lie v e s to b e th e u n t r u th . All e d u c a te d p e o p le to o b se rv e d h a rm a , m u s t re fu s e to do w h a t th e y th in k is w ro n g , if th e y c a n n o t sto p it from b e in g d o n e . 64 W h a t is th e g o o d , th e y a s k , of o n ly o n e p e r s o n o p p o sin g in ju s tic e ; fo r h e w ill b e p u n is h e d a n d d e stro y e d , h e w ill la n g u is h in p ris o n o r m e e t a n u n tim e ly d e a th b y h a n g in g . T h e o b je c tio n is n o t v alid . H isto ry sh o w s t h a t all re fo rm s h a v e b e g u n w ith o n e p e rs o n . F r u it is h a r d to com e b y w ith o u t ta p a s y a (p en an ce). T h e su ffe rin g t h a t h a s to b e u n d e rg o n e in s a ty a g r a h a is ta p a s y a in its p u r e s t form . O n ly w h e n th e ta p a s y a is c a p a b le of b e a rin g fru it do w e h a v e th e f ru it. T h is e s ta b lis h e s th e f a c t t h a t w h e n t h e r e is i n s u f f ic ie n t t a p a s y a , th e f r u i t is d e la y e d . (M a h a tm a G a n d h i o n so u l-fo rc e a n d ta p a sy a ) . S a ty a g r a h a w a s a tr u e q u a lity of th e b r a h m a n a . H avell, w ritin g a b o u t th e V a stu -v id y a , c o m m e n ts a b o u t M a n a s a r a S ilp a -s a s tra , t h a t it la y s d o w n t h a t th e h ig h in te lle c tu a l a n d m o ra l c u ltu r e is n e c e s s a ry for th e m a s te r - b u ild e r (s ta p a th i). “H e s h o u ld c o n v e r s a n t w ith a ll th e sc ie n c e s ; a lw a y s a tte n tiv e to h is w o rk ; o f a n u n b le m is h e d c h a ra c te r; g e n e ro u s , s in c e re , a n d d ev o id o f e n e m ity o r j e a lo u s y .” (See H avell, 1 9 1 5 :7 ) In B h a r a t s c ie n c e e x is te d in fo rm o f r u r a l sc ie n c e , t h a t w h ic h w a s te s te d a n d fo u n d tr u e on th e an v il of e x p e rie n c e , g e n e ra tio n a fte r g e n e ra tio n . S c ien c e in A rc h ite c tu re o r v a s tu -v id y a e x is te d in h a rm o n y w ith n a tu r e . T h e b a s ic p o s tu la te w a s t h a t n a tu r e in th e fo rm of tre e s, so il, r o c k s e tc . a d a p t s its e lf in r e s p o n s e to th e e n v ir o n m e n ta l c o n d itio n s ty p ic a l to t h a t p a r tic u la r p la c e a n d th e re fo re is th e b e s t m a te r ia l to w ith s ta n d th e fo rc e s o f n a tu r e lo c a l to t h a t p la c e . T h e fo rm s evolved w e re “n a t u r a l ” a s a g a in s t th e a rtific ia l fo rm s th r o u g h a rtific ia l m a te r ia l to d a y . U n fo rtu n a te ly d u e to c o g n itiv e d o m in a tio n , p e o p le a re d is c o n tin u in g t h is r ic h p r o c e s s o f e v o lu tio n a r y r u r a l s c ie n c e a n d b a n k in g m o re o n m o d e r n s c ie n c e , w h ic h d u e to its d is e a s e d in te n tio n is b e c o m in g d e trim e n ta l. T h e o n ly w a y p e o p le c a n 65 b e s h o w n t h a t th e p a th th e y h a d g o n e a s tr a y fro m is th e rig h t o n e ,is to c o n v in c e th r o u g h m o d e rn s c ie n c e itse lf, u p o n w h ic h th e y h a v e b e sto w e d th e ir e n tire fa ith . It is o n e of th o s e in s ta n c e s w h e n p o is o n is u s e d to kill p o iso n . F o r th is , a p ro je c t to h e lp th e p e o p le o f B h a r a t to e m a n c ip a te fro m n a tu r a l d o m in a tio n of C y clo n es is ta k e n . T h e re m a in in g s tu d y in sta g e III e x p lo re s th is a v e n u e . T h u s , B ey o n d sc ie n c e lies h u m a n ity w h e re civ iliz atio n o c c u rs b y fre e in g o n e s e lf fro m n e s c ie n c e , a n d w h e re in c o n s c ie n c e is th e o n ly a v e n u e to w a rd s sc ie n c e . C iv iliz a tio n is t h a t m o d e o f c o n d u c t w h ic h p o in ts o u t to m a n th e p a th o f d u ty . P e rfo rm a n c e o f d u ty a n d o b s e rv a n c e o f m o ra lity a re c o n v e rtib le te rm s . To o b se rv e m o ra lity is to a tt a i n m a s te r y o v e r o u r m in d a n d o u r p a s s io n s . S o d o in g , w e k n o w o u r s e lv e s . T h e G u ja r a ti e q u iv a le n t fo r civ ilizatio n m e a n s ‘good c o n d u c t’ (M a h a tm a G a n d h i, 1 9 4 6 : 232) C h ap ter IV C y clo n es in ‘B h arat’ 66 4 .1 In tr o d u c tio n to S ta g e i n T h is p a r t of th e s tu d y a tte m p ts to p u t fo rw a rd a p ro p o s a l for a n a p p r o p r ia te a p p r o a c h to w a r d s m in im iz in g th e lo s s o f life a n d p ro p e rty in th e cy clo n e p ro n e p a r ts of In d ia . In d ia is th e s e v e n th la rg e s t c o u n tr y in th e w o rld , it is w ell- m a rk e d off fro m th e r e s t of A sia b y m o u n ta in s a n d th e se a , w h ic h give th e c o u n tr y a d is tin c t g e o g ra p h ic e n tity . B o u n d e d b y th e g r e a t H im a la y a s in th e n o rth , it s tr e tc h e s s o u th w a rd s a n d a t th e T ro p ic of C a n c e r, ta p e r s off in to th e In d ia n O c ea n b e tw e e n th e B ay o f B e n g al o n th e e a s t a n d th e A ra b ia n S e a o n th e w e st. It c o v e rs a n a r e a of 3 2 ,8 7 ,2 6 3 sq k m . L y in g e n tir e ly in th e n o r t h e r n h e m is p h e r e , th e m a in la n d e x te n d s , b e tw e e n la titu d e s 8°4’ a n d 3 7 °6 ’ n o r th a n d lo n g itu d e s 6 8 °7 ’ a n d 9 7 ° 2 5 \ e a s t a n d m e a s u r e s a b o u t 3 ,2 1 4 k m fro m n o r th to s o u th b e tw e e n th e e x tre m e la titu d e s a n d a b o u t 2 ,9 3 3 k m fro m e a s t to w e st b e tw e e n th e e x tre m e lo n g itu d e s . It h a s a la n d f r o n tie r o f a b o u t 1 5 ,2 0 0 k m . th e t o ta l le n g th of th e c o a s tlin e o f m a i n l a n d , L a k s h a d w e e p g ro u p of Is la n d s a n d A n d a m a n a n d N ic o b a r g ro u p of Is la n d s is 7 ,5 1 6 .5 k m . T h e r e a re 5 .5 l a k h v illa g e s in I n d ia , w ith t h e i r p rim e o c c u p a tio n b e in g a g ric u ltu re . T h e re a re m a n y p a r ts of In d ia w h ic h a re p r o n e to d r o u g h ts a n d c y c lo n e s . In In d ia , d e v e lo p m e n t la c k s p rim a rily n a tural em a n cip a tio n (see fo o tn o te 6). It is of c o n c e rn to d a y 67 t h a t th is e m a n c ip a tio n s h o u ld n o t o c c u r a t th e c o s t of th e o th e r a s s e e n in th e d e c a d e n t m o d e rn c iv ilizatio n of to d a y . 4 .2 C yclones: A H istogragh ic S o cia l A n alysis H u n d r e d s h a v e d ie d d u e to c y c lo n e s in In d ia a n d p ro p e rty of u n a c c o u n ta b le v a lu e h a s b e e n lo st. T h e lo s s e s of life a n d p ro p e rty in th e c o a s ta l a r e a s o f th e s u b - c o n tin e n t a re c a u s e d b y th e d ire c t a n d in d ire c t e ffects of th e h ig h w in d s a n d th e e x c e ssiv e r a in s . T h e h ig h w in d s c a u s e b u ild in g s to b e se v ere ly d a m a g e d o r e v en to c o lla p se . In a d d itio n , th e r e a re s o m e tim e s , s h o r t c irc u its in th e e le c tric a l s y s te m w h ic h s t a r t fires. G o v e rn m e n t h a s a d o p te d se v e ra l s tra te g ie s to fig h t t h is to a c e r ta in e x te n t, b u t a t th e e x p e n s e o f a ffe c tin g o th e r d im e n s io n s of life a n d o th e r p a r ts of In d ia . It is u n f o r tu n a te t h a t e v en in th e e y e s o f th e g o v e rn m e n t, “p u k k a ” ( p e r m a n e n t o r s tro n g ) h o u s in g m e a n s c o n c re te o r b r ic k h o u s e s . T h e v e ry a s s u m p tio n h e re n e c e s s ita te s th e u s e o f m o d e rn m a te r ia l a n d te c h n iq u e s , o r a t th e m o s t d e m a n d s th e u s e of a p p r o p r i a t e te c h n o lo g y . T e c h n o lo g y r e f e r s to i n d u s t r i a l a r t s c o lle c tiv e ly a n d th e r e c a n b e n o “i n d u s t r i a l a r t ” t h a t c a n b e a p p ro p ria te for th e c o a s ta l p la in s in B h a ra t. D u e to th e in flu e n c e of m o d e rn c iv iliz a tio n e v en r u r a l a re a s h a v e b e e n a d u lte r a te d . “W h e n y o u se e p e o p le w e a rin g p a n ts a n d s h ir ts in a village, k n o w t h a t th e a rc h ite c tu re th e re is n o t v e rn a c u la r a n y m o r e .” A s p e c ts o f c o n s tr u c tio n a n d th e tr a d itio n t h a t follow s evolved for g e n e r a tio n s --th o u s a n d s of y e a rs --w h a t h a s b e e n fo u n d tru e o n th e a n v il o f e x p e rie n c e c a n n o t b e p ro v e n w ro n g b y m o d e rn 68 te c h n o lo g y . T he e c o n o m ic h is to ry o f B h a r a t is a s to ry of c o n tin u o u s e co n o m ic d ra in o n all ty p e s of re s o u rc e s , n a tu r a l m a n p o w e r, c a p ita l e tc ., fro m r u r a l a re a s to u r b a n a r e a s o r fro m r u r a l a r e a s to fo reig n c o u n trie s . B r itis h e r s w a n te d a ll th e c o lo n ie s to b e th e s u p p lie r s of ra w m a te r ia ls to feed th e g ro w in g in d u s tr ia liz a tio n of th e ir m o th e r c o u n try . T h e y d e lib e ra te ly a n d s y s te m a tic a lly d e s tro y e d th e r u r a l in d u s tr ie s in In d ia a n d d u m p e d th e ir m a n u fa c tu r e d g o o d s ev en in th e re m o te s t c o rn e r o f th e c o u n try . A w ide n e tw o rk of tr a n s p o r ta tio n w a s c re a te d w ith a view to d ra in a w ay th e re s o u rc e s fro m r u r a l a re a s , a n d th e tr a d e r s of B h a r a t, liv in g m a in ly in th e u r b a n a r e a s , a c te d a s b ro k e r s for th is e c o n o m ic d ra in . T o d a y th e B r itis h e r s a re n o lo n g e r th e re , b u t M a ss M e d ia h a s ta k e n th e ir p la c e , a n d th e p la c e o f th o s e tr a d e r s is ta k e n b y th e e d u c a te d elite, w h o se ta s te s , c o n v ic tio n s, a n d life sty le s a re p re d o m in a n tly w e s te rn . S c ie n c e a n d te c h n o lo g y , th e so c ia l a n d p o litic a l o rg a n iz a tio n (b ein g v o ta rie s o f th e fo rm er), a n d a lm o s t a ll e c o n o m ic fo rc e s d u rin g th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y w e re w o rk in g to h e lp s u c h a d r a in a n d th e re b y to b rin g th e d e c a y o f village life in B h a ra t. T h e s te a m e rs , th e ra ilw a y s, a n d o th e r m e a n s o f c o m m u n ic a tio n w e re r e s p o n s ib le for lo c a liz a tio n of in d u s tr ie s in big m a r k e t p la c e s . L arge sc a le in d u s tr ie s w e re e s ta b lis h e d in th e c itie s a n d th e r e w a s c e n tr a liz a tio n o f e c o n o m ic p o w e r in u r b a n a r e a s ; c o n s e q u e n tly m a r k e tin g b a n k in g a n d o th e r fin a n c ia l in s titu tio n s , tr a n s p o r ta tio n fa c ilitie s a n d o th e r so c ia l a n d eco n o m ic in s titu tio n s w ere c o n c e n tra te d in u r b a n a re a s . In o n e s e n s e , th e re w a s a p o litic a l c e n tra liz a tio n a lso s in c e th e c o u n try w a s a d m in is te re d fro m th e c itie s a n d t h a t to o b y th e u r b a n p e o p le . 69 D u e to th e d e s ta b iliz a tio n o f th e v illa g e s e lf s u ffic ie n c y , fo rc e d m ig r a tio n s t a r t e d fro m th e v illa g e to th e c itie s , w h ic h in t u r n re s u lte d in th e d e c lin e of m a n p o w e r fo r tr a d itio n a l c ra fts . T h is h a d tw o n e g a tiv e e ffe c ts w ith in a s p a n o f tw o g e n e r a tio n s . F irs tly , th e r e d u c tio n of v illa g e m a n p o w e r, fa rm e rs u n a b le to a c q u ire w o rk in g m a n p o w e r in th e fie ld s s ta r te d p ro d u c in g m o re c h ild re n to c a te r to th is n e e d , w h ic h e v e n tu a lly s ta r te d a c h a in o f p ro b le m s s ta r tin g w ith t h a t of m a rg in a l fa rm e rs t h a t is s e e n to d a y . T h e se c o n d effect w a s a g ro w in g in flu e n c e o f th e c ity a n d m o d e rn c iv iliz a tio n a d d in g to th e a lr e a d y d is r u p te d e c o n o m ic s ta b ility in th e v illa g e . T ire d o f th is in s ta b ility a n d th e f a n ta s y o f p r o s p e r ity in th e c ity th e v illa g e rs f u r th e r m ig ra te d . T h e fin a l s e e n to d a y is t h a t o f a to ta l c h a o s ; fa c ts lo st in tim e , a n d t r u th b u rie d u n d e r e m p ty s to m a c h s . T h e fitte s t few w h o su rv iv e d a re th e leg acy of th o se tr a d e r s o r b ro w n s a h ib s , w h o c a n n e ith e r fin d u n w r itte n fa c ts in th e b o o k s of h is to ry , n o r a re e m p ty s to m a c h s v is ib le to t h e ir e y e s. T h e s e f i tt e s t few to d a y a re th e e d u c a te d few w h o u s in g th e i r p o w e r o f r e a s o n in g p o in t a ll th e p ro b le m s to w a rd s th e p o p u la tio n , a n d to w a rd s th e illite ra c y o f th e v illag e folk. T h e y a re th e o n e s w h o ev en im p le m e n t fam ily p la n n in g p ro g ra m m e s a n d p ro p o s e in c e n tiv e s fo r b ir th c o n tro l. O n e w o n d e rs w h o re a lly is e d u c a te d . T o r e a c h to th e d e p th of th e t r u t h p a r t p e rfo rm a n c e s a re u s e le s s , s u c h fam ily p la n n in g p ro g ra m m e s a re a w a s te of tim e a n d m e re ly for n a m e ’s sa k e . T o d a y th e p e o p le of B h a r a t lo o k for th e ir lo s t p a ra d is e in th e c ities, a s all a v e n u e s le a d to it. T he p ro c e s s of e v o lu tio n in th e v illag es h a s fro z e n s till a n d fa ith n o lo n g e r e x is ts in it; th e fo rm u la o f th e 70 w e s t is a t w o rk n o w a n d th e r e is c h a o s ev en in th e te c h n iq u e s of c o n s tr u c tio n . E x p lo ita tio n s u c k e d th e b lo o d of th e c o u n tr y a n d to rem o v e th is d e ficien cy th e w ro n g b lo o d g ro u p is b e in g u s e d ; th e b o d y of th e c o u n try is su ffo c a tin g . T o d ay th e s itu a tio n is s u c h t h a t u n til th e b lo o d its e lf s p e a k s t h a t “I a m n o t a p p ro p ria te , do n o t u s e m e ” p e o p le w o u ld n o t believe it. To fulfill th is p u rp o s e th e r e e s ta b lis h m e n t of th e c o g e n c y a n d a u t h e n t i c i t y o f n a t u r a l m a t e r i a ls a n d v e r n a c u l a r c o n s t r u c t io n a s a b e t t e r a lte r n a tiv e to o v e rc o m e n a t u r a l b u t d e v a s ta tin g fo rc e s of n a tu r e th o u g h th e a v e n u e o f m o d e rn s c ie n c e its e lf is im p e ra tiv e . It is w ith th is in te n tio n t h a t th e c la im is p u t fo rw a rd t h a t th e ro o fs m a d e o u t o f n a tu r a l m a te ria l lo c a l to c o a s ta l a re a s s u c h a s p a lm a n d c o c o n u t tre e s o r in o th e r w o rd s t h a tc h ro o fs a re th e m o s t a p p r o p r ia te fo r e x tre m e h ig h w in d s in th e c y clo n e p ro n e a re a s of c o a s ta l B h a ra t. 4 .3 C yclon es: An em p irica l stu d y o f d w ellin g s T h e c o a s ta l p la in s o f In d ia c o m p rise a n u m b e r of v illa g e s a n d to w n s, m o s t of w h ic h c o n s is t of c o n s tru c tio n w h ic h is v e rn a c u la r a n d p rim a rily o u t o f m u d , sto n e a n d o rg a n ic m a te ria l (like th a tc h , B am b o o etc.) T h is r e s e a r c h in q u ire s in to th e v a rio u s d w e llin g c o n fig u ra tio n s w h ic h e x is t in a n a t t e m p t to t a b u l a t e t h e i r a d v a n ta g e s a n d d is a d v a n ta g e s in re s is tin g th e fo rces o f h ig h w in d s of a cy clo n e. T h is re s e a r c h is b a s e d on- 1. T h e c a u s e s , b e h a v io r a n d effects of c y clo n es in g e n e ra l. 2. C yclone effects o n b u ilt-u p a re a s . 71 4. A b rie f e n q u iry in to th e effect of w a te r a n d w in d o n d iffe re n t “v e rn a c u la r ” m a te ria ls . 5. S y n th e s is o f th e ab o v e m e n tio n e d s tu d ie s in th e fo rm of a n a tte m p t, to p ro p o se a b e tte r c o n fig u ra tio n in te r m s a c c u ra c y in m a te ria l a p p ro p ria te n e s s a n d c o n fig u ra tio n . 4 .3 .1 P o ssib ilitie s o f R esea rch T h e fo llo w in g tr ie s to e n lis t th e v a r io u s p o s s ib ilitie s o f re s e a r c h . T h is , o f c o u rs e is n o t e n tire ly w ith in th e s c o p e o f th is study. F o u r v a ria b le s m ay b e te ste d - (1) T h e fo rm a n d n a tu r e of th e Roof. (2) T h e form a n d n a tu r e of th e W all. (3) D w ellin g U n its. (4) L o catio n (The n a tu r e of th e te rra in ). (1) F o rm & n a tu r e o f R oof: T e s ts m a y b e c a r r ie d o u t b y c h a n g in g e a c h v a ria b le sh o w n in th e fig u re 1. dadouilofooiuuxxioa m * * m aterial of roof o a o v e rh a n g p = permeability of root T . =thickness of rool isCutoisofnui ▼ « = ■ factwrs c x f - w L n x I fl * = angle of inclination. w 72 (2) F o rm a n d n a tu r e o f t h e W all: S im ila r te s ts m a y b e c a rrie d o u t for th e W alls too, b y c h a n g in g th e v a ria b le s sh o w n th e fig u re 2. E levation t = t h ic k n e s s h » h e i g h t m m m atarial of wall a » area o f opening c « configuration of opening b ^behaviour of th is w all in different types o f u n its w = w indspeed r = factors o f rain w m S e c tio n (3) D w e llin g U n its: T h e effect o f w in d a n d w a te r m a t b e s tu d ie d fro m tw o p e rs p e c tiv e s S in g le - D iffe re n t ty p e s o f ty p ic a l fo rm s m a y b e ta k e n in to c o n s id e ra tio n , s u c h a s th o s e sh o w n in th e fig u re 3. T h e s e c o u ld a c t a s v ariab les. M u ltip le - E ffe c ts o n ty p ic a l c lu s te r in g m a y b e ta k e n in to c o n s id e ra tio n , s u c h a s th e o n e in th e fig u re 4 (S o u rc e- D e sig n w ith clim ate b y O lgyay, V ictor) 73 v=j d / A ScjuMe Plan □ £ A C o u r ty a r d H o u se Goble R oof ■ ' V c c= s A Rectangular Plan B B b A < B a v 6 © a & ‘ K f i m S b & i H ip p ed R oof rVI i i A Circular Plan u A ‘L-Shaped’ House C onical T h atch Oblong (Parabolic) R oof Flat R oof V en tilatin g Goble R oof • • . . . . T W & « r C . r \ J »% % •*. c = con figuration o f u n its u = u n it w = w in d sp e e d r = rain factor 74 (4) L o c a tio n : T h e c h a n g e s in th e n a tu r e of th e im p a c t of cyclone on th e te r ra in m ay be s tu d ie d a t tw o levels. O n e a t th e m a c ro level a n d th e o th e r a t th e m ic ro level. a) M icro level lo c a tio n a l in flu e n c e : T h e g e n e ra l ru le s of th u m b m a y b e s e t in te rm s of th e c h a n g e s in th e w in d s p e e d a n d th e re la tiv e effect of r a in s o n v a rio u s fo rm s c o n to u rs w ith e x istin g soil c o n d itio n s (See fig u re 5). w = sp e e d and d ire ctio n o f w in d c = con tou rs of th e land s = nature o f th e cru st at that p lace o = o th er natural o b stru ction s b) M acro level lo c a tio n a l in flu e n c e : A s N e w b e rry a n d E a to n s u g g e s t, fo u r m a in c a te g o r ie s of te r r a in , in d ic a tin g in c r e a s in g le v e ls o f r o u g h n e s s , m a y b e c o n s id e re d a n d d iffe re n tia te d in te rm s of th e ir e ffe c ts o n th e b e h a v io r w in d a n d r a in s (See fig u re 6). T h e fo u r c a te g o rie s are: i. O p en c o u n try , s e a c o a sts , p la in s; ii. S c a tte re d o b s tru c tio n s u p to 10 m . (33 ft.) h ig h ; iii. N u m e ro u s o b s tru c tio n s u p to ± 10 m . h ig h , in d u s tr ia l a n d w ooded a re a s ; iv. C ity c e n te rs w ith closely sp a c e d , h ig h o b s tru c tio n . 75 r (m ) (iv) T --------- sea 4----- 1---- frf C ategories of T errain 4 .3 .2 S c o p e T h e o ry of d e sig n a g a in s t s tro n g w in d is still in th e d e v e lo p m e n t sta g e , a n d th e w o rk in g m e th o d s a n d c a lc u la tio n s involved in a c c u ra te s tr u c tu r a l d e sig n a re c o m p lic a te d . T h e s tu d y a tte m p ts to p r e s e n t th e r e s u lts o f r e c e n t e x p e rie n c e in p ro b le m s of w in d a n d w a te r a t a p ra c tic a l level, a p p ro p ria te for u s e in re la tiv e ly sim p le , lo w -rise, low- c o s t o r n o -c o s t s t r u c tu r e s , w h ic h m a y n o t b e s u b je c t to d e ta ile d p ro fe s sio n a l d e sig n su p e rv isio n . A s a lr e a d y s h o w n , a g a i n s t th e i n a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s 44 of in d u s tria liz e d b u ild in g te c h n iq u e s , th e p u rity a n d c o rr e c tn e s s of th e 44 As per Mackcy, Finney and Okubu, very little damage to owner built houses was found after the typhoons at Philippines ( Oct.-Nov. 1970), even in the squatter belts, compared with concentrations of extensive roof damage in the new high-cost residential areas of makati and elsewhere. 76 v e rn a c u la r is a tte m p te d to b e m a n ife s te d in th is s tu d y (M ackey e t al., 1971: 5-6). A s p e r S in n a m o n a n d V a n ‘t Loo th e firs t c o u rs e o f a c tio n in th e r u r a l s h o u ld b e c o n s tru c tio n of a sc h o o l b u ild in g , w h ic h m a y b e called o n to se rv e c o m m u n ity fu n c tio n s , p a rtic u la rly in re la tio n to n a tu r a l d i s a s t e r s s u c h a s flo o d s o r c y c lo n e s . B u t, b e fo re d is c u s s in g th e d iffe re n t c o u r s e s o f a c tio n , it is o f u tm o s t s ig n ific a n c e , t h a t th e n a tu r e a n d c a u s e s of s u c h n a tu r a l c a la m itie s be u n d e rs to o d . 4 .4 .3 C yclon es as a fu n ctio n o f . . . A C y c lo n e is a c lim a tic d i s t u r b a n c e o r a p h e n o m e n o n . C lim a te , b y th e v e ry n a tu r e o f th e w o rd im p lie s lo n g ev ity . W e a ttr ib u te a p e rm a n e n c e to c lim a te b y re la tin g c lim a te a s p a r tic u la r p ro p e rty of a g e o g ra p h ic lo c a tio n . B u t c lim a te , like th e g e o g ra p h ic lo c a tio n , is in a s ta te o f flux, ho w ev er, a t p e rh a p s a m u c h fa s te r r a te th a n th e g e o lo g ica l c h a n g e s t h a t c a u s e c h a n g e s in lo c a tio n . T h e im p lic a tio n of p e r m a n e n c e to c lim a te is th e re fo re e rr o n e o u s a n d s h o u ld b e c o rre c te d to im p ly th e v a rio u s te m p o ra l s c a le s of c h a n g e (F e rra r, 1976: 4 3 -4 4 ). C lim ate c h a n g e s a s a fu n c tio n of th e follow ing n a tu r a l p h e n o m e n o n : - T h e o rie n ta tio n of th e e a r th w ith re s p e c t to th e s o la r s y s te m ( th e tiltin g axis). - T h e in te ra c tio n o f th e e a r th w ith th e in te r s te lla r s p a c e ( in flu e n c e o f m e te o r d u s t). - T h e in te r n a l a c tio n of th e e a r th ( v o lca n ic d u s t). - T h e m o re tim e ly b u t le s s fa m ilia r s e a - a ir te le -c o n n e c tio n s th a t c a u s e m o v in g p e rtu rb a tio n s . - A n th ro p o g e n ic e ffects (F e rra r, 1976: 4 3 -4 4 ). 77 T he n a tu r e of w in d is c o m p lic a te d a n d d e p e n d s a m o n g o th e r th in g s on: - th e d iffe re n c e in h e a tin g of th e s u r fa c e of th e e a r th b y th e su n ; - th e d iffe re n c e s in a b s o rp tio n of th is h e a t b y d iffe re n t a re a s of th e e a rth , e sp e c ia lly a s b e tw e e n la n d a n d w a te r; - n a t u r a l o b s ta c le s to th e free flow of th e w in d s u c h a s c o n tin e n ts a n d m o u n ta in s ; - th e ro ta tio n of th e e a rth . N EQUATOE. THL PHLNOME.MOW Of WIND T h e fig u re (7) sh o w s a n id ealized flow of p re v a ilin g w in d s: b e c a u s e of m a n y lo c a l d is tu r b a n c e s , th e re a l p ic tu re w ill o ften b e q u ite d ifferen t. ( Source: C yclon e-resistan t rural prim ary sch ool co n stru ction - a design guide by Ian T, Sinnam on and G. A. v a n 't Loo. Bangkok, U nesco Regional Office for E ducation in Asia. 1977. - reproduced w ithout perm ission ) If the surface winds in a cyclonic whirl exceed 120 km per hour (64 knots, 75 mph or Beaufort force 12) this storm is called a 78 h u r r i c a n e in th e w e s te rn A tla n tic , a ty p h o o n in th e w e s te rn P acific, or s o m e tim e s j u s t a cy clo n e fin th e In d ia n ocean)* . In o rd e r to o b ta in sim p le g u id e lin e s for b e tte r d e s ig n a g a in s t s tr o n g w in d s , a b rie f d e s c rip tio n of th o s e c h a r a c te r is tic s o f tro p ic a l s to rm s t h a t m a y h a v e a n im p a c t o n th e d e sig n is co m p iled . All tro p ic a l s to r m s /c y c lo n e s d e v e lo p ...... th e r o ta tio n of th e v o rte x in c o u n te r-c lo c k w is e d ire c tio n in th e n o r th e r n h e m is p h e re . over w a te r w h o se te m p e ra tu re > 27° C (80° F). in a r e a of relativ ely low p re s s u re . a p p r o x im a te ly b e tw e e n l a t i t u d e s 5° a n d 30° in b o th h e m is p h e r e s . b e tw e e n J u ly a n d O c to b e r in th e n o r th e r n h e m is p h e re . s p e e d s > 1 2 0 k m /h r. w ith d ia m e te rs 15 k m . in th e e a rly s ta g e s a n d 8 0 -2 5 0 k m . w h e n fully d ev elo p ed . a n effective a re a of im p a c t m e a s u r e s a d ia m e te r of 8 0 0 k m . w in d s > 160 k m / h r . n e a r th e c e n tre , s o m e tim e s u p to 3 2 0 k m /h r . s p e e d s of d is tu rb a n c e > 160 k m /h r ., w ith r a te of m o v e m e n t 1 5 -3 0 k m /h r . a te n d e n c y to d rift w e stw a rd w ith th e p re v a ilin g tr a d e w in d a f te r m a t u r it y a n d a ls o c o m e u n d e r th e in f lu e n c e o f w e s te rlie s @ 30°, w h e n th e re is a c u rv e w ith a n in c re a s e in th e sp e e d to 8 0 -1 0 0 k m /h r . *The source of all data and nature of cyclones is from, lan T. Sinnam on & G. A. van ‘t Loo’s C yclone-resistant rural primary school construction., Bangkok, U nesco regional Office for Education in Asia, 1977. 79 a te n d e n c y to lo se in te n s ity a n d s tr e n g th w h e n s trik in g la n d (m o re so if ru g g e d --e v e n s m a ll is la n d s ) a n d r e d u c in g to a b o u t 5 0 k m /h r . w ith in 2 4 -h o u rs . r is in g w in d s p e e d s to w a rd th e i n n e r m o s t p o r tio n a n d a b r u p tly c h a n g in g to lig h t b re e z e s to c a lm w in d s in th e c e n tre (called th e “eye”, w ith a d ia m e te r of a b o u t 2 5 km .). a re d u c tio n in th e a tm o s p h e ric p r e s s u r e (6 0 -1 0 0 m illib a rs) w ith a ris e of th e w a te r level, c a lle d th e ‘s to rm s u r g e ’. T h is, a lo n g w ith th e w in d d riv in g s e a w a te r in la n d ( w h e n th e cy clo n e a p p ro a c h e s th e lan d ), h a rd - b r e a k in g w a v e s a n d th e a s tro n o m ic a l tid e m a y ra is e th e w a te r lev el b y a b o u t 5 -1 4 m e te r s . 4 .3 .4 C y clo n es in th e N orth In d ian O cean s C y c lo n e s in th e n o r th I n d ia n o c e a n s a re n o t in f r e q u e n t. In th e s e p a r t s o f th e w o rld , c y c lo n e s a re c a lle d d e p re s s io n s , cy clo n ic s t o r m s o r s e v e r e c y c lo n ic s to r m s d e p e n d in g o n w h e t h e r th e m a x im u m w in d s p e e d is le s s th a n 3 4 k n o ts , b e tw e e n 3 4 k n o ts a n d 4 7 k n o ts , a n d g re a te r t h a n 4 7 k n o ts re sp e c tiv e ly . O n th e a v e ra g e a b o u t 13 c y clo n es of all in te n s itie s fo rm in th e B ay of B en g al p e r a n n u m w h ile only tw o c y clo n es o c c u r in th e A ra b ia n S e a . T h e to ta l n u m b e r o f c y c lo n e s of a ll in te n s itie s o r c y c lo n ic d is tu r b a n c e s a s w ell a s c y clo n ic s to rm s a n d se v e re cy clo n ic s to r m s t h a t o c c u re d in th e la s t o n e h u n d r e d y e a rs in th e B a y o f B e n g a l a n d th e A ra b ia n S e a a re given m o n th w is e in A p p e n d ix A, fig u re (i). 80 In th e B a y o f B e n g a l th e fre q u e n c y o f c y clo n ic d is tu r b a n c e s is m a x im u m in th e m o n th of S e p te m b e r a n d le a s t in F e b ru a ry . O n th e o th e r h a n d th e fre q u e n c ie s of c y clo n ic a n d se v e re c y c lo n ic s to r m s s h o w d o u b le m a x im a . T h e p rim a ry m a x im u m is in N o v e m b e r w h ile th e s e c o n d a ry m a x im u m is in M ay. H ow ever, it s h o u ld b e n o te d t h a t th e fre q u e n c y in O c to b e r is h ig h e r th a n t h a t in M ay. A b o u t 6 0 % of th e c y c lo n e s in th e p re -m o n s o o n (A pril-M ay) a n d 5 0 % in th e p o s t-m o n s o o n (O c to b e r-N o v e m b e r) s e a s o n s d e v elo p in to in te n s e s y s te m s w h ile o n ly 2 0 % in th e m o n s o o n s e a s o n (Ju ly -A u g u st- S e p te m b e r) b e c o m e in te n s e . T h e d is p a rity in th e p ro p o rtio n o f m o re in te n s e s y s te m s is m u c h g re a te r. In th e A ra b ia n S e a th e fre q u e n c ie s of c y c lo n e s of a ll in te n s itie s a s w ell a s t h a t o f in te n s e s y s te m s s h o w d o u b le m a x im a o f e q u a l m a g n itu d e - o n e in M a y -J u n e a n d th e o th e r in O c to b e r-N o v e m b e r. T h e fo rm e r m a x im u m is d u e to th e c y c lo n e s t h a t o rig in a te in th e A ra b ia n S e a its e lf w hile th e la tte r is m a in ly d u e to re d e v e lo p m e n t of B ay c y clo n es in th e A ra b ia n S e a a fte r c ro s s in g p e n in s u la r In d ia. It m a y a lso b e n o te d t h a t u n lik e th e B ay of B e n g a l, a g r e a te r p e rc e n ta g e of th e s e d is tu r b a n c e s , a b o u t 6 0% o n th e a v e ra g e o v er th e y e a r, a re in te n s e cy clo n es. T h e cyclonic a c tiv ity is le a s t in th e m o n th s of F e b ru a ry , M a rch a n d A u g u st. 4 .3 .5 M o v em en t o f C yclon es and C oastal A ffects T r o p ic a l c y c lo n e s m o v e g e n e r a lly to t h e w e s t - n o r t h w e s t in itia lly a n d n o r t h e a s t w a r d la te r . T h is c h a n g e in d ir e c tio n o f m o v e m e n t is k n o w n a s r e c u r v a tu r e . T ro p ic a l c y c lo n e s , th e re fo re 81 b e in g o f o c e a n ic o rig in g e n e ra lly h it th e e a s t c o a s t o f th e c o n tin e n ts . If th e r e c u r v a tu r e ta k e s p la c e o v er th e o c e a n a c y clo n e w o u ld h it th e s o u th e r n o r w e s te rn c o a s ts . T h e u s u a l tr a c k s o f tro p ic a l c y clo n es in th e B a y of B e n g a l a n d A ra b ia n S e a a re p re s e n te d in A p p e n d ix A, fig u re (ii) . C y c lo n e s in th e B a y d u r in g A p ril a n d M ay g e n e ra lly m ove m o re n o r th w a r d a n d ta k e r e c u r v a tu r e o v e r th e c e n tr a l la titu d e s o f th e B ay . T h e y a ffe c t th e N o rth O ris s a , B e n g a l, B a n g la d e s h . D u rin g th e m o n s o o n s e a s o n a s e rie s of low p r e s s u r e s y s te m s com e fro m th e F a r E a s t a n d d ev elo p in to c y c lo n e s over th e h e a d of th e B ay a n d m ove w e s t-n o rth w e s tw a rd a ffectin g m a in ly th e O ris s a c o a st. In O c to b e r a n d N o v em b er c y c lo n e s e ith e r fo rm o r d e v elo p ov er th e s o u t h e a s t of th e B a y o f B e n g a l a n d s o m e of th e m m o v e w e st- n o r th w e s tw a r d a n d c r o s s th e p e n i n s u l a r c o a s t, s o m e s h o w a te n d e n c y to re c u rv e over th e w e s t c e n tra l p a r t o f th e B a y a n d c ro s s th e th e c e n tr a l a n d n o r th e r n p a r t s of th e e a s t c o a s t o f In d ia , w h ile s o m e ta k e a c o m p le te r e c u r v a tu r e o v e r th e B a y a n d a ffe c t th e B a n g la d e s h a n d u p p e r B u rm a c o a sts. In D e c e m b e r a ls o c y c lo n e s fo rm o v e r th e s o u t h e a s t B a y a n d so m e w e s t- n o rth w e s tw a rd a ffe c tin g th e s o u th p e n in s u la w h ile so m e re c u rv e a n d h it th e B u r m a c o a s t. In J a n u a r y a n d e a rly s u m m e r o c c a sio n a l c y clo n es affect th e e x tre m e s o u th o f p e n in s u la r In d ia . C y c lo n e s in M ay a n d J u n e form over th e e a s t A ra b ia n S e a a n d m ove m a in ly n o r th -n o rth w e s tw a rd . S o m e o f th e m re c u rv e a n d affect th e K u tc h a n d G u ja ra t c o a s ts . In th e p o s t-m o n s o o n s e a s o n so m e of th e B a y c y c lo n e s c ro s s th e p e n in s u la r In d ia a n d re d e v e lo p o v er th e 82 A ra b ia n S e a . S o m e of th e m re c u rv e a n d a ffe c t th e n o r th e r n p a r t s of th e w e s t c o a s t of In d ia . H ow ever, th e n u m b e r o f c y c lo n e s t h a t affe ct th e w e st c o a s t is v ery sm a ll c o m p a re d to th e n u m b e r t h a t h it th e e a s t co ast. T h e n u m b e r o f c y clo n ic a n d se v e re c y clo n ic s to r m s t h a t h a v e c ro s s e d th e e a s t c o a s t in d iffe re n t la titu d e s in d iffe re n t m o n th s d u r in g a p e rio d of o n e h u n d r e d y e a r s (1 8 7 7 -1 9 7 6 ) is g iv e n in A p p e n d ix A, fig u re (iii). T h e to ta l n u m b e r of s to rm s t h a t h a v e c ro s s e d th e e a s t c o a s t in c lu d in g p a r t of B a n g la d e s h is 3 2 7 o u t of w h ic h 100 w e re s e v e re c y c lo n ic s to r m s . T h e fre q u e n c y is h ig h e s t o v er n o r th O r is s a a n d B e n g a l in th e la titu d e b e lt 2 1 -2 2 d e g re e s N w h e re th e le n g th o f th e c o a s t is a ls o lo n g e s t. N e a rly o n e -th ir d o f th e to ta l cy clo n ic s to r m s a n d o n e -fo u rth of se v e re c y clo n ic s to r m s a ffe c t th is p a r t of th e c o a s t. M o st of th e a c tiv ity is c o n fin e d to th e p e rio d J u n e to S e p te m b e r. A s e c o n d m a x im u m o c c u rs in th e v ic in ity o f M a c h ilip a tn a m (B a n d a r) in th e la titu d e b e lt 1 6 -1 7 d e g re e s N. O n th e a v e ra g e th e fre q u e n c y w o rk s o u t to o n e c y clo n ic s to r m fo r e v ery five y e a r s a n d o n e se v e re cy clo n ic s to rm for every 17 y e a rs . A th ird m a x im u m is p re s e n t s o u th of M a d ra s in th e la titu d e b e lt 1 2 -1 3 d e g re e s N. In fa c t th e fre q u e n c y is la rg e a n d fa irly u n ifo rm ov er m o s t o f th e p e n in s u la r c o a s t (1 0 -1 4 d e g re e s N). T h e re is p ra c tic a lly n o s to rm a c tiv ity o n th e e a s t c o a s t s o u th of 18 d e g re e s N d u rin g th e m o n so o n s e a s o n w h ile in th e p o s t-m o n s o o n s e a s o n it s p r e a d s to th e w h o le o f th e c o a s t m a k in g a n y p a r t o f th e c o a s t v u ln e ra b le to cyclone d a m a g e . 83 4 .3 .6 S to rm W ave T h e p r in c ip a l d a n g e r s fro m a c y c lo n e a r e g a le s a n d s tr o n g w in d s , to r r e n tia l r a in a n d h ig h tid a l w a v e s. S to rm s u r g e s /w a v e s , w h ic h w e s o m e tim e s c a ll ‘tid a l w a v e s ’, a re c a u s e d b y tr o p ic a l c y c lo n e s b e c a u s e of th e a s s o c ia te d low p r e s s u r e a n d s tr o n g w in d s. W a te r p ile s u p a g a in s t th e c o a s t, h e n c e s to rm s u r g e s o c c u r to th e rig h t of th e p la c e s w h e re c y c lo n e s h it th e c o a s ts . W h e n th e cy clo n e is v e ry in te n s e o n e , th e s u rg e is v e ry s tr o n g a n d o c c u r s c lo se to th e c e n tre w h e re th e w in d s a re s tro n g e s t. T h e m a g n itu d e of th e s u rg e or tid a l w av e a lso d e p e n d s o n th e c o a s ta l c o n fig u ra tio n , th e n e a r - s h o r e b o tto m to p o g ra p h y a s w ell a s th e s p e e d a n d d ire c tio n of m o tio n of th e cy clo n e. A c y clo n ic s to rm in fa v o ra b le a r e a s c a n c a u s e a tid a l w a v e of h e ig h t m o re t h a n lm , w h ile a se v e re cy clo n ic s to rm c a n c a u s e a w ave of m o re t h a n 3 .5 m . T id a l w a v e s c a u s e d b y cy clo n ic s to r m s o f se v e re in te n s ity a re d e v a s ta tin g in so m e a re a s . It is fo u n d t h a t it is j u s t n o t th e s e p h e n o m e n o n th e m s e lv e s b u t th e ir in te r a c tio n w ith h u m a n s e ttle m e n ts t h a t c o n s titu te s d is a s te r . T h e r e h a b ilita tio n of e c o n o m ic life a n d r e s to r a tio n o f th e civic a n d so c ia l life n e e d s ta g g e rin g r e s o u r c e s a n d th e d a m a g e s to th e s e a re fo u n d to b e la rg e . T h e v u ln e ra b le c o m m u n ity is g e n e ra lly a b le a n d w illin g to to le r a te flo o d in g to so m e e x te n t a fte r h a v in g c o m e to te r m s w ith th e p ro b le m a fte r y e a rs of e x p e rie n c e . N e v e rth e le s s , th e i n te n s if ic a tio n o f th e flo o d p la in s o c c u p a tio n a n d its g ro w in g im p o rta n c e to th e so c ia l a n d e co n o m ic w elfare of a re g io n h a v e a d d e d 84 n e w d im e n s io n s a n d th e re is a n in c re a s in g d e m a n d fo r p ro te c tio n in th e s e a re a s . 4 .3 .7 R ural S e ttle m e n ts A ty p ic a l village la y o u t is irre g u la r w ith n o p a r tic u la r p a tt e r n o r m o d u le (th e te rm u s e d v e ry o ften b y a rc h ite c ts a n d fo rm s th e b a s is of a n y d e s ig n )a n d y e t th e c lu s te r is so fin ely w ell k n it w ith e v ery u s e of s p a c e b e in g a p p r o p r i a t e w i t h o u t a n y d e li b e r a t e a t t e m p t to in c o rp o ra te th e “p o sitiv e a n d “n e g a tiv e ” s p a c e s . It evolves o u t o f its o w n a n d d e v e lo p s a s a n d w h e n r e q u ir e d t h u s e m e rg in g w ith a d is tin g u is h in g c h a r a c te r o f its ow n. E v ery c o n c e rn is given to sm a ll y e t e s s e n tia l fe a tu re fo r its e x is te n c e c o n s id e rin g th e c a s te , c u ltu r e , e c o n o m y , s o c ia l s t a t u s e tc . o f t h a t p a r t i c u l a r p la c e . O u t of th is e m e rg e s th e h u m b le n e s s , in n o c e n c e a n d in tim a c y o f th e v illa g e folk ra re ly fo u n d in so c a lle d p la n n e d to w n s a n d c itie s . L ittle d o e s o n e re a liz e th e c o n s c io u s n e s s for c le a n lin e s s a n d th e ir c o n c e rn fo r it, for th e sim p le r e a s o n s t h a t it is a p re c o n c e iv e d id e a t h a t all d is e a s e s ro o t o u t fro m th e u n h y g ie n ic c o n d itio n s p re v a ilin g h e re . U n lik e u r b a n a re a s la n d u s e p la n n in g m e a s u r e s w h ic h in v o lv e a v o id in g m ix in g of r e s id e n tia l f u n c tio n s w ith p ro d u c tiv e o n e s a n d is o la tin g b y o p e n s p a c e s , re g u la tin g d e n s ity of b u ild in g a n d s y s te m s of c o n n e c te d o p e n s p a c e s w o u ld b e d is a s tro u s . T h e m a jo rity of h o u s e s in th e v illag es a re tra d itio n a l ty p e w h ic h h a v e ev o lv ed o v e r a lo n g p e rio d o f tim e in r e s p o n s e to th e b a s ic n e e d s of th e fam ily, a n d to th e c lim a te , a n d c a n b e b u ilt w ith lo cally a n d re a d ily a v a ila b le n a t u r a l (in m o d e rn te r m s “c h e a p ” b u ild in g 85 m a te ria ls ). T h e y a re c o n s tr u c te d w ith a tim b e r a n d b a m b o o fra m e , p a lm le a f roof, a n d m u d w a lls. T h e re a re u s u a lly a few b r ic k h o u s e s . D u rin g c y c lo n e s th e tra d itio n a l h o u s e u s u a lly c o lla p s e s in o n e of th re e w a y s i.e e ith e r th e ro o f b lo w s off, th e w a lls c o lla p s e , o r th e m a in p o s ts b r e a k a t g ro u n d level d u e to d e c a y c a u s e d b y te r m ite s a n d w et r o t. To o v e rc o m e th e s e p r o b le m s , s e v e r a l s im p le lo w c o s t te c h n iq u e s w ith th e h e lp of lo c a lly a v a ila b le m a te r ia ls h a v e b e e n in tro d u c e d a n d it h a s b e e n re a liz e d t h a t w h a te v e r b e it, th e a n c ie n t b u ild in g code “V a s tu s h a s tr a ” is of u t te r im p o rta n c e . E ffo rts h a v e b e e n m a d e to r e t a i n th e c h a r a c t e r o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l h o u s e b u t u n f o rtu n a te ly th e s e th in g s s o u n d m o re th e o re tic a l a n d in p ra c tic a lity , a re n o w a y n e a r th e s e “w r itte n ” s ta te m e n ts in a ll th e r e p o r ts c a rrie d o u t b y fo reig n a g e n c ie s w h o h a v e b a re m in im u m u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e c o m p le x itie s in v o lv ed a s r e g a rd s th e c u ltu r a l a n d so c ia l a s p e c ts a n d th e p ro b le m s fa c e d b y a n a v e ra g e In d ia n fam ily . T h e u n in te n d e d effects o f th e so -called re lie f o p e ra tio n s a re le a s t re a liz e d . 4 .3 .8 T h e A ndhra C y clo n e 1 3 th N o v e m b e r, 1 9 7 7 -- A d e p r e s s io n d e v e lo p e d in th e s o u th e a s t p a r t o f th e B ay. It m o v ed w e s tw a rd a n d d e v e lo p e d in to a c y c lo n ic s to r m b y th e 1 5 th in th e s o u th c e n tr a l B a y A p p e n d ix A, fig u re (iv). It f u r th e r in te n s ifie d in to a se v e re c y c lo n ic s to r m a n d m o v ed in to th e s o u th w e s t B ay b y th e 1 6 th a n d sh o w e d a te n d e n c y to r e c u rv e , It d id n o t, h o w e v e r, re c u rv e b u t a lto g e th e r c h a n g e d its c o u rs e fro m a w e s t-n o rth w e s te rly d ire c tio n to a n o r th -n o rth w e s te rly d ire c tio n . It c ro s s e d th e A n d h ra P ra d e s h c o a s t a p p ro x im a te ly a t 16 86 d e g re e s N- 81 d e g re e s E o n th e e v e n in g o f th e 1 9 th a n d th e r e a f te r it q u ic k ly d is s ip a te d . A s h ip c a u g h t in th e cy clo n e re p o rte d a c e n tr a l p r e s s u r e of 9 4 0 m b o n th e 1 7 th b u t a t th e tim e of c ro s s in g th e c o a s t th e c e n tr a l p r e s s u r e a p p e a re d to b e 9 8 0 m b . M a c h ilip a tn a m re p o rte d a s u s ta in e d s u rfa c e w in d of 6 7 k n o ts a t 1 730 h o u rs I.S.T. o n th e 1 9 th . T h e eye of th e s to rm a p p e a re d o n th e r a d a r a t M a d ra s fro m th e 1 7 th n ig h t. T h e eye w a s n e a rly c irc u la r a n d h a d a d ia m e te r of a b o u t 6 0 k m . F ro m th e 1 9 th m o rn in g th e re w a s a g r a d u a l d e c re a s e in th e r a in - a r e a b u t a w ell d e fin e d c irc u la r eye w all c o n tin u e d to a p p e a r till n o o n . T h e r e a f te r th e e c h o e s a r o u n d th e ey e s t a r t e d g r a d u a lly b re a k in g . T h e c y c lo n e m o v ed a t a s p e e d of a b o u t 11 k n o ts o n th e m o rn in g of th e 1 9 th b u t in th e a fte rn o o n w a s re d u c e d to 8 k n o ts . B e in g a cy clo n e o f h ig h in te n s ity , it c a u s e d a tid a l w av e of h e ig h t m o re t h a n 3 m . T h e c o n c a v ity a n d th e fla tn e s s of th e n e a r - s h o r e se a - b o tto m to th e e a s t of th e m o u th o f K r is h n a riv e r a d d e d to th e in te n s ity of th e tided w ave. T h e c y c lo n e c a u s e d u n to ld m is e ry to liv e s a n d p r o p e r ty . A p p ro x im a te ly , 7.1 m illio n p e o p le in 2 3 0 2 v illa g e s w e re a ffe c te d . In K r is h n a D is tr ic t a lo n e th e d e a th to ll w a s e s tim a te d o v e r 1 0 ,0 0 0 b e s id e s lo s s o f 2 .3 1 m illio n c a ttle a n d 4 5 ,0 0 0 o th e r live s to c k . T h e a f te r m a th o f th e c y c lo n e w a s t h a t 4 m illio n p e o p le w e re r e n d e r e d h o m e le s s a n d 1 1 ,6 0 0 d e a d . 6 ,9 0 ,0 0 0 h o u s e s w e re d e s tr u c te d o r d a m a g e d . A b o u t 8 6 ,0 0 0 h u ts w ere c o m p lete ly w a s h e d a w a y a n d c ro p s c o m p ris in g 1 1 ,8 4 ,0 0 0 a c r e s of p a d d y , b a n a n a , to b a c c o , c h illie s , 87 s u g a rc a n e , etc. w o rth R s. 4 5 0 c ro re s in all w ere lo st. C o m m u n ic a tio n - ra ilw a y s, ro a d w a y s , te le p h o n e s , e le c tric a l in s ta lla tio n s , c a n a ls , etc. a n d s to ra g e b u ild in g s su ffe red s u b s ta n tia l d a m a g e . T h e e s tim a te d c o st o f r e c o n s tr u c tio n a n d re h a b ilita tio n w a s of th e o rd e r o f 3 0 0 m illio n U S $. M ore re c e n tly , th e c y c lo n e s to rm w ith w in d s p e e d s u p to 150 m ile s p e r h o u r o f M ay 9 th a n d 1 0 th 1 9 9 0 r e s u lte d in a h u g e lo s s of p u b lic a n d p riv a te p ro p e r ty , th o u g h tim e ly e v a c u a tio n o f a b o u t 6 ,5 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p le re s u lte d in th e h u m a n d e a th toll b e in g c o n ta in e d to le ss th a n a th o u s a n d . 4 .3 .9 W ind T u n n el S tu d ie s T h e f ir s t t a s k w a s s e t to fin d o u t a n o p tim u m d w e llin g c o n fig u ra tio n in te rm s of-- a) E fficien cy of R oof T ype b) O p tim u m R oof A ngle c) O p tim u m W all H e ig h t d) T h e in te rd e p e n d a n c y of th e ab o v e p a ra m e te r s B efore s ta r tin g off, th e follow ing a s s u m p tio n s w ere m a d e - a) All d w e llin g s w e re to b e e x a c tly id e n tic a l in te r m s o f t h e i r s y m m e try a lo n g x a n d y -a x is , to in c re a s e th e p re d ic ta b ility o f th e ir b e h a v io u r w ith c h a n g e o f w in d d ire c tio n . 88 b) All w a lls a n d ro o f s u rfa c e s w ith s im ila r d im e n s io n s w e re a s s u m e d to b e h a v e Id e n tic a lly . L ocal tu r b u le n c e s c re a te d d u e to irre g u la rity of s u rfa c e , p re s e n c e of fo reig n o b je c ts, e tc . w ere n o t ta k e n in to a c c o u n t. c) A ll b u ild in g s w e re a s s u m e d to b e to ta lly c lo s e d (p ra c tic a lly o p e n in g -le ss). E ffect o f D o o rs a n d W in d o w s w a s n o t w ith in th e sc o p e of th is s tu d y . d) It w a s a s s u m e d t h a t fa ir a m o u n t o f a c c u ra c y c a n b e a tta in e d for j u d g e m e n t b y s u b j e c t i n g th e m o d e l to e ig h t d if f e r e n t a n d s y m m e tric a l w in d d ire c tio n s (a t 45° fro m e a c h o th e r) d) A t th is s ta g e of th e s tu d y n o p a r a m e te r a p a r t fro m th e fo rm o f th e d w e llin g w a s to b e s tu d ie d . T h e re fo re , th e m o d e ls w e re m a d e of p le x ig la ss. c) D u r in g th e s e s tu d ie s it w a s a s s u m e d t h a t th e p r e s s u r e s o n a s u r f a c e in c r e a s e p ro p o rtio n a lly w ith th e w in d s p e e d . T h e re fo re All te s ts w e re c a rr ie d o u t w ith a w in d s p e e d o f 2 7 .5 to 3 0 m ile s p e r h o u r. d )T h e e ffe c t o f c h a n g e in th e le n g th o f th e o v e rh a n g w a s n o t c o n s id e re d . T h e re fo re , a w a ll le n g th to o v e rh a n g ra tio o f 5 to 1 w a s c o n s id e re d a s s t a n d a r d fo r th e te s ts . (T his ra tio w a s a rriv e d u p o n a c c o rd in g to th e s u n p a t h w ith in th e la titu d e s o f 2 2 N a n d 10 N to se rv e a s effective s u n s h a d e s in s u m m e r m o n th s , a p a r t fro m se rv in g th e p u rp o s e o f r a in w a te r d ra in s ). 4 .3 .1 0 D w ellin g C on figu ration s T h e ta b le b e lo w in d ic a te s th e c o n f ig u r a tio n s w h ic h w e re c o n s id e re d fo r te s tin g . 89 N ote: T h e l a s t c o lu m n in d ic a te s th e ra tio o f th e S id e to th e H e ig h t of th e w all. Conf. # P lan R oof A n gle W all S : H t. C onf. 01 S q u a re G able 0 o C O 5 : 1.5 C onf. 0 2 S q u a re G able 0 o C O 5 : 2 .5 C onf. 0 3 S q u a re G able 45° 5 : 2 .0 C onf. 0 4 S q u a re H ip p e d 45° 5 : 2 .0 C onf. 0 5 S q u a re H ip p e d 30° 5 : 2 .0 C onf. 0 6 C irc u la r C o n ical 0 o C O 5 : 2.0* * W all le n g th o f 5 d e n o te s le n g th of th e sid e o f th e s q u a r e in w h ic h th e c ir c u la r p la n is in s c rib e d . E a c h o f th e s e w e re te s te d fo r a ll p o s s ib le o r ie n ta tio n s . T h e fig u re s in th e fo llo w in g p a g e s s h o w s h a d e d a r e a s m a r k in g e q u a l p r e s s u r e s (Iso b ars). F o r th e a c tu a l v a lu e s of th e re la tiv e p r e s s u r e s , se e th e c o rre s p o n d in g fig u re s in A p p e n d ix B, fig u re (i) to fig u re (xl). F o r c o n v e rtin g in c h e s o f w a te r c o lu m n to p o u n d s p e r s q u a r e f o o t , se e A p p e n d ix B, fig u re (xli) 4.3.11 Pressure Isobars 4.3.11.1 Conf. 01 90 \J{ 1 1 \ i W vv-vs^ 0.09 0.15 0.235 $ '« $ * 0 .0 8 T est 1-Side A (Isobar) (All n u m b e r s in -ve. in c h e s of w ater c o lu m n ) D — - -1 & F & e 1 A 1 figure 8 T e st 1-Side B /F (Isobar) (All n u m b e r s in - ve. in c h e s o f v a t e r colu m n ) 92 Test 1 -Side C (Isobar) (All n u m b e r s in - ve. in c h e s of v a te i co lu m n ) figure 10 93 0.42 0.085 0,22 0.29 0.11 0,145 0.045 0.085 0.045 0.068 0.22 0.075 ■ ts e s m s 0.075 0,255 0.33 M, •J-A V’ i. V i VJL T e st 2 -Side B /F (Iso b a r) ( U n its : Inches per Water C olum n ) -3* % £ ' - / & D e: f- 4> M - 4 * figure 11 T est-2 Side-A (Isobar) (All nu m b ers in -ve, inch.es of water colum n) figure 12 95 I n.4 0 lu a n n n a Test 2 -Side D/E (Isobar) (All n um bcrs m -vc. inches o f v a t e r I'o l u m n ) figure 13 96 * » ■ * <•»' I. V. V7 k s:«*s2?tt ■ 'v •; •; • 0.28 Test 3-Side A (Isobar) (All n u m b e r s in -ve. in c h e s of w ater c o lu m n ) * ? - 1 C T. & r E F P C 5 L 3 o ' figure 14 97 0.30 0 ,2 4 ‘ o Test 3-Side B/F (Isobar) (All n u m b e r s in -ve. in c h e s of w ater colum n ) figure 15 Test 3-Side C (Isobar) (All n u m b e r s in - ve. in c h e s of w ater c o lu m n ) figure 16 Test 3-Side D/E (Isobar) ( A ll nu m b ers indicate in ch es o f water colum n) figure 17 4.3.11.2 Conf. 02 1 0 0 0.025: S S x x x x x ^ w : :: ||:0.045 ■ ! !■ Test -Side A (Isobar') (All n u m b e r s in -ve, in c h e s of w ater co lu m n ) 1 1 / N & D £ P 5 i . r T figure 18 Test 4--Side D/E (Isobar) (All num bers in -ve. inches of water colum n) figure 19 Test £ -Side C (Isobar) (All n u m b e r s m -ve, inch es of wnter c o lu m n ) T estS -Side D/E (Isobar) (All numbers m -ve. inches of water colum n) figure 21 Test S-Side A (Isobar) (All num ber m - v e . inches of v&ter colum n] figure 22 T est5 "-S id e B /F (Iso b a r) (All num bers in -ve, in ch es o f water colum n) T e s t6 -Side A (Isobar) (A ll num bers in -v e , in c h e s o f water colum n) 4 ------- -— — — --- — — l * D £ r £ r I* * figure 24 107 X K IX IIIIIM X A A A A A i» " , , ,*r 0 .1 3 X X X X M X H H X M K K H H H H H .': : !; ! ;: ;......... a iiiia a a a x x a v x x x x k x x: x x x x x x x x x x k x x x x x x x x :':;:|:;!v v v v v v ,.'v v v v * . X X X K K K X K X X X X X X X X X M X X ; xxxxxxxxxx x x x x x x x x x > ;::::::v v v ,r ,,r rr .M . kxxxxkxxxxxxxxxxxxx);::::|:;;vv;. Q ,0 3 0 X x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x W jjiji-ifv V v v V V Y V V Y Y X X X X K X X X X K X X X X X X X X ^ I ^ V V V V V ) X X X X W X X X K X K K X X K X X X X X V : X X X X X H K X V V H X X X X X X X X K I > S ; S * S ; i ,|S ,V I i ,V V V V V V V V x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x > :::::::::: y y y y y y y y y y > . K K K K K K K K K X X X X k k w x x x x r Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y xxxxxxx x x x x x x x x x x x x x v i.i.i.i.ti’ vvvvvvvvv K K K K K W W W W W W K K K K K K W K K > : ; : ? : ! : ; : ; 1 'Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y xxkk x x > U ,Mhn xxxxxxx:«:j:::;:*:j:;:*vvvvvvv rvkvxv> xxxxxx V Y Y V Y Y * K K K X K K K X K K K X K X K X K X X X : x v x x x K x x x x v K X K X K X K x x :'> :j:j:j:j:j:i:::i:j< .!,,; v v v K X K V K xxK xxK xxxxxxxxxx: : k x x x x k k x x x k k x k x k k x x k x ::;>:>;::<;;::::::;::::::::::: x x x x x x x x x x x x x x k x x x x x x :;;;::::'* ;* '* * ^ ;:;:;::;;;; x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x * :* :;:: ri X X X K K K X K K K K X K X X X K K X X X > ; * : * ;* V 'VO .;.;.:.;.:. X X X X X X X X X K K K K K X K K K K K X K X : * ; * : * . k k x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x: : : : * .? : ? : ; : ; : ; : X X X w x w w x w X X X X X X X X X X x x x w x : « : x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x :::;::::::;;::::: x x K x x x x x xxkk xxkk kkxxxx x x xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx xxkxkkkkkkkxvxxxxxxkxxkxkxxx:.:::::::::::;:;:: x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x :* :::::::;:::. x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x :* ::::* .;:: O' :x x x x x x x x x x x x fffififiS x x _ n I I .'.'.'.'.'I X X X X X X X V K K K K X X K K K K K tv * * x x x w * T e s t 6 -S ide D /E (Iso b a r) (A ll n um bers in - Y e . in ch es o f v a te r colum n) figure 25 T est6 -Side C (Isobar) (All nu m b ers are -ve. values in in ch es of water colum n) figure 26 T est6 -S id e B /F (Isobar) (All n u m b e rs-v e inches of water colum n) figure 27 4.3.11.3 Conf. 03 1 1 0 T e s t 7 -Side A fIsobar') (All n um bers in -ve in ch es of water colum n) ~ 1 t? £ p B I figure 28 I l l llliy U b :^3 : - .i 55555 !: • iiiil m ® 0.37 T e s t 7 -Side B /F (Is o b a r) (All num bers in -ve. in ch es o f water colum n) figure 29 1 1 2 T e s t? - S i d e C (Iso b a r) |A11 num bers in -ve in ch es of water colum n) figure 30 Test 8 -Side D/E (Isobar) (All nu m b ers in in ch es of v a te r colum n) It I1 figure 31 114 T est 3 - Side A fIsobar) (All nu m b e r s in -ve of water column) figure 32 115 T e s t 3 -Side B /F f Is o b a r 1 (A ll num bers in - Y e . in ch es o f v *ter colum n) figure 33 T est 9 -Side A (Isobar) (All num bers in -ve. inches of water column) * S ~ X 4 ----- 1 u & D r E F ^~A r figure 34 117 :5 5 5 S S 2 2 2 ; 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 ; iS S S S S S S S : : xxxxkxkx: ;*xr:ixx&x; T e s t 7 Side D /E (Iso b a r) (A ll num bers in -ve in c h e s o f water colum n) figure 35 1 1 8 Test 9 -Side C (isobar) iAll numbers in - ve, inches of water column) figure 36 T est 9 -Side B /F (Isobar) (All numbers -ve, inches of water column) figure 37 120 4.3.11.4 Conf. 04 o.035- T e s t 10-Side B /G (Iso b a r) (A ll num bers in -ve. in ch es o f water colum n) 4 5 ' Z-0 figure 38 1 2 1 iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii] SSS5555SS55S55S5S5 - :A--ir.’LZ™*z’i " z * W 8 3 S T esilD -S id e F /A (Iso b a r) (A ll num bers in -Ye. in c h e s w ater colum n) figure 39 Test 10-Side E/D (Isobar) ( A ll nu m b ers in in ch es of v a te r colum n) figure 40 123 0.28 0.2 9 0.24 0 .2 1 5 0.075 :-0.068:-.: 0.05 0.083 0 .3 7 5 Test 11 -Side F/A (Isobar) (All numbers - ve. inches o f water column) l<r \ / p '-i \ H / / \ figure 41 Test It -Side D/E (Isobar) (All numbers in -ve. inches of water column) 125 4.3.11.5 Conf. 05 0.33 0 .3 0 0.1 7 5 i& i 0.115 0.1 4 5 0.065 Test 12-Side A/E (Isobar) (All n u m b e r s in - ve. inches of water column) figure 43 T e s t 1 2 -S id e D /H (Iso b a r) (A ll num bers in -ve. in ch es of water colum n) figure 45 128 0.17x^v> ..... I : : : : : : : - : : - : : - .: : :* : :* :- b .0 9 2 : . Test tf-Side A/E (Isobar) (All num bers in -Ye. in ch es of water colum n^ figure 46 T estl3 .S id e D /F (Iso b a r) (A ll num bers in -ve. in ch es o f w ater colum n) 130 4.3.11.6 Conf. 06 X ° ^ £ V T . *• -? ~ r ■ r c ^ * JjjtS o-tat J L <776 - f a 2 t* S h h 1 ? 5 < ?•> « figure 48 PRESSURE (Inches o f Water Column) 131 4.3.12 Analytical Graphs 0.85 Conf.01 0.75 Conf.02 Conf.03 0.65 Conf.04 -X - Conf.05 -A -- Conf.06 0.55 0.45 0.35 0.25 0.15 A 0.os- 4 5 90 135 270 360 180 225 315 ORIENTATION (Degrees) A ------ ~ 0 figure 49 PRESSURE (Inches o f W ater Column) 132 0.85 Conf.01 0.75 Conf.02 Conf.03 0.65 - B - Conf.04 Conf.05 0.55 0 .5 Conf.06 0.35 0 . 25 0 . 1 5 - 0.05 45 90 135 180 270 360 225 315 ORIENTATION (Degrees) figure 50 PRESSURE (Inches o f Water Column) 133 0.85 0.8 0.75 0.7 0.65 0.6 0.55 0.5 0.45 0.4 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 ORIENTATION (Degrees) O Q O nO nO n ^ ^ X Conf.01 Conf.02 Conf.03 1 □ Conf.04 - X - Conf.05 -■ A - Conf.06 figure 51 PRESSURE (Inches o f Water Column) 134 0.85 Conf.01 0.75 Conf.02 -x- Conf.03 0.65 Conf.04 -X - Conf.05 0.55 -x- 0.45 0.35 0.25 0.15 0 . 0 5 - 45 135 90 180 225 315 360 270 ORIENTATION (Degrees) figure 52 PRESSURE (Inches o f Water Column) 135 0.85 Conf.01 0.75 Gonf.02 - ■ * K ~ Conf.03 -CD" Conf.04 0.65 0.55 Conf.05 -A - Conf.06 0.45 0.35 0.05 ~ 90 360 225 270 45 135 180 315 ORIENTATION (Degrees) figure 53 PRESSURE (Inches o f W ater Column) 136 0.85 Conf.01 0.75 Conf.02 Conf.03 0.65 0.55 0.45 - \ \ 0.35 0.25 0.15 -- 0 . 0 5 - 90 315 270 360 45 135 180 225 ORIENTATION (Degrees) < > Q O [H < > a O E ^ figure 54 PRESSURE (Inches o f Water Column) 137 0.85 Conf.01 0.75 Conf.02 Conf.03 - Q - Conf.04 0.65 0.55 Conf.05 Conf.06 - X - 0 . 3 5 - 0.25 - 0.15 0.05 360 180 315 45 90 135 225 270 ORIENTATION (Degrees) oaoaodoni ^ ^ figure 55 PRESSURE (inches o f Water Column) 138 0.85 Conf.01 .8 0.75 Conf.02 Conf.03 .7 0.65 Conf.04 — X — Conf.05 -A- Conf.06 .6 0.55 .5 45 .4 0 . 35 . 3 25 . 2 15 1 0 . 05 0 45 360 90 135 180 270 315 225 ORIENTATION (Degrees) figure 56 PRESSURE (Inches o f Water Column) 139 0.85 Conf.01 0.8 0 .7 5 Conf.02 0 . 7 Conf.03 0 . 6 5 Conf.04 ’K ~ Conf.05 0.6 0 .5 5 0 . 5 0 . 4 5 0 .4 0 . 3 5 0 . 3 0 . 2 5 0 .2 0 . 1 5 0.1 0 . 0 5 0 270 360 90 135 180 225 315 45 ORIENTATION (Degrees) O P < > n < > n O E ^ ^ figure 57 140 4 .3 .1 3 C on clu sion 4 .3 .1 3 .1 In fe r e n c e s 1. In c a s e o f a G a b le R o o fed U n it it w a s s e e n t h a t th e h ig h e s t p r e s s u r e s a re re a c h e d w h e n th e g a b le sid e is o n th e le e w a rd sid e of th e u n i t w ith th e w in d c u ttin g d ia g o n a lly a c ro s s . 2. R e g a rd in g th e b o tto m c o rn e rs o f th e w all (in te rs e c tio n o f tw o w a lls a n d th e c o n n e c tio n to th e fo u n d a tio n ), It w a s fo u n d t h a t th e p r e s s u r e slig h tly d ro p p e d w h e n th e c o n d itio n c h a n g e d fro m a g a b le w a ll to a n o n -g a b le w a ll - w ith th e p r e s s u r e s a tta in in g p e a k le v e ls w h e n th e w all is p a ra lle l to th e w in d d ire c tio n . T h e w a ll of th e C o n ic a l R oofed U n it h o w e v e r, b e h a v e d in a m u c h b e tte r w a y w ith it’s p e a k lev els b e in g 1 0 -2 0 % lo w er t h a n th e o th e r s ’. It’s p e a k s a re re a c h e d a t p o in ts w h ic h a re p a ra lle l a n d p e rp e n d ic u la r to t h e d ir e c tio n o f th e w in d ( in te r e s tin g ly b o t h p r e s s u r e s a re a p p ro x im a te ly th e sa m e). 3. It is in te r e s tin g to n o te t h a t w h e n th e w all h e ig h t w a s r e d u c e d to 2 .0 / 2 .5 to 1 .5 th e p r e s s u r e s w e re g re a tly u n ifo rm a n d s ta b iliz e d a p a r t fro m b e in g slig h tly low er. 4. A t th e c e n te r o f th e w a lls h o w ev er, th e p r e s s u r e s w e re fo u n d to b e m u c h m o re u n ifo rm a n d sta b iliz e d th a n a n y o th e r p a r t o f th e w all. 141 5. H ow ever, in c a s e r o o f s c e n te r, e x tre m e h ig h s r e s u lte d , e sp e c ia lly in th e s u rfa c e s w h ic h w ere p a ra lle l to th e w in d d ire c tio n . 6. A s r e g a r d s th e a p e x o f th e roof, h ig h s w e re r e c o rd e d a t th e le e w a rd sid e w ith th e w in d b lo w in g d ia g o n a lly a c ro s s . figure 58 142 0) 10 < D U o «3 figure 60 143 figure 62 146 4 .3 .1 3 .2 R eco m m en d a tio n s: W ith th e p la n o f th e u n its a s 5 u n its sid e s q u a re , th e follow ing ‘th u m b rule* re c o m m e n d a tio n s a re m a d e . 1. A n y R o o f A ngle >30° a n d <25° n o t re c o m m e n d e d . S u g g e s te d A ngle- 30°. 2. A n y w all w ith a re la tiv e h e ig h t o f > 2 .0 is h ig h ly d is c o u ra g e d . H ig h ly re c o m m e n d e d re la tiv e h e ig h t- 1.5 u n its . 3. H ig h p re d ic ta b ility fo rm s a re re c o m m e n d e d . 4. R e c o m m e n d e d fo rm s- * C o n ic a l R oof w ith 30° a n g le a n d re la tiv e W all h e ig h t 1.5 u n its . --T h e h ig h e s t re c o m m e n d e d c o n fig u ra tio n . * H ip p e d R oof is h ig h ly re c o m m e n d e d o n ly if w all is < 1.5 u n its a n d ro o f a n g le is 30° N ote: In c re a s e in w all p ro p o rtio n s fo rm 1.5 to 2 .0 c a n c a u s e a c o n s id e r a b le d iffe re n c e . 5. It is re c o m m e n d e d t h a t th e a p e x of c o n ic a l ro o fs a n d h ip p e d ro o fs b e ro u n d e d off. 6. T h e in te rs e c tio n o f th e w a lls a lso to b e r o u n d e d off. 7. All th e o p e n in g s to b e lo c a te d a t th e c e n te r o f th e w a lls. 4 .3 .1 3 .3 S im u la tio n M odel S e e in g th e a b o v e p o s t u l a t e s i t w a s d e c id e d t h a t a ll th e re q u ir e m e n ts o f r o u n d in g o f a p ex , d is s ip a tin g th e tu r b u le n c e s a t th e e a v e s , e q u a liz in g i n t e r n a l a n d e x te r n a l p r e s s u r e s to p r e v e n t e x p lo sio n , r o u n d in g off o f w a lls b e in g th e n a tu r a l c h a r a c te r is tic s of m u d a n d th a tc h , m u s t b e te s te d . T RA TZ^ i (P U T J > T r PALM L& yC S MAIN ! pftAMET G&W&tf?) /m V I WAU^ ^ | * . • m up.+gy ps m v f o p * > fA U ; ! i W t e £ ' i figure 63 148 B a s e d o n th e r e s u l ts fro m th e t e s ts a n d fro m p r e d o m in a n tly e x is tin g b u ild in g ty p e s in c o a s ta l In d ia , A s c a le m o d e l (1”= 2 ’ a p p ro x .) o u t of P a lm lea v es, B am b o o , B am b o o R o p es, M u d , etc. w a s m a d e . T h e s k e tc h e s in fig u re .6 3 illu s tr a te th e m a te ria l a n d m e th o d of c o n s tru c tio n o f th e m o d el. T h e m o d e l w a s la te r s u b je c te d to a w in d s p e e d o f 8 5 m ile s p e r h o u r. In m a k in g th e m o d el, th e follow ing a s s u m p tio n s w e re m a d e , 1. It w a s a s s u m e d th a t, a e ro d y n a m ica lly , o n ly th e s h a p e , size, a n d th e n a tu r e of s u rfa c e o f th e w all w o u ld m a tte r. N e ith e r th e c o m p o s itio n of th e w a ll m a te r ia l n o r th e s t r u c tu r a l p r o p e r tie s o f th e w a ll w e re o f sig n ific a n c e . 2. it w a s a s s u m e d t h a t th e p r e s s u r e in c r e a s e s lin e a r ly w ith th e in c re a s e in th e w in d s p e e d 4 .3 .1 3 .4 O bservations: T h e b e h a v io r o f tfie ro o f w a s e x tre m e ly d y n a m ic . A s th e w in d s p e e d r e a c h e d 6 0 m ile s p e r h o u r , th e le a v e s o p e n e d u p o n th e w in d w a rd sid e a n d le ttin g th e w in d p a s s th r o u g h th e le a v e s o n th e le e w a rd sid e a c tin g a s o u tle ts (see fig u re 64). T h e tu r b u le n c e s a t th e e a v e s a n d th e p ro b le m o f u p lift d u e to e a v e s (o v erh an g ) w a s to ta lly e lim in a te d d u e to th e d y n a m ic b e h a v io r of th e p a lm lea v es. 149 A t e x tre m e ly h ig h w in d s th e lea v es c u t lo o se a n d b lo w aw ay a s h a r m le s s o b je c ts. O n ce th e y a re aw ay , th e ra f te rs c e a s e to ta k e a n y lo a d d u e to a b s e n c e o f s u rfa c e a re a (see fig u re 65). T h e re la tiv e ly s h o r t ra tio n of h e ig h t to le n g th o f th e m u d w all r e d u c e s it’s c h a n c e s of c o lla p se over b e in g w a s h e d aw ay , lea v in g th e fra m e w o rk i n ta c t fo r f a s te r re b u ild in g . T h is h o w e v e r, c o u ld n o t b e te s te d in th e w in d tu n n e l (see fig u re 65). It is re c o m m e n d e d t h a t h ill site te m p le s (o u t o f sto n e ) b e given m o re e n c o u ra g e m e n t a s cy clo n e s h e lte rs r a th e r t h a n b u ild in g sc h o o ls o u t of c o n c re te . F in e tu n in g in th a tc h c o n s tr u c tio n s h o u ld a lso b e re v ita liz e d b y th e G o v e rn m e n t to d ay . figure 64 150 figure 65 151 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY A gazzi, E v a n d ro . “P h ilo s o p h ic a l A n th ro p o lo g y a n d th e O b je c tiv e s of D e v e lo p m e n t,” in U n e sc o , e d ., G o a ls o f D e v e lo p m e n t. U n e so , P a ris, 1 9 8 8 . B a lib e r, E tie n n e . “I r r a tio n a lis m a n d M a r x is m ,” N e w L eft R e v ie w . No. 107, J a n u a r y - F e b ru a r y , 1 9 78, p p . 3 -1 8 . B a n e r je a , P r a m a t h a n a t h . P u b lic A d m in is tr a tio n in A n c ie n t I n d ia . M a c m illa n a n d Co. L td, L o n don, 1916. B a r a n , P a u l A. a n d Sw eezy, P a u l M. M onopoly C a p ita l. M o n th ly P re s s R eview , N ew Y ork, 1 9 6 4 . B a rk e r, E a r n e s t. T h e P o litic s of A ris to tle . O x fo rd U n iv e rs ity P re s s L td, 1 9 0 6 . B eb ek , B o m a . T h e T h ird C itv: P h ilo so p h y a t W a r w ith P o s itiv is m . R o u tle d g e & K egan P au l, L o n d o n , 1982. B o se, A b in a s h C h a n d ra , H y m n s fro m th e V e d a s . P u b lis h e d b y P. S. J a y a s in g h e , A sia P u b lis h in g H o u se , New Y ork, 1 9 6 6 . C a ld w e ll, M a lco lm . T h e W e a lth o f S o m e N a tio n s . Z ed P r e s s L td ., L o n d o n , 1977. C a n ta c u z in o , S h e r m a n a n d H a s s a n - u d d in - k h a n . “C h a r le s C o rre a ” . M a p in P u b lish in g Pvt., L td., 1984. C o m fo rd , F ra n c is M. in h is e d ite d , T h e R e p u b lic of P la to . O xford U n iv e rs ity P re s s , 1 9 4 5 . 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A S y s te m o f H in d u M y th o lo g y a n d T ra d itio n . P u n th i P u s ta k , C a lc u tta , 1961, p p . 4 8 8 APPENDIX A 156 CYCLONIC DISTURBANCES (CD)CYCLONIC STORMS (CS) AND SEVERE CYCLONIC STORMS(SCS) THAT HAVE OCCURRED IN THE BAY OF BENGAL AND ARABIAN SEA IN DIFFERENT MONTHS IN HUNDRED YEARS ( 1 8 7 7 - 1 9 7 6 ) JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC BAY OF BEN G A L C D 1 G 4 s 2 8 8 3 1 2 7 18 2 1 9 0 2 0 5 178 1 4 5 7 7 13 3 5 C 5* 5 1 4 2 0 4 9 42 48 3 0 4 4 7 6 8 8 4 2 4 4 9 SC S 1 1 2 9 3 2 4 7 3 1 G 2 9 4 3 18 1 G S ARABIAN S E A C D 5 — 1 8 3 3 4 O 1 G 4 1G 4 5 4 3 1 1 1 9 7 C S* 2 — — 6 2 3 2 0 5 2 7 2 2 2 6 G 1 1 9 SC S - - — 4 14 9 1 — 2 1 O , 18 2 G O * CS— CYCLONIC STORMS INCLUDING SEVERE CYCLONIC STORMS. figure (i) JUNE M A Y APRIL S E P T E M B E R AUGUST J U L Y D E C E M B E R OCTOBER USUAL TRACKS OF TOPICAL CYCLONES IN THE NORTH INDIAN SEAS. figure (ii) 157 158 SEVERE CYCLONIC STORMS/CYCLONIC STORMS INCLUDING SEVERE CYCLONIC STORMS THAT CROSSED THE EAST COAST OF INDIA IN DIFFERENT LATITUDE BELTS IN HUNDRED YEARS 0 8 7 7 - I 976}A ND THE AVERAGE RECURRING PERIOD OF A SEVERE CYCLONIC STORM. LAT - 2 3 - JAN FEB mar APR M A YJUN JUL AU C SEP OCT N O VDEC ANNtFAL TOT* U AVERAGE RECURR INC PERI :QD OF A (SCSI % ° /, % ° /, 2 4 ’ / 2 7'r l2 S 14 c. c . 2 |_ 6 / 'Q ^ 2c c c ^ 7 X 2I \ 'A Vr 0 v 4 '/ l % % % Z / \2 V z 9 / a 2 - 5 ' <-U 'A % % % % ? / 2 A \ 14 i y i % ° / y 2 /4 % % 6 / | 8 17 1 o | 7 9 y '/3 % 'A •/, 5/ e 2 0 1 / 1 c % ^ 0 3 4 s 6/ 2 2 17 lb I c ( A °/2 % 2 / a 2 / „ 5 0 1 O 1 A . °/, Z A '/A ° /i 3/ , 0 3 3 1 H I * * 2 / 2 Va 2 / 7 % 5/ l 5 2 0 to 1 2 ° /i 'A V2 % ^ io °A l0/ l 8 10 A i i ° / ,f y 2 V z h % 6 / „ 17 in % % 5 / 7 V s 6 / l S !7 9V - y, ' /> 2/ 2 5 0 n 2/ 2 2/ 2 5 0 o TOTAL 1 0 0 / ' 2 2 1 figure (iii) 159 9 0 * B 0 ° 101 20 23 20 OF BENGAL 20 7 5 * 7 0° a 5* 90* 8 5* 9 5' TAMILNADU/ KARNATAKA AND ANDHRA PRADESH CYCLONIC STORM S OF NOVEMBER 1 9 7 7 . figure (iv) 160 APPENDIX B 0.13 0.071 0.070 0.072 0.070 0.074 0.074 0.074 0.074 0.078 0.12 0.185 0.15 0.089 0.085 0.085 0.09 0.09 0.095 0.098 0.13 0.192 0*235 0*132 0*1 0*09 0*085 0*085 0*09 0*093 0.1 0 *138 0.235 0.23 0.1 0.082 0,072 0.072 0.072 0.075 0.08 0.09 0.118 0,215 Test 1-Side A figure (i) 161 0.64 ♦ 0.62 ♦ 0.46 ♦ 0.41 • 0.36 ♦ 0.33 • 0.31 • 0.33 • 0.33 • 0.33 ♦ 1 0.33 • | 0.51 • 0.52 • 0.45 • 0.39 ♦ 0.37 • 0.34 • 0.33 • 0.31 ♦ 0.33 • 0.33 • 0.33 • • | 0.53 ♦ 0.51 ♦ 0.47 ♦ 0.41 ♦ 0.35 ♦ 0.34 • 0.33 • 0.33 ♦ 0.33 • 0.33 • 0.34 • | 0.58 ♦ 0.52 • 0.45 • 0.40 • 0.36 • C O C O • o 0.32 • 0.31 • 0.32 ♦ 0.32 + 0.34 • | 0.53 ♦ 0.48 • 0.40 ♦ 0.37 ♦ 0.34 ♦ 0.34 • 0.33 m 0.33 • 0.33 • 0.33 • 0.33 • 0*45 0*45 0*46 0.45 0.43 0.42 0.40 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.36 0*45 0*45 0*45 0*46 0.44 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.39 0.38 0.35 • 0.47 • 0.43 ♦ 0.47 ♦ 0.46 • 0.45 • 0.41 • 0.39 • 0.36 • 0.34 • 0.34 • 0.33 0.45 • 0.45 ♦ 0.47 ♦ 0.45 ♦ 0.44 ♦ 0.41 ♦ 0.39 • 0.35 • 0.33 ♦ 0.31 ♦ 0.33 • Test 1-Side B/F figure (ii) figu re (iii) 163 . 0.27j5 0.28 . 0.20 0."42 0.42 0.075 0.085 0.225 0.29 0.117 0.1 0.05 0.145 0.045 0.039 0.1 0.082 0.112 0.185 0.078 0.089 0.068 0.22 0.075 0.073 0.062 0.2 0.33 0.109 Test 2 - Side B/F figure (iv) 164 0.39 0.38 0.42 0.44 0.295 0.325 0.39 0.42 0.43 0.47 0.48 0.50 0.35 0.50 0.325 0.41 0.31 • • • • • • • • • • • 0.36 0.33 0.325 0.39 0.51 0.50 0*38 # 0.33 # 0.31 # 0.375 # 0.51 # 0.55 0.38 0.34 0.325 0.33 0.45 0.54 •_______ •_______ •_______ •_______ •______________ •_•______ •_______ •_______ •________♦ j Test 2- Side A figure (v) 165 Q .43 l I L Q.43_ _CL43 _CL45 0.40 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.426 0.40 0.41 0.41 0.40 0.41 0.41 0.41 0.42 0.40 0.40 0.41 0.425 0.40 0.41 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.41 Test 2- side D/E figure (vi) 166 0.16 0.082 0.076 0.083 0.128 0.112 0.098 0.09 0.088 0.086 0.082 0.085 0.065 0.28 0.148 0.112 0.098 0.295 0.125 0.105 0.175 0.095 0.068 0.295 0.135 0.178 0.118 0.082 0.175 0.135 0.095 0.31 0.112 0.092 Test 3- Side A figure (vii) 167 0.29 0.30 0.30 0.32 0.32 0.36 0.20 0.226 0.246 0.26 0.28 0.30 0.16 0.175 0.19 0.22 0.28 0.06 0.105 0.12 0.15 0.178 0.375 0.065 0.098 0.12 0.148 0.188 0.31 0.18 0.105 0.128 0.155 0.195 0.3 0.09 0.102 0.13 0.155 0.195 0.31 Test 3 - Side B/F figure (viii) figure (ix) 169 . 0..46 0S2 0.475 0.46 0.50 0.50 0.675 0.46 ‘ 0.45 0.48 0.4 0.4 0.41 0.4 0.43 0.43 0.41 0.4 0.41 0.425 0.45 0.46 0.425 0.41 0.43 0.43 0.46 0.46 0.4 0.40 0.39 0.45 0.45 0.46 Test 3-SideT)/E figure (x) figure (xi) 171 0.34 ^ ^ / " 0 . 3 5 0.35 0 . 3 5 ^ ^ ^ ^ • • • • • ^ y 0.35 0.35 0.34 0.34 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.37 0.38 £0 35 0.38- 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.36 0.36 0.35 . 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.36 0.36 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.36 0.38 0.38 Test 4 - Side C figure (xii) 172 0.525 0.38 0.31 0.41 0.42 0.46 0.51 0.48 0.47 0.41 0.425 0.47 0.48 0.5 0.49 0.38 0.41 0.46 0.50 0.51 0.5], 0.38 -0740 '0.425' 0.46' 0.48' ■0.50 Test 4 - Side D/E figure (xiii) 173 0.25 0.265 0.25 0.28 0.26 0.27 0.192 0.17 0.16 0.163 0.16 0.188 0.145 0.13 0.12 0.145 0.10 0.132 0.05 0.015 0.151 0.24 0.012 0.029 0.125 0.193 0.062 0.02 0.38 0.02 0.275 0.035 0.05 0.082 0.047 0.20 9.075 10.225 0.26 ■0.04 Test 5- Side D/E 0.029 0.035 figure (xiv) 174 0.475 0.51 0.5 0.375 ♦ ♦ ♦ • • 0.50 0.45 0.50 0.51 0.4-1 0.34 0.51 0.51 0.35 0.51 0.35' 0.41 0.5 0.51 0.51 0.41 0.37 0.40 0.525 0.50 0.525 0.41 0.38 0.41 0.525 0.52 0.44 0.37 0.37 0.41 Test 5- Side A figure (xv) 175 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.46 0.46 0.475 0.45 0.475 0.475 0.47 0.48 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.49 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.4-4 0.44 0.44 0.45 0.45 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.44 Test 5 - Side B/F figure (xvi) 176 0.049 0.07 0.063 0.063 * 0.07 * 0.066* 0.09 0.08 0.078 0.063 0.246 0.076 0.13 0.098 0.08 0.03 0.166 0.33 0.11 0.08 0.06 0.023 0.176 0.066 0.045 0.121 0.31 0.09 0.185 0.085 0.35 0.058 0.12 0.63 Test 6- Side A figure (xvii) 177 0.29 0.30 0.37 0.33 0.31 0.27 0.33 0.29 0.31 0.30 0.30 0.27 0.155 0.25 0.192 0.17 0.13 0.28 0.065 0.155 0.295 0.029 0.082 0.11 0.065 0.16 0.083 0.118 0.31 0.03 0.051 0.156 0.064 0.098 0.112 0.33 0.35 0.063 0.011 0.098 0.12 0.17 Test 6 - Side D/E figure (xviii) 178 0,50 0.49 0,49 0.495 0.49 0.490 0,489 0.485 0.485 0.49 0.48 0.49- 0.50 0.495 0.485 0.48 0.49 0.49 0.485 0.48 0.50 0.49 0.49 0.49 0.50 0.485 0.49 0.49 0.48 0.49 Test 6- Side C figure (xix) 179 0.56 0.53 0.5 0.63 0.7 0.60 0.59 0.57 0.58 0.56 0.53 0.72 0.55 0.50 0.51 0.53 0,52 0.71 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.51 0.51 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.5C 0.50 0.50 0.51 0.50 0.50 0.51 0.50 0.51 0.50 0.51 0.50 0.50 Test 6 - Side B/F figure (xx) 180 . 0.008 0.008 0.006 0.01 0.008 0.008 0.02 0.14 0.02 0.012 0.02 0.078 0.076 0.045 0.05 0.175 0.24 0.255 0.035 0.045 0.19 0.073 0.023 Test 7- Side A figure (xxi) 181 • ♦ • # • • • # • • • 0.6 0.6 0.45 0.38 0.36 0.36 • • • • • • • • • ♦ ♦ • ♦ • • • • • • • « • 0.61 0.59 0.45 0.35 0.35 0.35 • • • • • • • • • • • 0 * 70 0*50 0*38 0.38 0.35 0.36 0*48 0.50 0.50 0.47 0.43 0.40 • • • • • • • • • • ♦ 0*50 0.50 0.52 • ♦ 0.51 0.43 0.38 • • • • • • • • • « • 0.48 0.50 0.54 0.44 0.38 0.37 ♦ • ♦ • • • ♦ • # T e s t 7 - Side B/F figure (xxii) figure (xxiii) 183 0.151 * 0.125 # 0.115 * 0.11 * 0.115 # 0.142 0.059 0.059 0.065 0.07 0.10 0.091 0.045 0.068 0.038 0.033 0.04 0.062 0.035 0.025 0.045 0.37 0.072 0.28 0.125 0.172 0.048 0.022 0.012 0.021 0.24 0.06 0.03 0.02 0.036 0.23 Test 8- Side D/E figure (xxiv) 184 0.42 0.50 0.45 0.53 0.55 0.48 0.32 0.55 0.56 0.27 0.49 0.38 0.33 0.55 0.57 0.34 0.41 0.48 0.32 0.57 0.55 0.425 0.43 0.41 0.38 • t t • Test 8->Side A figure (xxv) 185 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.48 0.49 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.51 0.50 0.50 0.51 0.52 0.51 0.51 0.52 0.53 0.55 0.53 0.51 0.51 0.52 0.59 0.53 0.51 0.50 0.50 0.51 0.53 0.51 0.50 0.51 0.50 0.51 Test 8- Side B/F figure (xxvi) 186 0.05 0.055 0.038 0.055 0.055 0.045 0.058 0.052 0.105 0.032 0.03 0.077 0.182 0.15 0.022 0.042 0.068 0.087 0.30 0.045 0.105 0.15 0.042 0.068 0.30 Test 9- Side A figure (xxvii) 187 0.255 0.182 0.16 0.29 0.22 0.13 0.255 0.123 0.10 0.18 0.148 0.08 0.155 0.08 0.128 0.10 0.22 0.062 0.115 0.025 0.178 0.06 0.082 0.42 0.148 0.33 0.112 0.082 0.06 0.038 0.155 0.052 * 0.33 I * 0.11 ♦ 0.68 ♦ 0.062 + * * * Test 9- Side D/E figure (xxviii) 188 0.49 0.60 0.60 0.50 0.60 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 Test 9-Side C figure (xxix) Test 9 -Side B/F figure (xxx) 190 0.26 0.246 0.23 0.20 . 0.235 0.235. 0.178 0.17 0.178 , 0.235 0.13 0.17 0.142 0.14 0.23 0.16 0.115 0.122 :_q. 11 :,.oaz 0.06 0.18$ 0.055 0,10 0.072 0.14 0.058 0.035 0.16 0.08 0.032 0.128 0.055 0.26 0.10 0.068 0.072 0.21 Test 10- SideB/G figure (xxxi) 191 0.44 i \ i \ i 0.47 0.47 i \ ■ 0.49 i A 0.45 ' j C _ J _ _ - - 1 s ' 1 0.47 • 0.52 • 0.55 0.52 i \ / i / - H 0.37 : 0.36 i 0.36 0.40 i • 1 0.50 i 0.65 i \ • \ ! 0.63 . i y » / i / i • 0.40 • • i 0.38 ' 0.37 i 0.37 • 0.35 • i " 0.33 i • 0.30 • i ; 0.40 ♦ 0.80 i\^ H — \ 1 1 \ • 0.38 i i • i # ♦ # • 0.38 ; 1 1 • • 0.38 ♦ • ; 0.38 1 1 • • • ♦ ; o.4i i i • • • # : 0.48 1 1 • i t i 0*38' i ♦ • • 0.38 • 0.37 • 1 t 1 • 0.40 1 + i i • 0.45 i i • i 1 1 1 ! 0.50 i i « i i ♦ • • • 1 • 1 1 • i « i i • i I « l 0.38' ♦ ______L • 0.375' ♦ • i 0.37 • • 0.38 i « i ♦ i ' 0.43 i « i • j _ . . . . 1 0.46 i ♦ l . . . . Test 1 0 -Side F/A figure (xxxii) 192 0.44 0.44 0.45 0.43 . 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.44 • 0.43 0.43 . 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.43 . 0.44 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.44 0.43 0.45 0.43 0.43 0.39 0.4 0.38 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.38 0.38 0.40 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.39 0.39 0.40 0.39 0.39 0.38 Test 1 0-Side E/D figure (xxxiii) 193 ; 0.28 ■ 0.29 0.24 0.19 0.295 0.253 0..215 0.175 0.151 , 0.3 0.26 0.23 0.182 0.163 0.142 0.128 ; 0.30 0.26 0.23 0.19 0.129 0.1 15 0.105 0.163 0.145 0.178 0.138 0.105 0.068 0.075 0.31 0.1 1 0.18 0.135 0.083 0.05 0.3 0.375 0.18 0.138 0.1 1 0.09 0.075 Test 1 1 -Side F/A figure (xxxiv) 194 0.475 0.475 0.475 0.475 0.47 0.475 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.5 0 .4 8 0 .4 8 0 .4 9 0 .4 9 0 .4 8 0 .4 9 0.50 0.49 0.50 0.48 0.48 0.49 0.55 0.475 0.49 0.475 0.475 0.475 0.475 0.52 0.475 0.475 0.46 0.49 0.47 0.46 0.475 0.475 0.475 0.47 Test 1 1 -Side D/E figure (xxxv) 195 Test 1 2 -Side C/G figure (xxxvi) 196 0.45 0.45 0.47 0.50 0.38 0.40 0.43 0.50 0.55 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.36 0.39 0.47 0.60 0.37 0.38 0.375 0.36 036 0.38 0.37 0.40 0.53 0.35 0.425 0.50 0.37 0.37 0.38 0.35 0.35 0.45 0.36 0.40 0.48 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.375 0.425 0.48 Test 12- Side D/H figure (xxxvii) 197 • ♦ 0.36 • 0.36 • • 0.35 • • 0.35 • ♦ 0.36 • • 0.36 • • 0.36 • 0.36 • • 0.36 • • 0.36 • • 0.36 • • 0.36 • • • • • • • • • • • • • 0.3S • 0.3*5 • • 0.35 • • 0.35 • • 0.36 • • 0.36 • • • • • • • • • • Test 1 2 -Side C/G figure (xxxviii) 198 0*29 0.10 0.145 0.1 25 • .0092 0.05 0.30 0.185 « ♦ 0.145 • • 0.13 • 0.102 « ♦ 0.05 0.34 • • 0.185 • • 0.15 • • 0.13 • • 0.102 • • 0.09 ♦ Test 1 3 -Side A/E figure (xxxix) 199 0.43 0.46 0.46 0.46 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.46 0.46 0.46 0.46 0.46 0.48 0.47 0.49 0.48 0.47 0.46 0.46 0.48 0.49 0.45 0.44 0.43 0.43 0.44 0.44 0.43 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.43 0.45 0.43 0.43 0.43 0.44 0.44 Test 13- Side D/F figure (xl) 2 0 0 Conversion for Pressure in Inches of Water Column to Relative Wind Velocity in Miles per Hour and Pressure in Pounds per Square Feet. In.H20 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 Miles/Hr. 14.47 20.47 25.07 28.94 32.36 35.45 38.29 40.93 43.42 45.76 lbs/sq.ft. 0.518 1,037 1.556 2.074 2.593 3.112 3.63 4.148 4.667 5.18 figure (xli)

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Asset Metadata

Creator Rao, Srinivas M. V. (author)

Core Title From nescience to science and beyond: A critical investigation of 'building' in cyclone prone areas

Degree Master of Building Science

Degree Program Building Science

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag engineering, architectural,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Advisor Schierle, Gotthilf Goetz (committee chair), Knowles, Ralph Lewis (committee member), Koenig, Pierre Francis (committee member)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c20-299396

Unique identifier UC11259811

Identifier EP41426.pdf (filename),usctheses-c20-299396 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier EP41426.pdf

Dmrecord 299396

Document Type Thesis

Rights Rao, Srinivas M. V.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA