University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Strategies utilized by superintendents and mathematics district personnel that impact minority student outcomes in algebra

(USC Thesis Other)

Strategies utilized by superintendents and mathematics district personnel that impact minority student outcomes in algebra

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content Running head: IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 1

STRATEGIES UTILIZED BY SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATHEMATICS DISTRICT
PERSONNEL THAT IMPACT MINORITY STUDENT OUTCOMES IN ALGEBRA

by

Jared Bernard DuPree

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF
EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2013

Copyright 2013 Jared Bernard DuPree
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 2
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to my family who has taught me and continues to teach me to
always strive to be my best.

IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 3
Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge my family for their tireless support and the sacrifices they
have made through this journey. I would also like to thank the district personnel that participated
in this study. I would like to thank my dissertation chair, Dr. Castruita and my dissertation
committee, Dr.Garcia and Dr. Hasan for your leadership through this process. To my fellow
colleague, thank you for insisting that I see beyond established boundaries. Thank you Dr.
Kaplan and Dr. Rousseau for showing me that learning lasts for a lifetime. This dissertation
serves as a formative assessment on that endless journey.

IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 4
Table of Contents
Dedication ...............................................................................................................2

Acknowledgements .................................................................................................3

List of Tables ..........................................................................................................7

List of Figures .....................................................................................................…8

Abstract ...................................................................................................................9

Chapter 1: Introduction .........................................................................................10
Teacher Behavior and Student Achievement .............................................11
School Leadership and Student Achievement ...........................................12
Statement of the Problem ............................................................................13
Purpose of the Study ....................................................................................15
Importance of the Problem ...........................................................................16
Limitations ...................................................................................................17
Delimitations ................................................................................................17
Definition of Terms ......................................................................................18
Organization of the Study ............................................................................19

Chapter 2: Literature Review ................................................................................20
Algebra Instruction for Minority Students ...................................................20
Equity in School Mathematics ...................................................................21
Minority Algebra Experience ....................................................................23
Possible Minority Barriers .........................................................................25
Reform Efforts ...........................................................................................28
Superintendent as Instructional Leader ........................................................29
District Mathematics Instructional Practices ................................................32
District Mathematics Team Characteristics .................................................33
Professional Development .........................................................................34
Pedagogical Content Knowledge ...............................................................36
Content Knowledge ...................................................................................36
Student Knowledge ....................................................................................37
Leadership Skills ........................................................................................38
District Impact on Student Outcomes ..........................................................38
District Accountability .................................................................................40

Chapter 3: Methodology .......................................................................................42
Research Questions ......................................................................................42
Design ........................................................................................................42
Chapter Organization ...................................................................................43
Sample and Population .................................................................................43
Population ..................................................................................................44
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 5
Qualitative Sample .....................................................................................44
Quantitative Sample ...................................................................................44
Instrumentation ..........................................................................................45
Interview Protocol ......................................................................................45
Survey Questionnaire .................................................................................46
Data Collection ..........................................................................................46
Data Analysis .............................................................................................47
Summary ....................................................................................................47

Chapter 4: Findings ................................................................................................49
Overview .....................................................................................................49
Qualitative Findings .....................................................................................50
Research Question One ................................................................................50
Algebra Focus ...........................................................................................51
Vertical Articulation ..................................................................................52
Conceptual Development ...........................................................................52
Formative Assessment ...............................................................................53
Research Question Two ...............................................................................53
Content Knowledge ...................................................................................54
Teaching Experience ..................................................................................55
Administrative Experience.........................................................................55
Instructional Knowledge ............................................................................55
Research Question Three .............................................................................56
Professional Development .........................................................................56
Mathematics Coaches ................................................................................57
Grade level Planning ..................................................................................58
Discussion ....................................................................................................58
Quantitative Findings ...................................................................................59
Research Question Four ...............................................................................59
Discussion ....................................................................................................69

Chapter 5: Summary and Conclusion ....................................................................73
Summary of the Study ..................................................................................74
Summary of Methodology ...........................................................................75
Summary of Findings ...................................................................................75
Conclusions ..................................................................................................82
Implications ..................................................................................................83
Recommendations for Future Research .......................................................84

References ........................................................................................................86

Appendices:
Appendix A: Superintendent Interview Protocol .........................................93
Appendix B: Mathematics District Personnel Interview Protocol ...............94

IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 6
Appendix C: Superintendent Questionnaire .................................................95
Appendix D: Mathematics District Personnel Questionnaire ......................96
Appendix E: Recruitment Letter ..................................................................98

IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 7
List of Tables
Table 1: District Algebra Strategies ................................................................................... 51
Table 2: Algebra Content Knowledge Preparation (Past two years) ............................... .62
Table 3: Math Course Work in College ............................................................................. 62
Table 4: Teaching and Administrative Experience ............................................................ 63
Table 5: Knowledge of Curriculum, Instruction, and Teacher Education ......................... 63
Table 6: Correlations among District Personnel and CST outcomes ................................. 68
Table 7: Correlations among District Practices and CST outcomes .................................. 69

IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 8
List of Figures
Figure 1: Mathematics Personnel Characteristics ............................................................... 54
Figure 2: Returned Questionnaires by Region ................................................................... .60
Figure 3: Focus on Algebra Training .................................................................................. 65
Figure 4: Vertical Articulation Emphasis ............................................................................ 65
Figure 5: Conceptual Algebraic Knowledge Focus............................................................. 65
Figure 6: Formative Assessment Use .................................................................................. 66
Figure 7: Mathematics Specialist with Degrees .................................................................. 66
Figure 8: Mathematics Coaches Utilized ............................................................................ 66
Figure 9: Systemic Algebra Professional Development ...................................................... 67

IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 9
Abstract
This study applies the constructs from effective instruction from the literature on teacher
education to understand the impact of school district strategies on algebra outcomes for minority
students. The purpose of this study was to examine the strategies utilized by superintendents and
district personnel and the impact of these identified strategies on algebra outcomes for minority
students. The following research questions were addressed: (a) What district level leadership
strategies are employed in districts that have realized an increase in minority student
performance in algebra; (b) How do superintendents select the personnel that influence
successful algebra programs; (c) In what ways do superintendents and mathematics instructional
teams influence algebra curriculum and instruction in successful algebra programs; (d) What is
the relationship between personnel selection criteria and minority student outcomes in algebra;
and (e) What is the relationship between curriculum and instruction influence and minority
student outcomes in algebra? Qualitative data was collected using a deviant case study of a
successful school district. This data was used in a quantitative analysis to determine possible
correlations. Findings indicate that school districts should consider the content knowledge of
mathematics personnel and place an emphasis on conceptual development of algebraic topics
across the grade levels. This study highlighted the criteria district leadership should include in
selecting mathematics personnel and creating algebra professional development models that
result in meaningful learning of algebra for minority students.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 10
Chapter 1: Introduction
The concept of culturally responsive algebra instruction for minorities has been associated
with maintaining a demographically diverse student population, providing a physical classroom
environment representative of this diverse population, and the validation of mathematical
contributions made by a wider range of ethnically diverse mathematicians. Research often
examines the effects of these variables when analyzing culturally appropriate algebra instruction
and the achievement of minority students.
The algebra data may suggest that this concept of culturally responsive algebra instruction
is inadequate. In the state of California, 65% of African American students and 57% of Latino
students are either below basic or far below basic on the Algebra I California Standards Test as
compared to 39% of Caucasian students and 30% of Asian students in the 2010-2011 school year
(California Department Of Education, 2011). This set of data is not unique to this academic year
and has historically been true not only in California, but across the nation (National Assessment
of Educational Progress, 2012).
Algebra I is the mathematics gateway to upper division college preparatory math classes at
the secondary level. Algebra I also exposes students to higher order cognitive skills and problem
solving skills (Tate, 1994). Matthews and Farmer (2008) state that successful completion of
Algebra I leads to increased understanding in advanced mathematics and beyond. This concept is
supported and expanded in a much broader sense through the research of Impecoven-Lind and
Foegen (2010), who assert that Algebra is a gateway to expanded societal opportunities.
The algebra data derived from the California Standardized Testing process quantify the
persistent barriers for minorities in attaining access to these classes and ultimately to the rigorous
and analytical preparation necessary for post-secondary education. The data fail to highlight the
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 11
systemic issues that contribute to this perpetual phenomenon. Cuban (2009) suggests that the
variables affecting student achievement are numerous and often ineffable. However, research
does delineate prevailing connections between student achievement and the factors of teacher
behaviors and school leadership attributes.
Teacher Behavior and Student Achievement
The connection between student achievement in mathematics and teacher behaviors has
widely been acknowledged. Gerdes (1998) asserts that when teachers are not aware of how
cultural differences can yield different developments in mathematics; this can lead to a
significant problem for math learners. Corey and Bower (2005) conducted a qualitative study in
which it was shown that teachers rarely take into consideration the cultural differences of algebra
students and how those differences impact the classroom environment. Features of African
American culture including orality, communalism, and movement are neither reinforced nor
represented in school mathematics (Ladson-Billings, 1997).
Quantitative research conducted shows that an additional factor of content knowledge as
measured by the number of courses a teacher has taken shows a positive correlation between
students learning of math at the secondary level (Monk, 1994). Due to extensive content training,
high school teachers may be particularly susceptible to an expert blind spot, where they
overestimate the accessibility of symbol based representations and procedures for students’
learning introductory algebra (Nathan & Koedinger, 2000).
Another key component to mathematics achievement by minority students is teacher
expectations. Corey and Bower (2005) suggested that schools have created an environment that
makes it acceptable to lower expectations for minority students. This study revealed that 60% of
teachers believe that their African American male students will not attend college. The same
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 12
study also indicated shows that African American students were least likely to receive feedback
when answering a question incorrectly. Ladson-Billings (1997) suggested that there is a societal
notion that math ability is of a genetic disposition. Due to this misconception and their belief in
the intellectual inferiority of people of color, many teachers presume that minority students
cannot be expected to perform at high math levels and thus, fail to present those students with
challenging and rigorous academic tasks.
Kirtman (2008) also claimed that in spite of recent reform efforts, little has changed in the
implementation of mathematics pedagogy in the classroom resulting in effective student
outcomes. Teachers, regardless of curriculum and textbook, make the ultimate instructional and
assessment decisions on how to integrate valued algebra transfer problems into their courses
(Cunningham, 2005).
School Leadership and Student Achievement
As important as teacher influence is on student outcomes in algebra, this role is situated in
the context of the school setting. Therefore, the connection between school leadership and
student performance has also been delineated through research. Marzano, Waters, and McNulty
(2005) suggested that a 0.25 correlation exists between the leadership behaviors of the principal
and the academic achievement of students in schools. A Wallace Foundation asserts that a
principal’s deliberate decisions and behaviors concerning collaboration and teacher motivation
have a significant impact on student achievement (Louis, Wahlstrom, Leithwood, & Anderson,
2010).
School leadership often dictates the school infrastructure. Ladson-Billings (1997) reported
that African American students are likely to be clustered in low performing mathematics classes.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 13
The researcher also noted that as a school’s African American enrollment population increased,
the proportion of classes labeled as high ability was reduced.
In addition to school infrastructure, research highlights a need for principals to become
more aware of pedagogical strategies in mathematics. Sassl and Scott-Nelson (2007) claimed
that principals must listen to students’ mathematical thinking and make judgments about
teachers’ capacity to make instructional decisions that respond appropriately. The research
suggested that principals (a) observe good math teachers from a stance of learning and not
evaluation, (b) participate in professional development sessions for teachers in math instruction,
and (c) encourage teachers to use questioning strategies that create an environment for
exploration of student thought.
There are multiple variables that cause and exacerbate minority underperformance in
algebra. However, there is minimal research that connects the relationship between district
leadership including superintendents and mathematics instructional teams with student outcomes.
Moreover, there is less known about the connections between district leadership and minority
student outcomes in algebra.
Statement of the Problem
Northouse (2007) defines leadership as a process whereby an individual influences a group
of individuals to achieve a common goal. This leadership enables collective movement from an
existing condition to reach established common goals. The federal government has established a
common proficiency goal in mathematics for all students through the No Child Left Behind
(NCLB) Act (U.S. Department of Education, 2001). However, the gap between the current level
of proficiency in algebra attained by minority students and the desired level of proficiency for all
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 14
students suggests that leadership to enable this collective movement must occur at multiple
levels.
Primarily, teachers and school administrators have been the subject of research, which
targets leadership and its connection to student outcomes. Finn stated that “the school is the vital
delivery system, the state is the policy setter, and nothing in between is very important” (as cited
in Roerr, Skrla, & Scheurich, 2008, p. 25). However, another literature source suggested that
leadership impacts student achievement and that leadership at all levels of an educational
organization must have some impact on the student outcome of learning (Purkey & Smith, 1983).
Therefore, leadership at all levels, inclusive of the district superintendent and the
mathematics instructional team, should be examined to determine its impact on the phenomenon
of underperformance in algebra by the minority student population. Superintendents influence
the behaviors and attitudes of their subordinates, school administrators, and teachers.
Superintendents must develop ways to lead his/her followers that encourage innovation, increase
communication, build shared vision, and involve all constituents in the monumentous task of
education (Hoyle, 1995). Successful superintendents that see improvement in their district’s
student achievement have a high level of involvement in curriculum and instruction (Cuban,
1984). In spite of this understanding, there is limited research on the role of chief school
administrator and their contribution to student academic achievement (Byrd, 2001). This
limitation, combined with the ever increasing underperformance of minorities in algebra, create a
need to examine the strategies utilized by superintendents that impact minority student outcomes
in algebra.

IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 15
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to examine the strategies utilized by superintendents and
district personnel in order to determine the impact of these identified strategies on algebra
outcomes for minority students. To achieve this purpose, the following research questions were
evaluated:
1. What district level leadership strategies are employed in districts that have
realized in an increase in minority student performance in algebra?
2. How do superintendents select the personnel that influence successful
algebra programs?
3. In what ways do superintendents and mathematics instructional teams
influence algebra curriculum and instruction in these successful algebra
programs?
4. What is the relationship between the following:
a) Personnel selection criteria and minority student outcomes in algebra?
b) Curriculum and instruction influence and minority student outcomes in
algebra?
This mixed methods study will use the qualitative method of interviewing to determine
leadership strategies that result in minority student performance in algebra (question 1), how
mathematics instructional teams are selected (question 2), and the district influence on algebra
curriculum and instruction (question 3). Quantitative methods will then be used to determine
correlations and predicted relationships between the data gathered from the qualitative analysis
and minority student outcomes in algebra.

IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 16
Importance of the Study
The body of knowledge regarding algebra instruction is replete with suggested
instructional strategies for teachers to increase student performance. Culturally responsive
education compliments these strategies to target the underperformance of minority students in
algebra. This study examines district level behaviors and practices that serve as a beacon to
create cohesion for school site algebra practices that often lack direction. This addition to the
body of knowledge has ramifications for multiple stakeholders.
Superintendents can use the results as criteria for identifying future mathematics
instructional team personnel, which may positively influence algebra instruction. They may also
use the effective strategies results to evaluate the district’s current algebra implementation plan
and make recommended modifications. The superintendent, along with the mathematics
instructional team, can make curriculum and instructional choices based on the established
criteria. Also, accountability practices that increase the likelihood of school site implementation
of district instructional measures can be modeled.
At the school site level, principals and leadership teams can align established mathematics
plans with district measures found to be successful. Consideration for math coaches,
mathematics department chairs, and mathematics teachers can take into consideration
comparable criteria established for district personnel selection.
Universities and alternative educational preparation programs may benefit by modifying
superintendent programs offered under their purview. These modifications may include decision-
making curriculum to target perennial student outcome deficits such as algebra performance and
mathematics policy creation.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 17
Ultimately, learning experiences for all algebra students will be more closely aligned with
sound pedagogical strategies. This will be due, in part, to the thoughtful organization of content
and skills by school personnel under the guidance of district supervision. Tyler (1949) asserted
that learning experiences must be woven together in an organized and thoughtful way to form a
coherent program. This study will highlight district criteria required for the effective creation of
organized learning experiences.
Limitations
The study was limited by the following factors:
1. Validity of the study is limited to the reliability of the questionnaires used.
2. Variables such as socioeconomic status and family background were not
taken into account in this study.
3. California Standardized Testing results may not be reflective of students’
knowledge of the California Algebra standards.
4. The qualitative data collected in this study is limited to the interpretation
of the researcher.
Delimitations
The study was delimited by the following factors:
1. School districts studied are in large urban areas in California.
2. The study is limited geographically to California.
3. Population of the school districts is greater than 15,000 students.
4. This study was limited to voluntary participants.
5. Latino and African-American students represent a majority of the students within
the district.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 18
6. The study is limited to one district that was interviewed and 39 districts that
were surveyed. Within those districts, superintendents and mathematics personnel were
interviewed or surveyed.
7. Superintendent length of term was not considered.
8. The qualitative data collected in this study is limited to the interpretation of the
researcher.
Definition of Terms
There are multiple terms that need to be operationally defined to increase clarity as the
investigation of the superintendents’ impact on minority student outcomes in algebra was
initiated.
 College Preparatory Math Classes: These classes are Algebra II, Trigonometry,
Math Analysis, Statistics, and Calculus.
 Culturally Responsive Education: Instruction that takes into consideration the beliefs
and practices of a particular population to allow for schematic development.
 District Personnel: Individuals at the district level who are responsible for
mathematics policy creation and implementation.
 Leadership Strategies: Strategies used by the superintendent and mathematics
instructional team at the district level to influence school sites to improve student
outcomes in algebra.
 Minority: Inclusive of significant non-Asian minority subgroups, Latino(a), and
African-American students.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 19
 Student Performance: Algebra outcome data as determined in the state of California
by the California Standards Test and nationally by the National Assessment of
Education Progress measure.
 Superintendent: The chief executive officer of a school district who has executive
oversight and is charged with ensuring an effective teaching and learning process as
well as the oversight of the legal, financial, and personnel aspects of the district.
Organization of the Study
This dissertation is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 contains an introduction,
statement of the problem, purpose of the study, importance of the study, limits and delimitations,
and definition of terms. Chapter 2 contains a review of the literature. The methodology and
procedures are contained in Chapter 3. This is followed by an analysis and comparison of the
data collected in the study presented in Chapter 4. Chapter 5 contains the researcher’s
conclusions and recommendations for future studies.

IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 20
Chapter 2: Literature Review
Research has shown that algebra is a gateway subject area. This review of literature
delineates multiple perceptions of the roles of district personnel, including superintendents and
mathematics instructional teams as they relate to this gateway phenomenon. The literature
included in this study addresses the primary topics that serve as the framework for this
investigative study. The chapter is presented in the following sections: (a) algebra instruction for
minority students, (b) superintendents as instructional leaders, (c) district level mathematics
instructional practices, (d) mathematics district team characteristics, (e) district impact on student
outcomes, and (f) district accountability.
Algebra Instruction for Minority Students
As commonly demonstrated in the literature, Algebra I is considered to be a gateway
course to advanced high school math courses and post-secondary education. Matthews and
Farmer (2008) stated that successful completion of Algebra I leads to increased understanding in
advanced mathematics and beyond. This concept is supported and expanded in a much broader
sense through the research of Impecoven-Lind and Foegen (2010) and their suggestion that
Algebra is a gateway to expanded opportunities. These opportunities are manifested both
intrinsically and extrinsically.
The intrinsic opportunities include the cultivation of higher order cognitive skills and
problem solving decision-making skills (Tate, 1994). The study conducted by Tate (1994)
suggested that Algebra prepares students to take an active role in the country’s democratic
process through critical thinking.
The extrinsic opportunities include opportunities to attend four-year universities and to
acquire higher paying jobs (Flores & Roberts, 2008). This assertion is supported by the research
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 21
conducted by Paul (2005), in which he concluded that Algebra increased the pool of students
capable of mastering mathematics requisites for college admission and future related careers.
This researcher also detailed opportunities for a much wider range of students including those
preparing for 2-year community college programs, placement exams, and skilled labor requiring
mathematical and technical literacy.
The completion of three years of high school mathematics beginning with Algebra is
becoming the national threshold for admittance to competitive universities. This theme was
consistently stated throughout the literature reviewed. This admittance to universities leads to
increased economic opportunities for both the student and the national interest (Ladson-Billings,
1997). The literature suggested that there is now a greater economic reliance upon mathematics
and science.
Stanic (1997) stated that there is an increased global competition for mathematics, science,
and technology resources to supply the needs of the 21
st
century. The literature reviewed
consistently supported this occurrence as evident in the assertion made by Flores and Roberts
(2008), who stated that the national pressure is on to maintain technological and economic
leadership in this global society and to remain self reliant. Therefore, this urgency translates
directly into the classroom. The literature suggested that matters of classroom equity in
mathematics need to be addressed in order to supply this demand.
Equity in school mathematics. The prevailing view expressed in the literature is that
proficiency in mathematics is integral to full societal participation. Therefore, the majority of the
population cannot be mathematical deficient in an equitable society and thus, providing equitable
access to mathematics is not optional (Stanic, 1997). However, the literature that follows shows
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 22
no consensus on what society believes is the purpose for providing equitable mathematics
opportunities or what constitutes equitable treatment.
Researchers Matthews and Farmer (2008) and Tate (1994) indicated in their studies that
the global economic necessity rationale is the driving force in mathematics equity. Therefore, a
purpose for providing equitable mathematics opportunities for all, including the minority that
now represent a significant population, is to maintain the nation’s competitive edge in the global
economy. Tate (1994) concluded that studies show that minority students warrant equitable
treatment on the grounds of national economic interest.
On the other hand, Paul (2005) suggested that this emphasis on global competitive
necessity blatantly overlooks the moral necessity of equitable conditions in a just society. He
further stated that the individual rights of all human beings are being jeopardized in order to
preserve the position of the dominant group in society. Stanic (1997) supported this position as
he points to a curriculum that embodies a tradition that provides the greatest benefits to groups in
power and serves to reproduce the same inequalities that schools are asked to overcome.
These inequalities serve as access barriers for those who do not belong to the dominant
societal group. Stanic (1997) described data, which revealed the majority of people who study
advanced mathematics are white males. The mathematics pedagogy and curricula are most
closely aligned with the experiences of the white middle class (Tate, 1994). Tate (1994)
described the conventional mathematics pedagogy that emphasizes whole class instruction with
the teacher modeling a problem while the class listens. This is generally followed by having
students work alone on a set of problems from the textbook. This type of instruction is aligned
with the white middle class idea of instruction, which fails to build on the thinking and
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 23
experience of minority students. This default position of mathematics pedagogy limits access for
minority students.
Unlike the literature of Tate (1994) and Paul (2005), Stanic (1997) offered a more holistic
view. The researcher contends that the issues related to mathematics inequality are a result of
unjust inequalities in the larger society. Stanic (1997) stated that the two conditions are
inextricably linked. Additionally, Stanic (1997) proposed that the following questions be
addressed as they relate to the issues of equity: whose knowledge and whose ways to construct
knowledge come to be valued in the culture of school mathematics?
Equity issues as outlined in the literature review influence access to the gateway of
Algebra. Researcher Spielhagen (2006) posited that policymakers must consider equitable
opportunities that provide minority access to algebra at an earlier age. These measures may help
to alleviate the difficulty minorities experience in gaining mathematics proficiency.
Minority algebra experience. Difficulty experienced by minority-status students in
Algebra begins in middle school where most students begin to deal with algebraic concepts
(Flores & Roberts, 2008). The literature points to current national trends that state that the
average student in the United States has measurably lower average scores in mathematic than
comparable international counterparts (Impecoven-Lind & Foegen, 2010). Within this data, there
remain significantly disparate results between minorities and whites and Asians. Corey and
Bower (2005) conducted a study that reported the performance gap in mathematics test scores
between grade 8 African American students and their Caucasian counterparts range from 41
points in 1996 to 35 points in 2003. African American students continue to produce lower than
average results. A possible explanation, as suggested by this study, is the contrast in cultural
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 24
norms and beliefs between African American male students and their mostly Caucasian female
teachers.
Tate (1994) disaggregated the data further in his study to show the effect of current
mathematics pedagogy on African American students’ thinking in Algebra. Across multiple
grade levels tested, African American students scored better on portions of the test measuring
factual knowledge and computational skills versus more advanced levels of mathematical
reasoning. African American students are becoming more proficient at low level basic
mathematics skills. However, basic computational skills are insufficient for true knowledge and
mastery of mathematics attained through the development of critical thinking and problem
solving ability.
Furthermore, Ladson-Billings (1997) reported that African American students are more
likely to be clustered in low performing mathematics classes. The researcher noted that as a
school’s African American enrollment population increased, the proportion of classes labeled as
high ability was reduced. The study concluded that African American students experience less
demanding mathematics programs and fewer opportunities to take gateway to college classes
such as Algebra and Calculus. Unlike other similar results found in the literature, Ladson-
Billings (1997) also noted that schools with high concentrations of African American students
have fewer teachers designated as highly qualified to teach mathematics.
The experience of Hispanic students largely resembles that of African American students
in mathematics. Paul (2005) studied the relationship between the enrollment of Hispanic students
in Algebra I and the enrollment to completion of other core college preparatory courses. The
findings indicate that the five percent of Hispanic students who had access to algebra in the
eighth grade represented the lowest ethnic group among the predominantly Hispanic school
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 25
population surveyed. Of the 85% Hispanic population, only 3% enrolled and completed college
preparatory courses. Paul (2005) suggested that this data further exemplified the lack of algebra
access for the majority of non-Asian minority students.
The Louis Harris Associates for the National Action Council for Minorities in Engineering
(NACME) surveyed public students and found that 51% of students surveyed indicated that they
would not take mathematics if it was not required (Walker & Senger, 2007). Sixty-one percent of
minority students indicated that they were planning to drop mathematics when the opportunity
became available. Only 25% of minorities could explain the importance of taking mathematics.
The literature clearly shows the importance of algebra as a gateway course to post-
secondary education and full economic participation. Access and equity are limited as outlined in
the review of the literature. The researchers’ findings related to mathematics achievement of
minority students show a common thread experienced by minorities. Unlike this commonality
revealed in the literature, there is a wide range of explanations underpinning this phenomenon
that needs to to be considered.
Possible minority barriers. The literature reviewed detail that is often overlooked in the
broad societal view of mathematics ideology as a whole. Although the discussion focuses on
minorities, Ladson-Billings (1997) does not fail to situate this discussion in the larger context of
society. Ladson-Billings (1997) proposed that there is a mathematically illiterate culture
constructed as a result of teachers with inadequate preparation, unimaginative approaches to
teaching, and poorly constructed curriculum. However, the researcher contended that there is an
underlying fear of mathematics that manifests itself in the instruction of mathematics. This fear
creates a society in which it is acceptable to be mathematically inept.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 26
From a broader societal context to a more narrowed focus, Ladson-Billings (1997)
attributes disparate achievement results between minorities and their white and Asian
counterparts to the narrow instructional practices of education, which favor one culture over
others. The study questions educators’ ability to understand the direct relationship between the
nature of culture and its profound impact on cognition.
This theme of limited cultural consideration in algebra instruction is a common thread
noted throughout the literature. Corey and Bower (2005) conducted a qualitative study in which
it was shown that teachers rarely take into consideration the cultural differences of algebra
students and how those differences impact the classroom environment. Features of African
American culture including orality, communalism, and movement are neither reinforced nor
represented in school mathematics (Ladson-Billings, 1997).
Tate (1994) offered more insight into this lack of cultural consideration by comparing the
dichotomous relationship between the objectivity of mathematics and the subjectivity of culture.
Tate (1994) stressed that the undergird of mathematics emphasizes neutrality and objective
statements. Thus, mathematics has often been viewed as a discipline free of any subjective
cultural consideration.
Cultural consideration includes mathematics instruction relevant to student experiences.
Culturally responsive instruction validates the way diverse students see the world and make
meaning of life experiences; researchers note that this is often omitted in algebra instruction.
Both Stanic (1997) and Tate (1994) argued that connecting mathematics to the lived realities of
minorities is essential to creating meaningful opportunities for students to construct
understanding.Too often there is a disconnect between the curriculum, assessments, and
instructions that minority students receive to what is central to their experiences and cultures.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 27
The literature consistently states that this is a major obstacle to providing an empowering
mathematics opportunity.
A lack of cultural consideration and the inclusion of relevant instruction may be attributed
to the cultural contrasts between teachers and minority students as suggested in the literature.
Corey and Bower (2005) stated that the mathematics classroom functions under a set of values
and expectations that are unlikely to be the same as those in the minority culture. Many teachers
are unaware of these differences and therefore, do not take them into consideration. The authors
suggested that while teachers do not intentionally hold cultural biases, they seem to accept that
their cultural norms and beliefs are the only appropriate ones for the classroom and teaching.
The literature also proposes that another barrier for minority students involves the
language demands of algebra. Impecoven-Lind and Foegen (2010) stated that as students
progress through the grades, the reading and language demands associated with mathematics
increases. Deficits in learning mathematics may be attributed to deficits in language skills.
Language plays an integral part in understanding and becoming proficient in mathematics.
Researchers Corey and Bower (2005) stated that in addition to the mathematics vocabulary, the
absence of everyday vernacular that minority students need for successful scaffolding, often
contribute to poor performance.
Teacher expectations are another key component to mathematics achievement of minority
students. Corey and Bower (2005) suggested that schools have created an environment that
makes it acceptable to lower expectations for minority students. This study revealed that 60% of
teachers believe that their African American male students will not attend college. The same
study also indicated that African American students were least likely to receive feedback when
answering a question incorrectly. Ladson-Billings (1997) suggested that there is a societal notion
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 28
that math ability is of a genetic disposition. Due to this misconception and their belief in the
intellectual inferiority of people of color, many teachers presume that minority students cannot
be expected to perform at high levels in math and thus, fail to present those students with
challenging and rigorous curriculum.
Matthews and Farmer (2008) suggested that other factors external to the school
environment impact math achievement. This study, in contrast to the other literature, maintained
that parents’ educational level is positively correlated with mathematics performance. The
researchers claim that parents directly contribute to mathematics achievement through their
ability or inability to help with homework. It was also suggested that parental involvement
makes children more likely to take challenging mathematics courses such as Algebra I at an early
point in their academic careers. However, the study did not clearly establish a connection
between the educational levels of various parental minority groups and student achievement.
Reform efforts. The literature reviewed suggested persistent barriers that impede Algebra
achievement for minority students. The literature goes onto discuss reform measures and
implications. Tate (1994) asserted that reform efforts must overcome Eurocentric precepts that
exclude minority students.The author suggested that all educators learn how students’ linguistic,
ethnic, and cultural backgrounds influence their learning of mathematics. As educators learn and
honor these cognitive patterns, instructional strategies will reflect this knowledge.
Walker and Senger (2007) support this view as evidenced by the recommendation made in
their study to fundamentally change secondary school mathematics curriculum and instruction to
include technology as a tool of engagement for minority students. The researchers stated that this
reform effort also serves the best economic interest of society in preparing a workforce to meet
21
st
century technological demands.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 29
This concept of current reform efforts in mathematics being centered on the economic
interest of the country raises questions. Tate (1994) questioned whether current reform efforts
can generate interests in instructional practices that go beyond those intended to benefit the
national interest. His study challenged the purpose of reform efforts to prepare minorities to
participate in the national economy or in its democracy.
In contrast to reform efforts aimed at mathematics instruction and curriculum, reform
measures suggested by Spielhagen (2006) target early placement of students in algebra. The
findings from the study suggested that algebra achievement of minority students was positively
effected by early access to algebra. Early access provided students with more exposure to algebra
and greater opportunities to take more math classes. The study revealed that minority students
had little to no advantage to being held back from algebra in the eighth grade.
Paul (2005) took a similar reform position in targeting algebra efforts before its standard
ninth grade designation. However, the study conducted by Paul (2005) suggested that the focus
of mathematics resources and initiatives should be in the early grades between kindergarten
through eighth grade. The researcher claimed that implementation of mathematics policy at an
early age can change the learning dynamics of mathematics for minority students. Construction
and implementation of mathematics policy largely rest at the district level. The superintendent
and mathematics instructional team serve as the instructional leaders.
Superintendent as Instructional Leader
In former years, it has been suggested that the principal task of schools, headed by the
superintendent, is to improve the quality of instruction provided for the students who are
enrolled. The superintendent of schools has as a major function of responsibility, the
improvement of instruction (Phillips, 1950). Past research has also noted that because the
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 30
superintendent, due to sheer lack of physical powers, is forced to delegate many of his duties to
assistants. It is only natural that he will delegate those that he is least qualified to perform,
among which, all too frequently, will be his responsibility for the direction of instruction. While
much of the work for improving instruction can and should be delegated to staff members, the
superintendent must be the vitalizing influence, which sets the staff forces in motion. Ineffective
exercise of this influence is considered to be a common superintendent flaw (Reavis, 1946).
These former declarations are reiterated in contemporary times by research, which has
examined the perceptions of the superintendent as a leader of instruction. Petersen (2001)
conducted a quantitative study in which the researcher evaluated the correlation between
principals’ and school board members’ views of the superintendent as an instructional leader.
The results from this correlation analysis revealed that there was a statistically significant
relationship between the superintendent’s instructional vision and factors of organizational
program improvement.
Petersen (2001) also noted that the climate and emphasis on the reform and restructuring of
the United Sates educational systems have placed an enormous amount of political pressure on
schools to demonstrate effective leadership at the district level. A critical indicator of that
leadership is the transformation of the core technology of curriculum and instruction.
Additional research on instructional district leadership has outlined characteristics and
skills for district leaders. Herman (1990) studied the following instructional leadership skills and
competencies for superintendents: allocation of instructional personnel, organization of the
instructional program, development of instructional personnel, and planning for the instructional
program. Findings from this study suggested superintendents must possess and model visionary
instructional leadership and build an organization using the highlighted leadership competencies.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 31
The qualitative research study conducted by Hsieh and Shen (1998) reinforced the concept
of visionary leadership. Through the use of three focus groups consisting of teachers, principals,
and superintendents, it was found that instructional vision is often de-emphasized at the district
level and managerial and political matters are emphasized. The superintendents interviewed in
this study tended to think that developing vision, building consensus, developing the skills and
talents of others, flexibility, and the ability to influence others are important skills for a good
educational leader. Principals and teachers determined that superintendents needed to have
knowledge of learning theory and instruction, in addition to knowledge of finance and
management. With promotion in the school system, school leaders shift their attention to non-
instructional matters. School leaders must become aware of the aspects of leadership, which are
necessary to lead the school without losing focus on instructional matters (Hsieh & Shen, 1998).
Brown and Hunter (1986) asserted that the superintendent must serve as the chief
executive officer, whose mission is to enhance the cognitive development of students. The
superintendent must keep the primary vision of the district at the forefront; this vision is
appropriated through high quality teacher. The superintendent must organize the district so that
instruction can be directly facilitated by his actions. Therefore, it is incumbent upon
superintendents to create a consciousness among all employees that schools exists primarily for
the enhancement of the cognitive/academic development of students, with all other purposes
being secondary to that pursuit.
The consensus from among the research reviewed is that the superintendent’s actions are
pivotal to whether and how instructional reforms reach classrooms. While drawing attention to
how districts mediate instructional practice, most of the research to date tends to be subject-
neutral (Burch & Spillane, 2005). Specifically, very little of the research considers how subject
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 32
matter acts as a context for district decision-making and action. Further, policy recommendations
for strengthening districts’ roles tend to be instructionally generic, assuming for example that
teacher staff development needs are the same regardless of the subject matter focus of the
reform. In other words, the view is what works for language arts will also work for mathematics
(Massell, 2000).
District Mathematics Instructional Practices
Price, Ball, and Luks (1995) conducted a case study examining district administrators and
mathematics reform measures. This study revealed the following findings regarding mathematics
practices at the district level: (1) Even though a wave of mathematics reform has entered into the
United States educational landscape, mathematics enjoys no such automatic attention or interest;
(2) Lower in priority than reading, mathematics instruction is often weakly supported; (3) With
less support, mathematics instruction is difficult to change; and (4) In many classrooms, the
curriculum and students' experiences with it are much the same as they were fifty years ago,
despite much rhetoric and concern.
The research shows that mathematics is usually less well supported than reading. This may
be attributed to the trends Price, Ball, and Luks (1995) noted about the work conducted by
district administrators: Mathematics was not a central area of interest or expertise for any of
them. It was not surprising that they did not accord substantial attention or resources to
mathematics. And yet, one could argue that mathematics reform is more in need of significant
support than is reading. This raises a fundamental paradox about the allocation of essential
resources for reform in mathematics: If people who are in positions of power are themselves not
oriented to the specific challenges of the mathematics reforms, they are less likely to make it a
high priority.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 33
Barbeau (1989) contended district leaders view mathematics as an established body of
rules and procedures and doing mathematics is manipulating numbers. Thus, reminding district
leaders of the structural features inherent in the mathematics reforms may be insufficient in
getting them to attend to these features with authenticity. Without principle-based understandings
of mathematics (most district leaders admitted weak understandings of mathematics), or tapping
the implicit knowledge that district leaders might have about mathematical principles, it is
unlikely that district leaders would have constructed understandings that reflected the structural
features of the reforms (Spillane, 2000).
Burch and Spillane (2005) studied trends in how district administrators responded to
district mandates to improve mathematics instruction and to hold schools accountable for
implementation of these instructional measures. In the districts studied, the majority of
administrators identified policies and programs – rather than learning activities – as driving their
district’s mathematics reforms. A much smaller percentage (15%) described a vision of
mathematics reform rooted in how students learn mathematics. The majority of these statements
focused on the need to build more articulation into math curriculum and the assumed dangers of
emphasizing higher order thinking before mastery of basic mathematics. On the subject of
mathematics, sixty percent of the administrators in the study articulated a different set of
instructional priorities, focused more on building teachers’ content knowledge and their
conceptual understanding of the material embedded in new mathematics curriculum.
District Mathematics Team Characteristics
The literature regarding characteristics of district level mathematics teams is limited.
However, characteristics of secondary mathematics teachers which often comprise district
mathematics teams are delineated through research.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 34
Secondary mathematics teachers rarely have the opportunity to reflect and collaborate with
colleagues. Stigler and Hiebert (1997) stated that high school mathematics teachers often work in
isolated silos, which provide limited opportunities for collaborating with their colleagues about
the mathematics that they teach. Structures for consistent ongoing communication do not exist in
the American high school (Grossman, Wineburg, & Woolworth, 2001).
The results of limited opportunities to collaborate may be reflected in the persistent
misunderstandings that secondary mathematics teachers have regarding ways that students learn.
The literature reports that many secondary math teachers show serious misunderstandings about
learning and researchers have expressed concern for deficient preparation in these areas (Tatto &
Senk, 2011).
The literature examined suggests that these misunderstandings manifest themselves in
multiple ways. Gerdes (1998) asserted that when teachers are not aware of how cultural
differences can yield different developments in mathematics; this can lead to a significant
problem for math learners. Quantitative research conducted shows that an additional factor of
content knowledge as measured by the number of courses a teacher has taken shows a positive
correlation between students learning of math at the secondary level (Monk, 1994). Kirtman
(2008) also claimed that in spite of recent reform efforts, little has changed in the implementation
of effective mathematics pedagogy in the classroom.
Professional development. The community of mathematics educators should be
considered a community of collaborative practice (Zaslavsky & Leikin, 2004). Zaslavsky and
Leikin (2004) claimed that these communities or collaborative practices are essential for
mathematics teachers to evaluate their professional growth. Teachers’ knowledge must develop
socially through communities of practice. Professional development routines must be established
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 35
in order to allow math educators to become learners who continuously reflect on their work and
make sense of their practices and experiences.
The necessity for consistent and strategic professional development opportunities is also
supported by Hiebert, Morris, and Glass (2003) who posited that it is unlikely for prospective
math teachers to acquire a thorough knowledge base in pre-service preparation to be effective. It
is essential for teachers to have opportunities to develop tools for learning over the full course of
their careers.
Corcoran, Fuhrman, and Belcher (2001) examined the role of the school district in
improving instruction through the vehicle of professional development. The findings
demonstrated that school districts pay little attention to research evidence when they select
reform measures and instructional strategies. The majority of district and school professional
development opportunities generally neglected the content knowledge of teachers. These
professional development sessions were rarely content specific and tended to focus on
operational matters and not curriculum and subject matter knowledge. Facilitators of the
professional development did not ascribe to the same district vision, but instead offered
subjective approaches to instructional improvement. The result was often a disjointed series of
workshops lacking coherence, relevance, and direction.
Arbaugh (2003) continued the exploration of professional development in the mathematics
community by studying the value and effectiveness of study groups. This empirical research
connected professional development with the development of pedagogy. Arbaugh (2003)
concluded that teachers benefitted from working with their peers and that this practice helped
them to reflect on their own teaching and build new pedagogical knowledge.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 36
Pedagogical content knowledge. Specialized content pedagogical knowledge is seen as a
requisite for effective mathematics instruction (Van Zoest, Stockero, & Taylor, 2011). This
qualitative study showed the importance of establishing sociomathematical norms in the
classroom. These are norms that are regular patterns of instruction that are specific to
mathematics, which can serve to improve math learning over time. It was revealed that the use of
these pedagogical norms may contribute to continued teacher learning and were shown to be
durable over time.
Effective instruction can be categorized by the varying forms of knowledge base possessed
by the instructor. Shulman (1987) contended that of the categories of knowledge (content
knowledge, curriculum knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, knowledge of the learners,
and knowledge of educational contexts), pedagogical content knowledge is of special interest.
Pedagogical content knowledge represents the needed blending of content knowledge and the
understanding of how particular topics and problems are best organized to increase student
comprehension.
Content knowledge. In addition to pedagogical knowledge in mathematics, the literature
stated that teachers must have a strong command of content knowledge (Tatto & Senk, 2011).
Tatto and Senk (2011) concluded that teachers may know facts and procedures but often have
relatively weak understandings of the conceptual basis for that knowledge and thus, have
difficulty clarifying mathematical ideas.
This research also discovered that content preparation as measured by the number of
courses a teacher has taken in the subject area they teach is positively related to how much
mathematics students learn at the secondary level (Tatto & Senk, 2011). This longitudinal study
also noted that this positive relationship diminishes over time. Kirtman (2008) conducted a
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 37
study that also found that once a teacher reaches a certain level of understanding of the subject
matter, then additional understandings contributed nothing to student achievement. This notion
supports the view that a strong grasp of one’s subject area is a necessary factor in effective
instruction, but it is alone not sufficient for effective teaching (Monk, 1994).
Student knowledge. Gerdes (1998) stated that it is important for mathematics teachers to
develop an awareness of mathematics as a universal activity in order to never underestimate the
wisdom of their students. Every student and every culture construct and develop mathematics in
their own way. When a teacher fails to understand how cultural differences can yield different
developments in mathematics, learners will be placed at a disadvantage. Gerdes (1998)
concluded that it is paramount for mathematics educators to attend to the varying cultures of
their students and use their awareness of the different cultures in their classrooms as a means of
enhancing their abilities to teach mathematics to a diverse student population.
Service-learning was suggested as a means of increasing mathematics educators’
awareness of cultural differences in their students. Kirtman (2008) discussed how service-
learning activities throughout one’s career can increase notions of social justice and multicultural
education for teachers. The study found that this opportunity not only increased teacher
awareness of multiculturalism but language needs as well.
Adler (1998) examined the impact of a more communicative and language-rich
mathematics classroom. It was found in this qualitative study that mathematics instruction, as a
traditional drill and practice approach, still dominates classroom practice. The notion that
mathematics understanding was made and not given was foreign to a majority of math teachers.
The study concluded that there is a necessity for an increased need to develop mathematical
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 38
English, validate student interpretation of concepts, and make language as a mathematics
resource more transparent.
Leadership skills. Petersen (1999) conducted a study of California instructionally focused
superintendents. District leaders articulated four essential leadership attributes: articulation of an
instructional vision, creation of an organizational structure that supports that vision, assessment
and evaluation of personnel and instructional programs, and organizational adaptation. Bresden
(1996) reinforced these concepts in a study that investigated superintendents’ description of
curriculum and instructional leadership. The following major roles for district leaders were
identified: instructional visionary, instructional supporter, instructional collaborator, and
instructional delegator.
These studies highlighted the need for district leadership to set goals and standards. The
research of Cudeiro (2005) reiterated this need with the assertion that superintendents and district
personnel must establish a district wide vision centered on student learning and explicitly tie
student performance goals to that vision. Superintendents must also establish the primacy of
school principals’ instructional role and implement standards tied to performance evaluation,
accordingly. The study also revealed that district personnel must engage in conversations with
principals regarding high expectations for all students. Petersen (2001) indicated the best
linkages for instructional improvement are forged through an exchange process in which the
superintendent and building administrators simultaneously work together. This joint
collaboration must be evaluated on an ongoing basis using criteria inclusive of student outcomes.
District Impact on Student Outcomes
Kirkpatrick (1998) contended that in order to judge the quality, efficiency, and
effectiveness of any instructional measure, an evaluation of bottom line results must be
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 39
conducted. Accordingly, consideration of the superintendent and district personnel’s
instructional effectiveness must include the impact on student outcomes. However, there are only
a handful of studies that have examined the role of the district superintendent on the academic
achievement of students (Petersen, 2001).
Recent research has begun to study the relationship between professional development
conducted by teacher educators and the impact on student learning. Guskey (2000) posited that
results have yielded detailed descriptions regarding the complexities of the relationship. Many
key factors within the school district’s sphere of influence impinge on any attempt to document
specific effects. These include administrators’ knowledge, school culture, teachers’ knowledge,
and state/federal policies. All these factors make the relationship between district level
performance and student outcomes, multi-dimensional.
Bidwell and Kasarda (1975) conducted a quantitative study of school districts in which
they examined the organizational structures of school districts and their impact on the median
reading and mathematics test scores of high school students. The findings demonstrated that
administrative utility was affected at a statistically significant level only by district size and
declined across districts as sized increased. The study also revealed the importance of a district’s
relative investment in its support of its teachers on aggregate student achievement. Bidwell and
Kasarda (1975) went on to suggest that district support staff may provide too little information to
teachers that is consistently used, tend not to work directly with students, and tend to center their
efforts primarily on only marginalized students.
The allocation of instructional resources and student achievement accounts was examined
through the research of O'Connell-Smith (2004).The purpose of the study was to detail the
relationship between eighth grade reading and mathematics achievement scores and district
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 40
spending to determine how to predict higher levels of student achievement. In addition to
discovering that district level variables associated with socio-economic status were strongly
associated with students’ mean achievement, the study revealed that decrease spending for
instructional support personnel (not inclusive of teachers) is associated with an increase in
student achievement. The researchers suggested that this may be due, in part, to the assignment
of instructional personnel to non-instruction related tasks.
District Accountability
Researchers Hentschke and Wohlstetter (2004) defined accountability as having four key
characteristics. There is a contractual relationship between a director and a provider. The
director-provider relationship exists on multiple levels in education. These levels include state,
district, school, teacher, and student. For the purposes of this accountability examination, the
focus will be on the school district as director and the school site as the provider. The school
district has the power to reward, punish, or replace personnel at the school site. Another defining
mark is that the school district is held responsible for increasing the performance of all
subgroups in all content areas. The school’s performance is assessed on whether or not these
annual goals are met. The school district then has the right to impose consequences if these
goals are or are not met.
The school’s accountability can be characterized by the degree to which the success of the
school can be measured in student achievement data namely the California Standardized Test.
This is characteristic of bureaucratic accountability that is outcome based (Goldberg & Morrison,
2003). In this accountability dilemma, the schools are accountable to the school district and both
state and federal government and are compelled to participate in testing rules and proficiency
regulations governing their respective student populations.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 41
Alongside bureaucratic accountability, community accountability is also embedded in this
identified problem of the algebra underperformance of minorities. Goldberg and Morrison (2003)
suggested that community accountability creates an open flow of information between the
schools and the communities. This transparency of information has recently been at the
community forefront. In community accountability, the schools in the district are accountable to
the parents of the community to provide a quality education for students. In turn, parents and
community partnerships have become accountable to the schools for garnering support and
providing resources to help reach established goals.
Masked by bureaucratic and community accountability is the concept of professional
accountability for the underperformance of minorities in algebra. Professional accountability is
the set of unwritten rules and knowledge regarding how teachers at the school sites build
collegiality and provide high quality instruction for all students. The researcher Burke (2004)
described this accountability as faculty participation. Teachers are accountable to each other and
professional teaching organizations for using sound pedagogical practices to increase student
achievement. Consequences are reinforced informally once teachers gain permanent status (after
two years of satisfactory performance) and tenure is no longer in jeopardy. These consequences
range from preferential class scheduling and departmental chair consideration to peer exclusion
when selecting professional learning communities.
The literature reviewed in this study on algebra instruction for minority students,
superintendents as instructional leaders, district level mathematics instructional practices,
mathematics district team characteristics, district impact on student outcomes, and district
accountability will serve to establish a conceptual framework underlying this current study’s
research methods.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 42
Chapter 3: Methodology
This study sought to determine the strategies used by district superintendents and
mathematics instructional team when making decisions about algebra curriculum and instruction.
The study also sought to determine the impact of these strategies on minority student outcomes
in algebra. This chapter provides the current study’s research questions and details the research
methods, sample and population, instrumentation as it relates to the research questions, data
collection processes, and data analysis procedures employed in the study.
Research Questions
This study addresses the following research questions:
Research Question 1: What district level leadership strategies are employed in districts
that have realized in an increase in minority student performance in algebra?
Research Question 2: How do district superintendents select the personnel that influence
successful algebra programs?
Research Question 3: In what ways do superintendents and mathematics instructional
teams influence algebra curriculum and instruction in these successful algebra programs?
Research Question 4: What is the relationship between the following:
a) Personnel selection criteria and minority student outcomes in algebra?
b) Curriculum and instruction influence and minority student outcomes in algebra?
Design
This study used a mixed methods approach to determine the impact of strategies utilized
by district personnel on student outcomes in algebra. The term mixed methods refers to the use
of both quantitative and qualitative data when conducting a research study (Patton, 2002).
Interviews with superintendents and district mathematics specialists provided qualitative data on
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 43
school districts’ mathematics team development and algebra curricular and instructional decision
making processes. Standardized open interviews combined with the interview guide approach
were used to focus on how districts’ mathematics instructional plans are constructed and how
they are implemented. Quantitative data associated with the relationship between district
mathematics decision making measures, revealed through quantitative analysis, and student
outcomes in algebra was then collected through surveys. Algebra student outcome data was
collected from the California Department of Education. This information was used to determine
the correlation between algebra student outcomes as measured by standardized test scores and
mathematics decision making criteria at the district level.
Chapter Organization
Chapter three is divided into four sections. The first section will describe the sample used
and the criteria for sample selection. The population from which the sample was drawn will also
be discussed. Section two describes the instrumentation and conceptual framework used in this
study. The third section provides a description of the procedures and methods used to collect the
data used for analysis. The fourth section, organized by the research questions of this study,
describes the methods used to analyze the data.
Sample and Population
For the qualitative method of study, purposeful sampling was used to focus more in
depth on small samples. Deviant case sampling and intensity sampling were combined to learn
about district characteristics that may produce the phenomenon of interest, namely a sustained
increase in minority student outcomes in algebra. The unit of analysis for this study was urban
school districts.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 44
Population. This study was conducted in the state of California across multiple counties in
all regions of the state. The selected school districts were chosen based on the following criteria:
a) unified or secondary school districts, b) student populations of 15,000 or more students,
c) total percentage of African-American and Latino students comprised at least 50% of the
district’s overall student population, and d) Latino and African American student groups met
proficiency targets in mathematics for two consecutive years as measured by the adequate yearly
progress (AYP) and indicated in the annual mearsureable objectives (AMOs).
Qualitative sample. A school district located in Southern California served as the unit of
qualitative analysis. This school district served as the deviant case study upon which other
districts will be compared during the quantitative analysis segment. Based on Ed-data, on
demographics and performance of California’s K-12 schools (CDE, 2011), the unified school
district served 22,000 students, 63.6% are minority students, and both Latino and African-
American students met their AMO targets in the past consecutive years. The unified school
district is comprised of three high schools, four middle schools, two K-8 schools, and twelve
elementary schools.
Quantitative sample. Sixty-nine districts in California meet the following criteria:
a) unified or secondary school districts, b) student populations of 15,000 or more students, and c)
the total percentage of African-American and Latino students comprised at least 50% of the
overall district student population. These districts received questionnaires for both the
superintendent and the mathematics instructional team. Thirty-nine districts responded to both
questionnaires and comprise the sample size for the quantitative analysis.

IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 45
Instrumentation
The qualitative portion of this research study used the qualitative technique of interviews
to determine information relevant to the first three research questions:
1. What district level leadership strategies are employed in districts that have
realized in an increase in minority student performance in algebra?
2. How do superintendents select the personnel that influence successful algebra
programs?
3. In what ways do superintendents and mathematics instructional teams
influence algebra curriculum and instruction?
Patton (2002) contends that interviews are used to capture previous behaviors not readily
noticeable through observation.
The quantitative portion of the research study used a survey questionnaire to determine
information relevant to the fourth research question:
4. What is the relationship between the following:
a) Personnel selection criteria and minority student outcomes in algebra?
b) Curriculum and instruction influence and minority student outcomes in
algebra?
Interview protocol. Interview protocols were used to make sure the necessary questions
were aligned to the research questions examined in the study. The questions in the protocols
were constructed based on the conceptual frameworks of both Shulman (1987), regarding
characteristics of effective educators, and Hentschke and Wohlstetter (2004) on accountability
measures. The use of the protocols aided in keeping the interviews structured and focused. One
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 46
protocol was designed explicitly for the district superintendent ( see Appendix A). An additional
protocol is designed for mathematics district personnel (see Appendix B).
Survey questionnaire. To determine the degree of correlation between the identified
successful district mathematics practices (as revealed in the interviews) and minority student
outcome measures in algebra in other districts, survey questionnaires with 5-point Likert scales
were used. The questions were constructed based on characteristics revealed during the district
interviews. An answer of one (1) means that the participant strongly disagrees with the
statement. Conversely, an answer of five (5) means that the participant strongly agrees with the
statement. The superintendent questionnaire contained 13 questions subdivided into 3 categories.
The one for the mathematics coordinator contained 14 questions, subdivided into 3 categories
(see Appendices C and D, respectively).
Data Collection
In the spring and summer of 2012, publicly available data on the California Department of
Education’s DataQuest database were reviewed to determine which urban school districts were
showing gains over the past three years for minority students on the Algebra CST. Interviews
were conducted within two school districts with the superintendents and mathematics personnel.
The interviewees were contacted by email and phone and were given an overview of the study
and their potential roles. See Appendix E for the letter of introduction. The superintendents and
district mathematics personnel were assured of their confidentiality in the study.
Upon receiving consent to interview these subjects, interviews were scheduled and
conducted using the interview protocols discussed in the Instrumentation section above. The
interviews were tape recorded with each subject’s consent and lasted approximately 45 minutes.
Field notes were used to collect data in addition to the recordings.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 47
Quantitative data were collected from field tested survey questionnaires included in
Appendices C and D. Additional data, Algebra CST scores for California school districts, were
collected from the California Department of Education’s database
Data Analysis
The qualitative data used in this research study were analyzed using Creswell’s (2009) data
analysis stages. These steps include: (a) organize and prepare data for analysis by compiling field
notes and completing transcription of recordings, (b) read data to determine tone, (c) code data
into discernable chunks, (d) generate categories and themes and determine representations for
these themes, and (e) interpret the data.
Using this protocol, the interviews from the two districts were transcribed and coded to
find common themes and trends. Comparison between the data allowed the researcher to find
commonalities of strategies used between the two districts. The purpose of conducting and
collecting data from these interviews was to establish baseline criteria for the superintendent and
mathematics personnel questionnaires used in the quantitative portion of the study.
The quantitative data collected were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS) software. The inferential statistic called the Pearson moment correlation was
used to determine if there were significant relationships between district variables collected in
the survey and student outcome measures. Linear regression models were then used to construct
linear equations that can be used to predict possible future student outcomes in algebra based on
district characteristics.
Summary
This chapter outlined the methodology used to explore the impact of strategies used by the
superintendent and mathematics instructional team on minority student outcomes in algebra.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 48
Through a mixed methods approach, qualitative data were collected through interviews from
school districts demonstrating sustained success in improving algebra proficiency for minority
students. This information was then used to determine the degree to which characteristics
inherent in successful districts manifest themselves in other urban school districts in California.
Quantitative data collected were used to establish district predictors of algebra success for
minority students. The findings from the analysis of data will be presented next, in chapter four.

IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 49
Chapter 4: Findings
The purpose of this study was to examine district level practices and district level
characteristics that affect minority student outcomes in algebra, with a focus on the roles of
superintendent and mathematics coordinators as they relate to student achievement. In addition,
the research explored correlations, in the form of knowledge of content, pedagogy, and
curriculum that may correspond to student achievement in algebra. The results of this study may
contribute to the growing body of knowledge on the characteristics and influence of district
leadership on student outcome measures in algebra. The findings from this study identified
themes that emerged from the data, including relevant correlations between district practices and
standardized testing outcomes.
Overview
Teppo (1998) contends, “mathematics education research supports a variety of
methodological perspectives and goals of inquiry, which makes communication across
perspectives difficult and the need for a dialogue imperative. Mathematical education is complex
and involves all levels of district involvement. Understanding this complexity requires multiple
perspectives and multiple forms of data analysis. Therefore, this study employed a mixed method
design in order to collect data that were rich, complementary, and descriptive considering the
relationship between deviant cases and the normative population. Johnson, Onwuegbuzie, and
Turner (2007) define mixed methods research as the type of research in which a researcher
combines elements of qualitative and quantitative research approaches for the broad purposes of
breadth and depth of understanding and corroboration. Therefore, the study was designed by
collecting data in two formats: qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative data collected through
interviewing personnel in one school district representing the deviant outlier is presented first.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 50
An analysis of quantitative data collected through a series of surveys collected from 39 school
districts is then detailed. The qualitative and quantitative data collected from these two methods
were analyzed separately. The decisions that directed this study, and the resulting data, were only
useful if they attempt to understand complex phenomena (Creswell, 2009). Accordingly, the
results revealed from the evaluation of the research questions, which directed this study are
summarized as follows.
Qualitative Findings
Research Question One
What district level leadership strategies are employed in districts that have realized an
increase in minority student performance in algebra?
There were multiple themes that surfaced from the data collected through interviews with
the district superintendent and the mathematics coordinator. Common themes include a focus on
algebra through all grade levels, vertical articulation among grade levels, conceptual
development of algebra, and the use of formative assessments. The commonalties between the
responses from the superintendents and math coordinators are organized and presented in Table
1.

IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 51
Table 1
District Algebra Strategies
Superintendent’s Reponses Mathematics Coordinator’s Reponses
Algebra focus K-12
Ongoing Data Analysis
Formative Assessments
Vertical Articulation
Conceptual Knowledge Development
Benchmarking of Other Districts
Formative Assessment Analysis
Vertical Articulation K-12
Conceptual and Procedural Knowledge
Development
Algebra Systemic Focus
Subgroup Data Analysis

Algebra focus. A common theme that resonated through the interviews was that of a
consistent focus on algebra not only reserved for the ninth grade, when algebra is generally
introduced, but throughout all grade levels from kindergarten through twelve. This was revealed
through comments from the superintendent such as:

In order to focus on algebra in the district, this must be the focus in mathematics for the
preceding grade levels as well as those that follow algebra. Foundational skills must be
developed that support algebra before the students actually take algebra. Therefore, there
is a common understanding throughout the district that all teachers are teachers of algebra
and that all math lessons provide an opportunity for algebraic development. There is a
general understanding that algebra is a district-wide focus and not solely the
responsibility of teachers in the ninth grade, but a collective effort of all teachers and
administrators.
This consistent focus includes annual content training for teachers in all grade levels
around key algebraic concepts such as relationships, structure, and solving equations. These
professional development sessions focus on content development and not necessarily pedagogy.
Teachers in the district routinely used specific language specific to the discipline of algebra
throughout classroom instruction in all grade levels. Teachers make explicit connections between
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 52
operations used in daily lessons and implication for algebraic understanding at future grade
levels.
Vertical articulation. Another theme that echoed from all the interviews was that of
vertical articulation between grade levels. Schools belong to certain clusters based on the feeding
patterns of the schools. The teachers within these clusters meet routinely to discuss how to
highlight the algebraic concepts presented in each lesson. Teachers across grade levels look at
algebraic progressions that advance in sophistication throughout the grade levels. The teachers
explore common thinking skills, algebraic concepts, and algebraic procedures. The following
comment from the mathematics specialist was made in response to vertical articulation:

Teachers meet and work in groups across grade levels. We allow elementary, middle
school, and high school teachers to come together and compare standards and learning
objectives. Teachers are able to note the algebraic commonalities among the grade levels
that can be highlighted in instruction. Teachers also use this time to determine what
are the key or power standards that are essential for proficiency in the next grade level.

Teachers design lessons in these clusters and make use of these professional learning
communities to improve their understanding of algebra.
Conceptual development. There was a reoccurring theme expressed in the interviews
regarding the emphasis on conceptual development. Conceptual development is often
deemphasized in algebra curriculum and instruction. Procedural application is introduced
alongside conceptual understanding of the topics being presented. Teachers encourage students
to make connections between the seemingly disparate topics presented in each unit. Teachers
make use of opportunities to have students construct viable arguments and critique the reasoning
of others regarding key concepts in algebra. The following point from the mathematics specialist
was made:
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 53
Algebraic inquiry is at the heart of classroom discussions. Teachers ask many open-ended
questions that contribute to concept formation and understanding. How is this relevant to
the real world? How does this connect to the concept discussed before? Where are we
going with this concept? What structures and patterns allow for predictions? Questions
like these allow for students’ construction of understanding. Our classrooms focus more
on discussions and less on the completion of a lot of problems on a worksheet that look
exactly alike.

A consistent focus on multiple knowledge domains outside of procedural knowledge is apparent.

Formative assessment. District personnel including teachers and administrators make use
of ongoing formative assessments. These formative assessments include district created periodic
assessments as well as grade level created assessments. These assessments are crafted using the
state standards and desirable benchmarks that align with the California Standardized Testing
procedures. There is an emphasis on algebraic operations and functions placed upon these
common assessments. Schools routinely review this data to determine individualized support for
particular students.
What was not common amongst the data collected from the superintendent and
mathematics coordinator was the use of benchmarking strategies offered by the superintendent.
The superintendent regularly analyzes algebra data from high performing districts across the
country to determine what districts may serve as algebra benchmarks to learn about instructional
and curricular strategies that may be adopted and used in his district. The superintendent
constantly looks for innovative measures to negotiate the constantly changing dynamics of the
student population served by the district, to be more responsive to students’ needs regarding
algebra.
Research Question Two
How do superintendents select the personnel that influence successful algebra programs?
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 54
The following themes emerged as a result of the interview: content knowledge, teaching
experience, leadership experience, and instructional knowledge. The figure that follows captures
the superintendent’s quantification of the importance of each component.
50
20
20
10
Content Knowledge
Instructional Knowledge
Teaching Experience
Administrative Experience

Figure 1. Mathematics personnel characteristics (percent of importance).
Content knowledge. The district superintendent makes determinations about district
mathematics personnel in conjunction with the deputy superintendent who oversees instruction
and curriculum. There are multiple criteria used to determine personnel but a central criterion is
that of content knowledge. Prospective personnel who work at the district level must have either
a bachelor’s, master’s, or doctoral degree in the field of mathematics. The following statement
made by the superintendent was collected regarding content knowledge.

It is imperative that mathematics coordinators at the district level have an understanding
of the content. In order to lead teachers in the area of mathematics, the specialist or
coordinator must understand the subject matter inside and out. It is necessary to have a
university degree in the field of mathematics of a bachelor’s or higher. This is evidence
that the candidate has spent time understanding the intricacies and the nature of
mathematics. Without this foundation, I’m not sure what foundational understanding
there may be.

The content serves as the basis for which other skills and/or knowledge types are mediated. This
was the first point raised by the superintendent in determining qualified mathematics personnel.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 55
The superintendent also stated that it would be ideal to hire candidates who continue to
participate in professional development opportunities not only related to instruction, but also
content knowledge as well.
Teaching experience. It was stated that teaching experience was also a necessary quality
for mathematics coordinators or specialist. Mathematics leaders would need to have taught not
necessarily for an established quantifiable amount of years, but over a range of time, have gained
varied experiences. Preference would be given to teachers who taught secondary mathematics as
oppose to elementary mathematics. A combination of both would be ideal. The rationale for a
need for secondary teaching experience points to the understanding of advanced mathematics
content including algebra and beyond.
Administrative experience. In addition to teaching experience, mathematics coordinators
need to have administrative experience. This can be demonstrated in a variety of ways including
work as a school site administrator or out of classroom experiences such as instructional coach or
coordinator. The prospective personnel would also need to have a California Administrative
Credential authorizing work as an administrator. The superintendent suggested that though this is
an important qualification there are other skills that are coveted and that successful work as a
district level administrator in mathematics may be more dependent upon other skill sets outside
of administrative experience.
Instructional knowledge. Due diligence is also given to the instructional and curricular
knowledge of district personnel and making decisions about staffing. This may be evident
through the attainment of advanced degrees in education, but often manifest itself through
interview protocols and responses to written prompts offered in the interview process. The
superintendent provided the following insight:
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 56
A lot of times when we think of strong mathematics coordinators, we overlook skills
beyond their ability to understand the math content. It is necessary for a specialist to not
only have strong command of the content, but also to know how to make it
understandable to others through instruction and curriculum design and how to work
effectively as a teacher educator making district mathematics policies comprehensible to
school site personnel. This also includes knowledge of adult learning theory and how to
construct professional development sessions that are useful and will lead to eventual
transfer to classroom practice.

It was reiterated throughout the conversation that the district mathematics coordinator
possessed a comprehensive and integrated skill set beyond content knowledge. The ability to
design meaningful learning experiences for teachers and to determine viable curriculum
standards is essential to the work of district mathematics coordinators or specialist.
Research Question Three
In what ways do superintendents and mathematics instructional teams influence algebra
curriculum and instruction?
The following themes emerged in the data in relation to research question three:
professional development practices including teacher accountability in implementation, the role
of mathematics coaches, and grade level planning time.
Professional development. It was revealed through the interview that the district
personnel incorporate systemic professional development strategies. Professional development
topics are chosen in a purposeful manner. Student data are examined to determine student
deficits for all subgroups. Grade level teams, in conjunction with mathematics coaches and the
mathematics specialist, make determination about what may be contributing to performance
deficits. These possible causes are examined in relation to the particular needs of various
subgroups, including unique needs for African-American and Latino populations.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 57
Once possible causes are validated through the collection of more data, professional
development is determined. This professional development is not wholesale in nature, but is
unique to the needs of individual school sites regarding algebra instruction and curriculum. The
professional development sessions generally span over a few days and are always connected to
other district initiatives. Opportunities for teachers and administrators to learn new instructional
practices are provided throughout the professional development workshops.
Teams of coaches, administrators, and district personnel are then responsible for
monitoring the transfer of that which is learned in the professional development sessions to
classroom practice. Teachers are aware that there will be routine observations for the collection
of data on classroom implementation of the algebra professional development. Teachers are held
accountable for the implementation of the strategies through informal conversations with
mathematics coaches and formal evaluative conversations with administrators. Future
professional development sessions are created based on the analysis of the collected data from
classroom observations in order to work with specific teachers around their individual needs with
algebra instruction.
Mathematics coaches. Mathematics coaches are used to work with teachers primarily in
the elementary and middle schools to support teachers’ understanding of algebra content and the
necessary pedagogy used to support inquiry-based models of teaching. The mathematics coaches
are all secondary teachers who work part time as coaches and teach at the high school level the
other part of the time. The coaches work solely with the teachers by modeling math lessons to
show algebraic connections and to write lesson plans together. It was suggested that a culture of
trust exists between the coaches and the teachers. The teachers understand that the mathematics
coaches are not their administrators and do not serve in any type of evaluative capacity.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 58
Grade level planning. Time is provided during the instructional day for teachers to meet
together to discuss (1) algebra lessons, (2) individual students while paying attention to
subgroups, and (3) content knowledge development. These grade level meetings happen in an
informal fashion at the high school level during teachers’ designated conference periods. More
formal meetings occur during the banked time allotted on a weekly basis. For elementary and
middle school teachers, this grade level planning happens solely during the afterschool time
provided during banked days. The current infrastructure does not support collegial planning
outside of this time allocated by the district.
Discussion
The data revealed through this qualitative analysis support commonly held beliefs in the
literature regarding the characteristics of an effective teacher. When defining teacher
effectiveness, the concept of a metacognitive and reflective teacher is a constant component
throughout the literature. Guskey (2000) suggested that education is a dynamic professional field
with a continually expanding knowledge base. To keep abreast of this new knowledge, educators
must be continuous learners who analyze the effectiveness of what they do. Guskey (2000) goes
on to state that teachers must reflect on their current practices and explore new opportunities for
professional growth. This notion of effective teachers can be extrapolated to include teaching of
teachers, which occurs at the district level.
The district examined in this study, has aligned itself with this belief of ongoing reflection
and growth. Examples include: (a) teachers at all levels receive ongoing professional
development targeted at algebraic content development, (b) continuous reflection on practice
through the use formative assessment data, and (c) collegial coaching by mathematics coaches.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 59
Specialized content pedagogical knowledge is seen as a requisite for effective mathematics
instruction in this district. It was determined that mathematics coordinators must possess
instructional and curricular knowledge in addition to content knowledge evident through
collegiate preparation. Schulman (1987) along with Darling-Hammond (1999) support this
criterion of effective instruction. Both make strong claims through their research that subject
matter knowledge must be augmented with knowledge of how to teach the subject to various
kinds of students.
The qualitative data revealed through the analysis of this deviant case, which demonstrated
remarkable growth in algebra for minority students over a period of time, was then used to make
comparisons with other districts throughout California. The critical points highlighted through
the interviews of the superintendent and mathematics coordinator became the focus for the
quantitative analysis portion of this research study. The data, which were aggregated to
determine the extent of correlation between the targeted variables are presented in the following
sections.
Quantitative Findings
Research Question Four
What is the relationship between the following:
a) Personnel selection criteria and minority student outcomes in algebra?
b) Curriculum and instruction influence and minority student outcomes in
algebra?
A census sample comprised of California superintendents and district mathematics
coordinators was utilized to evaluate research question four. Questionnaires for both
superintendents and mathematics coordinators were sent to districts (N = 69), which met the
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 60
following criteria: a) unified or secondary school district, b) student population of 15,000 or
more students, and c) the total percentage of African-American and Latino students comprise at
least 50% of the total district student population. These questionnaires were sent the first week in
August of 2012. In order to receive a higher response rate, a second mailing was distributed in
October of 2012. The total response rate of districts responding to both superintendent and
mathematics coordinator questionnaires was 68% (N =47). However, the analysis was
conducted on only 39 questionnaires as six of the returned questionnaires were from districts
whose total population decreased by September 2012 and therefore, no longer met all the
specified criteria. Two other returned questionnaires were missing data and were not viable for
analysis.
Figure 2 visually represents the number of returned questionnaires for the 39 usable
questionnaires by region – southern, central, and northern California. The response rate provides
additional information on the sample, therefore, “statistical inferences extend only to individuals
who returned completed surveys”(Huck, 2004).

6
10
23
Northern CA
Central CA
Southern CA

Figure 2. Number of returned questionnaires by California state region.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 61
In order to increase generalizability (Huck, 2004), the researcher checked for non-
response bias. All of the questionnaires were dated with arrival dates and the dependent variables
were compared using a one way ANOVA. No significant differences were detected for
coordinator content knowledge (F = 3.2, p = .05) or for district professional development (F =
4.3, p = .05). However, there was significant difference (F = 1.07, p = .05) for curricular and
pedagogical knowledge. According to Creswell (2009), it is necessary to check selected items in
order to determine if the average responses differ. In this manner, response bias can be
monitored.
This section describes and examines the data collected from the questionnaire. In order to
determine if mathematics coordinators’ content knowledge, curriculum and pedagogy
knowledge, and professional development were related to minority student achievement in
algebra, descriptive statistics, and inferential statistics were used. Descriptive statistics, in the
form of means and frequencies, were computed for the quantitative questions on the
questionnaire in order to form an overview and render an impression of the data. Table 2
displays the frequencies of ongoing content knowledge development of mathematics
coordinators. Respondents reported the number of times they participated in formal algebra
content knowledge preparation after receiving their graduate degree.

IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 62
Table 2
Percentage of Algebra Content Knowledge Preparation (Past Two Years)
Content Zero 1-3 times 4-6 times > 6 times
Linear Equations and Inequalities 55 23 15 7
Equality of Add/Sub/Mult/Div 79 7 14 0
Identification of Patterns 80 10 9 1
Quadratic Functions 42 21 30 7
Polynomials and Rational Expressions 52 15 29 4

“Common sense dictates that teachers must know the mathematic content they teach…”
(National Mathematics Advisory Panel, 2008). Proxies of teacher knowledge are sometimes
defined by number of courses taken in college or through professional development activities.
Therefore, it is appropriate to examine not only the professional development of teachers post-
college but also through college. The data related to these factors are presented in Table 3.
Table 3
Math Course Work in College as Measured by Total Number of Credits Taken
Zero 1-6 6-10 > 10 Math Degree
(BS/MS/PhD)
Percentage of Respondents 6 27 45 12 10

Two other variables evaluated for the extent to which they correlate with student outcome
measures in algebra were mathematics teaching experience and administrative experience. The
data demonstrating the degree of correlation between the above-referenced variables are displayed
in Table 4.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 63

Table 4
Teaching and Administrative Experience
Experience 0 years < 2 years 3 to 6 years 6 to10 years > 10 years
K-6 Teachers 11% 1% 7% 54% 27%
7-12 Teachers 47% 5% 10% 17% 21%
Administrator 2% 11% 13% 49% 25%

Table 5 reports on data related to knowledge of curriculum and to instruction and
pedagogy of teaching. Knowledge of curriculum as well as of instruction and pedagogy in
teaching, as measured by the amount of advanced coursework targeted at these concepts, have
been revealed to correlate with student outcome measures in algebra.
Table 5
Knowledge of Curriculum, Instruction, and Teacher Education as Measured by Number of
College Credits
Zero 1-6 7-10 > 10 Advanced Education Degree
(M.Ed./Ed.D/Ph.D.)
Percentage of Respondents 5 9 29 45 12

The following themes have been highlighted from the descriptive data collected and
presented in Tables two through five.
 A majority of math coordinators have not received formal content training in the past two
years in any algebra content standard strands.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 64
 Quadratic functions is the algebraic strand most emphasized in formal training in the past
two years.
 Ten percent of mathematics coordinators have mathematics degrees.
 Of the total, 43% of mathematics coordinators have less than 10 collegiate mathematics
credits.
 Of the total, 81% of mathematics coordinators have six or more years of teaching
experience at the elementary level.
 Of the total, 47% of mathematics coordinators have no teaching experience at the
secondary level.
 Of the total, 74% of mathematics coordinators have six or more years of administrative
experience.
 Of the total, 12% of mathematics coordinators have advanced degrees in education.
Data collected from district superintendents reflecting the degree to which algebra
practices implemented in a successful school district are implemented in their respective districts
were aggregated. Figure 3 through Figure 9 are composite data from 39 returned questionaires.
Each figure reports on the number of returned questionnaires showing the degree of agreement
on the various themes (SD – Strongly Disagree; D – Disagree; NS – Not Sure; A – Agree; SA –
Strongly Agree).

IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 65
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
S D
D
N S
A
S A
N =39

Figure 3. Consistent focus on algebra training for K-9 teachers.

0 5 10 15 20 25
S D
D
N S
A
S A
N = 39

Figure 4. Vertical articulation regarding algebra occurs across grade levels.

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
S D
D
N S
S
S A
N = 39

Figure 5. Conceptual algebraic knowledge is targeted.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 66
0 5 10 15 20 25
S D
D
N S
A
S A
N = 39

Figure 6. Formative assessments are used to guide algebra instruction.

0 5 10 15 20 25
S D
D
N S
A
S A
N = 39

Figure 7. Mathematics specialists have mathematics degrees.

0 5 10 15 20 25 30
S D
D
N S
A
S A
N = 39

Figure 8. Mathematics coaches are utilized across all grade levels.

IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 67
0 5 10 15 20 25
S D
D
N S
A
S A
N = 39

Figure 9. Professional development in algebra is systemic.
The following themes have been highlighted from the descriptive data collected and
presented in Figure 3 through Figure 9.
 A majority of school districts (27 out of 39) disagree with the claim that there is a
consistent focus on algebra training for K-9 teachers.
 A majority of school districts (22 out of 39) disagree with the claim that there is vertical
articulation among the grade levels.
 Less than half of the school districts disagree with the claim that there is an emphasis on
conceptual knowledge development in algebra.
 The majority of school districts (22 out of 39) agree with the claim that formative
assessments are used to guide instruction.
 The majority of school districts (21 out of 39) disagree with the claim that mathematics
specialist have mathematics degrees.
 A significant majority of schools (26 out of 39) disagree with the claim that mathematics
coaches are utilized across grade levels.
 A slight majority of schools (22 out of 39) disagree with the claim that algebra
professional development is systemic.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 68
In addition to the descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, in the form of bivariate
correlation coefficients, were calculated to determine the degree to which variations in minority
student outcome measures in algebra can be explained by characteristics of district personnel.
The Pearson Product-Moment correlation coefficients were computed to measure and to study
the degree of correlation among various combinations of these variables (Gail, Gail, & Borg,
2007). The independent variables are called predictors (i.e. teaching experience, administrative
experience, content knowledge, and knowledge of curriculum/instruction) and the dependent
variable (minority student achievement in algebra on the California Standardized Test in 2011-
12) is the criterion.
Table 6
Correlations Among District Personnel and CST Outcomes
Characteristics of District Math Personnel Correlation to CST Minority % Proficient
and Advanced
Ongoing Algebra Prof Development r = 0.186 p = 0.02
Content Knowledge r = 0.253 p = 0.03
Curriculum/Instruction Knowledge r = -0.175 p = 0.02
Administrative Experience r = -0.033 p = 0.06

Content knowledge and minority student outcome measures in algebra represent the
strongest of the variables compared. The relationship between the two factors is not strong as the
correlation coefficient value of r = 0.253 represents. The p value of 0.03 suggests that the
correlation is significant between the variables. Additional correlation analysis follows in table 7.

IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 69
Table 7
Correlations Among District Practices and CST Outcomes
District Algebraic Practices Correlation to CST Minority % Prof/Adv
Consistent Algebraic Focus K-9 r = -0.119 p = 0.01
Grade Level Vertical Articulation r = 0.029 p = 0.06
Conceptual Knowledge Target r = 0.218 p = 0.02
Use of Math Coaches r = -0.109 p = 0.05
Formative Assessments r = 0.149 p = 0.04
Systemic Professional Development r = 0.088 p = 0.02

The correlation coefficients show no strong correlation between the tested variables and
the student outcome measure of algebra proficiency. The strongest correlation represented in
Table 7 is that between conceptual knowledge and CST outcomes with a correlation coefficient of
r = .218, which is statistically significant as determined by p = .02.
Discussion
The quantitative analysis portion of this research revealed wide variance between district
practices across California in relation to what the literature regard as characteristics of an
effective teacher. The overwhelming majority of mathematics coordinators and/or specialists
have not received any formal content training in algebra in the past two years. For example, 42%
reported that they have not received training regarding quadratic functions, 80% in identification
of patterns, and 52% in polynomial functions. The majority of training received perhaps is
comprised of policy familiarity and infrastructure creation supporting schools. There may be an
assumption that district personnel in these positions are knowledgeable about the content and are
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 70
aware of innovative algebraic applications that correspond to an ever changing student
population.
The research on mathematics instruction is replete with studies that suggest the
importance of content knowledge as a critical component of effective instruction. Of particular
interest in the data collected reflective of the content knowledge of mathematics district
personnel. Only 10% of respondents report having a four-year college degree in mathematics.
This is in addition to another 12 % that have more than 10 credits of mathematics coursework.
Perhaps the importance of mathematics content knowledge is lost when personnel decisions are
made by superintendents and mathematics coordinators, regarding an individual’s level of
knowledge on the discipline of mathematics. This, in turn, impacts algebra instruction across
these districts. The correlation between these variables is presented in the inferential statistical
summation.
Data collected from district superintendents reflecting the degree to which instructional
practices related to algebra are implemented in a successful school district are also implemented
in their respective districts, presents a valuable window about the focus on algebra across the
state. The overwhelming majority of respondents disagree with the statement that there is a
consistent focus on algebra training for K-9 teachers across their respective districts. This
corresponds to the revelation that there is significant disagreement with similar statements
regarding the existence of vertical articulation regarding algebra across grade levels and an
algebraic professional development system that is systemic.
Possible reasons for this data are numerous. The focus on literacy throughout the districts
has primarily focused on English Language Arts. The notion of literacy to include numeracy has
been lost and is reflected in the lack of its focus on mathematics and therefore, algebra. The data
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 71
revealed that a majority of the district personnel making decisions about mathematics may not be
knowledgeable about the content and therefore, evidence an absence of expertise capable of
facilitating appropriate training across grade levels.
The data also revealed that there is significant disagreement with the statement that
mathematics coaches are in use and work with multiple grade levels. However, this may be due,
in part, to the wide variation in financial resources from to district to district. It may not be
feasible for districts to purchase mathematics coaches. Perhaps consideration may be given for
local expertise at school sites that may serve in this capacity.
The majority of respondents also report that conceptual knowledge in algebra is not a focus
in instruction. Mathematical performance is dependent upon mathematical proficiency.
Proficiency is comprised of four knowledge domains inclusive of factual knowledge, procedural
knowledge, conceptual knowledge, and metacognitive knowledge, of which none is more
important than the next. An absence of conceptual knowledge reduces the likelihood that
students will learn in meaningful ways and be able to transfer algebraic applications in novel
ways beyond those presented in algorithmic fashion.
The use of formative assessments to guide instruction appears to be in use in a majority of
districts based on the data. Assessments are used in a variety of forms. These include diagnostic,
formative, and summative. This data presents the need to understand more about how these
formative assessments are used as a component of a comprehensive assessment program
comprised of other assessment types. What is also of interest is how are the assessments used.
How decisions are made about algebra instruction may need to be modified based on the results
of the assessments. Another consideration is how are individual student performance deficits
targeted and strengths reinforced as a result of the data derived from the assessments.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 72
The inferential data of determining the degree to which variables are related primarily
revealed no strong correlations between measures that superintendents used to select district
personnel (i.e. ongoing professional development, content knowledge, curriculum/instructional
knowledge, administrative experience). Of these characteristics, content knowledge was the
variable strongly correlated with student achievement. The algebraic practices implemented by
districts also primarily showed no strong correlation with student outcome measures in algebra.
Of the factors analyzed, targeting conceptual knowledge demonstrated the strongest correlation
to student outcomes. Further analysis involving a larger sample size may yield more conclusive
evidence regarding both content knowledge and targeting conceptual knowledge development.
The data gathered from the questionnaire and the interviews demonstrate the many and
varied issues regarding the implementation of district practices related to algebra. Chapter V
includes a summary of the research findings, implications related to district practice, and
possible recommendations for future studies.

IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 73
Chapter 5: Summary and Conclusions
Primarily, teachers and school administrators have been the subject of research targeting
leadership and its connection to student outcomes. Finn stated that “the school is the vital
delivery system, the state is the policy setter, and nothing in between is very important” (as cited
in Roerr, Skrla, & Scheurich, 2008). However, literature suggests that leadership impacts student
achievement and that leadership at all levels of an educational organization must have some
impact on student learning outcomes (Purkey & Smith, 1983).
Therefore, leadership at all levels, inclusive of the district superintendent and the
mathematics instructional team, should be examined to determine its impact on the phenomena
underpinning minority underperformance in algebra. Superintendents influence the behaviors
and attitudes of their subordinates – school administrators and teachers. Superintendents must
develop ways to lead his/her followers that encourage innovation, increase communication, build
shared vision, and involve all constituents in the momentous task of education (Hoyle, 1995).
Successful superintendents that see improvements in their district’s student achievement have a
high level of involvement in curriculum and instruction (Cuban, 1984). In spite of this
understanding, there is limited research on the role of chief school administrator and its
contribution to student academic achievement (Byrd, 2001). This limitation, combined with the
ever increasing underperformance of minorities in algebra, create a need to examine the
strategies utilized by superintendents that impact minority student outcomes in algebra. The
purpose of this study was to examine the strategies utilized by superintendents and district
personnel and the impact of such strategies on algebra outcomes for minority students.
The purpose of this chapter is to summarize the study, present conclusions, and discuss
implications of the collected data. This summary of the study will review the methodology used
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 74
to gather data as well as review findings from the data guided by the study’s guiding research
questions. Implications of the study will address recommendations for future research. The
conclusion of the study will highlight connections made between the findings of the study and
Shulman’s (1987) theoretical framework on components of effective instruction.
Summary of the Study
This study sought to determine the strategies utilized by district superintendents and
mathematics instructional teams when making decisions about algebra curriculum and
instruction. The study also sought to determine the impact of these strategies on minority student
outcomes in algebra. To achieve this purpose, the following research questions were evaluated:
1. What district level leadership strategies are employed in districts that have realized
an increase in minority student performance in algebra?
2. How do superintendents select the personnel that influence successful algebra
programs?
3. In what ways do superintendents and mathematics instructional teams influence
algebra curriculum and instruction in these successful algebra programs?
4. What is the relationship between the following:
a. Personnel selection criteria and minority student outcomes in algebra?
b. Curriculum and instruction influence and minority student outcomes in
algebra?
A review of the literature revealed that student and school factors (teachers and principals)
have been shown to contribute to differences in minority student outcomes in algebra, but the
contribution of district leadership to these outcomes remains relatively unexamined. The purpose
of this study was to contribute to the body of knowledge on this topic.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 75
Summary of Methodology
This study used a mixed-methods approach to determine the impact of strategies utilized
by district personnel on algebra student outcomes. Qualitative data providing information about
school districts’ mathematics team development and algebra curricular and instructional decision
making was collected through interviews with superintendents and mathematics district
specialists serving as the deviant population of study. Standardized open interviews combined
with the interview guide approach were used to focus on how districts mathematics instructional
plans are constructed and how they are implemented. Quantitative data analysis associated with
the relationship between district mathematics decision making measures (revealed as a result of
the qualitative analysis) and student outcomes in algebra was then collected through surveys.
Algebra student outcome data were collected from the California Department of Education. This
was used to determine the correlation between minority student outcome measures and
mathematics decision making criteria at the district level.
Summary of Findings
Research Question #1: What district level leadership strategies are employed in districts that
have realized an increase in minority student performance in algebra?
A district serving as the deviant case study was used to collect data to identify district level
strategies that positively impact minority student performance in algebra. There were multiple
themes that surfaced from the data collected through interviews with the district superintendent
and the mathematics coordinator. These themes include a focus on algebra through all grade
levels, vertical articulation among grade levels, conceptual development of algebra, and the use
of formative assessments.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 76
There is a consistent focus on algebra not only reserved for the ninth grade, which is when
algebra is generally introduced, but throughout all grade levels (kindergarten through twelve).
The district made it apparent that algebra was an issue that all teachers must target and prepare
their students for, regardless of the grade level. Foundational skills must be developed that
support algebra before the students actually take algebra. There is a common understanding
throughout the district that all teachers are teachers of algebra and that all math lessons provide
an opportunity for algebraic development. Teachers make explicit connections between
operations used in daily lessons and implication for algebraic understanding at future grade
levels. This consistent focus includes annual content training for teachers in all grade levels
around key algebraic concepts such as relationships, structure, and solving equations. These
professional development sessions focus on content development, not just pedagogy and
knowledge of the district’s mathematics curricula.
Vertical articulation between grade levels is also another prominent feature of the
mathematics program within this district. Teachers within designated clusters meet routinely to
discuss how to highlight the algebraic concepts presented in each lesson. Teachers across grade
levels look at algebraic progressions that advance in sophistication throughout the grade levels.
The teachers explore common thinking skills, algebraic concepts, and algebraic procedures.
Teachers design lessons in these clusters and make use of these professional learning
communities to improve their understanding of algebra.
There was a recurring theme expressed in the interviews regarding the emphasis on
conceptual development. Procedural application is introduced alongside conceptual
understanding of the topics being presented. Teachers encourage students to make connections
between the seemingly disconnected topics presented in each unit through the use of purposeful
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 77
questions that target the development of multiple knowledge domains. Algebraic inquiry is at the
heart of classroom discussions.
District personnel, including teachers and administrators make use of ongoing formative
assessments. These formative assessments include district created periodic assessments as well
as grade level created assessments. These assessments are crafted using the state standards and
desirable benchmarks that align with the California Standardized Testing procedures. There is an
emphasis on algebraic operations and functions on these common assessments. Schools routinely
review this data to determine individualized support for particular students with an emphasis on
meeting the cultural needs of various subgroups.
Research Question #2: How do superintendents select the personnel that influence successful
algebra programs?
The district superintendent considers multiple factors when selecting mathematics
personnel to oversee the district’s initiatives. The following themes emerged as a result of the
interview: content knowledge, teaching experience, leadership experience, and instructional
knowledge. The district superintendent makes determinations about district mathematics
personnel in conjunction with the deputy superintendent who oversees instruction and
curriculum.
There are multiple criteria used to determine personnel, but a central criterion is that of
content knowledge. Prospective personnel who work at the district level must have, at a
minimum, a bachelor’s degree in the field of mathematics. The content knowledge serves as the
basis for which other skills and/or knowledge types are mediated. An ideal candidate must also
demonstrate the understanding that ongoing professional development targeting content
knowledge is a necessity.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 78
It was stated that teaching experience was also a necessary quality for mathematics
coordinators or specialists. Mathematics leaders would need to have taught not necessarily for an
established quantifiable amount of years, but over a range of time, demonstrate varied
experiences. Preference would be given to teachers who taught secondary mathematics as oppose
to elementary mathematics. A combination of both would be ideal. The rationale for a need for
secondary teaching experience points to the understanding of advanced mathematics content
including algebra and beyond as well as its application in a classroom environment.
In addition to teaching experience, mathematics coordinators need to have administrative
experience. This can be demonstrated in a variety of ways, including work as a school site
administrator or out of classroom experiences such as instructional coach or coordinator. The
prospective personnel must also need to have a California Administrative Credential authorizing
work as an administrator.
Instructional and curricular knowledge of potential district personnel are also screening
criteria. This may be evident through the attainment of advanced degrees in education, but often
manifest itself through interviewing protocols and responses to written prompts offered in the
interview process. It is necessary for a mathematics specialist to not only have strong command
of the content, but also know how to make it understandable to others, including how to address
the needs of various subgroups through instruction and curriculum design. Additionally, these
individuals should have knowledge of adult learning theory and how to construct professional
development sessions that are useful and can lead to eventual transfer to classroom practice.
The ability to design meaningful learning experiences for teachers and to determine viable
curriculum standards is essential to the work of district mathematics coordinators or specialists.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 79
Research Question #3: In what ways do superintendents and mathematics instructional teams
influence algebra curriculum and instruction?
The district successfully influences algebra instruction for all students through multiple
district foci. Professional development practices, the role of mathematics coaches, and grade
level planning time were the dominant themes revealed in the study.
The district personnel incorporate systemic professional development strategies.
Professional development topics are chosen in a purposeful manner. Student data is examined to
determine student deficits for all subgroups. Grade level teams, in conjunction with mathematics
coaches and the mathematics specialist, make determinations about what instructional measures
may be contributing to student performance deficits. These possible causes are examined in
relation to the particular needs of various subgroups, specifically the unique needs of African-
American and Latino populations. These professional development sessions are unique to the
needs of individual school sites regarding algebra instruction and curriculum.
Teams of coaches, administrators, and district personnel are then responsible for
monitoring the transfer of that which is learned in the professional development sessions to
classroom practice. Teachers are aware that there will be routine observations conducted in order
to collect data on classroom implementation of the algebra professional development. Future
professional development is created based on the collection of data from classroom observations
to work with specific teachers around their individual needs related algebra instruction.
Mathematics coaches are used to work with teachers primarily in elementary and middle
schools to support teachers’ understanding of algebra content and the necessary pedagogy used
to support inquiry based models of teaching. The mathematics coaches are all secondary teachers
who work part time as coaches and teach at the high school level the other part of the time. The
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 80
coaches work solely with the teachers, modeling math lessons to show algebraic connections and
to write lesson plans together.
Time is provided during the instructional day for teachers to meet together to discuss
algebra lessons and to work on content knowledge development. These grade level meetings
happen at the high school level during teachers designated conference periods in an informal
fashion. They happen in a formal fashion during the banked time allotted on a weekly basis. For
elementary and middle school teachers, this grade level planning happens solely during the
afterschool times provided during banked days.
Research question four: What is the relationship between the following:
a) Personnel selection criteria and minority student outcomes in algebra?
b) Curriculum and instruction influence and minority student outcomes in
algebra?
A census sample of California superintendents and district mathematics coordinators was
utilized to evaluate research question four. Questionnaires for both superintendents and district
mathematics coordinators were used in the study. A total of 39 returned questionaires met the
following criteria for inclusion in this study: (a) unified or secondary school districts, (b) student
population of 15,000 or more students, and (c) the total percentage of African-American and
Latino students comprised at least 50% of the district student population.
In order to determine if mathematics coordinators’ content knowledge, curriculum and
pedagogy knowledge, and professional development were related to minority student
achievement in algebra, descriptive statistics and inferential statistics were used. Descriptive
statistics in the form of means and frequencies were computed for the quantitative questions on
the questionnaire in order to form an overview and render an impression of the data.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 81
The following themes were highlighted from the data collected:
 A majority of math coordinators have not received formal content training in the past two
years in any algebraic strand.
 Quadratic functions was the algebraic strand most emphasized in formal training in the
past two years.
 Ten percent of mathematics coordinators have mathematics degrees.
 Of the total, 43% of mathematics coordinators have less than 10 collegiate mathematics
credits.
 Of the total, 81% of mathematics coordinators have six or more years of teaching
experience at the elementary level.
 Of the total, 47% of mathematics coordinators have no teaching experience at the
secondary level.
 Of the total, 74% of mathematics coordinators have six or more years of administrative
experience.
 Of the total, 12% of mathematics coordinators have advanced degrees in education.
Data collected from district superintendents reflecting the degree to which algebraic
practices implemented in a successful school district are implemented in their respective districts
present a valuable window about algebraic foci across the state. The overwhelming majority of
respondents disagree with the statement that there is a consistent focus on algebra training for K-
9 teachers across their respective districts. This corresponds to the evidence describing a
significant disagreement with similar statements regarding the existence of vertical articulation
regarding algebra across grade levels and an algebraic professional development system that is
systemic.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 82
In addition to the descriptive statistics, inferential statistics in the form of bivariate
correlation coefficients, were employed to determine the extent to which variations in minority
student outcome measures in algebra can be explained by characteristics of district personnel.
The Pearson Product-Moment correlation coefficients were computed to measure and analyze
the degree of correspondence among various combinations of variables.
Content knowledge and minority student outcome measures in algebra represent the
strongest correlation among the variables examined. The relationship between the two factors is
not as strong as the correlation coefficient value of r = 0.253 represents. However, the p value of
0.03 suggests that there is a significant statistical correlation between the variables. The
correlation coefficients show no strong correlation between the tested variables of district
algebraic practices and the minority student outcome measure of algebra proficiency. The
strongest correlation represented in district algebraic practices is that of conceptual knowledge
emphasis with a correlation coefficient of r = 0.218 that is statistically significant as determined
by a p value of 0.02.
Conclusions
This study sought to add to the knowledge base concerning district leadership and the
impact of minority student achievement in algebra. The researcher contends that a study of this
nature was warranted due to the minimal existing research that connects district leadership,
including superintendents and mathematics instructional teams with student outcomes.
Moreover, there is less known about the connection between district leadership and minority
student outcomes in algebra. As stated in chapter one, leadership impacts student achievement
and that leadership at all levels of an educational organization must demonstrate some impact on
the student learning outcome (Purkey & Smith, 1983).
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 83
Since the importance of a strong understanding of Algebra I has been established and with
a performance gap among various subgroups increasing, districts must make a concerted effort to
address algebra preparation and readiness from the classroom level all the way up to the district
administrative level. It was illuminated by this study that to some degree, stakeholders at all
levels impact student outcome measures in algebra. School districts must ensure the success of
their students, which begins with making sure there are qualified mathematics personnel
determining the district curricular and instructional policies that affect school site outcomes.
School districts must advance their mathematical infrastructure and ways of conceptualizing
mathematics initiatives to adapt to an ever changing student population. Without studies such as
these, impetus for district leadership to evaluate their mathematics practices may be lost,
perpetuating a myth that district leadership is not vital.
Implications
School districts continue to face enduring challenges regarding increasing minority student
performance in algebra. Assessment data continue to reveal increasing achievement gaps
between African-American and Latino students and their counterparts. School districts must be
compelled to examine all levels of instruction from the classroom to the district office in order to
determine possible causes contributing to the growth of the algebra performance gap. This study,
based on the effective instruction framework of Shulman (1987), serves as a point of reference
for establishing systemic algebra foci at the district level.
Superintendents and mathematics district personnel should consider the characteristics of
effective algebra initiatives that have evidenced a considerable degree of correlation with
positive minority student outcomes. These include the content knowledge of personnel making
decisions about the district’s instructional direction and an emphasis on conceptual development
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 84
of algebraic topics across the grade levels. Other factors showing slight correlation include
ongoing professional development supporting algebra content knowledge development and the
use of strategic formative assessments.
This study has implications for various stakeholder groups: policy makers, district
leaders, teachers, and educational researchers. For policy makers, this study offers evidence that
a systemic emphasis on algebraic concepts throughout math content standards leading up to
algebra is critical for student comprehension. The national common core standards in
mathematics address this issue. For district leadership, the study highlights the criteria district
leadership should include in selecting mathematics personnel and creating algebra professional
development modeules. For teachers, the study presents how district leaders’ commitment to
systemic algebra training for all teachers leads to relevant professional development that
addresses the skills and the content necessary to implement the district’s vision. For educational
researchers, the study provides evidence of the relationship between district leadership practices
and minority student outcome measures in algebra. The study also highlights additional areas for
research.
Recommendations for Future Research
Although this mixed methods study reviewed practices related to district level strategies
that impact minority student outcomes in algebra, recommendations for future relevant research
should include the following:
 How does district leadership evaluate the influence of mathematics coordinators
on algebra outcome measures?
 What efforts are there by district personnel to target algebra content knowledge
development for teachers within the district?
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 85
 How might district leaders of large school districts hold teachers accountable for the
implementation of the skills and content learned in algebra professional development
sessions?
 How might district leaders measure the impact of resource allocations for algebra
professional development?
 What is the relationship between district leadership practices and minority student
readiness for university level mathematics?

IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 86
References
California Department of Education. (2011). 2011 Star results. Retrieved from
http://star.cde.ca.gov/star2011
Arbaugh, F. (2003). Study groups as a form of professional development for secondary
mathematics teachers. Journal of Mathematics Teachers Education, 6, 139-163.
Barbeau, E. J. (1989). Mathematics for the public. Paper presented at the International
Commission on Mathematics Instruction. Leeds, England.
Bidwell, C. E., & Kasarda, J. D. (1975). School district organization and student achievement.
American Sociological Review, 40(1), 55-70.
Bresden, P. V. (1996). Superintendent's roles in curriculum development and instructional
leadership: Instructional visionaries, collaborators, supporters, and delegators. Journal of
School Leadership, 6(3), 243-64.
Brown, F., & Hunter, R. C. (1986). A model of instructional leadership for school
superintendents. Paper presented at the The Annual Convention of the American
Educational Research Association. San Francisco, CA.
Burch, P., & Spillane, J. P. (2005). How subjects matter in district office practice: Instructionally
relevant policy in urban school district redesign. Journal of Educational Change, 6, 51-
76.
Burke, J. C. (2004). Achieving accountability in higher education: Balancing public, academic,
and market demands. In J. C. Burke (Ed.), The many faces of accountability (pp. 1-24).
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 87
Byrd, J. K. (2001). Effective superintendent leadership strategies and management techniques
for improving student performance as perceived by selected school superintendents in
Texas. (Doctoral Dissertation, Texas A & M University).
Corcoran, T., Fuhrman, S. H., & Belcher, C. L. (2001). The district role in instructional
improvement. Phi Delta Kappan, 83(1), 78.
Corey, D. L., & Bower, B. L. (2005). The expeiences of an African American male learning
mathematics in the traditional and online classroom-a case study. The Journal of Negro
Education, 74(4), 321-331.
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Cuban, L. (1984). Transforming the frog into a prince: effective schools research, policy, and
practice at the district level. Harvard Educational Review, 54(2), 129-151.
Cuban, L. (2009). Hugging the middle: How teachers teach in an era of testing and
accountability. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Cudeiro, A. (2005). Leading student achievement: A study finds superintendents affecting
instructional gains through their strong relationships with principals. School
Administrator, 62(11), 16.
Darling-Hammond, L. (1999). Teacher quality and student achievement. Retrieved from
http://www.ctpweb.org
Flores, S., & Roberts, W. (2008). Productive strategies for raising student achievement in
algebra. NASSP Bulletin, 92(4), 305-315.
Gail, M., Gail, J., & Borg, W. (2007). Educational Research. Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 88
Gerdes, P. (1998). On culture and mathematics teacher education. Journal of Mathematics
Teacher Education, 1(1), 33-53.
Goldberg, B., & Morrison, D. M. (2003). Co-Nect: Purpose, accountability, and school
leadership. In A. Datnow & J. Murphy (Eds.), Leadership lessons from comprehensive
school reforms (pp. 57-82). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Grossman, P., Wineburg, S., & Woolworth, S. (2001). Toward a theory of teacher community.
Teachers College Record, 103(6), 942-1012.
Guskey, T. R. (2000). Practical guidelines for evaluating professional development. In S. Head
(Ed.), Evaluating professional development (pp. 67-93). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin
Press, Inc.
Hentschke, G. C., & Wohlstetter, P. (2004). Cracking the code of accountability. Urban
Education, 17-19 .
Herman , J. L. (1990). Instructional leadership skills and competencies of public school
superintendents: implications for preparation programs in a climate of shared
governance.
Hiebert, J., Morris, A. K., & Glass, B. (2003). Learning to learn to teach: An "experiment"
model for teachers and teacher preparation in mathematics. Journal of Mathematics
Teacher Educators, 6, 201-222.
Hoyle, J. (1995). Leadership and futuring: Making visions happen. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin
Press.
Hsieh, C. L., & Shen, J. (1998). Teachers', principals', and superintendents' conceptions of
leadership. School Leadership and Management, 18(1), 107.
Huck, S. (2004). Reading statistics and research (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 89
Impecoven-Lind, L. S., & Foegen, A. (2010). Teaching Algebra to students with learning
disabilities. Intervention in School and Clinic, 46(1), 31-37.
Johnson, B., Onwuegbuzie, R., & Turner, L. (2007). Towards a definition of mixed methods
research. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1(2), 112-133.
Kirtman, L. (2008). Pre-service teachers and mathematics: the impact of service learning on
teacher preparation. School Science and Mathematics, 108(3), 94-102.
Ladson-Billings, G. (1997). It doesn't add up: African American students' mathematics
achievement. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 28(6), 697-708.
Louis, K. S., Wahlstrom, K., Leithwood, K., & Anderson, S. (2010). Learning from leadership:
Investigating the links to improved student learning. Retrieved from
http://http://www.cehd.umn.edu/CAREI/Leadership/default.html
Marzano, R. J., Waters, T., & McNulty, B. A. (2005). School leadership that works: From
research to results. Alexandria, VA: Association of Supervision and Curriculum
Development.
Massell, D. (2000). District role in building capacity: Four strategies. Philadelphia, PA:
Graduate School of Education University of Pennsylvania, Consortium for Policy
Research in Education.
Matthews, M. S., & Farmer, J. L. (2008). Factors affecting the Algebra I achievement for
academically talented learners. Journal of Advanced Academies, 19(3), 472-501.
Monk, D. H. (1994). Subject area preparation of secondary mathematics and science teachers
and student achievement. Economics of Education Review, 13(2), 125-145.
Nathan, M. J., & Koedinger, K. R. (2000). An investigation of teachers' beliefs of students'
algebra development. Cognition and Instruction, 18(2), 209-237.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 90
National Assessment of Educational Progress. (2012). National center for educational statistics.
Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/naepdata/report.aspx
National Mathematics Advisory Panel. (2008). Report on instructional practices. Retrieved from
http://www.ed.gov/about/bdscomm/list/mathpanel/report/final-report.pdf
Northouse, P. G. (2007). Leadership: Theory and practice (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.
O'Connell-Smith, M. J. (2004). How the apportionment of district money is associated with
differences in the grade 8 mathematics and reading achievement scores for Minnesota
students. Journal of Education Finance, 29(4), 299-314.
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3 ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications.
Paul, F. G. (2005). Grouping within Algebra I: A structural sieve with powerful effects for low-
income, minority, and immigrant students. Educational Policy, 19(2), 262-282.
Petersen, G. J. (1999). Demonstrated actions of instructional leaders: An examination of five
California superintendents. Educational Policy Analysis Archives, 7(18).
Petersen, G. J. (2001). Singing the same tune: Principals' and school board members' perceptions
of the superintendent's role as instructional leader. Journal of Educational
Administration, 40(2), 158-171.
Phillips, G. B. (1950). The role of the superintendent in the improvement of instruction. The
High School Journal, 33(4), 160-161.
Price, J., Ball, D., & Luks, S. (1995). Marshalling resources for reform: District administrators
and the case of mathematics. Washington DC: National Center for Research on Teacher
Learning.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 91
Purkey, S., & Smith, M. (1983). Effective schools: A review. The Elementary School Journal,
83(4), 426-452.
Reavis, W. C. (1946). Responsibilities of the city superintendent for the direction of instruction.
The School Review, 54(9), 514-521.
Roerr, A. K., Skrla, L., & Scheurich, J. (2008). Districts as institutional actors in education
reform. Educational Administration Quarterly, 44(3), 307-358.
Sassl, A., & Scott-Nelson, B. (2007). What Math Teachers Need Most. The Education Digest,
72(6), 54.
Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard
Educational Review, 57(1), 1-22.
Spielhagen, F. R. (2006). Closing the achievement gap in math: Considering eighth grade
algebra for all students. American Secondary Education, 34(3), 29-42.
Spillane, J. P. (2000). Cognition and policy implementation: District policymakers and the
reform of mathematics education. Cognition and Instruction, 18(2), 141-179.
Stanic, G. M. (1997). Social inequality, culutural discontinuity, and equity in school
mathematics. Peabody Journal of Education, 22, 57-70.
Stigler, J. W., & Hiebert, J. (1997). Understanding and improving classroom mathematics
instruction. Phi Delta Kappan, 79(1), 14-21.
Tate, W. F. (1994). Race, retrenchment, and the reform of school mathematics. Phi Delta
Kappan, 75(6), 477-484.
Tatto, M. T., & Senk, S. (2011). The mathematics education of future primary and secondary
teachers: Methods and findings from the teacher education and development study in
mathematics. Journal of Teacher Education, 62(2), 121-137.
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 92
Teppo, A. (1998). Diverse ways of knowing. Qualitative Research Methods in Mathematics
Education, (9), 177.
Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago, IL: The University
of Chicago Press.
U. S. Department of Education. (2001). No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. Retrieved from
http://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/esea02/index.html
Van Zoest, L. R., Stockero, S. L., & Taylor, C. E. (2011). The durability of sociomathematical
norms intentionally fostered in an early pedagogy course. Journal of Mathematics
Teacher Educators, 1-23.
Walker, S., & Senger, E. (2007). Using technology to teach developmental African-American
algebra students. The Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 26(3),
217-231.
Zaslavsky, O., & Leikin, R. (2004). Professional development of mathematics teacher educators:
Growth through practice. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Educators, 7, 5-32.

IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 93
Appendix A
Superintendent Interview Protocol
Biographical Information
Name:
Position:
Years of Experience:
District:
Research Question 1:
What district level leadership strategies are employed in districts that have realized in an
increase in minority student performance in algebra?

 How does the district target algebra proficiency for all students?
- for minority students?
 What specific programs are being implemented?
 What is the district’s implementation plan for algebra?
 How is implementation monitored?

Research Question 2:
How do superintendents select the personnel that influence successful algebra programs?

 What district positions include the duties of mathematics instruction/curriculum?
 What criteria are used to select mathematics specialist?
- content knowledge, curriculum knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge,
general knowledge
 What opportunities are there for applicants to demonstrate knowledge/skills?

Research Question 3:
In what ways do superintendents and mathematics instructional teams influence algebra
curriculum and instruction?

 What policies have been crafted that shape algebra instruction?
 How are mathematics district personnel evaluated?
 How are schools held accountable for implementation of algebra initiatives?
 How are curriculum decisions made (i.e. adoption, lesson planning)
 Describe the district mathematics professional development plan?
 How does the district ensure alignment between school site mathematics goals and district
goals?
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 94
Appendix B
Mathematics District Personnel Interview Protocol
Biographical Information
Name:
Position:
Years of Experience:
District:
Research Question 1:
What district level leadership strategies are employed in districts that have realized in an
increase in minority student performance in algebra?

 How does the district target algebra proficiency for all students?
- for minority students
 What specific programs are being implemented?
 What is the district’s implementation plan for algebra?
 How is implementation monitored?

Research Question 2:
How do superintendents select the personnel that influence successful algebra programs?

 Describe your mathematics background?
- formal training, knowledge/skills
 How are you evaluated?

Research Question 3:
In what ways do superintendents and mathematics instructional teams influence algebra
curriculum and instruction?

 What role does the superintendent play in the implementation of the algebra program?
 Outside of textbook adoption, how else does the math team influence curriculum at the
school sites?
 How are professional development topics determined?
 How are these selections aligned to data analysis?
 How are schools held accountable for the implementation of the district algebra plan?
 What autonomy is provided to schools regarding algebra instruction/curriculum?
 Describe your role as a mathematics teacher educator?
 What specific areas of algebra are targeted?
- specific content, curriculum strategies, instructional measures
IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 95
Appendix C
Superintendent Questionnaire
District:
Years of Experience
Please determine to what extent the following district measures are implemented in your district.
1 – Strongly Disagree 2 – Disagree 3 – Not Sure 4 – Agree 5 – Strongly Disagree
District Practice 1 2 3 4 5
1. There is a consistent algebraic focus across all grade levels of
mathematics.

2. There is ongoing algebra training for all teachers K -9.
3. Vertical articulation regarding algebra occurs from elementary through
high school.

4. Conceptual development is targeted in algebra instruction.
5. There is consistent use of formative assessments to guide instruction.
6. District mathematics coordinators/specialist must have math degrees.
7. District mathematics coordinators must have secondary teaching
experience.

8. District mathematics coordinators must have some administrative
experience.

9. District mathematics coordinators must have knowledge of curriculum
and instruction evident through coursework.

10. Math coaches are utilized in K-12 classrooms.
11. Professional developed is systemic (i.e. tied to data, monitor of
classroom transfer).

IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 96
Appendix D
Mathematics District Personnel Questionnaire
Position:
Years of Experience:
District:
1. Within the past two years, how frequently have you participated in professional
development of your understanding of algebra content? Please check the boxes that
apply.
Content zero 1-3 times 4-6 times > 6 times
Linear Equations and Inequalities
Equality of Add/Sub/Mult/Div
Identification of Patterns
Quadratic Functions
Polynomials and Rational Expressions
2. How many collegiate credits of mathematics coursework do you have?
0 credits ____ 1-6 credits ____ 6-10 credits ____ >10 credits ____ Math Degree
(BS/MS/PHD) ____
3. How many years of mathematics teaching experience do you have? Please check a box for
both elementary and secondary levels.

IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 97
Appendix D (continued)

0 years 2 or less years 3 to 6 years 6 to 10 years More than 10
years
Elementary (K-
6) Teacher

Secondary (7-
12) Teacher

4. How many years of experience working in an administrative capacity do you have?
0 years 2 or less years 3 to 6 years 6 to 10 years More than 10
years
Administrator
5. How many collegiate credits of educational coursework emphasizing curriculum,
instruction, and teacher pedagogy do you have?
0 credits ____ 1-6 credits ____ 6-10 credits ____ >10 credits ____ Advanced Degree
(M.Ed./Ed.D./Ph.D.) ____

IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 98
Appendix E
Recruitment Letter

Jared DuPree
310.927.4352
jbdupree@usc.edu

Dear Superintendent & District Mathematics Specialist,

I am a doctoral student at the University of Southern California. I am conducting a research
study on the impact of district strategies on student outcomes in algebra.

As you are probably aware, the under preparedness of minority students in algebra is a national
phenomenon. Your district has shown positive strides in increasing minority student outcomes in
algebra. You are eligible to participate in the study because you are a successful California urban
Superintendent or mathematics district specialist. Your participation is voluntary.

If you agree to participate in the study, you will be asked to participate in an interview. The
interview is anticipated to take 45 minutes to complete.

The results will be reported and published in aggregate form and no specific district or responses
will be identified.

If you would like to obtain a copy of the research results; you will have an opportunity to
indicate your interest at the end of the interview. I can also send you a transcript of your
interview if you so chose.

If you have any questions, please contact me at 310.927.4352.

Thank you,

Jared DuPree
University of Southern California

IMPACT OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND MATH PERSONNEL 99

Appendix E (continued)

Recruitment Letter

Jared DuPree
310.927.4352
jbdupree@usc.edu

Dear Superintendent & Mathematics Specialist,

I am a doctoral student at the University of Southern California. I am conducting a research
study on the impact of district strategies on student outcomes in algebra.

As you are probably aware, the under preparedness of minority students in algebra is a national
phenomenon. You are eligible to participate in the study because you are a California urban
Superintendent or mathematics district specialist. Your participation is voluntary.

If you agree to participate in the study, you will be asked to complete a survey.
The survey will be conducted online and is anticipated to take 15 minutes to complete.

The results will be reported and published in aggregate form and no specific district or responses
will be identified.

If you would like to obtain a copy of the research results; you will have an opportunity to
indicate your interest at the end of the survey.

If you have any questions, please contact me at 310.927.4352.

Thank you,

Jared DuPree
University of Southern California

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study applies the constructs from effective instruction from the literature on teacher education to understand the impact of school district strategies on algebra outcomes for minority students. The purpose of this study was to examine the strategies utilized by superintendents and district personnel and the impact of these identified strategies on algebra outcomes for minority students. The following research questions were addressed: (a) What district level leadership strategies are employed in districts that have realized an increase in minority student performance in algebra

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Effective strategies superintendents utilize in building political coalitions to increase student achievement

PDF

Successful communication strategies used by urban school district superintendents to build consensus in raising student achievement

PDF

The path to math: leadership matters: effective practices of principals that improve student achievement in secondary mathematics

PDF

Leadership strategies employed by K–12 urban superintendents to improve the academic achievement of English language learners

PDF

Strategies used by superintendents in developing leadership teams

PDF

Superintendents' viewpoint of the role stakeholders can play in improving student achievement

PDF

Strategies employed by successful superintendents and boards of education resulting in increased student achievement

PDF

Leadership strategies employed by K-12 urban superintendents to improve the academic achievement of English language learners

PDF

Effective strategies that urban superintendents use that improve the academic achievement for African-American males

PDF

Effective strategies urban superintendents utilize that improve the academic achievement for African American males

PDF

Leadership strategies employed by K-12 urban superintendents to improve the academic achievement of English language learners

PDF

Leadership strategies employed by K-12 urban superintendents to improve the academic achievement of English language learners

PDF

The sustainability of superintendent-led reforms to improve student achievement

PDF

The role of the superintendent in ensuring school board focus on student achievement

PDF

Strategies California superintendents use to implement 21st century skills programs

PDF

Leadership traits and practices supporting position longevity for urban school superintendents: a case study

PDF

The role of superintendents as instructional leaders: facilitating student achievement among ESL/EL learners through school-site professional development

PDF

A study of California public school district superintendents and their implementation of 21st century skills

PDF

Leadership strategies, skills, and professional approaches utilized by effective senior-level student affairs administrators at urban universities

PDF

Sustainable reform: a follow-up case study on one urban superintendent’s efforts to improve student achievement

Asset Metadata

Creator DuPree, Jared Bernard (author)

Core Title Strategies utilized by superintendents and mathematics district personnel that impact minority student outcomes in algebra

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 03/29/2013

Defense Date 02/25/2013

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag algebra,district mathematics personnel,minority students,OAI-PMH Harvest,superintendent

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Castruita, Rudy Max (committee chair), García, Pedro Enrique (committee member), Hasan, Angela Laila (committee member)

Creator Email jbdupree@usc.edu,jdupree02@yahoo.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-228595

Unique identifier UC11292626

Identifier usctheses-c3-228595 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-DuPreeJare-1494-0.pdf

Dmrecord 228595

Document Type Dissertation

Rights DuPree, Jared Bernard

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA