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Leadership strategies, skills, and professional approaches utilized by effective senior-level student affairs administrators at urban universities

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Leadership strategies, skills, and professional approaches utilized by effective senior-level student affairs administrators at urban universities

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Content Running head: LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES, SKILLS, AND PROFESSIONAL

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LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES, SKILLS, AND PROFESSIONAL APPROACHES
UTILIZED BY EFFECTIVE SENIOR-LEVEL STUDENT AFFAIRS
ADMINISTRATORS AT URBAN UNIVERSITIES

by

Jinny Oh

_________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2013

Copyright 2013 Jinny Oh

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES, SKILLS, AND PROFESSIONAL

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DEDICATION
To my parents, and my family …
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My sincere appreciation goes to my doctoral committee chair, Dr. Pedro Garcia,
and committee members Dr. Rudy Castruita, and Dr. Bond Johnson. I am truly grateful
for their expert guidance and support, and their dedication to this project. I could not have
completed it without them.
I also benefited from the thoughtful comments of Dr. Hocevar of the Rossier
School of Education, and the invaluable support over throughout the project from my
dear friend, Adele Hodge.
I want to especially thank my family; my husband, my son, and my parents for
their endless patience, prayers and support; particularly during the period of my doctoral
studies. My greatest debt is to my amazing dad, who passed away around the time I was
starting my dissertation. This degree and my other life achievements are dedicated to my
parents whose never-ending encouragement enabled me to be where I am today. Thank
you to all my other family members and friends for believing in me and for being part of
this journey.
To my classmates and cohorts at USC, thank you. I have enjoyed the camaraderie
we experienced while working and growing together. The memories will be cherished
forever.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication ....................................................................................................................... 2
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... 3
List of Tables .................................................................................................................. 5
Abstract ........................................................................................................................... 7
Chapter 1: Overview of the Study ............................................................................... 9
Chapter 2: Literature Review..................................................................................... 26
Chapter 3: Methodology ............................................................................................ 49
Chapter 4: Findings.................................................................................................... 56
Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations .................................... 113
References ................................................................................................................... 129
Appendices .................................................................................................................. 137
Appendix A: LPI Permission Letter ............................................................ 137
Appendix B: General Recruitment Email Cover Letter .............................. 138
Appendix C: Follow-Up Email Cover Letter .............................................. 139
Appendix D: Survey Instruction ................................................................. 140
Appendix D1: Survey .................................................................................... 142
Appendix E: Interview Cover Letter/Email ................................................ 144
Appendix E1: Interview Protocol Sent With Cover Letter ........................... 145
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. The Ten Commitments of Leadership .......................................................48
Table 2. Description of Student Affairs Directors Units .........................................60
Table 3. Most Frequently Used Leadership Behaviors Among Senior Student ......82
Affairs Administrators to Develop their Student Affairs Division
Table 4. Mean Scores and Standard Deviations for Leadership Practices ...............88
Inventory-Self (LPI-Self) of Senior Student Affairs Professionals
Table 5. Senior Student Affairs Directors’ Mean Leadership Practices ..................90
Inventory Rating for Statements Related to Enable Others to Act
Table 6. Senior Student Affairs Directors’ Mean Leadership Practices ..................92
Inventory Rating for Statements Encourage the Heart
Table 7. Senior Student Affairs Directors’ Mean Leadership Practices ..................94
Inventory Rating for Statements Related to Model the Way
Table 8. Senior Student Affairs Directors’ Mean Leadership Practices ..................96
Inventory Rating for Statements Related to Challenge the Process
Table 9. Senior Student Affairs Directors’ Mean Leadership Practices ..................98
Inventory Rating for Statements Inspire a Shared Vision
Table 10. Mean Differences Between Two Institutions and the Types of .................99
Leadership Practices Exhibited by the Senior Student Affairs
Administrators (0=UCW and 1=UCS)
Table 10a. Independent Samples Test .......................................................................100
Table 11. Mean Differences Between Gender and the Types of Leadership ..........101
Practices Exhibited by the Senior Student Affairs Administrators
(0=female, 1=male)
Table 11a. Independent Samples Test .......................................................................102
Table 12. Mean Differences by Areas of Work and the Types of Leadership ........103
Practices Exhibited by the Senior Student Affairs Administrators
Table 12a. Mean Differences by Areas of Work and the Types of Leadership ........104
Practices Exhibited by the Senior Student Affairs Administrators,
One-Way ANOVA results
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Table 13. Two Major Significant Patterns of Positive Correlations Among ...........111
Senior Student Affairs Administrators at Two Institutions
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ABSTRACT
As the makeup of today’s student body becomes more complex, so does the
evolving role of the Student Affairs Division on campus. Along with large increases in
enrollment and the greater diversity of college students, there has been a corresponding
increase in the administrative functions assumed by student affairs professionals in higher
education. Given these realities, the role of student affairs leaders becomes more
important in the student’s educational experience, the senior leaders need to better
understand and better formulate and motivate their team to be effective leaders across the
spectrum of higher education goals and concerns.
This study was designed to examine the relationship between inspiring leadership
behaviors and transforming leadership attributes among Senior Student Affairs
Administrators in the student affairs divisions of urban universities and colleges in
California. The primary purpose of this research study was to identify the effective
leadership strategies, professional approaches/styles, and skills that Senior Student
Affairs Administrators use to develop the Student Affairs Divisions in urban universities.
The study examined how senior level Student Affairs Administrators lead their student
affairs departments to build effective leaders and support new practitioners in developing
their own leadership practices. Additionally, the study closely examines the skills and
tactics senior administrators use to transfer their garnered knowledge of leadership,
gained through their own professional experiences, to future generations of Student
Affairs administrators.
The intent of this study was to provide Senior Student Affairs Administrators with
the guidance and professional development assistance they need to become more
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effective leaders from an analysis of the personal-best cases, a model of leadership that
consists of what Kouzes and Posner call The Five Practices of Exemplary Leadership: 1)
Encourage the Heart, 2) Challenge the Process, 3) Model the Way, 4) Inspire a Shared
Vision, and 5) Enabling Others to Act.
Deductive analyses of interviews identified essential leadership styles such as
modeling the way and inspiring a shared vision were leadership practices the SSAA most
resonate with in this study. Meanwhile, Enable Others to Act leadership behavior
dominated the top one-third of the most common leadership behaviors used by Senior
Student Affairs Administrators in this study. Under the self-evaluating survey, Enable
Others to Act followed by Model the Way took the lead in the most commonly practiced
behaviors among SSAA at urban universities. The least frequent exhibited type of
leadership practice the SSAA resonate which is indicative of the ability to lead a team is
Inspire a Shared Vision.
An administrator’s leadership style can, therefore, have a huge impact on student
life at an urban college or university. SSAA have the opportunity to help students make
the most of their college experience by shaping the environment and campus culture to
meet student needs. It is through these various leadership practices researched in this
study in which the leaders are to transform their student affairs unit.
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CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Higher education plays an important role in shaping the mentoring processes of
leaders and leadership qualities in modern American society. Universities and colleges
not only have the responsibility to help our students develop intellectually in classrooms,
but also to enable the growth of the whole person (Kuh, 2005). Kuh has stated that
educating the whole person, by providing educationally purposeful experiences outside
the classroom, is an added and critical role of our modern universities.
Student affairs is an important component of the university life I am referring to,
one that plays an important role in developing and nurturing students, not only in
academics, but also in helping them to achieve their highest potential outside of the
classroom. Pascarella and Terenzini (2005) have stated that informal interactions outside
the classroom are particularly important during a student’s first year in college because it
allows students to integrate their academic and extracurricular experiences. Creating a
team of student affairs leaders to facilitate and reinforce efforts that enable the practice of
effective, transformative leadership will help individual student affairs administrators to
be ready to serve the diverse student populations, so characteristic of the modern higher
education system. Transformational leaders have been portrayed (Bass & Riggio, 2006)
as people who set challenging expectations and also motivate others to do more than they
intended and indeed more than they may have thought possible.
Speaking of the diversity I mention above, it is important to keep in mind that the
demographics of our higher education is continually changing; consequently, student
affairs personnel need to be adequately and appropriately prepared to accommodate that
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diversity. According to Thielen (2003), the demographic diversity among students
entering higher education has increased significantly over the last several decades, and
the academic, economic, and social diversity of these students requires customized
student services. Thielen (2003) reported that between 1700 and 1900, college
participation among traditional-aged (18 to 22-year-old) students was less than 5% but by
1970 that rate had grown to 50%.
Another factor to keep in mind, as to why the role of Student Affairs has become
so crucial is the fact of greater access to higher education in the 20
th
century.
Historically, the access to higher education was once reserved for the privileged, however
that privilege no longer obtains; correspondingly, the role of student services has
expanded greatly. The status of Student Affairs professionals took on greater importance
during the first half of the 20
th
century, particularly after World War I. Many of the
services provided by professionals today, emerged during the post WWI era, including
such services as career counseling, placement services and personal counseling (Hirt,
2006).
The main philosophy behind the mission of the modern Student Affairs division is
to address the quality and character of a student’s university experience, as well as the
Student Affairs division’s perspectives of that experience. The primary and critical role
of the Students Affairs staff is to serve as a liaison between students, parents, faculty,
staff, and administrators—to help solve problems, assist with individual or group crisis
management and help them navigate through the complexities of campus life. A
significant amount of the field literature has shown that students who are involved in
meaningful out-of-class experiences are likely to have a much more satisfying college
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experience than those who do not participate in extracurricular activities. Astin (1985)
has emphasized that the greater the student’s involvement with all aspects of college life,
the greater the learning and development that takes place during those college years.
Student experiences outside the classroom have been seen as a vehicle for educating the
“whole person” that the extant literature on student affairs so often addresses. Kuh
(2006) reiterates that the Student Affairs Division plays the central role in promoting
student related services at any given university or college. Depending on the size of the
institution, a typical state university could still have as many as ten to twenty individual
functional areas of student service, responsible for serving the students in virtually every
aspect of their lives outside of the classroom.
Background of the Problem
Higher education in the United States has been experiencing tremendous growth.
In the last 50 years, the number of colleges and universities has more than doubled going
from 2,004 institutions in 1960 to 4,314 institutions in 2007 (Snyder, Dillow, & Hoffman,
2008). Between 1990 and 2004, enrollments in degree granting institutions jumped from
13.8 to 17.3 million students, and these numbers are expected to further increase to 19.9
million by 2015 (Hussar & Bailey, 2006). The percentage of minorities and women in
higher education has also increased significantly (Rhodes, 2006).
In seeking the support needed to succeed in college, many first generation college
students, or students in general for that matter, turn to their student affairs personnel
outside of their classrooms not just for academic advice, but for the guidance necessary to
navigate day-to-day campus life. In order to deal with student related issues outside of the
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classroom, and to alleviate faculty from taking on that responsibility, Harvard University
created the first American Dean of Students position in 1891 (Dinniman, 1977).
As I have pointed out, the Student Affairs departments within higher education
institutions provide support services both for the academic aspects of a student’s campus
experience, as well as those activities outside of the classroom, in order to provide a
holistic educational experience for the student (Tederman, 1997). The array of services
may include Student Health Center, Admissions, Financial Aid, Career Center, Greek
Affairs, Counseling and Psychological Services, Office for Students with Disabilities,
Registrar’s Office, International Student Office, Tutoring Center, Orientation, Campus
Security, Student Activities, Residence Life, and Student Judicial Affairs. Jones (2003)
has stated that most schools also offer more targeted services to specific interest groups
within the student population, through programming centers whose clients include such
diverse populations as LGBT students, student veterans, parenting students, transfer
students, graduate students, and many more.
As the makeup of today’s student body becomes more complex, so does the
evolving role of the Student Affairs Division on campus. As Smith (2006) suggests, the
role of Senior Administrators in Student Affairs involve acting as a senior-level
administrator within the top management of the institution, making decisions that affect
the external relations of the college as well, within the context of the larger community in
which a campus in necessarily embedded. In summary, the role of Student Affairs in
higher education has become a sophisticated one, and no program can be successful
without effective leadership from Senior Administrators (Sandeen, 1991; Tederman,
1997).
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Colleges and universities are not only responsible for educating each new
generation of leaders who will serve our society in the future, they are also responsible
for setting the tone of that leadership and setting an example of how to become leaders
(Hirt, 2010). More importantly, effective leadership in an academic institution,
especially in student affairs, is critical because students are expected to model themselves
after the leaders and leadership qualities they have witnessed. Thus, not surprisingly,
Hirt (2010) points out that many researchers have sought to determine what makes an
effective leader. The field literature is rich in studies that have found positive
correlations with various personal characteristics, personality traits and leadership styles.
Kouzes and Posner (1988) have examined leadership attributes and the effectiveness of
leaders as measured by perceptions of those that follow them. They concluded that
effective leaders scored significantly higher than ineffective leaders on the five leadership
practices. Kouzes and Posner call The Five Practices of Exemplary Leadership: model
the way, inspire a shared vision, challenge the process, enabling others to act and
encourage the heart. Other researchers have found similar results that show that effective
leaders inspire vision in others and have an approach that includes shared power (Bass,
1985; Conger, Kanungo, & Associates, 1988).
Leadership is a key factor from the perspectives of both the leader and follower in
the initiation and implementation of organizational transformations. Leaders must inspire
followers to accomplish great things and instill the desire to promote change, and
consequently become better leaders in the process (Bass, 2006). They need to understand
and adapt to the needs of those they lead, and motivate their followers. The assumption
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is that those leaders who are able to inspire and transform, are better positioned to foster
the change needed in modern organizations.
Brief Overview of Transformational Leadership
One of the most popular approaches to leadership, that has been the focus of
much research since the early 1980s, is known as “transformational leadership”. James
Burns, who is considered to be the founder of modern leadership theory, describes
several different types of leaders and leadership styles in his book Leadership, published
in 1978. He wrote of leaders as people who tap the motives of their followers in order to
better reach the goals of both leaders and followers (p. 18).
Burns (1978) originally developed the concepts of transformational and
transactional leadership that have since become the most widely researched concepts of
leadership in the last 20 years (Lowe & Gardner, 2001). Burns (1978) introduced the
concept of transformational leadership, describing it as not a set of specific behaviors but
rather a process by which “leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of
morality and motivation” (p. 20). Conversely, transactional leadership is described as
being based upon a power relationship and focuses on exchanges between leaders and
followers. Both of these aspects of leadership were incorporated into the Full Range of
Leadership Model by Bass, (1985).
Transformational leaders are attentive to the needs and motives of followers and
work to help followers reach their fullest potential. Burns (1978) points to Mahatma
Gandhi as the classic example of transformational leadership. Gandhi raised the hopes of
many people and in the process was changed as well. Transformational leadership fits
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the complexities and needs of contemporary colleges and universities (within the
dynamics of diverse populations as described before), particularly in student affairs units.
Transformational leaders have been portrayed (Bass & Riggio, 2006) as people
who set challenging expectations and also motivate others to do more than they intended
and indeed more than they may have thought possible. Bass and Avolio (1997) indicated
that transformational leaders usually display behaviors associated with four
characteristics. These characteristics are: idealized influence, inspirational motivation,
intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration. Winston and Creamer (1997)
believe that leaders are charged with developing a relationship of leading that focuses not
only on the vision of the larger organization, but on the success and development of the
individual.
The Statement of the Problem
During the past decade, state funding for colleges and universities has not kept
pace with the rising costs of educating students, or the ability of states to fund higher
education (Toutkoushian, 2006). The ongoing scholarship in the field suggests that the
changing landscape of state support for higher education, has brought about many
negative consequences in education, including rising tuition, tightening enrollments, cuts
in financial aid, increased attrition rates, and a general decline in support services
available to students (Ehrenberg, 2006; Lyall & Sell, 2006).
Higher education institutions, nationwide, face a fiscal crisis that is likely to
cause numerous administrative staff cuts at every level, which could, for a time, slow
progress, stall missions and affect the ideal visions of senior administrators and other
leaders. In this present climate of eliminations, consolidations, and mergers due to tight
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budgets, universally deep cut take place in student affairs units. Universities are
currently facing the challenge of being asked to pursue both excellence and equity in a
climate of accountability and challenge. Because of the organizational complexity of the
university, its multiple goals, the nature of leadership in higher education is ambiguous
and contested (Petrov, 2006).
In order to withstand these constant waves of challenges and having to serve
students with fewer resources, Student Affairs senior administrators need to rethink the
system. There needs to be a reevaluation of goals and resources, and then, corresponding
strategic and operational approaches, that meet the specific challenges at hand, need to be
created. This will help teams work more effectively toward goal achievement, and the
fulfillment of department and university missions. The departments need to closely
examine how to utilize resources and adapt to change in order to invite growth and
transform the institution as necessary to better serve the students.
To be effective, the departments need to examine leadership strategies in the ever
changing urban university environment, and decide which strategies would be best to
execute, in building leaders who will raise the higher education community to ideal levels
of morality and motivation. Effective student affairs and services that puts the student at
the center of all efforts by supporting students, enhances the student’s personal, social,
cultural, and cognitive development (Ludeman, 2001). Ludeman says that students spend
80 % of their time outside of class, and consequently, student affairs professionals play a
crucial part in helping them succeed academically. Student affairs are central to how
students are assisted, inside and outside the classroom, and good service is critical to
keeping them in classrooms and succeeding academically. More importantly, effective
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leadership among senior student affairs administrators is critical because they will set the
tone for the junior student affairs officers who are expected to model the behaviors of
their superiors and mentors, in order to become better leaders themselves.
Studies of leadership in higher education tend to focus on the role of the Vice-
Chancellor (VC), the President or Rector according to Bargh et al. (2000). However,
despite the extant studies in higher education administration, application of these findings
to Student Affairs leaders in higher educational settings specifically, is still minimal
(Clement & Rickard, 1992; White, 2000). Recently, the roles, functions, demographics
and leadership styles of Student Affairs Senior Administrators have been the focus of
several studies (Sandeen, 2006). However, a gap still remains in the literature that would
identify common traits of effective leadership style among Student Affairs senior
administrators that promote change (White, 1982). Effective university leadership is a
major issue for students, policy makers, staff and those in positions of leadership
themselves.
As the role of student affairs leaders becomes more important, the senior leaders
need to better understand and better formulate and motivate their team to be effective
leaders across the spectrum of higher education goals and concerns. An accurate,
unbiased assessment of leaders, and identifying the most common traits of
transformational, inspirational leadership style are needed, to further identify the
strengths and weaknesses of leaders in the university and college setting to find
opportunities for improvement.
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Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between inspiring
leadership behaviors and transforming leadership attributes among Senior Student Affairs
Administrators in the student affairs divisions of urban universities and colleges in
California. Leadership is a critically important factor in the initiation and implementation
of organizational transformations; organizations are complex, and multifunctional
entities. An entire unit, such as student affairs, must respond to a diverse student
population, meet the needs of complex constituents and solve multifaceted problems,
inside and outside of the classroom environment. Senior Student Affairs Administrators
shape the environment and campus culture to meet the students’ need, in ways that will
ultimately help students make the most of their college experience. Schein (2004)
summarizes that leaders can embed their assumptions about mental models, and guide
visions in terms of the culture of the organization. Transformational leadership is a
process of influencing, by which leaders change their followers/staff’s awareness of what
is important, and move them to see themselves more clearly, and consequently, the
opportunities and challenges of their environment in a new way. They convince their
associates to strive for higher levels of potential as well as higher levels of moral and
ethical standards.
The purpose of this study is to measure a broad range of leadership traits; identify
the characteristics of an inspiring leader within student affairs and help individuals
discover how they measure up in their own eyes, and receive valid and reliable feedback
about the current use of their practices. The extant literature in the field, has left senior
leaders in higher education Student Affairs, with little workable or material knowledge
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and information on how to become more transformational in their leadership praxis, thus
promoting change. The purpose of this study was to provide Student Affairs leaders with
the guidance and professional development assistance they need to become more
effective leaders from an analysis of the personal-best cases, a model of leadership that
consists of what Kouzes and Posner call The Five Practices of Exemplary Leadership:
model the way, inspire a shared vision, challenge the process, enabling others to act and
encourage the heart. The intention of this study is to identify the most common and
effective leadership traits among Senior Administrators in Student Affairs, as well as
those that are most efficacious in promoting productive and desired-for change in higher
education.
Northouse (2010) states that leadership is not just one person who can promote
change, it is about a team effort to transform the units into sharing the same vision and
buying into what unit leaders see as the vision that will take the whole organization to a
better place. As Glinow, Teagarden and Drost (2002) have suggested, leadership teams
are intended to clarify goals and objectives, build trust, and to encourage open and lateral
communication; these teams must also prove to be effective. In order for a large and
complex unit such as student affairs, with its many diversified functional parts, it is
important that they be effective in ensuring joint accountability based on unit success,
rather than individual achievement. Also, there must be a better understanding of what
elements of leadership innovations are required among unit leaders, in order to form a
strong team that will promote change to lead an effective student affairs unit and help
students grow across their whole college experience.
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Research Questions
This research study was guided by the following three questions:
1. What strategies, skills and or leadership styles do Student Affair
Administrators use to develop the Student Affairs Division?
2. What leadership qualities do senior-level Student Affairs Administrators
exhibit which are indicative of the ability to lead a team?
3. How do Student Affairs Administrators pass on their knowledge of leadership
to the next generation of Student Affairs leaders?
The Importance of the Study
One of the most widespread approaches to leadership is concerned with the
process whereby a person engages with others and creates a connection that raises the
level of motivation and morality in both the leaders and the followers. One of the most
popular approaches to leadership, that has been the focus of much research since the early
1980s, is the transformational approach.
The effective Student Affairs Senior Administrator must help the department to
think of old problems in new ways. Through personal accomplishments and
demonstrated character, the leader must provide a model for the behavior of staff
members and enable them to utilize the principles of idealized influence behavior. The
transformational leadership style is said to occur when one or more persons engage in
such a way, that leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of motivation
and morality. Transformational leaders are effective at working with people. They build
trust and foster collaboration with others, encourage others, celebrate their
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accomplishments. In the end, transformational leadership results in people feeling better
about themselves and their contributions to the greater common good.
Not only would this research add to the effective leadership scholarly literature in
Student Affairs, but it should also benefit current practitioners in the field. With a better
understanding of the common leadership traits of the Senior Administrators that promote
change, the leaders can assess their own behaviors in order to improve and help nurture
the next generation of student affairs professions. The study will help Senior
Administrators to improve their leadership practices by identifying specific team
leadership strategies that are relevant to Student Affairs, that inspire the followers to buy
in to the same visionary organizational goal.
Current Student Affairs Senior Administrators could utilize the Leadership
Practice Inventory (LPI) survey as an instrument for staff feedback, as well as a
performance management tool. New professionals and those in middle management can
look to the senior leaders’ behaviors and leadership attributes as those that could
influence their own professional development in the field of higher education.
Assumptions
The following assumptions have been made during this study:
 Even though there are many opportunities for senior administrators to serve in
formal leadership positions, the assumption is that everyone is a potential
leader. The challenge for leadership development in higher education is a
belief that anyone can become committed and can become an effective leader.
 The results of this study are based on the assumption that all participants were
truthful in their responses to the survey and interview questions.
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 All data gathered from the online survey is accurate and that the participants
meet the role as senior administrator or direct report staff.
Limitations and Delimitations
There will be several limitations to this study. The study will only sample leaders
from a single public university in Southern California. Thus the findings will not be
generalizable on a large scale to other institutions. Further, the sample will only include
student affairs leaders who have volunteered to have their leadership behaviors measured.
Secondly, the leaders being surveyed for this study might feel pressured to
provide the answer they perceive to be the “right answer” rather than evaluating their
leadership style and behaviors in a fair and impartial way. In addition, despite the
assurance of anonymity, the staff members included in the study, might feel
uncomfortable assessing the behaviors of their leader. Additionally, when the followers
(staff) have to identify their leader’s strengths and weaknesses, they may have difficulty
in differentiating between the various transformational behaviors and provide more
global assessments. In other words, staff may perceive the various transformational
facets as relating to the same leadership domain (Bycio, Hackett, & Allen, 1995).
Some of the biases and weakness inherent to the study, may have to do with the
close proximal relationship between staff and leader in the work setting, consequently,
that fact should be taken into consideration as a potential limitation also. Another
limitation was the lack of diversity in sampling, which was drawn from a single
organization and occupationally similar roles; utilizing more diverse organizations would
add further depth to the research.
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Definitions
The Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) Survey is a questionnaire that contains
30 behavioral statements—six for each of The Five Practices of Exemplary Leadership—
and takes 10 to 20 minutes to complete. Leaders and individuals complete the LPI Self,
rating themselves on the frequency with which they believe they engage in each of the 30
behaviors. This assessment helps individuals measure their own leadership behaviors
while guiding them through the process of applying Five Practices of Exemplary
Leadership model to real-life organizational challenges and planning a course of action to
improve the effectiveness of their performance as leaders.
Senior Student Affairs Administrator: A Senior Student Affairs Administrator is
an individual holding the primary leadership position for student affairs unit within the
student affairs division at a college or university. Such individuals may hold a variety of
titles including (but not limited to) Director of Executive Director.
Transactional Leadership: Leadership that is based on a power dynamics that
focuses on the exchanges between leaders and followers. Transactional leadership is
contingent upon reinforcement. The leader clarifies the roles and task requirements that
are appropriate and needed to accomplish organizational goals (Bass, 1985).
Transformational Leadership: While there is no universal definition of this term,
for the purposes of this study, transformational leadership refers to a leadership style
where the leader engages and motivates followers while also assisting with the followers’
leadership development. Transformational leadership is determined through five
subscales on the MLQ. They are often referred to as the “I’s, and they are defined below:
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Idealized Influence (also known as Charismatic Leadership). Transformational
leaders act in ways that make them role models. These leaders are admired, respected and
trusted. Followers identify with the leaders and want to emulate them. Leaders share
risks with followers and are consistent rather than arbitrary. They can be counted on to
do the right thing, demonstrating high standards of ethical and moral conduct, and avoid
using power for personal gain (Bass, 1998).
Inspirational Motivation. Inspirational leaders are able to develop an effective
organizational vision and build team spirit, as well as a meaningful work environment.
They encourage followers to become part of the overall organizational culture and
environment. This might be achieved through motivational speeches and conversations
and other public displays of optimism and enthusiasm, highlighting positive outcomes,
and stimulating teamwork.
Intellectual Stimulation. Intellectual stimulation is defined as having a leader who
encourages innovation and creativity, as well as critical thinking and problem-solving.
Transformational leaders question assumptions and beliefs and encourage followers to be
innovative and creative, approaching old problems in new ways. They empower
followers by persuading them to propose new and controversial ideas without fear of
punishment. They are open to imposing their own ideas but certainly not at any cost
(Bass, 1998).
Individualized Consideration. Individualized consideration is when a leader
coaches, facilitates, teaches and mentors, and encourages two-way communications and
feedback. Transformational leaders act as mentors and coaches. People are treated
individually and differently on the basis of their talents and knowledge. This might be
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expressed, for example, as words of thanks or praise, fair workload distributions, and
individualized career counseling, mentoring and professional development activities.
These leaders are considered to be good listeners; along with engaged listening comes
personalized interaction (Bass, 1998).
Organization of the Study
This study is organized into five chapters. Chapter I provided an overview of
leadership and the importance of effective leadership. It also includes the statement of
the problem, the purpose of the study, research questions, the significance of the study,
limitations of the study, delimitations of the study, definitions of terms, and an overview
of the dissertation. Chapter II is a literature review of the role, as well as the behavior
and effectiveness of the transformational leader. This chapter contains a comprehensive
review and critique of the literature, as it is specifically related to transformational
leadership traits. Chapter III is the methodology section, which includes the identification
of the population, sample selection, as well as the data collection and statistical analysis
procedures.
Chapter IV will present the findings of the study including collected data and
descriptive and statistical analysis of the data. Finally, Chapter V will provide an
overview of the study, summary of the data analysis, conclusions, and recommendations
for practitioners as well as recommendations for future research. References and
appendices will follow.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Leadership in Higher Education
Successful organizations require that both leaders and followers come together
and work to fulfill their shared vision and achieve the goals they believe will result in a
higher degree of excellence in their own institutions specifically, and in higher education
administration overall. Universities need leaders who can understand and integrate the
global picture of community needs with existing institutional resources and future
potential. More importantly, such outstanding leaders must be able to translate this
vision in ways that can be understood by their followers, empowering them to utilize
their skills to achieve the “shared vision.”
Traditionally effective leadership in higher education has been associated with
personal academic achievement, for example, journal and other scholarly publications,
conference presentations, and research supervision of students (Rowley, 1997). More
recently, effective leadership in a higher education context has evolved to be explicitly
associated with specific indicators and practices (Bryman, 2009; Gibbs et al., 2009; Scott
et al., 2008).
One of the most important elements of leadership in higher education is the
relationship between leaders and followers. The most successful administrators have the
ability to change the values, as well as the behaviors of followers, and to focus the entire
division of Student Affairs toward a commonly accepted vision of the future (source). In
higher education, an on-going and well-supported premise is that effective leadership
requires an involved, motivating and inspiring leader who enables individuals to achieve
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an explicit strategic vision. (Gibbs et al., 2009; Hesburgh, 1988; Pounder, 2001;
Ramsden, 1998; Rantz, 2002).
Student Affairs senior administrators have the unique opportunity to productively
influence others. Senior Administrators work in environments that are affected by the
institutional culture and the division or sub-groups of followers; in turn, leaders affect the
culture. Northouse (2010) summarizes that exceptional leaders can change institutional
values and thus change or transform themselves, followers, divisions and the institution
itself. Administrative leaders oversee various components of student affairs which places
them in positions to play a pivotal role in leading those under their charge to responsive
and progressive outcomes. At the same time, they encourage an internal environment
that delegates and empowers subordinates within the organization to address a variety of
constituents and challenges.
To accomplish this sense of unity in the institution, specifically in the Student
Affairs division, the senior administrators and staff or followers need both to understand
and to have agreement on the purpose or mission of the unique institution in which they
serve. Therefore, the leader-follower relationship is critical to our definition of
leadership in the higher educational setting. Leadership is an evolving, dynamic process
in which at different times, leaders become followers and followers become leaders. This
is done in order to realize goals mutually held by both leaders and followers (Burns,
1978). Burns believes that the leader-follower relationship is the interaction of
individuals who not only function with the same purpose in mind and pursue common
goals, but also operate with varying degrees of motivation and power potential. He sees
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this interaction following two paths: transactional leadership and transformational
leadership (1978, pp. 19-20).
Higher education institutions are going through a time of rapid social change.
The ability to change appropriately is one mark of a successful institution, and a
successful leader. Burns (1978) distinguishes between transactional leaders and
transformational leaders. Transactional leaders initiate exchanges by offering positive or
negative payoffs for tasks completed or not completed. Transactional leaders are
concerned with the task completion as opposed to transformational leaders who go
beyond to engage the whole person.
Leadership vs. Management
Leadership is active, not passive. Stogdill (1948) shared that leadership is not a
passive state, but results from a working relationship between the leader and other group
members. Great leaders speed up the reaction between the staff’s talent and the
organization’s goals. The challenge for great leaders is to determine the best way of
transforming these talents into performance.
Many may see the word leadership and management as synonymous but, they
must be differentiated for the purposes of this study. However, both these terms can be
examined in terms of their impact upon organizational effectiveness as opposed to
organizational management. Both leadership and management have many similarities as
both involve collaboration with people and transforming change through influencing
people; however, management is task-oriented, while leadership is people-oriented.
Zaleznik (1998) and Kotter (1990) assert that although leadership and
management may be similar in a few ways, they have many very distinct differences. It is
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unusual for one person to have the skills to serve as both an inspiring leader and a
professional manager. Understanding the differences between leadership and
management can ensure that followers know when and how to apply each set of
characteristics for given processes. Some scholars have attempted to explain leadership
by defining it as a trait or a behavior that is inherent; some define it from a human
relationship perspective, while others view leadership as a cognitive function (Antonakis,
Cianciolo & Sternberg, 2004; Bass, 1990; Bryman, 1992; Burns, 1978; Gardner, 1990;
Hickman, 1998; Northouse, 2007). It can be argued that leadership is not superior to
management. Instead, leadership is just one aspect of the much broader construct of
management.
In the context of leadership, Keyser (1985) said that leaders anticipate and create
a vision of what the institution can become, while the management aspect, “define and
do” helps to actualize the vision. Parnell indicated that management talent and leadership
talent are not the same, but it is a “blessing when these two attributes are combined in the
same person” (1988, p.1).
Leadership: What Does It Mean?
The absolute definition of leadership varies across the field literature; however, a
careful review of the scholarship yields several key definitions that allow the generation
of several key concepts. “Leadership is principally an action-oriented interpersonal
process” (Cribbin, 1981, p. v) Tucker (1984) states that leadership is the ability to
influence or motivate an individual or a group of individuals to work willingly toward a
given goal or objective under a specific set of circumstances. Jago (1982) has further
suggested that it is important to recognize that leadership is not only some quality or
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characteristic that one possesses, or is perceived to possess, but also something that one
does. It describes an act that is demonstrated through the interaction between people and
thus implies ‘followership.’”
As we reflect on the implications of these definitions of leadership, as they may
be applied to the higher education setting, leadership can be defined as the followers
capturing the essence of what is happening in higher education institutions across
America. Leadership is the ability to influence, shape, and instill values, beliefs, attitudes,
and behaviors consistent with the staff and faculty commitment to the unique mission of
that particular higher education institution. This definition is consistent with the
characteristics inherent in the term attributed to James MacGregor Burns –
“transformational leadership.”
According to Burns (1978) who is considered to be the founder of modern
leadership theory, he defined leadership as “leaders inducing followers to act for certain
goals that represent the values and the motivation – the wants and the needs, the
aspirations and expectations – of both leaders and followers” (p. 19). Transformational
leadership “occurs when one or more persons engage with others in such a way that
leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality
(fundamental wants, needs, aspirations, and values of the followers)” (Burns, 1978, p. 8).
Therefore, in order for one to influence another, the latter must permit himself or herself
to be influenced.
Effective and Non-Effective Leadership
In the early 1970s, a number of specific traits emerged from research that
differentiated leaders from followers and effective leaders from non-effective leaders.
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According to Bass (1990), effective leaders were found to have high levels of energy,
physical stamina and a high tolerance for stress. They typically work long hours for many
years which require physical, mental and emotional vitality. Kouzes & Posner (1993)
characterized them as “electric, vigorous, active, and full of life” as well as possessing
the “physical vitality to maintain a steadily productive work pace (p. 67).
Terenzini (1993) states that to be considered as effective leaders, contextual
intelligence rooted in an understanding of the customs and traditions and the historical
and philosophical understanding of the foundations of an organization is crucial. Such
intelligence includes an understanding of the assumptions, values, norms, and tangible
signs (artifacts) of faculty members, staff, and administrators and their interacting
behaviors.
According to Hill (2001), organizational culture is defined as "the specific
collection of values and norms that are shared by people and groups in an organization
and that control the way they interact with each other and with stakeholders outside the
organization." (p. 199). In order for a leader to be effective, one must have a cultural
understanding of the environment in which one will lead. In the book Organizational
Culture and Leadership, Edgar Schein (2004) writes: “The bottom line for leaders is that
if they do not become conscious of the cultures in which they are embedded, those
cultures will manage them. Cultural understanding is desirable for all of us, but it is
essential to leaders if they are to lead” (p.22).
Need for Transformational Leadership in Higher Education
Middlehurst, Goreham and Woodfield (2009) identify the relevance and need for
transformational leadership in higher education because these leaders tend to delegate
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responsibilities, and regularly monitor and communicate with their followers regarding
tasks assigned to them. Martin et al. (2003) attest that transformational leadership in
higher education links to high quality student learning processes and outcomes. While
Pounder (2001) suggests that transformational leadership is not only the key to effective
leadership in higher education, but that there is, in fact, already a strong presence of that
style of leadership in higher education today.
Models of Transformational Leadership
During the last two decades, theories about transformational leadership have
taken shape. Evidence about these theories has been aggregated for all levels of
organizations and not just for charismatic leaders of social movements and organizations.
The term transformational leadership was first coined by Downton (1973). Its
emergence as an important approach to leadership began with a classic work by political
sociologist James MacGregor Burns titled Leadership (1978). In his work, Burns
attempted to link the roles of leadership and followership. Burns distinguished between
two types of leadership: transactional and transformational. Neither Burns nor Downton
studied transformational leadership within the context of higher education; rather, they
based their research on political leaders, military officers, and business executives.
Bennis & Nanus - Four Themes Common to Transformational Leaders
Bennis and Nanus (1985) determined four themes common to transformational
leaders. These leaders have a clear vision of what the institution can become, and are
able to show followers ways to share and support the vision, so that they all gain
recognition and value within the organization. Secondly, these leaders know how to
articulate their message and convey what it means in a way that others are able to share.
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Thirdly, transformational leaders trust their followers, who in turn are willing to own and
take responsibility for the successful fulfillment of the vision. Finally, these leaders are
lucky enough to know themselves well and have high self-regard. This strong sense of
self-confidence often results in followers parroting that high level of self-worth and
making a real and positive difference regarding the vision and the various tasks that must
be achieved to enjoy true success.
Bass – Three Transformational Leadership Characteristics
Bass (1985a) has identified three characteristics of transformational leaders:
charismatic leadership, individualized consideration, and intellectual stimulation. These
characteristics are similar in many ways with the Bannis and Nanus’ themes. Bass further
identified two more characteristics of transactional leaders: contingent reinforcement and
management-by-exception. He also suggests that successful leaders select both
transactional and transformational strategies, varying their styles to fit the situation.
Yukl (1989) added to the ongoing discussion by asserting that while transactional
leadership and transformational leadership are closely related parts of leadership, they are
different. According to Bass and Steidlmeier (1998), the best leadership is both
transformational and transactional because transformational leadership enhances the
effectiveness of transactional leadership.
Transactional Leadership
Burns laid the foundation for the concept of transformational leaders, who can
create a vision for change, communicate it to others, and then help others to accomplish
that vision through their own motivation to do it. While transactional leaders manage,
transformational leaders promote fundamental change in the organization by helping the
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organization adjust to the varying needs of today’s rapidly changing higher education
institutions.
Burns (1978) analyzes transactional leadership as contingent reinforcement. It
focuses on exchanges between leaders and followers whereby they agree on the need to
attain specific goals, and then develop objectives to reach the goals set forth in their
agreement. They then reach an understanding about rewards for the successful
completion of tasks, or they decide what the punishment will be for incompletion or
failure. Once the exchange is completed, there is no further need to interact unless
another process of contingent reward is introduced. In this style of leadership, followers’
performance depends on individual needs and expectations as it regards motivation,
rewards and behaviors exhibited by the leaders.
Behaviors of Transactional Leaders
Klimoski and Hayes (1980) identified six observable behaviors of transactional
leaders: explicitness, communication, involvement, support, review, and consistency.
The reward aspect of this interaction between leader and follower in which the follower is
rewarded for the task. This rewarding arrangement often becomes the motivation for the
followers to follow their leader. Transactional leaders can overemphasize detailed and
short-term goals, and standard rules and procedures. They do not necessarily make an
effort to enhance followers’ creativity and generation of new ideas. This kind of a
leadership style may work well where the organizational problems are simple and clearly
defined. Often transactional leaders feel no motivation to reward their followers if
matters are proceeding in the correct way.
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Difference Between Transactional Leadership and Transformational Leadership
Burns, who laid the blueprint for transformational leadership, deliberately chose
to distinguish between the terms transactional and transformational leadership. He
defines leadership as inducing followers to take action to achieve certain goals that
represent the values, motivation, needs and aspirations of both leaders and followers.
The distinction between “transactional leadership” and “transformational
leadership” is significant, so senior administrators in higher education today must possess
or create the synergy to communicate new visions and enable others to not only see their
visions, but also to commit to the vision themselves. Transformational leaders are also
sensitive to the fact that change has a tremendous impact on both the institution and the
divisions within it. Thus, successful transformational leaders attend to numerous
institutional and divisional needs when they are in the process of initiating change.
Recognizing the Change Process
Transformational leaders must attend to different stages or acts in the ongoing
dynamic of the change process. In each of these stages, the leader must discern the
institutional, divisional and individual dynamics that are implicated in the change
process. In the first stage, the senior administrators need to recognize the need for
change and new directions. Thus, there are needs for “transformation” in the
organization. In the second stage, the leader needs to create a new vision. Not only does
the leader motivate the members of the organization toward a collaborative commitment,
but s/he must also aid in individual transitions toward that vision. Finally, the senior
leaders in Student Affairs should institutionalize the change and aid individual staff
members in making their own changes.
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In “A Memo from Machiavelli”, Julius (1999) outlines the needed ways for an
administrator to change for the benefit of the university and himself or herself. Julius
points out these important themes on how to be an effective leader in higher education:
relying on your allies, respecting the history, utilizing committees and personal
relationships. Leadership is a relationship; it is not the property of any individual. Julius
points out the importance of relying on your allies and the nonacademic administrators
because without them you cannot maintain your influence and run the institution
effectively. If you have a strong belief about an issue, you have enormous power to be
effective. Academic organizations are skeptical of anyone in a position of authority;
therefore, rather than taking on the whole community at once, you should choose your
allies and adversaries carefully, and at the right time (Julius, p. 117).
Common Leadership Behavior Associated with Leadership Effectiveness at the
Department Level
The role of department and division heads in contemporary colleges and
universities is much different and more multifaceted than it was even just a decade ago.
Student Affairs department directors and Senior Administrators must conduct
performance reviews, oversee budgets, carry out strategic planning, and negotiate their
department’s identity within highly complex institutions (Hecht, Higgerson, Gmelch, &
Tucker, 1999). One of the most popular approaches to leadership that has been the focus
of much research since the early 1980s is the transformational approach. According to
Northouse (2010), transformational leadership is concerned with improving the
performance of followers and developing followers to their fullest. There are four factors
that characterize the behavior of transformational leaders and they are: individual
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consideration, intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation, and idealized influence;
these factors are discussed in greater detail below.
Benoit & Graham (2005) mentions different types of leadership behaviors and
roles that demonstrate diverse responsibilities that integrate by working toward
improving the department or division goals. The visionary is the planner and dreamer
leading the department and division into the future. The visionary leader is a
transformational leader (Waldman & Bass, 1990), a change agent capable of creating a
space for change and generating consensus among the followers. These leaders accept
the role with the expectation that making changes would be an exciting challenge.
An important aspect of vision is the notion of shared vision."Some studies
indicate that it is the presence of this personal vision on the part of a leader, shared with
members of the organization, that may differentiate true leaders from mere managers"
(Manasse, 1986, p. 151). It is paramount for both of these types of leaders to share the
vision of the organization they are a part of in order to be respected and accepted as the
leader. "All leaders have the capacity to create a compelling vision, one that takes people
to a new place, and the ability to translate that vision into reality" (Bennis,1990, p. 46).
Through personal accomplishments and demonstrated character, the leader must
provide a model for the staff member to follow, whereby they can utilize the idealized
influence aspect of behavior. The leader must not put their interest first, but to learn to go
beyond their self-interest for the good of the group. When the staff or followers see that
their leader is willing to put individual’s needs ahead of their own, for the betterment of
the department or their organization, they feel special, and their self worth escalates.
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Their escalation occurs because they know their leader understands the needs of the
group as well as the needs and interests of each individual.
External Liaison
Within the concept of idealized influence leadership behavior, another leadership
behavioral trait that demonstrates improving the department or division is the external
liaison, who establishes relationships with external audiences relevant to the university in
order to advance the department. These external audiences can be alumni, prospective
students, faculty, staff, other departments, the community, granting agencies, and even
possible donors. Establishing these connections with constituents outside of the
immediate division or department, and advocating for the mission of the department, is a
way for senior administrators to advance the vision of the department. Leaders with
idealized influence can be trusted and respected by associates to make good decisions for
the organization. Idealized influence is characterized by modeling behavior through
exemplary personal achievements, character, and behavior. By putting others first, you
expect the followers to learn how to put others first too.
Individualized consideration.
Another leadership trait asserted by Bass (1985) includes individualized
consideration or individualized attention. For Burns (1978), leadership is quite different
from power because it is inseparable from followers’ needs. Individualized consideration
is when a leader coaches, facilitates, teaches and mentors, and encourages two-way
communications and feedback. Transformational leaders act as mentors and coaches. As
a team player, the leader would need to make an extra effort to provide personal attention
to individual staff members, especially those who feel left out. This factor, individual
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consideration, is representative of leaders who act as coaches and advisers while trying to
assist followers in becoming fully actualized. An example of this factor can be shown in
the leader’s relationship with their staff by spending time treating each employee in a
caring and unique way.
As one moves upward in their career trajectories, one can often forget about the
“little people” per se, or those who are, or feel they are, being left out. This trait also
encompasses the need to respect and celebrate the individual contribution that each
follower can make to the team, understanding that it is the diversity of the team that
makes the team strong and unique. As a leader, making sure that no one in a group or
team is left behind, is one of the critical leadership behaviors mentioned in Burns book.
Intellectual stimulation.
Intellectual stimulation is defined as having a leader who encourages innovation
and creativity, as well as critical thinking and problem-solving. Leaders with this trait
stimulate and encourage creativity in their followers. The degrees to which the leader
challenges assumptions, takes risks and solicits followers’ ideas, are one of the main
characteristics of this component. The leader’s vision provides the framework for
followers to see how they can connect with the leader and the institution. The followers
see the ways in which they can align each individual’s performance goals with the overall
organizational goals.
The effective school administrators must help the department to think of old
problems in new ways. In further describing intellectual stimulation Bass (1985) goes on
to say that leaders must communicate high expectations through a powerful and dynamic
presence. One of the ways that a leader can incorporate this behavior is by
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communicating with colleagues as equals, regardless of their position. Treat the staff as
if they are intelligent enough to make the right decision. President Obama’s campaign
speeches (BarackObamadotcom, 2008) were a true example of this characteristic. He
reminded the public, the general populace that “We are the people we have been waiting
for.” This aspect of intellectual stimulation describes leaders who encourage innovation
and creativity by challenging the normal beliefs or views of a group. This behavior in a
leader, promotes critical thinking and problem solving to make the organization better.
Inspirational motivation.
Inspirational leaders are able to develop an effective organizational vision and
build team spirit, as well as a meaningful work environment. Inspirational motivation is
another trait identified by Bass (1985). With the ever present demand for accountability
and competing pressures from multiple constituencies within and outside the university,
effective senior leaders need to be thoughtful visionaries who can develop feasible
solutions to institutional problems. This is the degree to which the leader articulates a
vision that is appealing and inspiring to followers. Leaders motivate the followers with
high standards, and communicate optimism about future goal attainment. Bass pointed
out that the followers need to have a strong sense of purpose in order to be motivated to
act. The purpose and meaning will stimulate the energy that drives a group forward.
The most important factor in effecting change, ultimately, is the courage of the
leaders to identify the division or department’s shortcomings, and then convey the
findings with potential solutions to followers that will include both proponents and
adversaries. Shaw states that “leaders must direct the assessment effort to identify where
the problems lie and what problems are perceived by the people who run the
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organization” (1999, p. 35). Not only must leaders promote the expectations for
excellence in departmental or divisional practice but also ensure that high standards are
the norm for the organization. They must do so by setting the example through their own
behavior.
Locke and Latham (2002) presented a similar model of effective, motivational
leadership. This model addresses two types of motivation – drive and leadership
motivation. The first motive, drive, includes five aspects: achievement motivation,
ambition, energy, tenacity, and initiative. Locke and Latham (2002) state that effective
leaders are motivated by a desire for achievement. They are ambitious about their work
and professions and have a desire to reach for the top. They obtain satisfaction from
setting high standards and goals for themselves and achieving them.
Change is an ongoing process, especially in higher education institutions;
therefore, the senior administrators need to be proactive and constantly moving through
different phases of the change process. While one area, division let us say, might be
going through a change, a new change might be implemented or completed in another
area. Therefore, these transformational leaders must go along with these changes and
facilitate a process enabling the followers to meet the challenge of change as well.
Higher education leaders must have both a sense of the past and a vision of the future.
The world is changing rapidly and these changes will have an inevitable and profound
impact on higher education. Success depends on managerial savvy coupled with moral
and political persuasiveness (Julius, p. 116).
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Characteristics of a Leader of Change
Some of the characteristics of a leader that enables them to successfully lead their
organizations through change are as follows (Bryman, 2009):
 Be inspired in your heart and mind, and show it.
 Be connected to yourself, the world and the people around you.
 Be grounded in reality.
 Have a vision and communicate it with passion and purpose. Allow your
emotion to speak to others in a way that transcends the mind, and speaks to
the heart.
 Pay personal attention to others in a way that engages them and generates trust
and commitment. Genuinely care about them, what they want, and how you
can serve them.
 Access the awesome power of the mind. Be curious, open to new ideas and
learn constantly.
One’s unique and authentic way of being you creates the energy, passions, drive that
makes the difference. It is about how one develops and grows as a leader. What you will
and will not stand for, the personal choices and commitments the leader makes.
Expectations
New conceptions of “leadership look at leadership as a process in which leaders
are not seen as individuals in charge of followers, but as members of a community of
practice” (Horner, 1997, p. 277). According to Davis (2003), the term leadership implies
movement, taking the organization to a new direction, solving problems, being creative,
initiating new programs, building organizational structures, and improving quality (p. 4).
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Higher education institutions expect and value expertise, good judgment and knowledge
from their senior administrators. Those who can harmonize these traits are respected and
admired. However, to exercise influence over others, these attributes must go hand-in-
hand with political, structural, symbolic and human resources and the ability to be
flexible, sensitive, empathetic to the needs of others. “If the perception exists that you do
not have integrity, wisdom, or selflessness…. you will lose your influence and ability to
manage change in the organization” (Julius, p. 117).
While very little research has been done on transformational leadership within the
context of higher education, there seem to be many parallels and similarities from general
scholarship on this topic. The impact of transformational leadership on organizational
effectiveness can be compared to higher educational setting even if the context is
business, military or political. The key is in finding an effective way to collaborate
successfully, and in aligning the mission of the institution with each department or
division—empowering each person to become a leader themselves and becoming a
transformative change agent in the lives of students, staff and the institution as a whole.
According to Rouech, Baker, and Rose (1989), transformational leadership in higher
education is the ability of the senior administrators to influence the values, attitudes,
beliefs, and behaviors of others.
Kouzes & Posner’s (2002) Leadership Framework – The Leadership Challenge
Kouzes and Posner’s (1987) initial research on transformational leadership started
by interviewing more than 1,300 middle and senior managers in both private and public
sector organizations. Each person was asked to select a project, program, or significant
event that represented his or her “personal-best” leadership experience. Kouzes and
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Posner’s The Leadership Challenge, and the five exemplary leadership practices
framework, transform leadership practices in a way that are different from other studies
which have been conducted during the past century of leadership research.
The five exemplary leadership practices are discussed below.
Challenge the process.
It was discovered that leaders who consistently demonstrated extraordinary
accomplishments within their organizations on a long-term basis tended to follow certain
well-defined practices. The first fundamental leadership practice is to ‘challenge the
process’, which implies that successful leaders are willing to take calculated risks
(Kouzes & Posner, 2002; Whetten & Cameron, 1985). Effective leaders also encourage
and motivate their followers by providing challenges that constitute opportunities for
personal growth and development. Kouzes and Posner view a failed attempt as a learning
opportunity.
Searching for opportunities by seeking innovative ways to change, grow and
improve are some of the common themes within the challenge the process leadership
practice. Within the context of higher education administration, it requires the leader to
experiment and take risks by constantly generating small wins and learning from
mistakes. In higher education, it requires modeling or visiting other organizations, to see
what one can learn from them. Consistently asking students and constituents for their
feedback on improving and challenging the process to make it better, is one of the most
common practices within the frame of this challenge the process practice.
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Model the way.
The second practice is called “modeling the way.” This concept points to the fact
that successful leaders consistently and conscientiously project an appropriate example
for their followers (Kouzes & Posner, 2002). For example, leaders tend to model
effective leadership when they are seen dealing with complex issues in a thoughtful and
incremental manner. Furthermore, the values of the leader must be consistent with those
of their followers. ‘Leaders who advocate values that aren’t representative of the
collective won’t be able to mobilize people to act as one.’ (Kouzes & Posner, 2002, p.
212.).
Kouzes and Posner have asserted that envisioning the future, inspiring that vision
in others, and creating the corresponding plans are necessary to make the vision a reality.
Leaders must first be clear about their guiding principles. To effectively model the
behavior they expect of others, leaders must first be clear about their own guiding
principles. Leaders must find their own voice, and then they must clearly and
distinctively give voice to their values. Leaders should not ask others to do things they
are unwilling to do, first the leader must set the example. These leaders set an example
and build commitment through simple, daily acts that create progress and build
momentum. Modeling the way is essentially about earning the right and the respect to
lead, through direct individual involvement and action. People first follow the person
and then start to follow the plan or their goal.
Inspire a shared vision.
The third fundamental leadership practice is to ‘inspire a shared vision’, and this
denotes the importance of precipitating a collective commitment to the future of the
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organization (Kouzes & Posner, 2002). Effective leaders help their followers connect to,
and become supportive of, a common mission. Leaders inspire a shared vision. Leaders
have a desire to make something happen, to change the way things are, to create
something that no one else has ever created before. In some ways, leaders live their lives
backwards. They see pictures in their mind’s eye of what the results will look like even
before they have started their project, much as an architect draws a blueprint or an
engineer builds a model.
In higher education, in order for senior administrators to enlist their staff or
followers in a vision, leaders must know their constituents and speak their language. It is
important for the followers to believe that their leader understands their needs and have
their interests at heart. On the other hand, to enlist support, leaders must have intimate
knowledge of people’s dreams, hopes, aspirations, visions, and values. Law and Glover
(2000) found that transforming shared visions into a moral covenant, maintaining
harmony, institutionalizing values and motivating followers, are all effort that supported
effective leadership in higher education. Moss et al. (1994) state that inspiring a shared
vision and establishing standards that helps the organization, tend to foster unity,
collaboration, and ownership and recognize individual and team contributions.
Enable others to act.
‘Enable others to act’, the fourth fundamental leadership practice, refers to the
importance of empowering followers in order to nurture true collaboration (Kouzes and
Posner, 2002). Successful leaders develop trusting and participatory relationships which
inherently involve and value everyone in the organization (Goldring & Greenfield, 2002).
‘Without constituents to enlist, a prospective leader is all alone, taking no one anywhere.
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Without leaders, constituents have no energizer to ignite their passions, no followers, no
compass by which to be guided.’ (Kouzes & Posner, 1995, p. 30).
Exemplary leaders enable others to act. In fact, Kouzes and Posner argue, leaders
enable followers to act not by hoarding the power they have but by giving it away. When
a leader makes followers feel strong and capable, as if they can do more than they ever
thought possible, the followers tend to give it their all and even exceed their own
expectations. It is through a relationship founded on trust and confidence that leaders
turn their constituents into leaders themselves.
Encourage the heart.
The fifth fundamental leadership practice is to ‘encourage the heart’, which refers
to the importance of recognizing and celebrating the efforts and accomplishments of
followers (Kouzes & Posner, 2002). Rather than focusing solely on formal rewards,
effective leaders are quick to share the credit with others and to compliment followers in
order to validate their contributions, and enhance their credibility further. When the
followers are exhausted and discouraged, it is part of the leader’s job to show
appreciation for the staff’s contributions and to create a culture of celebration.
This particular practice deals with the behaviors that work so powerfully to
inspire achievement. Often considered the “softer” of the other leadership skills because
of its high emotional content, this trait is actually harder for some people to execute.
Every person needs recognition. The practice of encouraging the heart involves
recognition, and this trait reveals one as a leader who pays attention to the positive
contribution the followers make. Kouzes and Posner (2002) summarize that it is
important to recognize and celebrate when the organization reaches goals or other
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milestones. Taking the time to celebrate together not only pays tribute to the goal and the
effort it took to get there, but it can develop camaraderie and cohesiveness within the
team.
The Ten Commitments of Leadership
Kouzes and Posner (2002) suggest that these ten commitments (Table 1) serve as
the guide for how leaders get extraordinary things done in organizations and as the
structure for what is to follow.

Table 1
The Ten Commitments of Leadership
Practice Commitment
Model the Way 1. Find your voice by clarifying your personal values
2. Set the example by aligning actions with shared values.
Inspire a
Shared Vision
3. Envision the future by imagining exciting and ennobling
possibilities.
4. Enlist others in a common vision by appealing to shared
aspirations.
Challenge the
Process
5. Search for opportunities by seeking innovative ways to change,
grow, and improve.
6. Experiment and take risks by constantly generating small wins
and learning from mistakes.
Enable Others
to Act
7. Foster collaboration by promoting cooperative goals and building
trust.
8. Strengthen others by sharing power and discretion.
Encourage the
Heart
9. Recognize contributions by showing appreciation for individual
excellence.
10. Celebrate the values and victories by creating a spirit of
community.
Source: The Leadership Challenge by James M. Kouzes and Barry Z. Posner, Copyright
@ 2002.
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CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
Chapter 3 describes the purpose and design of the study, identifies the participants
of the research aspect of this study, clarifies how data was collected and analyzed, and
explains the instruments used to conduct the research.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to answer the following research questions:
1. What strategies, skills and or leadership styles do Student Affair
Administrators use to develop the Student Affairs Division?
2. What leadership qualities do senior-level Student Affairs Administrators
exhibit which are indicative of the ability to lead a team?
3. How do Student Affairs Administrators pass on their knowledge of leadership
to the next generation of Student Affairs leaders?
This mixed-method study was conducted to identify the skills, strategies, and
styles that would characterize a senior-level Student Affairs administrator as an effective
leader. How can senior-level Student Affairs administrators support students and entry-
level practitioners in their quest to be an effective leader? This research sought to
measure and gain and understanding of leadership traits; identify the characteristics of an
inspiring, exemplary leader within student affairs and help individuals discover the five
practices of effective leadership styles. Leadership theories can provide a context for
how a leader leads others, and why followers buy into their ideologies (Kezar, Carducci,
& Contrreras-McGavin, 2006). This study also seeks to examine how senior level Student
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Affairs administrators lead their student affairs departments to build effective leaders and
support new practitioners in developing their own leadership practices. The literature has
left senior level Student Affairs administrators in higher education with different
leadership theories, knowledge, and information on how to identify their leadership
strengths and find opportunities for improvement. The data was collected to determine
factors that have helped to shape Student Affairs administrators’ leadership styles that
help to meet the needs of students, practitioners, and the university
Research Design
This study was designed as a mixed-methods study conducted with senior-level
Student Affairs administrators who are leading a Student Affairs department at
University California West (UCW) and University California Sunnyland (UCS). Kouzes
and Posner (1987) developed and articulated the five practices of exemplary leaders’
framework with an intensive research project to determine leadership competencies.
They collected thousands of “Personal Best” leadership experiences which shows how
anyone can develop the key leadership skills needed “to get extraordinary things done.”
This research outlines the principles and practices that are solidly based in more than two
decades of quantitative and qualitative research by collecting thousands of “Personal
Best” stories—the experiences people recalled when asked to think of a peak leadership
experience. The Leadership Challenge serves as a guide book for practitioners by sharing
anecdotes, strategies, and behavioral skills for leaders to utilize (Davis et al., 1988). This
theory is not aimed at academics but at practitioners, managers, and non-managers who
want to enhance their leadership skills (Middlehurst, 1989). The Leadership Challenge
has five fundamental leadership practices that help a leader to create and accomplish
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extraordinary things such as Model the Way, Inspire a Shared Vision, Challenge the
Process, Enable Others to Act, and Encourage Heart.
Population and Sampling
The survey population for this research consisted of 40 senior-level Student
Affairs professionals at two different higher education institutions in the state of
California. University California West (UCW) is a large public institution that has an
enrollment of about 30,000 undergraduate and graduate students. The Student Affairs
division at UCW has twenty different departments under its Student Affairs umbrella.
Private University California Sunnyland (UCS) is an elite private institution with an
enrollment of 35,000 graduate and undergraduates students. UCS student affairs division
has twenty departments in their student affairs division.
In this study, senior-level Student Affairs will be surveyed. Senior-level Student
Affairs leader refers to a Director of a department. Purposeful sampling was used for the
quantitative research, and a Leadership Practice Inventory (LPI) online survey was sent
to 40 senior-level Student Affairs professionals at University California West (UCW) and
University California Sunnyland (UCS). Patton (2002) confirmed that “random
probability samples cannot accomplish what in-depth, purposeful samples accomplish,
and vice versa” (p. 236). The participants in the qualitative portion of the research study
were six senior-level Student Affairs administrators who also agreed to participate in a 30
minute interview and answered open-ended questions about their beliefs and practices.
Three from each institution agreed to participate.
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Instrumentation
This dissertation study utilized a self-administered Leadership Practices Inventory
(LPI) and a researcher-developed questionnaire adapted from a questionnaire originally
developed by Kouzes and Posner (1988) and subsequently updated by the authors in
2003. According to Kouzes and Posner (1997), “the LPI was developed based upon
responses to the Personal-Best Leadership Experience Questionnaire” (p. 342). The
authors examined these responses and “through a triangulation of qualitative and
quantitative research methods” (Kouzes & Posner, 1995, p. 341) developed the
Leadership Practices Inventory.
The Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) is a 30 item questionnaire containing
five subscales for each of The Five Practices of Exemplary Leadership: challenging the
process, inspiring a shared vision, enabling others to act, modeling the way, and
encouraging the heart. Each subscale contains six questions, with a 10-point Likert
response scale and takes approximately 10-20 minutes to complete. A copy of the LPI-
Self is included in Appendix A.
Six senior-level administrators agreed to participate in a follow up interview.
This interview used a qualitative approach to gather information in attempting to
understand senior-level Student Affairs leadership approaches. Interviewing allows the
researcher to gain personal insight from the senior-level administrators who shared their
perspective on things that cannot be directly observed (Patton, 2002). The interviews
utilized the informal, conversational approach. Such an interview approach suggests that
the data collected will be different with each person interviewed and when they are
interviewed, as a result of the format (Patton, 2002).
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Data Collection
The investigator sent the survey along with the Request to Participate letter to 40
senior-level Student Affairs administrators at UCW and UCS before August 2011. The
survey was an online version of The Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) which is a 30
item questionnaire containing five subscales for each of The Five Practices of Exemplary
Leadership: challenging the process, inspiring a shared vision, enabling others to act,
modeling the way, and encouraging the heart. An electronic cover letter assuring subject
confidentiality, as well as providing instructions for completion of the instrument was
sent with each survey. Electronic invitations from LPI asking the chief student affairs
officers (directors) at UCW and UCS were initially distributed by electronic mail on June
25, 2012. Three follow-up reminders were sent and calls were made to the chief student
affairs officers who had failed to respond to the original request.
The one-on-one interviews were conducted with senior-level Student Affairs
administrators. They all were directors or a Student Affairs department. An appointment
was made with each senior-level Student Affairs administrator and they were emailed the
questions in advance of the interview. All interviews were conducted with leaders at their
place of work. All responses were audio-taped with the permission of the leader, and
were transcribed and used in the qualitative portion of the study.
Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics were used to find variance within the quantitative data
collected. The data was collected using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
[SPSS] and was coded, scored and analyzed using this system.
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The qualitative data was collected during one-on-one interviews where senior-
level Student Affairs administrators answered open-ended questions. The results provided
valuable data with regard to necessary leadership strategies, skills, and styles that
characterize a senior-level Student Affairs administrator as an effective leader.
The analysis included:
1. Detailed descriptions of The Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI)
questionnaire containing five subscales for each of The Five Practices of
Exemplary Leadership: challenging the process, inspiring a shared vision,
enabling others to act, modeling the way, and encouraging the heart.
2. Descriptive statistics, in terms of mean and standard deviation, were used for
all responses on years at the job and total years in Student Affairs.
3. Testing for significance within the areas of leadership defined by LPI
researchers.
4. The interview questionnaires analyzed for trends in common responses.
Reliability and Validity
Reliability refers to the extent to which a research instrument contains
measurement errors that cause scores to differ for reasons unrelated to the individual
respondent (Aiken, 1997). According to research experts such as Aiken, instrument
reliabilities above .60 are considered good. The tested reliability of the LPI and its
frequent use by other researchers and longitudinal data collected by Kouzes and Posner
(2002) made it an easy choice for this research study because of its reliability. In
addition, “researchers have shown how leadership practices, as measured by the LPI, are
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related to organizational effectiveness” (p. 14). As a result of the LPI's previously tested
validity and reliability in numerous studies, a pilot study was not deemed necessary.
Ethical Considerations
The researcher submitted the necessary request forms for the research involving
human participation to the University of Southern California Institutional Review Board
(IRB). First, all University of Southern California Institutional Review Board (IRB)
guidelines and procedures were explicitly followed. Secondly, all participants consented
to participate in the study and all were informed of the purpose and nature of the
research. Confidentiality and anonymity of all participants in the study were adhered to
strictly. The approval from the Institution Review Board was received on April 17, 2012,
and a copy of the approval can be found in Appendix A.
Summary
This chapter presented the quantitative and qualitative methodologies, including
the ranking of the outcomes and the correlation within responses, in order to answer the
research questions. The purpose of the study was to analyze the leadership strategies,
skills and leadership styles of senior-level Student Affairs to measure and gain and
understanding of leadership traits; identify the characteristics of an inspiring, exemplary
leader within student affairs and help individuals discover the five practices of effective
leadership styles. Information was collected via qualitative interviews and quantitative
surveys with senior-level Student Affairs administrators.
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CHAPTER 4
FINDINGS
Overview
This chapter provides an analysis of the data from the current study, which aimed
to explore the most common and effective leadership traits, among Senior Administrators
in Student Affairs, which have been found to be most efficacious in promoting productive
and desired-for changes in higher education. The purpose of this study is to measure a
broad range of leadership traits; identify the characteristics of an inspiring leader within
student affairs; and help individuals assess and discover their own professional
accomplishments and potential.
The primary purpose of this research study, is to identify the effective leadership
strategies, professional approaches styles, and skills that Senior Student Affairs
Administrators use to develop the Student Affairs Divisions in urban universities.
Additionally, the study closely examines the skills and tactics senior administrators use to
transfer their garnered knowledge of leadership, gained through their own professional
experiences, to future generations of Student Affairs administrators. The five exemplary
leadership practices as identified by Kouzes and Posner (2002) and the Leadership
Practices Inventory (LPI) survey are used to measure the leadership strategies, skills, and
professional approaches styles used by effective senior-level Student Affairs
administrators at two urban universities in California.
A secondary purpose of this study is to identify the common and effective
leadership traits among Senior Administrators in Student Affairs that would potentially
promote the most desired and productive changes in higher education.
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Data Collection Phase 1
The quantitative data was collected from a survey using an electronic
questionnaire and the qualitative data for the study was collected from open-ended
questions utilized during the interviews. Data were obtained from using the Leadership
Practices Inventory developed by James Kouzes and Barry Posner. Kouzes and Posner
(2007) have stated that those leaders who used the five practices, as articulated by them,
were more frequently perceived to have higher personal credibility, as well as being more
effective in meeting job related demands.
Student Affairs administrators provide a critical and valuable service to university
management on issues that affect students’ social and academic outcomes. Strong
Student Affairs units enable students to positively meet the practical challenges of student
life. They also empower students to strengthen their focus on studies, personal growth,
and improved learning outcomes. In order for any student affairs division to be effective,
the Senior Administrators must know the student community they serve, and be able to
determine those leadership qualities that will rally, develop and focus the efforts of the
staff. In this study, the analysis of the results from the survey and interviews reveals the
most common leadership practices that Senior Student Affairs Administrators say are
effective and indicative of a person’s ability to lead a team.
The five (5) leadership practices identified by Kouzes and Posner are as follows:
Model the Way, Challenge the Process, Inspire a Shared Vision, Encourage the Heart,
and Enable Others to Act. The five subscales were derived from the 30 Questions on the
Leadership Practice Inventory (LPI). The 30 Questions described behaviors that were to
be rated on a 10-point Likert scale and were weighted as: 1 = Almost never, 2 = Rarely, 3
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= Seldom, 4 = Once in a while, 5 = Occasionally, 6 = Sometimes, 7 = Fairly often, 8 =
Usually, 9 – Very frequently, and 10 = Almost always.
Data Collection Phase 2
The second phase of data collection began with the interviews. The three
interviewees for this study were selected from UCS. All interviews were recorded at the
participants’ respective offices. At the end of every interview, the researcher listened to
the recorded interview and electronically annotated the participant responses by using the
Dictamus Iphone Application. Participants were chosen from different backgrounds, age
groups, positions in the student affairs field and by gender.
Research Questions
The mixed methods approach of triangulating the findings was used in checking
for consistency of findings between the survey data, literature and interview data.
Findings are reported in order by the following research questions:
1. What strategies, skills and or leadership styles do Student Affair
Administrators use to develop the Student Affairs Division?
2. What leadership qualities do senior-level Student Affairs Administrators
exhibit which are indicative of the ability to lead a team?
3. How do Student Affairs Administrators pass on their knowledge of leadership
to the next generation of Student Affairs leaders?
Participant Demographics
Descriptive Statistics of Demographic Variable
A total of 40 Senior Student Affairs Officers (Directors) from UCW and UCS
were invited to participate in the study. Of that number, a total of 24 participated in the
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LPI survey for a 60% response rate. The characteristics of the student affairs officers
who participated in this study are described in Table 2. The study utilized demographic
information about the Senior Student Affair Administrators (SSAA) for descriptive
purposes only, including the categorical variables of (a) gender, (b) areas of student
affairs where the participant works, and (c) institution.
Of the total group of 23 Senior Student Affairs Officers (Directors), 15 were
female (62%) and 8 were male (33%). These leaders include roughly equivalent
percentages of Residence Life (22%), Student Services (26%), but the numbers were
much higher in terms of Student and Campus Life (52%). Of the total group, 19
(82.60%) were at a director level and the remaining 4 (17.39%) were executive directors.
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Table 2
Description of Student Affairs Directors Units
Characteristics N %
Types of Student Affairs Units
Residence Life 4 17.39%
Student Services 9 39.13%
Student and Campus Life 10 43.47%
Title
Director 19 82.60%
Executive Director 4 17.39%
Gender
Male 15 62%
Female 8 33%
Area of Specialization
Director of Academic and International Fellowships
Director of Admissions and Student Affairs - Keck
Director of Center for Black Cultural & Student Affairs
Director of Center for Student Programming
Director of Center for Women & Men
Director of Community Program Office
Director of Counseling & Psychological Services
Director of Cultural and Recreational Affairs
Director of EAOP (Early Academic Outreach Program)
Director of Graduate Student Resource Center
Director of LGBT (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender)
Director of New Student & Transition Program
Director of Office Technology Center
Director of Orientation Programs
Director of Residential Communities
Director of Residential Education
Director of Student Services and Initiatives
Director of Student Affairs Information & Research Office
Executive Director of Black Alumni Programs
Executive Director of Residential & Student Life
Executive Director of Community Standards
Senior Director of Recreational Sports
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Institution Demographics - UCW
The University California West (UCW) is a public research university located in
the Westwood neighborhood of Los Angeles, California. It is the second oldest of the ten
campuses of the University of California system. UCW is considered to be the flagship
campus of the University of California system. With over 300 undergraduate and
graduate degree programs in a wide range of disciplines, the enrollment at UCW is about
27,000 undergraduate and about 12,000 graduate students from the United States.
From the enrolled population of California residents, nearly 32 percent would be
the first in their family to graduate from a four-year college if they successfully
matriculate, and additionally, just over 32 percent of this population comes from low-
income families (Vazquez, 2012). There is increasing evidence that higher education
must address the basic personal needs of students by providing a comprehensive set of
out-of-classroom student services and programs commonly referred to as student affairs.
First-generation college students, with their unique needs and expectations, make up a
growing population of students on today's college campuses. Many of these incoming
students who enter the higher education system experience difficult cultural transitions.
As Striplin (1999) writes, the struggle for many of the first-generation students to be
academically ready to succeed in colleges is intensified by the prevalence of poor
academic preparation and low socioeconomic levels. Often these particular groups of
first-time students have anxieties that they will not succeed in college because they have
not had the privilege of seeing their parents succeed in a college setting. For these
students, their view of the world is limited by their immediate environments and
experiences. Helping these students overcome specific, personal challenges is one of
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many crucial roles the student affairs administrators fill. Successful administrators’ help
their students succeed while they are in school. It is hoped, that with help, more students
will stay in school and actually graduate. Lack of social and academic support from the
senior student affairs administrators is one of the critical challenges that face not only
first generation college students but students generally.
The location of the Los Angeles campus makes excursions to local museums,
theaters, or other entertainment venues relatively quick and easy, thus the campus is
readily contextualized within the larger communities of the city that surround it. UCW
offers more than 800 organizations for student participation. They include: classical
orchestras, intramural sports, as well as more than 60 national and local Greek-letter
organizations. Fraternity and sorority members represent 13 percent of the student
population. Many of these campus organizations are offered under the auspices of the
student affairs division.
At the UCW campus, units within Student Affairs Administration provide a
variety of direct student services vital to student success. For example, the Office of the
Vice Chancellor provides a broad range of centralized administrative support to the
Student Affairs organization with 24 different units, each with their own Student Affairs
Directors. The Mission of Student Affairs Unit is to support the academic success of all
UCW students. It fosters their intellectual, personal, social and professional development
in preparation for life well beyond their university experience and contributes to
enhancing the quality of campus life, the educational environment, and the students’
relationship with the broader UCW family. The Student Affairs units play a crucial role
in educating the student as a whole person. Consequently, the effective leadership styles
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of these Student Affairs Directors set a tone for the staffs within each of the units, which
ultimately impact the successful learning outcomes of their students.
University California Sunnyland – UCS
The University California Sunnyland (UCS) is a private, research university
located in the South Central portion of Los Angeles, California. Founded in 1880, UCS
is the California’s oldest private research university in the United States. Its four-year,
full-time undergraduate program enrolled 17,380 undergraduate students in Fall 2010.
The campus also enrolled 19,516 graduate and professional students including business,
law, social work, and medicine. Much like the UCW campus, another positive aspect of
the UCS location is easy access to the city. The university challenge students to create a
diverse community of mutual respect through cultural exploration and social interaction
in and outside of the classrooms.
At the UCS campus, units within Student Affairs Administration is devoted to
creating an integrated learning experience that helps students reach their educational,
personal and professional aspirations. The central mission is the development of human
beings and society as a whole through the cultivation and enrichment of the human mind
and spirit. For example, the Office of the Vice Chancellor President for Student Affairs
provides a broad range of centralized administrative support to the Student Affairs
organization with 45 different units, each with their own Student Affairs Directors.
The University California Sunnyland has a larger enrollment of international
students than any other college or university in the United States (Gordon, 2011). For the
10
th
year, UCS has claimed the top spot for the most enrolled international students. The
number of international students enrolled in American higher education is up five percent
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(5%) over previous years. Meanwhile, UCW had the sixth-highest international
enrollment, up from seventh place the year before. According to the annual report by the
Institute of International Education, across the country, the ranks of international students
enrolled in U.S. higher education in 2010 increased by five percent (5%) to 723, 277
students.
UCS enrolled 8,615 international students while UCW enrolled 6,249
international students in 2010. At UCS, about 70% of international students at UCS are in
graduate programs, heavily concentrated in engineering, computer science and business.
The article also states that California attracted the most foreign students of any state, with
New York, Texas, Massachusetts and Illinois next.
The role of international student services under the Student Affairs Division plays
an important role in serving the international student population. International student
service units serve as the liaison which provide academic and other support mechanisms
to facilitate a student’s transition to higher education in a foreign country. It is also
responsible for promoting international student retention rates.
UCS has a total enrollment of 36,896 students, of which 17,380 are at the
undergraduate and 19,516 at the graduate and professional levels. The male-female ratio
at UCS is nearly 1:1. 31.2% of incoming students are drawn from the greater Los
Angeles metropolitan area, 20.9% from other areas in California, 39.5% from the rest of
the United States, and 8.4% from abroad. The fact that UCS maintains offices in several
countries helps to explain the high student enrollment numbers from across the globe.
Since half of the student population is from outside the local Los Angeles metropolitan
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area, the role of student affairs division is an extremely important one in meeting the
needs and concerns of out-of-state students.
The mission of the UCS Division of Student Affairs is stated as “devoted to
creating an integrated learning experience that helps students reach their educational,
personal, and professional aspirations. The unit believes in helping create a campus
community where students are prepared to contribute to a changing world.” Attention to
student affairs and services will directly improve student learning outcomes and positive
student life experience. The effective Senior Student Affairs Administrator of the future
will facilitate positive student learning and will contribute greatly to the learning goals of
the institution.
Survey Questionnaire
Each of the five areas of the LPI surveys were examined utilizing 6 questions per
area, thus resulting in a total of 30 questions in the survey. The five leadership practices
were: Model the Way, Challenge the Process, Inspire a Shared Vision, Encourage the
Heart, and Enable Others to Act.
The six Questions related to each of the five areas mentioned above within
leadership practices, completed by the Senior Student Affairs Officers (Directors), were
as follows:
Model the Way
 Sets a personal example of what is expected (Question 1)
 Makes certain that people adhere to agreed-on standards (Question 6)
 Follows through on promises and commitments (Question 11)
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 Asks for feedback on how his/her actions affect people’s performance
(Question 16)
 Builds consensus around organization’s values (Question 21)
 Is clear about his/her philosophy of leadership (Question 26)
Inspire a Shared Vision
Six Questions related to Inspire a Shared Vision were as follows:
1. Talks about future trends influencing our work (Question 2)
2. Describes a compelling image of the future (Question 7)
3. Appeals to others to share dream of the future (Question 12)
4. Shows others how their interests can be realized (Question 17)
5. Paints “big picture” of group aspirations (Question 22)
6. Speaks with conviction about meaning of work (Question 27)
Challenge the Process
Six Questions related to Challenge the Process were as follows:
1. Seeks challenging opportunities to test skills (Question 3)
2. Challenges people to try new approaches (Question 8)
3. Searches outside organization for innovative ways to improve (Question 13)
4. Asks “What can we learn?”(Question 18)
5. Makes certain that goals, plans, and milestones are set (Question 23)
6. Experiment and takes risks (Question 28)
Enable Others to Act
Six Questions related to Enable Others to Act were as follows:
1. Develops cooperative relationships (Question 4)
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2. Actively listens to diverse points of view (Question 9)
3. Treats people with dignity and respect‖ (Question 14)
4. Supports decisions other people make (Question 19)
5. Gives people choice about how to do their work (Question 24)
6. Ensures that people grow in their jobs (Question 29)
Encourage the Heart
Six Questions related to Encourage the Heart were as follows:
1. Praises people for a job well done‖ (Question 5)
2. Expresses confidence in people’s abilities‖ (Question 10)
3. Creatively rewards people for their contributions (Question 15)
4. Recognizes people for commitment to shared values (Question 20)
5. Finds ways to celebrate accomplishments (Question 25)
6. Gives team members appreciation and support (Question 30)
Interview Data
The following summarizes the interviews with each core participant. Following
the summaries, the themes that emerged from these interviews are identified and
representative and salient quotes from the participants are included. All three
interviewees were Senior Student Affairs Directors at UCS. Two of the three participants
were male, the other was female. These three participants were chosen to bring diversity
to the interviews regarding the student affairs areas in which they work, their years of
experience in the area and their position as director in the field of student affairs.
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Participant One
Victor is an intermediate-level employee who has worked as a student affairs
professional for seven years. He scored himself high on both Challenge the Process and
Inspire a Shared Vision, averaging 9.50 on each of the leadership practice average. His
second highest scores came equally from the Enable Others to Act and Encourage the
Heart showing an average 9.33 on each of the leadership practice average. His top five
high scores from all 30 leadership behaviors, based on the self-rating score, are as
follows.
Out of 30 questions, he scored himself 10, perfect on 17 (57%) behaviors.
1. Sets a personal example of what is expected (Question 1, Model)
2. Talks about future trends influencing our work (Question 2, Inspire)
3. Seeks challenging opportunities to test skills (Question 3, Challenge)
4. Challenges people to try new approaches (Question 8, Challenge)
5. Actively listens to diverse points of view (Question 9, Enable)
For the past seven years, Victor has been the Director of the LGBT (lesbian, gay,
bisexual, transgender) UCS campus organization. He has continued his education
straight through from high school to undergraduate, Masters and directly into the
Doctorate program in Education without any break in between. As an
undergraduate student at a small private college near Los Angeles, Victor staked out
a place as an active student leader already working alongside various student affairs
professionals. He was a resident advisor, worked in the Dean of Students Office, in
charge of Diverse Identities Week, and was also elected as program board chair.
Right after obtaining his undergraduate degree, he went straight into the Masters
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program, Postsecondary Administration and Student Affairs Program Masters at the
current institution where he is director of the LGBT Center. As a graduate student,
he worked with the Center for Women and Men, active in Graduate Student
Government and in other areas of student affairs as well.
One interesting aspect about Victor’s involvement with the Student Affairs
area is that during his first year in the doctorate program, he was hired part-time at
the LGBT Center and then promoted to full-time during his second year in the
doctorate program. At the time Victor was hired as part-time in the LGBT, the
Center was a new area of student services at the institution. Coincidently, the
Center became a full funded student activities center during Victor’s second year in
the doctorate program and naturally he became a director when he completed his
program. Though not self-identified as part of the LGBTQ community, Victor’s is
positioned to serve that community within student affairs.
Participant Two
Dana is the Director of Center for Women and Men overseeing two full-time staff
and three graduate students. Dana is not a traditional student affairs officer who was
exposed to the world of Student Affairs since she was a student. She is a Licensed
Clinical Social Worker (LCSW) who had been working in the Community Mental Health
setting for over 10 years in a non-education setting, when she crossed over to the higher
education setting. As a current Director of the Center for Women and Men, Dana and her
office focuses specifically on gender related issues and how it affects them. They
provide counseling, education and advocacy for students. Although they help staff and
faculty as well, their main constituents are primarily students.
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According to Dana, gender-based harm is an umbrella term, it includes sexual
assault, stalking, harassment, intimate partner violence, dating violence, essentially any
unhealthy or abusive relationships the students refer to them. The Center also oversees a
lot of outreach to educate the community about sexual violence, and about eradicating
sexual assault. In addition, they conduct workshops on communication, breaking up and
on meeting people, providing spectrum of information around healthy relationships and
sexual or dating violence.
Dana scored herself high on Enable Others to Act averaging 9.67, and Encourage
the Heart, averaging 9.33. The next three highest ranked leadership practices for her,
were as follows: Model the Way, averaging 8.83, Challenge the Process, averaging
8.67and her lowest self –rating leadership practice came from Inspire a Shared Vision
with an average of 8.5. Her top five high scores from all 30 leadership behaviors, based
on the self-rating score, are as follows.
Out of 30 questions, she scored herself 10, perfect on 9 (30%) behaviors.
1. Sets a personal example of what is expected (Question 1, Model)
2. Develops cooperative relationships (Question 4, Enable)
3. Praises people for a job well done (Question 5, Encourage)
4. Actively listens to diverse points of view (Question 9, Enable)
5. Searches outside organization for innovative ways to improve (Question 13,
Challenge)
Participant Three
Tom has over 15 years of professional student affairs experience. Unlike other
two interviewees, his 3 leadership practice averages are in there 7s and only 2 of the
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practices average in the 8 and 9 range. He scored himself high on Model the Way,
averaging 9.0. His second highest scores came from Inspire a Shared Vision, averaging
at 8.67. The remaining 3 leadership practices are in their 7’s. The third highest scores
came from Challenge the Process, averaging 7.67. The last two leadership practices with
identical average scores of 7.83 came from Enable Others to Act and Encourage the
Heart. His top five high scores from all 30 leadership behaviors, based on the self-rating
score, are as follows.
Out of 30 questions he scored herself 10, perfect on 5 (16%) behaviors.
1. Talks about future trends influencing our work (Question 2, Inspire)
2. Makes certain that people adhere to agreed-on standards (Question 6, Model)
3. Describes a compelling image of the future (Question 7, Inspire)
4. Follows through on promises and commitments (Question 11, Model)
5. Builds consensus around organization’s values (Question 21, Model)
Tom has over 15 years of professional student affairs experience. He has worked
at big, public and private research universities, at small or medium-size public schools as
well as a religious school. His student affairs work experiences range from enrollment
services, student affairs, athletics and university development. He explains that his broad
knowledge about working with different constituents allowed him to feel comfortable
working with every level, from alumni, to athletes, to students.
He is currently the Director the Orientation Program at UCS overseeing four full-
time staff, two Graduate student staff, and over 50 undergraduate student staff. He has a
Bachelor of Secondary Education from Arizona State University and Master’s in
Educational Leadership with a focus on leadership from another state university in
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Arizona. His career trajectory after graduating from college shows much attention to
strategic planning: He was a resident director; an orientation coordinator, and worked
part-time at a religious school in California. He went back to Arizona as coordinator of
scholar recruitment in the admissions office recruiting high ability scholars. His other
student affairs work includes Alumni Association where he was responsible for
developing a program that would connect undergraduate students to the alumni and to the
athletic. He said he purposely chose to go into a variety of fields when he chose to work
in students affairs.
Analysis of Research Question One (Qualitative)
1. What strategies, skills and/or leadership styles do senior-level Student Affairs
Administrators use to develop their Student Affairs Division?
Participant 1: (Victor)
According to Victor, one of the most important roles he uses to develop his
Student Affairs Division in reference to the LPI’s five exemplary leadership practice is
Inspire a Shared Vision. While he was a business major in undergrad, he read a lot about
shared vision and how important having a shared vision is for a corporation. He refers to
Peter Senge of “The Fifth Discipline” where, in that book, the author extensively
discusses the importance of having a shared vision, and of incorporating a shared vision
and inviting a shared vision among their employees at all levels.
… throughout all of my different leadership experiences whether it be student
organizations and even now with this department I have always tried to institute a
shared vision because that’s how I get my staff, that’s how I get my members,
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that’s how I get my people to work for this common goal, right, and to get them
motivated to work for this common goal.
Victor doesn’t believe in being the only one that is invested in the common cause,
but he wants to make certain that the people around him are also invested and see where
they are going and what the goal would be. As a Director of LGBT Center, he wants to
create a safer environment for LGBT students and feels that all members of the staff
should be carrying out tasks that contribute towards the same goal. His staff consists of
one graduate student per semester and eight student workers during each semester.
Victor believes that the center lacks full-time professional staff. He currently works with
a fulltime graduate student assistant and a student worker. One interesting fact about his
staff is that they may be more in line with the Center’s goal from the time they are hired.
They want to make a difference in creating a safer place; therefore, Victor acknowledges
that he has less of a challenge trying to change the mindset of the staff because they are, a
lot of times, already focused on common goals.
To develop his Student Affairs Division, Victor wants to make sure that he stays
up-to-date. He wants to Inspire a Shared Vision, but also want to Challenge the Process
to keep it aligned with the rest of the world. Victor points out what is important to him as
a leader with reference to the LPI is Inspiring a Shared Vision.
I don’t want to be outdated. I always want to be at the forefront, I always want to
think outside of the box, and I always want to be student-focused, constituency-
focused. So I am here to service the students so how can I do that. So I always
want to be changing to how they are changing.
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Based on his experience, he emphasizes the importance of change but also acknowledges
that change isn’t something that is easy for a lot of people.
Even with diverse areas of expertise that Victor has, giving him confidence that
he can contribute to the world of leadership knowledge, he feels that he needs to improve
in some areas of leadership practices, such as Encouraging the Heart, as referenced in the
5 critical LPIs as described by Kouzes and Posner.
I think that the students that work with me learn how to multitask; they learn how
to get stuff done effectively with limited resources. But it hinders me in that, and
I feel bad in that I don’t have time to just sit and talk, like I don’t have time just to
sit and talk with you for a whole hour about how’s your life. I don’t have time for
that.
He believes that he is limited in his ability to get to know his staff on a deeper
level. He proactively shares his leadership skills outside the classroom by collaborating
with other departments, but he has been limited in developing social relationships with
his colleagues. Victor is intensely task driven and often works while eating his lunch.
Although there may be some departments with more resources that carry the benefit of
having more time to build social morale, Victor’s limited resources and staff rob him of
the luxury to be more social and force him to focus on tasks.
When asked how he prepared himself to become a leader, he believes that he
utilized a lot of his life experiences in building his leadership skills. He believes that his
world view and role as a leader were partially formed in childhood long before he arrived
at his current leadership position.
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Victor explains that he grew up in a low income family, where he was very much
looking at the dollar and how the family can stretch a dollar; therefore, his life
experiences really helped him with his own budget practices which he practices in his
current role. However, having grandparents who were very much involved with talking
about politics and listening to talk radio have helped him to stay up-to-date on what’s
going on not only in his role, his organization, in the world around him and the units he
leads.
Despite, his years of experience in student affairs he still believes it is still
difficult to navigate the political bureaucracy process, Five to 10 years from now, Victor
would like to help others on a grander scale; whether it be a nonprofit, in politics or
working in city government, or perhaps somewhere else beyond the university. His
student affairs experiences will enable him in many ways, and he hopes to apply his
leadership knowledge in other roles where he can make a bigger impact.
Participant 2: (Dana)
When asked about how the interviewees prepare themselves to become a leader,
Dana’s responses revealed that their previous work experience, school experience, as
well as experiences in their home and family life played a big role in shaping their
philosophy and their outlook about what leadership ought to be. She said she brought in
her experience from her past as a social worker, only now, she is just working in a
partnership and collaboratively with people that have more of an Education background.
Because the nature of Student Affairs is so collaborative, she said she works a lot with
the counseling center, the health center and that she and her team work a lot with people
that specialize in different fields.
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When asked how she prepared herself to be a leader who finds herself where she
is now at the present moment, Dana said:
I think it kind of happened gradually as I developed further along in my
professional career. So I think it was partly from mentors I had and from really
good supervisors I had that I did some modeling and I kind of picked up on okay,
this is what I like, this is what works for me, this is what's developing my
leadership skills, see how they interact with their staff and their colleagues. So I
think a lot of it was kind of just realizing what was effective and what wasn’t
effective and then seeing, having a few jobs where I felt things weren’t being
done well or handled well. And so seeing both good leadership examples and
then where there was lot of room for improvement or more negative leadership
examples, the best accomplished leaders, best successful leaders. So I think kind
of balancing both of those.
According to Dana, one of the most important leadership skills she uses to
develop her Student Affairs Division in reference to the LPI’s five exemplary leadership
practice Encouraging the Heart.
I feel like it’s twofold, both encouraging the mission of our office and the work
we are doing and really looking at it but it's also inspiring, it's also looking at like
their individual goals and their individual interests. And so each of us have some
overlapping but very different positions. …. I feel that’s maybe what they would
say, enabling others and empowering collaboration.
Steering the ship in order to share the same vision, so everyone is heading in the
same direction, is one of her roles as a leader, that Dana feels she has achieved through
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the concept of Encouraging the Heart. And she believes that the reason Encouraging the
Heart so clearly resonates with her has to do with her background as a social worker
where her predominant role was to nurture others. She strongly believes in making
human connections and nurturing relationships because they create investment in the area
of student affairs she works in, Center for Women and Men.
Yeah definitely, because it really creates investment in work we are doing. I think
there are real relationships. I think it creates accountability; I think it creates a
desire to show up, to come in and not have absenteeism and to do the work and to
be innovative and to feel supported, to role model then for my grad students, hey
this is what I am doing, do you want to help me on this project? They will take on
leadership within the office and say I want to spearhead this, I want to do this.
Dana is still getting adjusted to the higher education hierarchy. Because the work
her office performs is a little different than the traditional student affairs work which is
more often than not, focused mainly on one population, the students. She believes that
they can be more independent in terms of making more decisions within the Center. At
the beginning of her career in higher education, Dana realized that she needed to step out
of her own comfort levels, and be responsible for not just supervising her staff, but also
for having to set the tone for the office and modeling for them those behaviors that enable
them to be on the same page about what they are working towards. Her philosophy of
leadership still correlates heavily with the Encouraging the Heart behavior of the LPI. Of
course she wants to bring her own values to her position, but she must also ensure that
everyone is on board. She wants to be able to know what’s been happening with her staff
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in and outside of work, knowing when they want to grow and where they are being held
back.
It’s such a small office and the work we do is a little bit different. I like to bring
in my own values and having everyone on board and really checking in and
knowing what's happening with people interpersonally, knowing when they want
to grow and where they are being held back and things like that.
Dana values the importance of personable characteristics that are considered
important in being an effective leader, not necessarily how much a leader knows by book
knowledge. She believes that you have to Model the Way that you care about your staff
by reaching out to their core being, by Encouraging the Heart. Because of her
background in Social Work, in working with those who were in need, and also her
current role of working with a population geared towards a special interest, she believes
that Encouraging the Heart is an appropriate type of leadership practice, she’ll continue to
utilize to develop her unit.
Participant 3: (Tim)
According to Tim, one of the most important leadership practices that specifically
resonates with him as a leader in reference to the LPI, and one that he feels he practices
to develop his Student Affairs Division, is Shared Visions. Talking and sharing with his
staff what they want to achieve, and particularly giving them the necessary autonomy to
do the things that they think are important, is very important to Tim. He wants to make
sure that his staff knows he is always supportive of them, and he feels that Sharing a
Vision is one of the most effective ways of achieving that.
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When I look at the people that I consider to be leaders, they are the ones that I
want to follow into battle, are the ones that stand up and say, “This is what I think
we should.” And that can be in higher ed; that can be in politics; that can be in
communities. I think about even in presidential elections, you vote for the person
that’s inspiring you, not somebody who is like …
He believes that we all tend to want to follow a leader that spells out what we stand for
and what we believe in.
Tim is able to relate to his staff and diverse constituents because as a student, he
said some of the greatest leadership moments and leadership skills were learned during
one of his first few jobs right out of college working in the admissions office as a
program coordinator. He believes that we learn how to be leaders in our first several
positions, by following the example of how those leaders that we initially experienced,
led their units.
Tim says he’s most challenged by the Encourage the Heart leadership practice.
He said he is not a “feeler” but very task oriented. He thinks that leadership and being in
a managerial position are not necessarily the same. Leaders need to be able to look at the
big picture and be able to lead a team by setting a vision and looking at the overall goal;
however, he still believes in the importance of being a systematic leader, being able to
focus on the operational side of the project. By nature of the fact, he said he’s in a
managerial position; therefore, he’s a leader. He attributes his childhood experiences and
his personal life, as having been formative in terms of how he conceptualizes and
understands the role of a leader.
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Like my mom left on Sunday and would come back on Friday, and so I was on
my own all week long starting in 9
th
grade. And so I had to learn how to get up in
the morning; I had to learn how to iron; I had to learn how to do all those things
that I think installed in me who I was going to become, very self sufficient, very
disciplined, very detail oriented, because, I didn’t have my mom’s attention when
she came back at the weekend, which I wanted.”
Similar to the other two interviewees, Tim said his family, specifically his mother
and grandmother influenced how he developed his leadership skills. Because both of
them had a background in education, in fact his grandmother was his 5
th
grade teacher, he
believes that both of those women strongly inspired and shaped who he has become as a
leader.
A second group of people who have influenced Tim as a leader were some of the
mentors he met as an undergraduate student. Initially he had wanted to be a high school
teacher, but suddenly he had people around him from the world of student affairs, that
were not only role models for him, but eventually changed the course of his life.
… they started to teach me how to be a leader in this field and impart on me the
skills and the leadership traits that were necessary, whether that’s leading by
example or delegation or whatever the case may be, and so they were real great
role models, particularly in terms of the work that I do.
Similar to another interviewee, Tim is very task oriented and one of his challenges
is in overcoming his tendency to want to control everything as a perfectionist. However,
he believes in the importance of passing on the knowledge he has as a leader. He realizes
the importance of providing positive feedback, and congratulating the staff or students for
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their work, even if they are not necessarily perfect—Tim realizes that perfection may be a
goal, but it cannot be an expectation. He said even if they only meet 85% of the
expectation that you set, that’s 85% more than what had been there previously.
Motivating and acknowledging his staff comes easy for Tim as he was in the position
previously that his staff find themselves in now, and consequently he is able to relate to
them and meet them at their knowledge and work experience level.
I have been there, and I have done that, like the reason that you are doing is
because I want you to take it to the next level. Like I have been there; I have done
that. , “I think where you are going isn’t the right direction. Have you thought A,
B, C and X, Y, Z?
Thus far I have been providing a historical perspective and context for how the
three leaders interviewed for this study, developed both as human beings and how those
human experiences have affected both their definition of leadership, as well as their
leadership approaches. Now I present the quantitative data, that more materially presents
the leadership approaches [the statement(s)] from the LPI survey, that is most
representative of that approach.
Analysis of Research Question One (Quantitative Survey Results)
1. What strategies, skills and/or leadership styles do senior-level Student Affairs
Administrators use to develop their Student Affairs Division?
The Kouzes and Posner’s LPI ratings for Senior Student Affairs Administrators
for the top 15 (of 30) statements, ranked from highest to lowest of all 5 Exemplary
Leadership Practices, as well as their corresponding sample means and standard
deviations are shown in Table 3. The mean scores from highest to lowest, of the
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leadership strategies, skills the Senior Student Affairs Administrators used to develop
their Student Affairs Division on the most frequently practiced to least practiced listing of
the five leadership practices are presented in Table 3. An analysis of the mean scores for
most frequently used leadership behavior to least frequently used leadership behavior to
develop the Student Affairs Division revealed that 5 of the top 15 behaviors were in the
categories of Enable Others to Act leadership practice.

Table 3
Most Frequently Used Leadership Behaviors Among Senior Student Affairs
Administrators to Develop their Student Affairs Division
Rank Leadership Behaviors Types of Leadership Practice Mean
1. Treats people with dignity and respect. Enable Others to Act, 9.74
2 Follows through on promises and
commitments
Model the Way, #11 9.26
3. Develops cooperative relationships Enable Others to Act, #4 9.17
4. Sets a personal example of what is expected Model the Way, #1 9.04
5. Paints “big picture” of group aspirations Inspire a Shared Vision, #22 8.87
6. Gives people choice about how to do their
work
Enable Others to Act, #24 8.87
7. Seeks challenging opportunities to test skills Challenge the Process, #3 8.78
8. Praises people for a job well done Encourage the Heart, #5 8.61
9. Actively listens to diverse points of view Enable Others to Act, #9 8.61
10. Speaks with conviction about meaning of work Inspire a Shared Vision, #27 8.61
11. Is clear about his/her philosophy of leadership Model the Way, #26 8.52
12. Ensures that people grow in their jobs Enable Others to Act ,#29 8.48
13. Gives team members appreciation and support Encourage the Heart, #30 8.43
14. Recognizes people for commitment to shared
values.
Encourage the Heart, #20 8.39
15. Creatively rewards people for their
contributions
Encourage the Heart, #15 8.39
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Among the top 15 leadership behavior statements, the next most frequent 4
leadership behavior statements were from the category of Encourage the Heart, and
another 3 leadership behavior statements were from the Model the Way category. Two
leadership behavior statements were from the category of Inspire a Shared Vision
leadership practice in the 15 statements and Challenge the Process leadership practice had
the least number of leadership behavior statements with just one statement in the top 15
most frequently used behaviors.
Within the top 15 leadership behavior styles out of 30 statements total, the most
engaged leadership style used by the Senior Student Affair Administrators to develop
their student affairs unit were “Treats people with dignity and respect” (Mean = 9.74),
Statement 14 of the Enable Other to Act Leadership Practice. It appeared that Senior
Student Affairs Officers perceived that they engaged in this leadership practice usually
(8) to almost always (10). While enabling others to act, treating people with dignity and
respect goes hand in hand. Senior Student Affairs Administrators seemed to believe that
mutual respect is what sustains extraordinary efforts; they strive to create an atmosphere
of trust and human dignity. By treating others with dignity and respect, leaders foster
collaboration and build spirited teams and make each person feel capable and powerful.
Among the top 15 leadership behavior statements, the 2
nd
most frequently used
leadership behavior the Senior Student Affairs Administrators engaged to develop their
Student Affairs Division is statement 11 from the Model the Way category, “Follows
through on promises and commitments.” (Mean = 9.26). Senior Student Affairs
Administrators seemed to believe that in order to model the way, the leaders must follow
through on their promises and commitments in order for the followers to trust the leader.
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Commitment turns a promise into reality with words. Senior leaders need to place a high
value on integrity and trust and then communicate that value to all followers in a way that
conveys sincerity and commitment.
“Develops cooperative relationships” (Mean = 9.17), Statement 4 from the
Enable Others to Act was the 3
rd
highest ranked leadership behavior used by the Senior
Student Affairs Administrators to develop their Student Affairs Division. Shared goals
and roles bring people together in collaborative pursuits. Senior Student Affairs
Administrators saw the need to work together and recognized that they need each other in
order to be successful. They became convinced that everyone should contribute and that,
by cooperating, they can accomplish the task successfully.
Among the top 15 leadership behavior statements, the 4th most frequently
engaged leadership behavior the Senior Student Affairs Administrators use to develop
their Student Affairs Division was statement 1 from the Model the Way category, “Sets a
personal example of what is expected” with the Mean score of 9.04. Senior Student
Affairs Administrators seemed to believe that by modeling the highest level of integrity
and professionalism for their team members, they are setting an example which is one of
the most powerful acts a leader can do. Leaders must lead by example. Their own
behavior is the real performance standard the staff and team members will emulate.
The fifth most widely engaged leadership strategy used by Senior Student Affairs
Administrators to develop their Student Affairs Unit comes from the Inspire a Shared
Vision leadership practice. Statement 22, “Paints “big picture” of group aspirations”
(Mean = 8.87 ) was ranked the 5
th
highest and 1
st
from the Inspire a Shared Vision
leadership practice category that was considered the most frequently engaged leadership
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behavior from the survey. It’s important for a leader to pull forward with a vision, a clear
image of a possible future. By painting big picture of the student affairs unit it generates
the enthusiasm and energy to strive toward the goal. Like explorers, leaders must be able
to imagine the opportunities that are in store for them even during a sense of uncertainty.
By inspiring a sense of purpose and promoting a desire to change, this type of leadership
style will ultimately help the unit come together.
“Gives people choice about how to do their work”, Statement 24 (MEAN = 8.87)
and “Actively listens to diverse points of view”, Statement 9 (MEAN = 8.61) both from
the Enable Others to Act were ranked 6
th
and 9
th
of the most engaged leadership behavior
the Senior Student Affairs Administrators use to develop their units. While there are
times when leaders control and direct, the Student Affairs Administrators seemed to
believe that the best behavior is to shift toward enabling by listening and by giving them
flexibility in the way they accomplish their tasks. It’s important for leaders to understand
the strengths of their employees by enabling others to take control and initiative. It’s
important to recognize diverse points of view and recognizing different opinions.
Actively listening symbolizes recognition of the person and showing respect, which all
staff appreciates.
Within the top 15 of the most frequently engaged leadership behaviors of the
Senior Student Affairs Administrators, there was only 1 behavior from the Challenge the
Process leadership practice category. “Seeks challenging opportunities to test skills”,
Statement 3 (MEAN = 8.78) was the 7
th
most frequently utilized leadership strategy
engaged by the administrators. The remaining 5 behaviors within the Challenge the
Process, all ranked in the bottom 15, among 30 most frequent behaviors. Being a leader
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of Challenging the Process requires looking outside yourself and your organization for
new processes, services and new initiatives within the student affairs unit. Challenge the
process requires searching for opportunities to innovate, grow, and improve. It requires
experimenting and taking risks, despite the possibility of failure. It seemed as the
Challenge the Process leadership behaviors are challenging for the student affairs leaders
to practice. The 5 leadership statements from the Challenge the Process category were
mostly at the bottom, least frequently utilized behavior, while only 1 leadership statement
from the Challenge the Process category was at the top. It indicates that experimenting,
taking risk, doing things out of the norm is not a most common frequently engaged
behavior among the student affairs administrators.
These 3 leadership behaviors had the same Mean of 8.61 equally ranked as the 8
th

most frequently engaged leadership style used by Senior Student Affairs Administrators
to develop their Student Affairs Unit. The three statements were as follow:
 “Actively listens to diverse points of view, (Statement 9), Enable Others to
Act
 “Praises people for a job well done, (Statement 5), Encourage the Heart
 “Speaks with conviction about meaning of work”, (Statement 27), Inspire a
Shared Vision
Student Affairs Administrators believe in the importance of actively listening to
their diverse points of view and praising people for a job well done. Meanwhile, they
also recognize the importance of inspiring a shared vision by speaking with conviction
about meaning of work.
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Analysis of Research Question Two
2. What leadership qualities do senior-level Student Affairs Administrators
exhibit which are indicative of the ability to lead a team?
In this study, the analysis of the results from the surveys and interviews revealed
the most common leadership practices that were utilized among Senior Student Affairs
Administrators that are effectiveness and indicative of the ability to lead a team.
Enabling Others to Act was the type of leadership practice the Senior-level Student
Affairs Administrators believed they engaged the most frequently based on the self-rating
of their leadership behaviors on the Kouzes and Posner’s LPI survey.
The Kouzes and Kosner’s LPI ratings for Senior Student Affairs Administrators
for each leadership practice average, ranked from highest to lowest, as well as their
corresponding sample means and standard deviations are shown in Table 4. The mean
scores from highest to lowest, for student affairs professionals on the most frequently
practiced to least practiced listing of the five leadership practices were as follows: Enable
Others to Act (M = 8.86), Encourage the Heart (M = 8.33), Model the Way (M = 8.31),
Challenge the Process (M = 8.11), and Inspire a Shared Vision (M = 8.03).
Based upon mean scores, Enabling Others to Act was perceived by the Senior
Student Affairs Administrators respondents as the leadership practice engaged in most
frequently, while at the same time exhibiting the least variability. Respondents perceived
Inspire a Shared Vision as the leadership practice engaged the least. Interestingly, the
standard deviation for the lowest scoring leadership practice, Inspire a Shared Vision
(1.227), was almost twice the variability of Enabling Others to Act (.696), the highest
scoring leadership practice.
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Table 4
Mean Scores and Standard Deviations for Leadership Practices Inventory-Self (LPI-Self)
of Senior Student Affairs Professionals

N Minimum Maximum Mean
Std.
Deviation
Enable Others to Act Average 23 7.333 9.833 8.869 .6964
Encourage the Heart Average 23 5.170 10.000 8.333 1.349
Model they Way Average 23 6.666 9.666 8.311 .927
Challenge the Process Average 23 6.500 9.833 8.115 .920
Inspire a Shared Vision
Average
23 5.666 9.500 8.036 1.227
Valid N (listwise) 23

Enable Others to Act
Within the Enable Others to Act leadership practice, the Senior Student Affairs
Administrators identified the most with the “Treats people with dignity and respect”
behavior.
The Kouzes and Posner LPI ratings for senior officers for each statement, ranked
from highest to lowest for Enable Others to Act practice, as well as their corresponding
sample means and standard deviations are shown in Table 5.
The highest mean score of 9.74 in this leadership practice was statement number
14 (Treats people with dignity and respect). It appeared that Senior Student Affairs
Officers perceived that they engaged in this leadership practice usually (8) to almost
always (10). While enabling others to act, treating people with dignity and respect goes
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hand in hand. Senior Student Affairs Administrators seemed to believe that mutual
respect is what sustains extraordinary efforts; they strive to create an atmosphere of trust
and human dignity. By treating others with dignity and respect, leaders foster
collaboration and build spirited teams and make each person feel capable and powerful.
The second highest mean score of 9.17 came from statement 4 (“Develops
cooperative relationships”), followed by statement 24 (“Gives people choice about how
to do their work”) with the mean of (8.87), statement 9 (“Actively listens to diverse
points of view”) with the mean of (8.61), next by statement 29 (“Ensures that people
grow in their jobs”) with the mean of (8.48), and lastly by statement 19 (“Supports
decisions other people make”) with the mean of 8.35.
The statements related to Kouzes and Posner’s leadership practice Enable Others
to Act were grouped together and the sample means and standard deviations are
presented in Table 5.
Enable Others to Act
 Develops cooperative relationships (Question 4)
 Actively listens to diverse points of view (Question 9)
 Treats people with dignity and respect‖ (Question 14)
 Supports decisions other people make (Question 19)
 Gives people choice about how to do their work (Question 24)
 Ensures that people grow in their jobs (Question 29)
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Table 5
Senior Student Affairs Directors’ Mean Leadership Practices Inventory Rating for
Statements Related to Enable Others to Act

N Minimum Maximum Mean
Std.
Deviation
Enable #14 23 8 10 9.74 .619
Enable#4 23 8 10 9.17 .937
Enable #24 23 6 10 8.87 1.359
Enable #9 23 5 10 8.61 1.500
Enable #29 23 6 10 8.48 1.163
Enable #19 23 6 9 8.35 .982
Valid N (listwise) 23

Encourage the Heart
The second most frequently exhibited type of leadership practice the Senior-level
Student Affairs Administrators resonate which is indicative of the ability to lead a team is
to Encourage the Heart. Based upon mean scores, Encourage the Heart (8.333) was
perceived by the Senior Student Affairs Administrators respondents as the leadership
practice engaged in 2
nd
most frequently. The Kouzes and Posner LPI ratings for senior
officers for each statement, ranked from highest to lowest for Encourage the Heart
practice, as well as their corresponding sample means and standard deviations are shown
in Table 6.
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Within the Encourage the Heart leadership practice, the Senior Student Affairs
Administrators identified the most with the “Praises people for a job well done” behavior.
Statement number 5 (Praises people for a job well done) held the highest mean
score (8.61) for Encourage the Heart. Senior Student Affairs Directors seemed to believe
that the statement related to acknowledging people for their hard work exemplified their
leadership practices. In fact, the standard deviations for the first two statements indicated
a strong agreement about the perceived leadership practice of Encourage the Heart. The
last statement 25 (“Finds ways to celebrate accomplishments”) had the greatest standard
deviation in addition to the lowest mean for this leadership practice. Senior Student
Affairs Directors even so with a mean of 7.91 perceived that they were Encouraging the
Heart.
The statements related to Kouzes and Posner’s leadership practice Encourage the
Heart were grouped together and the sample means and standard deviations are presented
in Table 6.
Encourage the Heart
 Praises people for a job well done (Question 5)
 Expresses confidence in people’s abilities‖ (Question 10)
 Creatively rewards people for their contributions (Question 15)
 Recognizes people for commitment to shared values (Question 20)
 Finds ways to celebrate accomplishments (Question 25)
 Gives team members appreciation and support (Question 30)
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Table 6
Senior Student Affairs Directors’ Mean Leadership Practices Inventory Rating for
Statements Encourage the Heart

N Minimum Maximum Mean
Std.
Deviation
Encourage #5 23 5 10 8.61 1.588
Encourage #30 23 5 10 8.43 1.562
Encourage #20 23 4 10 8.39 1.725
Encourage #15 23 5 10 8.39 1.469
Encourage #10 23 6 10 8.26 1.421
Encourage #25 23 5 10 7.91 1.756
Valid N (listwise) 23

Model the Way
The third most frequently exhibited type of leadership practice the Senior-level
Student Affairs Administrators resonate which is indicative of the ability to lead a team is
Model the Way. Based upon mean scores, Model the Way (8.311) was perceived by the
Senior Student Affairs Administrators respondents as the leadership practice engaged in
3rd most frequently. The Kouzes and Posner LPI ratings for senior officers for each
statement, ranked from highest to lowest for Model the Way practice, as well as their
corresponding sample means and standard deviations are shown in Table 7.
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Within the Model the Way leadership practice, the Senior Student Affairs
Administrators identified the most with the “Follows through on promises and
commitments.” behavior.
Statement number 11 (“Follows through on promises and commitments”) ranked
the highest mean score (9.26) under Model the Way. This suggests that in order to model
the way, the leaders must follow through on their promises and commitments in order for
the followers to trust the leader.
The second highest mean score (9.04) under the Model the Way statement 1
“Sets a personal example of what is expect,” followed by statement 26 “Is clear about
his/her philosophy of leadership,” with the mean of (8.52), statement 21 “Builds
consensus around organization’s values,” with the mean (8.35) ,statement 6 “Makes
certain that people adhere to agreed-on standards,” with the mean score of (7.96) and the
lowest mean score of 6.74 by the statement 16 “Asks for feedback on how his/her actions
affect people’s performance.” Statement 6 (2.050), had almost twice the variability of
Statement 11 (1.096), the highest scoring leadership behavior within the Model the Way
leadership practice.
Model the Way (Descriptive)
 Sets a personal example of what is expected (Question 1)
 Makes certain that people adhere to agreed-on standards (Question 6)
 Follows through on promises and commitments (Question 11)
 Asks for feedback on how his/her actions affect people’s performance
(Question 16)
 Builds consensus around organization’s values (Question 21)
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 Is clear about his/her philosophy of leadership (Question 26)
The statements related to Kouzes and Posner’s leadership practice Model the Way
were grouped together. The means and standard deviations are presented in Table 7.

Table 7
Senior Student Affairs Directors’ Mean Leadership Practices Inventory Rating for
Statements Related to Model the Way
N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation
Model#11 23 6 10 9.26 1.096
Model#1 23 7 10 9.04 .976
Model#26 23 5 10 8.52 1.377
Model#21 23 6 10 8.35 1.301
Model#6 23 4 10 7.96 1.581
Model#16 23 1 10 6.74 2.050
Valid N (listwise) 23

Challenge the Process
The fourth most frequently exhibited type of leadership practice the Senior-level
Student Affairs Administrators resonate which is indicative of the ability to lead a team is
Challenge the Process. Based upon mean scores, Challenge the Process (8.115) was
perceived by the Senior Student Affairs Administrators respondents as the leadership
practice engaged in 3rd most frequently. The Kouzes and Posner LPI ratings for senior
officers for each statement, ranked from highest to lowest for Challenge the Process
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practice, as well as their corresponding sample means and standard deviations are shown
in Table 8.
Within the Challenge the Process leadership practice, the Senior Student Affairs
Administrators identified the most with the “Seeks challenging opportunities to test
skills.” behavior. Seeks challenging opportunities to test skills (statement 3) was the
highest rated statement under Challenge the Process leadership practice. This suggests
that in order to Challenge the Process, the leaders must proactively find chance to play
out their skills.
The second highest mean score (8.30) under the Challenge the Process leadership
practice was statement 1 (“Makes certain that goals, plans, and milestones are set”)
followed by statement 8 (“Challenges people to try new approaches”) with the mean of
(8.22), statement 18 (“Asks “What can we learn?”) with the mean (8.00) , statement 13
(“Searches outside organization for innovative ways to improve”) with the mean score of
(7.96) and the lowest mean score of 7.43 by the statement 28 (“Experiment and takes
risks”). Statement 13 (2.184), was almost twice the variability of Statement 3 (.998), the
highest scoring leadership behavior within the Challenge the Process leadership practice.
The statements related to Kouzes and Posner’s leadership practice Challenge the
Process were grouped together and the sample means and standard deviations are
presented in Table 8.
Challenge the Process
 Seeks challenging opportunities to test skills (Question 3)
 Challenges people to try new approaches (Question 8)
 Searches outside organization for innovative ways to improve (Question 13)
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 Asks “What can we learn?”(Question 18)
 Makes certain that goals, plans, and milestones are set (Question 23)
 Experiment and takes risks (Question 28)

Table 8
Senior Student Affairs Directors’ Mean Leadership Practices Inventory Rating for
Statements Related to Challenge the Process

N Minimum Maximum Mean
Std.
Deviation
Challenge#3 23 7 10 8.78 .998
Challenge#23 23 6 10 8.30 1.396
Challenge#8 23 5 10 8.22 1.413
Challenge#18 23 4 10 8.00 1.679
Challenge#13 23 1 10 7.96 2.184
Challenge#28 23 5 10 7.43 1.619
Valid N (listwise) 23

Inspire a Shared Vision
The least frequent exhibited type of leadership practice the Senior-level Student
Affairs Administrators resonate which is indicative of the ability to lead a team is Inspire
a Shared Vision. Based upon mean scores, Inspire a Shared Vision (8.036) was
perceived by the Senior Student Affairs Administrators respondents as the least utilized
leadership practice. The Kouzes and Posner LPI ratings for senior officers for each
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statement, ranked from highest to lowest for Inspire a Shared Vision practice, as well as
their corresponding sample means and standard deviations are shown in Table 9.
Within the Inspire a Shared Vision leadership practice, the Senior Student Affairs
Administrators identified the most with the “Paints “big picture” of group aspirations.”
Paints “big picture” of group aspirations (statement 22) was the highest rated leadership
behavior statement under Inspire a Shared Vision. This suggests that in order to Inspire a
Shared Vision, the leaders must share a vision or big goal the organization desires to
achieve which will allow each individual to align their own personal goal.
The second highest mean score (8.61) under the Inspire a Shared Vision statement
27 (“Speaks with conviction about meaning of work”) followed by statement 2 (“Talks
about future trends influencing our work”) with the mean of (8.13), statement 7
(“Describes a compelling image of the future”) with the mean (7.87) , statement 12
(“Appeals to others to share dream of the future”) with the mean score of (7.74) and the
lowest mean score of 7.09 by the statement 17 (“Shows others how their interests can be
realized”). Statement 17 (2.234), was almost twice the variability of Statement 22
(1.140), the highest scoring leadership behavior within the Inspire a Shared Vision
leadership practice.
The statements related to Kouzes and Posner’s leadership practice Inspire a
Shared Vision were grouped together and the sample means and standard deviations are
presented in Table 9.
Inspire a Shared Vision
 Talks about future trends influencing our work (Question 2)
 Describes a compelling image of the future (Question 7)
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 Appeals to others to share dream of the future (Question 12)
 Shows others how their interests can be realized (Question 17)
 Paints “big picture” of group aspirations (Question 22)
 Speaks with conviction about meaning of work (Question 27)

Table 9
Senior Student Affairs Directors’ Mean Leadership Practices Inventory Rating for
Statements Inspire a Shared Vision

N Minimum Maximum Mean
Std.
Deviation
Inspire#22 23 6 10 8.87 1.140
Inspire#27 23 6 10 8.61 1.340
Inspire#2 23 5 10 8.13 1.456
Inspire#7 23 5 10 7.87 1.486
Inspire#12 23 3 10 7.74 1.815
Inspire#17 23 1 10 7.09 2.234
Valid N (listwise) 23

Institutions and the Types of Leadership Practices by the SSAA
The types of leadership styles the Senior-Level Student Affairs Administrators
exhibit which is indicative of the ability to lead a team from both UCS and UCW was
very similar. Despite the difference in the types of the institution (private vs. public), the
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99
study shows that there were no significant differences in the types of leadership practices
based on the types of institution.
The means differences between two institutions and the types of leadership
practices exhibited by the Senior Student Affairs Administrators which are indicative of
the ability to lead a team are shown in Table 10. T-test results are given in Table 10a.
None of the t-ratios were significant at the .05 level. Scores on each of the five LPI
dimensions were the same for UCS and UCW. 0 if UCW and, 1 if UCS.

Table 10
Mean Differences Between Two Institutions and the Types of Leadership Practices
Exhibited by the Senior Student Affairs Administrators (0=UCW and 1=UCS)

School N Mean
Std.
Deviation
Std. Error
Mean
Model the Way Average 0 14 8.083 .797 .213
1 9 8.666 1.047 .349
Inspire a Shared Vision
Average
0 14 7.738 1.169 .312
1 9 8.500 1.236 .412
Challenge the Process
Average
0 14 7.904 .868 .232
1 9 8.444 .950 .316
Enable Others to Act
Average
0 14 8.856 .640 .171
1 9 8.888 .816 .272
Encourage the Heart
Average
0 14 8.226 1.317 .352
1 9 8.500 1.462 .487
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Table 10a
Independent Samples Test
t-test for Equality of Means
t df
Sig. (2-
tailed)
Mean
Difference
Std. Error
Difference
Model the Way Average -1.516 21 0.415 -0.583 0.384
Inspire a Shared Vision
Average
-1.492 21 0.151 -0.761 0.51
Challenge the Process
Average
-1.403 21 0.175 -0.539 0.384
Enable Others to Act
Average
-0.105 21 0.917 -0.031 0.304
Encourage the Heart
Average
-0.466 21 0.646 -0.273 0.587

Gender and the Types of Leadership Practices Exhibited by the SSAA
When it comes to the leadership strategies, skills and or leadership styles the
Senior-Student Affairs Administrators exhibit which is indicative of the ability to lead a
team, there is no significant difference between how male administrators and female
administrators scored at the two institutions. 0 if female and, 1 if male. Mean differences
between male and female are shown in Table 11, and t-test results are given in Table 11a.
None of the t ratios were significant at the .05 level. Scores on each of the five LPI
dimension were the same for males and females.
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Table 11
Mean Differences Between Gender and the Types of Leadership Practices Exhibited by
the Senior Student Affairs Administrators (0=female, 1=male)

Gender N Mean
Std.
Deviation
Std. Error
Mean
Model the Way Average 0 16 8.395 .890 .222
1 7 8.119 1.052 .397
Inspire a Shared Vision
Average
0 16 7.937 1.298 .324
1 7 8.261 1.109 .419
Challenge the Process
Average
0 16 8.166 .900 .225
1 7 8.000 1.027 .388
Enable Other to Act Average 0 16 9.031 .618 .154
1 7 8.499 .770 .291
Encourage the Heart
Average
0 16 8.603 1.233 .308
1 7 7.714 1.495 .565
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Table 11a
Independent Samples Test
t-test for Equality of Means
t df
Sig. (2-
tailed)
Mean
Difference
Std. Error
Difference
Model the Way Avg. -1.516 21 0.415 -0.583 0.384
Inspire a Shared Vision Avg. -1.492 21 0.151 -0.761 0.51
Challenge the Process Avg. -1.403 21 0.175 -0.539 0.384
Enable Others to Act Avg. -0.105 21 0.917 -0.031 0.304
Encourage the Heart Avg. -0.466 21 0.646 -0.273 0.587

Areas of Work and the Types of Leadership Practices Exhibited by SSAA
There are many areas within the units of Student Affairs. The areas of student
affairs in which respondents work within the units were categorized. The three categories
of the units are: (1) Residence Life; (2) Students and Campus Life; (3) Student Services.
Among the leadership practices the Senior Student Affairs Administrators exhibited,
which are indicative of the ability to lead a team, there were no significant differences
between the areas or units in which respondents work. Mean differences between the 3
units of Student Affairs where the respondents work are shown in Table 12 and ANOVA
findings are shown in Table 12a.
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Table 12
Mean Differences by Areas of Work and the Types of Leadership Practices Exhibited by
the Senior Student Affairs Administrators

N Mean
Std.
Deviation
Std.
Error
Model the Way Average 1 5 8.100 .983 .439
2 12 8.611 .820 .236
3 6 7.888 1.025 .418
Total 23 8.311 .927 .1932
Inspire a Shared Vision
Average
1 5 7.666 1.230 .550
2 12 8.305 1.296 .374
3 6 7.806 1.161 .474
Total 23 8.036 1.227 .256
Challenge the Process
Average
1 5 7.700 .938 .419
2 12 8.361 .881 .254
3 6 7.971 .984 .402
Total 23 8.115 .920 .191
Enable Others to Act
Average
1 5 8.899 .733 .327
2 12 9.027 .521 .150
3 6 8.527 .951 .388
Total 23 8.869 .696 .145
Encourage the Heart
Average
1 5 7.600 1.815 .811
2 12 8.847 .973 .280
3 6 7.916 1.385 .565
Total 23 8.333 1.3493 .281

1 = Residence Life
2 = Students and Campus Life
3 = Student Services
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Table 12a
Mean Differences by Areas of Work and the Types of Leadership Practices Exhibited by
the Senior Student Affairs Administrators, One-Way ANOVA results

Sum of
Squares df
Mean
Square F Sig.
Model the
Way Average
Between Groups 2.372 2 1.186 1.435 .262
Within Groups 16.533 20 .827

Total 18.906 22

Inspire a
Shared Vision
Average
Between Groups 1.871 2 .936 .598 .560
Within Groups 31.297 20 1.565

Total 33.168 22

Challenge the
Process
Average
Between Groups 1.711 2 .856 1.011 .382
Within Groups 16.919 20 .846

Total 18.630 22

Enable Others
to Act Average
Between Groups 1.006 2 .503 1.041 .372
Within Groups 9.665 20 .483

Total 10.671 22

Encourage the
Heart Average
Between Groups 6.897 2 3.449 2.078 .151
Within Groups 33.196 20 1.660

Total 40.093 22

1 = Residence Life
2 = Students and Campus Life
3 = Student Services
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Analysis of Research Question Three
3. How do senior-level Student Affairs Administrators pass on their knowledge
of leadership to the next generation of Student Affairs leaders?
Participant One: (Victor)
If the role of leader is to help others grow, Victor believes that 25 percent of his
role should be invested in cultivating the next generation. He realizes, however, that his
Center is under staffed and thus without the necessary resources or time needed to
scaffold his aims for the development of the next generation. However, he works to
develop the next generation of leaders by making sure that his student workers set a high
goal for themselves while they work in his center. He believes in helping them develop
in all areas of their professional and personal life. These goals comprise work, career,
and other goals outside of the specific work they do for him at the center. He wants to
see the students explore more beyond current boundaries.
He incorporates parts of Model the Way behaviors into his daily tasks by allowing
his staff to shadow him when he’s at different meetings. If the staff member’s interest is
policymaking, and Victor doesn’t have time to devote to helping the student gain more
knowledge in the area of policy making, he will involve him or her in developing a new
institutional policy or a process that involves the student’s interest.
He believes in passing on his knowledge about leadership to new professionals in
the field by guest lecturing at various student affairs program classes. One of his areas of
expertise is assessment; therefore, he likes to pass on his knowledge about this topic by
presenting at various student development classes, as well as working as a consultant in
different departments within the university.
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Participant Two: (Dana)
Dana believes that passing on ones knowledge of leadership to the next generation
of Student Affairs leaders is an important part the role of being a leader. Dana implies
that she is able to devote about 25% of her time in cultivating the next generation and this
is mainly done through Modeling the Way. She hopes that her staff members learn from
her leadership skills as they perform the every day tasks, by watching the way she
handles and solves problems.
Among many of the leadership skills she practices, the area that she finds
demands the most from her, in terms of LPI leadership styles is, Challenge the Process.
When a student protest took place on campus, Dana reflected:
the student groups that we oversee, say you can kind of pull on us to be like you
need to advocate for us, we are doing a protest, we are doing a walkout, will you
speak at it. And then we have kind of student affairs who’s sort of towing the line
between the students and the administration. And the vice president’s office
saying, okay, we hear the students, we think it’s not acceptable but we have to
take measured steps to look at this, we can’t endorse a walkout, we can’t
encourage them. And we are a little bit in the middle saying -- You are not
provoking but you also want to be their advocate and let them know that you are
here to support them and then also play the mediator to make sure the
administrators are not mad at you for doing it.
Challenging the Process has nevertheless not been an easy process, but Dana said
something good came out of her development. She believes that ideally a good leader
should be doing all of the LPI leadership practices. However, because she had previously
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worked in social work, where her main role was to cultivate personal growth, she
believes that having to make decisions and be in charge of her staff and setting a tone for
the office was something she had to inevitably learn.
I work more independently but now I am responsible for this office and I am in
charge of this office so I’m making more decisions. And it was part of my own
comfort level stepping into that leadership role being like okay I really am the
supervisor and it's not just our staff, it's of our grad students, I am really setting
the tone for this office and modeling for them and helping staff to be on the same
page about what we are working towards and checking in.
In regards to all of the 5 leadership practices described in LPI, she believes that
she should be practicing about 20% of each of the leadership practices in terms of her
overall responsibilities, in order to create the necessary balance. She also believes that
leadership skills are something that can be transferable and applicable in different
settings. She believes that if you are a good leader in one setting, that skill will be carried
on to other places, other tasks, other settings and it’s less specific to the job.
Participant Three: (Tim)
For Tim, how one handles themselves during a “crisis situation” is one of the
ways in which one is defined as a leader. One of the major requirements of being a leader
is the different forms of accountability the leader is responsible for. Tim feels that he is
now accountable to large constituents, large stakeholders. In his role as Director of
Orientation, he feels that he is accountable towards the university as a whole, not only as
a professional and somebody that represents the university to the greater population of
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students, parents and donors, but someone who is responsible for making the program
successful in order to achieve the university’s goals.
Tim believes that the most critical way to pass on leadership skills is through
modeling, by showing his staff, ‘this is how I do things. Because he is more task driven,
and less of an Encourage the Heart type of leader, he doesn’t believe in sitting a person
down and sharing leadership philosophy and wisdom with people. When his staff needs
his assistance in solving a problem, he walks them through the problems and shows how
the decisions are made. Tim believes that explaining the process of decision making is
the best way of passing on his leadership knowledge; as previously stated, by modeling.
He tries to incorporate all of the 5 leadership behaviors in his leadership style.
Challenging the Process encourages his staff to think beyond the basics. It asks the staff
to think beyond the norm, but it is important to Tim to make his staff aware that
challenges involve both risk and failure, but that challenging process must also be safe
enough that the risks do not topple the whole program. Tim believes enabling others to
Act is very important as you have to understand people’s strength and weaknesses and
allow them to run with those strengths and to improve on their challenges and their
weaknesses. It’s not so much about delegation but understanding their strengths.
It's not saying that we are going to be so wrapped up in the details that we forget
about the big picture. But it's also saying to them, hey I trust that you got this, run
with it, and if you need to check in with me, come in and check in with me but
you got this. And particularly with students because students sometimes [they]
think that, ‘[O]h I got to check in with everything…… you got this, just run with
it.
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Perhaps, because he was a student leader who transitioned into working as a
professional in student affairs, Tim feels that he has a special heart for and feels the need
to cultivate and pass on his knowledge about leadership. Unlike the other two
interviewees, he believes that he currently spends 65 percent to 70 percent of his work
time nurturing the next generation of leaders. When he first entered the field, he
confessed that it was about him and getting ahead; probably only about 10 percent of his
time was focused on helping others grow. After many years of professional experience in
the field of Student Affairs, Tim said his whole approach to appreciating the student has
changed. He now appreciates cultivating the whole student and mentality that the student
comes first.
I think two-thirds of my job is to work with my team to become better team
members, to become better professionals. That is part of what I do. Now yes, we
run an exceptional orientation program but I think the reason we run an
exceptional orientation program is because I don’t have to run the orientation
program; I have got a team of people that run it. And I think the reason that they
feel competent in running it is because I spent more time developing them as
leaders than I have developing the program.

Pass on Leadership Knowledge through Model the Way
Overall, the three interviewers choose Model the Way as the common leadership
practice which they chose to pass on their knowledge of leadership to the next generation
of Student Affairs leaders. Interestingly, there are two major significant patterns of
positive correlations among the five exemplary leadership practices. First, those who
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scored high on the Model the Way leadership practice also scored high on Inspire a
Shared Vision leadership practice. Secondly, respondents who scored high on the Model
the Way leadership practice scored high on all other leadership practices as well. The 5
leadership practices showing two significant patterns at UCW and UCS are shown in
Pearson Product Moment (PM) correlations are shown in Table 13.
This chapter was engaged with presenting leadership qualities, particularly in the
three interview subjects, from both a qualitative—historical, contextual, personal—
perspective, as well as quantitative results from the administered survey. As the survey
questions, modeled after the leadership traits described by Kouzes and Posner suggest,
there are many guidelines for effective leadership, and many possible combinations of
those guidelines and parameters that inscribe a person’s approach to leadership both as
concept, and on a material level. However, one of the most salient revelations to emerge
from the data (both qualitative and quantitative) presented in this chapter, is the
recognition, that all leadership attitudes and approaches, and the frames we use to study
them, are contextual.
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Table 13
Two Major Significant Patterns of Positive Correlations Among Senior Student Affairs
Administrators at Two Institutions
Model
Avg.
Inspire
Avg.
Challenge
Avg.
Enable
Avg.
Encourage
Avg.
Model the
Way
Average
Pearson
Correlation
1 .818
**
.712
**
.676
**
.765
**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000
N 23 23 23 23 23
Inspire a
Shared
Vision
Average
Pearson
Correlation
.818
**
1 .793
**
.465
*
.563
**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .025 .005
N 23 23 23 23 23
Challenge
the Process
Average
Pearson
Correlation
.712
**
.793
**
1 .589
**
.663
**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .003 .001
N 23 23 23 23 23
Enable
Others to
Act
Average
Pearson
Correlation
.676
**
.465
*
.589
**
1 .727
**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .025 .003 .000
N 23 23 23 23 23
Encourage
the Heart
Average
Pearson
Correlation
.765
**
.563
**
.663
**
.727
**
1
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .005 .001 .000
N 23 23 23 23 23

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
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The results of this study, as revealed by the information contained in this chapter,
showed that there are many types of leadership practices that are utilized by Senior
Student Affairs Administrators, which are then used to develop the overall character of
their student affairs division. It should be remembered, that under the general umbrella
of ‘Student Affairs” many different subsidiaries may exist, each with its own parameters,
purpose, and indeed character. Additionally, the chapter examined the types of leadership
qualities the senior-level student affairs administrators utilized; in an effort to not only
lead their team, but to define the salient characteristics of that team, as well as how the
team might evolve over time. Lastly, the types of leadership practices used to pass on the
knowledge of leadership to the next generation of Student Affairs leaders, was also
looked at closely. And here, I feel that the interview data was invaluable. With particular
reference to the issue of the future, of “passing on” leadership traits, the next chapter
(chapter 5), provides an overview of the project, as well as what is projected evolution of
student affairs as both concept and praxis.
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CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
College and university students across the nation count on the student affairs
divisions of their institutions to provide the vital support they need to be successful
students. Effective institutions have long viewed student affairs professionals as partners
in the total education environment through such traditional programs and services as
admissions, student financial aid, new student orientation, advising and counseling,
career services, campus activities, recreational sports, health center and residential life
programs.
For a long time, student affairs divisions have provided services which indirectly
support the institution’s educational mission. Through student affairs programs, division
professionals assist student growth and development as they help the students achieve
and acknowledge the good results inherent in learning experiences with positive
outcomes. These daily student services routines can be as simple as housing registration,
which helps the institution provide safe, comfortable campus housing for students.
Traditional roles have been expanded in recent years to include efforts to
intentionally shape the student learning environment and make the campus a more
inviting place for the diverse populations of students entering the world of higher
education in the 21
st
century. They include those who might have been previously
excluded from, or ignored by, higher education in the past, such as racial and ethnic
minorities, the students beyond traditional college-age, gay, lesbian, bisexual, first-
generation college students, commuting students, students with disabilities, and women.
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With such a diverse population, currently and regularly enrolled, on our college
campuses, student affairs administrators are expected to provide customized services and
initiatives to remove or lessen barriers to student learning and academic success. Current
senior student affairs administrators must effectively provide services to the increasing
number and diversity of students who attend part-time, or to those who rarely or never
come to the campus, such as distance learners.
To accomplish all the goals inherent to the varied and complex student
populations served, administrators must fulfill several vital roles, and function as
educators, leaders, and managers (Fried, 2003). Professional student affairs practitioners
can be, and often are, powerful partners (AAHE, ACPA, & NASPA, 1998) with the
faculty and others who are involved in making each student’s educational experience
intellectually stimulating and personally meaningful. The roles of student affairs
divisions are essential to organizational efficiency and effectiveness, and most
importantly, for successfully enabling the institution’s educational mission. Student
Affairs Administrators are those who must effectively attend to both the educational
mission of the institution and the organization’s requirement to support and nurture the
students.
There are many guidelines for effective leadership that recognize the contextual
nature of leading. Keeping in mind the ongoing discussion of effective leadership in the
field, this study assesses the leadership practices of Senior Student Affairs Officers from
two urban research universities in California. It identifies the most commonly used
leadership behaviors within the context of the Kouzes and Posner's (1987, 2002) models.
The five (5) leadership practices identified by Kouzes and Posner’s are as follows:
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Model the Way, Challenge the Process, Inspire a Shared Vision, Encourage the Heart,
and Enable Others to Act.
This study reveals that many types of leadership practices are utilized by Senior
Student Affairs Administrators to develop their student affairs divisions. Additionally,
the types of leadership qualities the senior-level administrators exhibit, which are
indicative of the ability to lead a team, were analyzed as well. The types of leadership
practices senior administrators used to pass on their knowledge of leadership to the next
generation of student affairs leaders are also examined in the study as well.
Summary of Results
The results of this study indicate that there are no significant differences in the
leadership practices of Senior Student Affairs Administrators at the two institutions
examined. This assessment is supported by the responses from study participants to three
research questions they were asked to consider. A mixed-methods approach was used to
gather data in response to the following research questions:
1. What strategies, skills or leadership styles do senior-level student affairs
administrators use in the development of their Student Affairs Division?
2. What leadership qualities do senior-level student affairs administrators use
that indicate their ability to lead a team?
3. How do senior-level student affairs administrators share their leadership
knowledge with the next generation of student affairs leaders?
A two-pronged approached was taken in executing the purposes of this study:
Quantitative data was collected from a survey using electronic questionnaires, and
qualitative data was collect from open-ended questions asked during in-person
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interviews. Data from these sources, along with that from available research, were
triangulated in order to both identify and substantiate both convergent and divergent
themes.
Key Findings
In the discussion below, key findings from the data presented in chapter four are
further discussed. The results of the five exemplary leadership practices described in the
Kouzes & Posner’s LPI are also presented.
Enable Others to Act
Enable Others to Act leadership behavior dominated the top one-third of the most
common leadership behaviors used by Senior Student Affairs Administrators in this
study. Senior Student Affairs Administrators in this study engaged in the leadership
practice, Enable Others to Act, more frequently than any of the other leadership practices.
This might imply that these leaders would be proactive in creating cooperative goals and
sustaining trusting relationships that would enable other professionals to act. Fostering
collaboration by promoting cooperative goals and building trust are some of the
commitments within the practice of Enable Others to Act by which the leaders are able to
transform their student affairs units.
For example, when Senior Student Affairs Administrators charge a committee
with organizing a mentor program for first year students, it must be given the authority to
design the program and find the means to implement the program. To strengthen support
and meaningful programming, leaders must be willing to share their power even when the
issues addressed by a staff planning group are challenging; however, the leader must be
ready to expect the unexpected and be willing to solve the problem utilizing sound
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judgment, and the most efficacious means available. In order to succeed in the areas of
Enable Others to Act behavior, the leader must support the system, believe in the reward
system, and perhaps critically, be willing to take a risk when necessary.
By valuing ideas and contributions of all members, and enabling others to act,
strong leaders can allow for more productivity than those leaders who choose to limit
such participation. By enabling others to act, the unit develops a sense of ownership, and
the ownership of ideas can lead to a vested commitment by individuals regarding the
outcomes of initiatives collectively determined. The effective Senior Student Affairs
Administrator must encourage diverse voices and create environments based on trust and
empowerment.
The administrators who frequently engage in the practice of Enable Others to Act
support the philosophy of turning followers into leaders and establishing a sense of
shared power. This particular leadership practice respects the individual by treating
people with dignity and respect and building cooperative relationships. Enabling others
to act involves embracing other people’s point of view as well as allowing for the open
exchange of ideas and opinions that contributes to the development of cooperative
relationships.
The results of this study suggest that enabling others to act appears to be a long-
standing value already embedded in the culture of student affairs practice. Additionally,
they show that the practice of enabling others to act is well-received and widely
embraced by student affairs leaders.
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Inspire a Shared Vision
The Inspire a Shared Vision leadership practice had two leadership behaviors in
the top 15 most frequently utilized leadership behaviors among Senior Student Affairs
Administrators, and one in the top five. Its “Paints big picture of group aspirations”
approach was one of the top five most utilized Inspire a Shared Vision leadership
behaviors. According to Komives & Woodard (2003), it is important that Senior Student
Affairs Administrators inspire those they lead to share a common vision in order to
ensure that the division of Student Affairs contributes to the larger institutional vision, the
big picture, which will enhance the productivity of Student Affairs and the institution
overall.
The practice of Inspire a Shared Vision asks leaders to enlist the commitment of
others, and encourage them to join in envisioning a future full of exciting and ennobling
possibilities through which all can participate in achieving the transformation of the
Student Affairs unit.
According to Floyd (2010), people are more likely to support what they help
create and this is an important principle for shaping the process of developing a shared
vision. Stakeholders want and need to be involved in giving life and direction to the
vision they are asked to support. Building a shared vision requires the ability to empower
people, inspire commitment, and to enable good decisions to be made through the design
of the learning process.
Vision is not about buying into a position that has been pre-established by others.
Rather, it is about tapping into the individual’s collective sense of what matters most to
them. When guided by a good leader, visions emerge from the community. The field
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research and scholarship has shown that empowering and inspiring a shared vision begins
with respecting the voices and values of all members of an organization. The leaders
must inspire followers to achieve a desirable new state or condition by shaping the
environment and the desire to want to change. Developing a multi-perspective view by
understanding and acting upon the big picture of the organization are two important
characteristics of being a leader who respects, and inspires a shared vision leadership
style and practices it.
The Senior Student Affairs Administrators focused on inspiring trust and respect
in facilitating a productive dynamic of interrelating between themselves and the
individuals being supervised. They also placed emphasis on efforts to recognize and
reward individual employee behaviors.
Encourage the Heart
Inspiring leaders provide continuous learning and development opportunities for
each member on their team so that together everyone can achieve, individually and
collectively, based on the shared values of the organization. One way leaders encourage
the heart is by designing evaluation and reward procedures that reflect, reinforce, and
further the aspirations of the whole team as well as those of individual team members.
Four out of six ‘Encourage the Heart’ leadership behaviors that were practiced by
SSAA were in the top 15 in this study. Praising people for a job well done was one of the
most prevalent ways of encouraging the heart in the top 10. The practice of Encouraging
the Heart is aligned with two commitments. The first one is to recognize contributions by
showing appreciation for individual excellence whether it is expressed in large or small
ways. The second commitment is to celebrate values and victories through a spirit of
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community. These are the things that helped good leaders develop improved Student
Affairs units.
Those who practice such an approach, clearly believe that the staff flourishes and
develops in response to the Encourage the Heart behavior of the Senior Student Affairs
Administrators who place their emphasis on people because they feel people matter as
much as or more than process. It is the commitments within the practice of Encourage
the Heart in which the leaders are able to transform their student affairs unit.
Model the Way
Another leadership practice, Model the Way, emerged as being used frequently by
Senior Student Affairs Administrators. Administrators in this study practiced Model the
Way more frequently than any other leadership practice in the top five. Student affairs
leaders who Model the Way, according to Kouzes and Posner (2007), “find their voice by
clarifying their personal values and set examples by aligning actions with shared values”
(p. 22). In the Komives and Woodard (2003) summary senior leaders who Model the
Way, set examples for others to follow, and work collaboratively to establish principles
concerning how colleagues and students should be treated.
Excellent examples of modeling the way are institution-sponsored Professional
Mentoring programs in which a senior leader is paired with a junior member of the staff.
In a non-threatening environment, junior staff can learn how to problem-solve within
their units, improve current talents and learn new leadership skills. Real life examples
offer leaders a chance to show junior staff members how they go about tackling issues
that come up on a daily basis.
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In the study, following through on promises and commitments (Mean, 9.26),
Model the Way rated second place as a frequently utilized behavior by Senior Student
Affairs Administrators. Setting a personal example of what is expected also had a place
in the top five leadership behaviors with the mean of 9.04. Both of these behaviors deal
with earning trust. When model the way is used junior staff expects leaders to show in
their behavior how to handle issues as they relate to trust, and thereby they exemplify and
demonstrate integrity, which is a crucial staff concern.
Setting the example by aligning actions with shared values, and finding your
voice by clarifying your personal values, are two commitments within the practice of
Model the Way by which the leaders are able to transform their Student Affairs unit.
Challenge the Process
Interestingly, out of five leadership practices, Challenge the Process was the least
used leadership practice among the administrators who took part in this study. Seeking
challenging opportunities to test skills was only one of the leadership behaviors from the
Challenge the Process practice in the top 15. This implies that the Senior Student Affairs
Administrators are themselves challenged in searching out challenging opportunities to
change, grow, innovate and improve. Experimentation, taking risks and learning from
the accompanying mistakes does not come easy for the leaders in the study.
Seeking out challenging opportunities that test one’s own skills and abilities are
important in the practice of Challenge the Process. It requires the leader to challenge the
staff to try out new and innovative ways to do their work by searching outside the formal
boundaries of one’s organization for innovative ways to improve what they do. The
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study implies that all these behaviors of Challenging the Process might not be viewed as
a good-fit for leadership in the world of student affairs in higher education.
One of the ways that senior administrators can contribute to this leadership
practice is by recognizing good ideas, supporting those ideas, and challenging the system
to get new programs, projects, and systems adopted. The leader must know that
innovation and change involve risk and potential failure. Leaders must be willing to be
learners and willing to learn from their mistakes as well as their successes. Challenging
people to try new approaches and make certain that goals, plans and milestones are set
were not common behaviors practiced by the SSAA in this study. Searching for
opportunities by seeking innovative ways to change and grow, and to take risks by
constantly generating small wins and learning from mistakes are some of the
commitments within the practice of Challenge the Process in which the leaders are able to
transform their students affairs unit.
Interview Results
When the leadership practices of the three interviewees from UCS were analyzed,
they indicated that a different type of leadership is favored based on the age of the
administrator. For example, the Senior Student Affairs Administrators under the age of
40 used Inspire a Shared Vision to a significantly greater degree than did the
administrators over 40 years of age, their counterpart with more work experience in
general. Two of the interviewees described themselves as very task driven and project
oriented as opposed to the other interviewee, who does not relate to this leadership style
as much. This finding is consistent with the findings of prior researchers. For example, in
a 2004 study by Oshagbemi regarding the age influences on the leadership styles and
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behavior of managers, findings indicated that age influences on the leadership styles and
behaviors of the managers clearly differ in that younger and older managers have
different approach in their consultative and participative leadership styles. Older
managers liked to consult their staff more widely and favor more participation in
comparison with younger managers.
According to Gogan (2008), there are generational differences and similarities
among employees, in terms of how they develop leadership strategies and management
styles that will increase employee productivity. The author describes the three
populations as the Baby Boomers, the Generation X-ers and the Millennial Generation.
Additionally, Kupperschmidt (2000) describes the different types of generational
employees that comprise the workforce. She emphasizes the importance of the leaders
being able to acknowledge the generational differences and how they influence attitudes
toward work and organizations. Furthermore, when comparing mean scores in the
current study, regarding the leadership practices between the three interviewees, the
under 40 administrators both scored higher in Inspire a Shared Vision than did the
administrators who were over 40 years of age. Thus, it appears that younger
professionals highly value and prefer the kind of leadership practices that focus on
productivity, accomplishments and setting measureable goals.
Conclusion
Deductive analyses of interviews identified essential leadership styles such as
modeling the way and inspiring a shared vision were leadership practices the SSAA most
resonate with in this study. Meanwhile, under the self-evaluating survey, Enable Others
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to Act followed by Model the Way took the lead in the most commonly practiced
behaviors among SSAA at urban universities.
The fundamental practices of leadership espoused by Jim Kouzes and Barry
Posner (1995) in The Leadership Challenge: How to Keep Getting Extraordinary Things
Done in Organizations represent a simple, yet effective, approach to effectively mobilize
faculty and staff in support of the new learning. Based on this author’s personal
experience, virtually all higher education faculty and staff are willing to change if they
are involved in the process, understand expectations and rewards, and if they are led in
systematic, inclusive, and positive ways.
Within the fast-paced changing climate of higher education, and with so many
stakeholders demanding measurable outcomes to produce effectively prepared students,
the demands placed upon Senior Student Affairs Administrators make their roles and
leadership evermore challenging. According to Winston (2001) student affairs
professionals are highly capable and must function as key players in the educational
endeavors of the college. The leadership role of student affairs professionals constitutes
one of the most critical determinants of ultimate success or failure of Student Affairs
units at urban colleges and universities. The leadership styles of SSAA have a significant
influence on the success of student outcomes in the higher education environment.
The primary intent of the current study was to develop a profile of the most
common leadership practices of SSAA in two higher education institutions in California.
It is evident that no single SSAA prototype exists, and that each member is different and
unique. Yet, a pattern suggests that effective administrators show strong leadership
characteristics that include high motivation, honesty and trustworthiness, a willingness to
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empower staff and build relationships, to collaborate in a team approach to finding
solutions, a willingness to take risks when faced with challenges and new ways of
working, achieving goals and innovative thinking about the future.
In order to respond effectively to the immense demands made upon them, SSAA
need to have the capacity to empower as well as enable others to act. They need to
inspire each team member to achieve his or her own personal best, and to model the way
for those looking to the administrators for clues on how to deliver better, more productive
services to the students. Many times SSAA are a lifeline for students who first look to
the Student Affairs Divisions for help when they are trying to negotiate the often choppy
waters of higher education. An administrator’s leadership style can, therefore, have a
huge impact on student life at an urban college or university. SSAA have the opportunity
to help students make the most of their college experience by shaping the environment
and campus culture to meet student needs. It is through these various leadership practices
researched in this study in which the leaders are to transform their student affairs unit.
Recommendations
Minimal research has been done specifically regarding SSAA in higher education,
which means that there is almost no assistance available to help leaders in developing
their divisions. The interviewees and the survey instrument methodologies used for this
study offer one way to examine the multidimensional variables that impact the outcomes
of student affairs divisions.
According to Winston (2001), the founding philosophy and purposes of the
student personnel profession remains an anchor for the emerging student affairs
professional in higher education. By using their leadership skills to develop their units,
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Senior Student Affairs Administrators will be able to continue to advocate for the
importance of helping all students grow holistically. Leadership is taking about taking
control when necessary, facilitating, encouraging resourcefulness, framing the problem,
finding the solution, and modeling as well as empowering responsibility.
As Carey (2009) has described, there is increasing evidence that higher education
must address the basic personal needs of students in order for them to succeed. This can
be done by having student affairs units provide to the students with a comprehensive set
of services and programs that reach beyond the boundaries of the classroom.
Administrators must find ways to conceptualize a new set of fundamental beliefs about
how organizations function and how leadership is manifested. Ultimately, the goal of
leadership is to share responsibility for decisions and actions by encouraging engagement
and involvement with leadership at every organizational level.
As it is with other academic administrators, Student Affairs Administrators must
fill the dual roles of educator and leader. Ruben has stated (2005) that as educators,
administrators need to communicate their vision of how developmental opportunities can
be pursued, and then attempt to structure an environment that is conducive to enriching
the quality of life for students. Smith & Hughey (2006) concluded that as leaders,
student affairs administrators should motivate and guide their staff, influence others
within the institution to be more student-oriented, and work to secure the resources
necessary for the provision of even more effective student services.
Typically in times of economic hardship, enrollments increase, but state support
and donations decline for public and private schools. The fiscal challenges to higher
education prove even more difficult in tough economic times requiring the student affairs
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unit to multi-function. Today’s Senior Student Affairs Administrators face a myriad of
challenges that would have been inconceivable even in the recent past (Smith, 2005).
Every position in student affairs should make either a direct or indirect
contribution to student learning. Student affairs professionals can and should function as
major players in the educational endeavors of any higher education institution. Leaders
need to originate visions and use active, cooperative, and collaborative leadership
strategies to move and transform their student affairs units forward. As Rouech, Baker,
and Rose (1989) have stated, transformational leadership in higher education is the ability
of the senior administrators to influence the values, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of
others. Their values need to be grounded in respect for individuals, and a commitment to
building multicultural communities with a strong work ethic. Effective leaders must
understand the times and generational characteristics of their staff and they must assure
that those under their charge understand and respect one another's differences.
Recommendation for Future Research
While the primary outcomes of this study shed light upon the leadership practices
of Senior Student Affairs Administrators exercised, as a result of this study, several
recommendations are made for future research:
1. A study could be undertaken to complete a 360-degree assessment of Senior
Student Affairs Administrators, where administrators reported their use of the
leadership practices and both their direct reports and their supervisors rate the
administrators on their perceptions of the actual use of the leadership
practices.
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2. Demographic information can be added to the survey in order to collect
personal data on respondents. The demographic information can include
number of years in present position, age, gender, race/ethnicity, educational
background, and related to scores on the five practices of leadership indicated
by the Leadership Practices Inventory.
3. Additional research could extend to an examination of the five exemplary
leadership practices in SSAAs in other geographic regions of the United
States to test for a correlation between SSAA leadership practices with this
study's findings. Studying the relationship of SSAA leadership practices at
non-CA institutions, where geographic context will affect culture and beliefs,
will validate regional consistency of findings.
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APPENDIX A
LPI PERMISSION LETTER
July 24, 2012
Dear Ms. Oh:
Thank you for your request to use the Leadership Practices Inventory (LPI) in your
dissertation. We are willing to allow you to reproduce the instrument in written form, as
outlined in your request, at no charge. If you prefer to use our electronic distribution of
the LPI (vs. making copies of the print materials) you will need to separately contact Lisa
Shannon (lshannon@wiley.com) directly for instructions and payment. Permission to use
either the written or electronic versions requires the following agreement:

(1) That the LPI is used only for research purposes and is not sold or used in conjunction
with any compensated management development activities;

(2) That copyright of the LPI, or any derivation of the instrument, is retained by Kouzes
Posner International, and that the following copyright statement is included on all copies
of the instrument; "C
reserved. Used with permission",

(3) That one (1) electronic copy of your dissertation and one (1) copy of all papers,
reports, articles, and the like which make use of the LPI data be sent promptly to our
attention; and,

(4) That you agree to allow us to include an abstract of your study and any other
published papers utilizing the LPI on our various websites.

If the terms outlined above are acceptable, would you indicate so by signing one (1) copy
of this letter and returning it to me either via email or by post to; 1548 Camino Monde
San Jose, CA 95125. Best wishes for every success with your research project.

Cordially,

Ellen Peterson
Permissions Editor
Epeterson4@gmail.com

I understand and agree to abide by these conditions:

(Signed)__________________________________ Date: ________________
Expected Date of Completion is: ____________________________________
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES, SKILLS, AND PROFESSIONAL

138
APPENDIX B
GENERAL RECRUITMENT EMAIL COVER LETTER
Dear [Name],
Hello. My name is Jinny Oh, and I am a doctoral candidate in the Rossier School of
Education at University of Southern California. My dissertation advisors are Dr. Pedro
Garcia and Dr. Rudy Castruita. I’m conducting a research study as part of our
dissertation, focusing on Student Affairs Leadership styles in Higher Education. You are
invited to participate in the study. If you agree, you are invited to participate in the
Leadership Practice Inventory (LPI) survey.

These surveys are anticipated to take no more than 10 minutes to complete. If you wish
to participate in a focus group interview it will last approximately 30 minutes and may be
audio-taped. Please indicate which of the two you would like to participate.

Participation in this study is voluntary. Your identity as a participant will remain
confidential at all times during and after the study.

If you have questions or would like to participate, please contact me at jinnyoh@usc.edu.

Thank you for your participation,

Jinny Oh
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES, SKILLS, AND PROFESSIONAL

139
APPENDIX C
FOLLOW-UP EMAIL COVER LETTER
August, 2012
Dear [Name],
Hello. My name is Jinny Oh, and I am a doctoral candidate in the Rossier School of
Education at USC. I am conducting a research study as part of our dissertation process
under the direction of Dr. Pedro Garcia and Dr. Rudy Castruita. The study focuses on
Student Affairs Leadership styles in Higher Education. You have been identified as a
Senior Student Affairs Administrator in higher education, who may be eligible to
participate. Participation would require one survey taking up to 15 minutes. Participation
in this study is entirely voluntary. Your identity will remain confidential at all times.
Your relationship with UCS or UCW will not be affected whether or not you participate
in this study.

If you have questions, please contact us via email or phone: jinnyoh@usc.edu or
(626)457-4269.

Thank you for your participation,

Jinny Oh

Date of preparation: August 15, 2011
USC UPIRB#: UP-12-00181
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES, SKILLS, AND PROFESSIONAL

140
APPENDIX D
SURVEY INSTRUCTION
Leadership Practices Inventory
by James M. Kouzes & Barry Z. Posner
Instructions
Write your name in the space provided at the top of the next page. Below your name,
you will find thirty statements describing various leadership behaviors. Please read each
statement carefully, and using the RATING SCALE on the right, ask yourself:

“How frequently do I engage in the behavior described?”

 Be realistic about the extent to which you actually engage in the behavior.

 Be as honest and accurate as you can be.

 DO NOT answer in terms of how you would like to behave or in terms of how
you think you should behave

 DO answer in terms of how you typically behave on most days, on most projects,
and with most people.

 Be thoughtful about your responses. For example, giving yourself 10s on all items
is most likely not an accurate description of your behavior. Similarly, giving
yourself all 1s or all 5s is most likely not an accurate description either. Most
people will do some things more or less often than they do other things.

 If you feel that a statement does not apply to you, it's probably because you don't
frequently engage in the behavior. In that case, assign a rating of 3 or lower.

The RATING SCALE runs from 1 to 10. Choose the number that best applies to each
statement.

1 = Almost Never
2 = Rarely
3 = Seldom
4 = Once in a While
5 = Occasionally
6 = Sometimes
7 = Fairly Often
8 = Usually
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES, SKILLS, AND PROFESSIONAL

141
9 = Very Frequently
10 = Almost Always

When you have completed the LPI-Self, please return it to:
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES, SKILLS, AND PROFESSIONAL

142
APPENDIX D1
SURVEY

Leadership Practices Inventory

Your Name: _______________________________________

To what extent do you typically engage in the following behaviors? Choose the
response number that best applies to each statement and record it in the box to the
right of that statement.

1. I set a personal example of what I expect of others.

2. I talk about future trends that will influence how our work gets done.

3. I seek out challenging opportunities that test my own skills and abilities.

4. I develop cooperative relationships among the people I work with.

5. I praise people for a job well done.

6. I spend time and energy making certain that the people I work with adhere to
the principles and standards we have agreed on.

7. I describe a compelling image of what our future could be like.

8. I challenge people to try out new and innovative ways to do their work.

9. I actively listen to diverse points of view.

10. I make it a point to let people know about my confidence in their abilities.

11. I follow through on the promises and commitments that I make.

12. I appeal to others to share an exciting dream of the future.

13. I search outside the formal boundaries of my organization for innovative ways
to improve what we do.

14. I treat others with dignity and respect.

15. I make sure that people are creatively rewarded for their contribution to the
success of our projects.

LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES, SKILLS, AND PROFESSIONAL

143
16. I ask for feedback on how my actions affect other people's performance.

17. I show others how their long-term interests can be realized by enlisting in a
common vision.

18. I ask “What can we learn?” when things don't go as expected.

19. I support the decisions that people make on their own.

20. I publicly recognize people who exemplify commitment to shared values.

21. I build consensus around a common set of values for running our
organization.

22. I paint the “big picture” of what we aspire to accomplish.

23. I make certain that we set achievable goals, make concrete plans, and
establish measurable milestones for the projects and programs that we work
on.

24. I give people a great deal of freedom and choice in deciding how to do their
work.

25. I find ways to celebrate accomplishments.

26. I am clear about my philosophy of leadership.

27. I speak with genuine conviction about the higher meaning and purpose of our
work.

28. I experiment and take risks, even when there is a chance of failure.

29. I ensure that people grow in their jobs by learning new skills and developing
themselves.

30. I give the members of the team lots of appreciation and support for their
contributions.

Copyright © 2003 James M. Kouzes and Barry Z. Posner.
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES, SKILLS, AND PROFESSIONAL

144
APPENDIX E
INTERVIEW COVER LETTER/EMAIL
June, 2011

Dear [Name],

My name is Jinny Oh, a doctoral student in the Rossier School of Education at USC and I
am conducting a research study as part of my dissertation process under the direction of
Dr. Pedro Garcia and Dr. Rudy Castruita. The study focuses on Student Affairs
Leadership styles in Higher Education. Thank you for your willingness to participate in
a 30 minute interview.

Participation in this study is entirely voluntary. Your identity as a participant will remain
confidential at all times. Your relationship with UCS will not be affected whether or not
you participate in this study.

Our interview has been scheduled to take place at your office on ___________ at
____________. (date) (time)

Attached please find a list of topics and questions we may cover during this interview. If
you have questions, please contact me via email or phone: jinnyoh@usc.edu or 626-457-
4269.

Thank you for your participation,

Jinny Oh

University of Southern California

Date of preparation: July, 2011
USC UPIRB#: UP-12-00181
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES, SKILLS, AND PROFESSIONAL

145
APPENDIX E1
INTERVIEW PROTOCOL SENT WITH COVER LETTER
Interview Questions
1. How did you prepare yourself to become a leader?

2. What or who influenced you to where you in terms of your leadership skills?

3. What helped you grow as a leader?

4. How has your philosophy about leadership changed over time?

5. What was your leadership skill at the beginning of your career in higher education
and how has it changed now?

6. What type of leadership skills would you expect from your fellow leaders that you
think would help develop the division you’re currently working in?

7. What strategies do you use to develop your Student Affairs Division?

8. Among these leadership traits (Challenging the Process, Inspiring a Shared Vision,
Enabling Others to Act, Modeling the Way, Encouraging the Heart) which one do
you exhibit or resonate the most and why?

9. Which LPI leadership qualities do you think are most important in developing your
team?

10. Which LPI leadership qualities do you think you practice the most to build your
team?

11. In what areas of leadership behavior do you think you are growing and developing in?

12. How do you pass on your leadership qualities and skills to new professionals in the
field?
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES, SKILLS, AND PROFESSIONAL

146
Research Questions
1. What strategies, skills and/or leadership styles do senior-level Student Affairs
Administrators use to develop their Student Affairs Division?

2. What leadership qualities do senior-level Student Affairs Administrators exhibit
which are indicative of the ability to lead a team?

3. How do senior-level Student Affairs Administrators pass on their knowledge of
leadership to the next generation of Student Affairs leaders?

Kouzes & Posner’s, The Five Practices of Exemplary Leadership – Uses LPI survey
(Leadership Practices Inventory)

1. Challenging the Process - Leaders search for opportunities to change the status
quo. They look for innovative ways to improve the organization. In doing so, they
experiment and take risks. And because leaders know that risk taking involves
mistakes and failures, they accept the inevitable disappointments as learning
opportunities.

2. Inspiring a Shared Vision - Leaders passionately believe that they can make a
difference. They envision the future, creating an ideal and unique image of what
the organization can become. Through their magnetism and quiet persuasion,
leaders enlist others in their dreams. They breathe life into their visions and get
people to see exciting possibilities for the future.

3. Enabling Others to Act - Leaders foster collaboration and build spirited teams.
They actively involve others. Leaders understand that mutual respect is what
sustains extraordinary efforts; they strive to create an atmosphere of trust and
human dignity. They strengthen others, making each person feel capable and
powerful.

4. Modeling the Way - Leaders establish principles concerning the way people
(constituents, colleagues, and customers alike) should be treated and the way
goals should be pursued. They create standards of excellence and then set an
example for others to follow. Because the prospect of complex change can
overwhelm people and stifle action, they set interim goals so that people can
achieve small wins as they work toward larger objectives. They unravel
bureaucracy when it impedes action; they put up signposts when people are
unsure of where to go or how to get there; and they create opportunities for
victory.
LEADERSHIP STRATEGIES, SKILLS, AND PROFESSIONAL

147

5. Encouraging the Heart - Accomplishing extraordinary things in organizations is
hard work. To keep hope and determination alive, leaders recognize contributions
that individuals make. In every winning team, the members need to share in the
rewards of their efforts, so leaders celebrate accomplishments. They make people
feel like heroes.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract As the makeup of today’s student body becomes more complex, so does the evolving role of the Student Affairs Division on campus. Along with large increases in enrollment and the greater diversity of college students, there has been a corresponding increase in the administrative functions assumed by student affairs professionals in higher education. Given these realities, the role of student affairs leaders becomes more important in the student’s educational experience, the senior leaders need to better understand and better formulate and motivate their team to be effective leaders across the spectrum of higher education goals and concerns. ❧ This study was designed to examine the relationship between inspiring leadership behaviors and transforming leadership attributes among Senior Student Affairs Administrators in the student affairs divisions of urban universities and colleges in California. The primary purpose of this research study was to identify the effective leadership strategies, professional approaches/styles, and skills that Senior Student Affairs Administrators use to develop the Student Affairs Divisions in urban universities. The study examined how senior level Student Affairs Administrators lead their student affairs departments to build effective leaders and support new practitioners in developing their own leadership practices. Additionally, the study closely examines the skills and tactics senior administrators use to transfer their garnered knowledge of leadership, gained through their own professional experiences, to future generations of Student Affairs administrators. ❧ The intent of this study was to provide Senior Student Affairs Administrators with the guidance and professional development assistance they need to become more effective leaders from an analysis of the personal-best cases, a model of leadership that consists of what Kouzes and Posner call The Five Practices of Exemplary Leadership: 1) Encourage the Heart, 2) Challenge the Process, 3) Model the Way, 4) Inspire a Shared Vision, and 5) Enabling Others to Act. ❧ Deductive analyses of interviews identified essential leadership styles such as modeling the way and inspiring a shared vision were leadership practices the SSAA most resonate with in this study. Meanwhile, Enable Others to Act leadership behavior dominated the top one-third of the most common leadership behaviors used by Senior Student Affairs Administrators in this study. Under the self-evaluating survey, Enable Others to Act followed by Model the Way took the lead in the most commonly practiced behaviors among SSAA at urban universities. The least frequent exhibited type of leadership practice the SSAA resonate which is indicative of the ability to lead a team is Inspire a Shared Vision. ❧ An administrator’s leadership style can, therefore, have a huge impact on student life at an urban college or university. SSAA have the opportunity to help students make the most of their college experience by shaping the environment and campus culture to meet student needs. It is through these various leadership practices researched in this study in which the leaders are to transform their student affairs unit.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Oh, Jinny (author)

Core Title Leadership strategies, skills, and professional approaches utilized by effective senior-level student affairs administrators at urban universities

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 01/16/2013

Defense Date 05/21/2012

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag effective,Higher education,higher educational administrator,leadership,leadership skills,leadership strategies,OAI-PMH Harvest,professional approaches,senior-level,student affairs,student affairs directors,student affairs officer,urban universities

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor García, Pedro Enrique (committee chair), Castruita, Rudy Max (committee member), Johnson, Bond (committee member)

Creator Email jinnyoh@usc.edu,ohjinnyoh@yahoo.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-126468

Unique identifier UC11292281

Identifier usctheses-c3-126468 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-OhJinny-1396.pdf

Dmrecord 126468

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Oh, Jinny

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA