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Impact of culturally responsive education on college choice

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Content Running head: CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND COLLEGE CHOICE 1

IMPACT OF CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION
ON COLLEGE CHOICE

by

Tricia Kēhaulani ʻAipia-Peters

_______________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2014

Copyright 2014 Tricia Kēhaulani ʻAipia-Peters

CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND COLLEGE CHOICE

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DEDICATION
To my parents, Harry & Jeanette ʻAipia, who sacrifice, support and encourage me to
pursue education to the highest level. To my husband, Mitchell Peters, who provides the
unwavering support in all aspects of my life.
Na kaʻu keikikāne, ʻo Kahaukepa ʻAipia-Peters, no kona hoʻomanawanui a kūpaʻa ma
koʻu ʻimi ʻana i ka naʻauao ma ia pae laeʻula. Ke aloha nui iā ʻoukou a pau.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
There are not enough words or pages in a document to express my warmest and sincere
appreciation and gratitude to those who have supported me in this endeavor, throughout the past
three years and in the many years leading up to this educational goal.
First, a special thank you to my mom and dad, Harry & Jeanette ʻAipia, who sacrificed at
many stages of life to ensure that my brother and I received an exceptional educational
foundation. They continued to provide support, both financially and emotionally, throughout my
educational pursuits and were always patient and forgiving with me. There is nothing in the
world that comes close to the enduring love of my parents. I will be forever grateful and
humbled.
I kaʻu kāne, Mitchell Kealoha Peters, a me kaʻu keikikāne, Kahaukepa Kahoʻiwai
Antonio ʻAipia-Peters, no ʻolua ka nui o kaʻu hana i kēlā me kēia lā. Ua kākoʻo piha mai ʻolua i
kēia mau makahiki ma koʻu ʻimi naʻauao ʻana. Mai ka hoʻoholo ʻana i ka hoʻi i ke kulanui a i ka
lā puka kula, ua kūpaʻa ʻolua me aʻu ma nā ʻano a pau. Ua hoʻomanawanui ʻia koʻu loaʻa ʻole a
me ka paʻahana. Ua kōkua ʻia ma nā wā hihia a uluhua. A, ua aloha ʻia ma nā ʻano a pau. Ua kū
haʻaheo kākou ma ka lā puka kula no ka mea, no kākou nō kēia. Ua ʻimi ʻia ka pae ʻoi kelakela a
ua lanakila kākou.
To my distinguished dissertation committee, Dr. Darnell Cole, Dr. Melora Sundt, and Dr.
Hiapo Perreira, my warmest aloha and mahalo for supporting and challenging me throughout the
dissertation process. To my chair, Dr. Darnell Cole, mahalo for posing the thought provoking
questions regarding my knowledge and passion. As a result, I have become a better researcher
and educator.
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I kuʻu mau hoa kākoʻo, he leo mahalo palena ʻole iā ʻoukou a pau. Iā ʻoe, e Hiapo, nui
koʻu mahalo i kou mau aʻoaʻo a me kou leo kākoʻo ma ia mau makahiki he lōʻihi. Iā ʻoe, e Haʻa,
he leo mahalo i ke kūpaʻa a kākoʻo mau ma ke ʻano he hoapili. Ma nā wā hihia, ma nā wā uluhua
a me nā wā o koʻu loaʻa ʻole, ua maha koʻu naʻau ma muli o kou leo kōkua a kākoʻo mau. I nā
hoa kākoʻo ʻē aʻe o ke kula a me papahana hoʻōla ʻōlelo Hawaiʻi, he leo mahalo piha i nā leo
kākoʻo a hoʻomaikaʻi i hāpai ʻia ma ia mau makahiki.
To my USC Hawaiʻi Cohort — 2011 — it has been a pleasure getting to know each of
you and learning so much over the past years. A special mahalo to my “DC Nation” members:
ʻIwalani, Lise, Josh, and Lauren. The knowledge and experiences that each of you have shared
will continue to impact me. I have become a better writer and colleague as a result of working
with such special individuals. Fight On!
ʻO ka hope, he leo mahalo kēia i nā haumāna i kōkua mai ma kēia pāhana ma ka
hoʻopihapiha ʻana i ke anamanaʻo, ke komo ʻana ma nā nīnauele a ma ka hāpai ʻana i nā leo
kākoʻo. Ua puka kēia pāhana ma muli o ka lanakila o ʻoukou. He lanakila hou aku kēia no nā
haumāna, nā kumu a me nā ʻohana. Aloha.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Tables 6
List of Figures 7
Abstract 8
Chapter 1: Introduction 9
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature 22
Chapter 3: Methodology 55
Chapter 4: Analysis 67
Chapter 5: Discussion 85
References 106
Appendices 117
Appendix A: Alumni Survey 117
Appendix B: Focus Group Guide & Protocol 122
Appendix C: Informed Consent (Survey) 124
Appendix D: Informed Consent (Focus Group) 126

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Low Performing High Schools in Hawaiʻi (School Status & Improvement 14
Reports, SY 2011-2012)
Table 2. Culturally Responsive Education Logic Model 47
Table 3. Outcomes for Native Hawaiian and Indigenous Student Populations in 53
Different School Contexts Relative to College Access and Enrollment
Table 4. Summary of Research Questions and Corresponding Statistical Tests 63
Table 5. Criteria for Qualitative Inquiry 65
Table 6. Frequency Counts for Selected Variables (N=53) 69
Table 7. Frequency of College Majors/Degrees for College-Going Respondents (N=47) 71
Table 8. Participant Characteristics & Identifiers 74
Table 9. Themes, Descriptions & Participant Quotes 75

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Native Hawaiian students enrolled in the University of Hawaiʻi System: 42
Fall 2010
Figure 2. Alumni exit survey responses on life satisfaction levels relative to high 70
school preparation

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ABSTRACT
This study applied the theoretical frameworks of cultural compatibility, social cognitive theory,
and cultural-historical activity theory (CHAT), along with rational choice and balanced access
models, to explore the impact of culturally responsive education on college choice among Native
Hawaiian students. The purpose of this study was to examine how pivotal experiences and
persons within the secondary education context impacted whether or not students from a
Hawaiian medium education program pursued postsecondary education, and how these
experiences influenced their decisions. Quantitative data were collected from graduates through
an online Alumni Exit Survey. Further exploratory analyses were conducted using qualitative
data from focus groups. Findings from this study indicate that a majority of graduates pursued
higher education and that they attributed their postsecondary pursuits to significant aspects of
their culturally responsive education. Analysis revealed that key factors of their high school
education, such as culturally relevant curriculum, peer and faculty relationships, and cultural
connections to language revitalization and the indigenous community, were influential aspects
that contributed to college choice among graduates. This study has multiple implications for
culturally responsive education, Hawaiian medium education and Native Hawaiians in higher
education, that include fostering educational partnerships with higher education institutions and
understanding the importance of culturally relevant curriculum. Further research and exploration
of culturally responsive education is a recognized need that will impact proposed education
reforms and policies that address Native Hawaiian enrollment in higher education and the
progress of indigenous communities.

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Impact of Culturally Responsive Education on College Choice
Native Hawaiians remain severely underrepresented in higher education (Hagedorn,
Lester, Moon, & Tibbetts, 2006). While Native Hawaiians tend to be a younger group, due to
relatively high birth rates, few are attending or completing college (Hagedorn et al., 2006). Only
13.8% of the adult Native Hawaiian population in the U.S. has earned a bachelor’s degree, as
compared to 27% of the White and 44.1% of the Asian populations (Hagedorn et al., 2006).
While some progress has been made in closing the gaps among distinct student populations,
significant inequities continue to exist for a wide range of educational indicators, including
grades, dropout rates, and participation in higher education (Klump & McNeir, 2005). Closing
the achievement gap and correcting these educational inequities are compelling reasons for
schools to adopt educational reforms that address the underrepresentation of specific minority
groups in higher education. One of the ways that school systems and educational institutions are
addressing the achievement gap in college attendance is to become more culturally responsive
(Klump & McNeir, 2005). By embracing a more culturally responsive education, schools are
able to connect to a minority student population that is overlooked and undersupported in the
traditional public school system (Kanaʻiaupuni & Ishibashi, 2003). Specific to Hawaiʻi,
emphasizing language-based and culture-based curriculum can provide an alternative form of
education to address the underrepresentation of Native Hawaiians in higher education.
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, educational policy in Hawaiʻi began to address the
needs of Native Hawaiians by giving them greater input into the curriculum and services
provided to students as part of their educational experience (Benham & Heck, 1998). These gains
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were made by those in the Hawaiian community who insisted that policies and laws reflect the
desires of Hawaiians, and that Hawaiian language become a living language in the educational
context (Wilson & Kamanā, 2001). As a result, families and communities took it upon
themselves to create language immersion programs at the preschool level to foster native
language acquisition in an educational setting. The creation of Hawaiian language immersion
education provided a context of culturally responsive education that was missing in the
traditional school setting.
Before the implementation of the language-based preschools, and subsequent creation of
language-based elementary and secondary education, Hawaiian was a language only spoken in a
few homes and a part of the university setting (Benham & Heck, 1998). With the official
recognition in 1978 of the Hawaiian language as one of the two languages of the state, along
with English, Hawaiʻi became the only state to hold such a distinction with regard to languages.
Subsequently, in 1986, the ban enforcing English-only instruction in the public schools, in place
for nearly 100 years, was rescinded, due in part to community lobbying (Wilson & Kamanā,
2001). As a result of this legislative action, the doors were opened to allow language-based
education to increase the impact on families and communities across the state of Hawaiʻi.
Language- and culture-based education are examples of education reform that not only
focuses on the academic progress of students, but also incorporates a cultural aspect that
encompasses the student, the home culture, and the community as a whole. These aspects are
characteristics of a culturally responsive education. Gay (2010) contends that culturally
responsive education recognizes, respects, and uses students’ identities and backgrounds as a
meaningful source for creating optimal learning environments. Being culturally responsive is
more than being respectful, empathetic, or sensitive. It is the accompanying actions, such as
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having high expectations for students, and ensuring that those expectations are realized, that
make an education reform culturally responsive (Klump & McNeir, 2005).
The growing need for culturally responsive education is reinforced by the increasing
numbers of culturally, linguistically, and socioeconomically diverse students in our schools
(Klump & McNeir, 2005). Closing the achievement gap and correcting the educational inequities
relative to minority representation in higher education are compelling reasons for schools to
adopt cultural responsive education. Embracing the notion of cultural responsiveness is a means
to help all students reach high standards (Klump & McNeir, 2005). Demmert and Towner (2003)
further contend that culture-based education is a factor in schools that are currently successful
with native students.
An example of culturally responsive education in the context of Native Hawaiian students
is seen in the Hawaiian medium education programs, also known as Hawaiian language
immersion programs. Zamudio (2011) asserts that language immersion connects with students
and “it is the culturally relevant curriculum that is the school’s major asset” (pp. 1-2). Indigenous
language communities continually struggle to embrace, revive, and continue their mother tongue
in an English-dominated society. McCarty (2003) supports the idea that “language immersion is
increasingly the pedagogy of choice among indigenous communities seeking to produce a new
generation of fluent Native language speakers” (p. 149). Research shows that students who enter
school with a primary language other than the national or dominant language perform
significantly better on academic tasks when they receive consistent and cumulative academic
support in the native/heritage language (McCarty, 2003; Wilson & Kamanā, 2001).
Retention of language and culture is central to accomplishing the goal of effective
educational policy and the ability of language and culture to strengthen indigenous community-
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school relations (Zamudio, 2011; McCarty, 2008; Geisinger & Carlson, 1992). Hawaiian
language immersion education schools are striving to embrace the Hawaiian language and
culture, while at the same time trying to conform to educational standards that are implemented
in the English language. Over the years, some Hawaiian language immersion programs have
evolved into what are currently known as Hawaiian medium education (HME) schools. These
schools have transformed from immersion, in which academic content areas are taught in the
indigenous language, into school communities in which the language of instruction is Hawaiian,
and all activities and interactions among students, faculty and staff are conducted in the
Hawaiian language. Current educational reform policies do little to exhibit the progress and or
provide data analysis of culturally responsive education and native language learners. The
uniqueness of the HME program and its graduates is not evident in the current data collections
and analyses; rather, the program is combined with data for all traditional schools and student
populations. Subsequently, if a student is identified as Native Hawaiian, the data are aggregated
with those for all Native Hawaiian students, with no differences considered with regard to the
educational and academic context. Valid and reliable data analyses regarding college choice
among Native Hawaiian students, and how these students are impacted by a culturally responsive
education, are not readily available. This study will explore this underrepresented student
population and begin a data collection not previously obtained.
Background of Problem
Native Hawaiians continue their educational journey after receiving a high school
diploma at a lower frequency than non-Hawaiians. More than three-quarters (76.3%) of Native
Hawaiian adults 25 years or older completed high school but did not earn a bachelor’s degree
(Speck & Keahiolalo-Karasuda, 2011). The importance of higher education for Native
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Hawaiians is ever increasing, particularly in today’s global market. Higher education and
increased benefits are shown to be linked. For example, research indicates that college graduates
are more likely than high school graduates to enter into occupations and industries that yield
higher returns, thus increasing their likelihood of earning a livable wage (Speck & Keahiolalo-
Karasuda, 2011). Access to higher education and subsequent attendance are ways that Native
Hawaiians can increase their job opportunities and benefits.
College access has become a widely studied topic in recent years, with competing
arguments about strategies used to expand access (St. John et al., 2004). Access to institutions of
higher education, in the form of enrollments, has increased in the US over the past 20 years,
though the percentage of students enrolling from low-income and low-performing high schools is
disturbingly low (Akerhielm, Berger, Hooker, & Wise, 1998). According to the Hawaiʻi
Department of Education (HIDOE), five of the state’s six low performing schools are in rural
and remote areas serving the largest population of Native Hawaiians and economically
disadvantaged students in the state (Hawaiʻi Department of Education Systems Accountability
Office, 2012a-e; Hawaiʻi Department of Education, 2011). Table 1 summarizes this information
for the low performing high schools in Hawaiʻi.
Despite an enormous investment of financial aid to equalize educational opportunities for
all Americans, substantial evidence indicates that inequities still exist, particularly among low-
socioeconomic-status students (Terenzini, Cabrera, & Bernal, 2001). College access and choice
remain stratified by socioeconomic status (SES) and race/ethnicity (Perna, 2006).

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Table 1
Low Performing High Schools in Hawaiʻi (School Status & Improvement Reports, SY 2011-
2012)
Low Performing High Schools
(LPHS)
Percentage of Economically-
Disadvantaged Students
Percentage of Native
Hawaiian Students
ʻEkahi High School* 68.3 59.3
ʻElua High School* 71.6 70.8
ʻEkolu High School* 81.6 42.5
ʻEhā High School* 74.9 43.1
ʻElima High School* 83.7 43.3
*Note: Pseudonyms used to protect the anonymity of high schools

Accessibility of resources related to college enrollment programs and assistance in public
high schools is an important factor in the analysis of student choice relative to postsecondary
enrollment and attendance (Martinez & Klopott, 2005). Perna (2006) offers a conceptual model
of analysis, based on the rational choice model, relative to college choice and its relation to
enrollment. This model, used for studying student college choice, integrates aspects of economic
and sociological approaches. The conceptual model proposes that an “individual’s assessment of
the benefits and costs of an investment in college is shaped by the individual’s habits, as well as
the school and community context, the higher education context, and the social, economic, and
policy context” (Perna, 2006, p. 101). The secondary school context and the strategies utilized at
the secondary level can be a significant factor in a student’s decision to pursue postsecondary
education.
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One barrier to the college enrollment of minority students is the dearth of resources to
support admission and enrollment. Inadequate academic preparation in high school limits the
choices students have when deciding whether or not to enroll in higher education institutions
(Perna, 2000). Perna (2000) further suggests that the availability of counselors, college
preparation courses, SAT preparation classes, and early-commitment programs can influence the
decision-making process of high school students. A lack of these resources can have a negative
effect on student aspirations and choice. Academic programs that provide resources and
accessibility to minority students provide a benefit to high school students that can help foster
their commitment and progress into postsecondary education. One characteristic of culture-
responsive practices that speaks to supporting students in their pursuit of higher education is that
faculty in a culture-responsive program hold students to high standards and have high
expectations for all students (Klump & McNeir, 2005).
One minority student population significantly affected in education is the native
population of Hawaiʻi. Native Hawaiian students are among the lowest-achieving student
populations in the Hawaiʻi public school system, with the lowest test scores and graduation rates,
and disproportionately high rates of grade retention, special education, and absenteeism. The
long-standing achievement gap of Native Hawaiian students in the state’s public schools
represents a significant concern (Kanaʻiaupuni, Ledward, & Jensen, 2010). The reasons for these
outcomes are varied, and include the multitude of socioeconomic disadvantages that plague the
Hawaiian population as a whole (Kanaʻiaupuni & Ishibashi, 2003). The need for education
reform that addresses these disadvantages, and strives to increase academic performance, is
particularly important to the Native Hawaiian community. Hawaiian medium education, as a
form of cultural-responsive education, fosters a climate of caring, respect, and the valuing of
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students’ cultures in the classroom (Klump & McNeir, 2005). In schools where there is trust,
caring, and support, students have higher attendance and higher academic performance (Klump
& McNeir, 2005). Increasingly, data and practice in indigenous communities demonstrate the
importance of culturally relevant pedagogy as a means of engaging and empowering students
and their families in the education and learning processes (Kanaʻiaupuni et al., 2010).
Statement of Problem
College enrollment and attendance data for students of HME schools has not been
analyzed with regard to the unique experiences of these graduates. Little to no data exists relative
to how these graduates fared, and how their experiences within a culturally responsive
educational setting may have influenced their college choice. In the class of 2013, fifteen classes
have graduated from HME schools throughout the state of Hawaiʻi. Using data collected from
one HME school, which includes fifteen graduating classes and an estimated 135 graduates,
analyses in this study measure the impact of a culturally responsive education and a unique
language- and culture-based curriculum on college choice among Native Hawaiian students.
The uniqueness of the language-based curriculum, the culture of the school, and the
family component, all lend themselves to the success of Hawaiian medium education (Wilson &
Kamanā, 2001). This study focuses on the resources and unique factors of the school
environment and curriculum that have impacted college attendance among graduates over the
last fifteen years.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to analyze the college enrollment data of, and conduct
focus group interviews with, graduates of a HME school, in order to assess the impact of a native
language-based environment and culture-based curriculum on college attendance. Native
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Hawaiians are underrepresented in higher education. This study provides further data analysis for
a population that is rarely studied, but warrants attention. Research that leads to an increased
representation of Native Hawaiians in postsecondary education will significantly impact
educational reform, policies and social issues for Native Hawaiians and other indigenous groups
(Hagedorn et al., 2006).
This study used surveys and focus group interviews to collect data on college choice and
the impact of a culturally responsive education at an HME school. The study sought to provide
new insights that strengthen our understanding of the impact of culturally responsive education
on student outcomes. The purpose was to identify strategies that lead to positive academic
outcomes among Native Hawaiian students who, along with other indigenous students in this
nation, have yet to achieve parity in educational outcomes with other children in conventional
public education settings (Kanaʻiaupuni et al., 2010). Utilizing culturally responsive practices
from a HME setting in the broader public education setting can only help to achieve some
equivalence of Native Hawaiian students with other student populations in terms of college
attendance. The intent is that the findings will contribute to policies and programs directed at
improving the condition of education for all indigenous communities.
Research Questions
This study was designed to address the impact of culturally responsive education on
graduates and college choice in the context of a Hawaiian medium education program. The
following research questions were asked:
1. For Native Hawaiian students who have graduated from a Hawaiian medium
education high school, what were the most influential high school experiences
relative to their college choice?
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2. What persons or pivotal experiences, if any, do Native Hawaiian high school
graduates attribute to a Hawaiian medium education curriculum and their college
choice?
3. What post-graduation experiences, if any, do Native Hawaiian high school graduates
from a Hawaiian medium education attribute to a culturally responsive secondary
education and their college choice?
Research to increase the representation and success of Native Hawaiians in
postsecondary education is important and will have significant ripple effects on social issues and
wellbeing in the state of Hawaiʻi (Hagedorn et al., 2006). Such research may also shed light on
policies and reforms to increase the success of other indigenous groups.
Importance of Study
A recent report by Hawaiʻi P-20 Partnerships for Education, College and Career
Readiness Report, 2011 Summary (Hawaiʻi P-20 Partnerships for Education, 2012), sheds light
on the low postsecondary attendance rates of Hawaiʻi students. College enrollment has increased
nationally, and similar findings are evident in Hawaiʻi. Though the state of Hawaiʻi has shown
an increase in college enrollment — 50% to 53% from 2010 to 2011 (Hawaiʻi P-20 Partnerships
for Education, 2012) — a wide gap still exists between the high schools that have a high
percentage of students going to college, and the high schools that have a low percentage of
students enrolling in higher education. These statistics follow the trend that is seen at the national
level (Akerhielm et al., 1998), and therefore further support the importance of this study and its
impact on underrepresented minority groups. Further evidence suggests that, though more than
half of high school graduates are pursuing some type of higher education, less than 40% of
Native Hawaiian high school graduates are enrolling in college (State of Hawaiʻi, 2010). The
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achievement gap is still apparent when college attendance and race are factored into the data
analysis. The schooling factors that influence or positively impact Native Hawaiian students with
regard to college attendance are import for education policy and reform. It is hoped that these
factors can influence change in other school settings that educate and impact minority and
indigenous student populations.
Limitations and Delimitations
Aspects beyond the control of the researcher included the Hawaiian medium student
population and the number of graduates over the past years from such a program. As little to no
data currently exist specifically with regard to the alumni population of the HME program, this
study serves as an initial data collection and analysis of this unique student population. While the
research endeavored to include the perspectives of a diverse group of graduates, limitations still
exist in how generalizable the results are, given the uniqueness of a culturally responsive
education and the student population. Secondly, this study is limited by the number of subjects,
from a limited population of graduates, who agreed to voluntarily participate. This study is also
limited by the number of subjects surveyed, and the amount of time available to conduct this
study. Validity of this study is limited by the reliability of the adapted Alumni Exit Survey
(AES) instrument used (Hagedorn, Tibbetts, Moon, Matsumoto, & Makuakane-Lundin, 2003).
As this study confined itself to a single secondary HME school in the state of Hawaiʻi
and its graduating classes over the last fifteen years, generalization to other educational settings
is limited. Kaiaʻōlelo Hawaiʻi is an HME program under the auspices of Aloha High School, a
public high school in a small suburban community (Kaiaʻōlelo Hawaiʻi, 2012). Kaiaʻōlelo
Hawaiʻi also partners with the local university, which may also limit the replication of this study.
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Despite the limitations, this study examines specific factors of culturally responsive education
and its impact on college choice among Native Hawaiian students.
Definitions
Native Hawaiian – is defined as “any person who is a descendant of the aboriginal
people, who prior to 1778, occupied and exercised sovereignty in the area that now comprises
the State of Hawaiʻi” (Benham & Heck, 1998, p. 219).
Hawaiian language immersion program – refers to a K-12 public education program
conducted in the Hawaiian language that was established in 1987 (Yamauchi, Ceppi, & Lau-
Smith, 2000).
Hawaiian medium education (HME) – refers to a language immersion educational
program that uses the Hawaiian language in academic curriculum, school operations and
administration with participating families, established in 2004 with Act 133: Hawaiian Language
Medium Education (Wilson & Kamanā, 2009).
Culturally responsive education – refers to an educational program that recognizes,
respects, and uses students’ identities and backgrounds as meaningful sources for creating
optimal learning environments (Klump & McNeir, 2005).
College choice – is a construct used to describe a student’s decision to enroll in a
particular college or university (Perna, 2006).
Organization of Dissertation
This dissertation is organized into five chapters. Chapter 1 presents a broad overview of
the study, providing context for and stating the problem, and describing the purpose and
importance of the study. This chapter provides information necessary to understand the
significance of the problem and lays out the rationale for the study. Chapter 2 reviews the
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literature and theories that provide a foundation and framework for this study. The main bodies
of literature reviewed are those pertaining to factors influencing college choice among minority
students, specifically the Native Hawaiian student population, and the impact of culturally
responsive education on college choice and the factors that influence college attendance.
Rational choice model is the theoretical framework used in understanding college choice.
Cultural compatibility theory, social cognitive theory and cultural-historical activity theory are
the frameworks used for understanding the culturally responsive education context. Chapter 3
outlines the methodology of the study, including sampling, instrumentation, data collection, data
analysis, and limitations. Chapter 4 reports the findings of the study. Finally, Chapter 5
concludes with a summary of the findings and implications for practice and future research.

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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
In this age of education reform and policy change to promote achievement and access,
many educational institutions are facing the challenges of educating a diverse body of students.
Racially and ethnically diverse students come to school with their own issues and challenges. As
a way to address the different learning styles and reach this diverse population, many schools
have revamped or reconfigured their programs and/or curriculum (Whaley & Noel, 2012).
Additionally, some schools have taken a different approach to education that not only focuses on
the academic progress of students, but also incorporates a cultural aspect. Within this context,
culture encompasses the student, the home culture, and the community as a whole. This idea of
culturally responsive education is not just a program taught in one class or one section, but rather
a philosophy of teaching and educating students that is evident throughout the entire school day
(Klump & McNeir, 2005).
Culturally responsive education can be considered as a broad-based school-wide
approach that seeks linguistic and socio-cultural congruence of the native student population in
all aspects of the school program, but particularly in classroom instruction (Yap, 2004).
Culturally responsive education “validates, facilitates, liberates, and empowers ethnically diverse
students by simultaneously cultivating their cultural integrity, individual abilities, and academic
success” (Gay, 2010, p. 46). Furthermore, culturally responsive education and teaching is built
on four foundational pillars of practice that Gay (2010) defines as: (1) teacher attitudes and
expectations, (2) cultural communication in the classroom, (3) culturally diverse content in the
classroom, and (4) culturally congruent instructional strategies. Ideally, utilizing this type of
education reform will support the student at the elementary and secondary levels, and further
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23
assist students and their families in pursuing postsecondary education through better realizing
education, and the continuation thereof, as a culturally appropriate imperative.
Much of the current work on Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander student achievement,
persistence to graduation, college attendance, identity and wellbeing leads one to conclude that
there is a need for a reaffirmation of indigenous knowledge, wisdom, and learning (Yamauchi et
al., 2000; Lipka, 2002; Manuatu, 2004). Evidence supports pursuing the inclusion of native
language and culture in educational programs serving indigenous students as a strategy for
improving academic and other educational outcomes (Lipka, 2002). Overall, current studies
support the idea that the best models of alternative pedagogies, such as culturally responsive
education, facilitate language, cognitive and psychological development, and lead to academic
achievement in a contextual setting that is respectful of home culture (Yap, 2004).
The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of culturally responsive education
on college choice. The influx of culturally diverse students, such as Native Hawaiians, in
secondary education has not transferred into higher education (Speck & Keahiolalo-Karasuda,
2011). Despite the fact that access to institutions of higher education, in the form of enrollments,
has increased in the US over the past 20 years, the percentage of students enrolling from low-
income and underrepresented minority populations is disturbingly low (Engberg & Allen, 2011;
Akerhielm et al., 1998). Achieving the goal of increased minority representation in higher
education remains a formidable challenge, given the wide disparities among racial and ethnic
minority and low-income students. These disparities fuel the reproduction of social inequality,
and the resultant talent loss that translates into social and economic losses at the societal and
economic levels (Engberg & Allen, 2011).
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Research into the benefits of culturally responsive education and its impact on college
choices is needed to further develop the educational reforms needed to support these minority
and low-income groups in their pursuit of higher education. If culturally responsive education
positively impacts the pursuit of postsecondary education, many minority and indigenous
populations will benefit from such policy and reform changes. As a means to investigate these
ideas, the following research questions were addressed:
1. For Native Hawaiian students who have graduated from a Hawaiian medium
education high school, what were the most influential high school experiences
relative to their college choice?
2. What persons or pivotal experiences, if any, do Native Hawaiian high school
graduates attribute to a Hawaiian medium education curriculum and their college
choice?
3. What post-graduation experiences, if any, do Native Hawaiian high school graduates
from a Hawaiian medium education attribute to a culturally responsive secondary
education and their college choice?
Klump and McNeir (2005) support the holistic approach of culturally responsive
education, and build upon Gay’s (2002) approach to culturally responsive education when they
note that culturally responsive education recognizes, respects, and uses students’ identities and
backgrounds as a meaningful source for creating optimal learning environments. Being culturally
responsive means having high expectations for students and ensuring that these expectations are
realized. Gay (2010) further contends that educational — and more specifically instructional —
reforms are needed that are grounded in positive beliefs and attitudes about the cultural heritage
of students and their academic potential. If educational reform and policy changes continue to
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ignore these cultural orientations and values, cultural hegemony, educational inequity, and
academic underachievement will continue to exist (Gay, 2010).
This chapter will discuss the critical factors in understanding college choice among
Native Hawaiian students in a culturally responsive educational program. The factors include the
theoretical framework for culturally responsive education, the impact of college choice on
underrepresented students, the history of Native Hawaiian students in secondary and
postsecondary education, and the growth and impact of the Hawaiian language medium
movement.
Theoretical Frameworks
The theoretical framework for understanding culturally responsive education and its
impact on college choice is grounded in three major theories that influence culturally responsive
education, and two models relative to college choice. Perna’s rational choice model (2006) and
St. John’s (1991) balanced access model will be reviewed to address college choice. The three
major theories underlying culturally responsive education are cultural compatibility theory,
social cognitive theory, and cultural-historical activity theory (CHAT) (Demmert & Towner,
2003). Most literature regarding culturally responsive education and culturally based education is
situated in at least one of these theoretical orientations. This section will examine the theories
influencing culturally responsive education, and then consider the college choice models.
Culturally Responsive Education Theories
Cultural compatibility theory.
Cultural compatibility theory is one of the most frequently encountered frameworks when
presenting studies of culturally responsive education (Demmert & Towner, 2003). Further
developed by the Kamehameha Early Education Program (KEEP), a culturally compatible
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educational program for Native Hawaiian children, this simple descriptive framework offers a
basic proposition that education is more effective when there is an increase in congruence
between socio-cultural dispositions of students and socio-cultural expectations of schools
(Demmert & Towner, 2003). Cultural compatibility theory posits the idea that continuities or
discontinuities between a child’s culture and the culture of the school can affect the quality of
learning that takes place in school. The point of cultural compatibility is that the home culture is
used as a guide in the selection of educational program elements, so that academically desired
behaviors are produced and undesired behaviors are avoided (Jordan, 1985).
Furthermore, the cultural compatibility hypothesis suggests that when the values and
expectations of the classroom are congruent with those of the students it serves, student
participation increases and learning is enhanced (Yamauchi & Tharp, 1995). The cultural
compatibility perspective emphasizes cultural differences rather than cultural deficits, and
suggests changing the structures of schools to better fit the culture of the students. A idea central
to cultural compatibility theory is the principle of congruence — the belief that when values and
expectations of the classroom are harmonious with those of the school community, student
participation and learning improves (Demmert, 2005; Yamauchi, 1998). When a child is
immersed in an educational environment that is culturally compatible with the values of the
community, learning prospects are improved. Native American educational leaders have called
for culturally compatible practices in their classrooms, acknowledging the necessity of wide-
ranging reforms in educational policy and practices, incorporating Native American community
language, knowledge, values, and teaching styles into schooling (Yamauchi & Tharp, 1995).
Whaley and Noel (2012) review the cultural compatibility perspective in relation to
African American adolescents. In this review, cultural compatibility theory considers cultural
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identification among African American youth and their academic pursuits as mutually
reinforcing components of their personal identity. Positive identification with Black culture
provides African American youth with a framework for understanding the role of academics in
their lives (Whaley & Noel, 2012). From this perspective, a strong cultural identity among
African American youth encourages academic success. Similar perspectives are seen relative to
indigenous populations. When indigenous students are encouraged to assimilate to traditional
public school norms, the results are the weakening of native cultures and languages, the
marginalization of native identities, and an increase in dropout rates (Lipka, 2002). Leaving local
knowledge and language at the schoolhouse door results in students failing to attain success in
academic contents, while at the same time losing knowledge of their indigenous languages and
cultures (Lipka, 2002).
As previously mentioned, the theory of cultural compatibility was further developed as
part of the Kamehameha Early Education Program (KEEP) for Native Hawaiian children. KEEP
was a research and development program implemented for improving the cognitive development
and educational success of Native Hawaiian students. At the operational level, the KEEP
program is organized in a classroom divided into several “centers” of activity between which
students rotate throughout the school day (Tharp & Dalton, 2007). A main component of KEEP
relevant to cultural compatibility is that the:
regulation and assistance of child learning is accomplished by making compatible the
work contexts of the classroom with the work contexts of the natal culture, and by
making compatible the social requirements of the classroom with the societal
relationships of natal culture. (Tharp & Dalton, 2007, p. 291)
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For example, a teacher and a small group of students have an instructional conversation while
collaborating on a challenging activity connected to students’ knowledge and experience, while
other student groups are working on a variety of supportive instructional activities. The
overarching goals of instruction are to foster complex thinking by all students, and language and
literacy development in the language of instruction, as well as in the content domains (Tharp &
Dalton, 2007; Tharp et al., 2007). This component results in specific compatibilities, including a
compatible small-group classroom organization, teacher use of compatible social reinforcement,
and compatible teacher-student interaction in learning tasks (Tharp & Dalton, 2007).
Yamauchi and Tharp (1995) analyze the culturally compatible conversations in Native
American classrooms. Their focus on classroom conversation is compatible with the notion of
teaching and learning as a communicative process. The evidence from their research indicates
that the cultural compatibility of classroom conversational settings between teachers and Native
American children influenced their participation and engagement in school. Yamauchi and Tharp
(1995) further suggest that embedding cultural compatibility in the school unifies schools and
communities in a common purpose. These goals are of importance to schools and Native
American educators whose traditional values, domains of knowledge, and ways of knowing
have, until recently, been excluded from the school agenda (Yamauchi & Tharp, 1995). This
unification of the school and community cultures simultaneously fosters the goals of verbal and
abstract knowledge of cognition.
Social cognitive theory.
The second theoretical framework underlying culturally responsive education is Albert
Bandura’s social cognitive theory (Bandura, 2001), which derives itself from a psychological
model of behavior. Several basic assumptions within social cognitive theory include: (1)
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personal, behavioral and environmental factors influence one another in terms of learning and
behavior; (2) people have an ability to influence their own behavior in a goal-directed fashion;
and (3) learning can occur without an immediate change in behavior, demonstrating that learning
may not occur until motivated to do so (Denler, Wolters, & Benzon, 2010).
Additionally, social cognitive theory integrates a large number of ideas and concepts into
an overall framework for understanding human functioning. Denler et al. (2010) propose five
central concepts to this theory: (1) observational learning and modeling in which people learn
through observation; (2) outcome expectations that reflect individuals’ beliefs about which
consequences are more likely to ensue if particular behaviors are performed; (3) perceived self-
efficacy about whether or not an individual can achieve a given level of success at a particular
task; (4) goal-setting that represents anticipated, desired or performed outcomes; and (5) self-
regulation relative to learning.
Bandura (2001) placed social cognitive theory in a developmental cultural context. He
examined the culturally rooted structure of children’s perceived self-efficacy in Italy, Poland,
and Hungary. Although these societies represent different socio-cultural systems, the factor
structure of children’s self-efficacy beliefs was essentially replicated. These factors include
perceived efficacy to regulate one’s own learning activities and master academic coursework;
perceived social efficacy to develop and manage interpersonal relationships; and perceived self-
regulatory efficacy to resist peer pressure to engage in detrimental activities (Bandura, 2001).
Burney (2008) reviewed aspects of social cognitive theory in its application to gifted
education. The purpose of relating the theory to gifted education was to examine the implications
of the theory in planning for appropriate curricular and instructional experiences for advanced
learners (Burney, 2008). In planning for the education of gifted learners, the following goals
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implied from social cognitive theory were analyzed: (1) higher-level learning strategies;
(2) strong social networks that are supportive and accepting; (3) academically challenging
opportunities so that self-regulatory skills could be practiced and developed; (4) opportunities for
high-interest tasks; and (5) emphasized engagement in learning and mastery goals (Burney,
2008).
Lodewyk and Winne (2005) further analyzed the relations between the structure of
learning tasks, achievements, and the social cognitive characteristic of self-efficacy in secondary
students. Lodewyk and Winne (2005) analyzed the relation of self-efficacy to learning tasks of
middle students in a science classroom setting. Their research and subsequent analysis
underscored that students need better metacognitive monitoring skills for particular features of
tasks, to facilitate more accurate calibration of learning and performance. When students
effectively monitor their cognitive feedback about their learning, their subsequent performance
seems to improve, because they focus on monitoring and controlling their learning (Lodewyk &
Winne, 2005).
Cultural-historical activity theory (CHAT).
The third theoretical framework underlying culturally responsive education is more
widely used when discussing the cultural components of school reform and education. Cultural-
historical activity theory (CHAT) is primarily a theory of development, which places more
emphasis on community-level elements of connectivity, thereby underscoring the importance of
relationships between student experience and the academic curriculum (Demmert & Towner,
2003). CHAT takes into account tasks being carried out in context. CHAT is a theoretical
framework introduced to the West by Michael Cole (American Psychological Association, 2006),
and popularized by Yrjo Engestrom (1987). In research it has been adapted and applied to many
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disciplines, such as urban development, law enforcement, and education (Nussbaumer, 2012).
CHAT’s importance lies in organizing, sifting, sorting, and clarifying complex phenomena found
in activity, in and beyond the classroom, and it has the power to deal with the complexity in
educational systems (Nussbaumer, 2012). The use of CHAT has dramatically increased in
educational research over the last two decades; it has been adapted and applied to many
disciplines, such as educational policy, college- and university-level subjects, and child care
(Nussbaumer, 2012). Instead of viewing learning as a transmission of facts from teacher to
student, CHAT emphasizes participation, relationships, culture, history, and artifact mediation
within an “activity setting” as precursors to internalization and development. Participation is
essential to learning, and the perspective CHAT provides reveals the power structures inherent in
interpersonal participation (Hoffmann-Kipp, 2008).
One of the most distinguishing features of CHAT is the close attention that it devotes to
combining matters of culture and history with learning or development (Lee, 2011). Lee (2011)
proposed that frameworks used in a Singapore science curriculum to improve student academic
performance were based on CHAT and its aspect as a practical intervention methodology
concerned with expanding the horizons for action and learning within organizations such as
schools or workplace. In his research, Lee (2011) further explains that CHAT-influenced
curriculum increases academic success among middle school students, and subsequently
increases students’ perception of their skill competency. Additionally, a high percentage of
students indicated that they found increased awareness of the relevance of science to their lives
(Lee, 2011).
Longitudinal, heavily-quantitative research with large data sets has been missing from the
radar of CHAT-based researchers. Therefore, critics argue whether CHAT can fulfill the
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demands of policymakers increasingly desirous of substantive ‘evidence’ (Lee, 2011). In
response, CHAT-based research excels in interpretive, smaller-scale, and teacher-oriented
studies of educational change. There is no reason to suspect that CHAT could not be
incorporated into research to help understand educational change.
Relationship of culturally responsive education theories to research questions.
In relation to this study’s research questions, social cognitive theory lends itself to
understanding what aspects of a culturally responsive secondary education impact college choice
(research question 3). Curriculum and learning strategies that enhance the learning environment
can positively impact the advancement of students in college choice and enrollment. CHAT
lends itself to how language immersion programs utilize culturally responsive education to
encourage the pursuit of higher education and college choice (research question 2). Aspects of
CHAT, such as participation, relationships, culture and history, are all facets embedded in the
language immersion programs that impact both the school and community contexts. Cultural
compatibility theory can be useful to examine the extent to which a culturally responsive
secondary education impacts college choice for Native Hawaiian students (research question 1).
Education is more effective when there is an increase in congruence between socio-cultural
dispositions of students and socio-cultural expectations of schools (Demmert & Towner, 2003).
College Choice Models
Culturally responsive education aims to build upon the congruence of a student’s home
culture and the cultural expectations of the school. This interconnectedness allows for greater
support with regard to academic success and transitioning into higher education. When culturally
responsive education responds to the linguistic and cultural sensitivity of the learner, the
integration of higher education opportunities and postsecondary goals no longer becomes an
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obstacle or a far-reaching attainment, but rather a cultural norm within the school context,
because of recognition of traditional norms.
Higher education opportunities and postsecondary goals are shaped by a wide array of
interconnected forces and conditions (Terenzini et al., 2001). Some of these originate in the
home, others in elementary and secondary schools; some originate in higher education
institutions, and others in federal and state agencies. Integration and cohesiveness among these
factors is needed to address the problems facing students. The following models provide a
framework for reviewing and analyzing the interconnected forces that impact college choice
among racially- and ethnically-diverse student populations.
Rational choice model: conceptual model.
Perna (2006) offers a conceptual model of analysis based on the rational choice model
relative to college choice and its relation to enrollment. This model used for studying student
college choice integrates aspects of economic and sociological approaches. The conceptual
model proposes that an “individual’s assessment of the benefits and costs of an investment in
college is shaped by the individual’s habitus, as well as the school and community context, the
higher education context, and the social, economic, and policy context” (Perna, 2006, p. 101).
The economic model that Perna (2006) suggests refers to human capital investments, and that
education and training are the most worthwhile investments of human capital. This theory
assumes those additional years of education and training raise student productivity, and
subsequently increase earnings.
Along with an economic framework, the conceptual model for college choice also
includes a sociological framework. The sociological aspect of college choice typically refers to
the set of socioeconomic characteristics that influence student decisions (Terenzini et al., 2001).
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Traditionally, sociological conceptual models focused on the relation of student socioeconomic
status to educational aspirations. Perna (2006) suggests that more recent research has changed
the sociological constructs to emphasize the cultural and social aspects of college choice. Perna
(2006) further suggests that the sociological approach is useful for understanding the ways in
which context influences college choice. Structural constraints, as measured by the high school
attended, and opportunities within the context of the secondary school, shape a student’s
perspective about college choice (Perna, 2006). One example of structural characteristics relates
to the extent to which the school encourages parental involvement. Research shows that the
likelihood of a student enrolling in a two-year or four-year college after graduating from high
school is related to resources available at the school attended (Perna, 2006). Such resources are
measured by variables including parental involvement. The involvement of family within the
context of culturally responsive education is a key component of the success and holistic
approach of this educational reform, and the subsequent academic success of students.
Recognizing the value of parental involvement, as well as the influence of home culture, enables
a school to work with families to encourage students’ postsecondary goals.
Tierney and Venegas (2009) further explain that the rational choice model assumes
consumer reactions to market demands. A rational choice framework, based on social science
research, assumes that the individual makes an independent hypothesis about what happens in
the college choice context, and has rational incentives to fulfill those actions. The theory justifies
rather than explains the social order, existing in a “logical circulatory” (Tierney & Venegas,
2009). Further, the rational choice model builds upon Coleman (1988) and other rational choice
theorists, who assume that conditions can be replicated irrespective of the context and the
individual (Putnam, 1995). Therefore, the rational choice model can be replicated in the context
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of a culturally responsive educational program, in that the cultural aspects of the context and
individual influence whether or not the student chooses to pursue higher education.
While the conceptual model that Perna proposes builds upon work and research from a
rational choice framework that is clearly defined, students do not always make choices based on
models or frameworks (Tierney & Venegas, 2009). Student decision-making patterns are not
linear. Student decisions are constantly evolving and changing dependent upon many internal
and external factors. Information and preparation for college are multifaceted and longitudinal,
and play critical roles in supporting access to higher education (Tierney & Venegas, 2009).
In addition, it is important to note that when analyzing the foundational structure of the
rational choice model, most of the analyses are based on data sets that are, to varying degrees,
dated. The social, economic, and educational forces that shape people’s lives become more
apparent and evolve over time. Consequently, in examining the practical, theoretical, and policy
implications of the findings, one must keep in mind that the conditions that led to those outcomes
may be somewhat different now than when the majority of data were collected nearly twenty
years ago (Terenzini et al., 2001).
Balanced access model.
The balanced access model combines financial and academic features in an effort to
untangle their relative effects on college choice. St. John et al. (2004) propose this model as a
means to provide a balanced view that is consistent with prior research. The balanced access
model recognizes that tuition and financial aid have both direct and indirect influences on
enrollment decisions. It specifically recognizes the linkage between family finances, financial
aid, and college enrollment.
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St. John et al. (2004) further suggest that the balanced access model offers a complete
way of viewing policy influence on academic access and financial access. This model also
provides a resource to examine intervention and pre-college programs that strive to increase
access and opportunities for low socioeconomic status (SES) students. In the balanced access
model, academic access refers to students’ academic qualifications for admission, which is
determined by student preparation and institutional admissions decisions (St. John et al., 2004).
Tierney and Hagedorn (2002) identify a number of features of effective student
preparation programs. These include an emphasis on academics, parent involvement, strong
connections with postsecondary institutions, stable financial support, preparation for a variety of
postsecondary options, and early intervention. Tierney, Colyar and Corwin (2003) further
elaborate on the key components and factors that impact college preparation and enrollment,
which include a rigorous academic curriculum; academic, college and career counseling;
incorporation of students’ cultures; and family and community engagement. Strong academic
curriculum is important because it impacts the student groups — such as low-income and racially
diverse populations — who continue to be underrepresented in higher education (Tierney et al.,
2003). Quality counseling enhances college attendance, in that counselors can significantly help
students and families understand the college application and admission process, as well as
provide socio-emotional support for the challenges that students face (Tierney et al., 2003).
Programs that incorporate students’ diverse backgrounds and cultures into academic and social
activities effectively communicate college attendance skills and knowledge. Culturally sensitive
programs create contexts and opportunities that encourage students’ goals and reinforce their
college attendance identities. Families from varying backgrounds possess a great deal of cultural
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wealth — for example, bilingualism, biculturalism, and strong social values — that can best be
harnessed as a support for students, rather than being viewed as a deficit.
Tierney et al. (2003) further argue that parent engagement is critical for college
preparation during secondary school, especially for low-income families. Learning cannot occur
as effectively if educators consciously ignore — or merely overlook — families and
communities (Tierney & Jun, 2001). Schooling is linked to the out-of-school contexts in which
children live. Accordingly, parents or guardians are a central component of the learning
experience. Family support extends beyond parents, and includes older siblings and extended
families. Much like culturally responsive education, programs should remain receptive to the
needs of local audiences by enlisting parents as allies, and integrating family education and
support to strengthen the programs’ overall impact on students. A balanced model, and a
comprehensive intervention program aimed at improving access for low-income and ethnically
diverse students, can improve students’ chances of preparing for and enrolling in college,
expanding college access (St. John et al., 2004).
Social and Cultural Capital
In addition to the financial and academic aspects of college enrollment, social and
cultural capital remain at the heart of many theories and models that propose to examine this
issue. Social capital refers to the way in which social networks and connections are supported
and maintained. A primary function of social capital is to enable a student to gain access to
institutional resources and support, via relationships between a student and his/her parents, and
also between a student’s parents and other adults, particularly adults who are connected to the
school that the student attends (Perna & Titus, 2005).
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Gonzalez, Stoner and Jovel (2003) suggest that underrepresented students do not
adequately possess or have access to the informal or formal social opportunities that serve as
corridors for college opportunities, such as support to navigate the college decision-making and
planning process. Research using this construct has moved from culturally derived knowledge to
social networks of support that involve school personnel and family members. Perna and Titus
(2005) suggest that allocating resources to promote parental involvement is an effective approach
for programs that are designed to increase college enrollment of underrepresented and low-SES
students.
Unlike social capital, which refers to parental involvement, social networks and
connections, cultural capital is measured by variables that are designed to reflect language skills,
cultural knowledge, values about higher education, and class status (Perna & Titus, 2005). One
measure is parents’ education. Cultural capital also implies a significant amount of family and
community support from which a student could draw to influence his or her college enrollment
and subsequent support system (Nora, 2004). Family and community support are key
components of culturally responsive education that unify home culture and school culture to
ensure student success.
Though cultural capital is a construct that college choice researchers have used to further
explain the psychosocial dimension (Nora, 2004), Gonzalez et al. (2003) argue that the use of
cultural capital as a theoretical concept has not adequately explained the role of school personnel
in the postsecondary decisions of students. The extent to which cultural capital influences the
college decision making process has not been empirically tested or determined (Nora, 2004).
Further research is needed to examine the impact of cultural capital on college choice.
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Empirical Literature Review
This section presents a review and analysis of current research literature relevant to the
main ideas in this study. First, the progress of Native Hawaiian students in secondary and
postsecondary education is analyzed. In addition, the emergence of the Hawaiian language
medium education program as a model for culturally responsive education is examined. Next, an
overview of the main goals and values of a culturally responsive education is discussed. Finally,
the topic of college choice relative to indigenous and minority students is further examined.
Native Hawaiians in Education
For many native peoples, school is a contested terrain; it is a place of conflict, struggle,
and negotiation over content, context, values, instructional strategies, and measures of
accountability (Benham, 2006). Although schooling has been a culturally alienating experience
for most native peoples, there is a genuine concern for educating, preparing, and socializing the
next generation. While there has been some gain in educational attainment among ethnic
minority groups overall, there still remains a substantial gap between African Americans,
Hispanics, Native Americans, and Pacific Islanders, and more advantaged White and Asian
Americans (Benham, 2006). The reasons for differential outcomes are complex, but appear to
include the following elements: achievement-motivation; parent socialization and parent/family–
child expectations toward academic achievement; parent/family–school participation/
involvement; literacy and language differences; degree of historical consciousness (attitude
toward colonization); and political and economic dimensions (Benham, 2006). Indeed, high
school persistence and matriculation to postsecondary education is among the many perennial
issues educational systems face.
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Native Hawaiians are less likely than non-Hawaiians to continue their educational
journey after receiving a high school diploma. More than three-quarters (76.3%) of Native
Hawaiian adults ages 25 years or older complete high school but do not earn a bachelor’s degree
(Speck & Keahiolalo-Karasuda, 2011). The opportunity for the large group of non-degreed
Native Hawaiian adults to improve their economic wellbeing through education exists. It is
estimated that 74% of all future jobs will require some type of postsecondary education or
industry certification (Wakelyn, 2009), with most of those jobs requiring more than a high school
diploma (Holzer & Lerman, 2009). Native Hawaiians are underrepresented in the professional,
scientific, management and administrative industries when compared to the total population in
Hawaiʻi (Speck & Keahiolalo-Karasuda, 2011). When compared to the State of Hawaiʻi average
(33.5%), Native Hawaiians are underrepresented in management and professional occupations
(24.5%), and overrepresented in positions involving manual labor (Speck & Keahiolalo-
Karasuda, 2011). The importance of higher education for Native Hawaiians is ever-increasing,
particularly in today’s global market (Speck & Keahiolalo-Karasuda, 2011). Given that
“postsecondary education and training have become the nation’s workforce qualification and
development system outside the workplace” (Carnevale, Strohl, & Smith, 2009, p. 25), the
significance of postsecondary education for Native Hawaiians cannot be overlooked or
integrated with that of other minority populations. The positive impact on future earnings of two-
year degrees and certificates expands the definition of post-high school academic achievement
beyond that of a four-year degree. Studies show that college graduates have better access to
quality healthcare, engage in civic activities more often, and have a higher competitive
advantage in market systems (Dee, 2004; Ross & Wu, 1996). Research indicates that college
graduates are more likely than high school graduates to enter into occupations and industries that
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yield higher returns, thus increasing their likelihood of earning a livable wage (Speck &
Keahiolalo-Karasuda, 2011). Equally important is this observation: “While the benefits of
providing postsecondary education and training are powerful and growing, so are the barriers to
access” (Carnevale et al., 2009, p. 28). Historically, Native Hawaiians have experienced less
access to higher education than non-Hawaiians (Speck & Keahiolalo-Karasuda, 2011; Jensen,
2011).
Although the high school graduation rates of Native Hawaiians compare favorably with
national averages, college enrollment and completion rates present a very different picture.
Native Hawaiians comprise 19.8% of Hawaii’s total population, and nearly 28% of the
enrollment in Hawaii’s public schools; however, they make up a considerably smaller proportion
of the state’s postsecondary students (Office of Hawaiian Affairs, 2011). Native Hawaiian
student underrepresentation in higher education is most evident at the University of Hawaii at
Mānoa, the state’s only research institution. Native Hawaiian students accounted for 14% of the
undergraduate enrollment in the 2010 fall semester (Figure 1), while non-Hawaiians made up the
remaining 86% of enrollment, with Asian and White student populations comprising the majority
of non-Hawaiian students, at 33% and 25% respectively (University of Hawaiʻi Institutional
Research Office, 2010).
Unlike their indigenous counterparts, few studies exist that focus on the educational
successes — such as college enrollment — of Native Hawaiians. No studies exist specifically
focusing on high school curriculum and other secondary school variables that may influence the
pursuit by Native Hawaiian students of higher education. Conducting research in Native
Hawaiian and Pacific Island communities helps us to better understand what really makes a
difference in meeting the educational needs of students — in particular, how to meet both home-
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND COLLEGE CHOICE

42
culture and Western education needs. This type of research is important, in that it must not only
meet rigorous scientific standards, but also honor the wisdom of native and local traditional
knowledge (Benham, 2006).

Figure 1. Native Hawaiian students enrolled in the University of Hawaiʻi System: Fall 2010

Hawaiian Medium Education
In the late 19th century in Hawaiʻi, the use of Hawaiian as a medium of education had
been outlawed in both public and private schools (Benham & Heck, 1998; Wilson & Kamanā,
2006). Hawaiian revitalization education began as an effort to reverse the near extinction of
Hawaiian that accompanied federal English-only requirements imposed on Hawaiʻi during six
decades of the territorial period (Wilson & Kamanā, 2001). In 1983, a small group of Hawaiian-
22%
14%
25%
26%
29%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
UH System University of
Hawaiʻi, Mānoa
University of
Hawaiʻi, West
Oʻahu
University of
Hawaiʻi, Hilo
University of
Hawaiʻi,
Community
Colleges
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND COLLEGE CHOICE

43
speaking educators established the ʻAha Pūnana Leo Inc., a non-profit organization dedicated to
serving the Hawaiian language community, to reestablish Hawaiian language medium education
(Wilson & Kamanā, 2006).
In 1986, after three years of political lobbying by the ʻAha Pūnana Leo Inc., the state of
Hawaiʻi overturned the ban on schooling through the medium of Hawaiian. The founding of the
ʻAha Pūnana Leo Inc., and subsequent expansion of programming through the secondary level, is
the local reflection of an international language medium education movement. Wilson and
Kamanā (2006) identify five benefits of Hawaiian medium education: (1) assuring personal
cultural connections, (2) maintaining the identity of Hawaiians as a distinct people,
(3) supporting academic achievement, (4) supporting acquisition of Standard English, and
(5) supporting third-language study.
With regard to academic achievement, Wilson and Kamanā (2006) cite the example of a
particular Hawaiian medium education school, Kaiaʻōlelo Hawaiʻi, which has realized academic
successes, such as 100% graduation rate since 1999, and an 80% college attendance rate.
Additionally, the curriculum established in the Hawaiian medium education program, and the
partnership with the local university, has afforded the opportunity for students to enroll in early
commitment programs at the university, while maintaining their high school status (Wilson &
Kamanā, 2001). This academic success is evidence of the potential of Hawaiian medium
education to reestablish high academic performance among Native Hawaiian students (Wilson &
Kamanā, 2006).
A likely factor in strengthening academic achievement in the Hawaiian medium
education setting is the cognitive effect of high bilingualism. Research on high bilingual students
has shown them to have higher levels of conceptual development and strong language skills
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND COLLEGE CHOICE

44
(Baker & Hornberger, 2001; Lindholm-Leary, 2005). Students in the Hawaiian medium
education programs develop high-level language skills in Hawaiian, which subsequently impact
their acquisition of Standard English. Students are able to successfully communicate in dual
language settings, utilizing the conversational and academic languages of both contexts. This
“code switching” results in indigenous youth who are both academically and culturally prepared
to succeed in the mainstream culture (Brayboy & Castagno, 2009).
As the implementation and subsequent graduation of the first cohort of students educated
entirely in a Hawaiian immersion or Hawaiian medium education program is fairly new, limited
studies exist focusing on the educational successes, such as college enrollment, of graduates
from these programs. No studies exist specifically focusing on the impact of Hawaiian medium
education program variables that may influence Native Hawaiian student higher education
pursuits. Conducting research in Hawaiian medium education settings may help us to better
understand what really makes a difference in meeting the educational needs of students — in
particular, how to meet both home-culture and Western education needs. This type of research is
important, in that it must not only meet rigorous scientific standards, but also honor the vision
and mission of the Hawaiian medium education program.
Culturally Responsive Education
Demmert and Towner (2003) identified three theoretical approaches to culturally
responsive education: cultural compatibility, social cognitive theory, and cultural-historical
activity theory. These three approaches represent increasingly more elaborate iterations of the
concept of congruence between the socio-cultural dispositions of students and the socio-cultural
expectations of the school (Yap, 2004). Cultural-historical activity theory (CHAT), the most
elaborate of the three theoretical approaches, provides a foundation for creating school
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND COLLEGE CHOICE

45
conditions that facilitate language, cognitive, and psychological development that enhances
student academic achievement.
Factors of a culturally responsive education that enhances student achievement include:
(1) rich and respectful language exchanges with more competent others — teachers and
community elders; (2) development of community language and the language of academic
disciplines; (3) shared instructional activity; (4) community-contextualized relationships that are
familiar to students; and (5) dialogue that allows discussion of multiple identities and emphasis
on academic goals and their relevance to the lives of students and their families (Demmert &
Towner, 2003; Yap, 2004). Culturally responsive education, by expressing the values of the
native culture and the community, ensures greater endorsement, involvement, and support by
parents and community resources. This in turn strengthens potential associations between student
experience and academic curriculum, thereby maximizing congruence with community goals and
student academic achievement (Yap, 2004).
Based on their review of relevant research, Demmert and Towner (2003) identified six
critical elements of culturally responsive education: (1) recognition and use of heritage
languages; (2) pedagogy that stresses traditional cultural characteristics and adult-child
interactions as the starting place for education; (3) pedagogy in which teaching strategies are
congruent with the traditional culture, as well as contemporary ways of knowing and learning
(opportunities to observe, practice, and demonstrate skills); (4) curriculum that is based on
traditional culture that recognizes the importance of native spirituality, and places the education
in a contemporary context (e.g., use and understanding of the visual arts, legends, oral histories,
and fundamental beliefs of the community); (5) a strong native community participation
(including parents, elders, and other community resources) in educating children and in the
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND COLLEGE CHOICE

46
planning and operation of school activities; and (6) knowledge and use of the social and political
mores of the community.
When schools are unable to embrace pedagogy and strategies that support traditional
culture and native community participation, students often feel disconnected in an educational
system in which their values, knowledge, and practices are largely ignored and resulting
disparities are evident. Such gaps are particularly enduring among cultural groups that have not
voluntarily migrated to this country with the intent of assimilating, such as Native Hawaiians
(Kanaʻiaupuni et al., 2010). Cultural relevance of education matters because it directly impacts
student engagement, learning, and achievement. Efforts to adopt culturally responsive education
reforms have led to the practice of grounding teaching and learning within the culturally relevant
framework of an indigenous community. In doing so, many indigenous communities — such as
the Native Hawaiian community — and educators have developed culturally responsive
pedagogy and strategies to improve the educational experiences and achievement of their
children (Kanaʻiaupuni et al., 2010).
Culturally responsive education reform provides an alternative solution to the sobering
statistics that are negatively associated with Native Hawaiian children: high rates of poverty,
substance abuse, juvenile deviance and criminal activity, teenage pregnancies, poor educational
outcomes, domestic abuse, depression, and suicide (Kanaʻiaupuni et al., 2010). Schools that
embrace culturally responsive pedagogy implement project-based and place-based teaching and
learning for children, integrating culture, community and the natural environment, while some of
the schools use Hawaiian language as the medium of instruction. Students engage in authentic
experiences at historical and sacred places, and other community outdoor learning laboratories.
In this way, connections to the land, culture, and community create a rich educational
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND COLLEGE CHOICE

47
environment that nourishes spiritual, physical, and educational wellbeing (Kanaʻiaupuni et al.,
2010). Results from these programs indicate progress, including higher levels of engagement
(attendance, timely completion, postsecondary aspirations) among Native Hawaiian students
(Yamauchi, 2003).
Table 2 summarizes the key elements of culturally responsive education and applies them
to a language immersion setting. Additionally, short- and long-term outcomes of these elements
within the language immersion context are presented. The critical elements of culturally
responsive education produce a strong balance of cultural and academic successes, leading to
positive outcomes.

Table 2
Culturally Responsive Education Logic Model (adapted from Yap, 2004)
Culturally
Responsive
Education Elements Interventions
Short-Term
Outcomes
Long-Term
Outcomes Impact
Use of heritage
language
Traditional cultural
pedagogy
Culturally congruent
teaching strategies
Culturally based
curriculum
Native community
participation
Use of social &
political mores
Language
immersion
Native language
development
Sense of
community
Positive
community
involvement
Sense of identity
Academic and
career aspiration
Enhanced self-
esteem (respect
for others and
self)
Improved
attendance,
retention, attitude,
and behavior
Increased student
engagement
Positive cultural
climate
Improved
academic
achievement

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Language and culture are key factors in identity formation and expression, and their role
is becoming even more central, as other traditional markers of identity, including race, are being
destabilized. There are multiple arguments and research studies that illustrate the advantages of
native language acquisition, and bi- and multilingualism (Benham, 2006). For example, growing
up using two or more languages increases children’s ability to examine situations from different
angles and switch perspectives rapidly, thereby increasing flexibility in thinking skills and
capacity for problem solving (Benham, 2006).
Demmert and Towner’s (2003) work focused on culturally responsive education, which is
a systemic educative approach that affects the school organization as well as the teaching and
learning processes, and is enhanced using multiple strategies. Culturally responsive education
develops socio-cultural and linguistic congruence between school, family, and community, in
ways that increase both academic achievement and socio-cultural proficiency and esteem. The
demonstrated impact of culturally responsive education on American Indian, Alaska Native and
Native Hawaiian students identifies the three previously-mentioned theoretical approaches to
teaching and learning: (1) cultural compatibility; (2) cognitive theory; and (3) cultural-historical
activity theory (CHAT). Of the three, CHAT is the most comprehensive, since it “provides a
foundation for creating school conditions that facilitate language, cognitive, and psychological
development which enhances student academic achievement” (Yap, 2004, p. 2).
Culturally responsive education recognizes, respects, and uses students’ identities and
backgrounds as meaningful sources for creating optimal learning environments (Klump &
McNeir, 2005). Klump and McNeir (2005) further elaborate on the aspect of “responsiveness,”
in that it suggests the ability to acknowledge the unique needs of diverse students, take action to
address those needs, and adapt approaches as student needs and demographics change over time.
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49
An example of the impact of culturally responsive practices is exhibited in the Alaska
Rural Systemic Initiative (RSI), a program developed by the state of Alaska to address the needs
of its student population. Klump and McNeir (2005) reveal that RSI is a set of programs and
projects designed to forge partnerships among native, scientific, and educational communities,
and to integrate indigenous knowledge systems with educational policies and practices. Twenty
partner rural school districts are participating, and more than 90% of the students in those
districts are Alaska Native. Key outcomes have included developing a standards-based,
culturally-aligned math and science curriculum, establishing a native knowledge clearinghouse,
and creating the Alaska Standards for Culturally Responsive Schools. After ten years of
implementation, the Alaska RSI continues to produce an increase in student achievement scores,
lower dropout rates, and an increasing number of students attending college (Klump & McNeir,
2005). These results support the premise that “increased connections between what students
experience in school and what they experience outside school appears to have a significant
impact on their academic performance” (Hill, Kawagley, & Barnhardt, 2003, p. 14). When
teachers, curriculum and schools provide a challenging and high-quality education that is
intimately connected and relevant to indigenous communities, they will be far more likely to
graduate youth who are academically prepared (Brayboy & Castagno, 2009).
As seen in the empirical research presented relative to culturally responsive education,
limited studies exist focusing on the educational successes — such as college enrollment — of
secondary students taught in a culturally responsive educational context. Most literature and
findings have focused on early and elementary education (Klump & McNeir, 2005). Conducting
research in culturally responsive educational communities promotes the understanding of
variables that make a difference in meeting the educational needs of indigenous and
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50
underrepresented students, while utilizing aspects of the home-culture. This type of research is
important in that it must not only meet rigorous scientific standards, but also honor the wisdom
of native and local traditional knowledge (Benham, 2006).
College Choice
Although much is known about the factors that affect college attendance, research has
recently begun to explore variations in college enrollment behavior among students of different
racial/ethnic groups (Perna, 2000). Based on a qualitative study of educational attainment among
African American and Mexican American valedictorians, Arnold (1993) concluded that racial
cultural norms restrict educational attainment for minority students. The extent to which college
enrollment behaviors vary across racial and ethnic groups, after controlling for other variables, is
ambiguous. St. John and Noell (1989) found college enrollment rates to be comparable for
African American, Hispanic, and White high school seniors, after controlling for background,
ability, and educational aspirations. African American college applicants were less likely than
their White peers to enroll, however, after also controlling for financial aid offers. Other research
has shown that, compared with their White counterparts, and after controlling for other
differences, African American high school students are less likely to enroll in college (Nolfi et
al., 1978), are less likely to attend highly selective colleges and universities (Hearn, 1984), and
are less likely to attend their first-choice institution (Hurtado, Inkelas, Briggs, & Rhee, 1997).
The results from the research mentioned above expand the traditional approach by
considering social and cultural capital to be resources that reflect an individual’s expectations,
preferences, tastes, and uncertainty about the college investment. A majority of models of
college choice do not consider how the background and culture of the child enters into college
preparation (Tierney & Jun, 2001). Further, employing the idea of cultural integrity would build
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51
a college preparation program specifically for youths who otherwise would not go on to college.
Tierney and Jun (2001) suggest that elaboration and affirmation of the cultural backgrounds of
students are essential for developing successful programs for college preparation. Students need
to learn skills, but in order for learning to take place for those most on the margins, educators
should work from the idea of cultural integrity. Tierney and Jun (2001) support this idea by
analyzing the work of Deyhle (1995), in which a decade-long ethnographic study with Navajo
youths was conducted. Students who were more secure in their traditional culture were more
academically successful in school. The school success of the Navajo students, with strong
traditions intact, is explained by what Deyhle (1995) defined as a model of cultural integrity. The
students remained academically successful while maintaining their place as Navajos within the
community. Therefore, Tierney and Jun (2001) define cultural integrity as “those programs and
teaching strategies that call upon students’ racial and ethnic backgrounds in a positive manner in
the development of their pedagogies and learning activities” (p. 211). Cultural integrity does not
view the student’s background as a neutral or negative factor, but rather as a critical ingredient
for acquiring cultural capital and achieving success.
Another way in which social and cultural capital may influence expectations, preferences,
and uncertainty about college investment decisions is through the provision of knowledge and
information about college (DiMaggio & Mohr, 1985; McDonough, 1997). Information
availability is one measure of high school quality (Catsiapis, 1987). Region (McDonough,
Antonio, & Trent, 1997; St. John, 1991) and high school location (Catsiapis, 1987; Rouse, 1994)
may inform variations in the availability of information relative to college choice and admission.
Prior research has shown that the structure of classrooms, and limited access to curriculum and
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND COLLEGE CHOICE

52
information in public schools, impeded the academic progress of Native Hawaiian students
(Kanaʻiaupuni & Ishibashi, 2003).
College decision-making resources and college enrollment rates have been found to be
higher for students who attend private rather than public high schools (Falsey & Heyns, 1984),
possibly because enrolling in a four-year college or university is more likely to be taken for
granted at private high schools than at public high schools (McDonough, 1997; Persell,
Catsambis, & Cookson, 1992). In addition, high school counselors and teachers play an
important role in shaping students’ college choice (Kezar, 2001). For minority students, such as
African Americans, having someone, especially counselors and teachers, to encourage them to
maximize their potential was stressed most often when asked to suggest ways to motivate
students to participate in higher education (Freeman, 1997). Data support the idea that cultural
approaches strongly enhance relevance and relationships at school for indigenous students, while
also supporting positive academic outcomes (Kanaʻiaupuni et al., 2010). More importantly,
students exhibit high levels of trust in and connection to their schools. This outcome is
meaningful because many native students come from families with low socioeconomic
backgrounds who have experienced multiple generations of marginalization in public schools
(Kanaʻiaupuni et al., 2010). The analyses of these college choice factors illustrate the importance
of examining differences among racial and ethnic groups in the variables that influence college
enrollment decisions.
Conclusion
Table 3 provides a summary of the empirical literature utilized and researched for this
study. The empirical literature presented shows that Native Hawaiian students in traditional
public school settings have experienced less access to higher education, which has subsequently
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND COLLEGE CHOICE

53
resulted in fewer students continuing on to postsecondary institutions of higher education.
Furthermore, literature relative to Hawaiian medium education emphasizes the academic success
of Native Hawaiian students in these unique programs that reestablish high academic standards
and support early commitment programs relating to college attendance and enrollment. Finally,
culturally responsive education provides a high-quality education that is interconnected with the
indigenous and home communities, thereby successfully graduating youth who are academically
prepared, and attend postsecondary institutions (Brayboy & Castagno, 2009).

Table 3
Outcomes for Native Hawaiian and Indigenous Student Populations in Different School Contexts
Relative to College Access and Enrollment
College Access College Enrollment
Traditional public schools (−) (−)
Hawaiian medium education (+) (+)
Culturally responsive education (+) (+)
Note: (+) represents a positive outcome, (−) represents a negative outcome

Analysis of studies focusing on Native Hawaiian students from secondary to higher
education illustrate the unique characteristics of this population. Although there is much concern
with Native Hawaiian advancement, the review of literature confirms the challenges that face
Native Hawaiian students, especially in their pursuit of postsecondary education and enrollment.
Exploration in this literature review of variables such as high school curriculum, native language
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND COLLEGE CHOICE

54
influences, and connection to home culture, confirm their importance with regard to college
choice.
The implications clearly suggest further research is needed. Current research limits itself,
and therefore warrants studies focusing on two areas: (1) culturally responsive education; and (2)
college attendance. Empirical research to explore the relationships between culturally responsive
education, Hawaiian medium education, and Native Hawaiian student enrollment in
postsecondary education, is warranted for two reasons: firstly, to determine the factors relative to
secondary education that have the greatest influence on students’ pursuit of higher education;
and, secondly, to assist educators and institutions in their efforts to increase college enrollment
rates among Native Hawaiians. Understanding what influences college choice for students of
Hawaiian ancestry is of critical importance in promoting Native Hawaiian student success. This
study contributes to the work of educators and researchers who demonstrate the possibilities that
arise when communities are able to guide the education of their children and to ensure relevance
and meaning in both outcome and substance.

CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND COLLEGE CHOICE

55
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
The impact of a culturally responsive education on college choice among Native
Hawaiian students guided the methodology for this study. Chapter 1 presented why this study is
important regarding Native Hawaiian students, and the role a culturally responsive education can
play in college choice and the decisions that students make to pursue postsecondary education.
Chapter 2 provided an understanding of the historical and cultural complexities of Native
Hawaiian student progress in secondary education, the attributes of a culturally responsive
education, and the process of college choice. Chapter 2 also focused on the theoretical
frameworks that support culturally responsive education and college choice, and why students
make a decision to attend or not to attend higher education institutions. This chapter includes a
review of the methodological approach and research strategies used in this study, the selection of
sites and participants, and the instrumentation, data collection and data analysis procedures used.
The research questions that guided this study were:
1. For Native Hawaiian students who have graduated from a Hawaiian medium
education high school, what were the most influential high school experiences
relative to their college choice?
2. What persons or pivotal experiences, if any, do Native Hawaiian high school
graduates attribute to a Hawaiian medium education curriculum and their college
choice?
3. What post-graduation experiences, if any, do Native Hawaiian high school graduates
from a Hawaiian medium education attribute to a culturally responsive secondary
education and their college choice?
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56
Research Design
For this study, a mixed methods design was used, consisting of both quantitative and
qualitative approaches. According to Creswell (2009), in mixed methods research more insight is
gained from the combination of both qualitative and quantitative research than either form by
itself. Quantitative research provides the opportunity to gather and analyze a data set, and to
compare statistically the different variables being studied. The process of quantitative research
also provides a means for testing objective theories by examining relationships among variables
(Creswell, 2009). These variables are measured so that numbered data can be analyzed using
statistical procedures (Creswell, 2009). The results can also be generalized to the larger
population that is being studied from the findings of the smaller sample used (Salkind, 2011).
Conversely, the process of qualitative research involves the emergence of questions and
procedures, analysis of data building from particulars to general themes, and the researcher
making interpretations of the meaning of the data (Creswell, 2009). Further, qualitative research
is a means to explore and understand the meanings individuals or groups ascribe to a social or
human problem or context (Creswell, 2009). Through the use of narrative and focus group
interviews, a richer explanatory understanding can be discovered. The results from qualitative
research are not intended to be generalized beyond the sample studied, but to allow for a more
complex analysis and explanation of the data being presented. Researchers who engage in
qualitative research support a way of looking at research that honors an inductive style, a focus
on individual and group meaning, and the importance of interpreting the complexity of the
situation (Creswell, 2009).
To study culturally responsive education and its impact on college choice, the researcher
used a qualitative approach, in order to provide a more in-depth understanding and analysis of
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND COLLEGE CHOICE

57
the complex nature of a culturally responsive educational environment. The impact of the five
main attributes of a culturally responsive education (rich and respectful language exchanges,
development of community language and the language of academic disciplines, shared
instructional activity, community-contextualized relationships that are familiar to students, and
dialogue that allows discussion) on college choice can be broad in scope, and differ between
students who have recently graduated from the program and those who graduated from the
program more than five years ago. In addition, though alumni as a group might represent one
educational institution, as individuals they represent different socio-economic statuses, different
cultural and religious backgrounds, and different experiences of the impact of secondary
education, all of which may lead to unique and personal understandings with regard to college
choice. As noted by Patton (2002), qualitative methods facilitate study of issues in depth and
detail, producing a wealth of detailed information about a smaller number of people and cases,
while quantitative methods use standardized measures which facilitate “a comparison and
statistical aggregation of the data” (p. 14). Finally, quantitative research was most useful for this
study to assess the numerical data gathered using the adapted version of the Alumni Exit Survey
created by Hagedorn et al. (2003).
Site Selection
A small K-12 public Hawaiian medium education program, Kaiaʻōlelo Hawaiʻi, served as
the site for this study. Families who choose this type of schooling are those that support
Hawaiian language as the medium of instruction, and the importance of family involvement in
their child’s education. Kaiaʻōlelo Hawaiʻi is located in a suburban community amid four
traditional public schools that serve the surrounding communities. The K-12 campus has a
combined student population of 300, of which 38 students are in secondary grades 9-12. Due to
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND COLLEGE CHOICE

58
its unique status as a Hawaiian medium education program, the Kaiaʻōlelo Hawaiʻi student
population comes from a diverse geographical context, with a majority of students commuting to
the school campus via parental transportation or public transportation provided by the county.
Additionally, approximately 75% of students qualify for free or reduced-lunch status, as
identified by the USDOE, and 98% of students identify as Native Hawaiian. In the fall semester
of school year 2012-2013, the average daily attendance was 92% (Kaiaʻōlelo Hawaiʻi, 2012).
The high percentage of Native Hawaiian students, the uniqueness of the educational program,
and the location of the campus, provided a great opportunity to study the impact of culturally
responsive education on college choice among Native Hawaiian students.
Kaiaʻōlelo Hawaiʻi was also chosen for this study due to its high graduation rate, and its
claim that 80% of graduates have gone on to pursue higher education (Kaiaʻōlelo Hawaiʻi,
2012). As part of its 11th and 12th grade curriculum, students are highly encouraged and
strongly supported to enroll in classes at the university level through the Running Start program.
Students receive high school and college credit for dual enrollment at the secondary and
postsecondary levels, and are provided with resources (i.e., computer lab hours, counselors) to
support their success at both sites. Furthermore, Kaiaʻōlelo Hawaiʻi is a lab school within the
local university, and therefore support staff are able to work together to provide seamless
transitions between the secondary campus and university setting (Kaiaʻōlelo Hawaiʻi, 2012).
Sample and Population
Students selected for the study were alumni of the school, with graduation years starting
at 1999 and continuing to the current graduating class of 2013. This purposeful sampling was
created to compile as much data as possible, since little to no data had been collected since the
first graduating class of 1999. Approximately one hundred thirty-five alumni were emailed a
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND COLLEGE CHOICE

59
request to participate in the survey. A representative from each graduating class was identified to
assist with subsequent email reminders, in order to elicit a higher response rate. Though a
minimum of one hundred alumni responses was the goal, a total of fifty-three completed surveys
were received during the data collection process. The surveys provided a secure form to enter
demographic data, as well as initial data regarding college attendance, work experience,
characteristics of high school education and future plans.
For a closer examination of the impact of education on college choice, a purposeful
sampling of focus groups was used. Patton (2002) suggests that sampling for focus groups
involves bringing together participants of similar backgrounds and experiences to participate in a
group interview about major issues that affect them. Three focus groups were chosen for the
qualitative analysis in this study. Focus groups based on gender, language spoken at home, and
year of graduation were utilized to analyze data within different contexts. Gender was significant
with regard to college choice, as a majority (55%) of graduates from this Hawaiian medium
education program have been female (Kaiaʻōlelo Hawaiʻi, 2012). Language spoken at home was
significant to this study, as it supports the medium of language used for instruction in the
educational setting. This focus group explored whether the use of Hawaiian language in both the
school and home setting had any impact on college choice. Year of graduation was significant to
the study because it provided a range of perspectives, experiences, and maturities of focus group
participants. The focus groups were composed based on significant findings found in the data
collection and survey findings.
Instrumentation
For the purpose of this study, data were collected from two sources. Quantitative
measures included alumni surveys (see Appendix A for the survey tool). Qualitative measures
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND COLLEGE CHOICE

60
included purposeful sampling using focus groups. Ten participants were asked to participate in
focus groups based on data collected from surveys (see Appendix B for the focus group and
interview protocol). According to Creswell (2009), qualitative interviews involve unstructured
and generally open-ended questions that are few in number and are intended to elicit views and
opinions from participants. The researcher engages with six to eight interviewees during each
focus group interview (Creswell, 2009). Advantages of qualitative interviews include their
usefulness when participants cannot be observed, the forum for participants to provide historical
information, and the ability of the researcher to control the line of questioning (Creswell, 2009).
An open-ended interview approach was used in this study to further explore the reasons why
students pursued or did not pursue higher education, and how their culturally responsive
education impacted their college choice, if at all. The qualitative measures serve to illuminate the
following questions: how does a culturally responsive education impact college choice?; and,
what aspects of a culturally responsive secondary education impact college choice?
Quantitative data were collected using the adapted Alumni Exit Survey (AES) (Appendix
A). The Alumni Exit Survey was designed by Kamehameha Schools to collect data from their
graduates regarding life satisfaction, political and cultural engagement, community involvement,
postsecondary goals and achievements, and the impact of a Kamehameha Schools education. The
AES consists of twenty questions. To date, the life satisfaction scale of the AES has been
validated, with a coefficient alpha between .85 and .87 (Pavot & Deiner, 1993). The cultural
engagement scale has been analyzed by the Kamehameha Schools Research and Evaluation
division. This scale is based on the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM), designed to
assess ethnic identity (Hagedorn et al., 2003). MEIM was confirmed by researchers (Roberts,
Phinney, Masse, & Chen, 1999) as a global composite scale across ethnicity (European
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND COLLEGE CHOICE

61
American, African American, and Mexican American). Ethnic identity was found to be
positively associated with aspects of psychological wellbeing, such as optimism and self-esteem.
The original scale items were modified by Kamehameha Schools Research and Evaluation
division to ensure that when survey participants responded to the items, it was in reference to
their Native Hawaiian ancestry (Hagedorn et al., 2003). Consistent outcomes were found as a
result of factor analysis and reliability analysis (alpha = .79). Subsequent components related to
degree and program completion, along with future plans, have not yet been analyzed. The
multiple component and scale format of the AES provides opportunities to effectively triangulate
data that have different contexts, but which share complementary purposes and possess similar
implications regarding the research questions.
Data Collection
Initial requests for participation — including links to the survey — were emailed to all
alumni, following Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval of this study. For the initial
outreach, emails were sent to all graduates of Kaiaʻōlelo Hawaiʻi. Reminders and follow-up
communications were sent in September 2013 to those who had not completed the online survey.
Subsequently, predetermined class representatives were utilized to follow-up with former
classmates in order to increase the response rates. In October 2013, three focus groups were
organized and participants were contacted via email, with all focus group interviews concluded
by December 2013. Interviews were held in a private office area on the Kaiaʻōlelo Hawaiʻi
campus. Before conducting the focus group interviews, I introduced myself and shared my
background in Hawaiian medium education and why I was conducting this study. During this
time, participants were allowed to read over and sign the consent form, and any questions were
answered. The focus groups consisted of thirteen open-ended questions (Appendix B), followed
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by final comments from participants at the end of the sessions. The entire process took
approximately 45-60 minutes for each focus group.
For each individual focus group interview, an interview protocol and guide, with specific
questions to be explored and pertinent follow-up items, was used (Appendix B). An interview
guide is essential in conducting focus group interviews, as it keeps the interactions focused while
allowing individual perspectives and experiences to emerge (Patton, 2002). Detailed notes of
participant responses were recorded. In order to maintain the culturally sensitive aspect of the
interview process, and to not hinder the openness of responses, participants were asked to
approve the tape recording of interviews. Additionally, participants were assured that all data
recorded would be destroyed upon completion of the study. After the completion of each focus
group interview, transcription of notes took place in order to examine common themes which
emerged in the interview process. All data collected from the interview process, along with
survey sheets, were maintained by the project coordinator in a secure environment. Student
consent forms were stored in a secured area. Upon completion of this study, all identifying
information will be destroyed.
Data Analysis
Quantitative data collected from surveys were analyzed using SPSS; analysis included
descriptive statistics, t-tests for independent samples, and one-way between-groups analysis of
variance (ANOVA). The statistical analyses used in this study are summarized in Table 4, and
further described in the following section.

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Table 4
Summary of Research Questions and Corresponding Statistical Tests
Research Questions Statistical Tests
1. Culturally responsive education (CRE) and
Native Hawaiians
Descriptive statistics
2. Hawaiian medium education and college
choice
Descriptive statistics; independent t-test;
ANOVA
3. CRE and college choice Descriptive statistics; independent t-test

Descriptive statistics were used as a first layer of identifying data. These analyses are
used to organize and describe the characteristics of a collection of data (Salkind, 2011).
Computing descriptive statistics can reveal emerging trends and patterns. Descriptive statistics
were used in the analysis of each of the research questions, with regard to culturally responsive
education and Native Hawaiians, college choice, and Hawaiian medium education.
Independent-samples t-tests were utilized to measure significance in variables arising
from responses to the AES. In an independent-samples t-test, the differences between groups of
one or more variables are examined (Salkind, 2011). An independent-samples t-test was used to
determine if there was a difference between college-going and non-college-going alumni with
regard to their views and experiences of culturally responsive education and Hawaiian medium
education (Table 4).
Additionally, a one-way between-groups analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to
measure the extent to which groups differed. An ANOVA was used to explore the relationship
between year of graduation and levels of satisfaction in high school preparation and the pursuit
of postsecondary education, as measured by the AES. Differences between graduation cohort
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groups were analyzed with regard to how culturally responsive education impacted college
choice. Further analyses were utilized to determine other variables within and beyond the scope
of culturally responsive education and Hawaiian medium education, and their impact on college
choice.
Qualitative data were analyzed using constant comparative methods, with thematic
presentation of findings. Data collected in the focus group interviews informed the findings of
the quantitative analysis, and further explained experiences, if any, that participants attributed to
culturally responsive education, and specifically Hawaiian medium education, with regard to
college choice (research questions 2 & 3). Focus group interviews investigated variation of
experiences and characteristics between distinct groups, such as male versus female graduates,
graduates from Hawaiian language speaking households versus graduates from non-Hawaiian
language speaking households, and graduation cohort years.
Analysis of the focus group interview responses occurred in five steps. The first step
involved organizing the data for analysis, by transcribing interview data from the field notes
(Creswell, 2009). The second step was to read through the data, looking for themes, and
documenting certain common tones or ideas. The third step involved a coding process, by which
data were separated into certain categories or themes. Such categories can be defined by
expected findings, surprising and unexpected results, unusual themes, and codes that are
applicable to theoretical frameworks. Step four was the coding process that defined the setting or
people, as well as themes that were analyzed. The last step involved the interpretation of the
data. Analysis can occur by comparing literature or theories in this domain, or raising new
questions based on the findings (Creswell, 2009). The validity and meaning generated from
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qualitative inquiry has to do with the information richness of the cases selected, and the
observational and analytical capabilities (Patton, 2002).
Table 5 summarizes the criteria that were utilized to judge the quality and credibility of
qualitative inquiry. For this study, these criteria guided the analysis of data derived from the
focus group interviews. Qualitative researchers utilizing these criteria strive for causal
explanations, and approaches that manifest qualitative comparative analysis to describe and
explain data as accurately and completely as possible (Patton, 2002).

Table 5
Criteria for Qualitative Inquiry (adapted from Patton, 2002)
Criteria for Judging the Quality and Credibility of Qualitative Inquiry
• Objectivity of the inquirer (attempts to minimize bias)
• Validity of data
• Systematic rigor of fieldwork procedures
• Triangulation (consistency of findings across methods and data sources)
• Reliability of coding and pattern analyses
• Correspondence of findings to reality

Limitations
The credibility of the researcher, and acknowledging researcher bias, is important in
qualitative data collection, recording, and analysis (Patton, 2002). The principle is to report any
personal and professional information that may affect data collection, analysis and interpretation.
With regard to this study, there are a few potential sources of researcher bias. First, the
researcher is employed by the Hawaiian medium education program from which data were
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collected. This association provides the researcher with a deeper understanding of the uniqueness
of the program, which may impact data analysis. The researcher set aside her personal
experiences with the Hawaiian medium education student population, in order to be open to the
experiences shared by participants in this study. Second, the researcher is Native Hawaiian, and
may therefore share perspectives with the participants, which must be considered in data analysis.
By coding and identifying data in its pure form, the researcher was able to focus on the meanings
of the statements made by participants, without making judgments and assumptions based on her
own experiences. In order to maintain the quality of the data, qualitative analysis required the
researcher to return to the data over and over again to see if the constructs, categories,
explanations, and interpretations made sense (Patton, 2002).
Conclusion
Chapter 3 was designed to explore the methodology of this study; it included a review of
the research questions, the research design used, the sample and population chosen, the
instrumentation used, and the data collection and analysis processes. Each of these aspects of the
study was critical in maintaining the most ethical and culturally sensitive process for participants
in the study, and the collection of their personal and reflective experiences within a culturally
responsive education program. Chapter 4 reports on the findings, insights and meanings gained
from the participants. Finally, Chapter 5 discusses the implications of this study and limitations
that were found, as well as suggestions for future research.

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CHAPTER 4
ANALYSIS
The purpose of this study was to understand how a culturally responsive education
impacts college choice among Native Hawaiian students, with a focus on graduates of a
Hawaiian medium education program. Participants were asked questions about their most
influential high school experiences with regard to college choice, as well as experiences that they
attributed to a culturally responsive secondary education. Additionally, data were collected
relative to pivotal persons or experiences that the graduates attributed to a Hawaiian medium
education curriculum, and which influenced their college choice.
Throughout the fall 2013 semester, the graduates were contacted via email and asked to
complete the Alumni Exit Survey (Appendix A), by which information was gathered regarding
their life satisfaction, cultural engagement, employment/enrollment, post-secondary degree
attainment, and future plans. In addition, focus groups were conducted, involving 10 graduates of
the Hawaiian medium education program. During these focus groups, the graduates were asked
to elaborate on their experiences in the Hawaiian medium education setting, and their pursuits
after graduation. Despite the differences among focus groups (year of graduation, gender, family
background), participant responses were very similar relative to culturally responsive education
and college choice. Slight differences were seen between male and female graduates (the data
will be presented in this chapter).
This chapter reports on the major findings from the Alumni Exit Survey (AES) and
subsequent focus groups. The AES was designed by Kamehameha Schools to collect data from
graduates of their program, and to analyze the impact of a Kamehameha Schools education on
their graduates. Data from the AES represented some 53 respondents (a response rate of 39.3%),
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who answered questions concerning their secondary education, college choice, and future plans.
The results of this 20-item online survey formed the basis for the quantitative data analysis
portion of this study, and will be presented in this chapter. Additionally, the qualitative data
collected in this study will be presented. These findings represent the major themes that emerged
during the focus group interviews and open-ended question responses on the AES. All data were
analyzed based on the main research questions.
The first section of this chapter introduces the quantitative data collected from responses
to the AES regarding participants’ background characteristics, cultural engagement and post-
secondary pursuits. The second section examines the open-ended responses to the AES and the
major themes that emerged during focus group interviews.
Section 1 — Quantitative Data Analysis
Research Question 1: Descriptive Findings & Participant Characteristics
The following descriptive statistics provided a basis for initial data analysis with regard
to research question 1 and the overall study. Table 6 shows the frequency counts for selected
variables based on the participants’ responses to the AES. Table 6 shows that the majority of
respondents to the online survey were women, and that the largest alumni group graduated
between 2004 and 2008. Forty-seven of the respondents, or 88.7%, pursued some type of
postsecondary education after graduating from high school. Of the total respondents, 39.6% are
currently pursuing some type of degree at an institution of higher education. In order to measure
an aspect of cultural engagement, respondents were asked to measure the extent that feeling
connected to Hawaiian language and culture increased their motivation to well in school. Forty-
one respondents, or 77.3%, agreed that, to a considerable or very great extent, feeling connected
to the Hawaiian language and culture increased their motivation to do well in school.
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Table 6
Frequency Counts for Selected Variables (N=53)
Variable Category n %
Gender
Male 12 22.6
Female 41 77.4
Graduation Cohort
Group 1: 1999-2003 12 23.1
Group 2: 2004-2008 22 42.3
Group 3: 2009-2013 18 34.6
No response 1 1.9
College/Military
Yes 47 88.7
No 6 11.3
Current Employment/Enrollment
Full-time employment 20 37.7
Part-time employment 7 13.2
Full-time & part-time employment 2 3.8
Full-time employment & student 8 15.1
Part-time employment & student 4 7.5
Student only 9 17.0
Unemployed 3 5.7
Cultural Engagement
*

To a very great extent 22 41.5
To a considerable extent 19 35.8
To some extent 7 13.2
To a little extent 2 3.8
Not at all 2 3.8
No response 1 1.9
Prepared for Further Education and/or
Career Training

Very well 32 60.4
Somewhat well 19 35.8
Not very well 1 1.9
No response 1 1.9
*
Q4 on AES: To what extent did feeling connected to Hawaiian language and culture increase your motivation to do
well in school?

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Using a 4-point Likert scale (4-“very well”, 3-“somewhat well”, 2-“not very well”, or 1-
“not at all well”), 96% of respondents selected “very well” or “somewhat well” when asked how
well their high school experience in Hawaiian medium education prepared them to pursue further
education and/or career training. Additionally, respondents were asked to measure the extent to
which their high school education prepared them for different areas relative to life satisfaction:
being independent, managing finances, pursuing a career, conducting research, writing
analytically, taking care of their physical health, and pursuing opportunities for life-long
learning. As shown in Figure 2 (using the same Likert scales mentioned above), a majority of
respondents indicated positive connections between their high school education and areas related
to life satisfaction.

Figure 2. Alumni exit survey responses on life satisfaction levels relative to high school
preparation

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Table 7 shows the frequency of college majors and degrees among those respondents
who pursued postsecondary education after graduating from the Hawaiian medium education
program. Fifteen respondents, or 31.9%, pursued or are pursuing a degree in education, with a
majority pursuing a degree in indigenous education or early childhood education. Business,
Hawaiian studies and Hawaiian language make up the next two highest represented
majors/degrees, at 12.8% and 10.6% respectively. These three majors/degrees make up more
than half of the answers provided on this open-ended question of the AES, with other academic
areas, such as agriculture, health & humanities, and liberal arts constituting the remaining 45%.

Table 7
Frequency of College Majors/Degrees for College-Going Respondents (N=47)
Variable Category n %
College majors/degrees

Education 15 31.9
Business 6 12.8
Hawaiian studies/language 5 10.6
Liberal arts 4 8.5
Natural & applied sciences 4 8.5
Agriculture 3 6.4
Military 3 6.4
Health & humanities 3 6.4
Other 4 8.5

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Research Questions 2 and 3: Quantitative Findings
An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare the cultural engagement
measures for college-going and non-college-going respondents (research question 3). There was
no significant difference in measures for college-going respondents (M = 4.13, SD = 1.00) and
non-college-going respondents (M = 3.83, SD = 1.33; t(50) = .658, p = .51, two-tailed). The
magnitude of the differences in the means (mean difference = .30, 95% CI: -.61 to 1.21) was
very small (eta squared = .008). The researcher concluded that there was no significant
difference between a moderate to high level of cultural engagement in school and college choice
among the participants in this study. Despite the results, the researcher observed that a majority
of respondents (77.3%) had a high level of cultural engagement in school.
A subsequent independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare the life satisfaction
(career pursuits) measures for college-going and non-college-going respondents (research
question 2). There was a statistically significant difference in measures for college-going
respondents (M = 3.57, SD = .69) and non-college-going respondents (M = 2.83, SD = .75; t(52)
= 2.43, p = .02, two-tailed). The magnitude of the differences in the means (mean difference =
.73, 95% CI: .13 to 1.34) was large (eta squared = .11). The results revealed that graduates who
pursued postsecondary education had a highly favorable view of how their Hawaiian medium
education prepared them to pursue their career of life’s work. In contrast, graduates who did not
pursue postsecondary education had an unfavorable view of how their Hawaiian medium
education prepared them to pursue their career of life’s work.
A one-way between-groups analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to explore the
relationship between year of graduation and levels of satisfaction relating to high school
preparation and the pursuit of further education, as measured by the life satisfaction (LS) portion
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of the AES (research question 2). Respondents were divided into three groups according to their
year of graduation (Group 1: 1999-2003; Group 2: 2004-2008; Group 3: 2009-2013). Groups
were arbitrarily delineated in order to have an equal number of participants represented. There
was a statistically significant difference at the p < .05 level in LS measures for the three groups:
F(2, 49) = 4.1, p = .02. As a result, further analysis was conducted with regard to actual
differences in mean scores between groups. The effect size, calculated using eta squared, was
.14, which translates to a large effect size. Post-hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test
indicated that the mean score for Group 1 (M = 3.25, SD = .62) was significantly different from
Group 3 (M = 3.77, SD = .43). Group 2 (M = 3.65, SD = .49) did not differ significantly from
Group 1 or Group 3. Despite the statistical significance between groups, the researcher also
observed that all groups viewed the relationship between high school preparation and
postsecondary pursuits in a favorable way (“somewhat well” to “very well”). The researcher also
realizes that the context of these statistics must be considered relative to the small sample size (N
= 53).
Section 2 — Qualitative Data Analysis
Research Question 1: Focus Group Participants
Of the 10 graduates who participated in this study, one graduated in 1999 (the first
graduating class of the program), two graduated in 2000, two graduated in 2001, one graduated
in 2006, two graduated in 2008, one graduated in 2011, and one graduated in 2013. Seven of the
participants were female, and three were male. All 10 graduates identified themselves as Native
Hawaiian. Of the 10 graduates, nine pursued postsecondary education after graduating from high
school, or are currently still enrolled at a postsecondary institution. The majority of these
graduates are still connected to Hawaiian medium education in some way, whether through
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employment, or as a parent/guardian of a child in the preschool or K-12 program. To protect
their identities, the participants were given pseudonyms. Table 8 presents these pseudonyms,
along with the participants’ characteristics.

Table 8
Participant Characteristics & Identifiers
Pseudonym Focus Group Gender Year of Graduation Postsecondary Education
Kanani Group 1 Female 2013 No
Kalani Group 1 Female 2008 Yes
Kalei Group 1 Female 2011 Yes
Kahau Group 1 Female 2006 Yes
Kaʻāina Group 2 Male 1999 Yes
Kaʻai Group 2 Male 2000 Yes
Kawai Group 2 Male 2000 Yes
Kekama Group 3 Female 2001 Yes
Kaleo Group 3 Female 2001 Yes
Keola Group 3 Female 2008 Yes

The following qualitative data were derived from the focus group interviews, as well as
responses from open-ended questions on the AES, where applicable. The major themes that
emerged in this study, to be discussed in further detail, include: (1) high school curriculum, (2)
relationships, (3) responsibilities, and (4) connections. Table 9 further represents how the themes
are described, and contains brief quotes of student experiences and comments that will be
detailed further in this chapter.

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Table 9
Themes, Descriptions & Participant Quotes
Theme Description Participant Quotes
High school curriculum
Hawaiian medium education
Language revitalization
Foundation for future learning
How do graduates relate
their unique high school
curriculum and/or
experiences to their
postsecondary pursuits?
“It [school] gave me an
identity and a foundation to
build on in the future.”
Relationships
Student-teacher interactions
Peer groups
How did relationships
influence their decision-
making during high
school and
postsecondary?
“…small classes allow
students to make a personal
connection with their
teachers.”
Responsibilities
Future generations
Community
How do graduates relate a
sense of responsibility to
their postsecondary
pursuits?
“…gave me a sense of
responsibility to share the
knowledge that I have gained
with future generations
through education.”
Connections
Indigenous language and culture
What connections were
established during, or as a
result of, their high school
experience that continue
to influence them today?
“…influenced me to not only
gain a connection with
language and culture for
myself, but both my ʻohana
(family) and the community
as well.”

Research Question 1: High School Curriculum
Understanding how graduates related their unique high school curriculum and/or
experiences to their postsecondary pursuits is a critical aspect of learning about their most
influential high school experiences with regard to college choice (research question 1). The
experiences related by the focus group participants presented some similar themes. Several of the
participants relayed that the uniqueness of the Hawaiian medium education program, and the
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opportunities within the program, influenced their decision to pursue postsecondary education.
Information about and preparation for college are multifaceted, and play critical roles in
supporting access to higher education (Tierney & Venegas, 2009). Tierney et al. (2003) further
elaborate that key factors such as rigorous academic curriculum, academic and college
counseling, and incorporation of students’ cultures impact college preparation and enrollment.
For most of the participants in this study, key components such as early admittance
programs to the local university provided an advanced opportunity to gain experience and
knowledge of a postsecondary institution. Other participants also stressed the importance of
language revitalization and the foundation of learning. Cultural relevance of education matters
because it directly influences student engagement, learning, and achievement (Kanaʻiaupuni et
al., 2010). These aspects were determining factors that influenced decisions relative to college
choice. A female participant of focus group one, Kanani, shared that: “We started going to
college since 11th grade, for me it encouraged me to keep pursuing a higher goal in college.”
Another female participant of focus group one, Kalani, shared that the curriculum encouraged
her not only to further her education, but also her current job position. She stated: “For me it did
encourage me to go to college but also encouraged me to come back and work here at kula
auinalā [A+ afterschool program] at Kaiaʻōlelo.” A male participant of focus group two, Kaʻāina,
further elaborated on how opportunities in high school influenced his decision to pursue
postsecondary education. He stated:
I think the school impacted that [college choice] a lot because during high school we took
college classes that helped us pave the way for us to continue on to college . . . we took
three classes our senior year, took classes our 11th grade year as well.
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Another male participant, Kaʻai, further elaborated on his appreciation for the education he
received. He shared: “Mahalo au i kēia kula, kēia kahua, ke kūkulu wale nei au ma luna o kēia
kahua.” (I am grateful to this school, this foundation, I am building upon this foundation.)
Further responses were shared via the online survey, where participants shared the
following with regard to the high school curriculum they experienced as part of the Hawaiian
medium education (HME) program:
Mahalo nui wau i ke koho o nā mākua e hoʻonaʻauao ʻia mākou keiki ma ka ʻōlelo
Hawaiʻi. Ua pāʻumi koʻu ʻike ke hoʻohālike ʻia me ka haumāna hele kula ʻōlelo
Pelekānia ma Hawaiʻi nei, ma ke ʻano ua paʻa ke kahua o koʻu moʻokūʻauhau,
moʻomeheu me ka mōʻaukala o ka Hawaiʻi. (I am grateful to my parents for making the
decision to have us educated in the Hawaiian language. My knowledge was ten times that
of students educated in English here in Hawaiʻi, due to the fact that the foundation of my
identity, culture, and history was solidified.)

I stand out with pride because I know where I come from and I know who I am because
of this school.

Ua lanakila wau ma nā ʻano a pau, ma muli o koʻu hoʻonaʻauao ʻia ma ka papahana
hoʻōla ʻōlelo. (I succeeded in all ways, because of my education in the language
revitalization program.)

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Research Question 2: Relationships
As graduates of a culturally responsive education with relatively small class sizes,
relationships — student-teacher interactions, and within peer groups — emerged as a critical
theme in responses from the focus group participants. The relationships were reflective of how
these interactions influenced their decision to pursue postsecondary education (research question
2). A major influence on graduates came through their relationships with a significant teacher or
faculty member, and/or their interaction with older students who were current early-admittance
students or full-time university students. Factors of a culturally responsive education that
enhance student achievement include rich and respectful language exchanges with more
competent others — teachers and community elders — and community-contextualized
relationships that are familiar to students (Demmert & Towner, 2003; Yap, 2004). Demmert and
Towner (2003) further identified critical elements of culturally responsive education, including
recognition and use of heritage languages, and a pedagogy that stresses traditional cultural
characteristics and adult-child interactions as the starting place for education. A male participant
of focus group two, Kaʻai, shared his thoughts relative to these unique interactions taking place
in the HME setting. He stated:
Ke noʻonoʻo nei au, ma mua, hoʻomanaʻo au i kēia e hele ana i ke kulanui no ka papa
mahiʻai a laila hoʻomaka e pīhoihoi, hiki ke hele i ke kula no ka mahiʻai, a laila hoʻopili i
ka mākou e hana nei ma ke kula nei. (As I think about it, before, I remember seeing him
[fellow participant] going to college for an agriculture class and became
encouraged/excited, you can go to college for agriculture, and see how it relates back to
what we are doing at school.)
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Another female participant, Kahau, elaborated that in high school: “The teachers know who you
are.” A similar idea was expressed online by a survey respondent: “Small classes allow students
to make a personal connection with their teachers.”
Some participants shared that specific teachers were influential in their decision to pursue
postsecondary education. Such influence could be embedded in the curriculum of the class, or in
the form of modeling the teachers’ pursuit of a graduate degree. One female participant, Keola,
shared:
Ua pili i kekahi mau mea a mākou i aʻo ai ma ka papa…hoʻomanaʻo au inā makemake e
puka ma ke ao, pono e hele i ke kulanui. Ua ʻike ʻia ka maikaʻi o ka hele kulanui ʻana . . .
ʻike ʻia ma o ka hana a ke kumu. (It was related to what we learned in class . . . I
remember that if you wanted to go out into the world, you had to attend college. We saw
the benefits of attending college . . . it was seen in what the teachers pursued.)
Research Question 3: Responsibility
As graduates of a high school program that stressed the importance and significance of
indigenous language and culture, kuleana, or responsibility, emerged as a theme that a majority
of participants discussed. The kuleana, or responsibility, of these graduates was one that was
inherent, and not necessarily taught. The majority of participants, as well as online survey
respondents, shared that as graduates they had a responsibility to continue their knowledge and
educational learning in order to support future generations of language speakers, their
community, and the Native Hawaiian population (research question 3). Culturally responsive
education factors include dialogue that allows discussion of multiple identities, and emphasis on
academic goals and their relevance to the lives of students and their families (Demmert &
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80
Towner, 2003; Yap, 2004). A female participant of focus group three, Keola, elaborated on this
idea of responsibility among her family with regard to future choices. She stated:
ʻIke lākou, nā mākua, he waiwai ka hele kulanui ʻana a me ka hoʻomākaukau ʻia ʻana o
mākou no ka hele kulanui ʻana . . . ʻaʻole i namunamu. (My parents knew the value of
attending college and the importance of preparing us to attend college . . . there were no
complaints.)

ʻIke au, ke hānau ʻia nā keiki, e komo ana ma ka papahana, ʻaʻohe mea e noʻonoʻo ai. (I
know, when I have kids, they will enroll in this program, there is nothing to think about.)

Several online respondents shared their own thoughts regarding this idea of responsibility
relative to their roles as graduates and their future responsibilities. Here are some responses that
were shared:
Ma laila au i aʻo ai i ke koʻikoʻi o koʻu kuleana ma ke ʻano he hanauna o nā alakaʻi
Hawaiʻi he nui ma mua oʻu, a me koʻu kuleana ma ke ʻano he kumu hoʻohālike no nā
hanauna e hiki mai ana. (It is there that I learned the significance of my responsibilities
to a generation of great Hawaiian leaders that came before me and my responsibilities as
a model for future generations.)

My experiences gave me an understanding of my role and responsibility in preparing the
next generation of Hawaiian language speakers.

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They helped me know what my responsibilities are as a Hawaiian, and what I need to do
to help the next generation of Hawaiian students succeed.

Being a part of the Hawaiian language movement from a young age gave me a sense of
responsibility to share the knowledge that I have gained with future generations through
education.

If I don’t perpetuate my language and culture, who will? It is my kuleana (responsibility)
to keep what my kūpuna (elders/grandparents) said and did alive!

Research Question 3: Connections
Similar to the theme of relationships, understanding how graduates of an HME program
established connections during, or as a result of, their high school experiences emerged as a
significant theme in the study (research question 3). Culturally responsive education develops
socio-cultural and linguistic congruence between the school, family, and community, in ways
that increase both academic achievement and socio-cultural proficiency and esteem (Demmert &
Towner, 2003). These connections were reflective of how graduates associated with their unique
high school experiences, and how those connections influenced them in postsecondary education
and continue to influence them today. The major influence on graduates came through their
connections to their indigenous language and culture, and how these connections shaped them as
graduates and the people they are today. A male participant, Kaʻāina, shared his thoughts with
regard to connections between the high school curriculum and his decisions today. He shared:
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Nui nā pōʻaiapili aʻu i komo ai ma muli o ke komo ʻana ma kēia kula . . . inā noʻonoʻo au
i kaʻu mau hana i kēia lā, nui nā mea i hoʻokele i ke ʻano o kaʻu mau hana i kēia la ma
muli o kēlā wā. (There were many contexts that I was/am a part of due to my schooling
. . . if I consider what I do now, there are many contexts that were influenced by what I
did then.)

A few online survey respondents further shared their thoughts with regard to connections
that influenced them on a personal level. They shared:
Kaiaʻōlelo influenced me to not only gain a connection with the language and culture for
myself, but both my ʻohana (family) and the community as well.

I felt I had a stronger language background than most. It was easy for me to make
relevant connections in most of my other “studies” courses because of my cultural
understandings and responsibilities.

Kaiaʻōlelo has made a great influence on connecting me to the Hawaiian language and
culture because it gave me an identity and a foundation to build on in the future.

Kaiaʻōlelo shaped me to the person I am today.

These results, similar to those exhibited in other indigenous communities, support the
premise that “increased connections between what students experience in school and what they
experience outside school appears to have a significant impact on their academic performance”
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(Hill et al., 2003, p. 14). When schools provide a challenging and high-quality education that is
intimately connected and relevant to indigenous communities, they will be far more likely to
graduate youth who are academically prepared (Brayboy & Castagno, 2009).
Participants in the focus groups were able to share openly about their strong feelings
concerning culturally responsive education and college choice. Their openness in reflecting on
the decisions they have made since graduating was communicated in the experiences and
perspectives they shared with regard to significant issues of college choice and the impact of a
culturally responsive education. It was also evident that the broad range of graduation cohort
groups contributed to the richness of the perspectives and experiences conveyed. The major
themes expressed in these groups were clearly evident among the focus groups participants, and
were similar to the ideas and responses shared via the online survey.
The findings presented in this chapter reflected the experiences of 10 graduates of an
HME program. This study found that certain aspects of a culturally responsive education did
impact the college choices of these participants. Relationships with peers and teachers, and
connections established in high school, were influential in shaping their postsecondary decisions.
Additionally, certain aspects of the high school program, as well as the inherent idea of
responsibility, contributed to the decisions of graduates to pursue or not to pursue postsecondary
education. Through the administration of the AES, participant responses supported the main
ideas that were communicated in the focus groups.
Chapter 5 will discuss the implications of these results, and provide recommendations for
how aspects of a culturally responsive education can support an increase of native student
populations in higher education. The researcher will further discuss the limitations of the study,
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and will conclude with a discussion of future research areas that may be explored regarding the
impact of a culturally responsive education on college choice.

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CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION
Culturally responsive education can be considered as a broad-based, school-wide
approach that seeks linguistic and socio-cultural congruence of the native student population in
all aspects of the school program, but particularly in classroom instruction (Yap, 2004). Much of
the current work on Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander student achievement, persistence to
graduation, college attendance, identity and wellbeing leads one to conclude that there is a need
for a reaffirmation of indigenous knowledge, wisdom, and learning (Yamauchi et al., 2000;
Lipka, 2002; Manuatu, 2004). Evidence supports pursuing the inclusion of native language and
culture in educational programs serving indigenous students as a strategy for improving
academic and other educational outcomes (Lipka, 2002). Overall, current studies support the idea
that the best models of alternative pedagogy, such as culturally responsive education, facilitate
language, cognitive and psychological development. In turn, this alternative pedagogy leads to
academic achievement in a contextual setting that is respectful of home culture (Yap, 2004). The
purpose of this study was to understand how a culturally responsive education impacts college
choice among Native Hawaiian students, with a focus on graduates of a Hawaiian medium
education program.
Data for this study were collected from two sources. Quantitative data were collected
using the adapted Alumni Exit Survey (AES) (Appendix A). The Alumni Exit Survey was
designed by Kamehameha Schools to collect data regarding life satisfaction, political and
cultural engagement, community involvement, and postsecondary goals and achievements of
graduates, and the impact of a Kamehameha Schools education on their graduates. Qualitative
data were collected from focus groups conducted with 10 graduates of the Hawaiian medium
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education program. The data collected from these two sources were used to address the
following research questions:
1. For Native Hawaiian students who have graduated from a Hawaiian medium
education high school, what were the most influential high school experiences
relative to their college choice?
2. What persons or pivotal experiences, if any, do Native Hawaiian high school
graduates attribute to a Hawaiian medium education curriculum and their college
choice?
3. What post-graduation experiences, if any, do Native Hawaiian high school graduates
from a Hawaiian medium education attribute to a culturally responsive secondary
education and their college choice?
The analysis of the quantitative data was used to inform the focus groups and the
qualitative data collected from the participants. The intention from the outset was to use the
qualitative data to inform and elaborate on the quantitative data that were initially collected.
Unexpectedly, qualitative data were also collected from the AES, and the analyses of all data
were used in totality to inform the overall understanding of culturally responsive education and
college choice. Therefore, the findings and implications in this chapter were determined through
an analysis and synthesis of both the quantitative and qualitative data sets.
The results of the study affirmed that a high percentage of Hawaiian medium education
graduates pursued postsecondary education. There was also an affirmation that a majority of
graduates attributed their college pursuits to significant aspects of their culturally responsive
education. Analysis revealed that high school curriculum, relationships developed while in high
school, responsibilities that graduates embraced, and connections to language revitalization, were
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all significant ideas expressed by graduates that informed their pursuit of postsecondary
education.
In this chapter, the key findings from this study are further developed and discussed. In
examining these findings, literature relative to culturally responsive education and college choice
is examined relative to this study. Implications for theory, research and practice relative to
culturally responsive education and Hawaiian medium education are presented. This chapter
concludes with an examination of the limitations of this study and future directions for
continuing research.
Discussion of Findings
Research Question 1 Findings: Curriculum and College Choice
Research question 1 asked: For Native Hawaiian students who have graduated from a
Hawaiian medium education high school, what were the most influential high school experiences
relative to their college choice? The first finding is that graduates of Hawaiian medium education
high school associate their experiences in high school, such as curriculum, with their desire to
pursue postsecondary education.
High school curriculum.
A majority of the participants in this study described experiences associated with
curriculum as reasons to pursue college after high school graduation. Qualitative data supported
the idea that opportunities in high school, such as early enrollment programs and indigenous
language curriculum, encouraged students to pursue postsecondary education. Responses that
were shared were unique to the indigenous and cultural curriculum evident in a Hawaiian
medium education program. Thus, the researcher asserts that certain aspects of the Hawaiian
medium education contributed to the college choice of its graduates. In practical terms, it stands
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to reason that incorporating an early college enrollment program as part of the curriculum,
building upon the cultural experiences of students, and strengthening the cultural identity of
students through indigenous curriculum, provided a strong foundation and/or support that
students utilized in their postsecondary educational pursuits. Similarly, graduates felt grounded
in their cultural identity and language skills that provided a basis, or groundwork, for college
choice.
Gay (2002) asserts that culturally responsive education recognizes, respects, and uses
students’ identities and backgrounds as a meaningful source for creating optimal learning
environments. Being culturally responsive means having high expectations for students, and
ensuring that these expectations are realized. Pursuing the inclusion of native language and
culture in educational programs serving indigenous students is a strategy for improving academic
and other educational outcomes (Lipka, 2002).
College choice.
Quantitative survey results revealed that a high percentage (88.7%) of graduates pursued
postsecondary education after graduating from the Hawaiian medium program. These results
appeared to be a constant, as there were no other data to provide a comparison. Additionally,
these data align with the school’s reporting of college-going rates. The researcher expects that
other variables not examined in this study may have influenced these quantitative data. Other
influential variables may include parental choice relative to school selection, college enrollment
assistance both within and outside of the high school program, and private organizations that
may have been pursued.
Though the high percentage appeared to be conspicuous, the data were derived from an
online survey of graduates that was completely voluntary. Additionally, data gathered from focus
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groups supported these findings. Data collected from previous studies support the idea that
cultural approaches strongly enhance relevance and relationships at school for indigenous
students, while also supporting positive academic outcomes (Kanaʻiaupuni et al., 2010). More
importantly, students exhibit high levels of trust in and connection to their schools. The analyses
of these college choice factors illustrate the importance of examining differences among
indigenous groups in the variables that influence college enrollment decisions.
Research Question 2 Findings: Relationships and Connections
Research question 2 asked: What persons or pivotal experiences, if any, do Native
Hawaiian high school graduates attribute to a Hawaiian medium education curriculum and their
college choice? The majority of focus group respondents named a faculty member that greatly
influenced their decisions to pursue postsecondary education. Additionally, both focus group
participants and online survey respondents provided examples of specific high school
experiences, such as peer group interactions, that influenced their college choice. The major
themes encompassing the ideas presented in the third and final finding related to relationships
and connections established in secondary school.
Relationships.
A majority of focus group participants, as well as online participants, presented scenarios
and anecdotal information regarding faculty members that influenced their college choice.
Qualitative data supported the idea that student-teacher relationships established in the school
setting became a critical aspect of these graduates’ lives, and sometimes provided a parental role
not readily available in their home situation. Additionally, the structure of the school setting
provided for a familial and community support of the student’s home culture, which encouraged
family and parental involvement in the students’ pursuit of postsecondary education.
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Culturally responsive education, by expressing the values of the native culture and the
community, ensures greater endorsement, involvement, and support by parents and community
resources. This in turn strengthens potential associations between student experience and the
academic curriculum, thereby maximizing congruence between community goals and student
academic achievement (Yap, 2004).
Connections.
A feeling of connectedness was an idea widely expressed by focus group participants and
online survey respondents. A majority of the comments that were expressed relative to this
finding were grounded in the idea that graduates felt connected to their native language, culture
and community during secondary education, and this connection remained with them throughout
their postsecondary pursuits and future endeavors. Qualitative data supported the idea that
graduates felt, and continue to feel, a strong cultural connection to their indigenous language,
their native identity, and to the greater indigenous community. These ideas were expressed in the
context of influencing the graduate with regard to future aspirations, and are key aspects of
cultural compatibility theory (Demmert & Towner, 2003).
Cultural compatibility suggests that when the values and expectations of the classroom
are congruent with those of the students it serves, student participation increases and learning is
enhanced (Yamauchi & Tharp, 1995). The cultural compatibility perspective emphasizes cultural
differences rather than cultural deficits, and suggests changing the structures of schools to better
fit the culture of the students. Schools that embrace culturally responsive pedagogy implement
project-based and place-based teaching and learning for children, integrating culture, community
and the natural environment, and in some cases use indigenous language as the medium of
instruction, as seen in Hawaiian medium education schools. Students engage in authentic
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experiences at historical and sacred places and other community outdoor learning laboratories. In
this way, connections to the land, culture, and community create a rich educational environment
that nourishes spiritual, physical, and educational wellbeing (Kanaʻiaupuni et al., 2010). Results
from these programs indicate progress including higher levels of engagement (attendance, timely
completion, postsecondary aspirations) among Native Hawaiian students (Yamauchi, 2003).
Research Question 3 Findings: Sense of Responsibility
Research question 3 asked: What post-graduation experiences, if any, do Native
Hawaiian high school graduates from a Hawaiian medium education attribute to a culturally
responsive secondary education and their college choice? The third major finding was that
graduates of the Hawaiian medium education program felt a sense of responsibility to continue
their education beyond secondary school. This sense of kuleana, responsibility, was such that
survey respondents and focus group participants related their feelings that pursuing
postsecondary education ensured that future generations — as well as the greater Hawaiian
community — would benefit from the decisions that they made with regard to college choice.
The majority of focus group participants, as well as online survey respondents, shared
that as graduates they had a responsibility to continue their knowledge seeking and educational
learning in order to support future generations of indigenous language speakers, their own
communities, and the Native Hawaiian population as a whole. This sense of responsibility, which
encouraged students to pursue postsecondary goals, is a unique aspect of a culturally responsive
education. This may also relate to the ideas revealed in the quantitative and qualitative data
collected, according to which a majority of graduates enrolled at local universities and continued
to enroll in native language classes and cultural classes.
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Education is more effective when there is an increase in congruence between socio-
cultural dispositions of students and socio-cultural expectations of schools (Demmert & Towner,
2003). Culturally responsive education aims to build upon the congruence of students’ home
culture and the cultural expectations of the school. This interconnectedness allows for greater
support with regard to academic success and transitioning into higher education. When culturally
responsive education responds to the linguistic and cultural sensitivity of the learner, and
recognizes traditional norms, the integration of higher education opportunities and postsecondary
goals no longer becomes an obstacle or a far-reaching attainment, but rather a cultural norm
within the school context.
Limitations
The influx of culturally diverse students, such as Native Hawaiians, into secondary
education has not transferred into higher education (Speck & Keahiolalo-Karasuda, 2011). This
study examined the impact of culturally responsive education, specifically Hawaiian medium
education, on college choice. Though the need for further research with regard to culturally
responsive education, Hawaiian medium education and Native Hawaiian student enrollment in
postsecondary education, was warranted, this study revealed several limitations.
Insufficient Statistical Power
The power of a statistical test is the probability that the test will reject the null hypothesis
(Salkind, 2011). Statistical power may depend on a number of factors, one of which is sample
size. This study sought to include a greater number of online survey respondents, to maximize
the quantitative data collected, however the small sample size (N=53) resulted in insufficient
statistical power. Though graduates were contacted numerous times about this study, only 53
complete responses were recorded at the completion of the data collection period. As a means to
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counter the insufficient statistical power, qualitative data were collected via focus groups. These
data revealed anecdotal and detailed in-depth information not otherwise explored in quantitative
statistics. The inclusion of qualitative data augments the lack of statistical power in a positive
way, in that it seeks to understand the meaning of the significant findings. Though the inclusion
of qualitative data provided an exploratory approach, the limitation of quantitative data, and a
small sample size, suggests the need to conduct further research and increase the number of
participants in order to sustain a significant statistical power.
Threats to Internal and External Validity
Threats to internal validity are experimental procedures, treatments, or participants’
experiences that threaten the researcher’s ability to draw correct inferences from the data about
the population in a study (Creswell, 2009). One type of threat to internal validity relates to
selection: the participants selected may have certain characteristics that predispose them to have
certain outcomes. Though this study sought to minimize any threats to validity, the limited
sample impacted the selection criteria for focus groups. As a result, the focus group participants
may have represented a sample of graduates who were predisposed to pursuing postsecondary
education, due to other variables or influences.
Threats to external validity arise when experimenters draw incorrect inferences from
sample data with regard to other persons, other settings, and past or future situations (Creswell,
2009). The population that was surveyed, and that participated in focus groups, provided unique
characteristics that may not generalize to other populations. The sample size for the online
survey was 53 graduates, which included 41 females and 12 males. This researcher was not able
to discern if there was a significant difference among genders with regard to culturally
responsive education and college choice. The focus groups also included fewer males than
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females. Therefore, the study represented a greater proportion of female perspectives and
experiences.
In addition, though the sample size represented approximately 40% of the total graduates
of the Hawaiian medium education program included in this study, the data presented may not
generalize to the greater population of graduates from other indigenous language programs.
Other factors such as curriculum, geographic setting, student-teacher ratio, and availability of
cultural programs, may affect the outcomes of graduates from other indigenous language
programs.
Sample
Quantitative data were collected from responses based on a sample of 53 participants.
Qualitative data were collected from focus groups based on a sample of 10 participants. These
are relatively small samples from which to draw conclusions that are convincingly generalizable.
However, such conclusions raise important questions that may have future implications. In terms
of homogeneity, it could be argued that the Alumni Exit Survey attracted graduates who may
have similar perspectives and experiences with regard to Hawaiian medium education and
college choice. As efforts to increase data collection from graduates of culturally responsive
education programs continue, it will be of value to explore further research studies from a large
sample of participants.
Setting
Kaiaʻōlelo Hawaiʻi is a small K-12 public Hawaiian medium education program. The
school is located in a suburban community amid four traditional public schools that serve the
surrounding communities. The K-12 campus has a combined student population of 300, of which
38 students are in secondary grades 9-12. At the high school level, class size is relatively small.
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Due to its unique status as a Hawaiian medium education program, the student population of
Kaiaʻōlelo Hawaiʻi comes from a diverse geographical context, with a majority of students
commuting to the school campus via parental transportation, or public transportation provided by
the county. Additionally, approximately 75% of students qualify for free or reduced-lunch status
as identified by the USDOE, and 98% of students identify as Native Hawaiian. Similar
characteristics were evident among participants in this study. All focus group participants self-
identified as Native Hawaiian and came from diverse familial backgrounds and communities.
Although the high percentage of Native Hawaiian students, the uniqueness of the educational
program, and the location of the campus provide a great opportunity to study the impact of
culturally responsive education on college choice among Native Hawaiian students, these same
characteristics may limit generalization to other campus populations and different language
immersion programs across the state of Hawaiʻi.
As part of its 11th and 12th grade curriculum, students of Kaiaʻōlelo Hawaiʻi are highly
encouraged and strongly supported to enroll in classes at university level through the Running
Start program. As part of the dual enrollment at the secondary and postsecondary levels, students
receive high school and college credit, and are provided with resources (i.e., computer lab hours,
counselors) to support their success at both sites. The influence of early enrollment programs
was supported in ideas shared as part of the qualitative data collection. A majority of focus group
participants commented on the positive influence of early enrollment programs and interaction
with college students on their decision to continue in higher education institutions following
graduation.
Furthermore, as Kaiaʻōlelo Hawaiʻi is a lab school within the local university, support
staff are able to work together to provide seamless transitions between the secondary campus and
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university setting (Kaiaʻōlelo Hawaiʻi, 2012). The impact of the lab school distinction was
explored in the focus group contexts. Participants commented on the faculty at both university
and high school settings, and how these relationships impacted their decisions regarding college
choice. The partnership with the local university to provide resources and services to students is
unique to this HME program, and may also further limit the replication of this study in other
settings that do not offer dual enrollment opportunities.
Instrumentation
Quantitative data were collected using the adapted Alumni Exit Survey (AES). The AES
was designed by Kamehameha Schools to collect data regarding life satisfaction, political and
cultural engagement, community involvement and postsecondary goals and achievements of
graduates, and the impact of a Kamehameha Schools education on their graduates. To date, the
life satisfaction scale of the AES has been validated, with a coefficient alpha between .85 and .87
(Pavot & Deiner, 1993). The cultural engagement scale was conservatively analyzed by the
Kamehameha Schools Research and Evaluation division. The original scale items were modified
by Kamehameha Schools Research and Evaluation division to ensure that when survey
participants responded to the items, this was specifically in reference to their Native Hawaiian
ancestry (Hagedorn et al., 2003). Consistent outcomes were found as a result of factor analysis
and reliability analysis (alpha = .79). Subsequent components related to degree and program
completion, along with future plans, have not yet been analyzed. Though the AES was used for
initial data collection, unfamiliarity with this type of online survey may have presented a barrier
or limitation for graduates of the Hawaiian medium program. Similarly, the AES was delivered
in English as part of this research study, which may have been a deterrent to graduates of the
Hawaiian medium education program.
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Implications for Practice
While educational reform policies have been implemented in an attempt to close the
achievement gap among distinct ethnic student populations, significant inequities continue to
exist for a wide range of educational indicators, including participation in higher education
(Klump & McNeir, 2005). One of the ways in which school systems and educational institutions
are addressing the achievement gap with regard to college attendance is to become more
culturally responsive (Klump & McNeir, 2005). By embracing a more culturally responsive
education, schools in Hawaiʻi are able to connect to a minority student population — Native
Hawaiians — that is overlooked and undersupported in the traditional public school system, and
severely underrepresented in higher education (Hagedorn et al., 2006; Kanaʻiaupuni & Ishibashi,
2003). In this study, all focus group participants identified as Native Hawaiian, and the majority
(90%) pursued postsecondary education and related their college choice to experiences in HME.
This percentage, and those previously revealed as a result of the quantitative data collected, are
higher than shown in data regarding Native Hawaiian students in traditional public schools with
regard to college choice. The following implications for practice are tied to the over-arching
premise of exploring ways to increase Native Hawaiian enrollment in higher education, while
focusing on culturally responsive educational practices that support these educational goals.
Supporting Current and New Programs
Culturally responsive education elements include: recognition and use of heritage
languages; pedagogy that stresses traditional cultural characteristics; pedagogy in which teaching
strategies are congruent with the traditional culture, as well as contemporary ways of knowing
and learning (opportunities to observe, practice, and demonstrate skills); curriculum that is based
on traditional culture that recognizes the importance of native spirituality; a strong native
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community participation (including parents, elders, and other community resources) in educating
children and in the planning and operation of school activities; and knowledge and use of the
social and political mores of the community (Demmert & Towner, 2003). Supporting current
programs that successfully implement these key elements is imperative to address the academic
needs of native students. Hawaiian medium education (HME) is an ideal and rigorous model of
culturally responsive education, which results in linguistic, cultural and academic successes.
HME produces positive outcomes and impacts resulting from the critical elements of culturally
responsive education. Approximately 89% of online survey respondents pursued postsecondary
education after graduating from Kaiaʻōlelo Hawaiʻi (an HME program). The academic successes
seen in the HME setting are evidence of the potential of Hawaiian medium education to
reestablish high academic performance among Native Hawaiian students (Wilson & Kamanā,
2006). Further studies are needed to examine the uniqueness of HME programs, as limited
research is available. Conducting research in HME settings may help us to better understand
what really makes a difference in meeting the educational needs of students; in particular, how to
meet both home-culture and Western education needs.
In addition to supporting existing programs, support is also needed for those communities
striving to implement or create new culturally responsive educational programs as a way to
increase the academic success of native students. Traditional public schools may not be the
appropriate context for incorporating a culturally responsive education. Many rural Native
Hawaiian communities are seeking other avenues of educational reform in order to address the
growing need to support Native Hawaiian representation in higher education. These communities,
which are rich with traditional knowledge and cultural practices, may be the more appropriate
setting for a culturally responsive education which can sustain itself. These implications suggest
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a need for greater financial and educational support from stakeholders, community organizations,
and local and state government entities.
Educational Partnerships
Another implication for both secondary and postsecondary institutions is the need to
foster and sustain long-term partnerships between high schools and local colleges and
universities. As discussed in Chapter 4, a majority of focus group participants in this study
identified dual college enrollment during their junior and senior years as critical experiences that
influenced their decisions to pursue higher education post-graduation. Additionally, interaction
with university students and faculty provided an easier transition for students after graduation,
and a foundation for continued learning. The curriculum established in the Hawaiian medium
education program, and the partnership with the local university, afforded the opportunity for
students to enroll in early commitment programs at the university while maintaining their high
school status (Wilson & Kamanā, 2001).
Tierney and Hagedorn (2002) identify a number of features of effective student
preparation programs. These include an emphasis on academics, strong connections with
postsecondary institutions, preparation for a variety of postsecondary options, and early
intervention. Tierney et al. (2003) further elaborate on the key components and factors that
impact college preparation and enrollment, which include a rigorous academic curriculum,
academic, college and career counseling, incorporation of students’ cultures, and family and
community engagement. Both quantitative data gathered from the online survey and focus group
responses supported the idea that graduates who pursued postsecondary education had a highly
favorable view of how their Hawaiian medium education prepared them to pursue their career or
life’s work. Additionally, a majority of online respondents viewed the relationship between high
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school preparation and postsecondary pursuits in a favorable way, as measured by the life
satisfaction portion of the AES. Programs that incorporate students’ diverse backgrounds and
cultures into academic and social activities effectively communicate college attendance skills
and knowledge. Culturally sensitive programs create contexts and opportunities that encourage
student goals and reinforce their college attendance identities.
Native Hawaiians in Higher Education
Native Hawaiians are less likely than non-Hawaiians to continue their educational
journey after receiving a high school diploma. More than three quarters (76.3%) of Native
Hawaiian adults ages 25 years or older have completed high school but have not earned a
bachelor’s degree (Speck & Keahiolalo-Karasuda, 2011). While Native Hawaiians comprise
19.8% of Hawaii’s total population, and nearly 28% of the enrollment in Hawaii’s public schools
(Office of Hawaiian Affairs, 2011), they are underrepresented (14% of the undergraduate
enrollment in the fall semester 2010) at the University of Hawaii at Mānoa, the state’s only
research institution (University of Hawaiʻi Institutional Research Office, 2010).
The importance of higher education for Native Hawaiians is ever increasing, particularly
in today’s global market (Speck & Keahiolalo-Karasuda, 2011). Given that “postsecondary
education and training have become the nation’s workforce qualification and development
system outside the workplace” (Carnevale et al., 2009, p. 25), the significance of postsecondary
education for Native Hawaiians cannot be overlooked. Research that supports the increase of
Native Hawaiian representation in higher education should be viewed as invaluable and vital to
the Native Hawaiian community, and the economic sustainability of the state of Hawaiʻi.
Hawaiian medium education enrolls a high percentage of Native Hawaiian students (98% of
students in this study setting). Within the context of this study, 9 of the 10 focus group
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participants who self-identified as Native Hawaiian pursued postsecondary education. Therefore,
higher rates of Native Hawaiian graduates pursuing higher education translates to increased
Native Hawaiian representation in postsecondary institutions. This idea further supports the need
for continued funding of culturally responsive education and future research into Hawaiian
medium education programs.
Future Research
The body of literature related to culturally responsive education and college choice is
limited. Additionally, very few studies have been conducted with regard to Hawaiian medium
education graduates, the broader population of Native Hawaiian high school graduates, and
college choice. This study aimed to provide further data analysis for a population that is rarely
studied, but warrants attention. Research that leads to an increased representation of Native
Hawaiians in postsecondary education will impact educational reform and policies for Native
Hawaiians and other indigenous groups (Hagedorn et al., 2006). As a result, the researcher
recognizes the need for further exploration of culturally responsive education and its impact on
Native Hawaiian representation in higher education.
First, additional research is needed into culturally responsive education (CRE) and its
impact on college enrollment and attendance of indigenous students. This study looked at a
specific setting as an example of a culturally responsive education context. However, other
indigenous communities throughout the U.S. have adopted or created CRE programs within their
own settings. As these programs graduate students fully immersed in the unique programs,
further research might also expand to include other indigenous student populations. As higher
education continues to explore ways to increase representation of specific minority groups,
future research into different CRE contexts may serve to address the educational inequities of
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underrepresented groups. Furthermore, further research might include institutions in which CRE
is a variable and not a constant, and where the college-going rate is not as high as the setting
explored in this study.
In addition, further research is needed into Hawaiian medium education (HME) and
graduates of such programs. This study included graduates from a single HME setting; however,
future research may explore other programs represented in the state of Hawaiʻi. The researcher
does suggest a word of caution with regard to the combining of data across Hawaiian medium
and Hawaiian language immersion settings. The uniqueness of each program depends on the
resources and communities that contribute to the success of the individual school setting. What
works in one community may not transfer to similar outcomes in another. As a result, graduates
from one school setting may not have had high school experiences similar to those from another.
If future research is explored, initial analysis of each Hawaiian medium or Hawaiian language
immersion setting is needed to ensure the quality of data collected.
Finally, this study involved the initial data collection of experiences of graduates from an
HME setting. Future research should include data collected from a larger participant sample. A
mixed methods approach for future studies will ensure that qualitative data capture the essence
and meaning of the quantitative data. Qualitative and quantitative data can be merged into one
database, or the results can be analyzed side by side to reinforce each other (Patton, 2002).
Additionally, utilizing a mixed approach provides a comprehensive perspective of HME and
culturally responsive education. An increase in survey and focus group participants would allow
for a stronger analysis and comparison of the findings that emerge. Study participants should
include a larger male population, to add depth and new data to inform future studies.
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103
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to analyze college choice among graduates of a Hawaiian
medium education school, in order to assess the impact of a native language-based and culture-
based curriculum on college attendance. The qualitative data collected were used as an initial
point of analysis for this study. Focus groups conducted with graduates of the program served to
inform this study and present the qualitative findings with regard to culturally responsive
education and college choice.
This study provided insight into graduates of a Hawaiian medium education program not
found in previous studies. Essential themes emerged regarding how high school curriculum, the
relationships developed in secondary education, the idea of responsibility to future generations,
and the connection to indigenous language influenced postsecondary decisions. The uniqueness
of the high school program and the opportunities extended to students were all experiences that
graduates stated as influential with regard to college choice. Within the culturally responsive
education program, relationships with faculty and other peer groups, as well as connections to
indigenous language and culture, also served as influential and pivotal features of the secondary
education. Additionally, focus group participants shared that their sense of responsibility to
future generations of indigenous language learners and the Native Hawaiian community also
served as significant reasons to pursue higher education. Finally, the use of the adapted Alumni
Exit Survey (AES) provided a means of initial data collection for a group underrepresented in
research and previous studies.
The overarching premise of this research was to contribute to an understanding of how
students’ high school experiences in an HME setting relate to college choice. In addition, this
study aimed to provide further specific research into Native Hawaiians and college choice. With
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND COLLEGE CHOICE

104
the increasing interest in higher education, research that contributes to a greater enrollment
among unique minority groups is necessary to ensure that these populations are not further
underrepresented in postsecondary education. The current efforts to close the achievement gaps
among distinct student populations continue to come short when considering a wide range of
educational indicators such as grades, dropout rates, and participation in higher education. One
way that schools are addressing the achievement gap in college attendance is to become more
culturally responsive (Klump & McNeir, 2005). Hawaiian medium education provides an
understanding of how emphasizing language-based and culture-based curriculum can offer an
alternative form of education to address the concept of college choice. The uniqueness of this
program and other culturally responsive education contexts may not be easily modeled in other
settings. The premise of this study was to present the characteristics of the program, and gather
data from those most personally impacted — the graduates. The themes that emerged are not
assessed or evaluated on any standard assessment; therefore, it is important that these aspects and
experiences are viewed from the same culturally based perspective.
This study contributes to the limited research and data focused on culturally responsive
education and its impact on college choice. Quantitative and qualitative data gathered as part of
this study support the idea that culturally responsive education strengthens indigenous
community-school relations, and implements effective educational strategies that result in an
increase in underrepresented groups pursuing higher education. These objectives and goals are
evidenced by the high percentage (88.7%) of graduates that pursued postsecondary education,
the favorable view held by graduates of how their Hawaiian medium education prepared them to
pursue their career or life’s work, and the high percentage of Native Hawaiian students
represented in Hawaiian medium education (98% in this single HME setting). This study
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105
provides further data analysis for a population that is rarely studied, but warrants attention. It is
the researcher’s hope that future research will expand data collection and analysis, and, as a
result, that culturally responsive education — and Hawaiian medium education specifically —
will be viewed as leading the way in strengthening indigenous community-school relations and
pursuing effective educational policy to support an increase of underrepresented groups in higher
education.

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APPENDIX A
ALUMNI SURVEY
(adapted from Kamehameha Schools Alumni Exit Survey)
Thank you for taking the time to complete this survey regarding your high school experiences
and your post-secondary choices. Your responses will contribute to an understanding regarding
cultural responsive education and college choice. Your careful reading and answering of
questions is appreciated.

This survey has six sections: Contact & Demographic Information, Life Satisfaction, Cultural
Engagement, Employment/Enrollment Information, Program & Degree Information, and Future
Plans.

You do not have to answer any question that you do not wish to answer. At any point, you may
go forward or backward in the survey to review your answers. If you close the page, you will
have to restart the survey from the beginning.

By completing this survey, you are agreeing that your answers can be used in this research
project. Your answers will remain confidential. You may stop at any time without penalty. If you
have any questions about this study, please contact the primary researcher at aipiapet@usc.edu.

Please complete the survey to the best of your ability and as honestly as possible.

Thank you.

I. Contact & Demographic Information
a. Name
b. Gender
c. Marital Status
d. Child(ren)
e. Address
f. Email
g. Phone Number
h. Year Graduated

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II. Life Satisfaction

Q1. How well did your experience at KKʻON prepare you . . .

Very
well
Somewhat
well
Not very
well
Not at
all well N/A
To be independent O O O O O
To manage finances O O O O O
To pursue further education and/or career training O O O O O
To pursue your career or life’s work O O O O O
For your first long-term job or work O O O O O
To start a family O O O O O
To take care of your physical health O O O O O
To take care of your emotional/mental health O O O O O
To conduct research O O O O O
To write analytically O O O O O
To be creative and innovative O O O O O
To pursue opportunities for life-long learning O O O O O

III. Cultural Engagement

Q1. Evaluate the following statements based on your experience at KKʻON and current
engagement.

Strongly
agree Agree
Neither
agree nor
disagree Disagree
Strongly
disagree
I feel good about my Hawaiian language and
culture background.
O O O O O
I understand what it means to be Hawaiian. O O O O O
I have a desire to learn more about Hawaiian
culture, such as history, language, traditions
and customs.
O O O O O
I have continued to find out more about
Hawaiian history, language, traditions and
customs.
O O O O O
I participate in Hawaiian cultural practices and
traditions.
O O O O O
I celebrate/commemorate special occasions in
Hawaiian history.
O O O O O
I am able to participate in protocol in Hawaiian
(for example: oli, pule, hula).
O O O O O
I am active in organizations or social groups
that include mostly Hawaiians.
O O O O O
I use Hawaiian language in my everyday
communication.
O O O O O

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Q2. To what extent did feeling connected to Hawaiian language and culture increase your
motivation to do well in school?
• Not at all
• To a little extent
• To some extent
• To a considerable extent
• To a very great extent

Q3. Anything else that you would like say about how KKʻON influenced your connection to
Hawaiian language and culture?

IV. Employment/Enrollment Information

Q1. What is your current employment status (select all that apply)?
• Full-time employed
• Part-time employed
• Unemployed
• Student

Q2. If full-time or part-time employed selected, what is your profession?

V. Program & Degree Information

Q1. Are you currently enrolled in any post-high school education or training program?
• Yes
• No

IF YES TO Q1

Q2A. What is the name of your current school and your program or major?
• School:
• Program/Major:

Q2B. In what month and year do you expect to graduate: Month _____ Year _______

Q2C. Overall, how well did KKʻON prepare you for your post-high school education or training
program?
• Very well
• Somewhat well
• Not very well
• Not at all
• Not applicable

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IF NO TO Q1

Q3A. Were you ever enrolled in any post-high school education or training programs?
• Yes
• No

IF YES TO Q3A

Q3B. Have you COMPLETED any post-high school education or training programs?
• Yes
• No
IF YES TO Q3B . . .
Q3C. Please tell us about any education or training programs you completed after high school.
State the type of degree/certificate (if any), your major, and the year you completed the program.
Degree/Certificate Major Year
Program 1

Q3D. Overall, how well did KKʻON prepare you for your post-high school education or training
program?
• Very well
• Somewhat well
• Not very well
• Not at all
• Not applicable

IF NO TO Q3B . . .

Q3E. Why did you stop attending your education or training program? (Choose all that apply.)
• Financial reasons
• Academic reasons
• Personal or family reasons
• New opportunities outside of school/program (e.g., full-time job)
• Dissatisfaction with school/program
• Change in or uncertainty about educational/occupational goals
• Difficulties with adjustment to new school/program/location
• Other (please specify): __________________________

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VI. Future Plans

Q1. As you look to the future, do you plan to: (Choose all that apply.)
• Complete studies and receive a degree from the college/university in which you are
currently enrolled
• Transfer to another college/university, complete studies and receive a degree
• Pursue further study towards a Master’s degree, PhD, or professional degree such as a JD
or MD
• Start up your own business
• Pursue a career in the for-profit business world
• Pursue a career in the nonprofit business world
• Other (please specify): ___________________

Q2. As you look to the future, in what profession do you think you will pursue a career?
• The Arts
• Business
• Community Service/Social Sector
• Education/Teaching
• Engineering
• Journalism/Communications
• Hospitality/Tourism
• Law
• Medicine/Dentistry
• Science
• Technology
• Other (please specify): ___________________

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APPENDIX B
FOCUS GROUP GUIDE & PROTOCOL
Impact of Culturally Responsive Education on College Choice
Interview Questions for Focus Group Participants
Aloha. My name is T. Kēhaulani ʻAipia-Peters and I am a doctoral candidate at USC in the EdD
Program in the Rossier School of Education. Under the leadership of Dr. Darnell Cole, Dr.
Melora Sundt, and Dr. Hiapo Perreira (University of Hawaiʻi, Hilo), I am working on evaluating
the impact of a culturally responsive education on college choice.

The purpose of this study is to learn more about your experiences in the Hawaiian medium
education setting and how these experiences may have impacted your decision to pursue or not
to pursue higher education.

The purpose of this interview is collect further data from alumni regarding their experiences in
the Hawaiian medium education setting and their pursuits after graduation.

At this time I will review the informed consent form. You have the right to participate or not,
without any penalty. (Read consent and have participants sign the informed consent, here.)

Sign In Sheet Information For Focus Group:

1. What is your gender?

2. What is your racial identification?

3. What year did you graduate from the Hawaiian medium secondary program?

4. What is your current occupation?

RQ: 1
For Native Hawaiian students who have graduated from a Hawaiian medium education
high school, what were the most influential high school experiences relative to their college
choice?

1. How did your high school experiences impact your postsecondary pursuits?

2. How did the faculty at your high school impact your postsecondary pursuits?

3. How did your family and community impact your postsecondary pursuits?

4. How did your high school experiences impact your academic goals and career
aspirations?
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND COLLEGE CHOICE

123
5. What role did you play in the college choice process?

6. Overall, if applicable, why did you pursue higher education after graduation from
high school?

RQ: 2
What experiences, if any, do Native Hawaiian high school graduates from a Hawaiian
medium education program attribute to a culturally responsive secondary education and
their college choice?

1. How would you describe your Hawaiian language use in your home setting during
your secondary school years?

2. What cultural or indigenous experiences, if any, during high school impacted your
postsecondary plans?

3. How would you describe your current connection to the Hawaiian culture and
language?

4. What type of connection do you currently have with native language revitalization?

5. In what contexts do you relate your experiences in native language and culture to
your postsecondary pursuits?

RQ: 3
What persons or pivotal experiences, if any, do Native Hawaiian high school graduates
attribute to a Hawaiian medium education curriculum and their college choice?

1. Who were the most influential people during high school that impacted your decision
to pursue postsecondary education or not?

2. What were the most pivotal experiences during high school that impacted your
decision to pursue postsecondary education or not?

3. What aspects of your Hawaiian medium education encouraged your pursuits after
graduation?

4. What aspects of your Hawaiian medium education hindered your pursuits after
graduation?

5. How would you describe the quality of your Hawaiian medium education?

CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND COLLEGE CHOICE

124
APPENDIX C
INFORMED CONSENT (SURVEY)
Participant
Aloha. My name is T. Kēhaulani ʻAipia-Peters and I am a doctoral candidate at USC in the EdD
Program in the Rossier School of Education. Under the leadership of Dr. Darnell Cole, Dr.
Melora Sundt, and Dr. Hiapo Perreira (University of Hawaiʻi, Hilo), I am working on evaluating
the impact of a culturally responsive education on college choice.

Purpose of the Study
We are asking you to take part in this research study because we are trying to learn more about
the impact of culturally responsive education on college choice. In particular, we are interested in
your experience in the Hawaiian medium education setting and how these experiences may have
impacted your decision to pursue or not to pursue higher education.

Participation
You are invited to complete this survey regarding your high school experiences and your post-
secondary choices. Your responses will contribute to an understanding regarding cultural
responsive education and college choice. Your careful reading and answering of questions is
appreciated. Confidentiality will be maintained for all data collected. You were selected as a
possible participant in this study because you are a graduate of a Hawaiian medium program.
You must be at least 18 years of age to participate. Your participation is voluntary.

Procedures
This survey has six sections: Contact & Demographic Information, Life Satisfaction, Cultural
Engagement, Employment/Enrollment Information, Program & Degree Information, and Future
Plans. Please complete the survey to the best of your ability and as honestly as possible.

Potential Risks and Discomforts
There are no anticipated risks to your participation; you may stop without penalty at any time
during the survey. No retaliation will be taken against you at any time.

Potential Benefits to Subjects
You may not directly benefit from your participation in this research study.

Payment/Compensation for Participation
There is no compensation being offered to participants.

Potential Conflicts of Interest
There are no conflicts of interest for the researchers involved in this study.

Confidentiality
Any information that is obtained in connection with this study and that can be identified with you
will remain confidential and will be disclosed only with your permission or as required by law.
The information collected about you will be coded using a pseudonym or initials and numbers,
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND COLLEGE CHOICE

125
for example abc-123, etc. The information, which has your identifiable information, will be kept
separate from the rest of your data. Only members of the research team will have access to the
data associated with this study. When the results of the research are published or discussed in
conferences, no information will be included that would reveal your identity.

Participation and Withdrawal
You can choose whether to be in this study or not. You do not have to answer any question that
you do not wish to answer. At any point, you may go forward or backward in the survey to
review your answers. If you close the page, you will have to restart the survey from the
beginning.

Rights of Research Subjects
You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue participation without penalty. You
are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of your participation in this research
study. If you have any questions about your rights as a study subject or you would like to speak
with someone independent of the research team to obtain answers to questions about the
research, or in the event the research staff can not be reached, please contact the University Park
IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for Research Advancement, Stonier Hall, Room 224a, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-1146, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu.

Identification of Investigators
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact the project
faculty coordinators:

Darnell Cole, Ph.D. Melora Sundt, Ph.D. Hiapo Perreira, Ph.D.
Associate Professor Associate Dean for Academic Associate Professor
dcole@usc.edu Programs, Professor hiapokei@hawaii.edu
msundt@usc.edu

CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND COLLEGE CHOICE

126
APPENDIX D
INFORMED CONSENT (FOCUS GROUP)
Participant
Aloha. My name is T. Kēhaulani ʻAipia-Peters and I am a doctoral candidate at USC in the EdD
Program in the Rossier School of Education. Under the leadership of Dr. Darnell Cole, Dr.
Melora Sundt, and Dr. Hiapo Perreira (University of Hawaiʻi, Hilo), I am working on evaluating
the impact of a culturally responsive education on college choice.

Purpose of the Study
We are asking you to take part in this research study because we are trying to learn more about
the impact of culturally responsive education on college choice. In particular, we are interested in
your experience in the Hawaiian medium education setting and how these experiences may have
impacted your decision to pursue or not to pursue higher education.

Participation
You are invited to participate in a focus group interview that will involve yourself and other
participants in the group. The interview, for example, will consist of questions regarding your
experiences in the Hawaiian medium education setting and your pursuits after graduation. The
focus group interview should take about 60 minutes. Confidentiality will be maintained for all
data collected. You were selected as a possible participant in this study because you are a
graduate of a Hawaiian medium program who participated in an alumni survey regarding your
experiences, cultural engagement, and postsecondary pursuits. You must be at least 18 years of
age to participate. Your participation is voluntary.

Procedures
You will be asked to:

1. Participate in a focus group interview which will last approximately 60 minutes. The
interview will be conducted in a secure location.
2. During the focus group interview you will be asked several open-ended questions and
allow for you to offer information not asked by questions guiding this study.
3. I will ask for permission to audiotape the interview for later transcription and accuracy of
the information obtained during the interview. Of course, your participation is still
desired whether or not you agree to be audio taped.
4. As I will be discussing the findings only in the aggregate, I will not be using your name
nor writing about you in a way that would be personally identifiable.
5. Once I have summarized the findings you will have an opportunity to provide any follow-
up feedback you feel is needed for clarification.

Potential Risks and Discomforts
There are no anticipated risks to your participation; you may experience some discomfort during
the focus group interview or you may be inconvenienced from taking time out of your day to
complete the interview. If so, you may stop the focus group interview at any time and leave the
session if you are feeling uncomfortable. No retaliation will be taken against you at any time.
CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND COLLEGE CHOICE

127
Potential Benefits to Subjects
You may not directly benefit from your participation in this research study. You may benefit
from the comments that you may hear from other participants in the focus groups.

Payment/Compensation for Participation
There is no compensation being offered to participants.

Potential Conflicts of Interest
There are no conflicts of interest for the researchers involved in this study.

Confidentiality
Any information that is obtained in connection with this study and that can be identified with you
will remain confidential and will be disclosed only with your permission or as required by law.
The information collected about you will be coded using a pseudonym or initials and numbers,
for example abc-123, etc. The information, which has your identifiable information, will be kept
separate from the rest of your data. Only members of the research team will have access to the
data associated with this study. When the results of the research are published or discussed in
conferences, no information will be included that would reveal your identity. Audiotape
recordings of you will only be used for educational purposes; your identity will be protected or
disguised. When the findings have been summarized, you will have an opportunity to provide
any feedback needed for clarification or to enhance accuracy.

Participation and Withdrawal
You can choose whether to be in this study or not. If you volunteer to be in this study, you may
withdraw at any time without consequences of any kind. You may also refuse to answer any
questions you do not want to answer and still remain in the study. The investigator may
withdraw you from this research if circumstances arise which warrant doing so.

Rights of Research Subjects
You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue participation without penalty. You
are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of your participation in this research
study. If you have any questions about your rights as a study subject or you would like to speak
with someone independent of the research team to obtain answers to questions about the
research, or in the event the research staff can not be reached, please contact the University Park
IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for Research Advancement, Stonier Hall, Room 224a, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-1146, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu.

Identification of Investigators
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact the project
faculty coordinators:

Darnell Cole, Ph.D. Melora Sundt, Ph.D. Hiapo Perreira, Ph.D.
Associate Professor Associate Dean for Academic Associate Professor
dcole@usc.edu Programs, Professor hiapokei@hawaii.edu
msundt@usc.edu

CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE EDUCATION AND COLLEGE CHOICE

128
I understand my participation in the focus group interview process is completely voluntary and I
have the right to withdraw at any time.

________________________ ___________________________ _________________
Name Signature Date

________________________
Tricia Kēhaulani ʻAipia-Peters
(Primary Investigator)

Abstract (if available)

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Asset Metadata

Creator ʻAipia-Peters, Tricia Kēhaulani (author)

Core Title Impact of culturally responsive education on college choice

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 06/30/2014

Defense Date 04/12/2014

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag college choice,culturally responsive education,Hawaiian medium education,Native Hawaiian,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Cole, Darnell G. (committee chair), Perreira, Hiapo (committee member), Sundt, Melora A. (committee member)

Creator Email aipiapet@usc.edu,kehauaipia@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-426528

Unique identifier UC11285918

Identifier etd-AipiaPeter-2589.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-426528 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-AipiaPeter-2589.pdf

Dmrecord 426528

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights ʻAipia-Peters, Tricia Kēhaulani; Aipia-Peters, Tricia Kehaulani

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA