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The role of educational leadership in participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Escuela Universitaria in the Nacional Region of Costa Rica

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The role of educational leadership in participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Escuela Universitaria in the Nacional Region of Costa Rica

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Content Running head: ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 1
THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN PARTICIPATION
IN THE NATIONAL PROGRAM OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FAIRS AT
ESCUELA UNIVERSITARIA IN THE NACIONAL REGION OF COSTA RICA
by
Denise Galvez Harshman
____________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2016
Copyright 2016 Denise Galvez Harshman
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 2
DEDICATION
I dedicate this dissertation to my family. My cousin, Carmel Acosta-Cooper, Ed.D., was
the first person who showed me that education did not have a limit unless I chose to create one.
My uncle and fellow Trojan, Michael Sachs, proved that being a lifelong learner could be more
than a passion, but also a career. These educational role models come from both sides of my
family, which embodies the impact that education has always had on me from all around. My
parents, Louis and Judy Galvez, supported me through the process, whether I needed someone to
watch my kids, proofread a section, or just encourage me when I needed it. My fellow writer and
sister, Diane Galvez-Parker, always encouraged me to keep writing because a blank page could
not be revised. Nicole Neville, Thom Neville, and Darin Parker always believed that I could
complete this crazy goal that I set for myself. The encouragement and smiles kept me going.
Finally, I dedicate this dissertation to my children, Dominic and Elena Harshman. Without their
understanding and patience, this feat would have never been accomplished. I thank them for
understanding when I had to miss a soccer game because of class or my dissertation. I love them
both and would not be at this point in my life without the two of them.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This journey has not been a lone endeavor. This experience has changed me and helped
me to grow personally and professionally. I began with a topic, developed an understanding of
globalization, and discovered a passion for preparing students for the future in new ways.
I thank my Costa Rica doctoral cohort for sharing this experience. It takes a village, and
we proved it. Sharing information and working together made it possible for us not only to
complete our studies but also to develop professional relationships and life-long friendships.
Immense thanks to my partner in crime and dissertation husband, Ricardo Esquivel. His
encouragement, check-ins, and brainstorming sessions, along with his Spanish literacy skills,
allowed me to succeed in this endeavor.
Support systems from throughout the USC program and dissertation process made it
possible to complete my dissertation. Thank you to Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft for her guidance about
Costa Rica and how to navigate the system, as well as the dissertation. Thank you to Dr. Evelyn
Felina Castillo and Phyllis Parmet for spending hours reading my dissertation and providing
feedback so I could submit the best product possible. A big thank you to Dr. Artineh Samkian,
who helped me to fall in love with research, understand the methods, and truly prepare me for
writing Chapter 3 of this dissertation.
A very special thanks goes to my chair, Dr. Michael F. Escalante. He chose me to be part
of this amazing project and experience and then provided wisdom, structure, advice, and
friendship throughout the process. He helped me to discover the importance of looking beyond
the local area to seeing one world. Because of Dr. Escalante, I truly understand that students are
students and their impact can be felt from across the globe. In addition to Dr. Escalante, I thank
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 4
the other members of my dissertation committee, Dr. Pedro Garcia and Dr. David Cash, for their
encouragement in completing the process.
Finally, I must thank my children, Dominic and Elena Harshman, for their patience,
understanding, and, most important, their support over the past two and half years. Without their
acceptance, I would not have been able to complete this amazing accomplishment and life-long
goal.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
List of Tables 8
List of Figures 9
Abstract 10

Chapter 1: Overview of the Study 11
Background of the Problem 12
Statement of the Problem 15
Purpose Statement 16
Research Questions 16
Importance of the Study 17
Definitions of Terms 18
Organization of the Dissertation 19

Chapter 2: Literature Review 20
Globalization 21
Costa Rica 26
A Brief History of Costa Rica 26
Political System 29
Economy 30
Change Process and Educational Leadership 34
Change Process Theoretical Framework 34
Educational Leadership Theoretical Framework 36
Principal Leadership 37
Teacher Leadership 39
Change and Leadership in a Global Society 40
Globalization of Education 41
Twenty-First-Century Skills Theoretical Framework 43
Education in Costa Rica 45
Costa Rica National Program of Science and Technology Fairs 48
STEM Education 51
Project-Based Learning 52
STEM PBL Theoretical Framework 55
Measure 1: Traditional Hands-On Lab 57
Measure 2: Novice 57
Measure 3: Informed Novice 57
Measure 4: Expert 58
Measure 5: Researcher 58
Professional Learning Communities 59
Professional Development 62
Summary of the Literature Review 63

Chapter 3: Methodology 64
Restatement of Purpose 64
Research Team 65
Research Questions 65
Method of Study 65
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 6
Population and Sample 66
Overview of the School 68
Participants 72
Instrumentation 76
Surveys 76
Interviews 77
Observations 78
Data Collection 79
Data Analysis 80
Validity, Credibility, and Trustworthiness 81
Limitations 82
Ethical Considerations 82
Chapter Summary 83

Chapter 4: Results 84
Brief Overview of the School 85
Participants 86
Results for Research Question 1 86
Site Leadership Is Integral to Building the Human Capital Necessary for
Implementation of PRONAFECYT 87
Recognition Increases Motivation 95
PRONAFECYT Success Requires Teacher Leadership 102
Summary 107
Results for Research Question 2 108
Leadership Affects Participation and Buy-In 111
A Focus on Inquiry and the Scientific Method 117
Summary 125
Results for Research Question 3 126
Developing Innovators for a Global Society Requires Soft Skills 126
Soft Skills are Developed Through Research 133
PRONAFECYT Encourages Communication and Critical Thinking 138
Summary 145
Results for Research Question 4 147
Inquiry-Based Learning (PBL) Is Utilized in Classrooms to Support
PRONAFECYT 148
A Culture of Exploration and Inquiry Guides Instruction 152
Summary 156
Chapter Summary 156

Chapter 5: Discussion 158
Summary of Findings 161
Implications for Practice 169
Recommendations for Future Research 171
Conclusion 172

References 174

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 7
Appendices
Appendix A: List of Research Sites 181
Appendix B: Recruitment Letter 182
Appendix C: Teacher Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 183
Appendix D: School Director Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 187
Appendix E: Government Official Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 191
Appendix F: Business Partner Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 195
Appendix G: Parent Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 199
Appendix H: Student Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 202
Appendix I: Teacher Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 207
Appendix J: School Director Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 209
Appendix K: Government Official/Business Leaders Interview Protocol: English
and Spanish Versions 211
Appendix L: Parent Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 213
Appendix M: Student Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 215
Appendix N: Consent Form 217
Appendix O: Observation Protocol 219
Appendix P: Summary of the Research Proposal 225
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 8
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Study Participants 69
Table 2: Responses to the Survey Item: The School Director Plays a Critical Role in
Ensuring That Teachers Implement the National Program of Science and
Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT) 89
Table 3: Responses to Survey Item: Teachers Need the Support of the School
Director to Fully and Effectively Implement the National Program of
Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT) 89
Table 4: Responses to Survey Item: The School Director Elicits Teacher Feedback
to Improve Implementation of the National Program of Science and
Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT) 90
Table 5: Responses to Survey Item: The School Director Communicates the Purpose
and Urgency of the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs
(PRONAFECYT) 90
Table 6: Survey Responses About Student Recognition 96
Table 7: Teachers’ Responses to the Survey Item: There Is High Level of Participation
at My School in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs
(PRONAFECYT) 111
Table 8: Teachers’ Perceptions of the Importance of the School Director for the
National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT) by
Participating School 114
Table 9: Responses by School Directors, Teachers, and Students to the Survey Item:
Teachers Provide Opportunities for Students to Engage in Scientific Inquiry
as Part of Regular Instruction 119
Table 10: Knowledge of Soft Skills 128
Table 11: Importance of Soft Skills 129
Table 12: Building Soft Skills Through the National Program of Science and
Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT) 130
Table 13: Responses to Survey Item Addressing Utilization of Project-Based
Learning (PBL) 140
Table 14: Responses to Survey Item: I Have Received Training on How to Integrate
Soft Skills in the Classroom 140
Table 15: Responses to Survey Items Related to Engaging in Scientific Inquiry 149
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 9
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Number of companies established per year by selected high-technology sectors 32
Figure 2: Framework for 21st-century learning 45
Figure 3: Foundation of a professional learning community 61
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ABSTRACT
This study applied four frameworks from academic literature in the areas of leadership,
change process, 21st-century skills, and science, technology, engineering and mathematics
(STEM) project-based learning (PBL) to understand the various factors providing for success
and participation of a school in the national science fair initiative (Programa Nacional de Ferias
de Ciencia y Tecnología [PRONAFECYT]) in Costa Rica. The purpose of this study was to
determine the role of leadership in the success of and participation in PRONAFECYT at a
primary school in Costa Rica, known as Escuela Universitaria. The study also reviewed
instructional practices and necessary skills for preparing global workers of the future. This study
was conducted in Costa Rica in cooperation with the Ministry for Public Education. Participants
included government officials, business partners, site administrators, teachers, and primary
students. Observations in Grade 1–6 classrooms, along with surveys of 125 students in Grades 4–
6, displayed the student perspective, while surveys and interviews with the other participants
provided the school picture, as well as the community perspective. Findings from this study
indicated that site administrators were crucial to building human capital in the teachers,
recognizing them for their efforts, and empowering them to become leaders in their own right. It
was evident that PRONAFECYT required improvement of soft skills and changed instructional
practices in the classrooms by focusing on inquiry through PBL and building a culture of
exploration. This study begins to identify practices to strengthen the participation in and success
of PRONAFECYT at the primary level in Costa Rica and to contribute to better science fair
success in other developing countries.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 11
CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
People desire a good job, according to Gallup Chairman Jim Clifton (2011). Good jobs
are defined differently, depending on the situation from which one comes. The World Gallup
poll defined a good or formal job as a job with a paycheck from an employer and steady work
that averages 30 or more hours per week. Globally, there are five billion people over the age of
15 years. According to the World Gallup poll, three billion want to work and there are not
enough formal jobs for them. There are approximately 1.2 billion formal jobs in the world,
leaving almost 50% who want work unemployed.
A lack of good jobs affects more than just the local area of the unemployed. This lack of
jobs on a global level can cause hunger, extremism, out-of-control migration patterns, reckless
environmental trends, and widening trade imbalances (Clifton, 2011). Having a job defines one’s
relationship with one’s city, country, and the world in general. Additional formal jobs drive
economic and quality growth in gross domestic product (GDP). When companies dissolve, they
cause GDP negatives, and when formal jobs are created, they contribute to the growth of the
GDP. A growth in the job market requires workers who are prepared to succeed in the new
positions.
Good jobs of the present and future do not require the same skills as formal jobs of the
past. Innovation, problem solving, and creativity are essential skills in the global workforce.
Leaders want employees who seek opportunities, ideas, and strategies for improvement (Wagner,
2008). With the need to develop global workers, it is necessary for education to shift its thinking
about the teaching and learning process (Wagner, 2008). In order to do this, schools must change
curriculum and approaches to instruction. Students must learn to be clear and concise in writing
and speaking and to present with focus, energy, and passion in their own voice. A poll of
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 12
employers revealed that 80% of high school graduates were deficient in the communication skills
listed above. The focus on memory over critical thinking skills must be reversed to prepare
students to be the global workers of tomorrow.
Costa Rica is a country that has reinvented itself over the past 30 years and joined the
global market as a technological hub in Central America (Costa Rican Investment Promotion
Agency [CINDE], 2015a) with the inclusion of multinational corporations (MNCs) into their
economy and workforce. High-technology exports have grown from 6% to 40% of the country’s
GDP since 1994. With the continued growth of MNCs, additional jobs are created in Costa Rica,
and the new jobs require increased sophistication in skills. The Costa Rica Ministry of Public
Education (MEP) understands the urgency of preparing its youth with the sophisticated skills to
remain a high-technology hub, and they have made decisions providing educational opportunities
and requirements for youth to develop the necessary competencies for the global workforce.
Background of the Problem
Globalization has changed the way in which business is conducted not only in one
country but also around the world. According to Chanda (2008), the idea of globalization stems
from basic human urges to seek better lives. This desire to be better and have more has spread
the globalization method by finding new people, new countries, and new technologies to make
businesses run more efficiently. Chanda (2008) explained the spread of people around the world
as the first venture into globalization. Without people around the world, there would be no need
to spread ideas and information. The spread of people brought about the next phase of
globalization with the trader who imported and exported goods from one area of the globe to
another. Trade has evolved with technological advances in society. Trade first occurred on
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 13
camels and boats, not electronically. The development of an electronic money transfer and stock
trading system, combined with financial market reform, opened a new era of global commerce.
Although the mode of transportation has changed, the need for goods and services in
areas other than where they are created or naturally found still exists. Technology has increased
the speed of globalization but it did not create the phenomenon. Global agents are the “people
who produce or carry products and services to consumers in distant parts of the planet and, have
created an interconnected world” (Chanda, 2008, p. 37). In the early days it was traders, then it
became businesses, and now it is the individual who can act as a global trader (Friedman, 2007).
Every person has the capability to be a global consumer and supplier with the power and
availability of the Internet and technology today by reinforcing the notion that everyone is part of
one world.
Globalization has transformed Costa Rica in business and in education through the
presence of Intel and other MNCs. The impact of MNCs such as Intel on Costa Rica’s
transformation began with technology. Chanda (2008) explained the power of the microchip on
globalization. The microchip has fueled the information revolution and now powers almost all
industrial products. With Intel’s investment in factories and workers in Costa Rica, the microchip
has also transformed a country and its culture (CINDE, 2015a). With the rise of technological
workers in Costa Rica in the past two generations, the focus of education has had to alter its
practices to teach students who are not ready to work in an agrarian society but rather in a high-
technology global society. Global workers require an integrated education in the areas of science,
technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). This integration, along with new approaches
to instruction, is needed. Students in Costa Rica are competing with students in China, India,
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 14
America, and the rest of the globe for jobs to continue its economic growth (Friedman, 2007;
Wagner, 2008).
The globalization of education “refers to the worldwide discussions, process, and
institutions affecting local educational practices and policies” (Spring, 2008, p. 1). The presence
of MNCs in Costa Rica changed local educational practices by the introduction of monetary,
technological, and training support for the schools. Intel invests 1 million USD per year to Costa
Rica education to promote 21st-century skills and STEM (Intel, 2014a). Intel began its presence
in 1997 and has grown to provide teacher training programs and sponsors the winners of the
Costa Rica National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (Programa Nacional de Ferias de
Ciencia y Tecnología [PRONAFECYT]) to continue to international competition. This
investment in the education of the students seeks to improve the quality and preparedness of
Costa Rica’s graduates to fill positions in the global workforce.
Costa Rica understands the need to improve its bank of workers and has thus instituted
PRONAFECYT to foster the 21st-century skills and STEM integration noted by Intel (Intel,
2014a; Ministerio de Ciencia, Technología y Telecomunicaciones [MICITT], 2013). The
National Science Fair was established in 1986 through the coordination of many offices,
including the newly created MICITT (University of Costa Rica [UCR], 2014). Participation in
these fairs has shifted focus and now includes youth of all ages. In 1993, it was announced that
primary students would be allowed to enter the fair with primary education projects and in 1995
preschool projects were added (UCR, 2014). The fairs were now inclusive of all levels of the
education system. The hope is that, by promoting STEM and technological inquiry beginning at
an early age and continuing throughout schooling, students will have a better understanding of
their environment and consider pursuing scientific and technological careers (MICITT, 2013). In
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 15
September 2013, the Costa Rican Ministry of Education decreed a comprehensive reform to
PRONAFECYT about the projects developed by students in which discussions at the MEP
would be used to create an action plan to promote science education in schools throughout the
country (MICITT, 2013). As a result of these discussions, the MEP has identified the primary
schools as areas in need of further investigation as to their role and participation in
PRONAFECYT.
Statement of the Problem
Misra (2012) defined globalization as the “integration of economies and societies through
cross country flows of information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance and
people” (p. 69). These global changes have led to a highly competitive and rapidly changing
environment for countries throughout the world. World societies are now more interconnected
and interdependent than ever before (Armstrong, 2007; Friedman, 2007). For a nation to succeed
in an increasingly interconnected global economy, changes to the local economy and education
system must occur (Biesanz, Biesanz, & Biesanz, 1999; Friedman, 2007). Globalization has
necessitated a change in the skills that students must develop to compete in an increasingly
global workforce (Friedman, 2007; Spring, 2008). As a result, educational systems are no longer
competing with other school systems in the same city, state, or even nation but rather are
competing with schools around the world (Wagner, 2008).
Costa Rica has endured many changes since gaining independence in 1859 (Biesanz et
al., 1999). Since its independence and abolition of its military force, Costa Rica has placed its
primary focus on education (Palmer & Molina, 2006). During the past 30 years, Costa Rica has
adapted and reformed from a rural, agrarian society, to a high-technology hub of innovation in
Latin America (Rodriguez-Clare, 2001). In addition, Costa Rica has initiated actions designed to
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 16
attract foreign direct investment (FDI), which have included tax incentives and investments in
infrastructure as well as changes to the educational system (Organisation for Economic Co-
operation and Development [OECD], 2012).
In order to continue to attract FDI, Costa Rica’s economic future is dependent on schools
that produce knowledge and conceptually based workers with skills in STEM, in addition to
essential 21st-century competencies (Rodriguez-Clare, 2001). However, according to Americas
Society and Council of the Americas (2011), 20% to 30% of students in Costa Rica do not finish
secondary school. Moreover, in order to ensure a 100% literacy rate by 2017, including students
in rural and poor communities, principal and teacher leadership must ensure that all students
have equitable educational access to rigorous, project-based educational outcomes in all schools
(CINDE, 2014a).
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this study is to understand the effects of educational leadership on
participation in PRONAFECYT in primary schools in Costa Rica. The study will identify the
role of school leaders in development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. The
study will also explore how schools may have restructured their educational programs by
focusing on sharing of leadership and teacher training.
Research Questions
Four research questions were investigated in the study:
1. What is the role of educational leaders and teachers in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 17
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
Importance of the Study
The government of Costa Rica, the MEP, and CINDE share a vision for students who are
ready and able to enter STEM fields upon completion of public schooling. PRONAFECYT is
one initiative to guide education in the direction of this vision. This study is significant because it
presents a case study of varied primary schools’ success in the PRONAFECYT initiative. The
MEP sees a need to study the primary grades as participation and buy-in are much more
prevalent at the secondary levels.
This study will provide evidence for the role of educational leaders’ curricular choices
and instructional approaches to prepare students for PRONAFECYT and their future in the
global workforce. An examination of the educational practices and leadership around
PRONAFECYT at the primary level will allow for understanding of the key factors for
successful PRONAFECYT implementation. Friedman (2007) stated that there is no limit to the
number of idea-generated jobs in the world. With the engagement of such young students in
STEM, PRONAFECYT can continue to fuel their creativity and innovation in future years,
creating idea-based workers who will then produce idea-generated jobs that will help the
individuals and the country.
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Definitions of Terms
The following terms are defined as they are used throughout the dissertation.
Global achievement gap: “The gap between what the best suburban, urban, and rural
public schools are teaching and testing versus what all students will need to succeed as learners,
workers, and citizens in today’s global knowledge economy” (Wagner, 2008, p. 8).
Globalization: The integration of economies and societies through cross-country flows of
information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance and people (Misra, 2012).
Foreign direct investment (FDI): “Cross-border investment by a resident entity in one
economy with the objective of obtaining a lasting interest in an enterprise resident in another
economy” (OECD, 2013, p. 86).
Multinational corporation (MNC): A corporation that is registered in more than one
country or that has operations in more than one country. It is a large corporation that both
produces and sells goods or services in various countries and often has a societal responsibility
and commitment to improve the host country’s education system (Monge-González & González-
Alvarado, 2007).
National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT): A research
program in Costa Rica created by executive decree in which student participation in preschool,
primary, and secondary schools is required (MICITT, 2013).
Project-based learning (PBL): An instructional approach that moves from a teacher-
centric classroom to a student-centered approach to real-world problem solving with the end in
mind, referring to a clearly defined end product (Yetkiner, Anderoglu, & Capraro, 2008).
Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM): Integration of content and
skills in these disciplines (Maryland State Department of Education, 2014).
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 19
Twenty-first century skills: The essential skills needed for workers in the global age:
(a) critical thinking and problem solving, (b) collaboration across networks and leading by
influence, (c) agility and adaptability, (d) initiative and entrepreneurship, (e) effective oral and
written communication, (f) assessing and analyzing information, and (g) curiosity and
imagination (Wagner, 2008).
Organization of the Dissertation
The dissertation consists of five chapters. Chapter 1 gives an introduction and
background to the problem and provides definitions of key terms and the focus of the study
conducted in Costa Rica. Chapter 2 provides a literature review on research related to topics
relevant to this study, including globalization, background on historical and current elements of
Costa Rica, educational leadership, 21st-century skills, change process, and instructional
practices such as STEM, PBL, and professional learning communities (PLC). This chapter also
examines the three conceptual frameworks used in the study: (a) Kotter’s (1996) change process;
(b) Bolman and Deal’s (2008) framework on organizational leadership; and (c) the framework on
STEM project-based learning developed by Capraro, Capraro, and Morgan (2013).
Chapter 3 addresses the methodology and research design utilized for this case study. It
describes the participants, instrumentation, data collection and data analysis processes,
limitations and delimitations, and ethical considerations for the study. Chapters 4 will provide a
description and analysis of the data to be collected. Chapter 5 will present the findings and
conclusions from the data analysis, make recommendations to the educational stakeholders in
Costa Rica, and present implications for future research.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 20
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
Globalization has shifted the economies of countries around the world (Clifton, 2011).
This change in economics and GDP growth of developing countries is also creating needs for
new types of workers in these countries (Clifton, 2011; Friedman, 2007). Identifying the skills
and talents needed by the workers to thrive in a global market requires changes to begin in other
arenas as well. One such country challenged by this need for new types of workers is Costa Rica.
Through political and private influences, Costa Rica is incorporating new skills and technologies
in educating its youth, which will be its next generation of global workers. Leaders of the global
workforce want employees that seek opportunities, ideas, and strategies for improvement
(Wagner, 2008). Shifting the focus of the education system, including the teaching and learning
process, is necessary for developing the needed global workers. To make this education shift
possible, schools must change the curriculum and approaches to instruction. Shifting to a STEM
curriculum focuses on building 21st-centruy skills such as creativity and critical thinking to
allow students to present their learning with focus, energy, and passion in their own voice while
solving the problems of today and tomorrow (Intel, 2014a). The focus on memory over critical
thinking skills must be reversed to prepare students to be the global workers of tomorrow. Costa
Rica is a country that understands the urgency of preparing its youth with the sophisticated skills
needed to remain a high-technology hub; they have made decisions providing educational
opportunities and requirements for its youth to develop the necessary competencies for the global
workforce. One major opportunity for Costa Rican students is implementation of
PRONAFECYT (MICITT, 2013). The PRONAFECYT program implemented by the MEP is
designed to expand the critical thinking and problem-solving skills of the youth in real-world
problems so they can identify their place and carve their own path in the global market.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 21
This chapter begins with an overview of globalization to understand the specific needs of
living and working in a global society. The chapter reviews Costa Rica from the history to the
changes and future needs of the country to be a competitive player in the ever-changing global
economy. The chapter moves to the education and strategies needed by students, teachers, and
administrators to prepare generations of new workers for the global market while they are still in
the educational system. The need for Costa Rica to develop these global workers requires a
change in educating its youth. The chapter examines processes to make effective change by
using Kotter’s (1996) change process framework and the types of educational needs to meet the
demands of the society and the workforce. The chapter explores the role of the leaders using
Bolman and Deal’s (2008) framework and the globalization of education according to Spring
(2008). This is followed by an exploration of a curriculum focused on STEM. With the focused
curriculum, the chapter investigates instructional strategies of PBL, as well as the integrated
STEM PBL approaches to education outlined by Capraro et al. (2013). The chapter then explores
the resources and tools for teachers to educate future global workers through PLCs and
professional development.
Globalization
Globalization has forever altered the way business and education work. Globalization is
the integration of economies and societies through cross-country flows of information, ideas,
technologies, goods, services, capital, finance, and people (Misra, 2012). This integration of
economies and societies has transformed the way in which people and countries interact.
Globalization has a direct impact on cultural, geopolitical, and social changes, including schools
(Spring, 2008). Businesses have used globalization to open themselves to new markets and new
employees. This section reviews the history of globalization, employing the eras identified by
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 22
Friedman (2007) to define the skills needed for workers to succeed in a global society and
discusses the impact of globalization in various contexts. Friedman’s (2007) eras of globalization
serve as a foundation to understand the impact of globalization on the workforce and how it
continues to change how companies and individuals will work in the future.
The globalization movement can be categorized in three eras. The first era began with the
time of explorers when humans were being dispersed around the world (Chanda, 2008;
Friedman, 2007). People were being moved from their areas and trading their goods and services
with others. Trading was an early form of globalization (Chanda, 2008). Societies were self-
contained and were exposed only to the natural resources available to them by their location and
the skills and technologies of their people. Trading, even between two nearby societies, opened
the possibilities and knowledge of the people. People learn from others, so when new
technologies, foods, or goods were introduced, it made the people want to continue to have these
new items. This is why trading was an early form of globalization, exposing people to foreign
ideas and products.
The second era began with the Industrial Revolution around 1800 (Friedman, 2007).
Trading continued, but with the development of transportation, the methods of trading expanded
and became more efficient. Prior to the Industrial Revolution, goods were created by individuals
and sold to those who were in fair proximity to the individual. The Industrial Revolution allowed
for goods to be manufactured faster and easier, allowing for more supply. This additional supply
benefited from the transportation advancements. Goods that had been moved by boat or camel
were now being moved by rail and later air (Chanda, 2008). The new transportation methods
allowed goods to reach areas where they had not been seen before. This allowed for expansion of
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globalization. New goods and products were now exposed to even greater distances, and trading
expanded.
Moving beyond the individuals, companies benefitted from this second era of
globalization. The interconnectedness of goods and services among countries around the world
has made the world a much smaller place (Friedman, 2007). Companies were now selling their
products to countries around the world, not only in their local vicinities. Trading by boat allowed
countries within a close distance to trade, and air travel allowed for more types of products to be
shipped longer distances more quickly, and allowed for trade with countries that did not have
seaports. The trade relationships developed in the early eras of globalization directly affected its
continued growth and expansion. The world shrank in many ways due to the longstanding trade
relationships between countries (Chanda, 2008). Companies no longer needed to be based in one
place and became MNCs, which enabled them to tap into resources and workers. Companies
could now access natural resources that might not be available in their base countries, or they
could access the resources in most cost-effective ways. One attractive feature for MNCs to
expand to other countries is that they had access to specialized technicians who worked for lower
wages, therefore offering higher profits and allowing companies to keep their product costs
competitive. Companies were able to take advantage of this smaller world by lowering
manufacturing costs and finding places where they could receive benefits such as tax incentives
(CINDE, 2014a).
Computers, microchips, and ultimately the Internet changed commerce and shrank the
world even more, beginning the third (and current) era of globalization (Friedman, 2007). This
third era expands the power of globalization from the companies who employed its advantages to
the individuals who now can access and join the worldwide goods and services market
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 24
(Friedman, 2007). The current era of globalization has shifted the mindset of working for a
single company, or even in a single career, to having workers look at their strengths and
innovation. Individual workers can take their ideas and skills to new businesses as they see the
need and inspiration to do so. This shows the difference between having the technical skills of
being only a knowledge worker to the benefits of creating innovation and being an idea worker.
Globalization has changed the workforce in many countries. The idea of working for
many companies and in multiple fields in one’s life is a result of how globalization has changed
the workforce. Companies now find workers from places where they can get the most skill at the
lowest wage, regardless of the country of the worker or the company. Skills of workers and
countries that continue to thrive in a global society must change. Workers must be adaptable and
willing to learn new skills (Friedman, 2007). Knowledge workers are the specialists who come to
a company with a skill of how to do one or two things well. With new technologies, knowledge
workers may have to adapt their tools, but the work remains similar. Knowledge jobs are always
available to workers who keep their skills fresh; however, to push forward in a global society,
companies need more idea-based workers who can create the products of tomorrow (Friedman,
2007). Idea workers are the innovators who can identify problems and create solutions to solve
them, or they create the new products and services that become essential to the lives of others,
either through want or need. Developing countries are able to keep their workforce instead of
losing their workers to other countries for work by creating knowledge workers and working
towards creating the innovators needed for idea workers (Friedman, 2007; Wagner, 2012). Costa
Rica is in this transition of building the idea workers of the future of their country so they can
remain competitive in the global market. With the Internet and advances in communication,
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 25
workers can remain in their home countries and work for MNCs in ways they could not before
without moving away from home and away from family (Friedman, 2007).
The impact of globalization has prompted changes in cultural, geopolitical, and social
arenas. Culture is altered in a global society. Influences of MNCs, for instance, bring new ideas
that may conflict with traditional beliefs or traditions. Pushing workers into new avenues takes
them away from the traditional ways of earning a living, as well as often exposing a new
language to the people. When this happens, countries embrace the change, resist the change and
hold on to their existing culture, or find a way to blend the two. Over time, these new ideas
become mainstream and traditions may be lost. The adaptation of culture and traditions will be
evident through evolution of goods and services in Costa Rica (Palmer & Molina, 2004). The
exports that once made the country flourish have been mostly replaced with new technologies to
position the country more effectively in a global market. As countries embed themselves in the
global market, politics becomes an important commodity. According to CINDE (2014a), MNCs
are drawn to countries where they are given monetary incentives to invest in the country, while
also knowing that there is stability and things will not change every few years. This is a key
factor in why Costa Rica has been such an interest for MNCs. (This is explored later in this
chapter.)
In order to create the workers to meet the demands of a global market, the largest social
change needed is within education. Educating youth to be the future global workers is essential
to the success of a country. Costa Rica has made the investment in their youth by expanding the
expectations of their students (MICITT, 2013). As discussed later in this chapter, education is the
tool to be used not to combat globalization but to embrace it and to be competitive in the global
market. The evolution of education is necessary for countries to move their populations beyond
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 26
the technical and knowledge workers to fostering the innovations needed for the idea workers of
the future.
Overall, globalization has changed the way countries interact. It has not only altered the
companies and countries themselves; it has also altered the type of workers that countries and
companies need to prosper. This discussion of globalization leads to understanding of the factors
that created not only the global market of today but also the components that allow it to grow.
For this study, knowing how the global market was created and the technologies that expanded
globalization builds a foundation for understanding the choices that countries make as they try to
make themselves a mainstay in this global economy. This study focuses on the choices that Costa
Rica has made and continues to make as it works to remain a global hub in Central America.
Costa Rica
Historical events and economic and political decisions influence educational shifts to
create a global workforce. In order to recognize why education and society have changed in
Costa Rica, a brief history provides understanding of the factors that contributed to the country
becoming a global hub in Latin America. Understanding a country’s history allows one to
understand the significance of the changes that the country makes. Next, the significance of the
political system’s role in placing Costa Rica as a global hub in Latin America is explored.
Finally, changes made throughout the history and political system of Costa Rica, specifically due
to globalization, have affected the country’s economy are the independence of the country, the
infiltration of MNCs, and the tax incentives for businesses.
A Brief History of Costa Rica
The history of Costa Rica provides a timeline of the key factors that have influenced the
changes and decisions made in the country that led to the current status of the country.
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Reviewing the historical aspects of the development both economically and politically leads to
understanding the reasons Costa Rica has been a desired location of globalization and why
continued evolution is still necessary to stay competitive in that global market.
Costa Rica’s history began when the Spanish explored both coasts and colonized them in
the mid-1500s (Palmer & Molina, 2004). Although some Spaniards settled in Costa Rica, the
colonization movement from Spain was not successful. Spain failed to attract people to Costa
Rica and failed to export the agricultural riches of the country (Booth, 2008). As a result of this
lack of success by Spain, Costa Rica gained independence in 1821. In 1823, Costa Rica joined El
Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua to form the United Provinces of Central America
(Palmer & Molina, 2004). The first leaders under the coalition created an elite class of powerful
coffee barons with the election of Juan Mora Fernandez, the first head of state, in 1824. Costa
Rica remained under this leadership for 14 years until they became a fully independent country
(Palmer & Molina, 2004). The elite coffee barons were not concerned with the citizens of Costa
Rica but rather with their agricultural riches. By ridding themselves of the coffee baron
leadership, Costa Rica maximized its resources for the good of the country, not the good of the
few elite who were previously in charge.
Costa Rica has a history deeply rooted in agricultural. Palmer and Molina (2004)
explained that in the 1840s Costa Rica was a major coffee exporter. The exportation of coffee
transformed Costa Rica from a poor to a prosperous agrarian society. This economic
transformation helped the country to prosper; however, the demand was too great for specific
areas. Demand for coffee became too large for the current system, which had the coffee
harvested in the main cities of the country. To meet the demand of the export, the entire country
united and joined in the cultivating, harvesting, and processing of coffee. This expansion helped
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 28
the entire country to benefit from the new business. Coffee was now truly a national export that
benefitted the population throughout the country, not only those near the cities or seaports.
Coffee became such a powerful industry in Costa Rica that it created new needs for the
country. According to Palmer and Molina (2004), the elite coffee barons who had been in charge
for 40 years were not looking to help the entire country grow from their success. With most of
the country now in the coffee business, roads to the ports needed to be improved. In 1847, Jose
Maria Castro Madriz was elected the first President of Costa Rica, overthrowing the coffee
barons and creating a new government and national identity. This national identity and new
government gave Costa Rica the public influence and support that it needed to make
improvements to the roads and ports for the national good. Building the infrastructure necessary
to keep their export business thriving solidified their pride as a country with their new national
identity.
Costa Rica increased the export business. Palmer and Molina (2004) explained that, in
1880, Costa Rica shifted again by expanding its exports. Costa Rica planted bananas in the
lowlands while continuing its coffee empire. Bananas were exported to the United States, which
allowed for the development of Limón as an agribusiness center. Bananas and coffee continued
as Costa Rica’s primary exports. With the expansion into bananas, Costa Rica’s economy not
only grew due to the added export, but the country became more united as they worked to
develop both sides of the country as hubs for agricultural business
Costa Rica’s history demonstrates its adaptability that is prevalent today. As the country
developed, it utilized its resources, which in this case were agricultural, and carved out its place
in the world by exporting its goods. Although the resources have changed since the late 1800s,
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 29
Costa Rica still works to provide the needs of the countries around them, and now around the
world.
Political System
Politics plays a role in the ability for Costa Rica to become a Latin American hub.
Studying the changes in political system explains why Costa Rica has been successful in its
global endeavors. The 1940s began the events that brought Costa Rica to the modern established
country of today in terms of the political system, social welfare, and the economy. Prior to the
1940s, an elite class tainted by fraud and corruption governed Costa Rica, beginning with the
first head of state coffee baron. When Dr. Rafael Ángel Calderón Guardia was elected in 1940,
he introduced a social security system, a pension system, and social welfare benefits that were
aligned with the Communist Party and the Catholic Church (Palmer & Molina, 2004). Moving
from the elitism of the coffee barons, Costa Rica wanted leadership that was directed at all the
people of the country. The people liked the social welfare aspect of the leadership but, as in most
countries, a change of leadership was in the future.
Political peacefulness that governed Costa Rica throughout history had a minor setback.
During the 1940s there were peaceful transitions in leadership until 1948, when Dr. Rafael Ángel
Calderón Guardia and the United Social Christian Party refused to relinquish power after losing
the presidential election to an exile named José (Don Pepe) Figueres Ferrer. A bloody civil war
broke out and, 44 days later, leadership was relinquished to Don Pepe and a new Constitution
was adopted. This new leadership and his decisions had lasting effects on Costa Rica. Don Pepe
and the new Constitution adopted new laws that would affect Costa Rica such as granting voting
rights to women and Blacks, banning the Communist Party, nationalizing banks, and establishing
presidential term limits. The work of Don Pepe’s leadership provided changes to Costa Rica’s
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 30
political system that have lasted until the present day, contributing to the political stability
desired by MNCs.
Costa Rica has continued peacefully since the civil war and new Constitution were
adopted. Costa Rican president Óscar Arias Sanchez won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1987 after
helping to end civil wars in the neighboring countries of El Salvador and Nicaragua. A year after
Costa Rica switched its diplomatic allegiance from Taiwan to China; Chinese President Hu
Jintao visited the country (Palmer & Molina, 2004). The switching of allegiance may have
encouraged Chinese investment. The current decade witnessed the election of the first female
Costa Rican President in Laura Chinchilla (Pazos, 2010). The history and politics of Costa Rica
have allowed the country to attract new partners such as China, which ultimately affects its
economic future. Current stability has enabled Costa Rica to focus on economic reform.
Costa Rica’s political system has evolved. In a region of political unrest, Costa Rica’s
political stability over the past almost 70 years has attracted global attention. MNCs desire Costa
Rica’s central location and political stability when deciding on places to expand. Economic
incentives push Costa Rica to the top of the list for FDI.
Economy
The change in Costa Rica’s economy is a result of their change from an agricultural to a
technological society. The introduction of MNCs and FDI brought Costa Rica into the
technological age and solidified their place as a technological hub in Latin America. FDI
contributed greatly to Costa Rica’s development by fostering export diversification and
upgrading, creation of more and better jobs, and accumulation of business capabilities (OECD,
2012).
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Over the past three decades, Costa Rica has emerged as an economic and political leader
in Latin America. The country has inserted itself into important high technology and knowledge
sectors, which have contributed to economic development and job creation. To further this
development, the government has sought opportunities to continue to upgrade in global value
chains (CINDE, 2013a). To accomplish this, the government selected four industries of key
importance as priorities for the country: medical devices, electronics, aerospace, and offshore
services (Gereffi, Bamber, Frederick, & Fernandez-Stark, 2013). In the past 30 years, the
exportation of goods and services increased 13 times, currently reaching almost 40% of the GDP,
due to these important industries. The four industries account for most of the economic growth in
the past few years and are the main job generators (CINDE, 2013a). This growth in industry has
moved Costa Rica far from its coffee and banana days.
MNCs and FDI contributed to the prosperous economy by promoting a culture of a
knowledge-driven society by increasing the supply and quality of skilled labor and improving
local research capabilities (OECD, 2012). Due to FDI, more than 66,000 people in Costa Rica
are employed in three main sectors: advanced manufacturing, services, and medical devices
(OECD, 2012). High-technology FDI is responsible for most of the changes in Costa Rica’s
exporting industry (CINDE, 2013a). Figure 1 shows the growth of high-technology MNCs in
Costa Rica.
Prior to CINDE, the top exports of Costa Rica were agricultural, with over half of the
exports being coffee and bananas. After 30 years of CINDE’s branding, a majority of the top
exports were in the electronics and medical equipment fields. Not only have the exports changed,
so have the destinations. Costa Rica used to export its goods throughout Latin America, yet in
2012, only 14% of the goods went to Latin America and the rest were exported to the United
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Figure 1. Number of companies established per year by selected high-technology sectors.
Source: Why Invest Costa Rica, Costa Rican Investment Promotion Agency (CINDE), 2013b,
retrieved from http://www.cinde.org

States, Europe, and Asia (CINDE, 2013b). This expansion of exports from Costa Rica allows it
to play a much larger role in the global market and make it invaluable not only to the local area
but around the world.
In the past two decades, Costa Rica has moved from a dependence on primary products to
high-technology manufacturing exports and services exports (OECD, 2012). Structural reforms
to improve macroeconomic stability at the end of the 1980s and early 1990s, the establishment of
free trade zones (FTZ), and installation of Intel’s plant and its subsequent impact on the increase
in FDI facilitated this dramatic shift in Costa Rica’s export composition (Ciarli & Giuliani,
2005). In 2011, FDI net inflows reached US $2.1 billion, up from US $400 million in 2000
(World Bank, 2012). While fresh fruits and coffee continue to play an important role in the
country’s exports, electronics and medical devices have been strong export sectors since 2005
(Gereffi et al., 2013). It appears that Costa Rica’s FDI recruitment strategy has been successful.
This strategy includes promotion of the country as an export platform for efficiency-seeking
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 33
firms, supported by a stable political system and a skilled labor force (CINDE, 2013b). All of
these criteria are extremely important in attracting new money.
Although MNCs and FDI have boosted the economy and workers of Costa Rica, Costa
Rica still has room to improve in innovation. While Intel is now operating research and
development (R&D) in its Costa Rican factory, there has been scarce R&D and little
commitment to innovation in the private sector. Costa Rica, compared to other FDI-intensive
economies, ranks low in trademark applications, which serve as an indicator of innovation
(OECD, 2012). Costa Rica is moving from a labor arbitrage to a knowledge arbitrage as other
MNCs are increasing their use of Costa Ricans for analysis and R&D (CINDE, 2013b). This is
why social changes such as education reform have become a necessity for advancement and
continued success of Costa Rica as a global player.
The economic growth and investment in Costa Rica has contributed to new agency. In
1982, CINDE was founded as the first investment promotion agency in Latin America and is
unique in that it is private, nonprofit, and nonpolitical (CINDE, 2015c; OECD, 2012). CINDE
was responsible for branding Costa Rica in a new way to attract FDI (OECD, 2012). CINDE
actively promotes foreign investment, local support, and post-establishment services. The agency
offers assistance during the site selection process; it meets the investor’s information needs,
facilitates a provider directory, and gives specialized support geared to new operational
expansion projects or promoting product diversification (CINDE, 2015c). The work of CINDE
has been invaluable to Costa Rica’s accomplishments.
CINDE’s marketing of Costa Rica has attracted more than 250 high-tech MNCs to Costa
Rica, while promoting its two international airports and seaports on the country’s two coasts.
Although it is a nonpolitical entity, CINDE promotes stable government and safety in Costa Rica
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 34
(CINDE, 2015b). With the changes in the economy and the need for global workers, social
changes such as education reform were and are essential to Costa Rica’s continued development.
The historical, political, and economical understanding of Costa Rica contributes to the
nation’s desire to be constantly evolving. Costa Ricans realize the need to be adaptable and
flexible to outside influences while maintaining the structures that have led to the country’s
stability. As globalization continues to evolve, Costa Rica works to continue to improve. The
educational system is one arena of growth and change for Costa Rica. As change occurs, new
adaptations must be embedded.
Change Process and Educational Leadership
Change is not an easy process. It takes the right type of leader to examine a situation and
implement change effectively. In schools, the layers of stakeholders often hinder this task, but it
can still be accomplished. This section identifies two frameworks to be used in the study. First,
the framework of Kotter’s (1996) change process is reviewed, followed by the four-frames
framework of Bolman and Deal (2008) on educational leadership. This section also explores
types of leadership, with a specific focus on principal leadership and teacher leadership. The
section concludes with a discussion of how change and leadership work together in a global
society.
Change Process Theoretical Framework
Costa Rica has schools that are unable to make organizational change due to their falling
into the trap of Kotter’s eight common mistakes. Kotter (1996) identified eight common mistakes
that prevent organizations from improving through change. Schools are organizations and
therefore can experience the pitfalls. The eight mistakes identified are (a) allowing too much
complacency, (b) failing to create a sufficiently powerful guiding coalition, (c) underestimating
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 35
the power of vision, (d) undercommunicating the vision, (e) permitting obstacles to block the
new vision, (f) failing to create short-term wins, (g) declaring victory too soon, and (h)
neglecting to anchor changes firmly in the corporate culture (Kotter, 1996). These mistakes can
be used to review situations where change is either halted or not moving along as quickly or
successfully as desired.
With the Costa Rican government’s emphasis on national science fair participation and
success, schools must be assessed in terms of these eight mistakes (Kotter, 1996). This study
examines these mistakes by comparing what is and what is not working well in Costa Rican
schools related to science fair participation and success. An example of assessment could relate
to the vision. Did the teachers understand why the science fair focus was so important to the
future workers of Costa Rica? Building coalition and communicating the vision are keys to
answer the above question positively.
Kotter also offered a practical eight-step process for change management. Seven of
Kotter’s (1996) eight steps fall into two major categories: weakening the status quo and
introducing new practices. The eighth step grounds the changes into the organization’s culture. If
the status quo is strong, people are less likely to adopt the new practices and therefore change is
minimal. Change requires leadership, not just management, and the leadership must drive the
multistep change process (Kotter, 1996). Kotter identified eight steps for successful change: (a)
establishing a sense of urgency, (b) creating the guiding coalition, (c) developing a vision and
strategy, (d) communicating the change vision, (e) empowering broad-based action, (f)
generating short-term wins, (g) consolidating gains and producing more change, and (h)
anchoring new approaches in the culture.
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These pitfalls and steps for successful change identified by Kotter (1996) will be the
framework used to identify how successful or unsuccessful a school is in meeting the
expectations of Costa Rica in terms of preparing students for success in PRONAFECYT.
Assessing the science education programs through Kotter’s lenses will lead to recommendations
for continued advancement.
Educational Leadership Theoretical Framework
Leaders can be viewed in various ways. Although each leader has his/her own style, the
most successful leaders move across the four leadership frames defined by Bolman and Deal
(2008). The four frames are categories to explain how one approaches daily work and decision-
making: structural, human resource, political, and symbolic.
Leaders who operate primarily in the structural frame are characterized as focusing on the
architecture of the organization, differentiation and integration, design of units/subunits, goals,
policies and efficiency, and chain of command. Leaders in this frame are effective in rethinking
relationships and focusing on implementation because one can design and implement the
structures to fit the circumstances, as well as attend to relationships between the structure and the
environment (Bolman & Deal, 2008). These are systems thinkers who are always looking at how
to make the system more effective and efficient.
Human resource frame leaders understand people, identifying strengths and foibles,
reasons, emotions, desires, and human needs, and valuing relationships and feelings. Leaders in
the human resource frame are effective because they believe that people are the heart of the
organization and communicate their belief while empowering others through participation and
openness (Bolman & Deal, 2008). These leaders take their knowledge of how people work and
what they need to meet the needs of the workers.
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Political frame leaders cope with conflict, compete for scarce resources, struggle for
power and advantage, and value realism. Leaders who operate primarily in the political frame are
clear about what they want and what they can get; they build linkages to key stakeholders by
building a power base and using the power effectively, and they recognize political reality and
deal with conflict (Bolman & Deal, 2008). Political leaders understand how to leverage their
connections for the greater good of the organization.
Leaders operating in the symbolic frame know how to shape culture and provide purpose
and meaning to work through a shared mission and identity. Symbolic leaders lead by example
using inspiration and passion while communicating their vision (Bolman & Deal, 2008). The
symbolic leader knows how to tap into people’s sense of pride for more effective work.
Although people tend to favor one frame, it is important for leaders to learn how to utilize
all of the frames. Leaders who can flow within and across frames can reach more people. This
framework will guide the study in examining the frames that both governmental leaders and site
leaders primarily work within. Knowing this information could lead to recommendations about
necessary frames that teachers are missing.
Principal Leadership
As heads of schools, it is important for principals to be effective leaders. As the leader,
the principal is the role model and must be a change agent (Fullan, 2010). A leader is expected to
persuade and inspire, not coerce or manipulate; think long term; look outside as well as in;
influence beyond their formal jurisdiction; have political skills; emphasize vision and renewal;
and shape and be shaped by circumstances and their constituents (Bolman & Deal, 2008). Being
a leader is not an easy task. Principals are able to tackle the task of being an effective leader
through change by having a clear vision and focus of the future (Bolman & Deal, 2008; Kotter,
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1996). This vision must include an image of the future and must be communicated repeatedly, in
many ways, to all of the stakeholders, including parents, teachers, and students. This overt
communication of a clear vision allows all to be aware of the vision (Bolman & Deal, 2008;
Kotter, 1996). For the vision to be accepted by stakeholders and transferred to their own beliefs,
the principal may have to work across frames, from the structural frame of focusing on the goals,
to the human resource frame to get the people on board, to the political frame to understand how
this change and vision will affect the entire system and community (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
Principals need the right people involved to help them to maneuver change. Creating a
coalition of key players is important for a principal to lead the change (Kotter, 1996). An
effective leader knows that he/she cannot successfully employ change alone. To create this
coalition, the principal must use human resource and political frames and look to the teacher
leaders on campus who can assist in sharing the vision (Bolman & Deal, 2008; Kotter, 1996).
The role of the principal has changed over time from manager to instructional leader.
With this change, responsibilities have increased; not all leaders are prepared for this new role of
instructional leader (Fullan, 2014). While some principals pride themselves on bringing change
to an organization as transformational leaders, the real impact on students and their achievement
comes from the instructional leader (Hattie, 2009). As an instructional leader, it is important for
the principal to build capacity through recruitment and cultivate the talents of his teachers and
other professionals of campus. Through education and research, the principal models the
instructional and learning leader who is always striving to better himself and his team (Fullan,
2014; Hattie, 2009). Besides leading his site team, the principal must navigate the role of district
and system player. This can be accomplished while building on the human capital at his site by
collaborating with other sites and administrators from other sites. Nurturing these relationships
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 39
will lead to better collaboration and the opportunity to learn from others and share best practices
among schools (Fullan, 2014).
Teacher Leadership
Leaders do not always have to come in the form of administrators; can develop at all
levels of an organization. An often-overlooked group that moves a school forward is the teacher
leader. In order to develop teacher leaders, the role of the principal must change. Principals
should create conditions where others can flourish and become leaders themselves (Urbanski &
Nickolaou, 1997). Shared responsibilities, not only shared decision making, are necessary to
facilitate growth of teacher leaders (Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005).
Training for teacher leaders is just as important as training for administrative leaders.
Providing the training that employees need allows them to feel empowered to make changes
(Kotter, 1996). The training model of having teacher coaches who still teach in the classroom a
portion of the day is a powerful tool and model for teachers (Urbanski & Nickolaou, 1997).
Many teachers look to administrators and coaches who are out of the classroom as being out of
touch with students (Urbanski & Nickolaou, 1997). Having teaching coaches provides a different
perspective to other teachers at the site (Marzano et al., 2005). These teacher-coaches can invite
teachers into their classrooms to see lessons in action, in addition to coaching teachers in their
own classrooms (Urbanski & Nickolaou, 1997).
Teacher leadership emphasizes collegiality (Urbanski & Nickolaou, 1997). Teacher
leadership is crucial to the success of a school because various forms of leadership and
communication are needed to reach the majority of the staff (Bolman & Deal, 1994; Marzano et
al., 2005). As the role of the administrator moves from manager to leader, teachers can expand
their roles and use their collegial relationships to bring nay sayers on board to new ideas. The
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 40
power of relationships among teachers can be the driving force behind the movement of a school
(Marzano et al., 2005). Hurley (2006) discussed the relationship between trust and authority,
stating that there is a lower level of trust when the truster has little authority. This tentativeness
for teachers to trust administrators who have authority over them is a reason teacher leaders can
be so effective at a site.
Doing things differently to make change is much more difficult than talking about
change. Teacher leaders can do things differently and share their expertise with their colleagues
when the principal empowers them by removing obstacles to allow for risk taking and change to
occur (Kotter, 1996). The problem is that many of these teacher leaders “are still ‘invisible’”
(Urbanski & Nickolaou, 1997, p. 252) to all except those who work closely with them. The next
question for administrators to consider is how teacher leaders can be leveraged and feels valued
so they will continue to help schools move forward. There is no easy answer, but inviting
teachers to the table for shared responsibility and shared decision making at all levels is essential
for anchoring the new approaches in the school culture (Kotter, 1996; Marzano et al., 2005;
Urbanski & Nickolaou, 1997). Teacher leaders will model for others how to change, they need
the platform, time to lead, and training to grow and learn (Marzano et al., 2005).
Change and Leadership in a Global Society
Globalization has affected the change process because a global society requires change
and adaptability at a much faster rate than at any other time in history. Change is difficult and
can create issues. Change creates conflict, whether internally or externally or both, and a strong
leader must be able to negotiate this conflict. Change also creates loss of meaning and steps must
be taken to mourn the past and celebrate the future (Bolman & Deal, 2008). Strong leaders can
assist employees to manage the change process by communicating the reasons and the need for
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the changes and breaking down structural barriers that inhibit the culture of change. Key
elements that leaders can provide for employees are training and support to minimize resistance
to the change (Bolman & Deal, 2008; Kotter, 1996). Skill requirements change quickly for
employees, so they must focus on developing skills and being flexible to be marketable (Bolman
& Deal, 2008; Friedman, 2007). Educational leaders must know how globalization is affecting
education so they can guide their teachers into teaching students the appropriate skills in the
ways needed to prepare them to become the global workers of the future.
Globalization of Education
Competing for jobs in the new global era requires students to be educated differently.
Global workers need different skills from those required in the past, which requires them to be
educated in new ways. This section focuses on what globalization of education is and how 21st-
century skills are a critical part of this education. The section explores education in Costa Rica,
concluding with PRONAFECYT to show how Costa Rica is preparing global workers of the
future.
Globalization of education refers to the worldwide discussions, process, and institutions
affecting local educational practices and policies (Spring, 2008). Just as workers compete with
others around the world, education must also compete. Comparative education has focused on
comparing the educational systems of nations to prepare students in developing skills in problem
solving and critical thinking to be successful in future jobs that do not yet exist (Friedman, 2007;
Spring, 2008). Students have to “fundamentally reorient what they are learning and educators
how they are teaching it” (Friedman, 2007, p. 280). This change involves both students and
teachers. Teachers cannot teach in the same manner and expect students to learn differently. A
truly global education would include adoption by nations of similar educational practices,
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including curricula, school organizations, and pedagogies (Spring, 2008). The study looks at
what Costa Rica has accomplished in this area of national adoptions and practices.
Globalization in education expands the range of players who make educational decisions.
Global dialogues are influencing local and national educational policy makers, school
administrators, college faculties, and teachers. Intergovernmental and nongovernmental
organizations such as CINDE in Costa Rica influence national and local educational practices.
MNCs market educational products such as tests, curricula, and school materials and can even
offer professional development training to teachers (Fundación Omar Dengo, 2013; Spring
2008). Multicultural education and practices become crucial ingredients in educating youth for
working and living in a global economy. The World Bank aids in the conversation about
globalized education by supporting public-private partnerships and networks in education,
particularly among national education systems, private school groups, and education
corporations (Spring, 2008).
Educational content and practices must change in a global society. The World Bank’s
global education agenda includes this effort through its support of a global school curriculum
that focuses on literacy, mathematics and science, foreign languages for the global economy
(mainly English), and education for civic responsibilities (Spring, 2008). The importance of
mathematics is increasing for global students. The digital world is built on a foundation of
mathematics and companies need people who can use these skills to develop and apply
mathematical formulas (Friedman, 2007). Skills in mathematics will be more valuable than ever
as the global world continues to evolve. The digital world has also made data more available
than ever. The world needs mathematicians who know how to analyze data to make them useful
and accessible to others (Friedman, 2007).
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A global education must stress the existence of various ways of seeing and knowing the
world and the lending and borrowing of educational ideas because there is always a local phase
to a global process (Friedman, 2007; Spring, 2008). To be effective, educational content and
practices are critical but they must adapt while stressing global skills and 21st-century skills as
part of the curriculum. Focus on content only will not create global thinkers and global workers.
Twenty-First-Century Skills Theoretical Framework
Soft skills, also known as 21st-century skills, identify the nonacademic skills that
students need to succeed in the current and future global society. In the 21st century, companies
are looking for innovators. In order to have innovators, the educational system must give
students the opportunity to develop skills that will foster innovation. Wagner (2012) identified
five skills that separate innovative from noninnovative individuals: associating, questioning,
observing, experimenting, and networking. Giving students the opportunity to practice and
develop these five skills above will produce innovative global workers in the future.
Companies want workers with more than technical skills to perform their jobs. New jobs
require people to be good collaborators, with the ability operate, mobilize, inspire, and manage.
Workers need to demonstrate the ability to explain something complex to someone else with
simplicity (Friedman, 2007). Companies need leaders who can speak to people to explain to
them and to inspire them. If leaders are unable to explain complexity with simplicity, workers
will not have role models to do the same.
Problem solving is an essential skill for future workers. In order to solve problems, one
must be able to formulate the right questions. Without questioning and problem solving, workers
are not ready to enter the global workforce. “Work is no longer defined by your specialty. It is
defined by the task or problem you and your team are trying to solve” (Wagner, 2008, p.15).
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Companies need people who can not only identify a problem but also arrive at a solution for the
problem quickly and efficiently (Friedman, 2007; Wagner, 2008). Other essential skills for
workers are perseverance and a willingness to experiment, which includes calculated risk taking
and a tolerance for failure, as well as design and critical thinking skills (Wagner, 2012). Students
need practice to fail in safe environments while being given time and space to persevere and
come to solutions to problems.
If all of these skills are needed in the workforce, then the question is how are students
being educated with an opportunity to develop and practice these essential skills? Teaching
students in the traditional way will not develop these skills; students need a different education
(Wagner, 2012). The Partnership for the 21st Century Skills (P21; 2009) identified a framework
for educators to assist students in developing skills, knowledge, and expertise needed to succeed
in the new era: critical thinking, problem solving, communication, and collaboration. The
framework calls for an interdisciplinary approach to education, including core subjects as well as
21st-century themes such as global awareness and environmental literacy. Additional skills in
learning and innovation; information, media and technology; and life and career are essential
components of the framework. Content is important but it does not make up the entire sphere of
information needed by students in a global society. Figure 2 shows the various components
included in the P21 framework.
Costa Rica knows the importance of the soft skills or 21st-century skills. This is why the
country has looked to adapt its educational requirements to prepare its youth to become global
idea workers.
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Figure 2. Framework for 21st-century learning. Source: Framework for 21st Century
Learning, by Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009, retrieved from
http://www.p21.org/about-us/p21-framework

Education in Costa Rica
Costa Rica’s education system and adult literacy rate make Costa Rica attractive to FDI
(CINDE, 2014b). Costa Rica invests heavily in education because it does not support a military
force (Gereffi et al., 2013). In order to provide sufficient resources to guarantee universal access
to quality education, the government is constitutionally required to allocate at least 6% of the
country’s GDP to educational programs of preschool through higher education annually,
according to Title VII, Article 78 (Costa Rica’s Constitution of 1949 with Amendments through
2011, 1949). As a result of this investment, Costa Rica’s education program is viewed as
equivalent to or better than the education systems of other Latin American countries (OEDC,
2012). Costa Rican students are granted a free education through Grade 11; education is
mandatory through Grade 9. This has led to a high adult literacy rate (Villalobos & Monge-
González, 2011). Although the literacy rate in 2014 was 96.3%, Costa Rica is still moved from
an uneducated agricultural society of the not-so-distant past to a technological, industrialized
country. The facts that education is free and mandatory and that more than 90% of the primary
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schools are in the public domain allows access to all people in the country, leading to near-
universal foundational literacy skills (Biesanz et al., 1999).
Costa Rica has seen a steady increase in university graduates and the trajectory is
expected to continue. In 2011, Costa Rica had 40,310 university graduates from its 59
universities. Workers are trained not only through university; others become prepared in the
secondary education system that contains 113 technical high schools with more than 77,000
students enrolled. These specialized high schools offer students technical training in addition to
their academic program leading to a 6 -year secondary program with students choosing an
emphasis from 52 specialties in three major areas of expertise: services, industrial, and
agribusiness (CINDE, 2014b). The students who complete their education at the technical skills
can develop their skill set concurrently with their academic requirements for graduation.
High-technology sector jobs in Costa Rica recruit from three institutions. A large
proportion of line workers for manufacturing plants and entry-level jobs at call center are drawn
for the basic and secondary schools, while the technicians are recruited from the technical high
schools. The third group of workers comes from both public and private universities, who supply
essential engineering staff (Gereffi et al., 2013). Costa Rica wants to develop upper-end
engineers and electronics workers but has been unable to educate them in their own country.
Costa Rica began its first Ph.D. programs in engineering and electronics in 2014 to remedy this
situation and to develop a higher level of global workers in its own system (OECD, 2014).
Education in Costa Rica is mandatory only through Grade 9, after which students are
given options about their future trajectory: pursue an academic track, completing 2 additional
years of schooling before applying to university, or pursue a technical track that requires 3 years
of technical training before entering the workforce or further specialization at a university. With
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96 schools nationally, competition for places in these technical programs is considerable and
supply of technicians for the high-technology sector is somewhat constrained (Gereffi et al.,
2013). Hence, there is a need for multiple options and additional choices at the university level.
To prepare students for a global society, Costa Rica’s government has made a
commitment to promote English that has infiltrated all levels of the education system, leading to
more than 85% of primary school students in the country taking English classes (Biesanz et al.,
1999). The primary school system is an essential contributor to the high literacy rate in Costa
Rica. The fact that most primary students are learning English is a cultural change due to
globalization.
Costa Rica understands the diversity of its students and that a one-size-fits-all mentality
may not be an appropriate approach to educating its youth. According to the MEP, preschool and
elementary schools are allowed to change curricula to satisfy the needs of a changing society, but
they are also monitored to ensure excellence and quality of the educational programs. Primary
education is afforded to all students, while students in secondary education are tracked to
academic and technical schools. Academic schools require 5 years (Grades 7–11) and students
often continue to the university, while technical schools require 6 years (Grades 7–12) with a
resulting technical degree. Students in both tracks are required to pass tests on all subjects
studied during their high school years to receive the diploma needed for university admission
(Biesanz et al., 1999).
Costa Rica has five public universities providing tertiary education and several private
universities and institutions offering professional training. Only one of the public universities
offers specialized training in science and technology, while the others include science and
engineering training oriented toward social sciences (OECD, 2012). These content focuses are
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changing as Costa Rica begins its first Ph.D. program in engineering and electronics to develop
more scientific global workers within the country.
Costa Rica’s MEP has authority over all public schools in Costa Rica. The MEP is
headed by the Minister of Education, appointed by the President. The MEP spends 98% of its
budget on salaries and controls everything in public education from curriculum to supplies
(Biesanz et al., 1999). The MEP also creates policy. To develop more global workers, the MEP
has created goals such as the PRONAFECYT initiative to help students to develop skills needed
to think “outside the box” and develop unique solutions because employers want people who
have understand how things tie together from end to end (Friedman, 2007; Wagner, 2008). Goals
such as PRONAFECYT are helping future workers to be new and improved knowledge workers
who can think in disciplined ways and have a burning curiosity and lively imagination (Wagner,
2008).
Costa Rica National Program of Science and Technology Fairs
Costa Ricans agree that participation by all in PRONAFECYT will lead to new
discoveries and stimulate the economy. Costa Rica wants all students in every grade (including
preschool) to develop analytical thinking skills through inquiry and research by participating in
these fairs. The position of the MEP is that is that acquisition of these skills will promote
leadership and social responsibility (UCR, 2014). If more Costa Rican students are using inquiry
to solve scientific problems in new ways, the number of idea workers will increase and Costa
Rica will shift from having knowledge-based workers to idea-based workers (Friedman, 2007).
This shift in workers will enrich the culture through scientific investigation and awaken the
economy with new possibilities (UCR, 2014).
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History of PRONAFECYT. PRONAFECYT has evolved since its inception in 1977 as
a professional opportunity for teachers sponsored by the Science Education Department at the
UCR. In 1983, the faculty shifted the audience of the science fair from teachers to high school
students through the teacher expansion project. In 1984, courses to promote scientific inquiry for
teachers were created at UCR. In 1985, approximately 500 students and 60 teachers from 20
schools participated in what was then known as the Exhibition of Works Science Fair. The
National Science Fair was established in 1986 through coordination of many offices, including
the newly created MICITT. The founder of the fairs was asked to coordinate the effort and a
budget was established (UCR, 2014).
The first PRONAFECYT occurred in December 1987. Prior to the fair, three regional
fairs were held as preparation seminars for teachers and judges. Although this was the first year
of the national science fair, Costa Rica already had its eyes set on more. The head of the Costa
Rica science fair program attended the First International Science Fair. After the first National
Science and Technology Fair, Costa Rica made adjustments to improve focused on training and
disseminating processes to help all participants. UCR began its first formal research study on
science fairs and technology. In 1993, it was announced that primary students would be allowed
to enter the fair with primary education projects and in 1995 preschool projects were accepted
(UCR, 2014). The fairs were now inclusive of all levels of the education system.
Revisions to the process began again in 1998 with the decision to once again involve
teachers in the development projects of the National Science and Technology Fair, which also
included refresher courses for teachers of all levels. In 1999, partnerships with state universities
created a regionalized program that expanded participation from the Central Valley to the entire
country. In 2000, 15 years after the first national fair, participation rose to 193 projects from
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more than one thousand students, with approximately 700 from outside the main metropolitan
area of San José. The numbers would have been even greater that year except that flooding in
sections of the country prevented some schools from participating. In that year, the MEP
identified participation guidelines for future fairs, utilizing the local and regional fairs more.
Formal structure to the early stages of the science fair was not identified until 2002 (UCR, 2014).
Success has grown for the fairs and winners of the national fair are competing and succeeding
the international science fair. In 2014, students from Costa Rica won fourth place in the
Engineering: Electrical and Mechanical and Engineering: Materials and Bioengineering
categories and third place in the Plant Sciences category at the Intel International Science Fair
(Intel ISF; Intel, 2014b).
PRONAFECYT. PRONAFECYT is an opportunity for students to go through the
learning process using a science or technology interest, while also developing and refining their
21st-century skills such as critical thinking and applying creativity to address their interests. The
learning opportunities are intended to be educational experiences for students at all levels in the
education system, from preschool to primary and secondary students. The hope is that, by
promoting scientific and technological inquiry beginning at an early age and continuing
throughout their schooling, students will have a better understanding of their environment and
consider pursuing scientific and technological careers (MICITT, 2013).
During PRONAFECYT, students are guided by teachers and tutors through relevant
curriculum and inquiry and launch an investigation into an event, phenomenon, or topic,
applying the processes of thinking like a scientist and utilizing scientific inquiry. In September
2013, the Costa Rican MEP decreed a comprehensive reform to PRONAFECYT, promoting
planning, exhibition, presentation, and discussion of the work, studies, and projects developed by
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students. These discussions would be used to create an action plan to advance science education
in schools throughout the country (MICITT, 2013). The proposed will review science education
in the Costa Rican schools and identify practices to support science education in the country.
Participants in PRONAFECYT must first move through regional fairs before entering the
national fair and possibly moving on to the international science fair. The manual states that
students may choose to present their research in one of the following five ways: scientific
experiences in early childhood education; monographs; demonstrations or principles and
scientific or technological processes; projects of scientific research; or projects for research and
technological development. According to the judging manual, research projects must fall within
one of the following nine fields of study: biology, environmental science, computer science,
earth science and space, behavioral and social sciences, physics and mathematics, engineering
and technology, chemistry, or health and medicine (MICITT, 2013). Integrated education is
necessary for students and a curriculum emphasizing STEM is essential for solving the scientific
problems that students identify in their projects.
STEM Education
This section defines STEM education and discusses its relevance to the success of the
students in PRONAFECYT. STEM education must be a focus for success in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT. STEM education is important because
the global economy has “flattened” the world in terms of skills and technology. A new
workforce of problem-solvers, innovators, and inventors who are self-reliant and able to
think logically is one of the critical foundations that drive a state economy’s innovation
capacity. (Maryland State Department of Education, 2014, para. 4)
STEM education allows students to develop, practice, and refine these necessary skills.
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Technology has infiltrated most aspects of life. It is becoming increasingly important in
education and is an integral component of STEM education. Due to this fact, technology can be
confused with other components in STEM education. Science and technology are two distinct
fields; however, they are often used together and are often considered complementary concepts.
Technology is also confused with engineering. Engineering is research and development based
on science to manufacture certain products to solve problems; therefore, engineering produces
technology to solve problems. Mathematics is an abstract representational system used in the
study of numbers, shapes, structure, change, and the relationships between these concepts. A
metaphor for STEM is the human body. In this metaphor, science is the musculoskeletal system,
engineering is the brain, technology is the hands, and mathematics is the heart and blood
(Capraro et al., 2013). These integrations are why STEM education is vital to the success of
students in PRONAFECYT. Students must understand the differences; more important, they
must be able to integrate their skills and approaches to testing their hypotheses.
STEM programs invite innovation, and student learning potential is immense because
students are asked to solve real-world problems. Students in STEM programs develop
proficiency in integrating technology and interpreting hard data. Through STEM education,
students are preparing for professional life beyond school, modeled in internships and job
shadowing and by mentors in high-technology and scientific fields (Breiner, Harkness, Johnson,
& Koehler, 2012). STEM education provides the content but it also requires teachers to adapt
instructional strategies to give students opportunities to solve real-world problems.
Project-Based Learning
This section explores PBL and explains why it is an appropriate method to teaching
STEM and providing the rationale for the need for proper PBL professional development for
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teachers. PBL is a technique that moves from a teacher-centric classroom to a student-centered
approach to real-world problem solving. PBL begins with the end in mind, referring to a clearly
defined end product (Yetkiner et al., 2008). STEM PBL has been described as a well-defined
outcome with an ill-defined task (Stearns, Morgan, Capraro, & Capraro, 2012). STEM PBL is
discussed in the next section.
With defined outcomes and products, PBL applies the approach of experiential learning
encouraged by Dewey and Vygotsky, with students constructing understandings, both as
individuals and within groups (Grant & Branch, 2005; Kaldi, Filippatou, & Govaris, 2011;
Rosenfeld & Ben-Hur, 2001; Yetkiner et al., 2008). In a PBL classroom, students are given the
opportunity to explore and experience their learning rather than be given the information in more
traditional approaches. With the nature of STEM, PBL offers the vehicle to integrate significant
content from multiple areas. In order for teachers to teach using the PBL approach, they must
receive adequate professional development in PBL and how to teach in that manner.
PBL has been studied nationally as well as internationally, just as this study will do. In
Israel, Rosenfeld and Ben-Hur (2001) examined science and technology PBL in middle schools,
focusing on professional development. Year-long training guided teachers through activities that
built their knowledge of PBL as they progressed toward a final product by implementing science
and technology. Through observations and interviews, it was noted that the teachers went
through challenges and growing pains during the process of completing their projects and
creating their own products, resembling the experiences that their students would encounter.
Throughout the process, one thing that resonated with the researchers was the need to provide a
long-term support system to help teachers to learn and implement PBL effectively. The teachers
agreed that the PBL approach generated a great deal of enthusiasm for them and for students
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(Rosenfeld & Ben-Hur, 2001). As the teachers were trained to use the PBL process, they could
predict areas in which their students might have difficulty and understand the challenges and
frustrations that their students might experience.
Ongoing PBL professional development is a concept supported through work at Texas
A&M University. Stearns et al. (2012) focused on implementation and instruction occurring
during PBL through an observation tool used with teachers engaged in long-term STEM PBL
professional development. They found that PBL implementation was difficult for the teachers
and that the teachers needed to work together to refine skills addressed in the professional
development and to develop lessons. Through their research, they concluded that follow-up
professional development must be based on observations and feedback from teachers
implementing PBL in their STEM classes (Stearns et al., 2012). The proposed study will
determine whether professional development is provided and, if so, how often teachers
collaborate on these approaches.
PBL is also a useful approach at the elementary level because its inclusive approach
supports learners of all ages. Greece sought to evaluate PBL’s effectiveness on elementary
students. A major change for these students was that group work was no longer a seating
arrangement but a collaborative action. Students took ownership of their learning and the
learning of their classmates, even referring to fellow students as friends, not peers, when
describing to whom they turned for help. Students had positive feelings abbot the learning and
PBL process. The teachers viewed the experience as positive but expressed concern about the
need for in-depth training (Kaldi et al., 2011).
New approaches to learning are valuable not only for success in PRONAFECYT; these
approaches enable students to become the global workers of the future who are not afraid to try
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new things and to persevere if they do not succeed the first time. Wagner (2012) described this
need for new thinking and new approaches.
Increasingly in the twenty-first century, what you know is far less important than what
you can do with what you know. The interest in and ability to create new knowledge to
solve new problems is the single most important skill that all students must master today.
All successful innovators have mastered the ability to learn on their own “in the moment”
and then apply that knowledge in new ways. (p. 142)
In summary, not knowing the answer is not the most important part, but using knowledge to
discover new things and tackle new problems is an essential skill for a global workforce.
PBL is an approach to combine content with soft skills while developing students into
problem solvers. Although PBL can be used in any discipline, for preparation of students to
succeed in PRONAFECYT in Costa Rica, it would benefit schools to integrate PBL into their
STEM education.
STEM-PBL Theoretical Framework
This section reviews how STEM PBL will be used as a framework for assessing the
science programs and instructional practices of the schools in the study. This section also
reviews how STEM PBL differs from traditional PBL and the measures used to assess its
progress and success.
STEM professionals engage in complex problem solving; in most cases, there are
multiple possible solutions, each with its strengths and limitations. Therefore, it is important for
students to develop a broad knowledge that allows them to be successful on high-stakes tests but
also to develop depth of knowledge to reflect on the strengths and limitations of their solutions
(Capraro et al., 2013).
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STEM PBL offers an open-ended and inquiry-based structure for students to tackle
STEM real-world issues creatively. The STEM-PBL process develops critical thinkers who will
be more likely to succeed in postsecondary institutions where these skills are essential.
Expanding on the definition provided in an earlier section, STEM PBL is an “ill-defined task
within a well-defined outcome situated with a contextually rich task requiring students to solve
several problems which when considered in their entirety showcase student mastery of several
concepts of various STEM subjects” (Capraro et al., 2013, p. 2). Well-defined outcomes include
clear expectations for learning connected to local, state, and national standards and clearly
defined expectations and constraints for completion of the task. The ill-defined task allows
students freedom to interpret the problem, constraints, and criteria informed by their subject area
knowledge to formulate diverse solutions that will meet the well-defined outcome (Capraro et
al., 2013). These diverse solutions are why STEM PBL is such a valuable approach for students
solving real-world problems.
Learning environments supported by STEM PBL include the following components:
making content accessible, making thinking visible, helping students learn from others, and
promoting autonomy and lifelong learning (Capraro et al., 2013). These components allow
students to develop soft skills while accessing core content. The integration of these components
forms positive, nurturing learning environments where students are led by inquiry to find
answers to their problems.
STEM PBL is designed and implemented along a continuum of five measures on which
STEM PBL implementation can be evaluated: traditional hands-on lab (verification of facts),
novice (factual knowledge), informed novice (understand facts/ideas in context of conceptual
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framework), expert (adapts conceptual frameworks through transfer), and researcher (creation of
new knowledge and/or conceptual frameworks; Capraro et al., 2013).
Measure 1: Traditional Hands-On Lab
The first measure, traditional hands-on lab, emphasizes the verification of facts already
presented to the learner. The teacher controls the assessment, topic, task, resources, procedure
and design, artifacts and analysis, and often even the outcomes. This type of experience is often
dominated by worksheets and fill-in-the blank forms (Capraro et al., 2013). In this measure,
students do not have the chance to take ownership of their learning and the teacher is reluctant to
transfer control to the students. In this measure there is a definite right answer.
Measure 2: Novice
At the novice level, instead of verifying factual knowledge previously learned, the
student generates factual knowledge. Although the teacher has determined the lab and its
components, this constructivist approach allows the learner to analyze data and determine
outcomes (Capraro et al., 2013). This measure allows the student to begin to develop analytical
skills and realize that there could be more than one answer to a problem.
Measure 3: Informed Novice
At the informed novice level, chunks of factual knowledge are connected to build a
conceptual understanding and students rationalize the relationships and connections among
multiple pieces of knowledge. At this level, the idea of community becomes vital and students
must be given opportunities to discourse with one another, with experts, and with the teacher
(Capraro et al., 2013). This measure invites collaboration and students making connections to the
content and concepts to allow students to begin to take ownership of their knowledge.
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Measure 4: Expert
At the expert level, the goal is for the student to be able to transfer understanding of the
material to novel situations. The student or the community is given more freedom of choice
when determining how to approach the problem, what acceptable resources to use, how the data
will be analyzed, and how the results are to be interpreted. The expert level requires not only
deep factual knowledge and a solid conceptual framework but also the ability to work more
independently than in the past (Capraro et al., 2013). This measure includes choice that enables
students to make decisions that they deem best for their research. They can collaborate with
others but still must understand the information to make their own decisions and arrive at
independent solutions.
Measure 5: Researcher
At the researcher level, the learner is in control of his or her learning. This level requires
many years of practice and the learner must be scaffolded at each step. One cannot expect a
student or teacher to operate effectively at this level without proper training and experience. To
expect either to move from any previous level to the researcher level without this training and
experience is irresponsible; movement must be slow and thoughtful (Capraro et al., 2013). To
reach this level, students must be exposed to STEM PBL in the primary or early secondary
school levels. This measure puts the student in charge of the hypothesis, research methods, and
outcomes.
As technology is such an integral part of life, it should also be an integral component in
STEM PBL. If STEM PBL solves real-world problems, then the integration of technology
should be used in finding the solution, just as it would be in real life. One model to aid in
technology integration into PBL is the ASSURE model. ASSURE is an acronym for analyze
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learners, state objectives, select methods and technology, utilize technology, require learner
participation, and evaluate and revise. This model offers a method to integrate technology, active
student engagement, and effective learning in the STEM PBL process (Capraro et al., 2013). If
teachers are to put models such as ASSURE into place, they must have opportunities and
structures to help them to implement, assess, and reflect on their practices. One such practice to
offer this structure is implementation of PLCs.
Professional Learning Communities
This section provides an overview of PLCs and addresses the role and importance of
leadership in supporting PLCs that are implemented to assist schools in analyzing their practices
and doing what is best for students. The definition of PLCs has often morphed in various
situations; the definition for the purpose of this study is the “ongoing process in which educators
work collaboratively in recurring cycles of collective inquiry and action research to achieve
better results for the students they serve” (DuFour, DuFour, Eaker, & Many, 2010, p. 11). PLCs
focus the discussion on learning rather than on teaching. The teacher uses collaboration to focus
on what the students learned, or did not learn, and how well they learned the content. The team
of teachers engages in inquiry focused on the best practices and strategies for teaching and
learning and discusses how they will use those best practices for the benefit of their students.
Members of a PLC must be action oriented and move quickly to turn from their desired states to
creating a detailed action plan to reach their desired reality for their students (DuFour et al.,
2010). This PLC process is ongoing to support the cycle of continuous improvement needed for
increased student achievement.
An effective PLC is committed to continuous improvement and perseveres when
challenges arise. PLCs use systematic processes to include all members in the decision-making
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 60
and analysis processes. Support structures such as protocols and systematic processes allow all
voices to be heard and to verify that specific data are not left out of the discussion. This cycle of
continuous improvement includes gathering evidence of student learning at the current level,
developing strategies and ideas to build on strengths and address weaknesses in that learning,
implementing those strategies and ideas which have been identified, analyzing the impact of the
changes to discover what was effective and what was not, and applying the new knowledge to
the next cycle of continuous improvement. In order for this cycle of continuous improvement to
work, the team must be results oriented and always assess the student learning and the teaching
methods and strategies used in the learning process (DuFour et al., 2010). The data of the student
work along with reflecting on best practices to allow the PLC to address discrepancies in
teaching and learning.
The foundation of a PLC supports four pillars: mission, vision, values, and goals (DuFour
et al., 2010). These pillars keep the PLC focused on achieving its goal of improved student
achievement and learning. The first pillar, mission, sets the stage for the PLC by asking for a
rationale for their exist and identification of their purpose. The vision pillar requires the group to
identify what they want to accomplish and the values pillar identifies behaviors that will guide
the team accomplish its goals (DuFour et al., 2010; DuFour & Marzano, 2011). The final pillar,
goals, sets the time for the work to be accomplished, thus keeping the momentum and not
allowing teams to be stopped on a specific goal (DuFour et al., 2010). Figure 3 illustrates how
these pillars work together.
Leaders can support or inhibit the PLC process. To support the PLC process, the leader
must ensure that the staff is organized into meaningful teams. If there is a meaningful connection
among PLC team members, they are more likely to be successful. The leader must provide time
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Figure 3. Foundation of a professional learning community. Source: Learning by Doing: A
Handbook for Professional Learning Communities at Work (2nd ed.), by R. DuFour, R. DuFour,
R. Eacker, & T. Many, 2010, Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press.

for the teams to collaborate. Once the teams are identified and time is scheduled, support
structures are needed to help the members to become a team. The leader should help the team to
clarify the work that they must accomplish and monitor the work of the teams, providing
direction when needed. Leaders cannot avoid shortcuts in the collaboration team process and
must understand that collaboration takes time but, with the right tools, can be very effective.
Leaders must not forget to celebrate short-term wins to keep the PLCs motivated and to confront
those who are not participating or contributing to their teams. The members must understand that
PLC participation is an expectation because it is the only way to ensure increased student
learning and implementation of best practices (DuFour & Marzano, 2011). If the site leader puts
these ideas at the fore and is transparent with the teachers about their purpose and outcomes, the
PLCs are more likely to progress positively.
Teachers can progress only so far without attention and support from the leadership. True
reform of assumptions and beliefs requires a leader to guide the process and support the teachers
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in their new venture. At the school level, the principal creates the conditions that allow PLCs to
flourish in the school; for district-wide PLCs to blossom, the superintendent’s support is needed
(DuFour et al., 2010). Besides support, administration must sometimes be assertive and exert
pressure for PLCs to be a powerful tool in the change process toward improving a school or
district (DuFour et al., 2010; Fullan, 2010). As a result of PLCs, teachers may identify a need for
additional training in best practices. Listening to their needs and providing professional
development can allow PLCs to continue to flourish.
Professional Development
This section reviews the literature on the effectiveness of professional development.
Professional development, or professional learning, is a powerful tool that can contribute
positively to student success when it ultimately changes teachers’ practices. Professional
development should be based on the needs of the teachers, which may come as a result of PLCs.
Effective professional development must go beyond the traditional, one-day workshop
model and, instead, provide multiple sustained opportunities across a substantial time frame to
make a difference (Wilson, 2011). Implementing strong professional development should be
focused on developing teachers’ capabilities and knowledge to teach content and subject matter,
address teachers’ classroom work and the problems that they encounter in their school settings,
and provide multiple and sustained opportunities for teacher learning over a substantial time
interval (National Research Council, 2011).
People who criticize education identify various problems. Wagner (2012) contended that
the main problem with education is the quality of teacher preparation and continuing
professional development. Professional development should be part of a larger process in
developing teachers’ capabilities. Professional development should be needs based, systematic,
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and ongoing and should support a strong foundation in initial teacher preparation and induction
that includes onsite professional support such as coaching to allow interaction and collaboration
with colleagues (National Research Council, 2011).
As discussed in the section on PBL, professional development must be authentic to the
learning expected by the students and ongoing to provide time and resources for continued
development and growth. One-time professional development does not change teacher practice.
Time and continued opportunities to learn and reflect are necessary for change in teacher
practice.
Summary of the Literature Review
This chapter reviewed the literature and research on globalization and how it has affected
Costa Rica. Globalization has changed the world and the needs of students and future workers.
Reviewing Costa Rica’s history led to understanding the progression of the country and its
exports and how globalization has changed not only the businesses but also the people who are
needed to work in those companies. Globalization of education and how it is changing
expectations of Costa Rican students and teachers were discussed. With new global workers
needed, new expectations and methods are necessary. Instructional strategies and support
structures to assist administrators and teachers through the times of change to make students
competitive in the global market were examined. Understanding how effective change occurs,
along with the roles of the leaders within the change process and beyond, are important to
implementing necessary changes. Teacher professional development and collaboration time were
identified as necessary components to implementing changes and new approaches such as STEM
PBL. All pieces combined will inform the strengths and weaknesses of the education system in
Costa Rica in preparing students to succeed in PRONAFECYT and in the global workforce.
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CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
Restatement of Purpose
Costa Rica has implemented an initiative for PRONAFECYT to increase the number and
percentage of students who are prepared to be the global workers of the future. This study is
designed to understand the effects of educational leadership on participation in PRONAFECYT
in primary schools in Costa Rica. The study identified the role of school leaders in development
and implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. The study explored how schools have
restructured their educational programs by focusing on sharing leadership and expanding
instructional practices to include an inquiry-based approach to learning.
The team utilized three frameworks to drive the study. To evaluate leadership, the study
utilized Bolman and Deal’s (2008) leadership frames. Leaders at the site level and above were
assessed in terms of their structural, human resource, political, and symbolic leadership
tendencies. These tendencies became apparent through interviews and surveys. The study also
employed Kotter’s (1996) change process to assess the elements and structures used or not used
in implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative. Organizations ranging from the MEP to the
specific school sites were evaluated using Kotter’s (1996) eight steps. Soft skills were evaluated
through the lens of Wagner’s (2008) survival skills and skills needed for creating innovators
prepared for the global workforce. The study used the STEM PBL framework by Capraro et al.
(2013) to review instructional practices. The measures, described in Chapter 2, provided
information about the level of implementation of instructional practices for executing the science
fair curriculum.
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Research Team
A cohort of 18 doctoral students from the Rossier School of Education at the University
of Southern California (USC), led by Dr. Michael Escalante, conducted the research. The 18
students were divided into pairs, each with one bilingual student and one monolingual student.
The pairs were then assigned two primary schools as their case study targets. The pairs were then
combined into three groups of six people based on the region in which their schools were
located. The research team collaborated on the foundational research and foundational
knowledge of globalization, the history of Costa Rica, PRONAFECYT, education, and
curriculum integration and instructional strategies. The knowledge gained from this collaboration
served as a foundation for research topics.
Research Questions
Four research questions were investigated in the study:
1. What is the role of educational leaders and teachers in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
Method of Study
This qualitative study utilized a case study approach for data collection and analysis. The
fact that the data were collected internationally according to a specified timetable contributed to
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 66
reasons for a study case design, as data collection did not take place over a prolonged period of
time but in a shorter sustained period (Creswell, 2014; McEwan & McEwan, 2003).
The research team chose a qualitative study design due to the case study nature required
for comparison of schools. Merriam (2009) defined a case study as “an in-depth description and
analysis of a bounded system” (p. 40). With all data being collected at one time and in two
particular sites, the study meets the definition of a bound system, characterized by the focus on
PRONAFECYT in Costa Rica. Although PRONAFECYT is the outcome desired by the MEP,
the study was not a particularistic case study because the collected data were not collected at the
fair but instead by looking at factors related to preparation for PRONAFECYT.
The qualitative method of study was chosen for multiple reasons. Primarily, the data for
the study occur in Costa Rica, which lent itself to the characteristics of qualitative research as
defined by Creswell (2014). With access to the schools and policy makers in the country, it
allowed for multiple forms of data to be collected, such as surveys, interviews, and observations.
Through the data collection, the researchers identified participants’ perceptions and concerns
about the effectiveness of science preparation for PRONAFECYT. With international research,
emergent design is important as schedules may change, access may be altered, or data may lead
to new routes and ideas for further research.
Population and Sample
Purposeful sampling was used to select the research sites and participants for the study
(Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 2009). The research sites focused on primary public education
schools in the area surrounding San José, Costa Rica. The study was a joint project by Rossier
School of Education, Costa Rica MEP, and MICITT. Communication to choose the schools and
set up the visits was conducted via email between Dr. Michael Escalante and Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft
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of USC, and Alicia Porras of MEP and Nathalie Valencia of MICITT. Since PRONAFECYT is a
K–12 initiative, the MEP and MICITT indicated that primary schools were the weak link and
that there were already much interest and participation at the high school level. Due to this
concern, primary schools, Cycles 1 and 2, were chosen for the research study.
Porras and Valencia identified eighteen primary schools for the study (Appendix A).
Maxwell (2013) stated that purposeful sampling is needed to select settings that will provide
information particularly relevant to the study research questions and purpose. To meet the needs
of the study, parameters were requested as sites were selected. One parameter requested for the
schools by Dr. Escalante and Dr. Wiedoeft was that the schools be within a 2-hour radius of San
José. Another request was that half of the schools be considered effective schools in terms of
PRONAFECYT and the other half as less-effective schools. The reason for this request was to
make the case study comparison less complex. The criteria used by Porras and Valencia to
differentiate the success of the schools are unknown.
The research group was divided into three groups of six people. Each smaller research
team was assigned a specific region in which to conduct their research. Three of the 27 regions
were included in this research study. Escuela Universitaria is located in the Region Nacional.
Region Nacional includes six primary schools housing both Cycle 1(Grades 1–3) and Cycle 2
(Grades 4–6). Two of the six schools also included Cycle 3 (Grades 7–11). Cycles 1 and 2 were
assigned for this study, and information about Cycle 3 was not included. During the data
collection, surveys were conducted with Cycle 2 students, as well as Cycle 1 and 2 teachers and
administrators. Classroom observations were conducted at all six sites for all primary grades and
teachers and administrators participated in semiformal interviews using a common protocol for
all schools.
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As with the sites, criteria for interviews and the persons available for interviews and
surveys were chosen in conjunction with the MEP and MICITT, as well as previous connections
of Dr. Escalante and Dr. Wiedoeft. Criteria for the participants were political, corporate,
university, and school site leaders so the study could identify the perceptions of those involved in
PRONAFECYT from various perspectives. Prior to the interviews, a recruitment letter was sent
to potential interviewees (Appendix B). This convenience sampling (Merriam, 2009) was based
on participant availability during the time that the research team was in Costa Rica for data
collection. Teachers at the school sites were given surveys and a focus group was chosen for
interviews and classroom observations based on their availability during the scheduled times at
each school. School directors participated in interviews and surveys, as well. Beyond the school
sites, interviews and surveys involved one of the three regional science fair directors and
representatives from CINDE, Omar Dengo Foundation, and Consejo de Promocion de le
Competividad, and Costa Rican government employees. Table 1 provides a complete list of
participants interviewed for the study. A description of these participants is presented later in this
chapter.
Overview of the School
Escuela Universitaria is located in a fairly affluent area of the city and is not
representative of all schools in Region Nacional. Escuela Universitaria is in the fourth circuit of
Region Nacional. It is identified as an urban school, with 491 primary students (Cycles 1 and 2)
and 197 special education students. There are three classes at each of the grade levels 1–5 and
four classes to accommodate Grade 6 students. Cycle 2 students were not observed during
instruction, as they were not present during the first visit and were testing during the second visit.
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Table 1

Study Participants

Name Title Affiliation

Javier Cambronero Assemblyman, Educational Advisor to the
President
Costa Rica Government
Lander Perez Works for Javier and is the former science
regional lead
Costa Rica Government
Alicia Porras
Vargas
Vice Minister of Academic Education MEP
Carolina Vasquez
Soto
Vice Minister of Ministry of Science and
Technology
MICITT
Nathalie Valencia Director of PRONAFECYT MICITT
Santiago Núñez
Corrales
Director of Research and Technology
Development
MICITT
Patricia Arias Regional Science Advisor Occidente
Sylvia Ugaide
Fernandez
Consulate General Costa Rica Government
Vanessa Gibson Director of Corporate Development and
Investment Climate
CINDE
Mary Helen Bialas Senior Office, Projects and Programs Consejo de Promocion
de la Competiviad
Ana Lourdes Acuña Coordinator of Science Omar Dengo
Foundation
Eduardo Monge Project Development and International
Relations
Omar Dengo
Foundation
Ana Hernandez Program Evaluation Omar Dengo
Foundation
Maria Santos
Pasamontes
Director of Estado de la Nacion Unidad Nacionales
Universities
Dr. Alejandrina
Segreda-Mata
Dean of Primary Teacher Education UCR
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Table 1 (continued)

Name Title Affiliation

Dr. Hugo Navarro Dean, School of Technical Education ITCR
Jorge Lopez Director Escuela Universitaria
Dionna Oviedo Primary Assistant Director Escuela Universitaria
Manuel Gonzalez Secondary Assistant Director Escuela Universitaria
Theresa Gutierrez Science Coordinator and 2
nd
Grade Teacher Escuela Universitaria
Monica Salazar 5
th
Grade Teacher Escuela Universitaria
Antonio Sanchez 6
th
Grade Math Teacher Escuela Universitaria

Note. MEP = Ministerio de Educación Publica, CINDE = Costa Rica Investment Promotion
Agency, MICITT = Ministerio de Cienca, Technología y Telecommunicaciones, UCR =
Universidad de Costa Rica, PRONAFECYT = National Program Science and Technology Fair.
Escuela Universitaria was in the middle of a neighborhood and accommodated students
in Cycles 1, 2, and 3. The school was surrounded by a fence but was very welcoming. There
were grass and blacktop areas for students to play and exercise. The school included general
education and special education students. The school housed a dental clinic on site (as did all of
the schools in Region Nacional). On the way to the office, the research team walked in halls
alongside basketball courts surrounded by outdoor concrete bleachers to the left. To the right
were the dental clinic and a grassy area. Around the corner and visible from the street were a
play structure and a swing set for the young students, next to a grass field. As the team
approached the office, there were bulletin boards, the school mission and vision, and a map of
the school, large and displayed for everyone to see easily. The office was on the right and
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directly across the hall on the left was a computer lab. The computers were covered with Omar
Dengo covers, suggesting that the Omar Dengo Foundation had provided them.
The director welcomed team and offered use of the conference room next to his office.
Snacks were prepared while the team spoke. Walking past the office and onto the main campus,
the first thing visible was a panoramic bulletin board for the science fair. The board was brightly
colored and had student work displayed. The bulletin board encompassed the entire side of the
building. The school was situated in wings with long buildings parallel to one another. The far
right building housed the Cycle 3 students (not included in this study), while the other two
buildings housed the Cycle 1 and 2 students on a rotating basis. Down the hall to the left were
the special education classrooms, as well as the cafeteria that served both breakfast and lunch.
The Cycle 1 and 2 students were on a split schedule, with one Cycle 2 group attending in the
morning 3 days a week and the afternoon 2 days a week. Cycle 1 students followed the opposite
schedule so classrooms could be used for double duty. Only the Cycle 3 students attended all day
5 days a week.
The cafeteria was operated by a staff of women who prepared breakfast for the morning
students and lunch for the afternoon students. All food was cooked on site with fresh ingredients
and included such Costa Rican staples as black beans and rice, following a menu provided by the
MEP. Students were observed in the lunchroom and in line for lunch, but no observations of
them playing at recess were made during the visit.
The halls were dark, as they were covered, but they were open to outside light. A storm
took place during one of the two visits to the school, so it was darker that day. A dog was
observed at various points throughout the campus. He was kindly referred to by the school
director as the mascot. The students did not bother him, nor did he bother them. He lay in an area
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and eventually moved to another, sometimes to warm himself in the sun on a grass patch near the
fence of the parent and student entrance.
As with all of the schools visited in Region Nacional, a tribute to the Virgin Mary was
prominently displayed near the entrance across from the science fair bulletin board. A beautiful
statue was raised on a shelf covered with white cotton to look like a cloud and surrounded by
blue drapery. This display was open on both sides and could be seen from all angles of the
campus. It was evident that the whole child—mind, body, and spirit—were focuses at Escuela
Universitaria. School performance and demographic information was not collected during the
visit, and communications with the director about these areas since the visit remain unanswered.
Participants
Participants included members from various sectors in the Costa Rican community, from
government to business to college representatives to the schools themselves. Participants were
primarily chosen through purposeful sampling by the Costa Rican partners, as well as by Dr.
Escalante and Dr. Wiedoeft. Interviews with other government employees were added through
the snowball effect (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 2009) by connections made with the
Assemblyman. Purposeful sampling was necessary to obtain both macro and micro views of
PRONAFECYT implementation.
To obtain the government/policy perspective, seven government officials were
interviewed and surveyed. Javier Cambronero is an Assemblyman and educational advisor to the
President. Javier was interviewed because, as an education advisor to the president, he could
provide the global view of the priorities of the President and the government as a whole. Javier
helps to establish educational priorities for the country, and it was important to gather his insight
and perspective regarding the science fairs. Lander Perez works for Javier and is the former
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 73
science regional lead. He provided the difference from working on a regional level to the view of
the country as a whole. Alicia Porras Vargas is the Vice Minister of Academic Education at the
MEP. Alicia was important to this study as she identified the regions and schools to be included
in the study. Her perspective was essential to understanding the focus on primary schools and
how she sees their part in PRONAFECYT. The next two women included in the government
sector both work for the MICITT. Carolina Vasquez Soto is the Vice Minister of the Ministry of
Science and Technology and Nathalie Valencia oversees the national science fair program.
Nathalie was essential in collaborating with the regional science advisors and sharing her vision
for PRONAFECYT, while Carolina provided the broader view of how PRONAFECYT fits into
the strategic plan of MICITT. Santiago Núñez Corrales, Director of Research and Technology
Development at MICITT works with Carolina and Nathalie to oversee the research and
technology aspects of MICITT. Patricia Arias, the Regional Science Advisor for the Occidente
Region, provided insight into how the science fair decree is implemented on a regional level,
including in rural schools. The final interview for the government sector was with Sylvia Ugaide
Fernandez, Consulate General of Costa Rica. Sylvia was interviewed in Los Angeles prior to the
trip and shared her views of the education system and the goals of the government from the
perspective of someone currently working outside the country.
The following business leaders were interviewed and/or surveyed. Vanessa Gibson is the
Director of Corporate Development and Investment Climate at CINDE. Since CINDE is
responsible for bringing FDI to Costa Rica, the education of the workforce was of interest to the
research team. Vanessa provided the perspective that businesses desire from their workers and
described how the education system is fitting their profile. Mary Helen Bialas, who currently
works for Consejo de Promocion de la Competividad, provided another important business
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 74
perspective. Her current job focuses on trying to change policy that affects education; in her
experience with Intel, she was instrumental in supporting changes necessary for PRONEFACYT
implementation. The Omar Dengo Foundation provided opportunities to speak with three of its
employees: Ana Lourdes Acuña, Coordinator of Science; Eduardo Monge, Project Development
and International Relations; and Ana Hernandez, Program Evaluation. Their perspectives
provided insight into how the Omar Dengo Foundation is supporting schools and teachers.
University leaders were interviewed for their various roles in research, the education of
the teachers, their participation in PRONAFECYT, and their perspectives on the educational
readiness of their students. Maria Santos Pasamontes is the Director of Estado de la Nacion at
Unidad Nacionales Universities. Maria was interviewed as research coordinator for the state
report on science, technology and innovation. UCR is the largest university in Costa Rica,
originally housed the science fair program, and trains the majority of teachers in Costa Rica.
Now they are responsible for writing the manual annually. To understand the perspective of
UCR, Alejandrina Segreda-Mata, Dean of Primary Teacher Education, was interviewed. With
the science and technology focus of PRONAFECYT, it was necessary to interview Hugo
Navarro, Dean, School of Technical Education, ITCR, one of the technical college in Costa Rica.
The business and university leaders are seeking to improve Costa Rica’s network of future global
workers, some through personal experience with the science fairs and/or help with professional
development of teachers, improving policy in education.
Interviews at Escuela Universitaria included both administrators and teachers. Jorge
Lopez has been the director of the school for 3 years. He is responsible for students in Cycles 1,
2, and 3, which includes PRONAFECYT participation in all three cycles. To assist him he has
the help of two assistant directors and two science coordinators, one for primary and one for
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 75
secondary. Dionna Oviedo is the Assistant Director of Primary School (Cycles 1 and 2). She has
been at Escuela Universitaria for 23 years, both as a teacher and an administrator. She recounted
a history of the way PRONAFECYT was run at the school even before Ms. Lopez arrived.
Manuel Gonzalez is the Assistant Director of Secondary School (Cycle 3). Mr. Gonzalez was
interviewed because of his unique view of the transition from primary to secondary within the
same school. Some of the procedures are the same at all levels, so his perspective was welcome.
Theresa Gutierrez is the primary science coordinator and second-grade teacher. Her insights
were essential to understanding PRONAFECYT implementation at Escuela Universitaria, as she
has been the coordinator since before Mr. Lopez arrived at the school as Director. She has
worked closely with Ms. Oviedo and has seen the progression of PRONAFECYT at the primary
level. Two other teachers were interviewed for the study as their schedules allowed. Monica
Salazar is a fifth-grade teacher. She was very concise in her answers and gave little expansion of
her comments. It is unknown how long Ms. Salazar has been teaching at the school. The final
interview at Escuela Universitaria was with Antonio Sanchez. Mr. Sanchez is a sixth-grade
mathematics teacher and is in his first year at Escuela Universitaria. He was transferred from
another school site at the beginning of the year and his comments offered a fresh perspective on
the current practices at Escuela Universitaria. Ms. Oviedo and Ms. Gutierrez offered the
perspectives of what is happening in the Cycle 1 classrooms, as they both teach the lower grades,
while Ms. Salazar and Mr. Sanchez offered teachers’ perspectives from Cycle 2.
Surveys were collected from 3 administrators, 14 teachers, and 125 students in Grades 4–
6 at Escuela Universitaria. Due to the age and comprehension level of the students, only Cycle 2
students were surveyed. There were three classes at each of the grade levels encased in Cycle 2,
and at least two of the classes at each level were surveyed. Interviews were conducted with the
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 76
director and the assistant directors and six primary teachers, including the science coordinator.
The teachers were chosen by the director based on who was free during the interview times and
who was involved in science fair implementation at Escuela Universitaria, such as the science
coordinator. Some teachers were not interviewed or surveyed because they worked with
secondary students and the study was focused on primary students. No parents or students from
Escuela Universitaria were interviewed for this study.
Instrumentation
A qualitative study requires the researcher to be the instrument for data collection
(Merriam, 2009). Through collaboration by the research team, the instruments were created and
refined so that all of the researchers would utilize the same instruments for data collection at
various sites around the country.
The tools to be used in this study were surveys, interviews, and classroom observations to
allow for triangulation of collected data (Creswell, 2014; McEwan & McEwan, 2003). The
protocols for the surveys, interviews, and observations were created by the research team and
then be submitted to and approved by the USC Institutional Review Board (IRB).
Surveys
Surveys were used by the research team to collect data regarding the perceptions of the
various groups (Fink, 2013). Participants from six areas responded to surveys: teachers, students,
school site leaders, university leaders, corporate leaders, and political leaders. Surveys
(Appendices C through H) were designed to address the four research questions. Each survey
question was asked to the appropriate participant groups and aligned with a research question.
The reason for asking the same questions to multiple participant groups was to permit analysis of
the perceptions related to each idea from the various perspectives of the participant groups.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 77
The surveys utilized ordinal scales for response choices. The ordinal scales included the
forced-choice method without an option for a neutral choice. They surveys included an option
for not having awareness about the question. Fink (2013) explained that ordinal scales are easy
for researchers to use and interpret results, especially with forced choices, as used in the surveys
in this study. The lack of a neutral option was deliberate in making the respondents think about
their responses instead of choosing the path of least resistance by selecting the neutral option.
Review of the survey design was necessary to ensure that it met the purpose and
objectives of the study (Fink, 2013). The surveys include 23 items designed to gather
information related to the four research questions. Questions were created, wordsmithed for
clarity, and reviewed for redundancy by the research team. The surveys were pilot tested with
current and former Costa Rican administrators and officials before the trip to Costa Rica to
collect data. Fink (2013) explained this process as verifying content validity. Content validity
confirmed that the questions accurately represented the characteristics or attitudes that they were
intended to measure.
Interviews
Interviews were conducted with four of the six stakeholder groups, utilizing the interview
protocols (Appendices I through M) designed by the research team to expand on information
sought in the surveys. The interview data permitted triangulation of the data to give a full picture
of the problem and to provide credibility to the findings (Creswell, 2014; McEwan & McEwan,
2003).
Interview questions varied in style to stimulate wide-ranging responses from interviewees
(Merriam, 2009; Patton, 1987, 2002). Items addressed experience and behavior related to
PRONAFECYT, focusing on preparation, resources, and instruction. Knowledge questions were
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 78
important for eliciting information about recognition and training. Although the questions across
the group surveys asked for the same information, the farther removed from the classroom the
interviewee, the more the questions shifted from experience and behavior questions to
knowledge questions. The follow-up questions and probes elicited additional information in
interviews with those removed from the classroom and school site.
The interviewers employed an interview protocol and followed a semistructured format;
follow-up questions were utilized for clarification and expansion of comments and information
to achieve enhanced understanding and gather richer data (Creswell, 2014; Merriam, 2009).
Perceptions cannot be observed; therefore, to learn what participants think, they were asked
perception questions directly (Patton, 2002). The interviews allowed the researchers not to infer
feelings and perspectives of the participants but rather to enter their internal perspectives (Patton,
2002; Weiss, 1995). Prior to each interview, the interviewee was asked for consent to participate
in the study (Appendix N; Merriam, 2009). The semistructured format of the interview guide
allowed probing when answers were not as complete and descriptive as desired (Merriam, 2009;
Patton, 2002). The nine interview items addressed the four research questions and delved into
some of the questions asked on the survey. The interviews were conducted at various sites, all in
Costa Rica, in either Spanish or English, depending on the comfort level of the interviewee. The
semistructured approach to the interview allowed cross-collaboration and further study across
case studies of the members of the research team.
Observations
Classroom observations utilized a protocol (Appendix O) to assess the research questions
and make the data collection process systematic. Part of qualitative research is collecting data in
its natural setting. When conducting a study about education and instructional practices,
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classroom observations are essential components (Merriam, 2009; Patton, 2002). The
observation protocol allowed the researcher to stay focused on the research questions and
information that was sought for the research study. The identified areas were evaluated on a scale
of implementation and provided room for the researcher to take detailed observation notes.
The observations offered an opportunity for the researcher to witness things that the
teachers might not have thought to mention in the interview and that were not evident from the
survey responses, such as instructional strategies or approaches (Patton, 1987). Observations
were beneficial in this area, as strategies have different names in areas and the research was
conducted in another country and another language. The observations provided first-hand
experience rather than relying on others’ perceptions of the instruction and support.
Data collection was overt and the research team serves as observer participants (Merriam,
2009; Patton, 1987). The teachers knew that the research team was there to observe their classes.
It is understood that this could affect interactions among participants, but knowledge of the
observation was required due to the nature of the international research and working with the
MEP.
Data Collection
The researchers traveled to Costa Rica to gather data through surveys, interviews, and
observations. All data were collected within 6 school days in June 2015 in Costa Rica. Data were
collected from government and business people on the first 2 days and site-specific data were
collected and observations were conducted in the following 3 school days. The final school day
was reserved for additional data collection, and a return visit to two of the schools was necessary.
The research team collaborated on administering surveys and interviews with government and
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business associates. The research team formed pairs, with at least one Spanish speaker, and then
groups of six who collaborated to gather the school-specific data.
Almost all of the surveys in Costa Rica were administered in Spanish, unless respondents
were comfortable speaking in English. Surveys administered in governmental, business, and
school sites were conducted in Spanish. Interviews were conducted in person in private, neutral
settings and in the language most comfortable to the interviewee (Merriam, 2009; Patton, 1987).
The interviews were recorded with permission of the interviewee so that the interview could be
translated and transcribed for data analysis. The questions were asked one at a time, with time for
the interviewee to think about the answer. Observations were conducted at the school sites by the
small research teams, using the observation protocol. Each member of the pair in the team used
the observation protocol to take notes, and notes were compared after the visit.
The process of triangulation was applied on the multiple methods of data collection to
provide checks and balances on the results and allow for valid conclusions (Creswell, 2014;
McEwan & McEwan, 2003). The surveys and interviews with the education, corporate, and
political leaders provided understanding of the function of PRONAFECYT from each of their
perspectives (Creswell, 2014; Fink, 2013).
Data Analysis
The process of data analysis involved finding patterns and themes from the collected
data. The analysis process was aided by use of the computer software Dedoose. Although
Dedoose is coding software, it requires codes to be created prior to coding the data. This required
first cycle coding to decide on the possible codes to be added. After codes are identified, a
second cycle of coding produced coding of patterns that emerge from the data (Lichtman, 2014).
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 81
The research team analyzed the collected data collectively and individually. Using
Dedoose, the research team collectively coded some of the data to calibrate their use of codes
and identification of patterns. The collectively coded data were derived from interviews and
surveys with common constituents such as policy leaders. Individuals coded data from their
school sites to be reported in their own dissertations.
Utilizing the matrix displays of frequency codes created by the software along with a
table of practices identified in the observations narrowed the story and identified themes for the
findings to be reported in Chapter 4 (Maxwell, 2013; Miles, Huberman, & Saldaña, 2014).
Creating a table from the data identified elements in practice or not in practice in a clear and
concise manner (Harding, 2013). The data collection software aided in retrieval of coded
passages (Merriam, 2009).
Validity, Credibility, and Trustworthiness
Threats to validity are a concern in qualitative studies (Maxwell, 2013, Merriam, 2009).
Qualitative studies are limited in the number of participants, and the findings cannot be
generalized but the research design could be replicated in other areas for more credibility.
For qualitative reliability, the researcher checks for the accuracy of findings by
employing certain procedures (Merriam, 2009), including the following validity strategies that
were applied in this study. Data from the surveys, interviews, and observations from specific
groups of participants were triangulated, as well as among the groups for added validity. Once
data were collected and analyzed, researcher bias was considered, especially related to the topic
of PBL, due to the researcher’s professional experience in this area.
Developing protocols, especially in the interviews, minimized interviewer effects,
ensuring reduced bias by all interviewees being asked the same questions (Patton, 1987). This
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technique was essential for the research team to collaborate and share data to be used in a meta-
study of all 18 schools. With the same questions asked of all like participants, the data could be
combined and generalized within the Costa Rican primary educational system.
Limitations
Time and distance from the research sites and participants posed limitation due to the
international setting and limited amount of time to collect data. The research was conducted
approximately 3,500 miles from USC, which limited the time allotted for physical data
collection, although follow-up telephone interviews were still possible.
The school schedules created another limitation. Students in Cycles 1 and 2 at Escuela
Universitaria were on a split schedule, so only half of the students were on campus at a time.
This caused problems when dealing with such a young population and access to the students was
limited by time and age.
Language was another limitation. Data collection was conducted primarily in Spanish,
while only half of the research team spoke the language. Even when data were collected in
English, differences in terminology were a limitation because participants had been chosen by
the MEP and access to classrooms was limited. All selected schools were relatively close to the
San José area. Future studies could compare school science programs at rural schools in Costa
Rica.
Ethical Considerations
Each member of the research team completed the IRB application process, which
included completion of the Collective Institutional Review Board Training Initiative (CITI).
Through CITI, the researcher verified information in the areas of international research, students
in research, research with children, and history and ethical principles. The topics of these
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modules were chosen due to the nature of the study. All protocols to be used for data collection,
survey, interview, and observation were cleared though the IRB at USC.
To obtain permission for data collection in Costa Rica, Dr. Michael Escalante and Dr.
Oryla Wiedoeft presented a summary of the research proposal (Appendix P) to the MEP.
Permission to visit the schools was granted by the Minister of Education and PRONAFECYT
Regional Directors. All communication with the schools prior to the visit was through the
regional directors, and direct contact with the schools was not permitted. This did not allow for
building relationships and permission by the school directors prior to visiting their schools.
Ethical issues could have arisen due to the collaborative nature of the research.
Suggestions from Merriam (2009) will be considered as precautions regarding ethical concerns.
Names of schools and interviewees were changed to protect the privacy of the study participants.
Although the MEP chose the schools, informed consent was requested before data were
collected.
Chapter Summary
This chapter describes the methodologies utilized in this study related to factors leading
to participation and success in Costa Rica’s PRONAFECYT. The multiple frameworks to be
used for analyzing the data were reviewed. The creation and use of the data collection
instruments were described, as well as how the data were analyzed. Efforts toward validity and
trustworthiness were discussed, as well as ethical considerations for the study.
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CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
The shift in Costa Rica’s society from primarily agricultural to technological and the
demand to prepare global workers has led Costa Rica to make changes in their instructional
programs. With the MEP’s emphasis on PRONAFECYT, Costa Rica’s education system is
changing at the primary levels to meet the new demands. Changing instruction and thinking must
happen from the very beginning, which is why PRONAFECYT has expanded into all levels of
the education system.
This chapter presents an analysis of the data and the results from the qualitative case
study conducted in Costa Rica. The aim of this study was to understand the effects of educational
leadership on participation in PRONAFECYT in primary schools in Costa Rica. The study was
also designed to identify the role of school leaders in development and implementation of the
PRONAFECYT initiative. Finally, the study explored how schools have or have not restructured
their educational programs by focusing on sharing of leadership and instructional practices.
The findings were based on analysis of data collected via interviews, observations,
surveys, and the literature review. Having participants from various settings such as government,
business, university, and primary schools provided a thorough picture of the current state of
education in Costa Rica related to PRONAFECYT, as well as desired learning outcomes and
recommendations that are discussed in Chapter 5.
The research study results are reported in the order of the four research questions:
1. What is the role of educational leaders and teachers in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools as measured by the level of participation in PRONAFECYT?
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3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in PRONAFECYT affected instructional practices?
This chapter begins with an overview of the target school, as well as the others schools
involved in the case study. Next, a description of the participants involved in the study is
presented. For the majority of the chapter, the themes are presented that emerged from the data
collection and analysis for each research question. The chapter concludes with a summary of the
findings.
Brief Overview of the School
Escuela Universitaria (pseudonym), in the Region Nacional of Costa Rica, is located in
the middle of a neighborhood in a fairly affluent area of the city and educates students in Cycles
1, 2, and 3. The school includes general education and special education students. Two visits
were made to the school for data collection due to the split schedule and the need to observe and
interview participants in both Cycles 1 and 2. The local science fair had occurred 15 days prior to
the research team’s visit, and remnants of the fair were visible around the school, especially the
large bulletin board displaying student work and specific information about the winning projects
from the local fair. Some of the student work displayed included primary student drawings of the
process of their fair projects. Escuela Universitaria has had success in PRONAFECYT in the
past, with students making it to the national level, but information regarding how many and
exactly when was not discovered. There was no response to inquiries made to the director after
the visit.
At Escuela Universitaria, participation in PRONAFECYT is not mandatory for every
student, but it is promoted throughout the year, making students aware of and interested in
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contributing. Each primary classroom participates, so the school boasts a 100% participation
rate. Each of these classes is asked to participate in the local science fair with two projects. Some
present more, but all primary classrooms participate with at least two projects. Due to changes in
the rules this year, projects from Cycles 1 and 2 will move to the circuit competitive level, when
in the past it was only Cycle 2 and above.
Participants
The participants involved in the study are described in this section. As stated in Chapter
3, participants included members from various sectors in the Costa Rican community, from
government to business to college representatives to schools. A complete list of participants is
included in Chapter 3, Table 1. As explained in Chapter 3, participants were chosen primarily
through purposeful sampling, while others were added through the snowball effect (Maxwell,
2013; Merriam, 2009). Purposeful sampling was necessary to obtain both macro and micro views
of PRONAFECYT implementation. In this chapter, results from the data collected by all
participant groups is included in the discussion of the four research questions and the themes that
emerged related to each question.
Results for Research Question 1
The first research question focused on the role of leadership: “What is the role of
educational leaders and teachers in implementing the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT initiative?” In
this section, an overview of the educational leaders in PRONAFECYT is followed by three
themes that emerged from the data. The first emergent theme was that site leadership is integral
to building the human capital necessary for implementation of PRONAFECYT. The second
theme was that recognition increases motivation. The third theme was that PRONAFECYT
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 87
success requires teacher leadership. The section ends with a summary of the results for Research
Question 1.
Strong leadership and communication are essential for success. The school director has a
very important role in leading the school, but leadership is much broader than that. A strong
director is necessary for the success of a school, but the director cannot be expected to do
everything, and should ensure that key tasks are completed. Delegation to others is necessary
(Fullan, 2014), as discussed in the third theme for this research question. In terms of
PRONAFECYT, leadership begins at the macro level with the government leadership and
narrows to the micro level of the teachers leading students through the inquiry process. All levels
of participants are important to the process, but the researcher found that the director and lead
teachers had the greatest impact on the success and implementation of PRONAFECYT, based on
survey and interview responses.
Site Leadership Is Integral to Building the Human Capital Necessary for Implementation
of PRONAFECYT
The theme of site leadership being integral to building human capital necessary for the
implementation of PRONAFECYT sounds immeasurable but is very specific. This theme can
best be defined as the role of the site leader in implementing PRONAFECYT through working to
empower those around him to build their capacities to succeed. Part of that task entails finding
the right people to implement the vision and rules and providing them with the resources, tools,
and time to accomplish the task. The information presented in this section reviews the Bolman
and Deal (2008) leadership framework by comparing the director at Escuela Universitaria to the
leadership frames described by Bolman and Deal. Next, a review of the survey data related to the
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 88
role of the school director is offered, followed by supporting comments from the interviews and
a summary of the theme.
The director at Escuela Universitaria, Jorge Lopez, demonstrates two of Bolman and
Deal’s (2008) leadership frames in his leadership of PRONAFECYT. He first demonstrates the
human resource frame in how he builds the teachers within the school, as well as how he
includes students and the community in his celebrations of PRONAFECYT. This supports
Fullan’s (2014) position that the main role of the director is to build the social capital of teachers.
Building their social capital through relationships increases the social capital of the school and
community. At the same time, the director demonstrates Bolman and Deal’s (2008) political
frame as he works to include the community in the activities of the school. He has great
participation in the mini local fair leading up to PRONAFECYT, a government-run program. He
knows what to say and do to keep his school motivated and involved. With all of the particular
rule and regulations related to the science fairs, use of the structural frame is sometimes
appropriate. This is particularly important in planning local fairs and ensuring that the people
whom he has empowered follow the rules. Utilizing multiple leadership frames, the director has
been successful at receiving assistance for the fairs, as well as strong participation by students.
Responses to the surveys indicated that 28 of 28 participating adults, including
government officials, business partners, schools directors, and teachers, strongly agreed or
agreed that the school director plays a crucial role in ensuring that teachers implement
PRONAFECYT. Tables 2 through 5 present the responses related to the school director and his
role in implementation of PRONAFECYT. Interviews also revealed that leadership is necessary
for successful participation in PRONAFECYT.
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Table 2

Responses to the Survey Item: The School Director Plays a Critical Role in Ensuring That

Teachers Implement the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT)

Government Business School
officials partners directors Teachers
Response (n = 7) (n = 3) (n = 3) (n = 15)

Strongly Agree 5 3 2 8
Agree 1 0 1 5
Disagree 0 0 0 0
Strongly Disagree 1 0 0 1
Not Sure 0 0 0 1

Table 3

Responses to Survey Item: Teachers Need the Support of the School Director to Fully and

Effectively Implement the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT)

Government Business School
officials partners directors Teachers
Response (n = 7) (n = 3) (n = 3) (n = 15)

Strongly Agree 6 3 3 10
Agree 1 0 0 3
Disagree 0 0 0 1
Strongly Disagree 1 0 0 0
Not Sure 0 0 0 0

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Table 4

Responses to Survey Item: The School Director Elicits Teacher Feedback to Improve

Implementation of the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT)

Government Business School
officials partners directors Teachers
Response (n = 7) (n = 3) (n = 3) (n = 15)

Strongly Agree 2 0 2 8
Agree 0 0 1 5
Disagree 2 0 0 1
Strongly Disagree 2 0 0 1
Not Sure 1 3 0 0

Table 5

Responses to Survey Item: The School Director Communicates the Purpose and Urgency of the

National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT)

Government Business School
officials partners directors Teachers
Response (n = 7) (n = 3) (n = 3) (n = 15)

Strongly Agree 0 0 1 5
Agree 2 2 2 6
Disagree 3 0 0 2
Strongly Disagree 1 0 0 2
Not Sure 1 1 0 0

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 91
Twenty-six of 28 of the people mentioned above strongly agreed or agreed that the
teachers need the support of the school director to fully and effectively implement
PRONAFECYT. As shown in Tables 2 through 5, survey results also revealed that as, one moves
from the micro up to the macro level, the specifics of the school practices are unknown to those
not directly in the schools. This became evident in the survey questions identified in Table 4
regarding teacher feedback provided by the school director to improve implementation and how
the school director communicates the purpose and urgency of PRONAFECYT.
For improvement of PRONAFECYT, feedback is needed. The business leaders
admittedly were not sure whether feedback from teachers was solicited but, as seen in Table 5,
two of the three business leaders agreed that the director communicates the purpose of the
science fairs, with the third person not sure rather than dissenting. The uncertainty of information
shows that the business leaders surveyed were outside entities and not direct partners working
with the teachers, although they may be working with the school director on a community level.
The government leaders provided much more varied responses to the survey questions, with only
two of seven government officials agreeing that the director elicits feedback or communicates
purpose. Although there are assistant directors at the school, the title School Director in the
survey identifies the school principal, who is ultimately responsible for the school and what
happens in it. The director and assistant directors at Escuela Universitaria, along with the
teachers, were much more favorable in their survey responses regarding eliciting feedback and
communicating purpose and urgency of PRONAFECYT. All three directors answered favorably
to both questions, 13 of 15 teachers answered favorably about the school director eliciting
feedback from them, and 11 of 15 teachers answered favorably regarding the school director
communicating purpose and urgency about PRONAFECYT (Table 2).
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 92
The importance of the director is supported through the interview process from the
various stakeholders. The government officials focused on the need for the school director to
bring opportunities and people together related to PRONAFECYT. Sylvia Ulgalde Fernández,
General Consul, stated that the school director “should focus on organizing that program in their
particular school so that kids can participate. Otherwise, they’re closing the doors to those kids
early on.” This idea of bringing opportunities to the students to participate in PRONAFECYT
was supported by other government officials. In his interview, Javier Cambronero described the
need for the school director to motivate families so students can participate and to be clear
regarding expectations that this program is a way for students to improve. Lander Perez, the
legislative counsel for Javier Cambronero, articulated the need for the director to build human
capital when he discussed the need for the right people to be involved in PRONAFECYT.
Nathalie Valencia, director of PRONAFECYT, stated that the principal empowers his teachers
and the teachers who are committed and acquainted with the process motivate their students to
participate in the science and technology fairs. Alicia Porras Vargas, the vice-minister of
MICITT, discussed the type of people whom she believes the leadership should ascertain to work
with PRONAFECYT:
The team that leads the process of science and technology with young people and
children must be people who are committed and these students need to see there is
someone who loves science more than anything else so they may think, “Why is this so
interesting?”
The director is responsible for building the team at his school. Identifying the right
people and creating the team that includes those who love science and think that students are
capable to exceed expectations allows students opportunities to explore, wonder, and expand
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their curiosity. Empowering his teachers and students ensures that the doors to explore and
invent through PRONAFECYT remain open. Through teacher empowerment, the school director
builds the social capital required for successful implementation and participation in the science
fairs program.
The importance of human capital is reinforced through the university connections’
discussion of the need to build Costa Rica’s human resources. Maria Santos Pasamontes,
Director of Estado de la Nacion, Unidad Nacionales, understands the need to build human
resources, especially in science, to create the curiosity and interest cited above. “From the area of
science and technology that has to do in the first place the amount and the quality the human
resource to better tend to the areas of science and technology.” The director promotes his human
capital of his teachers so they can promote the human capital of the students when discussing
participation in PRONAFECYT:
We do this in a democratic way. But it’s also done through incentives, through
motivation, right, through the approach that the colleagues use. So, they motivate the
students. We also motivate the parents of the families because they are a very important
aspect of what is the participation of our home as with the student, for the different
projects.
The quotation above demonstrates the commitment of the director of Escuela
Universitaria to building all people involved in PRONAFECYT to encourage continued
participation by all stakeholders.
The Omar Dengo Foundation also supports the building of human capital through
programs to develop abilities and capacities in teachers to understand the linkage between an
educational project and an end result, which they can then insert into their classroom practices.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 94
As stated in the above paragraph, motivation of families to participate is needed and a
responsibility of the school director for the success of PRONAFECYT at Escuela Universitaria.
Participation in PRONAFECYT is an expectation, not a suggestion, and every classroom
participates in the mini fairs. The director opens the door to the community and has parents
involved in the mini fairs.
The director, assistant director, and teachers also discussed how the school director
promotes success in PRONAFECYT. The director follows the structures of the fairs with the
dissemination of information coming through the proper channels of government to regions to
schools to teachers. He works closely with a group of teachers, including the science coordinator,
to plan the local science fair and allows the teachers to be trained by the science coordinator. He
allows his assistant director to attend meetings with the coordinator to be abreast of changes in
the program.
Eliciting feedback is a team effort by the PRONAFECYT committee at the school. After
the fair, the committee meets and the school director leads them through a process of critically
analyzing their results, identifying areas for improvement, and creating action steps for next year.
Mr. Lopez has built the human capital of the committee through their participation in planning,
executing, and reflecting on the science fairs while allowing them to train the teachers. Monica
Salazar, a fifth-grade teacher, described the director’s role: “He manages the agencies that help
the school, the institution so we can achieve the objective that we’re looking for.” By having a
clear vision, building the structures. and including the right people, the school director moves
PRONAFECYT into the forefront. When he is clear about his expectations, others at the school
can also be clear and support those expectations. Mr. Sanchez commented on the school
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 95
director’s ability to keep teachers up to date with information by sharing communications about
PRONAFECYT, resources, and other general school information.
The theme of site leadership being integral to building human capital necessary for
implementation of PRONAFECYT was presented in this section. Results from survey responses
strongly supported the necessity of the role of the school director in PRONAFECYT
implementation success. The interviews with government officials supported the ideas of
building structures and teams around the fairs. The business leaders added the importance of
building the human capital of the teachers so the program can thrive, even if the director were to
change. The directors and teachers stressed the importance of local structure and support,
including implementing and managing processes. Through the interviews and surveys, the role of
the school director was crucial, but it was also seen that it could not be completed alone. The
director uses the structural frame to create protocols and structures to implement PRONAFECYT
at Escuela Universitaria. His use of the human resource and political frames have connected with
students, parents, teachers, and community leaders who want to continue to see the school
perform well in PRONAFECYT. Through building the human capital of the teachers and
bringing in families as part of the PRONAFECYT activities, the director builds sustained interest
and encouragement in the program.
Recognition Increases Motivation
The second theme to emerge related to Research Question 1 was that recognition
increases motivation. Through survey and interview responses, motivation was cited repeatedly.
Motivation to participate in PRONAFECYT increases when students and teachers have been
recognized for their efforts. First, a review of the literature related to recognition is presented,
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followed by recognition of students and a discussion of how teacher recognition plays a role in
student participation in PRONAFECYT.
Students and teachers relish positive recognition. Whether large or small victories,
recognition for efforts and accomplishments is valued. Kotter (1996) discussed recognition as
one of his eight steps in the process for change management. Recognizing students and teachers
at the local level of PRONAFECYT generates short-term wins that are likely to motivate
students to participate year after year with more in-depth projects. Survey results showed that 12
of 15 teachers and 99 of 125 students agreed that students are recognized for PRONAFECYT
participation at Escuela Universitaria . Table 6 displays the survey responses to the question
about student recognition.
Table 6

Survey Responses About Student Recognition

Government Business School
officials partners directors Teachers Students
Response (n = 7) (n = 3) (n = 3) (n = 15) (n = 125)

Strongly Agree 2 1 2 5 70
Agree 1 0 0 7 29
Disagree 1 0 0 1 9
Strongly Disagree 1 0 0 2 7
Not Sure 0 1 1 0 10
Did Not Respond 1 0 0 0 0

Note. Item for adults: “Student participation in PRONAFECYT is recognized throughout my
school.” Item for students: “My school rewards students when I do projects for the science fair.”
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 97
Students are recognized for participation in the local fair and continue to be recognized if
they continue through the various levels of the competition. As students are recognized
beginning at an early age, they continue to change the culture of the school by being participants
in PRONAFECYT. This continued change feeds into Kotter’s (1996) change process step of
anchoring new approaches in the culture.
It is important to view recognition as provided not only for students but also for teachers.
PRONAFECYT is extremely time consuming and, as students move to the higher levels of
competition, the commitment to the fair process takes increased time from teacher and students.
In the interviews, the focus shifted from student recognition to teacher recognition (Appendices I
and J) and, in the student survey, continued with student recognition (Appendix M). Although
the students’ interview protocol asked about student recognition, no students were available for
interviews due to testing on campus for all students in Cycle 2. The school director decreed that
Cycle 1 students were too young to participate in both interviews and surveys.
With the time commitment to PRONAFECYT, it is important to keep teachers motivated
to incorporate the strategies and fair work in their classrooms. PRONAFECYT is an expectation
for all schools and therefore becomes the responsibility of all primary teachers as they teach all
subjects and there is not a designated science teacher. Since participation is an expectation,
teachers are not compensated monetarily for their work in preparing and guiding students to
compete in the fairs. Ms. Gutierrez, the science coordinator, explained how motivation is
provided for teachers:
The committee does give recognition within the institution to the teachers that have
participated so they are motivated to help us in the following years. Because there isn’t a
financial incentive but that way they are interested in continuing to help in future fairs.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 98
In this instance, recognition moves from the school director alone to the science
committee at the school consisting of teachers and administrators. Being recognized by multiple
people at the school acknowledges the work being accomplished on a broader scale and by a
wider audience. The science committee hopes that teacher recognition from the committee will
remind teachers that their efforts are noticed and that it will help them to want to continue to
invest time for students not only to participate but to do well in PRONAFECYT. Comments
about teacher recognition at Escuela Universitaria were positive from the teachers and the
administration. Mr. Lopez stated that it is important for teachers to be recognized by site
administrators and colleagues but he stated that he would like to see recognition come from
higher levels, as well; he would like to see more incentives for teachers from the governmental
agencies such as MEP. The school director recognized how hard his teachers work to make
PRONAFECYT a success and get their students ready for the fairs and stated that he would like
to see the efforts of his teachers recognized by others. He wants incentives offered to keep
teachers motivated.
In addition to the committee’s recognition described above, the school director provides
recognition of the hard work by those involved in the science fair. Mr. Lopez writes individual
notes to teachers, thanking them for their service and dedication. Those who are connected to
winning projects receive public recognition, as described by Mr. Sanchez, a sixth-grade
mathematics teacher at Escuela Universitaria:
The day of the awards for the winners of the projects and the best project, the teacher is
commended in public as well, along with the students’ family for lending a hand there,
for helping the student in preparing the project and they’re also commended and
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encouraged to continue by the personnel staff as well as the administrative board in
person.
Recognition by the director, teachers, and administrative board in a public setting
illustrates the importance and pride in the science fairs to the entire community. Including
parents in the acknowledgement strengthens the community aspect and home-to-school
connection. Celebrating successes is one of Kotter’s (1996) steps for successful change and
Escuela Universitaria celebrates the success not only of the students but also of those connected
to the students, knowing that they are a part of the recipe for success. When people receive
recognition, they are more likely to remain motivated and continue their efforts, adding to the
depth and number of PRONAFECYT projects each year.
As the science fair had concluded at the time of the data collection, the recognition
ceremony was not observed; however, remnants of the science fair were visible. At the front of
the school was a large bulletin board about the length of three or four large bulletin boards put
together, dedicated to PRONAFECYT. The display was bright and colorful, attracting all ages at
the school. A promotional poster for PRONAFECYT was displayed on a bulletin board adjacent
to the school office. These constant reminders of the science fair demonstrated the importance of
PRONAFECYT at Escuela Universitaria.
Recognition occurs at the school level; however, on a broader level, recognition is
awarded only to those who reach the national fair. All of the government officials who were
interviewed agreed that recognition is an area of weakness and growth for the national level.
Schools spend much time on PRONAFECYT, from thinking of project ideas to helping students,
securing resources, running local fairs, and assisting with the continued work for projects
moving through the levels of competition. At the national level, no economic awards are
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provided, only recognition of where the winning students attend school. Alicia Porras Vargas,
MEP Vice Minister of Education, described recognition in PRONAFECYT:
There is always a recognition, especially at the national level, who is who are the ones
who are winning, not only as far as the project they are presenting, but where the students
are coming from, and that is very important for the school. There is no economic
recognition; there is no special recognition.
Assemblyman Javier Cambronero confirmed the thoughts presented by Vargas that more
should be accomplished in the area of recognition. He stated that recognition is a great weakness
of the program. It takes so much to reach the national level and, even at the national level, only
the winners are recognized publicly.
Although there is no formal recognition program at the national level for teachers, there
is hope on the horizon. Carolina Vasquez Soto, MICITT Vice Minister, is working toward a way
to recognize teachers. Since MICITT works directly the fairs and oversees PRONAFECYT, they
are ones who have identified the need to recognize teachers:
We call [them] “champion teachers.” These teachers participate for a long periods of time
in projects and they take winning projects and they are always mentors for youngsters
that go to the national level. . . . Until now teachers haven’t received a reward for their
work but we want to work on that topic, we know that not all teachers are interested in
fairs, but if we start to see further training, additional prizes for teachers, then we are
going to encourage them to participate.
Some teachers have a passion for the science fairs and thrive and participate year after
year. These “champion teachers” continue to help students to reach high levels of competition
annually. But not all teachers are like that. Recognizing the teachers who are “champion
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teachers” is nice and may motivate some of the teachers who are almost at that level. But
Carolina Vasquez Soto stated that she also wanted to use recognition and reward of new
opportunities as a tool to motivate teachers who may not have the buy-in and dedication
necessary to produce winning projects.
The theme that recognition increases motivation is viewed from both sides through the
survey and interview data presented. Students feel recognized at the local level, and due to
restraints on interviewing students, no additional information was gathered on this topic. At
Escuela Universitaria, the school director and science committee recognize teachers. Although
teachers receive this recognition, it is not enough for large-scale change. Celebrating success is
extremely important, as Kotter (1996) described, in order to make the new behavior part of the
culture. Escuela Universitaria has built a culture around PRONAFECYT but the school director
and the government officials who were interviewed agreed that there is a greater need for
recognition. Local recognition keep the teachers at Escuela Universitaria motivated; however, to
sustain long-term motivation in PRONAFECYT, additional recognition is necessary.
PRONAFECYT Success Requires Teacher Leadership
The third theme was that PRONAFECYT success requires teacher leadership,
empowering teachers at a school to make decisions that will benefit their students and the school
as a whole. Because Research Question 1 addressed the role of leadership, it was important to
identify that leadership comes not only from the school director but includes teacher leaders who
work directly with students and other teachers to make PRONAFECYT successful at the local
level.
In this section, the role of teacher leadership in PRONAFECYT is presented. First, the
literature related to change management is presented to show that teachers should be in the
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forefront of change with students if change is to occur. Next, the needs for Costa Rica’s future
workers is presented, along with their connection to teachers. Finally, empowerment of the
science coordinator at Escuela Universitaria is explored, along with how she navigates Bolman
and Deal’s (2008) leadership frames.
Change takes strong leadership. Although PRONAFECYT has been around for many
years, it is recently mandatory for primary students. In order to make this change successful, this
study looked at how the leaders have used the steps change process identified by Kotter (1996).
Kotter identified eight steps for successful change: (a) establishing a sense of urgency, (b)
creating the guiding coalition, (c) developing a vision and strategy, (d) communicating the
change vision, (e) empowering broad-based action, (f) generating short-term wins, (g)
consolidating gains and producing more change, and (h) anchoring new approaches in the
culture. As PRONAFECYT is always a work in progress, some steps are more established with
some populations.
Leadership for developing skills through PRONAFECYT is important to all levels of
leadership. Assemblyman Javier Cambronero illustrated how the science and technology fairs
build the youth to be innovative, global workers and how the government fosters this role in
education:
Education does not just have an important role associated to overall development, but it
foresees the great opportunity to combine it with science, with technology and with
innovation. . . . We want to be a country that goes hand in hand with science, technology,
and innovation to be able to give a qualitative leap towards development. . . . In the case
of the technological and science fairs, we don’t want it to be seen as an extracurricular
activity but as a binding, strong, and powerful element that also enables the student to
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have the science and technology element included at the time of his promotion to a higher
level.
The Assemblyman’s words illustrate the desire for PRONAFECYT to move from an
activity in the schools to a new way of teaching, thinking, and learning. The government sees
PRONAFECYT as a tool for preparing global and innovative workers of tomorrow. The
Assemblyman may need to spend more time on Kotter’s step of communicating the change
vision. His vision to the research team was clear, but the vision may need more communication
to the educators. Lack of vision was expressed by the teachers in survey responses, with the
respondents divided on the item, “There is a school-wide vision for PRONAFECYT.” Although
the survey item identified schoolwide vision, the national vision must first be understood and
embodied in order for the local visions to be clear, communicated, and understood.
The Omar Dengo Foundation is working to develop the leadership of teachers to prepare
their students for the fairs. Ana Lourdes Acuña, Coordinator of Science; Eduardo Monge, Project
Development and International Relations; and Ana Hernandez, Program Evaluation were jointly
interviewed for this research study. Eduardo Monge described the purpose of the Foundation:
The foundation Omar Dengo is a nonprofit organization that is focused on human
development through education and the use of technology for the development of abilities
of children and also of teachers in their everyday work in the classrooms.
Developing the human capital of teachers increases their knowledge base and comfort
with technology to be used with their students. MICITT and the Omar Dengo Foundation share
knowledge about the fairs to assist all teachers with ideas and resources. To support the ideas
expressed by Javier Cambronero, Ana Lourdes Acuña, Coordinator of Science from the Omar
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Dengo Foundation, also expressed concern for wanting to develop ideas and innovative workers
of the future through changes in education:
We are not generating workers, we don’t want just workers, we want people that do new
things, that they produce, we want innovators, we don’t want technology consumers, we
want software designers, technology producers, creators of new things and those skills
are generated in childhood.
PRONAFECYT is a tool to develop the types of workers and producers described. The
government and business partners understand that the way to develop the students is to develop
the professional capital of the teachers. The students will not learn differently if teachers do not
teach differently. Nathalie Valencia, Coordinator of PRONAFECYT for MICITT, supported the
need to build the human and professional capital:
In the education field we need to empower our students and our teachers to be able to
accomplish that workforce that can succeed in the development of the country. . . . I think
that the PRONAFECYT is a key component to accomplish the workforce but most
importantly to be able to have a citizenship that is more committed with the country, that
is more critical, more creative and eventually to have more students who can develop
more skills that enable them to be competent citizens but also professionals in this field
with a vocation for the scientific-technological or engineering field.
Nathalie understands that PRONAFECYT can be a vehicle for change in Costa Rica. The
skills needed to succeed in PRONAFECYT encompass the skills needed to advance in a global
society. All three of the people above want to empower broad-based action (Kotter, 1996). By
building professional capital, more people are empowered; with a clear vision that is
communicated well, success will be more evident.
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Moving from the macro view to the micro view, the school site is where the changes and
implementation occur. The role of the director was explored earlier in this chapter. For this
discussion, the role of teacher leaders is the focus. Teacher leaders at Escuela Universitaria are
the driving force behind the school’s success in PRONAFECYT. The science coordinators, who
are teachers, oversee training, information, and local fairs at the school site. This empowerment
of the teachers increases their own leadership, as well as the way in which they are viewed by
others on campus. The primary science coordinator must play the roles of both teacher and
leader. As a teacher leader, the coordinator uses many of the leadership frames described by
Bolman and Deal (2008). As the giver of information and procedures, the coordinator uses the
structural frame to ensure that teachers and students meet the rules and guidelines for
participation in PRONAFECYT and uses the human resource frame to build community and
encourage participation in the fairs. Building relationships with the teachers allows teachers to
feel comfortable in asking the coordinator for help. The power of relationships among teachers
can be the driving force behind the movement of a school (Marzano et al., 2005). Ms. Gutierrez,
the primary science coordinator and a second-grade level teacher, explained how she is
empowered to lead PRONAFECYT at her site:
Once we get the information from the counselor, we are called for a meeting, we give
feedback to the other teachers through small training sessions within the school whenever
the director allows for it. There is a pace for everything but we have to ask permission
from the director first. There is a process. At the beginning of the year, when we stat the
school year, we call for, we summon the teachers we hand them the guidelines and
whatever they are going to need for the rest of the year. We give then dates, we go to the
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classrooms, we invite the students, we paste flyers on the halls, we give them all of the
information.
Since PRONAFECYT participation is a government decree, the science coordinator must
be confident in using the political frame as she works with members of the governmental
agencies, university staff, site administration, and the school community. Survey responses
revealed that all seven governmental representatives surveyed agreed that the school director is
integral in supporting implementation of PRONAFECYT, but the role of the science
coordinators and teachers was not explicitly asked in the survey. Through interviews, the focus
on teachers focuses on the idea of their training for PRONAFECYT.
The coordinator of PRONAFECYT for MICITT, Nathalie Valencia, recognized the
importance of the role of the teachers in the success of fairs. “Teachers who are leaders, who are
committed, empowered, who are acquainted with the process, and who motivate their students
since early ages is something critical.” Teacher leaders facilitate learning by all teachers at a
school, which in turn affects learning by all students at the school. If the leaders motivate the
teachers, the teachers will be more likely to motivate the students.
The role of teacher leadership was presented in this section. A review of the literature
about change management showed the need for teachers to be in the forefront of change with
students in order for change to occur. A review of the needs for Costa Rica’s future workers was
presented, along with their connection to teachers, and finally, the empowerment of the science
coordinator and her use of Bolman and Deal’s (2008) leadership frames. Leadership from the
school director alone cannot accomplish PRONAFCYT success. Through empowerment of
teachers, such as the science coordinator, more time can be dedicated to the preparation and
implementation of the fairs.
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Summary
In summary, the role of leadership is essential to PRONAFECYT success. Three themes
emerged from the data for this research question. The first theme was that site leadership is
integral to building the human capital necessary for the implementation of PRONAFECYT.
Review of this theme focused on the importance of the school director and his ability to use
Bolman and Deal’s leadership frames to create teams and structures for PRONAFECYT
implementation. Directors must be able to use the leadership frames to their advantage to
leverage their resources in people and materials. The structural and human resource frames
appeared most necessary within the school in dealing with teachers, parents, and students;
however, the political frame becomes important when dealing with the community to obtain
additional resources for the school and students to use for their PRONAFECYT projects.
The second theme was that recognition increases motivation. This theme began with a
review of the survey data about student recognition and moved to a discussion of the presence of
local recognition and need for national recognition for teachers. People want to know that they
are appreciated for their work, and PRONAFECYT is such a large element of the school that
recognition is respected. Although some recognition is given, recognition from above the school
level is desired.
The third theme in the role of leadership was that PRONAFECYT success requires
teacher leadership. Presented in this theme was a discussion of the need to empower teachers,
specifically the science coordinator, to ensure that all aspects of PRONAFECYT are followed
and provided for the teachers at Escuela Universitaria. Teacher leadership is vital in operating a
school and essential in PRONAFECYT. Without the teacher leadership of the science
coordinator and science fair committee, PRONAFECYT would fail to have participation at all
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the grade levels and could be overlooked by a director who is leading a school with all three
cycles. Effective leadership is not only important; it is critical. Knowing how to choose the right
people to be involved, obtain resources, and keep the staff motivated are all essential elements of
the role of leadership in implementation of PRONAFECYT.
Results for Research Question 2
The second research question focused on comparison schools in the same region in Costa
Rica: “How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools as measured by the level of participation in PRONAFECYT?” Comparing
oneself to another brings insight into the strengths and areas of growth. Whether there is a large
or small discrepancy between schools, there are always learning opportunities. Participation must
be defined. Participation in the local fairs is up to each individual school. Some schools,
especially in the younger grades, have students work together on class projects instead of
individual projects. Participation is also not mandatory at most of the schools. The decree from
the government specifies that all schools must participate, not all students. Once the local fair is
complete, only a set number of projects is allowed to move to the next level, for equal
representation throughout the circuits. Due to this mandate on the number of projects progressing
through the system, the focus of this study is on participation at the local level.
The results for this research question compared Escuela Universitaria with Escuela Colon
and Escuela Central, also from Region Nacional. The discussion begins with a description of the
comparison schools, Escuela Colon and Escuela Central, followed by discussion of the literature
used to compare the schools. Two emergent themes are offered from the results of data analysis.
The first theme was that leadership affects participation and buy-in and the second theme was the
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focus on inquiry and the scientific method in the schools. The section ends with a summary of
the results related to this research question.
Escuela Colon, like Escuela Universitaria, is located in Region Nacional and serves
students in Cycles 1, 2, and 3 (Grades 1–11). However, unlike Escuela Universitaria, Escuela
Colon is located in an urban area of the city. The director, Juan Rodriguez, has been the director
of Escuela Colon for 15 years. Previously, he worked as a circuit coordinator. In the previous
year, Cycle 1 and 2 students had participated in PRONAFECYT but no Cycle 3 students had
competed. In Grade 6, at the end of Cycle 2, the teaching structure changes and teachers become
content specific and teach mathematics and science, or history and Spanish. This information is
relevant to the upper grade that was the focus of this study. In the entry of the school, there was a
small bulletin board for the science fairs, containing two signs. One sign said “Feria Científica,”
the school name, and the year. The other sign said “Participate” at the top and had a picture of
Albert Einstein, along with one of his quotations, “The mind is like a parachute—functional only
if you open it” (translated into Spanish). No student work was displayed and there was no
specific information about the fairs. On another bulletin board was a call for students to create
logos to use in the science fair. At the time of the initial visit, the Cycle 1 and Cycle 2 teachers
were gone for the day; therefore, no classrooms observations were conducted.
Escuela Central is also located in Region Nacional on a busy street. There are no houses
around the school; it is surrounded entirely by businesses. Due to the location of the school, it
was difficult to see where the students lived. On the day of the observation the school was
conducting the local science fair. The outdoor stage was decorated with a science fair logo and
balloons. Two posters were on displayed on the wall: one of Jesus and the other of two men.
Around these posters in large letters were the words, “forgiveness, identity, male, love, gratitude,
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and membership.” These posters and words were displayed because the school was celebrating
the day of the male. All males in the audience were asked to stand at the opening assembly to be
recognized and for the director, Jose Morales, to say a few words about being men and acting as
men should. The bulletin boards around the school and down the halls were brightly colored and
had various displays, from birthdays to topical items, such as the environment in June. At the
beginning of the day all the Cycle 1 students gathered in the quad area for an assembly and to
begin the science fair. Ms. Morales spoke to the students, welcomed our research team and then
the entire audience, along with Mr. Morales, broke into song. After the assembly, the students
went to class and the local science fair began in the classrooms.
As will be evident, all schools have areas to grow but some are farther along the
continuum than others. Some schools demonstrated Kotter’s (1996) steps for successful change
better than others. Communicating the change vision and empowering broad-based action were
lacking at Escuela Colon. Escuela Central has anchored the new approaches to learning into the
culture of the school, and Escuela Universitaria is definitely working on the culture. The greatest
difference between the schools in Kotter’s steps are generating short-term wins. Escuela
Universitaria and Escuela Central celebrated success and recognized teachers for their work,
while this was not apparent at Escuela Colon.
In analyzing the data from the schools, it was important to distinguish the perceptions by
participation levels in PRONAFECYT. Table 7 provides the teachers’ responses when asked
whether there was a high level of participation in the fairs. Although high is a relative term, the
data provide a foundation for analysis and perception of the quantity of students participating.
Through the interviews, the process for PRONAFECYT at each school was disclosed.
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Table 7 reveals some trends among the schools regarding their participation and success.
Escuela Colon has low participation, Escuela Universitaria has moderate to good participation
and has had winners, and Escuela Central has high participation and has gone to the national fair
for the past 3 years.
Table 7

Teachers’ Responses to the Survey Item: There Is High Level of Participation at My School in

the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT)

Escuela Colon Escuela Universitaria Escuela Central
(n = 20) (n = 15) (n = 18)

Strongly Agree 3 (15.0%) 4 (26.7%) 7 (38.9%)
Agree 6 (30.0%) 6 (40.0%) 7 (38.9%)
Disagree 9 (45.0%) 3 (20.0%) 1 (5.6%)
Strongly Disagree 1 (5.0%) 2 (13.3%) 1 (5.6%)
Not Sure 1 (5.0%) 0 (0.0%) 2 (11.1%)

Leadership Affects Participation and Buy-In
The first theme to emerge in comparing the experiences and data from the three schools
is focused on participation and buy-in. When the school director deemed the science fairs to be
important and made that message clear to the teachers and students, the school had more students
participate in the local fair. First, a review of the literature on leadership from Fullan (2014) and
Bolman and Deal (2008) and how the directors of the comparison schools relate is presented,
followed by survey results on the teachers’ perceptions of the importance of the directors in
implementing PRONAFECYT. Next, interview comments evaluating their directors are offered,
followed by a summary of the section.
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Teacher practices are enabled or inhibited by the leadership at the school. In all three
schools, leadership is key to PRONAFECYT participation and advancement. Leadership
includes site leadership, as well as leadership provided by teachers and coordinators. Site
leadership was previously discussed for Escuela Universitaria, and it has definite similarities and
differences to the other two schools. Instructional leadership and teacher empowerment are
demonstrated differently in the three schools.
Directors cannot do everything to ensure that their schools are safe and run efficiently. It
is their responsibility to ensure that everything is completed but it is impossible for them to do
everything themselves. Fullan (2014) stated, “Directors are expected to lead the implementation
of policies that they do not comprehend and that indeed are incomprehensible as a set” (p. 37).
PRONAFECYT is one of many policies that directors must implement. For this reason, directors
build capacity in their teachers and coordinators to carry out specifics while they focus on key
tasks.
Utilizing the various frames identified by Bolman and Deal (2008), each director leads
through his or her dominant leadership style. Through observation, it was evident that the school
directors worked from different frames. Mr. Morales at Escuela Central used the human resource
frame with students and staff, although he was hands off with the research team. He was often in
classrooms, and it was observed by the research team that he spoke with and knew the students.
Throughout the full-day visit at the school, Mr. Morales was seen to interact with students and
faculty at the morning ceremony and throughout the day in multiple classrooms. Mr. Lopez at
Escuela Universitaria was informed about the undertakings related to the science fair and seemed
to lead through a structural and human resource frame. He was structural in that he was part of
the process and obtained what the teachers needed, and human resource in the fact that those
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teachers and parents felt comfortable to talk with him about needs and he knew how to get the
right people involved and chose his science coordinators and PRONAFECYT committee very
carefully. Escuela Colon had a structural leader in Mr. Rodriguez; however, it seemed that he
was lacking the human resource frame. It was evident that relationships were not strong, in fact
strained, during the faculty meeting and the lack of respect for the director was palpable.
The survey data revealed that a greater percentage of teachers at Escuela Colon and
Escuela Universitaria agreed that the director plays a critical role in assuring teachers implement
PRONAFECYT. Table 8 displays the results of the teacher surveys for the survey item identified
above. At Escuela Colon, more than one fourth of the teachers surveyed (5 teachers) either
disagreed or were unsure whether the director is critical to the process, while approximately one
eighth of the surveyed teachers at Escuela Universitaria (2 teachers) and 1 of the 20 teachers at
Escuela Central expressed the same opinion. More than 90% of the teachers (49 of 53) at all
schools agreed that teachers need the support of the director to fully and effectively implement
PRONAFECYT. Regardless of whether the teachers thought that their school had high
participation in PRONAFECYT, the clear majority identified the school director as a necessary
support for a successful PRONAFECYT. The survey data are supported by the results of the
interviews and observations.
Director support can be defined in many ways. In their interviews, the teachers
mentioned support in terms of resources, time for training, and recognition. One example of
support that was mentioned by many teachers was recognition. It was stated in the interviews
that the directors at Escuela Universitaria and Escuela Central both thank teachers and recognize
them for their efforts in the science and technology fairs. Ms. Sanchez from Escuela Central
described how recognition and support include incentives for teachers. These incentives are not
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Table 8

Teachers’ Perceptions of the Importance of the School Director for the National Program of

Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT) by Participating School

The School Director plays a critical role
is assuring teachers implement
PRONAFECYT
Teachers need the support of the School
Director to fully and effectively
implement PRONAFECYT

Response
Escuela
Colon
(n = 20)
Escuela
Universitaria
(n = 15)
Escuela
Central
(n = 18)
Escuela
Colon
(n = 20)
Escuela
Universitaria
(n = 15)
Escuela
Central
(n = 18)
Strongly Agree
7 (35.0%) 8 (53.5%) 10 (55.6%) 15 (75.0%) 10 (66.7%) 8 (44.4%)
Agree
6 (30.0%) 5 (33.3%) 3 (16.7%) 5 (25.0%) 3 (30.0%) 8 (44.4%)
Disagree
5 (25.0%) 0 (0.0%) 1 (5.6%)
0 (0.0%)
1 (6.7%) 0 (0.0%)
Strongly Disagree
1 (5.0%) 1 (6.7%) 1 (5.6%)
0 (0.0%)
1 (6.7%) 2 (11.1%)
Not Sure
1 (5.0%) 1 (6.7%) 3 (16.7%)
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%)

Our director is a conscious person and he uses incentives to help us. They are obviously
not financial it is more like stimulus-response system in the moment where we need
something he is always willing to help us. The stimulus is also done in the form of group
recognition for the work we have done.
monetary incentives but rather the responsiveness of Mr. Morales to the teachers’ needs in
getting things done, as well as publically recognizing the group for their work:
The above quotation shows that the teachers feel appreciated and honored for their work.
Money is not the motivating factor; rather, they value recognition, support, and appreciation for
their work. Mr. Lopez at Escuela Universitaria writes thank you notes to the teachers, and they
are presented with certificates from the committee. Recognition is minimal at Escuela
Universitaria but it is evident. The atmosphere is very different at Escuela Colon. When teachers
were asked about recognition, they stated that teachers are not recognized. The director iterated
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the same sentiment when asked about teacher recognition: “It’s our duty, they pay us for that.
We don’t have to give a medal, or a diploma.” This statement, although factual, shows a lack of
the human resource frame and failure to recognize the need for people to feel appreciated
(Bolman & Deal, 2008). The teachers want to be appreciated for their efforts in helping students
in their science fair aspirations. A little recognition can go a long way in building and sustaining
morale. Ms. Andrade, the science coordinator at Escuela Colon, commented about the lack of
recognition at Escuela Colon:
Here, you can say that this might be something that could be improved because I think
that they just say “thank you” and I think it would be nice to have some sort of
acknowledgement to thank the other teachers for their effort. I mean, some kind of
recognition for their dedication to the students. Yes, we are deficient in that sense.
The director sees the work as the teachers’ duty, and although it is, people want to be valued for
their effort and their work. The teachers do not feel supported or empowered; to them, it is just
another thing to do.
Observations at the schools varied. The director at Escuela Central was very visible to the
school community. He led the morning announcements and celebrations and was visible at recess
and in classrooms throughout the school. The only interaction by the director with the research
team was to say hello. The director at Escuela Universitaria was very welcoming, worked to get
the right people to be interviewed and walked the research team around the school, obviously
proud of the work accomplished. He also welcomed the team to come back on the following
Monday to collect more data. At Escuela Colon, the tone was very different. The director was
unprepared for the research team’s visit and seemed hurried. Little data were collected on the
first visit to the school; on the second visit, the research team observed a faculty meeting. This
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meeting reinforced the duty element of the school and the director’s leadership. The teachers
were uninterested, turned away, and ignore the director as he spoke. Eyes rolled and little
attention was paid to him. When the science coordinator spoke, the teachers gave full attention.
This observation reveals not only a lack of respect but also a lack of positive relationship
between the director and the teachers.
Reviewing the data for Escuela Colon, Escuela Universitaria, and Escuela Central, it is
apparent that leadership, particularly by school director, is important. Escuela Universitaria and
Escuela Central have had science fair projects reach the national level. In fact, Escuela Central
has been to the national level each of the past 3 years and Escuela Universitaria has had national
competitors, as well. Escuela Colon has not had the same success. The leader being part of the
process and recognizing the efforts along the way promotes motivation for teachers and students
to continue to challenge themselves and strive to do more and be better. Effective leaders lead to
better success. As Fullan (2014) stated, directors affect student learning “indirectly but
nonetheless explicitly” (p. 57). Having strong leaders who know how to work with people is
important to leading instructional change and increased participation and success in
PRONAFECYT.
The theme that leadership affects participation and buy-in was found to be relevant both
negatively and positively in the three schools. Support by the school director, specifically his
recognition of the teachers for their work, affects the way teachers approach PRONAFECYT.
The directors at the three schools were described in terms of the literature on leadership.
Teachers’ perceptions of the school director’s influence in PRONAFECYT implementation were
discussed. Director recognition of teachers at each school was reviewed. Finally, a look at the
behaviors of the school director during the research team’s visit was offered. Although specific
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numbers of participation were not found for all schools during the visit, the promotion to higher-
level fairs and the attitudes of the teachers regarding PRONAFECYT at each school revealed the
strengths and weaknesses of the programs.
A Focus on Inquiry and the Scientific Method
The theme of a focus on inquiry and the scientific method evolved from the interviews
and observations. This theme is defined as using inquiry-based instruction and the scientific
method in the classroom for a wide range of instructional purposes, not only for preparing for the
fairs. In this section, a brief reminder about the literature around inquiry and the need to change
educational practice is offered, followed by survey results about the use of inquiry and the
scientific method in the classroom. Next, teachers from both Escuela Central and Escuela
Universitaria commented on how inquiry and the scientific method are at the core of instruction
for their schools. Next, a discussion based on the observations at the two schools shows the
differences in implementation of the practices reviewed, followed by a comparison of the schools
based on the observations. A summary of the section is presented.
Inquiry and the scientific method promote the soft skills of critical thinking, problem
solving, and creativity. Education must change to accommodate for skills needed by society.
Education must prepare students to develop skills in problem solving and critical thinking to be
successful in jobs that do not yet exist (Friedman, 2007; Spring, 2008). Students must
“fundamentally reorient what they are learning and educators how they are teaching it”
(Friedman, 2007, p. 280). The schools that were visited for this research demonstrated their use
of inquiry in terms of preparing for PRONAFECYT, but observations of daily instruction did not
always reflect the sentiments expressed in the interviews and surveys.
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Teachers’ perceptions are important to understand when studying schools because they
give insight into the perceived culture and beliefs of a school. In comparing Escuela
Universitaria and Escuela Central, the first step was to collect information about their
perceptions via survey and interviews. Observations then played a role in finding out how much
of the teachers’ perceptions were reality. Survey results from the site-level stakeholders
(administration, teachers, and students) in the area of using scientific inquiry in the classroom
showed that all of the administrators favorably responded that teachers provide opportunities for
students to engage in scientific inquiry as part of regular instruction (Table 9). Teachers at
Escuela Central had much stronger perceptions on this subject than those at Escuela
Universitaria. At Escuela Central 72.2% (13 of 18) of the teachers strongly agreed, while at
Escuela Universitaria 46.7% (7 of 15) teachers strongly agreed (Table 9). Although nearly 90%
of the teachers at both schools answered this item favorably, the degree to which the teachers
agreed was much stronger at Escuela Central. Table 9 shows that the sentiments of the students
mirrored those of the teachers at the two schools, with more students responding favorably at
Escuela Central.
As the survey results revealed, Escuela Universitaria and Escuela Central agreed that
inquiry is important. Teachers at both schools spoke of the benefits to students in participating in
the fairs, as well as how it has changed their teaching practices. Inquiry and scientific method are
key components to PRONAFECYT; they are changing the way teachers are teaching in the
classrooms during lessons outside of the science fairs. Ms. Hernandez, a first-grade teacher at
Escuela Central, described how using the scientific method in class is making the students
question more and express themselves better. The consequences of using the scientific method is
that students are increasing the level of questioning that they use from an earlier age.
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Table 9

Responses by School Directors, Teachers, and Students to the Survey Item: Teachers Provide

Opportunities for Students to Engage in Scientific Inquiry as Part of Regular Instruction

Stakeholder group and response Escuela Central Escuela Universitaria

School directors (n = 2 and 3)
Strongly Agree 1 (50.0%) 2 (66.7%)
Agree 1 (50.0%) 1 (33.3%)
Disagree 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%)
Strongly Disagree 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%)
Not Sure 0 (0.0%) 0 (0.0%)

Teachers (n = 18 and 15)
Strongly Agree 13 (72.2%) 7 (46.7%)
Agree 3 (16.7%) 7 (46.7%)
Disagree 1 (5.6%) 0 (0.0%)
Strongly Disagree 0 (0.0% 0 (0.0%)
Not Sure 1 (5.6%) 1 (6.7%)

Students (n = 77 and 125)
Strongly Agree 52 (67.5%) 67 (53.6%)
Agree 20 (26.0%) 31 (24.8%)
Disagree 0 (0.0%) 8 (6.4%)
Strongly Disagree 0 (0.0%) 5 (4.0%
Not Sure 5 (6.5%) 14 (11.2%)

It helps them overall to function in a public place, express ideas, do hypothesis, question
the why of things, and seek a methodological way to give a solution to that question. It
has made them more inquisitive.
The curiosity and inquisitive nature of students are encouraged through PRONAFECYT
participation, as well as in the daily routine of class. In order to foster this inquisition, the
teachers have altered their instructional practices. This shift to using inquiry in everyday lessons
has not been a quick change. Using manipulatives allow students to understand concepts and
work with the ideas instead of just learning about them. Ms. Hernandez noted that her
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instructional methods have changed as a result of the fairs to incorporate more hand-on learning
and scientific inquiry in all that she does with her students:
Observation . . . to be able to touch, see, and smell the substance. For example, if we’re
going to study the senses, it wasn’t like before where you would draw something on the
board and that was it. No, now they smell, taste, and touch. They recognize objects like
fruits, vegetables, candies, so they are differentiating things in a more positive, much
more specific, the knowledge we want them to transfer to them.
Even at the first-grade level, students are learning to question what things are and use
multiple forms of data to come to conclusions. Learning these skills at a young age encourages
students to continue their curiosity. As students build the foundation in Cycle 1, they can
continue to develop the skills in Cycle 2. Research becomes a natural part of the class and
students in Cycle 2 want to continue to question and observe to find answers. They do not only
want to read about how something works but rather to see examples or figure it out for
themselves. Ms. Escobar, a fourth-grade teacher at Escuela Central, explained how she has
changed her teaching to provide more inquiry-based activities:
We follow a continuous process of doing research, dynamic activities so they get
motivated when it comes to searching subjects for example. We bring many ideas,
videos, so they can see different subjects and become interested in any.
With younger students, exploration is the key to learning, and the teachers at Escuela
Central are encouraging exploration and inquiry by their students. This exploration builds a
foundation for inquiry that students can continue to develop with more intricate projects as they
progress through school.
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Escuela Universitaria reflects a belief in the need for inquiry-based education and its
benefit for students. Students at Escuela Universitaria who are exposed to inquiry and the
scientific method early continue to want to learn in that manner. Once students participate in
PRONAFECYT and do well, a flame is lit under them and they want to do more projects and
strive to be better each time. Ms. Gutierrez, the science coordinator, expressed her belief that
PRONAFECYT benefits students and has changed instructional practices at Escuela
Universitaria:
More than anything what it does is that it opens the door so the students can explore the
world, so they can explore a new piece of knowledge and that he can communicate it.
Now he can explore the knowledge. . . . He can research and he can come to conclusions
parting from his own knowledge and that he is interested in participating because when
you see the kids that go through one of these processes and they come out winners that
is–they feel that they are in a competition to improve.
Research and inquiry lead to constant improvement. Wanting to explore and improve are
skills that students will carry with them beyond the young grades at Escuela Universitaria to their
secondary schools and future careers. Research is at the heart of the skills utilized to accompany
the curiosity of the students. Mr. Sanchez, a sixth-grade mathematics teacher, used analogy to
describe how his instruction has changed, using inquiry as the basis for all the learning. Teaching
students a formula or giving them right answers is not helping them to learn, but questioning
them and teaching them where and how to find answers is a lifelong skill that will benefit them
forever:
I encourage research the most. I teach science as well as math. So there’s a lot of research
involved in science. I give them a lot of different projects and I encourage them to do
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research, I don’t do the project for them. I combine, I include the parent, the teacher and
the student so they can become persons capable of investigating—it’s like we say here in
Costa Rica, I give them the cane and teach them to fish but I won’t give them the fish. I
like them to do research and they bring to the class different things they have researched,
show me, they ask me what I think, and of course I read it. I review it, I correct some of it
and then I give them other ideas on how to do it but all the same, as long as they do the
research.
This analogy demonstrates how the teacher is creating a culture of inquiry and
investigation while also developing the soft skills for students to be successful not only in the
science fairs but throughout their schooling and their lives. Students must learn to search for
answers and evaluate the sources of those answers. Students are also learning that sometimes it
takes multiple tries to find the answers to questions. Building these skills in primary school will
prepare the students for success in secondary school.
Observations at Escuela Universitaria revealed a mix of instructional methods and
classroom arrangements. Some classrooms had students sitting in pairs so they could collaborate
easily. Student interactive notebooks demonstrated thought and creativity. Instructional
techniques were mixed. Some classrooms had students listening to a guided mathematics lesson,
which was very teacher centric, utilizing stand-and-deliver strategies. The teacher asked
questions to the whole group to elicit feedback, but only a couple of students participated.
Students were not interacting with one another regarding the content of the lesson. In another
classroom, students were sitting quietly in rows, working independently on mathematics
problems while the teacher sat at her desk. No student-to-student or student-to-teacher
interaction was observed. Although this type of instruction was witnessed in multiple
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classrooms, others were more interactive. In one room students were seated in pairs and
interacted. These students were engaged and eager to speak, including in choral response. The
room was filled with projects on the wall, as well as other examples of student work. Additional
observations were difficult because many students were at lunch or testing during the visit.
Classes rotated in and out of the cafeteria, so many classes were observed just before or after the
students ate.
Observations at Escuela Central are difficult to compare to those at Escuela Universitaria
because the day Escuela Central was visited was the day of their local science fair. The research
team observed science fair projects from various grade levels and saw younger students learn
science through manipulation of materials (cornstarch and water). Evidence of PBL and inquiry
was evident at Escuela Central throughout grade levels, especially in the kindergarten
classrooms. In the kindergarten play area was an herb garden using recycled plastic bottles as
containers. The research team was told that the kitchen uses the herbs grown in the garden in
preparing the students’ meals. The kindergarten students were also given opportunities to
document their observations graphically and make predictions. The research team reviewed the
artifacts created by the students, showing their observations over time as well as their
explanations. Items such as shells and magnifying glasses were left in their science stations and
students looked at various items through the magnifying glass and compared them with other
items. Inquiry and the scientific method were very prevalent with this young population.
The Cycle 2 students (Grades 4–6) shared science fair projects. Some demonstrated their
experiments, while others spent time explaining the process. One particular team project
explained how a camera lens works. The team had a board with definitions, process, and results,
as well as a model. They presented to the class and research team and demonstrated their model.
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Other classes demonstrated inquiry and soft skills by creating simple machines from items
supplied by the teacher. Students collaborated to be successful at their task. It was evident that
the students knew how to work together by taking on roles and delegating pieces of the project.
Although the opinions of teachers were similar at Escuela Universitaria and Escuela
Central regarding the idea of inquiry, actual observation of inquiry-based learning varied.
Teachers at both schools participate in PRONAFECYT and work with their students to build
inquiry and curiosity in what they learn. Although no school uses inquiry-based learning for all
instruction every day, more evidence was apparent at Escuela Central. Again, this may be due to
the science fair happening during the observation, but even in the classes that were not
presenting science fair projects, students were working together to solve problems and find
solutions. Interaction between students was also more evident. Although both schools have good
participation and strong leadership in the fairs, the difference in daily instruction may be the
reasons Escuela Central has been to the national level more often and more recently than Escuela
Universitaria.
Results from the theme focused on inquiry and the scientific method were presented in
this section. PRONAFECYT has led to a change in instructional practice at both Escuela Central
and Escuela Universitaria in terms of utilizing more inquiry and the scientific method. Survey
results for Escuela Central were stronger than those at Escuela Universitaria for the use of
scientific inquiry in the classroom, according to teachers and students. These sentiments were
validated by observations by the research team. Through teacher interviews, it was clear that
both schools are working to increase scientific inquiry, but Escuela Central is farther along the
continuum in this area.
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Summary
In summary, Research Question 2 called for comparison of schools within Region
Nacional in Costa Rica: “How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher
practices at less successful schools as measured by the level of participation in
PRONAFECYT?” Two themes emerged from the data related to this question: (a) leadership
affects participation and buy-in, and (b) there is a focus on inquiry and the scientific method.
For the first theme, three schools were compared to show that schools are at various
points along a continuum in terms of PRONAFECYT participation and support from the school
director. Escuela Universitaria was in the middle of the continuum, with Escuela Colon at the
low end and Escuela Central at the high end. Differences in the results were apparent from the
responses to the survey items to the interactions with the directors. The perceptions of the
research team were often aligned with those observed and stated in the surveys. All schools have
room to grow, but the teachers’ perceptions of the director and his influence in PRONAFECYT
participation and success seems to inform the schools regarding where to begin to make changes.
The second theme, regarding a focus on inquiry and the scientific method, allowed for
comparison of Escuela Universitaria and Escuela Central. The schools seemed to be in similar
places on a continuum. Observations revealed the need to continue to work on infusing scientific
inquiry into daily lessons, as well as allowing students to collaborate and solve problems
together. For increased success in PRONAFECYT projects moving to the national level, it was
apparent that students need more practice in working together and solving problems, using
critical thinking and the scientific method. Using inquiry-based instruction consistently outside
of PRONAFECYT will enhance the skills needed for students to imagine and implement their
solutions to today’s problems for future fairs.
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Results for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, “How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to
equip students with 21st-century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in PRONAFECYT?”
In this section, an overview of soft skills will be followed by the three themes that emerged from
the data: (a) soft skills are required for developing innovators for a global society, (b) soft skills
are developed through research, and (c) PRONAFECYT encourages communication and critical
thinking. The section ends with a summary of the results for this research question.
Soft skills are an important topic in this study, as revealed in both the surveys and
interviews. Participants from all levels, from the macro to the micro, identified soft skills as
imperative to success by the students. Some groups identified why the soft skills were important,
others just noticed the change, but all saw their importance. Wagner (2012) identified soft skills
as the five skills that separate innovative from noninnovative individuals: associating,
questioning, observing, experimenting, and networking. Additional soft skills include critical
thinking/problem solving, creativity, collaboration and communication (Wagner, 2008). These
skills are not hard content skills but rather the soft skills that permeate all content and daily life.
Developing Innovators for a Global Society Requires Soft Skills
This theme emerged from both the surveys and the interviews. This theme implies that, to
prepare students who are ready to face the problems of the world in new and creative ways, they
must learn to question, observe, think critically, experiment, and persevere. Students should be
able to communicate their thoughts and findings to others in clear, articulate, and concise ways.
As the world is interconnected through the Internet and business, society is global and students
must be ready to solve problems of the world by working together. The information presented in
this section includes a review of Wagner’s (2008) literature regarding the importance of soft
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skills in the global achievement gap. Survey results report the perceptions and understandings of
soft skills by the various participant groups, followed by supporting comments from interviews.
This section concludes with a summary.
Innovation, problem solving, and creativity are essential skills in the global workforce.
Leaders want employees who seek opportunities, ideas, and strategies for improvement (Wagner,
2008). With the need to develop global workers, education must shift its thinking about the
teaching and learning processes (Wagner, 2008). In the 21st century, companies are looking for
innovators. In order to have innovators, the educational system must give students the
opportunity to develop soft skills that foster innovation. Soft skills include skills that are not
based in content but rather affect performance in everyday life. The ability to think critically and
solve problems in creative ways is important, as well as the ability to communicate the thought
process and findings.
Survey responses indicated that the adults know that soft skills are important and
communicated but students might not be clear on what soft skills are or how they are
incorporated in their classes. While only one adult (from the range of stakeholders, including
government officials, business partners, school directors, and teachers) identified that he was not
familiar with soft skills, 34 of 125 students were not familiar (Table 10). When asked
specifically about the importance of soft skills being discussed in school, only 11 students did
not agree and 9 were not sure (Table 11). Table 12 shows that all adults surveyed agreed that
participation in the science fairs can develop or improve soft skills in students, while 99 (less
than 80%) of the students agreed. Many students who did not agree with the soft skills items did
not disagree but were not sure. The vocabulary used related to soft skills may not be as familiar
to or as widely used with students as with adults, and the student survey respondents ranged in
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Table 10

Knowledge of Soft Skills

Government Business School
officials partners directors Teachers Students
Response (n = 7) (n = 3) (n = 3) (n = 15) (n = 125)

Strongly Agree 7 3 2 8 52
Agree 0 0 1 6 38
Disagree 0 0 0 1 7
Strongly Disagree 0 0 0 0 1
Not Sure 0 0 0 0 26

Note. Adult item = “I am familiar with soft skills (i.e. critical thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication, adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and imagination).” Student item
= “I know about soft skills.”
age from 8 to 12 years. These factors may have resulted in the not sure answers provided by the
students. Tables 10 through 12 show the survey responses by each group to items regarding soft
skills. The tables also show how the student survey items were modified for from the adult items.
Through the interview process, it was evident that developing innovators and global
workers was important to the various stakeholders and that this development could not occur
through content knowledge alone. The participants described how emerging soft skills played a
role in preparing global workers. This theme is viewed herein from the macro level to the micro
level to demonstrate how different levels of Costa Rican society regard the same idea.
Hard skills are important, but even government officials know that soft skills are just as
valuable. The government officials who were interviewed recognized that soft skills were
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Table 11

Importance of Soft Skills

Government Business School
officials partners directors Teachers Students
Response (n = 7) (n = 3) (n = 3) (n = 15) (n = 125)

Strongly Agree 2 1 3 5 75
Agree 5 1 0 6 30
Disagree 0 1 0 1 4
Strongly Disagree 0 0 0 2 7
Not Sure 0 0 0 1 9

Note. Adult item: “My School Director talks about the importance of soft skills and their impact
on student achievement.” Student item: “My teachers talk about the importance of soft skills and
how they will help me do well in school.”
important and reported that they see PRONAFECYT as a vehicle for developing those skills.
Alicia Vargas, Vice-Minister of Education, explained that these skills are needed to develop
global workers for Costa Rica:
In education we see innovation also related to a global citizenship that we are trying to
promote. For us in education it is very important to develop the people who may have the
soft skills and the hard skills that enable them to live and to relate in a country of global
frontiers. For us, in education, innovation must be related to those skills that have to be
developed in order for the people to become a global citizen.
Students need content knowledge as a basis for understanding phenomenon. They also
need to be able to break away from the content knowledge with their understanding to think
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Table 12

Building Soft Skills Through the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs

(PRONAFECYT)

Government Business School
officials partners directors Teachers Students
Response (n = 7) (n = 3) (n = 3) (n = 15) (n = 125)

Strongly Agree 6 1 3 11 69
Agree 0 1 0 4 30
Disagree 1 1 0 0 9
Strongly Disagree 0 0 0 0 2
Not Sure 0 0 0 0 14

Note. Adult item: “Students develop soft skills through participation in PRONAFECYT.”
Student item: “I can improve my soft skills when I do projects for the science fair.”
of new ways to solve real-life problems. They must be able to communicate why and how they
generated new ideas for global change. One avenue that embeds time for students to develop
these skills is PRONAFECYT. Costa Rica’s leader of PRONAFECYT, Nathalie Valencia, noted
the importance of PRONAFECYT in developing the skills that students need to power the next
generation of change:
In the education field we need to empower our students and our teachers to be able to
accomplish that workforce that can succeed in the development of the country. . . . I think
that PRONAFECYT is a key component to accomplish the workforce but most
importantly to be able to have a citizenship that is more committed with the country, that
is more critical, more creative and eventually to have more students who can develop
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more skills that enable them to be competent citizens but also professionals in this field
with a vocation for the scientific-technological or engineering field.
Cultivating critical thinking, creativity, and communication skills through
PRONAFECYT allows students to look beyond their own community to identify how their
projects and solutions can benefit others around them, either locally or in a broader sense. By
incorporating PRONAFECYT at the lower grade levels, students emerge as scientific thinkers
from an early age and do not know any difference as they mature. Nathalie described how
PRONAFECYT can prepare students to compete successfully on the global stage as they move
from students to the workforce. PRONAFECYT offers students the opportunity to build hard
content skills simultaneously with developing soft skills.
The business community participants identified soft skills as essential skills to be
developed by the students. They spoke of the soft skills that students need to learn from the
perspective of businesses looking to hire workers to employ in a global society. Mary Helen
Bialas, Senior Program Manager for the Council for the Promotion of Competitiveness, shared
her thoughts about soft skills:
[PRONAFECYT] is creating the interest in science. It’s giving kids an opportunity to
explore with their hand and use their hears to be really innovative . . . this is really
developing a workforce. A future workforce and future scientists and future economy of
the country . . . it’s an area where kids actually innovate.
PRONAFECYT offers students time and opportunity to think creatively for innovative
solutions, rather than thinking in a prescriptive manner. Creating the scientific technologies of
tomorrow through this innovative practice will build Costa Rica’s economy and professional
workforce. Maria Santos Pasamontes, research coordinator for the State of the Nation program,
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supported Mary Helen’s remarks as she included specific skills such as observation and problem
solving, along with innovation. She shared that “promoting thinking abilities” are necessary for
science and technology fields. As Costa Rica wants to develop in the science and technology
workforce, developing the soft skills will help students to cultivate their hard content knowledge
without giving up.
At the school site, administrators were concerned with developing innovators and global
workers of the future. Mr. Lopez, Director at Escuela Universitaria, explained how the fairs
benefit his students:
Our students have to adjust to the global dynamic of the society. And how do they adjust?
Through the processes of the teaching and learning that they receive . . . the science fair
program strengthens part of the identity; part of the formation of the student with what he
does daily. We have to adjust ourselves to come into the future. We live in the present but
we need to prepare for the future, mainly in the technological part.
The teaching and learning process is changed with implementation of PRONAFECYT.
Students must be flexible when researching, experimenting, and trying new technologies.
Identity development is not a hard academic skill, but it is important to the future of society.
When students have the opportunity to think like a scientist, develop skills in science content,
and develop soft skills, they build confidence to try more challenging projects in the future. This
persistence contributes to development of tomorrow’s global workers. While the school director
cited the broad importance for learning soft skills, the assistant director, Dionna Oviedo,
identified specific ways in which students’ soft skills are preparing them for their futures. “The
change is very noticeable in them. They are much more analytical, they like to investigate, they
are not satisfied with what the teacher tells them, they go out and they investigate.”
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Students take ownership of their learning and become more investigative by nature
through PRONAFECYT and in daily instruction of their classrooms. The students have learned
that they can find answers and think critically about the information being given to decide how
they will process the information. The students build on their natural curiosity instead of having
it stifled in the classroom.
The theme that developing innovators for a global society requires soft skills was
presented in this section. Results from survey responses showed that most participants knew that
soft skills were important to the education of the students. The interviewees from the business
community talked about soft skills and the necessity to develop content experts needed to
improve the global workforce of Costa Rica. Site administrators said that they see how the soft
skills benefit students and how teaching and learning are changing due to PRONAFECYT.
Developing soft skills, as well as content knowledge, is essential to preparing global workers.
Although the teachers saw soft skills as an important benefit of PRONAFECYT, they did not
particularly address the global citizen perspective; instead they described direct classroom
implications and instructional strategies that will be presented in other themes for this research
question. PRONAFECYT and changes in attitudes offer students opportunities to build on
knowledge, investigate for themselves, and communicate their thinking to others. Through this
process, students creatively exhibit their knowledge and innovatively think about the solutions
for tomorrow.
Soft Skills are Developed Through Research
The theme that site skills are developed through research emerged from interviews.
Survey results indicated the importance of the knowledge level for soft skills. Through the
interviews that followed, specific skills and explanations of how students developed these skills
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emerged. This theme is defined as looking at research as a vehicle or tool by which students have
an opportunity to develop and master soft skills such as communication through sharing what
they have found to perseverance through their efforts to find information when it is difficult. In
this section, excerpts from interviews from business partners, schools directors, classroom
teachers, and government officials indicate their perceptions of the importance of research in
developing soft skills and the global citizen of tomorrow.
Research is the primary tool for developing the soft skills described by Wagner (2012).
Through research, students question, observe, and experiment. As they move through the various
levels of PRONAFECYT, they network with students and teachers from other schools, regions,
and countries. Business partners see PRONAFECYT as a method for students to increase their
research skills and the depth of their products concurrently. While many business partners
discussed the soft skills and how they help students to think or observe like a scientist, the
partners from the Omar Dengo Foundation explicitly made connections between PRONAFECYT
and research in developing soft skills. Ana Lourdes Acuña, Coordinator of Science for the Omar
Dengo Foundation, stated that, to create the scientists of tomorrow, scientific research must be
included in the education of the youth today. In their work with teachers, the Omar Dengo
Foundation is helping teachers to escalate the level of research conducted by the students:
The focus of all of the science projects we have—have gone to strengthen the
development of research. The students research abilities. We believe that the program
conceived as the possibility that the kids have to work in scientific research is marvelous.
That is the project that we wish to strengthen. We have to propel it.
Helping teachers to understand the entire research process and how to help students
strengthen their research skills so they can use the scientific research process will not only
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strengthen the work from the fairs; it will help students to develop skills of observation and
persistence through a scientific lens. Ana Hernandez, Program Evaluation for the Omar Dengo
Foundation, also cited the importance of teaching students the entire research process; she put it
in the context of developing soft skills from a young age, which encompasses the age group of
students included in this study:
We are working since the kindergarten and primary school we are working to develop
skills, skills and abilities for science . . . . If we do a good work in kindergarten and
primary school then in the high school we are going to have a better scientific thinker
because . . . they are going to have the conditions to be a good investigator, a good
scientific thinker.
Starting early, in the primary grades, to develop skills and a scientific mindset through
research and PRONAFECYT is important to building a culture of research and investigation. As
students learning the skills of observation and questioning through research, they also learn how
to communicate their findings and collaborate with others in the process. These soft skills are all
components for conducting effective research.
At the school level, the research process is scaffolded for the students appropriately.
Exploration is encouraged in the classroom and varies depending on the developmental level of
the students. The science coordinator at Escuela Universitaria, Ms. Gutierrez, explained how the
scaffold works for primary students:
We all work on the research method. It has four phases so then—well, it also depends on
the level of the student. . . . If they are in the first grade, of course we have a concept
where they are acquiring knowledge in a more concrete manner. In the second Cycle 1
that knowledge has been obtained then we can work a little more on reasoning.
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In the lower grades, students learn to find information, which takes perseverance,
technology skills, and communication skills to ask for help when they cannot find what they
seek. In the upper primary grades, students can learn to think about research and begin to think
critically about the information that they discover. These skills are embedded in the curiosity of
the students, as they find information for themselves and their classmates. Using the four
research processes in class verifies the shift from a teacher-centered classroom to a student-
centered culture. Students question, observe, and experiment as appropriate to their
developmental readiness.
At Escuela Universitaria, research has become a part of instructional practice. In the
classroom, the teachers encourage the use of research. Mr. Sanchez’s fishing analogy explained
it best: “I encourage research the most. . . . I read it, I review it, I correct some of it and then I
give them other ideas on how to do it but all the same, as long as they do the research.” The
teacher facilitates the students’ learning through research and assists them but works mostly on
developing the students’ skills in researching information. Mr. Gonzalez, the secondary assistant
director, also noted the research component as central to the school in all cycles. “The teaching
practices that [teachers] use firstly are research.” Using the scientific approach and research is
developing the soft skills of the students and the teachers, and teachers must let students make
mistakes and learn from them. The use of technology for research provides students with up-to-
date information, as well as broader resources.
Government officials also saw PRONAFECYT as a tool for developing the soft skills of
critical thinking, communication, and others. Carolina Vasquez Soto, Vice Minister of MICITT,
stated the importance of teachers using research in the classrooms as a vehicle for tapping into
student curiosity while developing lifelong skills:
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So how are you going to handle curious kids if you are completely scared of curiosity? So
it is important to base your training in curiosity and research, additional topics and ask
questions, but it is necessary to train teachers, some of them repeat the scientific method
because they know it by heart, but they do not apply it to take decisions that have nothing
to do with experiments.
Carolina explained that the scientific process is not only for experiments, although that is
the way students learn the process. As students use the process and it becomes internalized,
students will research, question, associate, and think critically about decisions outside of science
or the fairs in general. Santiago Núñez Corrales, Director of Research and Technology
Development at MICITT, expanded on Carolina’s thought about research, viewing it from
another perspective:
But one of the secondary consequences of science fairs should be that people could
distinguish good reasoning from those, which are not, and those, which are not reasoning
at all. . . . One of the ways is through the skills acquired in science fairs, so with this we
get the necessary skills to find a reasoning that doesn’t make sense and that makes the
democratic process stronger.
As students become more proficient in using the scientific research method, they will be
able to evaluate decisions and information through critical thinking and research. Although this
happens above the age of the students in this study, the foundation skills are being set forth at the
primary level. Lander Perez, assistant to Assemblyman Javier Cambronero and former science
regional lead, discussed the importance of the science fairs for students to display and
communicate their research to others. By communicating their research to a public audience,
they are practicing soft skills while explaining that “learning that takes processes.” Seeing the
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projects and research through the eyes of the students as they communicate their results “could
be the first step of many more in a linked to research life, linked to the science.” The process of
research for PRONAFECYT is important and beneficial, not only for this project but for students
to learn to develop understanding of the world around them and the skills needed to succeed in it.
In a global society, it is crucial that students develop soft skills through research. Students
must be able to find information, solve problems, experiment, and try again. Students learn
perseverance as well as other soft skills through the scientific process. Research enables the
process of students learning both hard and soft skills. The role of research in developing soft
skills in students was presented from the perspectives of the business community, the school
community, and the government officials. All three groups explained why research is important
not only to the development of the students now but to their growth as they reach adulthood and
become active citizens. The business community understands that, in order to increase the
research abilities of the students, they can help teachers to develop their research skills and share
winning projects that use the entire scientific research process. The school personnel identified
the need to scaffold research to be age and developmentally appropriate for students, while
knowing the importance of introducing research at a young age. The government officials
identified research from the science fairs as a necessary foundation for building future citizens
who will question, think critically, evaluate, and continue research to find answers to the
problems of tomorrow. Soft skills are embedded in research, so beginning research at a young
age allows students to begin developing their soft skills early.
PRONAFECYT Encourages Communication and Critical Thinking
The theme that PRONAFECYT encourages communication and critical thinking
demonstrates two major skills that are enhanced and developed through participation in
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PRONAFECYT, especially over an extended period of time. This theme emerged from both the
surveys and interviews with the various participant groups. As Research Question 3 is about soft
skills, it was important to identify soft skills that are explicitly connected to PRONAFECYT
participation. A review of the literature about soft skills is followed by a discussion of survey
results and interview comments related to communication and critical thinking.
The P21 (2009) identified a framework for educators to assist students in developing
skills, knowledge, and expertise needed to succeed in the new era: critical thinking, problem
solving, communication, and collaboration. The framework stated that content is important but
does not make up the entire sphere of information needed by students in a global society.
PRONAFECYT give students the opportunity and experience to develop these P21 skills,
especially in the areas of communication and critical thinking.
All groups of study participants mentioned the importance and need for communication
and critical thinking. Survey results reflected perceptions of the importance of soft skills and
their implementation in the educational system. Table 10 showed that 26 of 28 of adults,
including government officials, business partners, school directors, and teachers and 99 of 125 of
students agreed that participation in PRONAFECYT develops soft skills. Tables 13 and 14
display survey results for the items related to teacher training, collaboration through PBL, and
development of soft skills through PRONAFECYT participation. Table 13 shows that 13 of 15
teachers and 100 of 125 students responded favorably to the item stating that students solve
problems in class using PBL and collaboration. Table 14 shows that 9 of 15 teachers reported
having received training on how to integrate soft skills into their classrooms. These responses
support the theme that PRONAFECYT encourages communication and collaboration.
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Table 13

Responses to Survey Item Addressing Utilization of Project-Based Learning (PBL)

Government Business School
officials partners directors Teachers Students
Response (n = 7) (n = 3) (n = 3) (n = 15) (n = 125)

Strongly Agree 1 0 3 8 79
Agree 1 0 0 5 21
Disagree 3 1 0 0 15
Strongly Disagree 0 0 0 1 2
Not Sure 3 2 0 1 8

Note. Adult item: “Teachers utilize project based learning (PBL) in their teaching.” Student item:
“My teachers have us work on group projects where we solve problems and work together.”

Table 14

Responses to Survey Item: I Have Received Training on How to Integrate Soft Skills in the

Classroom

Government Business School
officials partners directors Teachers
Response (n = 7) (n = 3) (n = 3) (n = 15)

Strongly Agree 1 0 1 5
Agree 4 2 1 4
Disagree 1 0 0 4
Strongly Disagree 0 0 0 1
Not Sure 0 1 1 1

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After looking at the results of the survey items, it was important to delve further into the
perceptions of the participants through interviews to see how communication and critical
thinking are supported by participation in the fairs. The importance of communication and
critical thinking was identified as imperative at all levels. Participants from all groups identified
the need for students to develop these skills, and they stated that they see PRONAFECYT as a
vehicle for developing and increasing mastery of these skills. Alicia Vargas, Vice Minister of
MEP, described the fairs as a way for students to develop the skills of communication and
critical thinking while also improving their content and academic skills. She described
PRONAFECYT as the integration of many content and skills, rather than isolated blocks of
learning:
The fairs, they become an opportunity to develop not only the science skill or the
technological skills, but also some soft skills like how to communicate, how to dialogue,
how to defend your work and how to make what you are presenting more interesting,
more creative. In that way the educators not only play a role of supporting an event,
which is a science fair, but also to improve in their students different types of skills and
hard skills, and academic skills and soft skills.
In her identification of the communication skills identified by Carolina, she also
addressed critical thinking skills. As students defend their work, they must think critically to find
argument and support for their work. Finding interesting ways to communicate and present their
findings includes critical thinking and creativity. Other government officials saw the fairs as
opportunities to expand students’ soft skills but Nathalie Valencia, director of PRONAFECYT,
described how her work with the fairs can lead to improving the communications field and
scientific fields by working now to strengthen the curriculum used in the fairs:
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[Strengthening the curriculum] could improve the competitions, not only in the scientific
field, but also in the communication field, in the development of their thinking, and we
could motivate students to focus their vocation in the scientific or technological field.
In looking for ways to improve the PRONAFECYT experience for all, Nathalie
mentioned that improving the curriculum used for the fairs could improve critical thinking, as
students become more scientific and better communicators as they experience deeper learning
and share their results with others. MICITT is not the only organization that understands that
change is needed to develop communication and critical thinking skills. At the university level,
Alejandrina Segreda-Mata, Dean of Primary Teacher Education at UCR, stated that teachers
must develop in themselves the skills that they want the students to learn. She talked about the
importance of critical thinking and identified a new plan for training teachers based on a critical
thinking model. Teaching the future teachers using a critical thinking model demonstrates to
teachers how to teach their students in the same fashion.
Another university perspective came from Maria Santos Pasamontes, who cited problem
solving, among other skills, as important in addition to hard content skills. Using inquiry and
problem solving demonstrates and develops critical thinking skills that are necessary to be a
competitive global worker.
Those outside of education also envisioned developing these soft skills through
PRONAFECYT. The business partners discussed the importance of students building
communication and critical thinking skills. Vanessa Gibson, Director of Corporate Development
and Investment Climate at CINDE, stated that development of these skills, along with other soft
skills, is a missing link in Costa Rica’s educational system. She stated that in a global market
people must be outgoing and able to communicate. She identified STEM education, including
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PRONAFECYT, as a way to begin to make these changes. Another business partner, Mary
Helen Bialis of Consejo de Promocion de la Competividad, identified the science fairs as an
opportunity for students to build both hard and soft skills:
The science fair projects and their science fair activities as well as other type of project-
based activities that they might do, this is the opportunity for kids to actually do
something that challenges them and it helps develop the 21st-century skills.
Given the challenging nature and inquiry-based nature of PRONAFECYT, students are
given opportunities to think critically. Bialis specifically identified soft skills, including critical
thinking and teamwork. For effective teamwork, students must develop communication skills to
know how to communicate their thoughts and defend their positions. Through the fairs, students
grow these skills. The Vice Minister of Education, Alicia Vargas, affirmed that the fairs develop
important soft skills, especially communication and critical thinking. It is clear that content
knowledge is important but it is not everything. Learning to take a position and defend it requires
one to think critically to decide on a position communication skills are required to articulate the
position and the defense. Dialogue is another important communication skill, as it is necessary
when working together, either now in school or in future employment.
The faculty at Escuela Universitaria also saw the importance of developing
communication skills in students. The fairs give students opportunities to explore new ideas and
new solutions to existing problems, but they also require that students develop communication
skills to convey information to others. Ms. Gutierrez, science coordinator and second-grade
teacher, explained how PRONAFECYT benefits the soft skills of her students:
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When you work with research . . . because of the science and technology program, more
than anything what it does is that it opens the door so the student can explore the world,
so they can explore a new piece of knowledge and that he can communicate it.
Research is important, but the ability to communicate the learning, the outcomes, and the
process, build confidence and public speaking skills. The younger that students work on
communication, the easier and less anxious they will be later in communication with others. Ms.
Salazar, fifth-grade teacher, expanded on the need for communication skills:
It helps them beat the fear and be able to expose themselves, that they can express and be
the true owners for a moment, the ones who know, so that without any fear they’re able
to stand before adults and express what they have worked on. And they do it properly too,
with a lot of enthusiasm.
The ability to express themselves and explain their thinking allows students to be the
owners of their learning. They build confidence as they explain what they did, why they did it,
and how the ideas came to be. In the primary grades it is important to introduce students to these
skills so they are not afraid to speak to adults but rather look forward to sharing what they have
learned. The school leaders understand the necessity to build communication skills early by
explaining how the new generation of future workers will need different skills than they learned
at the primary level. Ms. Oviedo, assistant director, explained how education has changed since
his primary school days:
[PRONAFECYT] benefits [the students] so much. Because I come from a generation
where we almost never talked, we came to class, they taught us class and we went back
home. When we went to the university we had a lot of trouble expressing ourselves and
we had a hard time standing up and to be able to make a proper presentation. That is not
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the case with these kids, they have these research tools and they have critical thinking.
They are not embarrassed to stand up in front of the highest authority in the institution
and to express their opinion about different things.
The sentiment by the assistant director illustrates how expectations for students in Costa
Rica are being influenced by the shift in culture. Students are now expected to speak publicly
about issues that they have researched and studied. If students are to feel comfortable in speaking
publicly and defending their work in college and beyond, they need time to learn, practice, and
master these skills while still in the primary and secondary educational system.
Using PRONAFECYT to enhance communication and collaboration skills was address in
this section. The literature from P21 (2009) was reviewed as a framework for identifying skills
needed to develop global workers. Survey responses reflected perceptions from participant
groups in the areas of PRONAFECYT participation building soft skills, teacher training in the
soft skills, and using PBL to build soft skills. Interview comments from all participant groups
identified the importance and necessity of students growing communication and critical thinking
skills and described PRONAFECYT as a vehicle to teach and enhance these specific soft skills.
Summary
Site and system leaders understand that they must equip students with soft skills
necessary to participate in PRONAFECYT. Three themes emerged from the data related to this
research question. The first theme to emerge was that developing innovators for a global society
requires soft skills. Participants agreed that building soft skills as well as hard skills is necessary
for creating an appropriate workforce to be competitive in a global society. Innovation requires
creativity and critical thinking. Students must learn how to think critically about a problem while
looking at it in new and creative ways in order to find innovative solutions. Students definitely
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need content knowledge to tackle the problems; but, without the soft skills, problems continue to
be addressed in the same way instead of in new ways that could result in better solutions.
The second theme, that soft skills are developed through research, demonstrated how
research for PRONAFECYT encourages students to expand their soft skills, not merely
academic and content knowledge and skills. Perseverance, evaluation, and problem solving are
essential skills that students learn by participating in the scientific research process. Students
must learn how to find information and what is already being done in an area to determine
whether their ideas are plausible or grounded in scientific material. The ability to find and
evaluate this information is vital to developing the future workforce who will have to research,
evaluate, and create solutions to problems that are yet to be discovered.
The third theme was that PRONAFECYT encourages communication and critical
thinking. Through interviews, it was clear that PRONAFECYT gives students the platform to
emerge not just as content experts but also as confident young men and women who can
articulate their research and thinking processes. Using research processes to develop their critical
thinking skills, the students must then take their learning one step farther and communicate.
Although communication does not increase content knowledge (hard skills), it is invaluable to
developing the next generation of prepared global workers. One can have amazing ideas but,
without the ability to communicate them to various audiences, the ideas remain the ideas of one
and not the solution by many. Soft skills, including critical thinking, communication, creativity,
and collaboration, are not only important to Costa Rica’s success but critical to the evolution of
the workforce from skills based and knowledge based to idea based. Becoming a country that
creates solutions rather than simply implementing solutions by others requires development of
soft skills in youth during their time in Cycles 1, 2, and 3.
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Results for Research Question 4
Research Question 4 focused on what happens in the classroom: “How has participation
in PRONAFECYT affected instructional practices?” An overview of how instruction has
changed is followed by discussion of two themes that emerged from the data. The first emergent
theme was that inquiry-based learning, such as PBL, is utilized in classrooms to support
PRONAFECYT. The second emergent theme was that a culture of exploration and inquiry
guides instruction.
Instruction has shifted to a more student-centered format due to PRONAFECYT
participation. Although there is always room for improvement, inquiry-based learning has
become much more engrained in the school culture. This shift in instructional methods is
supported through research. Wagner (2012) described this need for new thinking and new
approaches:
Increasingly in the twenty-first century, what you know is far less important than what
you can do with what you know. The interest in and ability to create new knowledge to
solve new problems is the single most important skill that all students must master today.
All successful innovators have mastered the ability to learn on their own “in the moment”
and then apply that knowledge in new ways. (p. 142)
Recalling facts and figures is not as important as it once was. Students need to learn how
to solve problems, work together, and find answers for themselves so they are prepared for the
workforces that they will enter. Research Question 4 focuses on how teachers have adapted their
teaching styles and strategies to develop students who are ready to be the global workers of
tomorrow.
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Inquiry-Based Learning (PBL) Is Utilized in Classrooms to Support PRONAFECYT
The first theme to emerge from the data was that inquiry-based learning, such as PBL, is
utilized in classrooms to support PRONAFECYT. Through survey and interview responses,
inquiry-based education arose as a necessity for supporting PRONAFECYT participation in the
classroom. The theme is defined as an instructional approach in which students are in control of
their learning by using questioning and investigation to find answers and increase their content
knowledge. A review of the literature about PBL, an inquiry-based approach, is followed by a
discussion of how instructional practices have changed and how PBL is used in the classrooms.
PRONAFECYT encourages students to explore a problem or idea of their choosing. This
exploration of a student’s curiosity leads to more curiosity and thus further development of the
skills addressed in the previous research question. PBL is a technique that moves from a teacher-
centric classroom to a student-centered approach to real-world problem solving. PBL begins with
the end in mind, referring to a clearly defined end product (Yetkiner et al., 2008). STEM PBL
has been described as a well-defined outcome with an ill-defined task (Stearns et al., 2012). In
the inquiry-based classroom students are given the opportunity to explore and experience their
learning rather than given information in more traditional approaches. With the nature of STEM,
PBL offers the vehicle to integrate significant content from multiple areas.
Survey responses indicated that 14 of 15 teachers and 98 of 125 students strongly agreed
or agreed that students engage in scientific inquiry at Escuela Universitaria (Table 15). Favorable
responses emerged with 13 of 15 teachers and 100 of 125 students in students solving problems
in class using PBL and collaboration. Students were asked whether their teachers had them work
on group projects in which they solved problems and worked together. Only 17 of 125 students
disagreed with that statement and 8 were not sure, while the others answered favorably.
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Table 15

Responses to Survey Items Related to Engaging in Scientific Inquiry

Government Business School
officials partners directors Teachers Students
Response (n = 7) (n = 3) (n = 3) (n = 15) (n = 125)

Strongly Agree 1 0 2 7 67
Agree 1 1 1 7 31
Disagree 5 1 0 0 8
Strongly Disagree 0 0 0 0 5
Not Sure 0 1 0 1 14

Note. Adult item: “Teachers provide opportunities for students to engage in scientific inquiry as
part of regular instruction.” Student item: “My teachers often help me learn about the scientific
method through science and technology activities.”
Although survey responses were gathered from all participant groups, support from
interviews and observations focused on the teachers and classrooms in Escuela Universitaria, as
this is where the evidence of instructional practice was apparent.
The teachers have seen the shift in instructional methods to be necessary as a result of the
Costa Rican National Plan. Ms. Gutierrez, science coordinator, explained how the decrees and
information from the government level have forced teachers to shift their teaching practices:
Since 4 or 5 years ago the national plan has changed the science study plan to use a
research method, so we research. So then parting from that we work a lot with projects
that has changed the study plan in our classes a lot. The student now works with projects,
they research in order to obtain knowledge.
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The PRONAFECYT decree from the government has changed the science study plan. It
gives the format and venue to demonstrate these changes. The teachers must now allow students
time and freedom to research content and answers, which demonstrates a shift in instructional
practices. Although instruction must be altered, it must also be appropriate. The younger grade
students also work on projects that are scaffolded appropriately for their age group. Cycle 1 and
Cycle 2 students create projects for PRONAFECYT. The size of the project is not important; it is
building the skills and letting students research, explore, and work together that builds the
foundation for future inquiry and research. Teachers still teach basic skills through the inquiry-
based process. These skills are necessary for development of students’ cognitive skills. Ms.
Salazar, fifth-grade teacher, describes her integration of skills in her projects. “We use summary,
the reading context, because they read, they understand, they do summary, the presentation,
discussions and debate.” All of these skills are incorporated in the projects so students can
continue to build both content knowledge and soft skills as they work to solve problems or
discover solutions. This focus on building skills and presenting projects is encouraged in all
students at Escuela Universitaria. Ms. Oviedo, assistant director and second-grade teacher,
explained the shift in instructional practices and expectations for students:
The way we develop the study plan is now through more research and investigation.
There are subjects that come up and we see that they can be developed for a science fair
so then, of course, more research, more investigation in every sense. . . . In every
classroom we even encourage the kids to present projects, even the kids that have special
needs. We think about a project where the child can perform without feeling bad about
his or her condition.
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The inclusivity of all students exhibits a commitment and the culture at Escuela
Universitaria related to the idea of research and inquiry-based instruction for all students.
Primary students have a natural curiosity, so research keeps students excited and wanting to
learn, regardless of their mental capacities and learning challenges. Students who are exposed to
inquiry-based instruction from the beginning foster their curiosity and spend time on soft skills
while learning the content knowledge necessary to succeed in school and in life.
Unfortunately, observations did not support the perceptions by the teachers. Students
were mostly working independently or testing during the research team’s observations. The
science fair was over, so students were not working on projects for the fair, nor did the team
witness any other projects in the works. On the walls and the bulletin board in front of the school
was evidence of projects through students’ posters, but interaction between students working to
solve a problem was not observed.
According to the faculty and administration, instruction has shifted at Escuela
Universitaria with implementation and integration of PRONAFECYT into the school culture.
Teachers have embraced the idea of facilitating learning using inquiry. Inquiry is utilized in
science fair activities but could be embedded more strongly in other content areas.
The leaders and teachers at Escuela Universitaria stated that inquiry-based learning, such
as PBL, is utilized in classrooms to support PRONAFECYT. However, classroom observations
did not support the responses by the teachers. Multiple teachers discussed how they utilize
inquiry-based instruction and research with their Cycle 1 and Cycle 2 students. With limited
classroom observation time and a short window to conduct the research, it is unclear whether
inquiry-based instruction is in fact utilized in Escuela Universitaria or whether there is a
discrepancy between perceptions and reality of instruction at Escuela Universitaria. Student
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interviews would have benefitted the research for this theme; favorable survey responses led this
researcher to consider that visits were not conducted at an optimal time.
A Culture of Exploration and Inquiry Guides Instruction
The second theme related to Research Question 4 was that a culture of exploration and
inquiry guides instruction. This theme is defined as an emergence of exploration and
investigation as a foundation for instruction and all learning associated at Escuela Universitaria.
This cultural shift is felt by the teachers and experienced by the students. This theme emerged
from the teacher interviews, as they were the study participants who were directly connected
with practices in the classroom. The overview of literature on this topic is followed by a
discussion of how the culture at Escuela Universitaria has shifted to a exploratory model, based
on teacher interview responses.
The culture at Escuela Universitaria has changed from a traditional setting to a culture of
exploration and inquiry. PBL includes inquiry, but exploration and inquiry can be part of any
lesson outside of projects, as well. Exploration and inquiry provide experiential learning
encouraged by Dewey and Vygotsky, with students constructing understandings (Grant &
Branch, 2005; Kaldi et al., 2011; Rosenfeld & Ben-Hur, 2001; Yetkiner et al., 2008). Students
should be given the opportunity to explore and experience their learning rather than given the
information in more traditional approaches. This culture has moved the practices of both staff
and students. Ms. Oviedo, assistant director and second-grade teacher, explained this shift in
culture:
The change in culture is very noticeable. The teacher now researches and investigates and
he makes his students do the same. Science is now applied in a completely different way,
we don’t give the traditional lecture. We don’t make them copy from the board anymore,
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we make them go out and look for answers, to investigate, to turn stones and tear things
or whatever we have here. It’s not much but you do see the kids doing surveys and
knocking on doors.
It is said that lectures and copying from the board have now changed to students
investigating and conducting their own research to find answers. Primary students conducting
research is a shift in instructional practice that has changed the culture of the school, not just one
classroom. Ms. Oviedo explained that students conduct surveys to learn the beliefs and practices
of their classmates to aid them in their investigation and research. One such exploration led to a
winning project at the science fair regarding hand washing. The students articulated not only the
content of their project but also the rationale for the importance of the research:
I asked the children why their project was about washing hands, and I asked them why
they were interested in that? And they said, teacher because when we wait in line to go
into the dining hall we noticed that very few of them washed their hands . . . they were
about to eat.
Students were concerned with hygiene, so instead of assuming that they knew why
students did not wash their hands before they ate, they decided to research the topic. This
particular example of exploration and culture shift led to a science project, although this is not
always the case. The four research processes described in Research Question 3 support the
culture of exploration, as described by Ms. Salazar, science coordinator and second-grade
teacher. “When you work with research, more than anything . . . it opens the door so the student
can explore the world, so they can explore a new piece of knowledge and that he can
communicate it.”
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At Escuela Universitaria, exploration is viewed as a offshoot of research. Students are
able to research and explore topics of interest to them, especially in choosing their projects for
PRONAFECYT. As the teachers shift their instructional practice to a student-centered research
classroom, students are encouraged and enabled to learn about the world around them and to
select areas that truly interest them. Students who have the opportunity to explore interests and
complete the inquiry-based process are more likely to continue to study and remain on the path
to continuous improvement.
The culture of inquiry and exploration is apparent in all classroom at Escuela
Universitaria, and all students are encouraged to participate in PRONAFECYT. All students see
problems and want to find solutions. Ms. Oviedo cited an example of how this culture of inquiry
motivates students, including those with special needs:
The second place . . . is a kid with special needs. He has learning disabilities. . . . Since
February, he told me that he had a project for the science fair . . . that he was motivated
because my students kept forgetting to water the plants in my classroom. So then one day
we would forget to water the plant, so then he told his parents and he brought a model
where the plant, you can add a certain amount of water and she absorbs that water slowly
with the amount of water it needs every day. So then when he told me that, I thought, of
course let’s find a way, let’s research. I told him to research the ways in which the plant
can irrigate itself. He used to bring me photographs and investigation and things he
downloaded from the internet and plants he sowed in his home and little by little we
motivated him to present the project. He was helped with the sign and he was helped with
the presentation because he has language disabilities. So then it is very difficult to
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understand him, so we did that so he could train his voice. That is how we motivate them,
anyone, from the simplest of projects to the most complicated ones.
The student introduced a real-life problem and wanted to create a solution. Ms. Oviedo
expanded on the inquiry and curiosity of the student and supported the investigation of the
problem and possible solutions. Wanting to find answers to questions is ingrained in humans.
This student wanted to find a solution to a recurring problem in his classroom. He investigated,
found solutions, and presented his project. This example illustrates how inquiry-based learning is
honored throughout the campus and how all students are encouraged to conduct research and
solve problems, developing the soft skills described by Wagner (2012) and P21 (2009), such as
critical thinking, communication, and research. Teachers have changed instructional practices
support and develop a culture of exploration and inquiry. The focus on inquiry and research has
moved beyond the traditional classroom into special needs classes at various grade levels.
Utilizing a child’s curiosity has allowed teachers to teach higher-order thinking skills with
content of interest to the students. The curiosity cycle continues and students continue to ask
more questions for deeper understanding of the material.
The theme that a culture of exploration and inquiry guides instruction was presented from
a review of the literature about experiential learning and interview responses from the teachers.
Their responses indicated how instructional methods have changed at Escuela Universitaria due
to the government decrees. This was followed by a discussion of how students are using
exploration and inquiry to find project ideas and solve real-life problems at school, such as hand
washing before meals and forgetting to water plants.
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Summary
PRONAFECYT participation has affected instructional practices at Escuela
Universitaria. Based on the two emergent themes, it was evident that teachers know that how
they teach must be altered to prepare the students for PRONAFECYT and the future. The first
theme, that inquiry-based learning, such as PBL, is utilized in classrooms to support
PRONAFECYT, was clearly positive in survey responses and teacher interviews, although not
evident in classroom observations. Observations may have been skewed due to the timing of the
research team’s visit; however, very little inquiry-based learning was apparent. Teachers
reported that students are conducting more research and using inquiry as a basis for their lessons,
which begs the question of the timing of the visit or a discrepancy in the perceptions and reality
of instructional practices at Escuela Universitaria. The second theme, that a culture of
exploration and inquiry guides instruction, gave specific examples of how exploration and
inquiry have led to PRONAFECYT projects, as well as to more research in the everyday
classrooms at Escuela Universitaria. The exploration of inquiry was evident in the examples that
teachers shared about their students and how questions turned into projects. Not interviewing
students was a limitation for this area; however, due to testing and scheduling conflicts, student
interviews were not possible. Regardless of the extent of change, teachers stated that changes
have occurred and inquiry is permeating instruction beyond the fairs.
Chapter Summary
This chapter reviewed the schools and participants in the study, as well as the findings for
the four research questions based on data collected in Costa Rica. Research Question 1 focused
on the importance of leadership at all levels, from government to site to teacher. The actions at
all levels motivate those around them and it was found that a little recognition goes a long way in
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terms of motivation. Research Question 2 called for comparison of leadership and instructional
practices at multiple schools in the region to identify those that are more effective in leading to
success and participation by students in the science and technology fairs. The findings related to
Research Question 3 verified not only the need for content knowledge and hard skills but the
importance of developing the soft skills that lead to success in everyday life and foster the
creativity and innovation required for a successful future. Research Question 4 focused on
instructional practices necessary to support development of the soft skills mentioned in Question
3: the content knowledge necessary for students to solve real-life problems as they advance
through the grades levels and divisions of PRONAFECYT. The government and business
participants’ views sometimes differed from those of the teachers on the front line of
implementation. By including a range of participants, the research team identified themes and
recommendations to increase participation in the science fairs.
PRONAFECYT participation is a decree from the government intended to shift teaching
and learning at the schools to create the global workers of tomorrow. Costa Rica has shifted its
society from agricultural to technological; in order to keep on the trajectory of remaining a Latin
American hub, changing the education of the youth is necessary. It is time for Costa Rica to
develop the innovators for tomorrow’s solutions. PRONAFECYT is the opportunity for students
to cultivate their curiosity and hone their knowledge and skills so that they can create the global
solutions of the future. Leadership, soft skills, and changing the way students learn are all critical
components for PRONAFECYT to be the vehicle that drives change.
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CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION
The desire for a good job is shared by people everywhere (Clifton, 2011). As stated in
Chapter 1, the World Gallup poll defined a good job or formal job as a job with a paycheck from
an employer and steady work that averages 30 or more hours per week. According to the World
Gallup poll, there are not enough formal jobs for those who want them. Globalization has
changed the type of workers needed and thus altered the type of education needed by students to
be prepared workers in a global society. Leaders want employees who seek opportunities, ideas,
and strategies for improvement (Wagner, 2008).
With the need to develop global workers, it is necessary for education to shift its thinking
about the teaching and learning process. Costa Rica is trying to meet this challenge with policy
and program changes such as the executive decree for students in all grade levels to participate in
PRONAFECYT. In order to do this, schools must change curriculum and approaches to
instruction. Using the scientific process and inquiry-based education, students develop the hard
and soft skills necessary to solve the problems of tomorrow (Capraro et al., 2013; Wagner,
2008). Problem-solving opportunities in an instructional setting allow students to develop,
practice, and revise their skills before needing to use the skills in a work environment.
This study reviewed the relevant literature regarding 21st-century skills (soft skills),
globalization, how globalization affects education, inquiry-based instructional strategies, and
structures for helping teachers and schools to move forward. These topics were presented in
relation to Costa Rica and the science fair program in that country. The purpose of this study was
to understand the effects of educational leadership on participation in PRONAFECYT in primary
schools in Costa Rica. The study was designed to identify the role of school leaders in
development and implementation of the science fair program initiative. The study also explored
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how schools have restructured their educational programs. In order to identify the areas
mentioned above, four frameworks were used to evaluate and analyze the collected data. The
leadership aspect utilized Bolman and Deal’s (2008) leadership frames to evaluate leadership
styles. Implementation change utilized Kotter’s (1996) eight-step change process to assess how
changes have been made and in what areas there is room for growth. Wagner’s (2008) 21st-
century skills framed the discussion and analysis about the soft skills needed to succeed in the
global society. Instructional practices were reviewed through the STEM PBL lens (Capraro et al.,
2013). The four frameworks provided a foundation on which the data were analyzed, in addition
to other resources discussed in Chapter 2.
Four research questions aligned with the study’s intent and purpose guided all parts of the
study.
1. What is the role of educational leaders and teachers in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
This study employed a qualitative, case study approach with interviews, observations,
and surveys (Creswell, 2014). The stakeholders included people from multiple levels of the
government, business partners, and school-specific participants such as directors, teachers, and
students. Using the snowball effect and a semistructured interview protocol, the participants
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shared their experiences and perceptions about implementation of PRONAFECYT. Creswell
(2014) and McEwan and McEwan (2003) addressed the importance of triangulating data
collected through multiple sources and or multiple methods as a means to show reliability in the
results of the study. For this reason, the data were triangulated with the survey results, interview
transcripts, and classroom observations. Utilizing these three data sources allowed the research
team to capture the full picture of the perceptions and realities of what is happening in the Costa
Rican public primary classrooms. Since no private schools were visited, the results describe only
public education. Incorporating the data from government officials and business partners added a
layer of how the policies are enacted and how the business community perceives the changes of
the education system in developing the global workers of tomorrow. Soft skills, leadership, and
instructional strategies were the primary topics that the data revealed.
The study was conducted in collaboration with the Costa Rican MEP. It was crucial to
have all of the various societal perspectives presented in the study. MEP chose the 18 schools for
the large study and the research team divided into three smaller teams to conduct their studies on
a specific region. The team of six visited four of the six schools in their assigned region, while
two schools were visited in smaller groups due to scheduling conflicts. Purposeful sampling led
to collection of rich data at all of the schools (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 2009). At Escuela
Universitaria, surveys were completed by more than 100 students in fourth to sixth grades, 15
teachers, and three directors and assistant directors. Interviews were conducted with the directors
and assistants and eight teachers, including the science coordinator. Classroom observations
were conducted in most of the Cycle 1 and Cycle 2 classrooms. Combining these school-specific
data with the broad data collected from the purposeful sampling of the government and business
community produced a rich picture of what is and what should be happening in the public
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primary schools of Costa Rica (Maxell, 2013). Surveys were given in Spanish and interviews
were conducted in person, using either English or Spanish, depending on the preference of the
interviewee. Utilizing the home language helped participants to articulate their thoughts clearly
and eased their comfort level. Data were analyzed using the four frameworks, as well as the
reviewed literature. Lichtman (2014) showed how the use of multiple coding levels allows
themes to emerge from the data. First- and second-level coding were administered to identify the
themes discussed in Chapter 4. A review of the emergent themes is presented in the next section.
Summary of Findings
Through the literature review, data collection and data analysis, the research questions
were addressed. This study reviewed the role of educational leaders and teachers in
implementing the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT initiative, identified the teachers’ practices at
successful and less successful schools as measured by level of participation in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT, described how site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students
with 21st-century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT,
and explained how participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT has affected instructional
practices at Escuela Universitaria.
This section begins with an overview of the themes that emerged from the data in the
order of the research questions they addressed. After the overview, each of the 10 findings is
reviewed and the supporting literature is identified along with how the data from the school
evidenced the finding to address the appropriate research question. A review of how the 10
findings addressed the research questions for Escuela Universitaria is presented.
To address the research questions, 10 findings emerged. The first three findings defined
the role of leadership in determining PRONAFECYT success. The first theme was that site
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leadership is integral to building the human capital necessary for implementation of
PRONAFECYT. Site leaders not only identify the key players in overseeing the science fairs on
campus; they also have connections in the community that help to obtain resources. The second
finding about the role of leadership was that recognition increases motivation. It was evident
that, when teachers and students were recognized for their work, they were more likely to
continue the work and apply extra effort for its success. The third finding for the role of
leadership was that leadership expands beyond the school site; PRONAFECYT success requires
leadership at all levels. Leadership comes from the government, the business partners, and the
teachers, and all partners are needed for PRONAFECYT to succeed. In comparing schools, it
became very clear that leadership affects participation and buy-in. When leaders are invested, the
teachers and students are more likely to be invested in the science fairs.
The next set of findings related to instruction and skills. More successful programs had a
focus on inquiry and the scientific method. Instructional practices and the amount of sustained
inquiry in the everyday classroom positively or negatively affected participation and success in
PRONAFECYT and perceptions of the fairs. One theme led to confirmation that soft skills are
required for developing innovators for a global society. A strong method for developing the soft
skills is through research. When students are taught to question and conduct research, they
develop persistence to look for answers when there seem not to be any answers or the answers
are not clear. PRONAFECYT also encourages communication and critical thinking, which
allows students to learn how to articulate their thinking and their processes. The themes related
to how instruction has changed since the decree to participation in PRONAFECYT. Inquiry-
based learning, such as PBL, is utilized in classrooms to support PRONAFECYT. Teachers are
changing the way they teach because they understand that students need to learn differently. This
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change has led to a culture of exploration and inquiry to guide instruction. Validating exploration
and inquiry at the primary level helps students to continue to question and explore as they move
through school and into adulthood.
The first finding was that site leadership is integral to building the human capital
necessary for the implementation of PRONAFECYT. This finding was particularly relevant to
the study because the primary focus of the student was on the role of leadership. The director at
Escuela Universitaria modeled the role of instructional leader and lead learner as he participated
in the committee to develop and conduct the science fairs at this school. Fullan (2014) discussed
the importance of modeling for staff and being the lead learner. By taking an active role in
learning about and planning the science fairs, the leader demonstrates the significance of
PRONAFECYT to his entire school. His leadership style allowed him to shift between the
leadership frames to promote and support the science fairs, while also building the social capital
necessary for the fairs to succeed. Shifting among the human resource, structural, and political
frames described by Bolman and Deal (2008), the director brought people, resources, and ideas
together. The depth of the data was contingent on access to the people and the timing of the visit.
Due to conflicts and absences, the research team visited Escuela Universitaria twice. The second
visit allowed student surveys to be administered and interviews to be conducted with the science
coordinator and other teachers. Due to the time of year of the visit, the research team was unable
to attend any science fair meetings.
The second finding was that recognition increases motivation. This finding connects with
the previous theme in that students and teachers at Escuela Universitaria were motivated by the
director to participate in the science fairs. The director utilizes Bolman and Deal’s (2008) human
resource frame by taking time to recognize teachers and students for their participation in
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PRONAFECYT. The director and the committee thank the teachers for their work in nurturing
and helping students in the fairs, even if the students do not proceed to the next level of
participation. Kotter (1996) stated that generating short-term wins is one step to making a change
part of the permanent culture of a school. The director knows that recognizing the efforts of the
teachers means that they are more likely to engrain PRONAFECYT in their curriculum and
change the way they do things permanently. Utilizing elements of the change process enabled
PRONAFECYT participation to become anchored in the school culture. Recognition ceremonies
had already occurred at Escuela Universitaria as the local science fair had passed, so observation
of the ceremonies was not possible.
The third finding was that PRONAFECYT success requires leadership at all levels. This
finding validates the idea posited by Marzano et al. (2005) that shared responsibilities are
necessary to facilitate growth. This finding encompassed the leadership at the top, including
governmental leadership, as well as teacher leadership for implementation of the science fairs at
the particular site and classroom levels. At all levels, leaders to provide training and support to
teachers were necessary to minimize resistance to the change of mandatory PRONAFECYT
participation. One aspect evident in this finding was that teacher leaders modeled how to change
and were given a platform to grow and learn, although time to train others was a challenge to
incorporate. Although participation has increased, the need for more rigorous projects is still a
factor for students.
The fourth finding, dealing with the comparison of schools, was that leadership affects
participation and buy-in. Leaders are required to implement policies, whether or not they
understand them (Fullan, 2014). In comparing schools, it was evident that directors who were
role models and changes agents led their schools through the change process to embrace
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PRONAFECYT as part of the school culture (Fullan, 2014; Kotter, 1996). Schools with involved
directors showed success as students moved forward to the circuit and national levels of the
science and technology fairs. Schools with a less-involved director had less participation and
fewer students moving to the higher levels of PRONAFECYT. Although not all of the directors
were interviewed in the process of the study, the data from the assistant directors and teachers
completed the picture of how the director interacted with the science fairs.
The fifth finding, dealing with the comparison of schools, focused on inquiry and the
scientific method. This scientific method and inquiry focused in STEM areas allowed students
freedom to interpret the problem, utilize their content knowledge, and formulate diverse
solutions (Capraro et al., 2013). Schools such as Escuela Universitaria and Escuela Central, who
incorporated inquiry and the scientific method into their instructional practices, moved beyond
the local level of PRONAFECYT and had students proceed through the circuit level and on to
the national level, as compared to Escuela Colón. Teachers and students in the schools that
focused on incorporating inquiry and the scientific method had higher participation in the science
and technology fairs and were in the cycle of continuous improvement, not as concerned with
being finished as those in Escuela Colón. Observations of the schools also revealed a
discrepancy in implementation of inquiry compared to the perceptions of the teachers and
directors, although the research team was in classrooms for observations for only a narrowly
defined window of time.
The sixth finding was that soft skills are required for developing innovators for a global
society. The government officials and business partners especially understand the importance of
this finding in putting Costa Rica on the map for creating innovators in the future. Companies
need people who can not only identify a problem but also arrive at a solution for the problem
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quickly and efficiently (Friedman, 2007; Wagner 2008). Leaders want students who can think of
new ways to solve problems and not be discouraged by setbacks. The soft skills described by
Wagner (2012) allow students to develop these skills. PRONAFECYT encourages students to
develop their soft skills through questioning, observing, experimenting, and continuing the cycle
until the desired outcomes are achieved. Even as students move up the levels of PRONAFECYT,
they continue to persevere on the cycle of continuous improvement and modify their projects as
needed. Although the adults understand the idea of soft skills, students are learning the concepts
but may not have had the vocabulary to identify what they were in the surveys.
The seventh finding was that soft skills are developed through the students’ research.
Research allows students to practice the soft skills. Teachers must teach differently if students
are to learn to develop soft skills and become the problem solvers of tomorrow (Wagner, 2012).
Traditional teaching methods will not work in this endeavor. This is evident at Escuela
Universitaria as students no longer accept the teacher’s word as final but investigate the answers
on their own. Through participation in the science and technology fairs at the local level, all
students have the opportunity to conduct research and use this research to hypothesize,
experiment, and draw conclusions. As student conduct research, they choose topics of interest to
them and are not limited to content presented by the teacher to the entire class. This freedom
feeds the curiosity that is essential for developing the global workers of tomorrow.
The eighth finding was that PRONAFECYT encourages communication and critical
thinking. These two skills are essential for the global workforce. Companies want workers who
can explain something complex to someone else with simplicity (Friedman, 2007). Taking
complex ideas and articulating them simply requires both critical thinking and skill in
communication. Calculated risk taking and critical thinking skills are characteristics that leaders
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want to see in their employees (Wagner, 2012). PRONAFECYT requires students to use their
critical thinking skills as they progress through the scientific method and work toward solving
the problem. Students must also demonstrate skills in communication, both in writing and in
speaking. Students keep written journals of their work, which requires them to communicate
their observations and findings; ultimately, students present their projects and findings to a
public audience. Evidence of oral communication was not observed at Escuela Universitaria, as
their science fair was over. Written communication and critical thinking were evident on walls
with displayed student work in some of the classrooms.
The ninth finding was that inquiry-based learning, such as PBL, is utilized in classrooms
to support PRONAFECYT. Inquiry-based learning and PBL allow students to explore and
experience their learning and construct understanding rather than be given information in more
traditional approaches (Grant & Branch, 2005; Kaldi et al., 2011; Rosenfeld & Ben-Hur, 2001;
Yetkiner et al., 2008). For students to succeed in PRONAFECYT, they need the ability to think
differently and construct their own learning around their chosen topics. The use of inquiry-based
learning gives students practice in developing the soft skills mentioned previously and the
continued curiosity from an early age, which will enable them to be interested in participating
and succeeding in the science and technology fairs. Additional observations were outside the
limited time span for the data collection but could benefit in finding the extent to which inquiry-
based learning is utilized and which structures are put in place for students to solve real-world
problems.
The final finding was that a culture of exploration and inquiry guides instruction.
PRONAFECYT is allowing the inquiry-based instruction described above to be anchored in the
culture of the school (Kotter, 1996). To prepare for the global society, exploration and inquiry
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must be at the heart of learning. In order to do this effectively, students must “reorient what they
are learning and educators how they are teaching it” (Friedman, 2007, p. 280). Escuela
Universitaria has employed the change process by adjusting teaching styles to meet the needs of
the students to succeed in PRONAFECYT and their future jobs. Examples of students
researching on their own, or in addition to the teacher, demonstrate how inquiry has become
engrained in the culture of Escuela Universitaria. Students take ideas and real-world concerns,
such as classroom plants dying and students not washing their hands before meals, and
investigate why the issue is occurring and how they can create solutions. Building curiosity and
teaching students methods to find answers for themselves guide the instructional practices at
Escuela Universitaria.
In summary, through the 10 findings identified above, the four research questions were
addressed. The role of educational leaders and teachers was identified; site administrators were
crucial to building human capital in the teachers, recognizing them for their efforts, and
empowering to become leaders in their own right. Comparing schools led to understanding of
how leadership affects PRONAFECYT participation and buy-in, as well as how the focus on
inquiry in the classroom led to better performance in PRONAFECYT for the compared schools.
Equipping students with soft skills was evident; it was clear that developing innovators for a
global society required improvement in soft skills. The findings revealed that research and
focusing on communication and collaboration were two ways to arm the students with the skills
needed to be competitive global workers of the future. Finally, PRONAFECYT changed
instructional practices in the classrooms by focusing on inquiry through PBL and building a
culture of exploration. These 10 themes provided answers to the four research questions,
although in education striving to do better requires looking at data for more answers.
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Implications for Practice
Globalization has changed Costa Rica’s need to educate a future workforce that is
competitive in the global society. To accomplish the task of developing competent global
workers, educational content and practices must change. This focus by the World Bank’s global
education agenda includes efforts to assist in creating an opportunity for conversations on
content and practices by many countries (Spring, 2008). Costa Rica has worked on changing the
content focus through the decree for participation in PRONAFECYT. However, just as the cycle
of continuous improvement was discussed in Chapter 4, improvements can be made to attain
better student achievement. Three recommendations are presented: (a) Implement inquiry-based
strategies and soft skills developed in PRONAFECYT into other evaluations of students, (b)
make PRONAFECYT teacher training systematic at all levels, and (c) implement PLCs to
improve achievement and share in planning.
Many of the findings revealed the significance of inquiry, research, exploration, and other
skills such as critical thinking and communication in the success of PRONAFECYT in both
participation and progressing through the levels of the fairs. It was evident in interviews that,
although PRONAFECYT is important, it was incongruent with the ways students are assessed by
MEP in their annual evaluations defining student achievement. By adjusting the format of the
MEP evaluations to more closely assess the skills that students develop through PRONAFECYT,
teachers would be able to spend more time in developing those skills instead of hurrying through
content or PRONAFECYT preparations in order to fit it all in their schedules. Through
performance tasks requiring research, critical thinking, and communication, students could
demonstrate their knowledge while also connecting the work in the classroom with the
assessments. To prepare for the global jobs of tomorrow, it is important for students to make
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connections, create new knowledge, and solve problems (Wagner, 2012). Altering the
evaluations to emulate the skills needed and developed through PRONAFECYT would allow for
congruency in instruction and assessment.
The first four findings focused on leadership. Included in leadership are training
procedures for teachers about PRONAFECYT. Results from the data collection revealed that
teacher training for the fairs is sporadic. At the time, teacher training does not address
instruction; rather, it addresses PRONAFECYT rules and logistics. Training is offered as needed
and utilizes a trainer-of-trainers model in which the science coordinator is trained and then is
responsible to train teachers. This model requires a supportive director and time allocated for this
training. Teachers who have been involved in the fairs for multiple years stated that they were
not trained annually because they knew what to do. Training should encompass not only rules
and logistics but also professional learning for teachers to improve their abilities in teaching the
skills and content required for PRONAFECYT. Although MNCs and foundations market
educational products and offer professional development training to teachers, systematic
implementation is not available (Fundación Omar Dengo, 2013). Teachers need follow-up
professional development to develop lessons and refine their practices (Stearns et al., 2012).
Sustained opportunities for professional development across a substantial time frame is required
for sustained change and progress (Wilson, 2011). Regional workshops for teachers could be an
avenue for teachers, not just coordinators, to learn from others and develop skills. These
workshops could allow veteran teachers with much success in PRONAFECYT to share their
experience and expertise with others to improve the education of all students, not only those in
their personal classes and schools.
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Findings 5, 9, and 10 focused on instruction. Incorporating inquiry-based instruction has
improved PRONAFECYT participation; however, moving this type of instruction into a
sustained effort in all content areas will take additional support. Implementing PLCs could aid
schools in analyzing their practices. The role of the PLCs would be to allow teachers and schools
to assess student learning and teaching methods and strategies used in the learning process
continually (DuFour et al., 2010). Giving teachers time and structure permits them to
disaggregate what the students are learning and how they are learning the material. Through this
PLC process, collaboration time is available to create and refine instructional practices such as
PBL units that can be taught across a grade level for continued practice of the inquiry process
while also learning new content. PLCs uncover needs of the teachers, which could lead to
additional professional development to improve instructional practice. Professional development
should be needs based, ongoing, and focused on developing teachers’ capabilities (National
Research Council, 2011). PLCs gives schools the vehicle to dissect the needs of the teachers to
ultimately increase student achievement and, in the context of this study, not only increase
participation in PRONAFECYT but increase success by students who participate in various
levels of the fairs.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study revealed that, although progress has been made in participation in and success
of PRONAFECYT, more needs to done to develop the skills at the lower grade levels to instill
curiosity and research methods in students. The research team, as a whole, conducted research in
the schools of three regions of Costa Rica. This case study focused on one region and primarily
on one school. To study this area thoroughly and to disseminate the findings to the global
society, two recommendations for future research are presented for consideration.
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The first recommendation is to continue the work in Costa Rica by replicating this study
in other regions of the country. By replicating the study, a richer and more detailed picture of
PRONAFECYT would be available to the Costa Rican government and MEP to identify the
needs of the country as a whole, not only a small sample. With 27 regions in the country,
additional research will be necessary to complete the larger picture. Governmental policy change
requires knowledge of what is happening in the very successful and less successful schools and
regions. These additional studies could reveal specific regional needs or countrywide supports
that should be implemented.
The second recommendation is to conduct a similar research study in another developing
country. That study would allow for comparisons in both leadership and instructional practices of
those who would like to increase their prominence on the international science fair stage.
Studying developing countries with similar size to Costa Rica could allow for comparison of the
supports in place in each country and give the countries an opportunity to learn from one
another. To succeed in a global society, it is crucial to be aware of how other countries are doing
things in preparation for creating a global school curriculum that could help all students (Spring,
2008). This study could begin a PLC between two countries who are striving to increase and
solidify their place in the global market.
Conclusion
PRONAFECYT is about more than science. Costa Rica has created its niche in the global
market as the Latin American hub, and it wants to secure that position over the long term.
Concurrently, Costa Rica wants to increase its abilities in the global market by having a
workforce that not only can execute the ideas of others from around the globe but create and
develop technology, goods, and services that will be needed by others. The first step in creating
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 173
this workforce is to alter its education system to develop students who have the opportunity to
refine and build on these skills over time. Moving the decree of PRONAFECYT participation to
the early grades ensures that skills are introduced at a young age but teachers need additional
assistance in how to change their instructional practices to meet the needs of PRONAFECYT, as
well as the needs of other assessments in Costa Rica.
Adjusting the type of education that students receive prepares a workforce for new
adventures and innovation. This innovation will allow Costa Rica not only to continue as a Latin
American global hub but also to increase its sphere of influence beyond Latin America. The
greater the impact, the easier it will be to bring in additional MNCs to invest in Costa Rica’s
economy (CINDE, 2013a). New knowledge and better-prepared workers and innovators can
open the doors for Costa Rica to create its own companies that could be competitive in the global
market, especially in their four industries of key importance (Gereffi et al., 2013).
PRONAFECYT allows students to cultivate their passions for future careers through
development of soft and hard skills, keeping inquiry at the heart of it all.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 174
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ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 175
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ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 176
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ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 178
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ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 179
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ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 180
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ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 181
APPENDIX A
List of Research Sites

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 182
APPENDIX B
Recruitment Letter

DATE

Dear XXX,

On June 15, 2015, a group of 18 doctoral students from the University of Southern California,
Rossier School of Education, will travel to Costa Rica as part of a study team led by Dr. Michael
Escalante. The purpose of our research is to understand the effects of educational leadership on
participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT) in
primary schools in Costa Rica. Specifically, we are interested in the roles of primary school
leaders in preparing and implementing this initiative. As part of our study, the following
questions will be addressed:

1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT
initiative?

2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?

3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?

4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional practice?

We would appreciate an opportunity to speak with you, members of the Ministry of Education,
and educational leaders at regional and school site levels. It is our goal to conduct surveys and
interviews to gather data to address these research questions. Your input will be invaluable to our
study.

Thank you for considering our request. We are available to meet with you any time between
from June 15 through June 19. Please feel free to contact any member of our study team if you
have any questions.

Sincerely,

USC Doctoral Students
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 183
APPENDIX C
Teacher Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. The School Director plays a critical
role in ensuring that teachers imple-
ment the National Programs of
Science and Technology Fairs
(PRONAFECYT).
m m m m m
2. Teachers need support from the
school Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and
effectively.
m m m m m
3. The School Director elicits teacher
feedback to improve implementation
of the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
4. The School Director communicates
the purpose and urgency of the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
5. I provide opportunities for students
to engage in scientific inquiry as
part of my regular instruction.
m m m m m
6. I utilize project-based learning
(PBL) in my teaching.
m m m m
7. I am provided adequate training to
prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
8. My school has adequate resources
that allow me to prepare students for
the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
9. I am familiar with soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
m m m m m
10. My School Director talks about the
importance of soft skills and their
impact on student achievement.
m m m m m
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 184

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
11. Students develop soft skills through
participation in the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
12. I have received training on how to
integrate soft skills in the classroom.
m m m m m
13. Student participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized
throughout my school.
m m m m m
14. Teachers at my school work
together to plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration in my
classroom.
m m m m m
16. Teachers are given the leadership
capacity to make decisions about
projects for the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
17. There is a school-wide vision for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
18. There is a positive culture at my
school regarding the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
19. The School Director communicates
the goals for participation in the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
20. Teacher training was useful in
preparing students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
22. I am provided yearly training on the
PRONAFECYT guidelines.
m m m m m
23. There is a high level of participation
in the PRONAFECYT at my school.
m m m m m

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 185
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No
estoy

seguro

1. El director de la escuela tiene un papel
crítico en asegurar que los maestros
participen en el Programa Nacional de
Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología
(PNFCT).
m m m m m
2. Los maestros necesitan el apoyo del
director de la escuela para
implementar el PNFCT plena y
efectivamente.
m m m m m
3. El director de la escuela solicita
retroalimentación de los maestros para
mejorar la implementación del
PNFCT.
m m m m m
4. El director de la escuela comunica el
propósito y la urgencia del PNFCT.
m m m m m
5. Yo ofrezco oportunidades a mis
estudiantes para participar en
proyectos de investigación científica o
ingeniería como parte de mi
enseñanza regular.
m m m m m
6. Yo utilizo el aprendizaje basado en
proyectos (ABP) cuando doy clase.
m m m m m
7. Yo recibo formación y entrenamiento
adecuado para preparar a mis
estudiantes en la competencia de la
PNFCT.
m m m m m
8. Mi escuela tiene recursos suficientes
que me permiten preparar la
competencia estudiantil en la PNFCT.
m m m m m
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas,
colaboración, comunicación,
capacidad de adaptación, análisis,
curiosidad e imaginación).
m m m m m
10. El director de la escuela comunica la
importancia de las habilidades
sociales y su impacto en el
rendimiento estudiantil.
m m m m m
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 186

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No
estoy

seguro

11. Los estudiantes desarrollan
habilidades sociales a través de la
participación en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
12. He recibido capacitación de cómo
integrar habilidades sociales en el
aula.
m m m m m
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la
colaboración estudiantil en mi aula.
m m m m m
16. Maestros en mi escuela reciben la
capacidad de liderazgo para tomar
decisiones de proyectos relacionados
con el PNFCT.
m m m m m
17. Existe una visión en mi escuela sobre
el PNFCT.
m m m m m
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en mi escuela.
m m m m m
19. El director de la escuela comunica los
objetivos de participación en el
PNFCT.
m m m m m
20. La capacitación de maestros fue útil
para preparar a los estudiantes para el
PNFCT.
m m m m m
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la
escuela para preparar la competencia
estudiantil en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
22. Yo recibo capacitación anual sobre las
directrices del PNFCT.
m m m m m
23. Hay un alto nivel de participación en
el PNFCT en mi escuela.
m m m m m

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 187
APPENDIX D
School Director Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly

Agree
Agree
Disagree

Strongly

Disagree

Not

Sure

1. School Directors play a critical role in
assuring teachers implement the
National Science and Technology Fair
(PRONAFECYT). m m m m m
2. Teachers need the support of the school
Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and effectively.
m m m m m
3. I elicit student feedback to improve
implementation of the PRONAFECYT .
m m m m m
4. I communicate the purpose and urgency
of the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
5. My teachers provide opportunities for
their students to engage in scientific
inquiry as part of regular instruction.

m m m m m
6. My teachers utilize project-based
learning (PBL) in their teaching.
m m m m
7. I am provided adequate training to
prepare teachers and students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
8. My school has adequate resources to
prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
9. I am familiar with soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
m m m m m
10. I communicate with teachers about the
importance of soft skills and their
impact on student achievement.
m m m m m
11. Students develop soft skills through
participation in PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 188

Strongly

Agree
Agree
Disagree

Strongly

Disagree

Not

Sure

12. I have received training on how to
integrate soft skills in the classroom.
m m m m m
13. Student participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized
throughout my school.
m m m m m
14. Teachers at my school work together to
plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration at my school.
m m m m m
16. Teachers are given the leadership
capacity to make decisions about
projects for the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
17. There is a school-wide vision for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
18. There is a positive culture at my school
regarding the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
19. I communicate the goals for
participation in the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
20. My teachers receive useful training that
assists to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
22. I am provided yearly training on the
PRONAFECYT guidelines.
m m m m m
23. There is a high level of participation at
my school in the PRONAFECYT .
m m m m m

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 189
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

1. Los directores de las escuelas tienen un
papel crítico en asegurar que los
maestros participen en el Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología (PNFCT).
m m m m m
2. Los maestros necesitan el apoyo del
director de la escuela para implementar
el PNFCT plena y efectivamente.
m m m m m
3. Yo solicito retroalimentación de los
estudiantes para mejorar la
implementación del PNFCT.
m m m m m
4. Yo comunico el propósito y la urgencia
del PNFCT.
m m m m m
5. Mis maestros ofrecen oportunidades a sus
estudiantes para participar en proyectos
de investigación científica o ingeniería
como parte de enseñanza regular.
m m m m m
6. Mis maestros utilizan el aprendizaje
basado en proyectos (ABP) cuando dan
clase.
m m m m m
7. Yo recibo formación y entrenamiento
adecuado para preparar a los maestros y
estudiantes en la competencia del
PNFCT.
m m m m m
8. Mi escuela tiene recursos suficientes para
preparar la competencia estudiantil en el
PNFCT.
m m m m m
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas, colaboración,
comunicación, capacidad de adaptación,
análisis, curiosidad e imaginación).
m m m m m
10. Yo comunico la importancia de las
habilidades sociales y su impacto en el
rendimiento estudiantil con mis
maestros.
m m m m m
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 190

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

11. Los estudiantes desarrollan habilidades
sociales a través de la participación en
el PNFCT.
m m m m m
12. He proporcionado capacitación de cómo
integrar habilidades sociales en el aula.
m m m m m
13. La participación estudiantil en el
PNFCT se reconoce en mi escuela.
m m m m m
14. Los maestros en mi escuela trabajan
juntos para planificar y prepararse para
el PNFCT.
m m m m m
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la colaboración
estudiantil en mi escuela.
m m m m m
16. Mis maestros reciben la capacidad de
liderazgo para tomar decisiones de
proyectos relacionados con el PNFCT.
m m m m m
17. Existe una visión en mi escuela sobre el
PNFCT.
m m m m m
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en mi escuela.
m m m m m
19. Yo comunico los objetivos de
participación en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
20. Mis maestros reciben capacitación útil
que ayuda a preparar a los estudiantes
para el PNFCT.
m m m m m
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la escuela
para preparar la competencia estudiantil
en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
22. Yo recibo capacitación anual sobre las
directrices del PNFCT.
m m m m m
23. Hay un alto nivel de participación en el
PNFCT en mi escuela.
m m m m m

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 191
APPENDIX E
Government Official Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. School Directors play a critical role
in assuring teachers implement the
National Program of Science and
Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT).
m m m m m
2. Teachers need the support of the
school Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and
effectively.
m m m m m
3. School Directors elicit student feed-
back to improve implementation of
the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
4. Schools communicate the purpose
and urgency of the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
5. Schools provide opportunities for
students to engage in scientific
inquiry as part of my regular
instruction.
m m m m m
6. Teachers utilize project-based
learning (PBL) in their teaching.
m m m m
7. Schools are provided adequate
training to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
8. Schools are provided adequate
resources to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
9. I am familiar with soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
m m m m m
10. We communicate the importance of
soft skills and their impact on
student achievement.
m m m m m

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 192

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
11. Students develop soft skills through
participation in PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
12. We have provided training on how
to integrate soft skills in the
classroom.
m m m m m
13. Student participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized
throughout the schools.
m m m m m
14. Teachers in this region work
together to plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration at schools in
my region.
m m m m m
16. Teachers are given the leadership
capacity to make decisions about
projects for the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
17. There are school-wide visions for
the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
18. There is a positive culture at schools
regarding the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
19. The goals for participation in the
PRONAFECYT are communicated
by school site leaders.
m m m m m
20. Teachers receive useful training that
assists to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
22. Teachers and administrators are
provided yearly training on the
PRONAFECYT guidelines.
m m m m m
23. There is a high level of
PRONAFECYT participation at
schools in my region.
m m m m m

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 193
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente
en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

1. Los directores de las escuelas tienen
un papel crítico en asegurar que los
maestros participen en el Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología (PNFCT).
m m m m m
2. Los maestros necesitan el apoyo del
director de la escuela para
implementar el PNFCT plena y
efectivamente.
m m m m m
3. Los directores de las escuelas solicitan
retroalimentación de los estudiantes
para mejorar la implementación del
PNFCT.
m m m m m
4. Las escuelas comunican el propósito y
la urgencia del PNFCT.
m m m m m
5. Las escuelas ofrecen oportunidades
para participar en proyectos de
investigación científica o ingeniería.
m m m m m
6. Los maestros utilizan el aprendizaje
basado en proyectos (ABP) cuando
dan clase.
m m m m m
7. Las escuelas están provistas con
formación y entrenamiento adecuado
para preparar la competencia
estudiantil en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
8. Las escuelas tienen recursos
suficientes para preparar la
competencia estudiantil en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas, colabora-
ción, comunicación, capacidad de
adaptación, análisis, curiosidad e
imaginación).
m m m m m
10. Comunicamos la importancia de las
habilidades sociales y su impacto en el
rendimiento estudiantil.
m m m m m
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 194

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente
en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

11. Los estudiantes desarrollan habili-
dades sociales a través de la participa-
ción en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
12. Hemos proporcionado capacitación de
cómo integrar habilidades sociales en
el aula.
m m m m m
13. La participación estudiantil en el
PNFCT se reconoce en las escuelas.
m m m m m
14. Los maestros de mi región trabajan
juntos para planificar y prepararse
para el PNFCT.
m m m m m
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la
colaboración estudiantil en las
escuelas de mi región.
m m m m m
16. A los maestros se les da la capacidad
de liderazgo para tomar decisiones de
proyectos relacionados con el PNFCT.
m m m m m
17. Existe una visión en todas las escuelas
de esta región sobre el PNFCT.
m m m m m
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en las escuelas.
m m m m m
19. Los maestros y los directores de las
escuelas comunican los objetivos de
participación en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
20. Los maestros reciben capacitación útil
que ayuda a preparar a los estudiantes
para el PNFCT.
m m m m m
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la
escuela para preparar la competencia
estudiantil en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
22. Los maestros y administradores
reciben capacitación anual sobre las
directrices del PNFCT.
m m m m m
23. Hay un alto nivel de participación en
el PNFCT en las escuelas de mi
región.
m m m m m

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 195
APPENDIX F
Business Partner Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. School Directors play a critical role
in assuring teachers implement the
National Program of Science and
Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT).
m m m m m
2. Teachers need the support of the
school Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and
effectively.
m m m m m
3. School Directors elicit student
feedback to improve implementation
of the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
4. Schools communicate the purpose
and urgency of the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
5. Schools provide opportunities for
students to engage in scientific
inquiry as part of regular instruction.
m m m m m
6. Teachers utilize project-based
learning (PBL) in their teaching.
m m m m
7. Schools are provided adequate
training to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
8. Schools are provided adequate
resources to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
9. I am familiar with soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
m m m m m
10. We communicate the importance of
soft skills and their impact on
student achievement.
m m m m m
11. Students develop soft skills through
participation in PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 196

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
12. We have provided training on how
to integrate soft skills in the
classroom.
m m m m m
13. Student participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized
throughout the schools.
m m m m m
14. Teachers at my local schools work
together to plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration at the schools
with which I work with.
m m m m m
16. Teachers are given the leadership
capacity to make decisions about
projects for the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
17. There are school-wide visions for
the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
18. There is a positive culture at schools
regarding the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
19. The goals for participation in the
PRONAFECYT are communicated
by school site leaders.
m m m m m
20. Teachers receive useful training that
assists to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
22. Teachers and administrators are
provided yearly training on the
PRONAFECYT guidelines.
m m m m m
23. There is a high level of
PRONAFECYT participation at
schools I work with.
m m m m m

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 197
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

1. Los directores de las escuelas tienen un
papel crítico en asegurar que los maestros
participen en el Programa Nacional de
Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología (PNFCT).
m m m m m
2. Los maestros necesitan el apoyo del
director de la escuela para implementar el
PNFCT plena y efectivamente.
m m m m m
3. Los directores de las escuelas solicitan
retroalimentación de los estudiantes para
mejorar la implementación del PNFCT.
m m m m m
4. Las escuelas comunican el propósito y la
urgencia del PNFCT.
m m m m m
5. Las escuelas ofrecen oportunidades para
participar en proyectos de investigación
científica o ingeniería.
m m m m m
6. Los maestros utilizan el aprendizaje basado
en proyectos (ABP) cuando dan clase.
m m m m m
7. Las escuelas están provistas con formación
y entrenamiento adecuado para preparar la
competencia estudiantil en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
8. Las escuelas tienen recursos suficientes
para preparar la competencia estudiantil
en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas, colaboración,
comunicación, capacidad de adaptación,
análisis, curiosidad e imaginación).
m m m m m
10. Comunicamos la importancia de las
habilidades sociales y su impacto en el
rendimiento estudiantil.
m m m m m
11. Los estudiantes desarrollan habilidades
sociales a través de la participación en el
PNFCT.
m m m m m
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 198

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

12. Hemos proporcionado capacitación de
cómo integrar habilidades sociales en el
aula.
m m m m m
13. La participación estudiantil en el
PNFCT se reconoce en las escuelas.
m m m m m
14. Los maestros en las escuelas con las que
colaboro trabajan juntos para planificar
y prepararse para el PNFCT.
m m m m m
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la colaboración
estudiantil en las escuelas con las que
trabajo.
m m m m m
16. A los maestros se les da la capacidad de
liderazgo para tomar decisiones de
proyectos relacionados con el PNFCT.
m m m m m
17. Existe una visión en todas las escuelas
con las que trabajo sobre el PNFCT.
m m m m m
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en las escuelas.
m m m m m
19. Los maestros y los directores las
escuelas comunican los objetivos de
participación en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
20. Los maestros reciben capacitación útil
que ayuda a preparar a los estudiantes
para el PNFCT.
m m m m m
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la escuela
para preparar la competencia estudiantil
en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
22. Los maestros y administradores reciben
capacitación anual sobre las directrices
del PNFCT.
m m m m m
23. Hay un alto nivel de participación en las
escuelas con las que trabajo en el
PNFCT.
m m m m m
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 199
APPENDIX G
Parent Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly

Agree
Agree
Disagree

Strongly

Disagree

Not

Sure

1. My child’s school director plays a
critical role in assuring teachers
implement the National Program of
Science and Technology Fairs
(PRONAFECYT).
m m m m m
2. My child’s teachers need the support of
the School Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and effectively.
m m m m m
3. My child’s school director elicits
student feedback to improve
implementation of the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
4. My child’s teachers communicate the
purpose and urgency of the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
5. My child’s teachers provide me oppor-
tunities to engage in scientific inquiry as
part of my child’s regular instruction.
m m m m m
6. My child’s teachers utilize project-based
learning (PBL) in their teaching.
m m m m
7. My child’s school is provided with
adequate training to prepare students for
the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
8. My child’s school has adequate
resources to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
9. My child is familiar with soft skills (i.e.
critical thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
m m m m m
10. My child’s teachers communicate the
importance of soft skills and their
impact on my child’s achievement.
m m m m m

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 200

Strongly

Agree
Agree
Disagree

Strongly

Disagree

Not

Sure

11. My child developed soft skills through
participation in PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
12. My child’s teachers have shared how
they have integrated soft skills in the
classroom.
m m m m m
13. My child’s participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized at my
school.
m m m m m
14. My child’s teachers work together to
plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration in my child’s
classroom.
m m m m m
16. My child’s teachers are given the
leadership capacity to make decisions
about projects for the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
17. There is a school-wide vision for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
18. There is a positive culture at my child’s
school regarding the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
19. Teachers and the Director at my child’s
school communicate the goals for
participation in the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
20. My child’s teachers receive useful
training that assist to prepare students
for the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare my child for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
22. My child’s teachers share
PRONAFECYT guidelines with me.
m m m m m
23. My child participated in the school’s
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 201
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

1. El director de la escuela de mi hijo/a
tiene un papel crítico en asegurar que
los maestros participen en el Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología (PNFCT).
m m m m m
2. Los maestros de mi hijo/a necesitan el
apoyo del director de la escuela para
implementar el PNFCT plena y
efectivamente.
m m m m m
3. El director de la escuela de mi hijo/a
solicita retroalimentación de los estudi-
antes para mejorar la implementación
del PNFCT.
m m m m m
4. Los maestros de mi hijo/a comunican el
propósito y la urgencia del PNFCT.
m m m m m
5. Los maestros de mi hijo/a ofrecen
oportunidades para participar en
proyectos de investigación científica o
ingeniería como parte de la enseñanza
regular.
m m m m m
6. Los maestros de mi hijo/a utilizan el
aprendizaje basado en proyectos (ABP)
cuando dan clase.
m m m m m
7. La escuela de mi hijo/a está provista con
formación y entrenamiento adecuado
para preparar la competencia estudiantil
en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
8. La escuela de mi hijo/a tiene recursos
suficientes para preparar la competencia
estudiantil en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
9. Mi hijo/a esta familiarizado/a con
habilidades sociales (e.g. pensamiento
crítico y resolución de problemas,
colaboración, comunicación, capacidad
de adaptación, análisis, curiosidad e
imaginación).
m m m m m
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 202

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

10. Los maestros de mi hijo/a comunican la
importancia de las habilidades sociales
y su impacto en su rendimiento
estudiantil.
m m m m m
11. Mi hijo/a desarrolla habilidades sociales
a través de la participación en el
PNFCT.
m m m m m
12. Los maestros de mi hijo/a platican de
cómo integran habilidades sociales en el
aula.
m m m m m
13. La participación de mi hijo/a en el
PNFCT se reconoce en su escuela.
m m m m m
14. Los maestros de mi hijo/a trabajan
juntos para planificar y prepararse para
el PNFCT.
m m m m m
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la colaboración
estudiantil en el aula de mi hijo/a.
m m m m m
16. Los maestros de mi hijo/a reciben
capacidad de liderazgo para tomar
decisiones de proyectos relacionados
con el PNFCT.
m m m m m
17. Existe una visión sobre el PNFCT en la
escuela de mi hijo/a.
m m m m m
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en la escuela de mi hijo/a.
m m m m m
19. Los maestros y los directores las
escuelas comunican los objetivos de
participación en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
20. El director de la escuela y los maestros
de mi hijo/a reciben capacitación útil
que ayuda a preparar a los estudiantes
para el PNFCT.
m m m m m
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la escuela
que prepara a mi hijo/a para el PNFCT.
m m m m m
22. Los maestros de mi hijo/a platican de
las directrices del PNFCT conmigo.
m m m m m
23. Mi hijo/a participo en el PNFCT de su
escuela.
m m m m m
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 203
APPENDIX H
Student Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. n/a m m m m m
2. n/a m m m m m
3. n/a m m m m m
4. My teachers talk about why we are
doing science fair projects.
m m m m m
5. My teachers often help me learn
about the scientific method through
science and technology activities.
m m m m m
6. My teachers have us work on group
projects where we solve problems
and work together.
m m m m m
7. My teachers help me get my science
fair project ready.
m m m m m
8. My school has all the things I need
to help me with my science fair
project.
m m m m m
9. I know about soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
m m m m m
10. My teachers talk about the import-
ance of soft skills and how they will
help me do well in school.
m m m m m
11. I can improve my soft skills when I
do projects for the science fair.
m m m m m

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 204
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
12. n/a m m m m m
13. My school rewards students who
participate in the science fair.
m m m m m
14. n/a m m m m m
15. n/a m m m m m
16. n/a m m m m m
17. People at my school enjoy getting
ready for the science fair.
m m m m m
18. n/a m m m m m
19. n/a m m m m m
20. n/a m m m m m
21. n/a m m m m m
22. n/a m m m m m
23. n/a m m m m m

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 205

Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo
En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

1. m m m m m
2. m m m m m
3. m m m m m
4. Mis maestros hablan del por qué
estamos haciendo proyectos para la feria
científica.
m m m m m
5. Mis maestros a menudo me ayudan a
aprender del método científico por
medio de actividades de ciencia y
tecnología.
m m m m m
6. Mis maestros nos asignan proyectos de
trabajo de equipo donde colaboramos
para resolver problemas.
m m m m m
7. Mis maestros me apoyan para que mi
proyecto esté listo para la feria
científica.
m m m m m
8. Mi escuela tiene todo lo que necesito
para mi proyecto de la feria científica.
m m m m m
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas, colaboración,
comunicación, capacidad de adaptación,
análisis, curiosidad e imaginación).
m m m m m
10. Mis maestros hablan de la importancia
de las habilidades sociales y de su
impacto en mi rendimiento como
estudiante.
m m m m m
11. Mejoro mis habilidades sociales cuando
participo en la feria científica.
m m m m m
12. m m m m m
13. Mi escuela recompensas a alumnos que
participan en la feria científica.
m m m m m
14. m m m m m
15. m m m m m

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 206

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente
en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

16. m m m m m
17. La gente de mi escuela disfrutan la
preparación para la feria científica.
m m m m m
18. m m m m m
19. m m m m m
20. m m m m m
21. m m m m m
22. m m m m m
23. m m m m m

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 207
APPENDIX I
Teacher Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Position:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. How have you been prepared for the PRONAFECYT?
2. In what ways do you elicit teacher feedback to improve implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
3. How do teachers ensure that all students participate in the PRONAFECYT?
4. How do you acquire resources necessary for participation in the PRONAFECYT?
5. How are teachers recognized for their efforts with regard to implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
6. Please describe how curriculum, pedagogy, or school culture has changed to
accommodate the PRONAFECYT.
7. How does the PRONAFECYT benefit students?
8. What instructional practices do teachers at your school use to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT?
9. How have your teachers been trained to help students to prepare for the PRONAFECYT?

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 208

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cómo se han preparado para el PRONAFECYT?

2. ¿De qué manera provocan los directores retroalimentación con respecto a la
aplicación de el PRONAFECYT?

3. ¿De qué manera aseguran que todos los estudiantes participen en el PRONAFECYT?

4. ¿Cómo obtienen los directores de escuelas los recursos necesarios para participar en
la PRONAFECYT?

5. ¿Cómo son reconocidos los maestros por sus esfuerzos en lo que respecta a la
aplicación de la PRONAFECYT?

6. Por favor describa cómo currículo, pedagogía, o la cultura de escuela ha cambiado
para adaptarse a la PRONAFECYT.

7. ¿De qué manera el PRONAFECYT beneficia a los estudiantes?

8. ¿Qué prácticas de enseñanza utiliza para preparar a los estudiantes para el
PRONAFECYT?

9. ¿Cómo ha sido entrenado para ayudar a los estudiantes prepararse para el
PRONAFECYT?

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 209
APPENDIX J
School Director Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Position:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. How have you been prepared for the PRONAFECYT?
2. In what ways do you elicit teacher feedback to improve implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
3. How do teachers ensure that all students participate in the PRONAFECYT?
4. How do you acquire resources necessary for participation in the PRONAFECYT?
5. How are teachers recognized for their efforts with regard to implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
6. Please describe how curriculum, pedagogy, or school culture has changed to
accommodate for the PRONAFECYT.
7. How does the PRONAFECYT benefit students?
8. What instructional practices do teachers at your school use to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT?
9. How have your teachers been trained to help students to prepare for the
PRONAFECYT?
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 210

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cómo se han preparado para el PRONAFECYT?
2. ¿De qué manera provoca retroalimentación con respecto a la aplicación de el
PRONAFECYT?

3. ¿De qué manera aseguran los maestros que todos los estudiantes participen en el
PRONAFECYT?

4. ¿Cómo obtiene los recursos necesarios para participar en la PRONAFECYT?
5. ¿Cómo son reconocidos los maestros por sus esfuerzos con respecto a la aplicación
de la PRONAFECYT?
6. Por favor describa cómo currículo, pedagogía, o la cultura de escuela ha cambiado
para adaptarse a la PRONAFECYT.
7. ¿De qué manera el PRONAFECYT beneficia a los estudiantes?
8. ¿Qué prácticas de enseñanza utilizan los maestros en su escuela para preparar a los
estudiantes para el PRONAFECYT?

9. ¿Cómo ha sido entrenado sus maestros para ayudar a los estudiantes prepararse para
el PRONAFECYT?

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 211
APPENDIX K
Government Official/Business Leaders Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Position:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. What are your country’s goals for economic growth and creating an innovation-based
society?
2. How are the goals coordinated among the various governmental agencies?
3. Based on your perception, who are the key leaders in developing an innovation-based
workforce?
4. How does the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT)
support the national goals of developing an innovation-based workforce?
5. What role(s) do educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT?
6. How does government policy encourage PRONAFECYT participation?
7. Does the government provide schools with resources necessary for participation in the
PRONAFECYT? If so, what kind of resources are provided? If no, what would those
resources be?
8. Does the government recognize schools and/or regions for successful participation in the
PRONAFECYT? If so, please describe.
9. What is the government’s vision for implementation of science, technology, engineering,
and mathematics (STEM) in Costa Rican Schools?
10. What skills should schools promote to prepare students for the PRONAFECYT?

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 212

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cuáles son las metas de su país para el crecimiento económico y la creación de una
sociedad basada en la innovación?
2. ¿Cómo son estas metas coordinadas entre las distintas agencias gubernamentales?
3. En base a su percepción, ¿quiénes son los líderes clave en el desarrollo de una fuerza
laboral que está basada en la innovación?
4. ¿Cómo apoya el Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología (PNFCT) a los
objetivos nacionales en el desarrollo de una fuerza laboral que está basada en la
innovación?
5. ¿Qué función(es) desempeña(n) los líderes del sistema educativo en la aplicación del
PNFCT?
6. ¿De qué manera la política del gobierno fomenta la participación en el PNFCT?
7. ¿El gobierno proporciona a las escuelas con los recursos necesarios para participar en el
PNFCT? Si es así, ¿qué tipo de recursos se proporcionan? Si no, ¿cuáles serían esos
recursos?
8. ¿El gobierno reconoce a las escuelas y/o regiones por su participación en el PNFCT? Si
es así, por favor describa como lo hace el gobierno.
9. ¿Cuál es la visión del gobierno para la integración de la ciencia, tecnología, ingeniería y
matemáticas en el plan de estudios de las escuelas en Costa Rica?
10. ¿Qué habilidades cree usted que las escuelas deben promover para preparar a los
estudiantes para el PNFCT?
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 213
APPENDIX L
Parent Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Position:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. How has your child been prepared for the PRONAFECYT?
2. In what ways do School Directors elicit parent feedback to improve implementation of
the PRONAFECYT?
3. How do teachers ensure that all students participate in the PRONAFECYT?
4. How do School Directors acquire resources necessary for participation in the
PRONAFECYT?
5. How are students recognized for their efforts with regard to implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
6. Please describe how curriculum, pedagogy, or school culture has changed to
accommodate the PRONAFECYT.
7. How does the PRONAFECYT benefit students?
8. What instructional practices does your child’s teacher use to prepare him/her for the
PRONAFECYT?
9. How have you been trained to help your student(s) to prepare for the PRONAFECYT?

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 214

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cómo se ha preparado su hijo/a para el PRONAFECYT?

2. ¿De qué manera provoca retroalimentación los directores de escuela con respecto a la
aplicación de el PRONAFECYT?
3. ¿De qué manera aseguran los maestros que todos los estudiantes participen en el
PRONAFECYT?
4. ¿Cómo obtiene los directores de escuelas recursos necesarios para participar en la
PRONAFECYT?
5. ¿Cómo son reconocidos los estudiantes por sus esfuerzos con respecto a la aplicación
de la PRONAFECYT?
6. Por favor describa cómo currículo, pedagogía, o la cultura de escuela ha cambiado
para adaptarse a la PRONAFECYT.
7. ¿De qué manera el PRONAFECYT beneficia a los estudiantes?
8. ¿Qué prácticas de enseñanza utilizan los maestros de su hijo/a en su escuela para
preparar a los estudiantes para el PRONAFECYT?
9. ¿Cómo ha sido entrenado usted para ayudar a su estudiante (s) prepararse para el
PRONAFECYT?

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 215
APPENDIX M
Student Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Grade:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. How did you get ready for the science fair project?
2. How does your teacher make sure everyone participates in the science fair?
3. How do you get all the things you need for your science fair project?
4. Are you rewarded for participating in the science fair? If so, how are your rewarded?
5. How does participation in the science fair help you?
6. How do your teachers get you ready for the science fair?

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 216

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cómo te preparas para el proyecto de feria de ciencias?

2. ¿Cómo se asegúra su maestro de que todos participen en la feria de ciencias?

3. ¿Cómo obtienes todo lo que necesitas para tu proyecto de ciencias?

4. ¿La escuela los recompense or celebra por su participación en la feria de ciencias? Si
es así, ¿Cómo celebra la escuela?

5. ¿Cómo te ayuda la participación en la feria de ciencia?

6. ¿Cómo te preparan los maestros para la feria de ciencias?

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 217
APPENDIX N
Consent Form
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089

INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN PARTICIPATION IN THE NATIONAL
PROGRAM OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FAIRS IN COSTA RICA

You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should
ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to understand the effects of educational leadership on participation
in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs in primary schools in Costa Rica.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a 15-minute survey, a
30-minute audiotaped interview, and/or a 10-minute classroom observation. You do not have to
answer any questions that you don’t want to answer; if you don’t want to be taped, you can still
participate in this study.

CONFIDENTIALITY
There will be no identifiable information obtained in connection with this study. Your name,
address, or other identifiable information will not be collected.

The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 218
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION

Principal Investigator:
Dr. Michael Escalante, University of Southern California,
mescalan@usc.edumailto:mescalan@usc.edu; mailto:mescalan@usc.edu

Co-investigators:
Oryla Wiedoeft, Assistant to Dr. Escalante,
wiedoeft@usc.edumailto:wiedoeft@usc.edu
Patricia Brent-Sanco, Principal, Paramount Unified School District,
pbrent@usc.edumailto:pbrent@usc.edu
Cindy Chavez Swenson, MWP Lecturer, University of California, Merced,
ccswenso@usc.edumailto:ccswenso@usc.edu
Jesus Corral, Senior Director, Los Angeles County Probation Dept.,
jesuscorral1@gmail.commailto:jesuscorral1@gmail.com
Ricardo Esquivel, Principal, Partnership to Uplift Communities,
ricardoe@usc.edumailto:ricardoe@usc.edu
Carin Fractor, Teacher, Saugus Union School District,
fractor@usc.edumailto:fractor@usc.edu
Miguel Gonzales, Assistant Principal, Santa Barbara Unified School District
gonzalmm@usc.edumailto:gonzalmm@usc.edu
Denise Harshman, Coordinator, Orange County Department of Education
harshman@usc.edumailto:harshman@usc.edu
Mathew Kodama, Assistant Principal, Pasadena Unified School District
mathewwk@usc.edumailto:mathewwk@usc.edu
April Leon, Teacher, West Covina High School,
aprilleo@usc.edumailto:aprilleo@usc.edu
Jennifer Lashier, Assistant Principal, Arcadia Unified School District,
lashier@usc.edumailto:lashier@usc.edu
Omar Lopez, Clinical Associate Professor, Assistant Director of Field Education, USC School of Social
Work, omarl@usc.edumailto:omarl@usc.edu
Christin Molano, Principal, Glendale Unified School District, cwalley@gusd.netmailto:cwalley@gusd.net
Fernando Marquez, Teacher on Assignment, Oro Grande School District,
fmarquez@usc.edumailto:fmarquez@usc.edu
Maribel Martinez, Principal, Lynwood Unified School District
Mart632@usc.edumailto:Mart632@usc.edu
Wendy Poffenberger, Assistant Principal, Long Beach Unified School District,
wpoffenb@usc.edumailto:wpoffenb@usc.edu
Bea Spelker-Levi, Principal, Paramount Unified School District,
bspelker@paramount.k12.ca.usmailto:bspelker@paramount.k12.ca.us
Richard Storti, Vice President of Administrative Services, Fullerton College,
rstorti@usc.edumailto:rstorti@usc.edu
John Tung, Assistant Principal, Arcadia Unified School District,
johntung@usc.edumailto:johntung@usc.edu; mailto:johntung@usc.edu; mailto:johntung@usc.edu

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edumailto:upirb@usc.edu
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 219
APPENDIX O
Observation Protocol

School:

Grade Level: Total Students:
Teacher:

Observer(s):

Questions
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Evident
1. School Directors communicate with teachers.
2. School Directors are visible in the classrooms.
3. STEM/PBL activities related to NSTF are
apparent (process).

4. Evidence of student projects is related to the
implementation of the NSTF. (outcome)

5. The school has resources to prepare students for
the NSTF.

6. Teacher collaboration is evident.
7. Teachers are facilitating soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving, collaboration,
communication, adaptability, analysis, curiosity,
and imagination).

8. Training and professional development are
evident.

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 220

9. Other
Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Evident
1. School directors communicate with
teachers.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Evident
2. School Directors are visible in
classrooms.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 221
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Evident
3. STEM/PBL activities related to NSTF
are apparent (process).
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
4. Evidence of student projects is related to
the implementation of the NSTF (outcome).
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 222

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
5. The school has resources to prepare
students for NSTF.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
6. Teacher collaboration is evident. 4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 223

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
7. Teachers are facilitating soft skills
(critical thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication, adaptability,
analysis, curiosity, and imagination).
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
8. Training and professional development is
evident.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 224

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
9. Other 4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Observation Checklist
Capraro
(STEM PBL)
Wagner
(Soft Skills)
Observed
Student Group Work/Collaboration X X
Discourse and Questioning
(student-student, teacher-student)
X
Student Work
Student Engagement X X
Computers in the Classroom X
Student Centered X X
STEM Integration Across Content Areas X

ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 225
APPENDIX P
Summary of the Research Proposal

USC Rossier
School of Education
March 1, 2015

Summary of the Research Proposal: Globalization has resulted in increased competition among countries
for economic growth. Costa Rica has initiated many actions designed to increase the nation’s
competitiveness. In the educational system, changes have been made to increase development of student
competencies in the STEM areas, one of those changes being mandated participation in the National
Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT). Unfortunately, there is currently a disparity
in the levels of success across the country in participation and quality of the PRONAFECYT initiative at
individual school sites.

Goals of the Research: The purpose of this study is to understand the effects of educational leadership on
participation in the PRONAFECYT in primary schools in Costa Rica. The study will identify the role of
school leaders in development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. Also, the study will
explore how schools may have restructured their educational programs by focusing on sharing of
leadership and teacher training.

Brief Description of the Methodology: Interviews of leaders: School Director interviews will typically
last about 30 minutes. In the past, interviews were longer only when the director wanted to talk more
about the school—which is great!

Teacher surveys: There will be no teacher interviews, just a short survey. Last year we put it online so
teachers could complete it before our students arrive. For those with limited Internet access, we had paper
surveys for them when we arrived.

Classroom observations: Classroom observations are about 10 minutes per room unless the Director or
teacher wants our students to stay longer.

Most of our students are subdirectors or directors or hold higher positions, so they understand the pressure
on school directors and are very respectful of their time and the time of their teachers. We do not want to
be an interruption or imposition. We are very grateful for the time that people spend with us and are
humbled by the high quality of academics that we see in Costa Rican schools, particularly with respect to
the science fairs.

Thank you for your assistance.

Sincerely,
Dr. Michael Escalante and Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft
Michael Escalante, Ed.D. Oryla Wiedoeft, Ed.D.
Executive in Residence Adjunct Assistant Professor
USC Rossier School of Education USC Rossier School of Education

University of Southern California
3470 Trousdale Parkway, Suite 1004B, Los Angeles, California 90089-1234
 Tel: 213 740 3711 Fax: 213 740 3553

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study applied four frameworks from academic literature in the areas of leadership, change process, 21st-century skills, and science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) project-based learning (PBL) to understand the various factors providing for success and participation of a school in the national science fair initiative (Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología [PRONAFECYT]) in Costa Rica. The purpose of this study was to determine the role of leadership in the success of and participation in PRONAFECYT at a primary school in Costa Rica, known as Escuela Universitaria. The study also reviewed instructional practices and necessary skills for preparing global workers of the future. This study was conducted in Costa Rica in cooperation with the Ministry for Public Education. Participants included government officials, business partners, site administrators, teachers, and primary students. Observations in Grade 1–6 classrooms, along with surveys of 125 students in Grades 4–6, displayed the student perspective, while surveys and interviews with the other participants provided the school picture, as well as the community perspective. Findings from this study indicated that site administrators were crucial to building human capital in the teachers, recognizing them for their efforts, and empowering them to become leaders in their own right. It was evident that PRONAFECYT required improvement of soft skills and changed instructional practices in the classrooms by focusing on inquiry through PBL and building a culture of exploration. This study begins to identify practices to strengthen the participation in and success of PRONAFECYT at the primary level in Costa Rica and to contribute to better science fair success in other developing countries.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Harshman, Denise Galvez (author)

Core Title The role of educational leadership in participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Escuela Universitaria in the Nacional Region of Costa Rica

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/26/2016

Defense Date 02/19/2016

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag 21st century skills,Costa Rica,inquiry based instruction,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,PBL,project based learning,PRONAFECYT,science fair,soft skills,STEM

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael F. (committee chair), Garcia, Pedro, E. (committee member), Verdugo, David (committee member)

Creator Email deniseharshman@gmail.com,harshman@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-244477

Unique identifier UC11279073

Identifier etd-HarshmanDe-4381.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-244477 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-HarshmanDe-4381.pdf

Dmrecord 244477

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Harshman, Denise Galvez

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA