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The effects of educational leadership on participation in the Costa Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Escuela Militaria in the National Region

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The effects of educational leadership on participation in the Costa Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Escuela Militaria in the National Region

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Content Running head: LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 1
THE EFFECTS OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP ON PARTICIPATION
IN THE COSTA RICAN NATIONAL PROGRAM OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
FAIRS AT ESCUELA MILITARIA IN THE NATIONAL REGION
by
Maribel Martinez
____________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2016
Copyright 2016 Maribel Martinez
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 2
DEDICATION
First and foremost, I want to thank God for His grace, mercy, love and salvation.
I dedicate this dissertation to the people in my life who have motivated, supported,
tolerated, and loved me through this process. To my loving husband, Danny: His motivation and
drive to take on the world just makes me love him more. I thank him for believing in me even
when I did not. To my beautiful children, Daniel and Alicia: I thank them for being patient and
understanding and for allowing me to miss their games while I went to school. Words could
never express the love I have for them. To both of my parents, José and Avelina: I thank them
for teaching me how to work hard and never give up. No amount of schooling in the world could
have ever taught me that. To my siblings: No matter where life takes us, I know that I can always
count on them and that they can count on me. To a special person who took my place when I was
gone, Maria: If not for her, my house, children, and my life would be a mess. I could not have
done this without her.
Thanks to everyone else who played a role in supporting me through this process. Their
encouragement, motivation, and inspiration helped me to complete this study.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 3
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank Dr. Michael Escalante for selecting me to be part of this amazing dissertation
group. His leadership, guidance, and support made this research study an extraordinary and
unforgettable learning experience.
I thank my USC colleagues. It was a privilege to meet such smart, energetic, and talented
individuals. I am lucky to know that we will always be connected through the USC family. I
wish them all love, success, and happiness.
I thank my Vista team, who always worked hard and remained positive at all times. Their
patience with me just reminds me of how lucky I am to have such a great team. I am here for
them whenever they need me.
A special thank you to my mentors for guiding, counseling, and encouraging me not to
quit when I wanted to. Their leadership talents will be engraved in my heart forever.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
Table of Contents 4
List of Tables 7
List of Figures 8
Abstract 9
Chapter 1: Introduction 10
Background of the Study 11
Globalization 11
Costa Rica Education System 11
Multinational Corporations 12
STEM Project-Based Learning 13
Leadership 13
Statement of the Problem 14
Purpose of the Study 15
Research Questions 16
Significance of the Study 16
Limitations of the Study 16
Delimitations 17
Assumptions 17
Definitions of Related Terms 17
Organization of the Dissertation 18
Chapter 2: Literature Review 20
Globalization 21
History of Costa Rica 24
Government 24
Economy 28
Education 30
Multinational Corporations 35
Hewlett-Packard 36
IBM 36
Procter & Gamble 37
Walmart 37
Intel 37
Intel’s impact in Costa Rica 37
Community involvement 39
Workforce demands 40
Investment in education 40
STEM-PBL Education 45
PBL 45
STEM 46
Instruction Using STEM PBL 47
Theoretical Framework for STEM PBL 47
Costa Rican PRONAFECYT and STEM PBL 50
Leadership 51
The Structural Frame 51
The Human Resource Frame 52
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 5
The Political Frame 53
The Symbolic Frame 54
Multiframe Approaches 54
Kotter’s Change Framework 54
Stage 1: Establishing a sense of urgency 55
Stage 2: Creating the guiding coalition 55
Stage 3: Developing a vision and strategy 55
Stage 4: Communicating the change vision 56
Stage 5: Empowering employees for broad-based action 56
Stage 6: Generating short-term wins 56
Stage 7: Consolidating gains and producing more change 57
Stage 8: Anchoring new approaches 57
Classroom Instruction 58
Effective STEM PBL Instruction 58
Teacher Professional Development 59
What Effective STEM PBL Looks Like 60
Chapter Summary 61
Chapter 3: Methodology 63
Frameworks 64
Research Design 66
Research Team 67
Exploratory Trip 67
Sample and Population 67
Interviewed Participants 70
Observations 73
Instruments 74
Interviews 74
Surveys 74
Observations 75
Data Collection 75
Data Analysis 76
Reliability and Validity 77
Ethical Considerations 77
Chapter Summary 78
Chapter 4: Results 79
Results for Research Question 1 79
Theme 1: Effective Leadership Communication 81
Theme 2: Motivation 89
Theme 3: Continuous Support From the School Director 96
Summary of Results for Research Question 1 100
Results for Research Question 2 101
Theme 1: Teachers Communicating the Purpose of the PRONAFECYT
to Students 104
Theme 2: Participation in Training 108
Summary of Results for Research Question 2 112
Results for Research Question 3 112
Theme 1: Access to Content 113
Theme 2: PBL Opportunities 116
Summary of Results for Research Question 3 119
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 6
Results for Research Question 4 119
Theme 1: Research and Inquiry 120
Theme 2: Use of the Scientific Method 123
Summary of Results for Research Question 4 125
Chapter Summary 126
Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusion, and Recommendations 128
Discussion of Findings 130
Research Question 1 130
Research Question 2 131
Research Question 3 133
Research Question 4 134
Conclusion of Findings 136
Implications for Practice 137
Recommendations for Future Research 138
Conclusion 139
References 140
Appendices
Appendix A: List of Research Sites 145
Appendix B: Teacher Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 146
Appendix C: School Director Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 148
Appendix D: Government Officials/Business Leaders Interview Protocol:
English and Spanish Versions 150
Appendix E: Parent Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 152
Appendix F: Student Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 154
Appendix G: Teacher Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 156
Appendix H: School Director Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 160
Appendix I: Government Official Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 164
Appendix J: Business Partner Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 168
Appendix K: Parent Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 172
Appendix L: Student Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 176
Appendix M: Observation Protocol 180
Appendix N: Recruitment Letter 186
Appendix O: Consent Form 187
Appendix P: Summary of the Research Proposal 189

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 7
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Costa Rica’s Secondary School Enrollment by Year 33
Table 2: Growth in Foreign Direct Investment in Costa Rica in Millions of U.S.
Dollars, 1995 to 2004 39
Table 3: Project-Based Learning as an Evolutionary Process 49
Table 4: Summary of Participants from Escuela Militaria Elementary School 70
Table 5: Key Elements in Effective Communication of Vision 82
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 8
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Costa Rica’s foreign direct investment from 1984 to 2004 38
Figure 2: Bolman and Deal’s overview of the four-frames model 52
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 9
ABSTRACT
Globalization has caused nations around the world to evolve to stay afloat with many of
the economic demands that globalization brings. With the rise of multinational corporations and
the increase of foreign direct investment in Costa Rica, the country’s education system has
undergone changes to meet the necessities of a knowledge economy. Through the
implementation of Law 7169, all schools are required to participate in the Costa Rican National
Program of Science and Technology Fairs (Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología [PRONAFECYT]). Through participation in the PRONAFECYT, students will be
exposed to real-world experiences and be better prepared for the workforce. The purpose of this
study was to identify the role of educational leaders in implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative. The study examined leadership practices, instructional strategies, and professional
development practices at various school sites to identify key components of successful
implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. Through data gathered from surveys,
interviews, and observations, the findings revealed that effective leadership practices play a
crucial role in the successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT. Effective communication,
professional development opportunities, motivation, and continuous support are examples of
leadership practices demonstrated by schools that had a high participation rate in the
PRONAFECYT. Schools that did not have a high participation rate in the PRONAFECYT
demonstrated a lack of effective leadership.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 10
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Globalization has caused countries around the world to examine their current economic,
political, and educational systems currently in place (Ritzer, 2011). Globalization has opened
doors for countries to communicate easily, interact, and exchange ideas and products that then
challenge the current methods by which countries conduct business. In various countries, multi-
national corporations (MNCs) have been established, producing thousands of jobs that must be
filled by locals with the skills to meet those job demands. The attraction of foreign direct invest-
ment (FDI) countries allows companies to benefit from low corporate costs while allowing the
host countries to compete in a growing knowledge economy (Ritzer, 2011). FDI allows a coun-
try’s economic power to rise while improving the human capital and the advancements that the
country has to offer. The technological advances that have emerged in the past decades around
the world have provided access to new ideas and contribute to the need to prepare people to meet
the current demands and the future needs of the 21st-century job market.
In the country of Costa Rica, MNCs have settled and created a job market with various
needs. According to the Costa Rica Investment Promotion Agency (CINDE), in the past 32
years, more than 250 high-tech companies have established themselves in Costa Rica, bringing
into question the current knowledge economy available to meet the demands of these MNCs. In
order to be prepared, educational leaders must ensure that students are being taught 21st-century
skills necessary to meet the demands of these jobs. Part of the preparation to meet the demands
entails successful participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs
(Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología [PRONAFECYT]). Successful partici-
pation in the PRONAFECYT will support students in competing with the knowledge-based
economy around the world (Spring, 2008).
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 11
Background of the Study
Globalization
Globalization has evolved, with many definitions over the past century. Originating in
1965 from economist Theodore Levitt, the term focused on the changes in global economies
affecting production, consumption, and investment (Spring, 2008). The term quickly adapted to
reach the cultural, political, and educational aspects around the world. With the rapid increase of
technological advances, countries around the world are able to communicate and share ideas that
focus on production and building a stronger economy worldwide. Countries conduct business
with each other and countries that were once in the lower economic poll are now able to compete
with stronger sustainable countries because of FDI. FDI has increased in the past 25 years par-
ticularly because of the many benefits that MNCs gain while financially supporting the host
country. Globalization has created a sense of competition, causing countries to re-evaluate their
educational preparation programs to ensure that students are prepared to meet the demands of a
knowledge-based economy. In order for countries to compete in a global economy, educational
practices must be aligned to meet the demands of the technologically advanced knowledge-based
economy (Spring, 2008).
Costa Rica Education System
With free education for all students, Costa Rica ensures that at least 6% of the country’s
gross domestic product (GDP) is invested in the education system. Understanding the importance
of a knowledge economy, Costa Rica’s education system has evolved in the past decade to guar-
antee that students are exposed to curriculum that will prepare them to meet the demands that
FDI has brought. In light of a 96% literacy rate, Costa Rica’s political leaders have implemented
decrees that require schools to participate in programs that prepare students for 21st-century
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 12
skills. One of the decrees implemented Law 7169, which requires participation in the Costa
Rican PRONAFECYT. All schools in primary and secondary education are required to guide
students to prepare a project and participate in the PRONAFECYT. Additional opportunities,
such as attending technical schools in secondary grades to prepare students to meet the demands
MNCs, bring in another method by which Costa Rica offers students skills to meet future work-
force demands.
Understanding the need to stay afloat with the demands of FDI, the current educational
system continues to re-evaluate the leadership, instructional practices, and programs that are
offered to students. With Costa Rica’s school enrollment increasing yearly for the past 13 years,
it is crucial that all students be properly educated and trained to meet the demands of the current
and future workforce (World Bank, 2012).
Multinational Corporations
Through the efforts of CINDE, FDI has increased drastically in the past 10 years
(CINDE, 2013). With MNCs such as Hewlett Packard (HP), IBM, Procter & Gamble, Walmart,
and Intel, Costa Rica’s job force has transformed over the past century. MNCs transfer their
companies to countries such as Costa Rica to reap the low overhead costs of operating a large
corporation while the country enjoys the benefits that FDI brings. MNCs in Costa Rica represent
more than 6,000 current jobs for Costa Ricans (CINDE, 2013). With these jobs come new skills
that are required to fulfill the work demands of MNCs. It is crucial that students graduate sec-
ondary school prepared to meet the demands of MNCs for the benefit of the students, the corpo-
ration, and Costa Rica’s economy.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 13
STEM Project-Based Learning
Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) embedded with project-
based learning integrates design principles for real-life applicability (Capraro & Slough, 2009).
Preparing students for real-world expectations in the growing fields of STEM will develop
students who think critically and analytically while using higher-order thinking skills. PBL
requires collaboration, peer communication, problem solving, and self-directed learning (Capraro
& Slough, 2009). STEM professionals use PBL principles in complex problem-solving tasks
daily; students are prepared in the same matter to develop a broad range of skills and be prepared
for the workforce after secondary school (Capraro & Slough, 2009). According to Linn, Davis,
and Bell (2004, as cited in Capraro & Slough, 2009), effective STEM PBL instruction includes
(a) making content accessible; (b) making thinking visible, which includes using visual elements
to help the learner and using learner-constructed visual elements to assess learning; (c) helping
students to learn from others; (d) promoting autonomy and lifelong learning; and (e) the integra-
tion of all.
With ever-changing technological advances and new problems being identified daily,
educators must prepare students for jobs and challenges that possibly do not exist today (Capraro
& Slough, 2009). Implementing STEM PBL instruction in Costa Rica schools supports Law
7169 and prepares students to meet the new demands that are emerging daily. Through proper
leadership, schools can implement STEM PBL instruction effectively and students can partici-
pate successfully in the PRONAFECYT in Costa Rica.
Leadership
Leading successful organizations requires leaders to establish a sense of urgency, create a
guiding coalition, develop a vision and strategies, communicate the change vision, empower
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 14
employees for broad-based action, generate short-term wins, consolidate gains and produce more
change, and anchor new approaches in the culture (Kotter, 2012). According to Kotter’s eight-
step process, leaders can transform organizations to successful institutions by following these
eight steps. Understanding that large organizations can face various challenges, Bolman and Deal
(2013) presented the multiframe thinking approach that school leaders can follow to support
successful implementation of NSTP. Learning to understand challenges in the education system
through multiple lenses, school leaders can solve problems in a strategic matter (Bolman & Deal,
2013). The four lenses presented are (a) the structural frame, (b the human resource frame, (c)
the political frame, and (d) the symbolic frame.
Each frame offers a powerful interpretation of how situations can be handled. Together,
the four frames make it possible to reframe organizations and gain clarity, regain balance, gener-
ate new opportunities, and find strategies to make a difference. Following Kotter’s (2012) eight
steps to change and Bolman and Deal’s frameworks (2013), Costa Rican school leaders can
support the vision to implement STEM PBL instruction and equip students to participate in the
PRONAFECYT.
Statement of the Problem
Misra (2012) defined globalization as the “integration of economies and societies through
cross country flows of information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance and
people” (p. 69). These global changes have led to a highly competitive and rapidly changing
environment for countries throughout the world. World societies are now more interconnected
and interdependent than ever before (Armstrong, 2007; Friedman, 2007). For a nation to succeed
in an increasingly interconnected global economy, changes to the local economy and education
system must occur (Biesanz, Biesanz, & Biesanz, 1999; Friedman, 2007). Globalization has
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 15
necessitated a change in the skills that students must develop to compete in an increasingly
global workforce (Friedman, 2007; Spring, 2008). As a result, educational systems are no longer
competing with other school systems in the same city, state, or even nation; rather, they are com-
peting with schools around the world (Wagner, 2008).
Costa Rica has endured many changes since gaining independence in 1859 (Biesanz et
al., 1999). Since its independence and abolition of the military, Costa Rica has placed its primary
focus on education (Palmer & Molina, 2004). During the past 30 years, Costa Rica has adapted
and reformed from a rural, agrarian society to a high-technology hub of innovation in Latin
America (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). In addition, Costa Rica has initiated actions designed to
attract FDI, including tax incentives and investments in infrastructure, as well as changes to the
educational system (OECD, 2012).
In order to continue to attract FDI, Costa Rica’s economic future is dependent on schools
that produce knowledge and conceptual-based workers with skills in STEM, which are essential
21st-century competencies (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). However, according to Americas Society
and Council of the Americas (2011), 20% to 30% of students in Costa Rica do not finish second-
ary school. Moreover, to ensure a 100% literacy rate by 2017, including students in rural and
poor communities, principal and teacher leadership must ensure that all students have equitable
educational access to rigorous, project-based educational outcomes in all schools (CINDE,
2012).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to identify the role of educational leaders in implementing
the PRONAFECYT initiative. The study examined leadership practices, instructional strategies,
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 16
and professional development practices at various school sites to identify key components of
successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative.
Research Questions
Four research questions are being investigated in this study:
1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century Skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the PRONAFECYT affected instructional practices?
Significance of the Study
Globalization has resulted in increased competition between countries for economic
growth. Costa Rica has initiated many actions designed to increase the nation’s competitiveness.
In the educational system, changes have been made to increase the development of student com-
petencies in the STEM areas, including mandated participation in the PRONAFECYT. There is
currently a disparity in the levels of success across the country in participation and quality of the
PRONAFECYT initiative at individual school sites.
Limitations of the Study
Acknowledge limitations include the distance between the researcher and Costa Rica.
The researcher were in Costa Rica for a total of 11 days to gather all data possible. One limita-
tion was the need to gather more data. A second limitation was the availability and willingness of
the schools to provide access to the schools. Even though the researchers had previous clearance
to enter the school sites, there was always the risk of being turned away upon arrival. Although
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 17
this did not occur, being turned away would have limited the data that could have been gathered.
Another possible limitation could have occurred due to bias on the part of survey respondents or
interviewees related to the topic under study. The researcher must be aware of any bias that
might exist during the data gathering process.
Delimitations
This study is delimited to nine schools that are successful in the implementation of the
PRONAFECYT and nice schools that are not as successful.
Assumptions
The following assumptions are made:
1. Truthful responses were provided by participants who complete the surveys and
answer interview questions.
2. During the classroom observations, the classrooms were staged to demonstrate STEM
PBL integration.
3. During the classroom observations, the classroom teachers did not perform STEM PBL
implementation that was not part of their normal routine.
4. STEM PBL implementation helps to prepare students to participate in the
PRONAFECYT.
5. Leadership plays a crucial role in successful participation in the PRONAFECYT.
Definitions of Related Terms
21st-century skills: A broad set of knowledge, skills, work habits, and character traits that
are believed by educators, school reformers, college professors, employers, and others to be
critically important to success in today’s world, particularly in collegiate programs and contem-
porary careers and workplaces.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 18
Foreign direct investment (FDI): An investment made by a company or entity based in
one country into a company or entity based in another country.
Globalization: the growing interdependence of countries resulting from increasing inte-
gration of trade, finance, people, and ideas in one global marketplace (World Bank, 2012).
Knowledge economy: A system of consumption and production based on intellectual
capital.
Multinational corporation (MNC): A corporation that has its facilities and other assets in
at least one country other than its home country.
Project-based learning (PBL): A teaching method in which students gain knowledge and
skills by working for an extended period of time to investigate and respond to a complex
question, problem, or challenge.
Science, technology, engineering, mathematics (STEM): A curriculum based on the idea
of educating students in these four specific disciplines in an interdisciplinary and applied
approach.
Organization of the Dissertation
The dissertation consists of five chapters. Chapter 1 includes an overview of the study, an
introduction, the background of the problem, the problem statement, the purpose of the study,
research questions, significance of the study, limitations, delimitations, assumptions, and defini-
tions of terms.
Chapter 2 provides a review of literature focusing on the effects of globalization, FDI,
MNCs, STEM PBL, and leadership. The chapter begins with an introduction of Costa Rica’s
historical background, including political, economic, and educational systems. The chapter then
focuses in detail on Costa Rica’s current educational system, specifically in secondary education.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 19
Chapter 3 describes the research methodology to be used in the study and supporting evi-
dence for the use of a qualitative approach. The chapter also describes the instruments to be used
(Appendices A through O), as well as the methods by which data will be collected and analyzed.
Chapter 4 presents the findings of the study, including a detailed description of the data results
broken related to each research question. Chapter 5 presents a summary of the study, possible
implications for practice, and a conclusion. Suggestions for future research practice opportunities
related to PRONAFECYT are presented.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 20
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
Globalization is a term that has evolved since the spreading of humans around the globe
(Chanda, 2008). The term quickly adapted to reach the ever-growing advances throughout the
world. From the early adaptations to the current technological developments, globalization has
increased international business, investments, and the need to stay academically equipped to
meet the demands of a technologically advanced labor market (Spring, 2008). With the help of
technological advances and globalization, the economic systems around the world have shifted
drastically (Clifton, 2011). The economic flows of governments have allowed changes to affect
the labor market, and the need to prepare students to meet the needs of 21st-century skills con-
tinues to emerge (Spring, 2008).
The purpose of this literature review is to identify the role of educational leaders in
implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative in Costa Rica. The study will examine leadership
practices, instructional strategies, and professional development practices at various school sites
in order to identify key components of successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT initia-
tive. The literature review begins by exploring globalization and its effects on the economy, pol-
itics, and the education system around the world. This is followed by the history of Costa Rica
related to its government, economy, and education. Next, MNCs are introduced and explained
regarding how they have played a role in the development of the world’s economy, specifically
introducing the role of Intel in development of the PRONAFECYT. The demands for improved
STEM and PBL education are explored and supported. The role of educational leaders in imple-
menting STEM, PLB, and 21st-century skills in classrooms through Bolman and Deal’s leader-
ship framework and Kotter’s change framework is presented. Effective STEM and PBL
classroom instruction are supported by Capraro’s framework.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 21
Globalization
For the purpose of this study, globalization is defined as the growing interdependence of
countries resulting from increasing integration of trade, finance, people, and ideas in one global
marketplace (World Bank, 2012). The spread of globalization has affected the economic, politi-
cal, cultural ,and education flow of systems that occur throughout the world (Spring, 2008).
Introduced by Economist Theodore Levitt in 1985, the term globalization was used to describe
changes in global economies affecting production, consumption, and investment (Spring, 2008).
The term quickly applied to political and cultural changes that affect in common ways large
segments of the world’s peoples (Spring, 2008).
Globalization has been seen since the beginning of time as people have always tried to
find a better life and, in those attempts, communities rose, moved to other countries and king-
doms, connecting with one another for the exchange of goods or launching attacks in an effort to
occupy others’ land (Chanda, 2008). Although not seen in the same matter, the attempts to
connect with others for the exchange of something continue to be seen in the 21st century. These
early attempts have caused and continue to cause cultural impacts throughout the world. Cultural
flows are described as the travel of ideas, words, images, and artistic sound (Ritzer, 2011). With
the increase in technological advances, culture flows are easily seen throughout the world
through movies, videos, music, videos, music, books, newspapers, and photos. Known as cultural
hybridization, many countries in the world are now mixing cultures, which leads to unique com-
binations (Ritzer, 2011).
While globalization quickly transformed the global flow of people, the political flows
quickly reshaped with it (Ritzer, 2011). Changes in the migration of people, the transfer of goods
and supplies, the control of multinational corporations, environmental complications, and the
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 22
“poor” versus “rich” countries influenced the political structures and flows around the world
(Ritzer, 2011). Being the first leading global organization in the realm of politics, the United
Nations continues to be an independent actor that houses the setting in which nation-states meet
and deliberate over military, economic, environmental, and human protection around the world
(Ritzer, 2011).
The impact of globalization has required many countries to restructure the manner in
which business is conducted and choose to be part of the global superstructure to compete with
the global economy (Spring, 2008). Trade in goods and services is central to the global economy
(Ritzer, 2011). The increase in competition for commodities such as goods and natural resources
has caused developing countries such as China to consume much of these goods around the
world (Ritzer, 2011). In efforts to compete in the global economy, less-developed countries have
found themselves offering lower wages, poorer working conditions, and longer hours to attract
the interests of MNCs (Ritzer, 2011). The world’s economies have become more interconnected
because of globalization such that the more powerful the economy, the greater the effect of its
crises on the rest of the world if it fails (Ritzer, 2011). Technological advances around the world
have caused countries to increase the skills of the workers to meet the needs of the workforce
demands (Friedman, 2007).
The increase in technological advances around the world has created opportunities for
countries around the world to succeed economically and develop with less (Zakaria, 2011). With
the increased competition, globalization has resulted in many jobs leaving the developed coun-
tries to a less-developed country where they can improve profits with access to global capital,
markets, and high-quality labor at a low price (Zakaria, 2011). Less-developed countries now
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 23
face the challenge of ensuring that students leave school with the skills needed to meet the
demands of the jobs.
Globalization in education is seen as the growth of worldwide educational discourses and
institutions to lead to similar national educational agendas, particularly the concept that educa-
tion should be viewed as an economic investment with the goal of developing human capital or
better workers to promote economic growth (Spring, 2008). Globalization of education consists
of a large educational global superstructure that includes knowledge economy, life-long learning,
global migration, brain circulation, and neoliberalism (Spring, 2008). As a strong player in the
global education networks, the World Bank plays a leading role as an investor in education
through the connection of other worldwide organizations and MNCs (Spring, 2008). The World
Bank’s goal is to end extreme poverty by decreasing the percentage of people living on less than
$1.25 a day to no more than 3% and to promote shared prosperity by fostering the income
growth of the bottom 40% for every country (World Bank, 2012). Through low- to-zero- interest
loans to poor countries, the World Bank’s concept of increasing economic growth is through a
stronger, knowledgeable, workforce (Spring, 2008). With the increase in globalization, the edu-
cation systems have shifted throughout the world, causing nations around the world to surpass
once leading developed nations (Spring, 2008). Many critics contend that globalization has
affected local level policies and practices through the influence of the global education super-
structure.
Globalization has created a ripple effect throughout the world, affecting the world’s
economies, politics, and cultural and educational flow of ideas (Ritzer, 2011). To many coun-
tries, globalization has provided opportunity for economic advances that would not have
occurred otherwise. To other countries, globalization is seen as global inequalities, specifically to
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 24
economics, low life expectancy, high infant mortality, and access to basic life necessities (Ritzer,
2011). For those countries who have flourished because of globalization, positive effects such as
a decrease in poverty, increase in FDI, increase in jobs, and access to education have made
countries such as Costa Rica progress rapidly (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
Costa Rica has embraced globalization due to its strong attractions. Strong supplies of
technicians and engineers at low cost, widespread knowledge of the English language, its politi-
cal stability and democracy, its strong developed legal system, and low levels of corruption and
high quality of life with good access to health services, nightlife, and cultural amenities and natu-
ral resources, make Costa Rica a great place to attract FDI and MNCs (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
Costa Rica is a small economy that has achieved a significant transformation in the past decades,
making it a country that has attracted powerful MNCs such as Intel, HP, Walmart, Conair, and
Abbott & Baxter (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). With these strong corporations present in Costa Rica
and new technological advances quickly moving throughout the world, the education system is
now being challenged to prepare students to meet the demands of a technological knowledge-
based economy.
History of Costa Rica
To understand the current education system in Costa Rica, it is important to comprehend
the history and the advances that the country has made in recent decades. Costa Rica’s govern-
ment, economic, and education systems are review in this section. Historical attributions are
presented on the current systems, as well as how history played a role in today’s structures.
Government
In its discovery in 1520, Costa Rica faced challenges for the first century of colonization
due to poverty that discouraged immigration from Spain (Biesanz et al., 1999). Between 1560
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 25
and 1610, Costa Rica faced challenges in establishing settlements due to indigenous hostility,
isolation, and climate (Biesanz et al., 1999). From the surviving settlements, the population
gradually spread around the Gulf of Nicoya and, in the 1700s, the census recorded more than
2,000 Spaniards and their Costa Rican-born children (Biesanz et al., 1999). Some colonists
migrated to Costa Rica with strong capital and most received land trusts, which became private
property (Booth, 2008). During this time, the efforts to export cocoa and tobacco failed, causing
a drought in exportable items (Booth, 2008). In 1821, Costa Rica gained independence from
Spain, which is now celebrated September 15 (Palmer & Molina, 2004). In 1824, Juan Mora
Fernandez was elected head of state, which created an elite class of powerful coffee barons
(Palmer & Molina, 2004). After several years in the union of the United States Provinces of
Central America, Costa Rica gained full independence (Booth, 2008).
In the early 1840s, coffee became Costa Rica’s major export. Coffee altered Costa Rica’s
economic standing from poor and miserable to rich and prosperous (Palmer & Molina, 2004).
From the 1850s to the 1890s, the sale of coffee accounted for almost 90% of the country’s export
earnings (Palmer & Molina, 2004). Coffee crops quickly became part of the entire country of
Costa Rica. Coffee barons, known as cafetaleros, were powerful leaders who controlled credit,
purchase, prices, and the processing of facilities; they were in control of the entire coffee indus-
try (Palmer & Molina, 2004). Because of the rise of the coffee industry, a new system of gov-
ernment was needed. Due to the high usage of roads because of the coffee transport, roads
needed to improve, which required the power of the public (Palmer & Molina, 2004). Business
needed to be controlled, which created a new national identity for Costa Rica.
In 1847, José Maria Castro Madriz was elected as the first President of Costa Rica but
was overthrown by the coffee barons (Palmer & Molina, 2004). In 1849, coffee baron Juan
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 26
Rafael Mora became President and used his power to expand coffee agriculture. Leading a fight
against William Walker, an American who tried to take control of the region, Mora used local
peasants as allies and the central valley became a foundation for the nation state (Palmer &
Molina, 2004). In 1859, Juan Rafael Mora was exiled and later killed; as a once known leader,
there is a statue in his honor is the city of Alajuela and an airport is named after him (Palmer &
Molina, 2004).
The introduction of bananas in the 1880s became Costa Rica’s second export to contrib-
ute to Costa Rica’s economic system. As an attempt to feed the workers who were building rail-
roads, bananas were planted on the sides of the railroad project (Food and Agricultural
Organization of the United Nations [FAO], 2014). Afro-Antillean workers contributed to the
large influx of people who migrated to Costa Rica to become banana pickers (Palmer & Molina,
2004). With years of negotiations and competitions around the world, in 1912, the United Fruit
Company eventually took over Costa Rica’s banana export company (FAO, 2014). With full
control of the export of bananas, the United Fruit Company became part of one of the most
famous labor actions in Central American history (Palmer & Molina, 2004). Led by the Costa
Rican communist party, laborers were fighting against decreased wages and lack of adequate
health care. The strike became a national event that the United Fruit Company even urged U.S.
President Franklin Delano Roosevelt to intervene. The United Fruit Company ultimately agreed
to some of the demands but eventually moved the company to the Pacific coast, leaving Black
migrant workers jobless and at the mercy of bureaucrats who were sent to reeducate the non-
native settlers (Sharman, 2005).
The events of the 1940s initiated the transformation to a modern Costa Rica. During this
time, Dr. Rafael Angel Calderon Guardia, elected President, introduced the social security,
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 27
pension, and social welfare systems that were supported by the communists and the Catholic
Church (Palmer & Molina, 2004). The greatest transformation occurred when Dr. Calderon-
Guardia refused to relinquish power after losing the presidential election in 1948, which initiated
the civil war. Exiled José Maria “Don Pepe” Figueres Ferrer managed to defeat Calderon-
Guardia and later proved to be one of Costa Rica’s most influential leaders. Between 1948 and
1952, under Don Pepe’s leadership, a large number of policies and civil rights were established.
Voting rights for women and Blacks were established, the communist party was banned, banks
were nationalized, and presidential term limits were established (Palmer & Molina, 2004). In
1949, a new constitution was adopted after a gory 44-day civil war.
In the 1940s, coffee exports represented 53% of the total exportation, 25% were bananas,
and cocoa represented 8%; all three products represented 86% of the total exports. During the
1960s, development focused on the internal market, as well as on the Central American Common
Market (CACM), formed to facilitate regional economic development through free trade and
economic integration (OECD, 2012). Established by the General Treaty on Central American
Economic Integration signed by Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, and Nicaragua in December
1960, its membership expanded to include Costa Rica in July 1962. By 1980, the economic situa-
tion of the country made evident that the CACM was exhausted and the industries were substi-
tuting the imports of nondurable consumption goods, but they increased the imports of raw
materials and semi-elaborated products (Costa Rica, 2015). The country was still depending on
the exports of traditional products that did not offer much potential for the growth of the econ-
omy. The shift from transporting coffee and bananas to a more diverse portfolio began (OECD,
2012).
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 28
With the election of a new president in 1982, President Luis Alberto Monge was elected
as president and began strict programs in the face of sharp economic declines (Palmer & Molina,
2004). Costa Rica established CINDE in 1982 as the first promotion agency in Latin America
(OECD, 2012). With the introduction of CINDE, FDI in Costa Rica increased, which had a
ripple effect on the increase in jobs and the demands for preparation of the workforce. In 2008,
Chinese President Hu Jintao visited Costa Rica a year after the country switched its diplomatic
allegiance from Taiwan to China, which was seen as a way to encourage Chinese investment
(Palmer & Molina, 2004). The first female President was elected in 2010 and later proceeded by
President Luis Guillermo Solis in 2014. The changes in Costa Rica’s political system greatly
influenced the transformation that would quickly help Costa Rica’s economy contribute to the
technologically advanced country it is now known for. FDI in the country was the driving force
to Costa Rica’s development; once known for a small economy, it has now achieved a significant
transformation in the past decades (OECD, 2012).
Economy
A long-standing democracy and stable macroeconomic environment in Latin America
have made Costa Rica an attraction to FDI (OECD, 2012). Globalization and FDI contributed to
the decrease in poverty over the past 25 years (World Bank, 2012). CINDE is a private, non-
profit, and apolitical organization that has attracted more than 250 companies to Costa Rica,
including worldwide leaders such as Intel, Procter and Gamble, Hospira, Baxter, St. Jude Medi-
cal, Western Union, and many others (OECD, 2012). With losing competitiveness in unskilled
labor intensive industries, in 1993, CINDE focused on recruiting FDI that targeted electrical and
telecommunication industries (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). With a good supply of technicians and
engineers who spoke English, Costa Rica became a good match to the advances brought in by
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 29
the technological companies. Sustaining economic success became a challenge due to the lack of
desire to promote a knowledge-driven society (OECD, 2012).
The increase in FDI fostered diversification and upgrading in the creation of better jobs
and business opportunities (OECD, 2012). The creation of better jobs increased the need for
quality skilled laborers, as well as prioritizing a knowledge-intensive workforce that became a
challenge for the culture of the country (OECD, 2012). Representing the world’s largest manu-
facturers of computers, software, and information technology, MNCs play a strong role in Costa
Rica’s education system. Costa Rica’s education system has transformed with the economy. In
the 1960s and 1970s, public universities generated the supply of scientists and engineers for the
industrial sector (OECD, 2012). In the 1980s, Costa Rica suffered an economic downfall due to
the decrease in coffee prices and the withdrawal of the United Fruit Company, causing the
unemployment rate to increase by 10% (OECD, 2012). The 1980s were a very bad period of time
in education. Enrollment rates fell and it was not until the end of the 1990s that it started to
improve. The installation of computer labs in schools significantly contributed to the develop-
ment of a technology- and knowledge-driven economy.
In order to provide sufficient resources to guarantee universal access to quality education,
the government is constitutionally required to allocate at least 8% of the country’s GDP to edu-
cational programs annually. As of 2014, the literacy rate was 96.4% and the quality of education
was ranked 21st in the world (DeGregorio, Fu, Fuentes, Ghosh, & Johnasson, 2014). Although
the number is increasing annually, 20% to 30% of students do not finish secondary school
(Americas Society & Council of the Americas, 2011). Overseen by the Ministry of Education
(MEP), Costa Rica’s MEP has full control of everything from supplies to curriculum. With the
investment of MNCs, such as Intel, the education system has had to restructure its curriculum to
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 30
meet the demands of 21st-century skills needed when students enter the workforce. Intel has had
a presence in Costa Rica since 1997 and invests one million U.S. dollars annually to promote
21st-century skills, science, mathematics, and engineering, and provides teacher training and gets
technology into the classrooms. From farming and banana crops to MNCs, Costa Rica’s econ-
omy has evolved to a globalized nation that has fostered advanced jobs, causing the need to
prepare students to meet the demands of the workforce.
Education
Since 1869, Costa Rica has made education free and mandatory for all citizens. With a
current literacy rate of 96%, Costa Rica’s education system ranks 21st in the world, the highest
in Latin America (CINDE, 2012). Over the past three decades, the country has invested nearly
30% of its national budget in primary and secondary education, increasing its number of schools
to more than four thousand throughout the country (Costa Rica, 2015). The Costa Rican Consti-
tution was amended in 1949 to include Title VII, which guaranteed free access to primary and
secondary education, making access to basic education a fundamental right for Costa Rican citi-
zens. In 1957, Congress approved the Fundamental Law of Education, which established the
guidelines, goals, and objectives for the future of the Costa Rican educational system. According
to the law, the following are objectives of the Costa Rican education.
a) The formation of civic lovers of their Homeland, aware of their rights and of their fun-
damental freedoms, with deep sense of responsibility and respect to the human dignity; b)
To contribute to the complete development of the human personality; c) To form citizens
for a democracy in which reconcile the individual’s interest with those of the community;
d) To stimulate the development of the solidarity and the human understanding; and to
conserve and to enlarge the cultural inheritance, imparting knowledge on the man’s
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 31
history, the masterpieces of the literature and the fundamental philosophical concepts.
(MEP, n.d., para. 3)
The MEP is charged with the administration of the Costa Rica educational system and is respon-
sible to ensure the objectives of the fundamental law; furthermore, it oversees the public and
private educational systems.
The MEP’s structure includes the political level, which includes the Minister, the Vice-
Minister of Academics, the Vice-Minister of Administration, and the Vice-Minister of Institu-
tional and Regional Planification. They oversee all the major subdivisions of the system (MEP,
2014). The next level includes the operative direction level, which includes curriculum develop-
ment, programs on equity development, and technological resources, which is overseen by the
Vice-Ministers. The operative departments level is the largest of all of the subdivisions. It
includes legal affairs, curriculum, health and welfare, archives, and public services (MEP, 2014).
The advisory board handles all auditing, press and public relations, international partnerships and
affairs. This area is directly overseen by the Minister of Education. The superior delegation level
includes tribune of teaching careers, superior council of education, and CONESUP organization,
regulating private universities. It is directly overseen by the Minister of Education. The delega-
tion level monitors the equity and efficiency of technical schools, scholarships, quality assur-
ance, and an inclusive educational system; this level is directly overseen by the Minister of
Education (MEP, 2014).
All public schools are under the authority of the MEP by the Education Minister, who is
appointed by the President. The Education Minister is the head the Superior Council of Educa-
tion, the organization that makes decisions related to policy and curriculum (MEP, 2014). The
MEP’s goals are to guarantee widespread knowledge in computer sciences and English as a
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 32
second language to keep the Costa Rican youth and workforce on par with international
standards. English and a second language in particular is a main focus. The Ministry hopes to get
25% of high school graduates to a competent skill level and all others to at least basic levels of
comprehension in the years to come. Including both public and private schools, 85% of students
at the primary level attend English classes throughout Costa Rica (MEP, 2014).
Costa Rica’s school year runs from February to December; it has one of the shortest
school years in the world of 176 days. In addition, school is frequently canceled for sporting
events, teacher meetings, holidays, and festivals (Biesanz et al., 1999). Schools in poor areas are
overcrowded, so they have a shortened day schedule that is broken up into two 5-hours shifts
(CINDE, 2012). Costa Rica’s education system is divided into three cycles for the first 9 years of
a student’s education. For primary school, the focus is Spanish, mathematics, social studies, and
science, which breaks down to Cycle 1, Grades 1–3, and Cycle 2, Grades 4–6. According to the
MEP, there are 2,888 preschools and 4,052 elementary schools. Schools are allowed to change
the curricula to satisfy the needs of the changing society but must be monitored by MEP to meet
excellence and quality (MEP, 2014). Much of the cultural emphasis in private schools has been
adopted from institutions in the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and Germany
(CINDE, 2012). As a result of the academic advances in primary school, students graduate ele-
mentary school with a strong English foundation and the ability to use computers (CINDE,
2012).
For secondary grades, students have the choice of attending academic or technical
focused schools (CINDE, 2012). For academic schools, students attend Grades 7 to 11 and
graduate at the age of 17 with a diploma and receive academic college preparation. For technical
schools, students attend Grades 7 through 12 and can focus their technical education on service,
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 33
agriculture, or industrial. All students take the same classes during the first 3 years, which is the
third cycle, Grades 7 to 9. Students’ academic focus is Spanish, English, French, mathematics,
social studies, religion, civics, science, and electives. In the last year of study, students are
required to pass a test on all subjects that have been studied during high school years. Earning a
bachilerato is required for admission to universities and learning the English language and com-
puter science is mandatory in order to graduate (Biesanz et al., 1999). The increase in demands
in workforce preparation has been recognized, causing secondary school enrollment to increase
annually over the past decade, as shown in Table 1 (World Bank, 2012).
Table 1
Costa Rica’s Secondary School Enrollment by Year

Month Science and Technology Fair

July-July Institutional
August District
September County
November National

Note. From World Development Indicators, by World Bank, 2012, retrieved from
http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/2012/09/27/wb-costa-rica-95000-youngsters-access-
innovative-high-quality-university-education

Costa Rica’s higher education system continues to focus on improving their university
education and technical training. This focus has attracted businesses and FDI to establish in
Costa Rica (CINDE, 2012). Currently, Costa Rica has 59 universities, five of which are public
and the rest are privately owned and managed (CINDE, 2012). Two or more years of coursework
(often financed by the government) and a thesis enable the student to put “Lic.” (licenciado/a)
before their name. Considered one of the best universities in Latin America, the University of
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 34
Costa Rica (UCR) leads annual enrollment in higher education (CINDE, 2012). Founded in
1843, UCR’s tuition is mostly funded by the state, where one out of four students receives a free
education (MEP, 2014). Costa Rica is attracting foreign graduate degree programs such as
Harvard University that has established a highly accredited extension program called INCAE,
ranked the third-best business school in Latin America (CINDE, 2012) Established in 1963, the
objective of the INCAE Business School Master of Business Administration (MBA) program is
to train leaders to transform professional organizations in Latin America and the world. Students
acquire knowledge in the areas of management, ethical business culture, and environmental
analysis, and develop collaborative skills to approach challenges that exist in their communities
(MEP, 2014).
The Costa Rican education system continues to increase its high educational standards
and is committed to attaining higher economic growth through academic advances (CINDE,
2012). Technical training has become a standard requirement for Costa Rican students. Further-
more, the National English Plan was put into place as a response to the country’s need to be pro-
ficient in English. MNCs such as Intel support initiatives such as the National English Plan by
implementing programs and educational methodologies; they educate and train teachers to
support the English plan, provide training programs of all levels for students and professionals,
and offer professional certifications. The National English Plan’s goal is for Costa Rica to be
100% literate by 2017 (CINDE, 2012).
Globalization, MNCs, and FDI continue to challenge the need to further develop the aca-
demic system in Costa Rica (CINDE, 2012). To advance and sustain the economic system in
Costa Rica, students must leave the academic settings prepared to meet the workforce demands
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 35
of MNCs such as Intel, Procter and Gamble, Hospira, Baxter, St. Jude Medical, and Western
Union (OECD, 2012).
Multinational Corporations
MNCs have played a strong role in Costa Rica’s political, economic, cultural, and educa-
tional systems. Through MNCs, Costa Rica’s economy has flourished over the past 25 years,
causing poverty to decrease by 46% (World Bank, 2012). Through the work of CINDE, MNCs
continue to invest in Costa Rica’s promising economy and workforce. Founded in 1982, CINDE
is a private, nonprofit, apolitical organization that has attracted more than 250 companies to
Costa Rica (CINDE, 2012).
Through the work of CINDE, investment companies receive free support services that
guide their companies to succeed in Costa Rica. Companies receive assistance in investment site
selection, provide detailed information on the country and its advantages, organize customized
investment agendas, and arrange meetings with service providers, government organizations,
universities, real estate brokers, attorneys, accountants, industrial parks, and office parks. CINDE
facilitates direct contacts and links investors with potential investors from North America and
other countries through CINDE’s office in New York. Once the company is established in the
country, CINDE provides specialized support for strategic aspects geared to new operational
expansion projects or promoting product diversification (CINDE, 2012).
With investment incentives stemming from the Free Trade Zone regime, companies can
benefit from 100% exemption on import duties on raw materials, components, and capital goods;
100% exemption on corporate income tax; 100% exemption on export taxes, local sales taxes,
and excise taxes; 100% exemption on capital taxes; no restrictions on capital and profit
repatriation or foreign currency management; expedited onsite customs clearance; and the possi-
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 36
bility to sell to exporters within Costa Rica (CINDE, 2012). MNCs such as HP, IBM, Procter &
Gamble, Walmart, and INTEL have contributed to the Costa Rican economy and the need to
prepare students to meet the needs of the 21st-century skills.
Hewlett-Packard
HP is the world’s second-largest provider of PCs worldwide and on the top 15 of the
Fortune 500 Companies (CINDE, 2012). HP established its operations in Costa Rica in 2003,
making Procter & Gamble one of its main clients in information technology outsourcing. With
more than 200 engineers working in Costa Rica, in 2009, HP established the first research and
development center out of the United States to be responsible for the design of chips for Ethernet
equipment, the embedded software for wireless equipment, and the latest-generation chipsets
(CINDE, 2012). The HP Enterprise Group Supply Chain Laboratory was inaugurated in January
2014, making Costa Rica one of the strategic geographies for global engineering services and
global business units in charge of developing manufacturing diagnostic tools for 32 factories
around the world (CINDE, 2012). HP’s presence in Costa Rica has demonstrated the clear need
to prepare students to meet the needs of this 100-million-dollar investment (CINDE, 2012).
IBM
Formally established in 1911, IBM is the world’s top integrated technology and consult-
ing company. Headquartered in Armonk, New York, with operations in more than 170 countries,
IBM attracts and retains some of the world’s most talented people to solve problems and provide
an edge for businesses, governments, and nonprofits (IBM, 2014). Celebrating their 10th year
anniversary in Costa Rica in 2014, the opening of its latest Security Operations Center will
include infrastructure and education that will allow IBM to address the growing security needs of
its clients in the region (IBM, 2014). With the continued expansion of IBM, Costa Rica’s educa-
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 37
tion system will need to restructure to meet the workforce expectancies of this corporation
(CINDE, 2012).
Procter & Gamble
Procter & Gamble is the world’s leading consumer goods company that includes well-
known household names such as Pampers, Ariel, Tide, Pantene, and others (CINDE, 2012).
Established in 2005, P&G Costa Rica became the financial services hub for the Americas,
focusing on key internal financial reporting, planning and analysis, purchases and payment of
goods and services, tax compliance, treasury, and cash management for all North American and
Latin American countries (CINDE, 2012). As of 2014, P&G Costa Rica employs more than
1,500 people, and 92% of them are Costa Ricans (CINDE, 2012).
Walmart
Walmart established its Costa Rican operations in 2011 as a financial service entity for
the retail divisions of the Latin American markets (CINDE, 2012). Costa Ricans’ level of educa-
tion and technology became the reason for the selected location for Walmart to run its opera-
tions. The Costa Rican Walmart operation handles the financial accounts for the Mexico, Chile,
Argentina, Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Honduras markets (CINDE, 2012). More
than 1,000 associates are employed in Costa Rica by Walmart, which handles accounting,
finance, economics, contact center agents, and technical shared services (CINDE, 2012).
Walmart’s current investment in Costa Rica surpasses $127 million (CINDE, 2012).
Intel
Intel’s impact in Costa Rica. Intel is the number one manufacturer of semiconductors,
producing microprocessors that go into servers, desktop and notebook computers, smartphones
and tablets; they are the makers of embedded semiconductors for the industrial, medical, and in-
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 38
vehicle infotainment markets (CINDE, 2012). Initiating its Costa Rican operations in 1997, Intel
has served as a promoter to other FDI due to its large investment efforts, including their efforts to
provide technical education and support environmental practices, as shown in Figure 1 and Table
2 (Intel, 2014). Employing more than 2,800 people, Intel has made a dramatic positive impact on
the country’s economy and supporting local industries, such as electronics and construction
(Intel, 2014).

Figure 1. Costa Rica’s foreign direct investment from 1984 to 2004. Source: Attracting
Knowledge-Intensive FDI to Costa Rica: Challenges and Policy Options, by Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 2012, retrieved from www.oecd.org/dev
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 39
Table 2
Growth in Foreign Direct Investment in Costa Rica in Millions of U.S. Dollars, 1995 to 2004

Year Foreign direct investment

1995 336.9
1996 426.9
1997 406.9
1998 611.7
1999 619.5
2000 408.6
2001 453.6
2002 661.9
2003 576.7
2004 585.0

Source: Attracting Knowledge-Intensive FDI to Costa Rica: Challenges and Policy Options,
by Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 2012, retrieved
from http://www.oecd.org/dev

Community involvement. Not only has Intel in Costa Rica helped its economy but it has
impacted the country’s community involvement through the many projects sponsored by Intel’s
community partnership initiatives (Intel, 2014). With more than 40 programs annually, the
projects focus on education, technology, and environmental awareness energy (Intel, 2014). In
addition to improving community involvement, Intel has assisted in development of the Envi-
ronmental Health and Safety (EHS) community awareness program. Intel EHS professionals,
together with community groups and local government officials, work with neighboring
companies to improve the environmental impact and practices (Intel, 2014). The arrival of Intel
positively changed many safety issues that used to take place in Costa Rica. New products were
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 40
introduced that had no adverse impact on the safety and health of the workers or the environment
(Intel, 2014). Intel Costa Rica has increased its recycling and waste programs, recycling
approximately 74% of the waste that it generates (Intel, 2014).
Workforce demands. Currently, the Global Shared Service Center offers complex func-
tions in human resources and finance shared services and global procurement operations, IT
technical support worldwide, post-sales customer service quality and reliability support, and
American Sales and Marketing Customer Business Operations (CINDE, 2012). Costa Rica’s
headquarters provides services for all over the world, including Europe and Asia, in six lan-
guages, including English, Spanish, and Portuguese (CINDE, 2012). The new research and
development center will be the largest operation in Costa Rica responsible for pre and post
silicon functions and software development (CINDE, 2012). Intel’s presence in Costa Rica has
challenged schools to produce a workforce to meet the needs of this quickly growing corpora-
tion. Promoting education is a major priority for Intel Costa Rica (Intel, 2014).
Investment in education. Currently in Costa Rica, Intel invests an average of 1 million
U.S. dollars annually to support local education programs that focus on three areas: elementary
and high school education, higher education, and education in the community (Intel, 2014).
Intel’s goals are to promote 21st-century skills, including science, mathematics, and engineering,
through volunteer work and financial contributions (Intel, 2014). Through this focus, Intel’s
goals are to prepare students to meet the demands of the workforce. Working closely with the
MEP, Intel Costa Rica helps to strengthen the country’s technology knowledge base. Intel has
donated 30 industrial robots and other specialized manufacturing equipment machinery to 21
technical institutions (Intel, 2014). Students in these institutions design and build demonstrations,
create manufacturing processes, and practice maintenance procedures with high-technology
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 41
equipment. Intel places particular emphasis on the importance of conduct and occupational
safety procedures in laboratory and school environments. Intel works with the technical educa-
tion system to promote the values and skills that are required in the workforce (Intel, 2014).
To prepare students to meet the workforce demands while supporting education, Intel
created the International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF), the world’s largest international
precollege science competition, providing an annual forum for more than 1,700 high school
students from more than 70 countries, regions, and territories to showcase their independent
research and compete for about $5 million in awards in 17 categories (Intel, 2014). The first
PRONAFECYT took place in 1987 and was managed by UCR as an extracurricular activity
(Valencia-Chacon, 2011). During that time, the PRONAFECYT mainly included students from
private high schools and had about 30-50 schools to participate. In the 1990s, Law 7169 formal-
ized the PRONAFECYT. The law states the following:
Article 1: For the purposes of the scientific and technological development that this Law
seeks to promote, the general aim shall be to facilitate scientific research and techno-
logical innovation, leading to greater economic and social progress within the framework
of a strategy of comprehensive sustained development, in order to preserve the country’s
natural resources for future generations and guarantee that Costa Ricans enjoy a better
quality of life and wellbeing and to enhance their knowledge of themselves and of
society. Article 2: The long term goal of scientific and technological development shall
be to create the necessary conditions for the implementation of a policy in this respect.
Article 3: The specific goals of scientific and technological development shall be the
following: (a) to guide the definition of specific policies for the promotion and fostering
of scientific and technological development in general; (b) to support scientific and tech-
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 42
nological activities carried out by any private or public entity, national or foreign, which
contribute to scientific and technological exchange with other countries or which are
linked to national development goals; (c) to provide stimuli and incentives for the private
and public sectors and for university institutions of higher education and other educa-
tional centers, with a view to enhancing capacity to generate science and technology and
encouraging links between such bodies; (d) to create the appropriate conditions to ensure
that science and technology can play their key role as basic factors in the achievement of
greater competitiveness and growth in the national productive sector; (e) to stimulate
technological innovation as an essential element for building national capacity, adapting
to changes in international trade and the global economy and raising the living standards
of Costa Ricans; (f) to stimulate technological innovation at the national level with a view
to converting Costa Rica’s productive sector and enhancing the country’s capacity in
terms of competitiveness, in order to meet the basic needs of the population; (g) to
encourage all activities that support substantive scientific and technological development;
postgraduate studies and human resource development, the improvement of the teaching
of the sciences, mathematics and technical education, as well as scientific and techno-
logical documentation and information; (h) to support any measures designed to encour-
age greater creativity and original scientific thinking on the part of Costa Ricans; (i) to
promote regional development in the country by means of the use of appropriate technol-
ogies for the development of agricultural, agroindustrial, forest and aquacultural activity
and related industry in rural areas; (j) to foster and support ethical, legal, economic,
scientific and social research in general, aimed at improving understanding of the rela-
tionship between science, technology and society, as well as 3 the applicable legal
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 43
framework in this field, with a view to revitalizing the role of science and technology in
respect of culture and social wellbeing; (k) to foster any activities which support the
process of technological innovation: technology transfer, consultancy and engineering,
standardization, metrology and quality control and other scientific and technological
services. (Costa Rica Law 7169, n.d.)
In 1998, the PRONAFECYT was expanded to include primary schools and other regions
of the country, allowing 300 schools to participate (Valencia-Chacon, 2011). In the early 2000s,
the PRONAFECYT became affiliated with the ISEF, which allowed more than 700 schools to
participate. In 2002, Costa Rica students obtain a third-place team award (Valencia-Chacon,
2011). In 2004, the National Decree established all institutional science fairs as mandatory and
made them a requirement in the national school calendar (Valencia-Chacon, 2011). Also in 2004,
Costa Rican students won third place in the ISEF. In the next 4 years, new regulations continued
to emerge, including the requirement for participation by kindergarten students, integration of
science research in the curriculum, creation of the engineering fair in 2007, and launch of the
first National Engineering Fair in Costa Rica (Valencia-Chacon, 2011).
The National Engineering Fair began in December 2008, coordinated by the Ministry of
Science, Technology, and Telecommunications (MICITT), the MEP Technical Education
Department, and Intel. The main goals of the National Engineering Fair are to stimulate students’
curiosity and interest in the engineering field through processes involving observation, designing
and developing prototypes or services, testing, analysis and research, and opportunities to present
research or inventions to specialists and the community (Valencia-Chacon, 2011). The target
population for the National Engineering Fair is high schools students from technical, academic
and scientific schools.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 44
Intel’s global leadership and commitment to science, engineering, and mathematics edu-
cation is an inspiring example of corporate investment in the future (Intel, 2014). Through the
mission and vision of the MICITT in Costa Rica, and the Intel-sponsored PRONAFECYT, Costa
Rican educational leaders and educators must prepare students to meet the demands of the work-
force. MICITT’s mission is as follows:
The Ministry of Science, Technology, and Telecommunications is the institution that
promotes the development of science, technology, innovation and telecommunications, as
key elements for the socio-economic development of the country and for the improve-
ment of the quality of life of citizens, through the articulation of actions by academic
sectors, private and government. (MICITT, 2014, para. 3)
Aware of the importance of science, technology, innovation, and telecommunications for
the socioeconomic development in Costa Rica, their vision is as follows:
The Ministry of Science, Technology, and Telecommunications exercises leadership of
the sector of science, technology and telecommunications, public policy issues and
articulates the actions of the private sector, academia and government where the research,
development and innovation are the strategic axis of a knowledge-based economy in the
environmentally sustainable and that guarantees to Costa Ricans a better quality of life.
(MICITT, 2014, para. 4)
Through a knowledge-based economy in science, technology, innovation, and telecom-
munications, Costa Rica’s socioeconomic development will continue to strive. To prepare
students in these areas, further skills such as PBL and STEM education must be improved to
meet the needs of the knowledge-based economy.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 45
STEM-PBL Education
To explore how STEM and PBL education plays a vital role in the preparation of work-
force demands, Robert Capraro and Scott W. Slough’s STEM PBL framework will be used as a
guide to investigate STEM and PBL education. The commonly used term STEM refers to
science, technology, engineering, and mathematics and PBL refers to project-based learning.
Capraro and Slough (2009) used the terms together to integrate engineering design principles
with the K–16 curriculum (Capraro & Slough, 2009). The goal of the combination of STEM and
PLB is the design principles to improve real-world application and prepare students for postsec-
ondary education with the emphasis on making connections to what STEM professionals actually
do on the job (Capraro & Slough, 2009). PBL, often confused with problem-based learning,
requires students to think critically and analytically and improves higher-order thinking skills
(Capraro & Slough, 2009). Although the concept of PBL is not new, the concept of PBL and
STEM combined is a new emphasis that is now seen in postsecondary education (Capraro &
Slough, 2009). With the goal of preparing students for the workforce demands that MNCs
require, students must prepare by engaging in complex STEM PBL and participate in multiple
possible solutions (Capraro & Slough, 2009). Through creation of complex tasks, students will
experience what real STEM professionals practice on a daily basis (Capraro & Slough, 2009).
PBL
PBL is not a new term being used in education. The term was first introduced in the 19th
century by the work of Francis W. Parker and John Dewey (Capraro, Capraro, & Morgan, 2013).
Initially, PBL focused on creating solutions to real-world problems; later, PBL was adapted to
include hands-on activities that students can explain or get the student’s attention even if the
activities were unrelated to the problem (Capraro et al., 2013). Stemming from agricultural
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 46
theory and industrial arts education, PBL was modified to create application in the general edu-
cation subjects (Capraro et al., 2013). Research has found that PBL can narrow the achievement
gap between high-achieving students and lower-performing students. PBL can be used as a tool
for students performing on the bottom side of the performing gap (Capraro & Slough, 2009).
PBL instruction is known to make real-world connections that can apply formulas and laws real
to the students. Research shows that traditional teaching in the mathematics and science fields
does not allow students to use abstract thinking skills, not connecting student understanding to
21st-century skills (Capraro & Slough, 2009).
STEM
STEM has become a widely used term to emphasize and promote education throughout
those fields (Johnson & Delawsky, 2013). The initiatives to promote STEM have increased over
the past several years with the increase of globalization and the need to prepare students for jobs
in those fields (Holbrook, 2008). Advances in science and technology support the economic
growth and many companies require employees with the essential skills needed to complete
STEM tasks (Holbrook, 2008). In January 2010, President Obama declared the need to prepare
teachers in the STEM fields.
Within a decade, American students must move from the middle to the top of the pack in
science and mathematics. Specifically, he called on the nation to develop, recruit, and retain
100,000 excellent STEM teachers over the next 10 years. He also asked colleges and universities
to graduate an additional 1 million students with STEM majors. These improvements in STEM
education will happen only if Hispanics, African Americans, and other underrepresented groups
in the STEM fields—including women, people with disabilities, and first-generation Ameri-
cans—participate.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 47
With the increase in technological advances, STEM fields across the world continue to
emerge and STEM education is an integral part of the push in aligning nations as one global
society (Holbrook, 2008). Friedman (2007) explained the need to prepare knowledge workers for
future jobs that do not exist yet, such as the creation of Intel chips that emerged new careers that
are forms of jobs that students must be prepared for.
Instruction Using STEM PBL
STEM PBL education can be explained as the engineering principles integrated within
the STEM curriculum (Capraro et al., 2013). The work of STEM PBL prepares students for
higher education while making connections with postsecondary STEM fields. STEM PBL under-
stands that succeeding in future jobs while learning is connected and that becoming skilled will
require the knowledge across all subjects, even if one content has more of a focus than others
(Capraro et al., 2013). The STEM PBL process creates critical thinkers who have higher chances
of succeeding in college where these skills are needed. Benefits of combining STEM and PBL
include joining constructing artifacts or tangible items with the task-specific vocabulary that is
used in the curriculum (Capraro et al., 2013). STEM PBL attracts students to unique tasks that
result in learning important current standards-based education while linking K–12 and higher
education while addressing the future workplace needs (Capraro et al., 2013).
Theoretical Framework for STEM PBL
Capraro and Slough (2009) describe learning to teach STEM and PBL as the following
allegory:
Do you remember learning how to ride a bike? Or do you remember teaching someone to
learn how to ride a bike? Learning to ride a bike or teaching someone to ride a bike is an
iterative process where the learner wants to “experiment” too quickly and the teacher
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 48
tries to impart his/her wisdom so the learner does not make the same mistakes that his/her
did. In the end, the learner probably had to repeat many of the same mistakes; and most
importantly, no one would have pronounced one of the early experiences as a failure
because the learner was not ready to ride in the Tour de France. (p. 15)
Learning to teach PBL effectively requires that an individual practice some of the
patience and techniques required to teach someone to ride a bicycle, patience to allow the learner
to take control and become more experienced in the techniques that build on the expanding expe-
rience and knowledge base as a catalyst for accelerated learning. Just as learning to ride a bicy-
cle—or learning to let the learner learn on his/her own—is not an all-or-nothing process, learning
to learn in a PBL environment and learning to teach in a PBL environment are not all-or-nothing
propositions.
The design of learning environments that affect PBL include making content accessible,
making thinking visible, helping students to learn from others, promoting autonomy and lifelong
learning, and integrating them all in the practice (Capraro & Slough, 2009). The following foun-
dations in the learning sciences exert an impact on the design of PBL: preexisting knowledge,
feedback, revision, reflection, teaching for understanding, and metacognition (Capraro & Slough,
2009). As shown in Table 3, PBL is a process that is continuously evolving, described as the
project-based learning continuum. The PBL continuum includes traditional, hands-on lab (verifi-
cation of facts), novice (factual knowledge), informed novice (understand facts/ideas in context
of conceptual framework), expert (adapts conceptual frameworks through transfer), and
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 49
researcher (creation of new knowledge and/or conceptual frameworks). Modified from
Bonstetter’s 1998 implementation continuum (as cited in Capraro & Slough, 2009), the addition
and minor edits included the addition of standards-based assessment that addresses specific
assessment standards as mandated by the state requirements (Capraro & Slough, 2009).

Table 3
Project-Based Learning as an Evolutionary Process

Researcher
Informed novice Expert (creation)
(Understand (adapts) of new
Traditional facts/ideas conceptual knowledge
hands-on Novice in context of frameworks and/or
(verification (factual conceptual through conceptual
of facts knowledge) framework) transfer) frameworks

Standards-
based
assessment State/Teacher State/Teacher State/Teacher State/Teacher State/Teacher
Topic Teacher Teacher Teacher Teacher Student/
Researcher
Task Teacher Teacher Teacher Student Student/
Community
Resources Teacher Teacher Teacher Student/ Student/
Community Community
Procedures/
Design Teacher Teacher Teacher/ Student/ Student/
Student Community Community
Artifacts/ Teacher Teacher/ Student Student/ Student/
Analysis Student Community Community Community
Outcomes Teacher/ Student Student Student/ Student/
Student Community Community Community

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 50
Costa Rican PRONAFECYT and STEM PBL
To prepare students to meet the demands of the future workforce, Intel created ISEF to
allow students to showcase research-based experiments and compete with students across the
world for more than $5 million dollars in scholarships (Intel, 2014). In Costa Rica, students
begin to prepare for ISEF by participating in PRONAFECYT events throughout the country.
With the establishment of Law 7169 and the establishment of the National Decree, institutional
science fairs have become a requirement for all schools (Valencia-Chacon, 2009). Law 7169
seeks to promote scientific research and technological innovation that will build Costa Rica’s
economic and social progress within a continued expansion to preserve the country’s natural
resources while sustaining a quality of life (Valencia-Chacon, 2009). Making participation in
science fairs by schools a requirement, the National Decree supports efforts to promote scientific
research and technological innovation in students to prepare them for the future and Costa Rica’s
economic well-being (Valencia-Chacon, 2009).
As new ISEF regulations continue to emerge, students must continue to evolve aca-
demically and be prepared for future scientific developments. Changes that include new scien-
tific research and technological, engineering and mathematical advancements, will not only
prepare students to participate in national and international PRONAFECYT but for the future
workforce. Intel’s global commitment to TEM education along with the MEP, continue to
support preparation for students to participate and succeed in the PRONAFECYT and continue
on to the ISEF. Supporting these efforts will guarantee an equipped generation of a 21st-century
ready workforce that will help maintain a successful economy and meet the demands of MNCs
such as the ones that currently exist in Costa Rica. To support student achievement and success
in the national and international science and technology fairs and prepare students for the future,
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 51
local schools and classroom instruction must be evaluated to ensure that the correct support and
direction is provided to the students that promote academic achievement and success in the
STEM fields.
Leadership
Implementing STEM, PLB, and 21st-century skills in the classrooms is a task that begins
with the vision and influence of the leader (Bolman & Deal, 2013). Being able to transform
organizations to move to a direction that is needed starts with the vision of the leader. Bolman
and Deal (2013) described four distinct lessons that all leaders should have to be able to reframe
organizations. Making changes in organizations requires the capability to see circumstances in
various ways and lets the leader create alternative plans and approaches to a situation (Bolman &
Deal, 2013). As seen in Figure 2, the overview of the four-frame model describes the central
concept that each frame has to offer. Learning to apply all four frames to various situations will
strengthen the understanding of the organization (Bolman & Deal, 2013). In order for all schools
in Costa Rica to prepare students to meet the demands of the work force and participate success-
fully in the local fairs and ISEF, preparation will begin with the structure, guide, and support
given by the leader.
The Structural Frame
Being the most traditional frame, the structural aspects of an organization emphasize the
goals, specialized roles, and formal relationships. This vision will provide structure, rationality
on human needs, and effective coordination to meet the organization’s goal. Most organizational
charts will fall under the features of this frame. Some of the challenges under this frame include
the narrowly focused a person can get on a specialized role, known as suboptimization, which
the employee will focus only on personal departmental goals rather than on the overall mission
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 52

Figure 2. Bolman and Deal’s overview of the four-frames model. Source: Reframing
Organizations: Artistry, Choice and Leadership, by L. G. Bolman & T. E. Deal, 2013, New
York, NY: Wiley.

of the organization. Successful organizations can overcome this challenge by establishing a vari-
ety of methods to arrange individual and group efforts to connect local goals with systems goals.
An organization’s structure represents the alignment of internal activities with outside pressures
and opportunities. If a manager is in need of restructuring the organization, effective restructur-
ing will require managers to provide both a detailed assessment of everyday problems and an
overall accurate representation of structural options (Bolman & Deal, 2013).
The Human Resource Frame
Coming from a psychological focus, the human resource frame focus on people. Bolman
and Deal (2013) stated that people are the most important asset in the organization, also known
as an extended family. It is important that managers understand that, in this frame, the value of
people is crucial. Managers understand that, under this frame, people’s skills, attitudes, energy,
and commitments can destroy or help organizations flourish. Unlike the structural frame, this
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 53
frame can engage people’s talents and energy rather than focusing on particular tasks. Managers
in the human resource frame will see the organizations to serve human needs rather than humans
serving the organization’s needs, understand that people and organizations need each other such
that the organizations need ideas, talent, and energy and people need jobs, salaries, and oppor-
tunities. Some of the challenges that exist under this frame are the concept that the ideas pre-
sented benefit smaller environments. Bolman and Deal (2013) stated that, when people find
satisfaction and meaning in work, organizations will profit from the effective use of their talent
and energy.
The Political Frame
The political frame can be described as a political arena that hosts a complex of individu-
als with their own individual and group interests (Bolman & Deal, 2013). This frame focuses on
the conflict that exists between reality and power in organizations. The political frame allows
managers to understand that organizations are partnerships of individuals and groups with the
same interests and there are many differences between those partnerships related to values,
beliefs, information, interests, and perceptions of reality (Bolman & Deal, 2013). The political
frame allows managers to understand that important decisions revolve around this frame,
including the making of decisions when funds and resources are minimal. Power is the most
important resource in this frame. Managers understand that goals and decisions under this frame
emerge from bargaining negotiation, and competing for positions among stakeholders (Bolman
& Deal, 2013).
The Symbolic Frame
The symbolic frame allows leaders to understand and see the meanings of things that
happen in an organization in a symbolic matter. When looking through a symbolic frame, leaders
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 54
will focus not on an actual event but on what the event might mean, understanding that the event
can have multiple meanings because everyone interprets experiences differently. In the symbolic
frame, leaders are able to create symbols to resolve confusion and provide direction and anchor
hope and faith (Bolman & Deal, 2013). This frame is important for leaders to understand because
every activity that is conducted in an organization will provide meaning even if it does not render
desired results.
Multiframe Approaches
Bolman and Deal (2013) described the importance of being able to match the right frame
to the right situation. For example, if managers have to deal with issues of individual dedication,
energy, and skills for the company’s success, managers would handle this situation through the
human resource and symbolic frame. If a manager has to handle a situation that involves a
strong, technical, and solid decision, the structural frame would be the frame to use. Effective
managers and effective organizations need multiple frames to survive (Bolman & Deal, 2013).
Managers need to be aware that activities that take place in organizations can have several pur-
poses and that stakeholders have different perspectives that can interpret events differently
(Bolman & Deal, 2013). Research has found that successful managers and organizations depend
on multiple frames to create holistic views of challenging organizations (Bolman & Deal, 2013).
Kotter’s Change Framework
The second framework that has shown successful results for managers attempting to
create positive changes in organizations is Kotter’s eight-stage process for creating major
change. Kotter introduced this model in 1995. Being able to transform organizations requires a
list of actions and beliefs to take place before any company can succeed. Successful change
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 55
requires that stages be followed in the sequence presented, even though some may be done at the
same time (Kotter, 2012).
Stage 1: Establishing a sense of urgency. Managers should create a sense of urgency
for the change throughout the organization. Creating urgency will spark the motivation and get
things moving. Kotter suggested that, for change to be successful, 75% of a company’s manage-
ment must buy in to the change. Step 1 requires hard work and significant time spent on building
urgency before moving to the next step. Samples of establishing a sense of urgency include
identifying potential threats that can harm the organization’s future, examine opportunities that
can be exploited, start with honest discussions, and give stakeholders valid reasons to want to
create change (Kotter, 2012).
Stage 2: Creating the guiding coalition. The second step requires building a strong
team. Effective leaders are able to convince stakeholders from different arenas that change is
necessary. Creating a strong team and being able to lead and influence it to make the changes
will bring the organization closer to change. Leaders can begin by identifying true leaders and
key stakeholders to lead and help with the change, emotional commitment from this team is
important, and being able to identify weaknesses and a strong balance of people from different
departments and different levels of the company is included (Kotter, 2012).
Stage 3: Developing a vision and strategy. Being able to connect the actions of change
to an overall vision is crucial to the change process. Stakeholders will be more willing to make
change if they are aware of the reasons for it. Actions such as determining values that are central
to change, developing short summaries that capture a vision for the organization’s future,
creating a strategy to execute that vision, ensuring that the team can describe that vision in 5
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 56
minutes o4 less, and communicating the vision speech regularly will create the vision for change
(Kotter, 2012).
Stage 4: Communicating the change vision. It is important that managers share their
vision to determine success. Since the change will still be new to the organization and employees
may still be complaining about certain steps, it is important to communicate the vision to the
team and the organization frequently. The communication of the vision must be powerful and
embedded in everything that a manager does. Important things to do can be talking about the
vision regularly, addressing people’s concerns and anxieties openly and honestly, applying the
vision to all aspects of the organization’s operations, and leading by example (Kotter, 2012).
Stage 5: Empowering employees for broad-based action. Being able to remove obsta-
cles that might get in the way of creating change is crucial after reaching this step. Managers can
identify or hire change leaders whose main role is to deliver the change, look the organization’s
structure, job positions, and performance systems to ensure that they are aligned with the vision.
Being able to identify people who are resisting change is important and helping them through the
change is as important. Taking action to quickly remove the challenges is crucial in this step
(Kotter, 2012).
Stage 6: Generating short-term wins. Being able to celebrate short term successes early
on is important for the change process. Quick wins are important for organizations to experience
in addition to avoiding negative thinkers and critics to hurt the progress. Managers can create
short-term goals that are achievable with little room for failure. Managers should identify
projects that can be implemented immediately without the help of the critics. Choosing targets
that are inexpensive is crucial to avoid justification for each expense. Rewarding the people who
meet the targets is an important part in this step (Kotter, 2012).
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 57
Stage 7: Consolidating gains and producing more change. A strong leader builds on
change and does not claim victory too soon. Quick wins are important but not the end to the final
product. Building on the change that has already occurred will deepen and make the change
stronger. In this step, managers should analyze what went right and what needs to improve after
every win. Setting goals and continue to build on the energy that has been reached is crucial
(Kotter, 2012).
Stage 8: Anchoring new approaches. The final step in Kotter’s change process includes
the continuous implementation of the change created in the organization. It is crucial that the
change that has been created be part of the day-to-day operations of the organization. It is
important that managers share the progress that the company has made at every opportunity pos-
sible. When hiring and training new staff, the change that was made must be part of the training
for new staff. Furthermore, publicly acknowledging key members of the original team that
assisted in the change process is important to anchoring the changes. It is important to create
plans when the key leaders of change move on. Having a plan in place will ensure that their con-
tribution and the change that occurs continues in the organization (Kotter, 2012).
Educational leaders in Costa Rica can implement change in the schools site through
Bolman and Deal’s four frames of leadership and Kotter’s eight -stage process. Research shows
that implementing effective STEM PBL is the responsibility of the adults running the schools
(Capraro & Slough, 2009). Through the leadership frameworks presented, positive changes can
take place and students can leave schools prepared to meet the demands of the work force.
Classroom Instruction
After the vision of the leader has been presented and initiated, it is important to ensure
that teachers are equipped with the proper tools to provide effective instruction in the classroom.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 58
Research shows that, in order for STEM teachers to be fully prepared, they must be emerged in
continuous professional development that will train them in the subject matter and continue to
help them to develop as educators (Wilson, 2011). Capraro and Slough (2009) described design
principles that must take place to have effective STEM PBL instruction. Ensuring that teachers
are aware of the design principles and understand the importance of implementing the steps will
begin the process of developing effective STEM PBL implementation in Costa Rica.
Effective STEM PBL Instruction
Capraro and Slough (2009) described the design principles that have an impact on PBL
instruction. In order to have effective PBL, the following must take place: (a) making content
accessible; (b) making thinking visible, which includes using visual elements to help the learner
and using learner-constructed visual elements to assess learning; (c) helping students learn from
others; (d) promoting autonomy and lifelong learning; and (e) integrating all four principles in
practice (Capraro & Slough, 2009, p. 20). Making content accessible allows students to engage
in problem-solving skills that personally connect them to prior knowledge and are grounded in
building on student ideas, connecting them to real-life problems, and scaffolding inquiry
(Capraro & Slough, 2009). Effective PBL instruction should provide students the opportunities
to ask their own questions, refining them through their own investigative process and evaluating
data and scientific evidence through their own explanation and understanding (Capraro &
Slough, 2009). Scaffolding in the process is crucial to students’ inquiry and learning process and
allows them to become experts in their thinking (Capraro & Slough, 2009). Making content visi-
ble, such as modeling scientific thinking, scaffolding, and providing multiple representations,
allows students to make their thinking visible, which in return encourages reflection and more
accurately models the scientific process (Capraro & Slough, 2009). Helping students to learn
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 59
from others includes four realistic dimensions: (a) teaching students to listen to others, (b)
designing discussions, (c) highlighting cultural norms, and (d) employing multiple social cultures
(Capraro & Slough, 2009).
Design is a key component to PBL. Students must be able to design, discuss, reflect on
others ideas, and formulate even faulty arguments for scientific explanations and each other’s
connections. This process allows students to create social interactions and norms that enable
them to hear ideas in the words of peers, experts, and members of diverse cultural groups
(Capraro & Slough, 2009). Stimulating autonomy and lifelong learning allows students to evalu-
ate their own ideas and empower personal goals, seek feedback from others, interpret comments,
and adjust behavior accordingly (Capraro & Slough, 2009). Effective PBL instruction requires
several design principles that allow students to engage and problematize scientific inquiry
through hands-on instruction through the effective guidance of teachers. The skills learned
through PBL train students to prepare for 21st-century jobs that are ever changing and techno-
logically advanced with new problems identified daily, and educators must train students for jobs
and challenges that may not exist today (Capraro et al., 2013).
Teacher Professional Development
In any discipline, effective professional development should focus on developing teach-
ers’ capabilities and knowledge to teach content and subject matter, address teachers’ classroom
work and the problems that they encounter in their school settings, and provide multiple and
sustained opportunities for teacher learning over a substantial time interval (National Research
Council, 2011). In the STEM field, the introduction of professional learning communities (PLC)
as continuous professional development has been supported by researchers (Capraro & Slough,
2009). The PLC framework allows educators to work collaboratively in recurring cycles of col-
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 60
lective inquiry and action research to achieve better results for students (DuFour, DuFour, Eaker,
& Many, 2010). DuFour and Marzano (2011) presented the PLC framework that includes key
steps to building collective capacity through the organization: (a) organized staff into meaningful
teams, (b) provide teams with time to collaborate, (c) provide supportive structures that help
groups to become teams, (d) clarify the work that the team must accomplish, (e) monitor the
work of teams and provide direction and support as needed, (f) avoid shortcuts in the collabora-
tion team process, and (f) celebrate short-term wins and confront those who do not contribute to
their teams.
Being able to effectively implement PLC requires direction and support and school lead-
ers (DuFour & Marzano, 2011). Together, teachers and school leaders can improve STEM PBL
education. According to Fulton, Doerr, and Britton (2011), STEM teaching is more effective and
student achievement increases when teachers join forces to develop strong PLCs in their schools.
The National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future found that student mastery of
STEM is essential to the country’s economic growth and a growing number of reports indicate
that one crucial element for STEM teachers is consistent and coherent support systems that
teachers need from the beginning of their teacher preparation program and after they are prac-
ticing.
What Effective STEM PBL Looks Like
Effective STEM PBL can look different in all classrooms. Capraro and Slough (2009)
provided various examples of what effective STEM PLB looks like in the classroom. One
example described a physics and chemistry lesson where students were required to answer a
scientific question through the use of experimentation. Through the PBL process, the teacher
began by allowing the students to explore while the teacher checked for progress, guiding them
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 61
to answer the question, not providing them the answer, while ensuring students were on task.
After the initial exploration phase, the teacher had students share ideas with the whole class
before testing occurred. The next day, the teacher continued the PBL activity and the students
were fully engaged in the exploration phase. In this stage, students found various methods of
answering the question through the creation of a project with a limited amount of materials
provided by the teacher and were forced to use critical thinking skills to answer the question.
Following Capraro and Slough’s STEM PLB framework, teachers will be guided through the
effective methods of implementing STEM PLB in the classrooms.
Chapter Summary
The effects of globalization have caused countries around the world to benefit from FDI
and the benefits that it brings. In Costa Rica, MNCs have established themselves, causing the
economy to improve drastically in the past 25 years. MNCs such as HP, P&G, Intel, Cisco, and
many others continue to provide thousands of jobs to Costa Ricans, which in turn supports the
economy. From the initial trade of bananas and coffee to the technological advances of micro-
chips, MNCs continue to challenge the need to prepare students to meet the demands of the
workforce after high school.
To prepare the students, Intel created ISEF to allow students to compete internationally
while preparing for the future. In Costa Rica, the National Decree requires all schools to partici-
pate in PRONAFECYT. Research has found that many students who participate in the local
PRONAFECYT PSTF are not advancing to ISEF, which is a connection to how prepared they
will be to meet the technological advance of the workforce once they leave high school. To
prepare students to meet the future demands of the workforce, change in the local educational
systems must occur.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 62
Through Bolman and Deal’s four frames of leadership and Kotter’s change framework,
school leaders must create change that supports effective implementation of STEM PBL.
Capraro and Slough’s (2009) integrated approach to successful STEM PBL implementation is
presented and explains the required steps to successful STEM PBL implementation. Effective
STEM PBL classroom implementation is introduced through DuFour and Marzano’s key steps to
PLCs to explain the importance of guiding teachers to become effective STEM PLB teachers
through effective continuous professional development.
Through the frameworks and steps provided by research, Costa Rica’s education system
will create positive changes that will support effective STEM PBL in the classroom. Those
changes will be supported by participation in the local and national science fairs where students
will succeed and continue to ISEF. The participation and qualifications for ISEF will indicate
that more students are gaining the 21st-century skills needed to sustain the technological
demands of the workforce. Ensuring that students are prepared to meet the demands of the future
workforce will support and sustain Costa Rica’s economic future.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 63
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
Globalization has created a ripple effect around the world, bringing to question the
current educational practices. Spring (2008) wrote of the importance of educating individuals to
meet the needs of the global economy. Being able to sustain the demands of the global economy
brings to question the methods by which schools are preparing students to work in 21st-century
skilled jobs. The labor market has drastically changed in the past 25 years. Friedman (2007)
described the importance of making sure that students are able to compete with the world
because of the many “flatteners” that contributed to the change. Changes such as the creation of
the Internet, the flow of work software, outsourcing, insourcing, offshoring, and digital devices
are a few of the “flatteners” that rooted the change in the labor market (Friedman, 2007).
Students are required to meet the needs of the new skills that will allow them to compete in the
new global economy.
With the founding of MNCs in Costa Rica, its education system has played a crucial role
in ensuring that students graduate prepared to fill the workforce needs that MNCs require. MNC
corporations in Costa Rica employ more than 6,000 people yearly in fields from biological engi-
neers to accountants, and making sure that students graduate prepared is important for Costa
Rica’s economic future (CINDE, 2012). The establishment of MNCs in Costa Rica has played a
vital role to restructure the education system.
One of the major restructures includes the PRONAFECYT. All schools in Costa Rica are
now required to participate in the PRONAFECYT that takes place yearly. The purpose of this
requirement is to ensure that schools are preparing students to participate in a STEM world while
implementing PBL skills. The purpose of this study was to address the following research ques-
tions:
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 64
1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century Skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the PRONAFECYT affected instructional practices?
Chapter 2 provided a literature review on the cause of globalization around the world and
how MNCs have affected the restructured education system in Costa Rica to ensure that students
are prepared for 21st-century jobs. This chapter focuses on the process of the study, including the
frameworks, research design, research team, exploratory trip, sample and population, instruments
used, data collection, data analysis, ethical considerations, and a chapter summary.
Frameworks
To guide this study, three theoretical frameworks were used: Bolman and Deal’s refram-
ing organization’s four-frames model, Kotter’s eight-step change framework, and Capraro’s
STEM and PBL implementation. The frameworks were used as road maps for school leaders to
address implementation of the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT.
Bolman and Deal’s (2013) leadership framework focuses on the four lenses that leaders
should use when reframing organizations. Using these four lenses allows leaders to reframe
organizations through the lens of the proper frame depending on the situation. The first lens, the
structural frame, allows leaders to provide the needed structure that all organizations require.
This frame consists of rules, roles, goals, policies, and awareness of the tasks that must be
accomplished. The human resource frame is the empowerment frame that motivates and provides
relationship building between the worker and the leader. According to this frame, both the
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 65
employee and the employer need each other mutually and understanding this will allow both to
have a better working relationship. This frame works in building the human and organizational
needs. The third frame is known as the political frame, which builds on the organization’s politi-
cal function. Bolman and Deal described the central concepts of this frame as power, conflict,
competition, and organizational politics. The fourth frame, known as the symbolic frame, focuses
on the meanings that each organization brings. The central concepts include the organization’s
culture, metaphors, rituals, and inspiration behind their existence. Understanding all four frames
and knowing when to apply each frame when handling different situations allow leaders to
become successful when reframing organizations (Bolman & Deal, 2013).
The second framework that was used was Kotter’s eight-stage process for creating major
change. Kotter’s process includes establishing a sense of urgency, creating and guiding coalition,
developing a vision and strategy, communicating the change vision, empowering employees for
broad-based action, generating short term wins, consolidating gains and producing more change,
and anchoring new approaches in the cultures. Kotter’s model supports school leaders when
implementing change to support school improvements.
Capraro’s STEM and PBL framework was used as a guide to describe the principles that
are important when implementing STEM PBL in the classrooms. According to Capraro and
Slough (2009), the following design principles affect PBL in the classrooms: making content
accessible, making thinking visible, helping students learn from others, promoting autonomy and
lifelong learning, and integrating all principles in practice. Capraro’s STEM PBL framework
supports school leaders and teachers to implement STEM PLB in the classrooms and support
implementation of the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 66
These three frameworks provide the structure for the protocols that were created to gather
the data. These frameworks were used as a guide for identifying themes, comparing data, and
presenting findings.
Research Design
For the purpose of this study, a qualitative research approach was used in the collection
and analysis of the data.
Qualitative research is an umbrella term covering an array of interpretive techniques
which seek to describe, decode, translate and otherwise come to terms with the meaning,
not the frequency, of certain more or less naturally occurring phenomena in the social
world. (Van Maanen, 1979, as cited in Merriam, 2014, p. 31)
This study was designed to observe and analyze how Costa Rican schools are preparing
students to participate in a STEM world while implementing PBL. The qualitative approach will
allow the team to understand Costa Rica’s uniqueness as part of a particular context and fully
understand the perspectives of the participants (Merriam, 2014). Advantages to conducting a
qualitative study include the ability to have a first-hand experience with the participants and be
able to hypothesize the findings while gathering the data to support the future findings (Creswell,
2013). To gather the necessary information, interviews, observations, and surveys were con-
ducted with stakeholders who have a role in the success of STEM PBL implementation in the
classrooms.
Research Team
The research team is led by Dr. Michael Escalante and assisted by Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft of
the University of Southern California (USC) Rossier School of Education. This dissertation
group is comprised of 18 USC doctoral students who began to meet as a team in July 2014. The
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 67
research began with the members conducting literature reviews, researching frameworks, and
investigating Costa Rica’s history and current educational needs. The group met twice a month
to collaborate on the research design and create goals for the research.
Exploratory Trip
The exploratory trip to Costa Rica included the dissertation chair, Dr. Escalante, and all
18 doctoral students. The team departed Friday, June 12, 2015, and returned Tuesday, June 23,
2015. On this trip, the team collected data through interviews, observations, and surveys from
several stakeholders, including political, corporate, and educational leaders, students, and their
families. In February 2015, Dr. Escalante and Dr. Wiedoeft traveled to Costa Rica to initiate
arrangements for the trip. During the Sunday meetings, three team members were selected to
begin correspondence with key leaders in Costa Rica. Under the direction of Dr. Escalante, the
team members will begin to make arrangements to interview and observe important stakeholders.
Sample and Population
Understanding the large number of sites that could be visited and various people who
could be interviewed and observed, the team selected purposeful sampling. The team selected to
interview, observe, and survey the key players who could offer valid data to address the research
questions. Creswell (2013) described purposeful sampling as the selection of participants or sites
that will best help the researcher to understand the problem and the research questions. The
team’s goal is to attempt to discover themes and patterns among the people who are interviewed,
observed, and surveyed.
The sample population included political leaders who participate in implementation of
school-wide requirements, specifically the PRONAFECYT initiative. The team was fortunate to
be guided and directed during the entire trip by Natalie Valencia, the Vice Minister of Educa-
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 68
tional Programs. Ms. Valencia was a true support to the team and cleared the pathway for the
research team to have access to all schools and key players. The three Regional Science Fair
Directors, Ms. Paula Cespédes from San José Oeste, Ms. Patricia Arias from San José Occidente,
and Mr. José Sanchez from San José Central were very helpful. The team also met with Dra.
Alejandrina Segreda-Mata, the Dean of the Teacher Training Program at UCR; Ms. Mary Helen
Bialas, former Intel worker; and CINDE’s Ms. Vanessa Gibson. Each person provided a different
perspective on the PRONAFECYT initiative.
The team proceeded to the 18 school sites (Appendix A) where the interviews,
observations, and surveying took place. For the data gathering process at the school sites, the
team of 18 was divided into three groups of six, consisting of three bilingual Spanish-speaking
researchers and three English-only-speaking researchers. The selection of the primary school
sites was guided by Ms. Natalie Valencia. The school sites were purposefully selected to
distinguish two factors: successful past application and results of the PRONAFECYT initiative
and unsuccessful application of the initiative. The researchers were not provided a clear
definition on what successful or unsuccessful implementation was measured at the school sites.
While at the school sites, the team of six interviewed and surveyed the school director, classroom
teachers, and students. Observations took place throughout the entire campus, which included the
classrooms, staff meeting areas, and student playground areas. The team selected four groups of
participants to provide data from different perspectives: political leaders, school directors,
teachers, and students. Specifically, this study was an analysis of data retrieved from Escuela
Militaria.
Escuela Militaria is a primary school that serves approximately 900 students from
kindergarten to sixth grade. The school is divided into two cycles: kindergarten to third grade
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 69
and fourth grade to sixth grade. The first cycle attends school from 8:00 a.m. to 12:00 p.m. and
the second cycle attends school from 12:30 p.m. to 4:00 p.m. There are approximately 21
teachers in each cycle, in addition to the school director and the assistant director. The school
also has a science coordinator who is responsible for providing training and support to the staff
in relation to implementation of the PRONAFECYT. The science coordinator is also a teacher on
the campus.
Escuela Militaria is located in the heart of San José and has a rich historical culture. As a
previous military fort, the school is a historical landmark that dates back to the early 1800s. The
school population participates in many field trips, parades, and the school staff provides social
emotional services to all students, including full-time employment of a dental hygienist.
ESCUELA NACIONAL provides a nutritional breakfast and lunch on a daily basis to all
students. The campus has painted murals of bright colors and trees on the walls to give students
the impression that they are playing in an outdoor playground with grass and trees; the school
actually has neither.
For the purpose of this research study, the following participants completed the survey:
five government officials, three higher education personnel, four business officials, one school
director, one assistant school director, one PRONAFECYT coordinator, one regional coordina-
tor, and 15 teachers. The following participants were interviewed: five government officials,
three higher education personnel, four business officials, one school director, one assistant
school director, one PRONAFECYT coordinator, one regional coordinator, and five teachers.
Also, 63 higher-grade students completed a survey and 18 classroom observations were
conducted (Table 4).

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 70
Table 4
Summary of Participants from Escuela Militaria Elementary School

Participant group Surveyed Interviewed

Government officials 5 5
Higher education personnel 3 3
Business officials 4 4
School Director 1 1
Assistant school director 1 1
PRONAFECYT coordinator 1 1
Regional coordinator 1 1
Teachers 15 5
Students 63 0
Total 94 21

Interviewed Participants
The participants who were interviewed for this research study were preselected by the
research team based on their role in participation in the PRONAFECYT. All government,
business and higher education leader interviews were conducted as a team but led by one of the
researchers. The school site interviewees were interviewed by one of the six researchers on the
team. The following individuals were interviewed as a team, with the interview led by one
researcher:
1. Javier Cambronero, Costa Rica Congressman
2. Carolina Vasquez-Soto, Vice Minister of MICITT
3. Alicia Vargas, Vice Minister of MEP
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 71
4. Nathalie Valencia, Coordinator of MICITT
5. Sylvia Ugalde Fernandez, Consulate of General CR
6. Alejandro Vega Vargas, Science Coordinator
7. Hugo Navarro, Dean of School of Technological Education
8. Alejandrina Segreda-Mata, Dean of Primary Education
9. Natalia Zamora, Director of National Programs of Informative Education
10. Mary Helen Bialas, Senior Officer of Projects and Program, Consejo de Promocion
de la Competividad
11. Vanessa Gibson, Service Sector Manager, CINDE
12. Maria Santos Pasamontes, Director of Estado de la Nación
All participants were selected based on their current positions to play a strong role in
implementation and policy-making decisions regarding the PRONAFECYT. The following are
brief introductions of some of the participants. One of the government officials interviewed,
Congressman Javier Cambronero, was a former teacher, had served as president of the
Education, Science, and Technology Commission, and was currently part of that commission.
His heart is in education and he contended that students need hands-on instruction to continue to
build Costa Rica’s economy.
Dra. Mata-Segreda’s career began in 1971 and served as a preschool teacher until 1984.
She became a professor in the school of education at UCR. Through the years, she has held
various positions at UCR, ranging from Professor to Coordinator to Director. In 2006 she
became the Vice Ministra Academica in Educacion for the MEP. She returned to UCR to a
position she had previously held from 1996 to 1999 as the Decana for the Education Department.
Many of the science fairs are held at UCR and coordinated by Dr. Segreda’s department.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 72
Ms. Nathalie Valencia Chacón is a Director with the MICITT. She is the coordinator of
the PRONAFECYT, as well as other projects that promote science and technology in education
in Costa Rica. She was originally a biology teacher and made the transition to her current
position after one of her students won the National Science Fair and qualified for the ISEF. As
the teacher of such a successful student, she was provided the opportunity to participate in
programs for science teachers at ISEF.
Ms. Vanessa Gibson has worked at CINDE for 14 years. She started as an economic
researcher; 3 years later, she assumed the position of manager for the Service Sector, and in 2009
was promoted to Aftercare Director. Previous to that, she worked at the Central Bank of Costa
Rica as an economic assistant to the Agricultural Economics Department. During her years as
Service Sector Manager, Ms. Gibson promoted a series of initiatives not only to attract but to
consolidate the Service Sector Cluster. Along these initiatives was an aggressive company
attraction strategy, as well as the development of public-private partnership programs to invite
the already installed firms to expand and diversify their operations in the country. In her current
position as the Director of Aftercare, she is in charge of providing guidance to the companies
throughout the installation process. As the Head of Department, she oversees the coordination of
several public-private partnership projects and programs aimed to improve the investment and
business environment of Costa Rica.
Alicia Eugenia Vargas-Porras is currently the Vice Minister of MEP. She has held
various positions throughout her career, including a professoriate at UCR, Director of the
Institute for Research in Education of UCR (since 2012), and researcher at the Institute for
several years. Between 2007 and 2010, Mrs. Vargas-Porras held the position of Regional
Coordinator of the Capacity Building of Academic Networks.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 73
Escuela Militaria’s school director, Rosa Sanchez, has worked at Escuela Militaria for 3
years and served in another school in Costa Rica as school director for 8 years. Directora Rosa
Sanchez earned an undergraduate degree and teaching credential from UCR. She began her
earlier career as a teacher’s assistant and then was a teacher for approximately 12 years before
she took the role of school director. Directora Sanchez loves her job and has a true passion for
providing students access and equity and making sure that all students succeed.
Observations
For the purpose of this study, the third method by which data were collected was school
and campus observations. During the school visit, 18 classrooms were visited at Escuela
Militaria to allow observation data to be gathered. The purpose of the observations was to
investigate the amount of communication between the school directors and the students and
teachers, the visibility of the school director in the classrooms, the STEM-PBL activities related
to PRONAFECYT, evidence of student projects related to PRONAFECYT, resources available
to prepare students for PRONAFECYT, evidence of teacher collaboration, facilitation of soft
skills in the classrooms, and the outcome of training and professional development. Observation
data are presented in the research findings for each research question.
Instruments
The instruments used for this study were interviews, surveys, and classroom observa-
tions. The protocols were created by the research team during the Sunday meetings in Spring
2015 semester. Once all protocols were complete, the team piloted them with school personnel
and received feedback on each protocol (Appendices B through M). If applicable, changes were
made to ensure that the tool would align to the research questions. The recruitment letter
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 74
(Appendix N) and consent form (Appendix O) were created in Spring 2015 to meet USC’s
Institutional Review Board (IRB).
Interviews
The interview questions were created following Merriam’s Qualitative Research: A
Guide to Design and Implementation (2014). In order to gather good data, good questions needed
to be created (Merriam, 2014). The wording of the questions was carefully constructed to ensure
that the answer would explicitly provide data to address the research questions. Approximately
four questions were created to answer each of the research questions. The interview questions
were created to address the four groups being interviewed: political leaders, school directors,
teachers, and students. When developing the questions, the team followed Patton’s six types of
questions format to stimulate responses from the interviewees (2002, as cited in Merriam, 2014).
The six types of questions stimulated experience, behavior, opinion, value, feeling, knowledge,
background, and demographic questions.
Surveys
The research team agreed to use surveys to gather a numeric value of the participants’
thoughts, ideas, and beliefs regarding implementation of STEM PBL in preparation for the Costa
Rican PRONAFECYT. The survey was given to the political leaders, school directors, teachers,
and student. Creswell (2013) stated that the purpose of using surveys to gather data can be to
make inferences on people’s characteristics, attitudes, or behaviors on a particular topic. It can
also be used as an economical matter to gather data with a short turnaround time.
Observations
The research team decided to conduct observations in Costa Rican classroom to have a
first-hand encounter with the topic of interest, the implementation of STEM PBL to prepare for
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 75
the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT. The observations were used as a research tool (Appendix M) to
gather data of what was happening in classroom for the purpose of addressing the research ques-
tions. The team followed Merriam’s (2014) checklist elements for conducting effective observa-
tions. The elements included the physical setting, the participants, the activities and interactions
taking place, the conversations, the subtle factors, and the researcher’s own behavior. To conduct
effective observations, all elements were taken into consideration when conducting interviews.
Data Collection
The data collection process took place in Costa Rica. The research team traveled to Costa
Rica on June 12, 2015, and gathered data from various resources for approximately 10 days. The
data were gathered through interviews, surveys, and observations (Appendices A through O).
The target groups that provided the data were political leaders, school directors, teachers, and
students. The political leaders and school directors were interviewed and surveyed on their
beliefs and experience on effective STEM PBL implementation throughout the selected schools
in Costa Rica. The teachers were interviewed, surveyed, and observed on their beliefs and expe-
rience on effective STEM PBL implementation throughout the schools in Costa Rica.
One purpose of using three methods of gathering data is to be able to triangulate the data.
Maxwell (2012) stated that triangulation involves using different methods to check on one
another to see whether different strengths and limitations all support the conclusions. In this
research study, the interviews, surveys, and observations were cross-checked to support
conclusions and findings. Each data-gathering process provided a different purpose. The inter-
views provided the political leaders, teachers, school directors, and students own personal per-
spective regarding effective STEM PBL implementation preparing students for the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT. The observations allowed the researcher a first-hand look of the actual STEM
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 76
PBL implementation in preparing students for the fair. The observations supported the findings
that are presented in the surveys and the interviews. The surveys were a third method by which
data were gathered to support findings and conclusions regarding the effective implementation of
STEM PBL.
Data Analysis
The goal of analyzing data is to make sense of the data that has been gathered. Analyzing
the data will require consolidating, reducing, and interpreting what people have said and what the
researcher has seen and read (Merriam, 2014). For the purpose of this study, the data analysis
was done individually and collectively. The data were analyzed following Creswell’s (2013)
recommended research design steps: (a) organize and prepare, (b) read through all the data, (c)
begin the coding process, (d) use coding to generate descriptions, (e) advance how the descrip-
tion and themes will represented in the qualitative narrative, and (f) make interpretation of
meaning of the data.
To assist in organizational aspects of the data gathering and analysis, the team agreed to
use the online web application data analysis program Dedoose. Dedoose allows researchers to
input data into a web application that can be coded into specific theme-based categories. Using
Dedoose will allow the team to share, code, and review data in an organized matter. The team
started using Dedoose in the early stages of this research project by inputting the data gathered
from the literature analysis into specific themes.
Reliability and Validity
To ensure that the data findings are reliable and valid, the team conducted triangulation,
peer examination, and the audit trail as recommended by Merriam (2014) to ensure that the
findings were consistent with the data. Triangulation was conducted with the data received from
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 77
the surveys, interviews, and observations. Since the data were reviewed by most of the research
team, peer examination of the findings was conducted to further validate the data. The last
method that the data underwent to guarantee its reliability and validity was the audit trail. Pre-
sented by Lincoln and Guba (1985, as cited in Creswell, 2013), the audit trail is a method by
which the researcher explains the actual steps that took place to come across the findings.
Creswell (2013) stated that an audit trail in a qualitative study describes in detail how data were
collected, how categories were derived, and how decisions were made throughout the inquiry.
The team agreed that all steps are important to follow to guarantee reliability and validity exists
in the findings offered by the data that are gathered.
Ethical Considerations
To guarantee that this research study is ethically conducted, the entire research team par-
ticipated in the IRB training (CITI). This training required that all team members, including the
research leaders, participate in four online training courses that explained ethical conduct toward
human subjects in all research projects. The four training courses that this research team focused
on were Students in Research, History and Ethical Principles, Research With Children, and
International Research. The team agreed that the four courses selected focused on the team’s
research (Appendix P). Each member completed the course independently and took a quiz
related to the content presented; an average score of 80% was required to earn a completion
score. In addition to the IRB process, all instruments used were approved by USC’s IRB process.
This process was used as an additional measure to guarantee that all participants are protected
from mental, physical, or any other harm.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 78
Chapter Summary
Chapter 3 focused on the methodology that the research team followed to conduct the
study. The research questions were presented to establish a clear road map to the purpose of the
study. Following the research questions, the frameworks that were used to provide structure to
the study were presented and described. The research design of the study was outlined, beginning
with the purpose of following a qualitative approach for this study. The data-gathering process
followed, which included a description of the exploratory trip to Costa Rica. The data collection
and data analysis steps that were used were presented. The reliability, validation, and ethical
considerations were presented. This methodology process that the research team followed pro-
vided clear steps to learn more about the implementation of STEM PBL in Costa Rican class-
rooms to prepare students for the Costa Rica PRONAFECYT.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 79
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
The purpose of this chapter is to present the findings from the analysis of the information
gathered through the interviews, observations, surveys, and the literature review. The findings
are evaluated through the lenses of three theoretical frameworks: Bolman and Deal’s reframing
organizations four-frames model, Kotter’s eight-step change framework, and Capraro’s STEM-
PBL implementation. The frameworks are used as roadmaps for school leaders to address the
implementation of the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT.
The purpose of this study was to identify the role of educational leaders in implementing
the PRONAFECYT initiative. The study examined the leadership practices, instructional strate-
gies, and professional development practices at Escuela Militaria to identify key components of
successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. Four research questions guided this
study:
1. What is the role educational leaders play in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional prac-
tices?
Results for Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, “What is the role educational leaders play in implementing
the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT initiative?” Globalization has created the need to restructure
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 80
education throughout the world (Spring, 2008). The country of Costa Rica needs to prepare
students to meet the job demands that globalization has brought upon the country. In 2004, Costa
Rica issued a national decree that required all schools to participate in the PRONAFECYT.
Through participation in PRONAFECYT, schools can prepare students to meet the demands of
the knowledge-ready jobs that await them after their school careers. In order for schools to
implement participation in PRONAFECYT at their school sites, the educational leaders play a
strong role in the implementation process.
According to Kotter (2012), organizations going through change must be led by the
guidance and vision of educational leaders. For the purpose of this study, leaders were defined as
the school government representatives, schools directors, teachers, and science coordinators.
Implementation of PRONAFECYT requires schools to change their current practices and
implement new methods of teaching, learning, and exploring. In order for this change to take
place, Costa Rican educational leaders must lead organizations to where they want them to be. In
Costa Rica, the government’s goal is to create a knowledge-ready work force to meet the
demands of the growing economy. The second framework used to support this study was
Bolman and Deal’s four frame model. Bolman and Deal (2013) described a four-frame model
that gives leaders direction on methods to help organizations lead change. Through different
perspectives, leaders are able to understand workers and provide support to guide the
organization in a positive direction.
The data analysis revealed three themes: (a) the importance of effective leadership com-
munication with all stakeholders, (b) motivational influence by the leaders, and (c) continuous
support by the school director. To present the results that emerged from the analyzed data, each
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 81
theme is presented, supported by the theoretical frameworks, and the data that emerged that
reinforced the theme are explained.
Theme 1: Effective Leadership Communication
Through effective communication, Escuela Militaria understands the purpose and
importance of implementation of PRONAFECYT. This focus was evident through the school
director interview and survey, assistant director interview and survey, teacher and student
surveys, teacher interviews, and classroom and school observations. First, the supporting
framework is presented, followed by the data results and a summary of results for this research
question.
Effective leadership communication can be defined as focused, jargon-free information
that is disseminated to employees (Kotter, 2012). For the purpose of this study, a leader was
defined as a governmental official, school director, assistant director, teacher, or science
coordinator. The framework used to support this study was Kotter’s (1995) eight-step framework
for leading change. Kotter described an eight-step process that leaders must implement to
effectively make a desired change in a school: (a) establish a sense of urgency, (w) create the
guiding coalition, (c) develop a vision and strategy, (d) communicate the change vision, (e)
empower employees for broad-based action, (e) generate short-term wins, (f) consolidate gains
and produce more change, and (g) anchor new approaches in the culture. To support the results
related to Research Question 1, the data were analyzed in relation to Kotter’s Step 4. Kotter
(2012) described the importance of effective leadership communication and its impact on the
organization. Kotter suggested key elements for effective communication of the vision (Table 5).
In this study, the vision is translated as implementation of the PRONAFECYT. Through the
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 82
Table 5
Key Elements in Effective Communication of Vision

Element Explanation

Simplicity All jargon and technobabble must be eliminated.
Metaphor, analogy, example A verbal picture is worth a thousand words.
Multiple forums Big meetings and small, memos and newspapers, formal and
informal interaction-all are effective for spreading the word.
Repetition Ideas sink in deeply only after they have been heard many times.
Leadership by example Behavior from important people that is inconsistent with the vision
overwhelms other forms of communication.
Explanation of seeming Unaddressed inconsistencies undermine the credibility of all
inconsistencies communication.
Give-and-take Two-way communication is always more powerful than one-way
communication.

Note. From “Leading Change: Why Transformation Efforts Fail,” by J. P. Kotter, 1995,
Harvard Business Review, 73(2), 59-67.

process of effective communication, educational leaders play a crucial role in implementation of
PRONAFECYT at their school sites.
The first form of data that supports this theme is represented in the survey responses from
18 teachers at Escuela Militaria. In response to the first question, related to communication, all
teachers agreed or strongly agreed that the school director communicates the purpose and the
urgency of implementing PRONAFECYT at the school site. By the director communicating the
purpose and urgency of implementing PRONAFECYT, all stakeholders involved are able to
understand the importance of implementing and preparing students for PRONAFECYT at
Escuela Militaria. In response to the second question, all teachers agreed or strongly agreed that
the school director communicates the importance of soft skills and student success. This survey
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 83
item supports the theme of effective leadership communication because with schoolwide
understanding of the importance of students having the skills that will prepare them for
PRONAFECYT, all stakeholders will be more focused to prepare students to learn the soft skills
and promote student success. Leaders effectively communicating the importance of soft skills
and student success support the role that educators play in implementation of PRONAFECYT. In
response to the third question, all teachers agreed or strongly agreed that the school director
communicates the objectives of participating in PRONAFECYT. Data from the three survey
questions supported that the school director effectively communicates with stakeholders on the
importance of implementing PRONAFECYT at the school site. The data demonstrated that the
school director communicates the purpose and urgency of PRONAFECYT, communicates the
importance of soft skills and student success, and communicates the objectives of participating in
PRONAFECYT. All items are examples of effective leadership communication. The teacher
survey data support the finding that teachers agree that effective leadership communication by
the school director is important to successful implementation of PRONAFECYT.
The second form of data that supports the theme of the importance of effective leadership
communication was gathered from student surveys. To support the findings in this section, a
leader is defined as the classroom teacher. Since students completed the survey in their
perspective, the leader is seen as their own classroom teacher. Data indicated that 85% of the 63
students who completed the survey agreed that their teachers communicate to them the purpose
of participating in PRONAFECYT. These data demonstrate that students are being told the
purpose of participating in PRONAFECYT. If students are not told the purpose of participating
in PRONAFECYT, the vision can be lost and students will not understand why participating in
PRONAFECYT is crucial to their success and the success of Costa Rica (Kotter, 2012). In
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 84
response to the second question related to communication, whether their teacher speaks to them
on the importance of having soft skills in connection with student success, 88% agreed. The
overall student data indicated that more than 80% of the students receive communication
regarding the purpose and importance of PRONAFECYT.
The third form of data gathered that supports the theme of effective leadership
communication came from interviews with personnel from Escuela Militaria: (a) School Director
Rosa Sanchez, (b) Assistant Director Mrs. Hernandez, (c) first-grade teacher Mrs. Estorga, (d)
third-grade teacher and Science Coordinator Mrs. Flores, (e) second-grade teacher Mrs. Ramirez,
(f) third-grade teacher Mrs. Reynolds, and (g) second-grade teacher Mrs. Vega. All interviewees
shared information on the importance of effective leadership communication related to
implementation of PRONAFECYT. During her interview, Mrs. Reynolds was asked to share
ways in which the school director, Mrs. Sanchez, communicates and receives feedback with
regard to PRONAFECYT; she stated that Mrs. Sanchez is the first person to receive information
from MICITT and she passes it to her team. Mrs. Reynolds stated that Mrs. Sanchez normally
shares the information during staff meetings and personal conversations with the teachers. Mrs.
Reynolds stated that Mrs. Sanchez communicates daily with all staff, even if only a simple
5-minute visit to the classroom. She added that Mrs. Sanchez is constantly reminding students
through the school microphone that the school science fair is approaching and creates a
countdown calendar with the students every morning. Mrs. Reynolds stated that, if the principal
did not communicate the information, the rest of the school would not be aware of the fair. Mrs.
Reynolds emphasized the important role that Mrs. Sanchez, the school director, plays in
communicating the goals of PRONAFECYT.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 85
Other data that supported the theme of effective leadership communication emerged
through an interview with Escuela Militaria’s first-grade teacher, Mrs. Estorga. Mrs. Estorga
shared her insight on how the school director communicates daily with the students. She
explained that the school director is constantly using various methods of communicating with the
students to motivate them to participate in the science fair. She indicated that the school director
uses all means necessary to communicate with the students. She cited as an example the use of
the school microphone that connects to large speakers that can be heard throughout the campus
and in each classroom. The microphone is located in Mrs. Sanchez’s office. Mrs. Estorga said
that Mrs. Sanchez is constantly using the school microphone to communicate and encourage the
students to participate in the fair. Mrs. Estorga stated that Mrs. Sanchez is constantly attempting
new ways of communicating with teachers, families, and the community.
The third teacher interview that supported the theme of effective leadership
communication was that held with Escuela Militaria second-grade teacher Mrs. Vega. Mrs. Vega
is a veteran teacher at Escuela Militaria and has experienced the leadership of several school
directors. She stated that Mrs. Sanchez has a special way of communicating, is very motherly,
and believes in communicating with the staff and the children in a very loving but firm way. She
shared that Mrs. Sanchez takes time to explain to staff and the children the importance of
participating in activities and describes how each activity will benefit them. For example, Mrs.
Vega shared that, one time, she heard Mrs. Sanchez speaking to a student in the front office who
was being defiant and refused to participate in the activity required by his teacher. Mrs. Vega
said that she was very impressed when she saw the manner in which Mrs. Sanchez explained to
the student that the work his teacher was asking from him was to help him in the future. Mrs.
Sanchez explained to the student that the world needs workers who know how to conduct science
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 86
experiments, research, and mathematics, which is why he should do what his teacher was asking
him to do. Mrs. Vega was moved by to the method by which Mrs. Sanchez effectively
communicates with students. She stated that Mrs. Sanchez communicates with adults in the same
manner, with the result that the adults do not want to disappoint her so they work hard to impress
her. Mrs. Vega’s interview supports the theme of effective leadership and its impact on
implementation of PRONAFECYT.
The fourth interview that supported the theme of effective leadership was that with the
school director, Mrs. Rosa Sanchez. Mrs. Sanchez is a 3-year veteran at Escuela Militaria and
shared extensively regarding implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. When asked to
share ways in which she communicates with all stakeholders, Mrs. Sanchez stated that she
communicates verbally, in writing, through the school microphone, and through the school’s
Facebook page, communicating with teachers, students, parents, and the community. For
example, when she needed to communicate the winners of the local science fair to the parents
and the community, she posted it on the Facebook page and thanked the teachers publicly on the
Facebook page, as well. Mrs. Sanchez stated that she is constantly motivating everyone through
communication. She shared a pamphlet that she had created to share with the teachers on the
importance of participating in PRONAFECYT. In the pamphlet, she gave brief and clear
guidelines in bullet points regarding the importance of students participating in PRONAFECYT.
According to Mrs. Sanchez, the purpose of the pamphlet was to make it easy for the teachers to
transfer the information to the students and even be able to give the students a copy of the
pamphlet. Another method by which Mrs. Sanchez stated that she communicates with her
stakeholders was through meetings. Mrs. Sanchez stated that some of her most important
meetings during the week are small group departmental meetings with grade-level teachers. She
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 87
stated that the grade-level meetings are very important because that is her personal time with her
teachers and she is able to communicate intimately with a small group of teachers at one time.
Mrs. Sanchez stated that she wants all of her teachers to receive important information and she
understands that, if she does not provide the information, they will not feel supported, a feeling
that will in turn transfer to students. Mrs. Sanchez stated that communication is key to the
success of the school. All four interviews supported the theme of effective leadership
communication at Escuela Militaria.
To triangulate the data, a campus-wide school observation and 18 classroom observations
were conducted at Escuela Militaria. Since the classroom observations were conducted during
the first cycle, the classrooms observed were first through third grade. The observation data
indicated that the school director communicates effectively with teachers on campus regarding
PRONAFECYT and that teachers communicate with students. Examples that support this theme
began with observations made in the front office during the campus-wide observations. Mrs.
Sanchez communicated with the students at the beginning of school through the use of a school
microphone. She picked up the microphone and greeted staff and students, and the students
responded to the school director uniformly and excited. It appeared that the students were
accustomed to greeting Mrs. Sanchez. After greeting the students, Mrs. Sanchez presented
important announcements and dates of special events, including the science fair date. During the
morning announcement, she encouraged students to sign up with their teachers to participate in
the fair. She also told the students that, if they were having trouble selecting a project for the fair,
they were invited to participate in a workshop especially designed to help parents and students
select a project. Throughout the campus-wide observation, it was observed that Mrs. Sanchez
communicated with stakeholders regarding preparing the students for the science fair. At one
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 88
point, a parent walked into Mrs. Sanchez’s office and asked if it was permitted to use specific
materials for the science project. In another situation, the science coordinator, Mrs. Flores, asked
Mrs. Sanchez whether the dates for the science fair had been finalized and announced to the staff
members. Being able to observe the various ways in which Mrs. Sanchez communicates with her
staff supports the theme of the effective leadership communication at Escuela Militaria.
Eighteen classroom observations were conducted at Escuela Militaria. During the
classroom visits, in 14 of the 18 classrooms teachers communicated in various ways the
importance of participating and preparing students for PRONAFECYT. One observation that
supported effective leadership communication was the explanation of the science requirement
project that each student had to complete. In one classroom, the teacher was reviewing the
requirements with each student step by step. During this observation, students were asking
clarifying questions and seeking recommendations from the teacher on which project to
complete. In another classroom observation, the teacher asked each student to share their project
for the fair. In some cases, students did not have a project idea and the teacher assisted in
selecting a project and encouraged the student to seek help from peers or the librarian. In another
classroom observation, the teacher conducted a presentation about a student who had participated
in the local science fair and won and moved on to PRONAFECYT and won second place in
PRONAFECYT and the ISEF. The students appeared to be motivated and excited when the
teacher communicated this story. Sharing this story communicated the benefits of participating in
PRONAFECYT. The campus-wide and classroom observations supported the theme of effective
leadership communication.
The school director is the leader who communicates information to the teachers, parents,
students, and community. The classroom teachers are leaders who communicate important
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 89
information to students. For this theme, the frameworks that supported the theme of the
importance of effective leadership communication were represented, as well as the data that
supported the theme. Survey data supported that staff agreed that Mrs. Sanchez, the school
director, effectively communicates the purpose of PRONAFECYT. Four classroom teacher
interviews supported that teachers agreed that Mrs. Sanchez effectively communicates through
various ways: verbally, in writing, and in personal and group settings. Campus-wide
observations and classroom observations supported that effective leadership communication
throughout the campus was taking place. Through survey data, interviews, and communications,
it appears that leaders at Escuela Militaria are effectively communicating with students to
prepare them for PRONAFECYT. The data presented in this section support the theme that
effective leadership communication plays a crucial role in implementing PRONAFECYT at
Escuela Militaria.
Theme 2: Motivation
The second theme that emerged from surveys, interviews, and observation was
motivation. According to the data, it appeared that leaders at Escuela Militaria provide to
stakeholders extensive motivation through various measures to prepare students and teachers for
implementation of PRONAFECYT. Leaders were defined as the school director, science
coordinator, and teachers. The data revealed that the school director motivates the teachers and in
return the teachers motivate the students. Bolman and Deal (2013) described motivation as a
satisfier in a person’s life, a reason to do things. Research indicates that motivation is one of the
factors that determine a person’s level of performance in the workplace (Bolman & Deal, 2013).
In this particular example, the motivation that teachers receive at the school site can determine
their level of performance in the classroom. Bolman and Deal (2013) cited various forms of
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 90
motivation, such as achievement, responsibility, and recognition of work well done, to lead
people to be more productive. Therefore, if a teacher is recognized, acknowledged, and
supported by the school director, according to Bolman and Deal (2013), the teacher will be more
productive in job performance. The framework supporting this theme is introduced and the
supporting evidence gathered from the survey, observation, and interview data is presented.
Understanding that people are the organization’s most important asset is crucial to the
success of an organization (Bolman & Deal, 2013). Bolman and Deal’s Reframing Organizations
describes a four-frame model—the structural frame, the human resource frame, the political
frame, and the symbolic frame—that provides four perspectives by which organizations can be
understood. For the purpose of supporting this theme, the framework focuses on the human
resource frame. The human resource frame focuses on people in organizations and provides
insight into how to tailor organizations to satisfy human needs, improve human resource
management, and build positive interpersonal and group dynamics (Bolman & Deal, 2013).
According to Bolman and Deal (2013), it is crucial that organizations intrinsically motivate indi-
viduals through high-committed practices to build and retain a talented and motivated workforce.
Examples of ways in which leaders motivate people were seen in the data gathered from Escuela
Militaria. The results describe ways in which Escuela Militaria motivates teachers and students
to build positive goal setting, in this case implementation of PRONAFECYT.
The first form of data results that demonstrate that motivation is practiced at Escuela
Militaria was survey data from students and teachers. Survey data indicated that motivation is
initiated through recognition and support. The first survey data indicate the 63 students’
perceptions of recognition and support. According to student survey data, 85.7% of the students
agreed that their teachers support them to guarantee that their science project is ready for the fair.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 91
This indicates that the students feel supported by their teachers in relation to completion of their
science project by the day of the fair. According to Marzano (2005), teacher support is crucial to
students’ academic success. Teachers at Escuela Militaria play a strong role in ensuring that
students feel supported and recognized.
The second form of survey results were gathered from 15 teacher surveys. In the survey
responses, 100% of the teachers agreed that student participation in PRONAFECYT is
recognized at the school site. Recognizing student efforts through various ways motivates
students to participate further in PRONAFECYT. Bolman and Deal (2013) explained that
student motivation can be reached through recognition and, when students are recognized for
their effort, they are motivated to work harder. The survey question that supported the theme of
motivation asked teachers whether they agreed that a positive school culture exists to motivate
students to participate in PRONAFECYT. Of the 15 teachers, 95% agreed that a positive school
culture exists to motivate students to participate in PRONAFECYT. The culture in a school can
play a strong role in the academic, emotional, and social being of the staff and students.
According to these data, the majority of the teachers agreed that there is a positive school culture
to motivate students to participate in PRONAFECYT. The student and teacher survey data
indicated that motivation at Escuela Militaria is evident through recognition and support.
The third form of data that supports the theme of motivation came from interviews
conducted with the School Director, Mrs. Sanchez; the Assistant Director, Mrs. Hernandez; the
Science Coordinator, Mrs. Flores; and teachers Estorga, Ramirez, and Reynolds. The first
interview that provides evidence that students and staff are motivated to participate in
PRONAFECYT was from Mrs. Sanchez, the School Director. Mrs. Sanchez was asked to
explain the various ways in which students are motivated to prepare for PRONAFECYT; she
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 92
described a schoolwide festival in which all stakeholders participate. The festival is a special
yearly event that serves as a “kick-off” to the science fair season. Before the festival, students
create projects that they will display at the festival to receive feedback from the teacher and
students. According to Mrs. Sanchez, this festival is a tradition at the school; it is held yearly at
the same time and the entire community knows that, when the festival arrives, it is time to
prepare for PRONAFECYT. Mrs. Sanchez shared the following statement regarding the festival:
We organize a festival here and the children prepare projects, observation projects,
research projects. They present it to their teacher and we exhibit them. During that exhi-
bition we bring judges from outside; usually, they are teachers from other schools or
retired teachers, and they select the three projects that will represent the school. But
internally, the school rewards all the students; we give them a title to motivate them and
the awards are distributed the day we organize the fair. We decorate the entire school and
we open the school for their parents to visit us to see what their children have done.
This quote from Mrs. Sanchez supports the methods by which Escuela Militaria motivates
students to participate in the fair. The festival is a traditional event in which students enjoy being
a part. All students are rewarded for their participation in the festival, regardless of whether they
are selected to move forward. According to Mrs. Sanchez, students are recognized in the
presence of their families, which is the part that students enjoy the most. Mrs. Sanchez has seen
students who participated the previous year participate in the current year in the festival because
they enjoyed being recognized for their efforts.
The second interview supports the theme of motivation at Escuela Militaria. The
Assistant School Director, Mrs. Hernandez, described the ways in which students are encouraged
to participate in PRONAFECYT. She stated that Escuela Militaria begins to prepare students for
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 93
PRONAFECYT by motivating students, noting that, without motivation, students would not
participate. She cited ways in which Escuela Militaria motivates students to enroll in the science
fair:
Yet in here we work a lot by using motivation and we’re constantly speaking to them
through the speakers and reminding them of the dates, such as, “We’re already on this, or
this is where you have to go to request a pamphlet,” so there’s that constant communica-
tion with them.
In their interviews, Mrs. Flores, Escuela Militaria’s Science Coordinator and third-grade
teacher; Mrs. Estorga, Escuela Militaria’s first-grade teacher; and Mrs. Ramirez, Escuela
Militaria’s second-grade grade teacher, agreed that motivation is key to student participation in
PRONAFECYT. Each teacher shared a unique perspective of how the school motivates students,
but all examples referred back to how students feel when they are motivated. According to Mrs.
Estorga, the students work harder in preparing their project, they stay after-school, and they ask
questions to ensure that they doing the project correctly. Mrs. Flores said that the constant
motivation through the school microphone helps the students to be motivated for the fair. The
students enjoy hearing Mrs. Sanchez’s voice and her encouraging words. Mrs. Ramirez stated
that she sees the students’ faces light up when they hear positive encouraging words. Mrs.
Reynolds was asked, “In what ways do they make sure that all students participate in the fairs?”
She stated that she understood that all students are not excited to participate in the fair, which is
why the school director and all school personnel must motivate students. Mrs. Reynolds stated
that, through motivation, all students, even those how do not like to participate, at least attempt
to work hard and participate in PRONAFECYT. The interviews supported the theme that
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 94
motivation is practiced at Escuela Militaria to encourage students to participate in
PRONAFECYT.
In efforts to triangulate the theme, data were analyzed through use of campus-wide and
classroom observations. Campus-wide observation data indicated that the school director is
supportive and recognizes students and teachers when they participate in local school science
fairs, which in turn motivates students to participate in PRONAFECYT. During the campus-wide
observation, Mrs. Sanchez, Escuela Militaria’s School Director, demonstrated the recognition
items that she has given to the teachers at Escuela Militaria. She stated that she purposefully
recognized the teachers because, when teachers feel appreciated, they transfer that appreciation
to students and thus students are motivated to participate in events. Examples of the recognition
given by Mrs. Sanchez were tokens of appreciation, certificates of thanks, sweet treats during
staff meetings, and loudspeaker announcements thanking teachers for their hard work. While in
the front office, it was observed that support staff members motivate students through verbal
encouragement in preparation for PRONAFECYT. One particular staff member told a student to
be sure that he came back to the front office to sign up for the fair. During the school
observations, support staff such as the assistant principal and the school secretary encouraged
students to sign up by telling them that they would learn much information that would benefit
their future. Two of the students immediately signed up for the fair. It was evident during the
campus-wide observations that Escuela Militaria uses various means of motivating students to
participate in PRONAFECYT.
During the classroom observations, teachers motivated their students to participate in
PRONAFECYT by giving them the opportunity to earn extra credit if they participated. In one
classroom, the majority of the students reacted very excitedly when it was announced by their
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 95
teacher that they would receive credit if they participated in the fair. According to the teacher,
the extra credit would help those students who were failing the class or help students to receive
the next-higher grade. A second motivator during classroom visits appeared to be the possibility
of winning prizes at the fair. Students were motivated to hear from their teachers that students
who win the local fair then transfer to the national fair and win many prizes. Students began to
clap and scream with excitement when they heard that they could win money if they won at the
fair. Another motivator was certificates given to students who participate. In one instance, a
young female student pulled out her binder that contained clear sleeves and in those sleeves she
had a certificate of participation for the past 3 years of participation in the fair.
The school director is the leader with power to motivate staff and students to participate
in PRONAFECYT. The classroom teachers motivate students to participate and succeed in
PRONAFECYT. For this theme, Bolman and Deal’s (2012) theoretical framework that supports
the importance of motivating staff and students was presented and supported by data results.
Survey data support that staff agreed that Mrs. Sanchez, the School Director, effectively
motivates staff and students through various methods to participate in PRONAFECYT. Through
interviews with School Director Sanchez, Assistant Director Hernandez, Science Coordinator
Flores, and teachers Estorga, Ramirez, and Reynolds, data demonstrated that motivation
influences student participation in PRONAFECYT. Campus-wide observations and classroom
observations supported that motivation throughout the campus is taking place. Through survey
data, interviews, and observations, it appears that leaders at Escuela Militaria are motivating
students to participate in PRONAFECYT. The data presented in this section support the theme
that motivation plays a crucial role in implementing PRONAFECYT at Escuela Militaria.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 96
Theme 3: Continuous Support From the School Director
Creating change at school sites requires clear direction and support from school directors.
The two frameworks used to support the third theme are Kotter’s (2012) leading change eight-
step framework and DuFour and Marzano’s (2011) leaders of learning framework. Leadership
direction and support in the implementation of PRONAFECYT at the school sites begins with
the direction and support of the school director. According to Kotter (2012), only leadership can
motivate actions to alter behavior in any significant way. Research has found that organizations
around the world lack growth due to the lack of leadership and support (Kotter, 2012). The
school director’s influence is directly connected to student achievement (DuFour & Marzano,
2011). Further research has found that powerful school leadership on the part of the principal has
a positive effect on student achievement (DuFour & Marzano, 2011). DuFour and Marzano
(2011) presented various responsibilities of the school director to increase school success,
including providing teachers with the time, resources, materials, and support to help them to
succeed at what they are asked to do. For the purpose of this study, continuous support was
defined as any type of assistance that the school director provides to the staff, teachers, and
students in preparation for PRONAFECYT. The assistance can be related to financial support,
motivational support, academic guidance, and resources needed for participation in
PRONAFECYT.
The theme of continuous support from the school director emerged through the various
repeating data results from surveys, interviews, and school observations. The first method of data
to support this theme came from teacher survey responses. All of the 15 teachers surveyed
agreed that the school director plays a critical role in ensuring that teachers implement the
PRONAFECYT initiative. This survey statement response supports that all teachers agreed that
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 97
the school director’s role in implementation PRONAFECYT is critical. This statement can
translate to the support that teachers will need to implement PRONAFECYT. If the school
director’s role in the implementation process is removed, the PRONAFECYT initiative might
not occur. In this statement, teachers assigned a critical role to the school director to ensure that
the initiative is implemented. When asked whether teachers need the support of the school
director to implement the PRONAFECYT initiative fully and effectively, 100% of the teachers
responded affirmatively. This survey statement strongly supports the theme of needing
continuous support from the school director to implement PRONAFECYT fully and effectively
at Escuela Militaria.
To further support the theme of continuous support from the school director, interview
data were gathered from School Director Sanchez, Assistant Director Hernandez, Science
Coordinator Flores, and teachers Vega, Ramirez, and Estorga. Responses by Mrs. Sanchez
indicated that she supports the staff in preparation for PRONAFECYT through various methods.
The first method is to provide resources for the staff and students. Mrs. Sanchez shared that she
understood that participating in science fairs is very expensive, which is why she connects
Escuela Militaria with various community organizations that donate funding and project
materials to teachers and families so students can participate in the fair. This is one form of
support that Mrs. Sanchez demonstrates to her staff and students. The second form of support
that Mrs. Sanchez provides to her teachers is accountability support. For example, during an
interview with Science Coordinator Flores, she shared that Mrs. Sanchez is constantly holding
teachers accountable during department staff meetings by asking teachers to report on the
progress that students are making in preparing for PRONAFECYT. Mrs. Flores stated that Mrs.
Sanchez tells teachers that, if they need anything from her to please let her know because she
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 98
does not want to learn later that they needed something but had not informed her. According to
Mrs. Flores, Mrs. Sanchez supports the teachers by checking in with them and requesting
updates, which lets them know that she is involved and supporting the teachers throughout the
process.
Mrs. Vega, Escuela Militaria’s second-grade teacher, cited the many ways in which Mrs.
Sanchez supports implementation of PRONAFECYT:
Thank God, we have always had the support from the administration, economically, and
motivationally. The thing is, the school director sometimes has to make miracles to be
able to provide us with everything that we need. The prizes to the children, you have to
give them at least a participation certificate, if they win, or not, but the important thing is
for them to participate, and to motivate them. So the administration has always been in
charge of giving us that support, and give the children who participate their certificates,
supporting the ones who need more on certain projects, and the same with the teachers.
Mrs. Vega explained that Mrs. Sanchez supports the teachers economically and motivationally
throughout implementation of PRONAFECYT.
Mrs. Estorga, Escuela Militaria’s first-grade teacher, shared an example of how Mrs.
Sanchez supported her when she had questions about a method that she was demonstrating in a
science lesson. Mrs. Estorga stated that, before teaching a lesson to her students, she had doubts
about the experiment that she was going to do with the students and she shared her doubts with
Mrs. Sanchez. According to Mrs. Estorga, Mrs. Sanchez heard her concerns and explained to her
that teachers are allowed to make mistakes if lessons do not come out as planned, but the
important thing to demonstrate to students is that, in the science world, things will have to be
attempted several times before finding the right solution. This conversation is a clear example of
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 99
how Mrs. Sanchez provides emotional support to her teachers. The interview data presented
supports the various ways in which Mrs. Sanchez provides continuous support to her staff and
students.
The third type of data that supported this theme was gathered through campus-wide
observations and 18 classroom observations at Escuela Militaria. The observations demonstrated
that the school director actively participates and supports the staff and students to prepare for
PRONAFECYT. The first observation that supports the theme of the school director offering
continuous support to her teachers occurred during preparation for the staff meeting. On the day
of the school visit, the Science Coordinator, Mrs. Flores, was preparing for a school-wide staff
meeting that was to take place that afternoon. While preparing for the staff meeting, Mrs.
Sanchez was actively working with Mrs. Flores to guarantee that all items on the agenda were
included. Mrs. Sanchez was actively participating in the preparation for the staff meeting by
contacting the kitchen staff to make sure that refreshments would be ready on time and
confirming with her assistants that the copies that Mrs. Flores needed for the staff meeting would
be ready on time. It was observed that Mrs. Sanchez gave active attention and support to Mrs.
Flores to guarantee that the meeting ran smoothly and Mrs. Flores felt supported before the
meeting.
Another observation that was made during the campus-wide observations demonstrated
that Mrs. Sanchez offered continuous support to the staff. She walked from classroom to
classroom to inform teachers of a change that the MEP had made to the schedule. This
observation demonstrated that Mrs. Sanchez was supporting the teachers because she wanted to
ensure that all teachers knew about the change as soon as possible. Mrs. Sanchez took the time
from her schedule to speak to each teacher individually, which demonstrated support. Another
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 100
observation demonstrated that the school director gave support to a parent. A parent arrived to
the campus and Mrs. Sanchez reminded the parent about the upcoming science fair. During the
conversation, the school director reminded the parent of the resources that the school can provide
to assist with participation in the fair. Through this conversation, Mrs. Sanchez demonstrated
financial support to the parent. The school observation data provide various examples of how
Escuela Militaria’s School Director, Mrs. Sanchez, provides continuous support to parents,
students, and teachers. .
Summary of Results for Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, “What is the role educational leaders play in implementing
the Costa Rican National Program of science and Technology fair (PRONAFECYT) initiative?”
After analyzing survey, observation, and interview data, it was clear that school directors play a
crucial role in implementing the Costa Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs
initiative. Data revealed that effective leadership communication by the school director and
teachers is crucial to successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT. This finding supports
Kotter’s leading change framework Step 6, which speaks of importance of communicating the
change vision to the organization. Kotter’s key elements in effective communication of vision
are presented in Table 5. Survey, interview, and observation data demonstrated that the school
director, Mrs. Sanchez, and the teachers at Escuela Militaria provide effective communication to
support implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative.
The second theme that emerged through data analysis was motivation given by the school
director to teachers and students at Escuela Militaria. Bolman and Deal (2013) posited that
people are the most important part of organization and that valuing them by recognizing them
motivates them to work harder to reach company goals. In Kotter’s eight-step change
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 101
framework, generating short-term wins allows people to celebrate short-term results while
working hard to celebrate the next short-term win. The data presented through surveys,
interviews, and observations demonstrated that the School Director, Mrs. Sanchez, motivates
teachers by recognizing their efforts and rewarding them for their hard work. The data also
revealed that students are recognized for their hard work, which in turn motivates them to work
harder in the PRONAFECYT initiative.
The third theme identified the importance of the school director providing continuous
support throughout the process. Bolman and Deal (2013) and Kotter (2012) addressed the notion
that leaders of the organization drive where the organization will go. Through the leader’s vision,
guidance, and support, the team will move toward making changes needed to reach desired
goals. The leaders in the organizations pave the way through the entire process by providing
resources to complete objectives while supporting each individual along the way. The survey,
interview, and observation data demonstrated various ways in which the school director, Mrs.
Sanchez, provides support to parents, staff and students. From the data, it is evident that the
school director at Escuela Militaria plays a central role in implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative.
Results for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, “How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from
teacher practices at less successful schools as measured by participation in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?” In order to address Research Question 2, Escuela Militaria was compared to a
less-successful school as measured by participation in PRONAFECYT: Escuela Colón, located
in the central San José area. Escuela Colón was selected based on the survey, interview, and
observation data gathered during the visit, since MICITT did not provide official data reflecting
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 102
the participation of PRONAFECYT of each school site. Understanding that each school site has
strengths and weaknesses, it is important to learn and understand the strategies that successful
schools are practicing to prepare students for PRONAFECYT.
Escuela Colón was founded in 1965 and is located in the central part of San José. The
school serves approximately 900 students from kindergarten to 12th grade. The school is divided
into four sections or cycles: (a) kindergarten to third grade, (b) fourth grade to sixth grade, (c)
seventh grade to ninth grade, and (d) 10th grade to 12th grade. Depending on grade level,
students attend Escuela Colón on an alternating schedule, with elementary grades in either
morning or afternoon sessions. According to the school’s director, this educational model has
been adopted due to the limited availability of school space to conduct classes. The current
school director, Mr. Juan Rodriguez, has been at Escuela Colón for 15 years. In addition to the
school director and one assistant director, there are approximately 24 teachers. For the purpose of
the present study, 79 students in Grades 5 and 6 were surveyed, 20 teachers were surveyed, and 7
teachers were interviewed. In addition, the school has been assigned two full-time science
coordinators. One coordinator is responsible for providing training and support to elementary
staff and students in relation to implementation of the PRONAFECYT. The other coordinator
works with secondary staff in relation to implementation of the PRONAFECYT. The following
people at Escuela Colón were interviewed: (a) School Director Rodriguez, (b) Assistant Director
Zamora, (c) Science Coordinator 1 Garcia, (d) Science Coordinator 2 Zazuet, (e) third-grade
teachers Gomez and Carbona, (f) fourth-grade teachers Fuentes and Villalobos, (g) fifth-grade
teacher Acosta, (h) sixth-grade teacher Ponce, and (i) seventh-grade teacher Barrios.
For the purpose of this study, successful schools were defined as schools with a high
participation in the PRONAFECYT initiative, as measured by the survey, interview, and
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 103
observation data gathered during the research timeline. In order for schools to be successful,
teacher practices must be aligned to the school’s vision and goals (Marzano et al., 2005). For the
country of Costa Rica, according to government officials, the vision and goals for each school is
to prepare knowledge-ready workers to be prepared to meet the job demands of the new
economy. Successful practices such as communication are key to reaching desired goals.
According to Kotter (2012), failure to communicate to key players the vision and goals for the
organization will sidetrack the vision and the purpose will not be accomplished. In this case, if
teachers do not communicate to students the purpose of participating in PRONAFECYT,
students will not understand the ultimate goal, which is for students to become knowledge-ready
workers prepared to meet the job demands of the new economy.
In order for students to be prepared to meet the job demands of the new economy,
teachers must participate in training. Bolman and Deal (2013) described the importance of
investing in the most important asset in organizations: people. Bolman and Deal’s human
resource frame describes the importance of investing in training, professional development, and
other actions so staff is prepared to meet the demands of the organization. In any discipline,
effective professional development should focus on developing teachers’ capabilities and
knowledge to teach content and subject matter, addressing teachers’ classroom work and the
problems that they encounter in their school settings, and providing multiple and sustained
opportunities for teacher learning over a substantial time interval (National Research Council,
2011). Participating in teacher training distinguishes successful schools from less successful
schools.
The data analysis revealed two themes: (a) the importance of teachers communicating the
purpose and urgency of PRONAFECYT to students, and (b) teachers participating in training to
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 104
prepare students for PRONAFECYT. To present the results that emerged from the data analysis,
each theme is presented, the theoretical framework that supports the theme is described, and the
data that emerged from the survey, interview and observations are presented.
Theme 1: Teachers Communicating the Purpose of the PRONAFECYT to Students
When a student is asked to complete a project or an assignment, the student may agree
because he or she feels that it is part of the job of being a student. On the other hand, the student
who is asked to participate in a project that is optional will probably need a good reason to
participate. In order for a student to agree on a task, assignment, or special project, the student
must be aware of the purpose. Communicating to students the purpose of participating in
PRONAFECYT is crucial to the success of implementation. Kotter’s (2012) leading change,
eight-stage process identifies eight steps that organizations should follow to transform change. In
this case, the change that schools are seeking is to change the way schools prepare students to
become knowledge-ready workers, one of which is participation in PRONAFECYT.
Costa Rica’s economy has evolved significantly in the past 20 years; because of this
change, the education system must create changes to its current system. In order for change to
happen, communicating the change vision is a must. In Kotter’s Step 4, he described the
importance of communicating frequently the purpose and vision to the stakeholders. In this
study, the stakeholders were the students. It is important that students understand the purpose for
the change in order for them to be active participants in the change. A teacher’s role is to address
student concerns and anxieties openly and honestly, applying the vision to all aspects of the
organization’s operations and leading by example (Kotter, 2012). To evaluate the theme of
teachers communicating the purpose of PRONAFECYT to students at Escuela Militaria and
Escuela Colón, data from surveys, interviews, and observations are presented.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 105
According to survey data gathered from students at Escuela Militaria and Escuela Colón,
an effective teacher practice at both schools is teachers communicating the purpose of
PRONAFECYT to students. According to student survey responses from Escuela Militaria, 85%
of the students agreed with the item, “My teachers talk about why we are doing science fair
projects.” This survey item supports the theme of teachers communicating the purpose of
PRONAFECYT to students. Similarly, at Escuela Colón, 81% of the students agreed with the
statement. Another student survey item was, “My teachers talk about the importance of soft skills
and how they will help me do well in school”; 88% of students from both Escuela Militaria and
Escuela Colón agreed. Even though Escuela Colón is being compared to Escuela Militaria as the
less-successful school, it appeared that survey data demonstrated inconsistencies in the overall
findings. According to the survey data, students at both schools are being told about the purpose
of PRONAFECYT by their teachers.
To further evaluate this theme, interview data from interviews held with following people
from Escuela Militaria are presented: School Director Mrs. Rosa Sanchez and third-grade teacher
and Science Coordinator Mrs. Flores. Also, data from the interviews held with the following
people at Escuela Colón are presented: Mr. Juan Rodriguez, School Director; Mr. Garcia,
Science Coordinator; Mrs. Zazueta, Science Coordinator; Mrs. Gomez, third-grade teacher; and
Mr. Fuentes, fourth-grade teacher. To support that teachers at Escuela Militaria communicate the
purpose of PRONAFECYT with students, Mrs. Sanchez shared that students at Escuela Militaria
are very fortunate to be part of such an important event and, to ensure that all students
participate, she has a major meeting at the beginning of the year where she speaks with all of the
teachers about the importance of sharing important information with students and their parents.
Mrs. Sanchez stated that, if students do not know why they should do things, they will not do it.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 106
According to Mrs. Sanchez, students are expected to know why they participate in the fair; she
does not want to hear that they are required to participate, she wants to hear that they are getting
ready for the future.
Mrs. Sanchez stated that she visits teacher classrooms to ensure that teachers are speaking
to the students about being prepared for the future. These interview data support that the school
director at Escuela Militaria is expecting teachers to communicate the purpose of students
participating in PRONAFECYT. At Escuela Militaria, it is an expected outcome that all teachers
communicate the purpose of PRONAFECYT to the students. Furthermore, data from an
interview with Mrs. Flores revealed that teachers at Escuela Militaria agree that participating in
PRONAFECYT is a preparation for the real world, and this belief is shared with the students.
According to Mrs. Flores, participation in PRONAFECYT is a school-wide expectation and
students know the purpose of their participation.
On the other hand, the school director from Escuela Colón, Mr. Rodriguez, stated that he
always asks the teachers to talk to their students and encourage them to participate in the fair by
offering extra points but the students are not interested. Mr. Rodriguez stated that fewer students
are participating in the fairs because of costs and other reasons. He did not supply information
that teachers at Escuela Colón communicate the purpose of PRONAFECYT to the students. The
science coordinator, Mr. Garcia, stated that most of the students are encouraged to participate in
the fair by offering them extra credit points to increase their grade. Furthermore, during an
interview with third-grade teacher Mrs. Gomez, she said that she usually has only one student
participate in the fair because it is a voluntary activity. Mrs. Gomez said that participation in the
science fair is voluntary, which means that fewer students want to participate. Fourth-grade
teacher Mr. Fuentes said that they try to encourage students to participate by offering prizes and
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rewards. After analyzing the interview data from Escuela Colón, it was concluded that the
teachers do not communicate to students the purpose of PRONAFECYT.
In order to triangulate the inconsistent survey and interview data from Escuela Colón,
campus-wide and classroom observations were conducted. The campus-wide and classroom
observation data from Escuela Militaria support the theme of the teachers communicating the
purpose of PRONAFECYT to the students as an effective teacher practice to encourage students
to participate in PRONAFECYT. During campus observations at Escuela Colón, the campus did
not appear to have any type of communication promoting or advertising the purpose of
PRONAFECYT. There were no posters, no announcements, and no instructions related to
PRONAFECYT. In addition, the research team observed a staff meeting in which it appeared
that the staff was not aligned to the purpose of the school’s participation in PRONAFECYT. The
observation data gathered during this meeting demonstrated that the staff was not in unity
because of disagreements regarding the preparation for and participation in PRONAFECYT. In
contrast, at Escuela Militaria, there were posters promoting PRONAFECYT, there were sign-up
reminders in almost every classroom, there was clear communication in the classrooms and in
the front office promoting PRONAFECYT, and staff was sharing the importance of participating
in PRONAFECYT with staff and students.
Even though survey and interview data were not consistent at Escuela Colón, the
observation data supported that teachers do not communicate the purpose of PRONAFECYT to
the students, whereas teachers at Escuela Militaria communicate the purpose of PRONAFECYT
to the students. Survey, interview, and observation data presented from Escuela Militaria and
Escuela Colón describe one successful strategy that successful schools use to support the
implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 108
Theme 2: Participation in Training
In order for schools to improve student achievement, it is crucial that teachers be
effective and improve their instructional methods (Little, Goe, & Bell, 2009). In order for
teachers to continue to learn and change in the 21st century, they must continue to participate in
training. The second teacher practice by successful schools in PRONAFECYT is participation in
training to prepare students for PRONAFECYT. Marzano et al. (2005) stated that one of the
most frequently mentioned resources important to effective functioning of a school is training
opportunities for teachers. Understanding that teachers need support and training opportunities is
a crucial to reaching organizational goals.
The framework that supports the need to invest in teachers with professional development
and support is Bolman and Deal’s human resource four-frame model. The human resource frame
model highlights the relationship between people and organizations and understanding that
people need organizations and organizations need people is the foundation of the HUMAN
RESOURCE FRAME. This framework supports the theme of investing in people through
professional development opportunities and other methods to attract people who are motivated to
do a superior job (Bolman & Deal, 2013). The human resource frame model holds that people
are the most important asset in organizations. Furthermore, understanding that people have needs
that must be met, it is important that leaders provide continuous training to the people in the
organizations. The human resource frame is built on the following core assumptions:
1. Organizations exist to serve human needs rather than the converse.
2. People and organizations need one another. Organizations need ideas, energy, and
talent; people need careers, salaries, and opportunities.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 109
3. When the fit between individual and system is poor, one or both suffer, individuals are
exploited or exploit the organization, or both become victims.
4. A good fit benefits both; individuals find meaningful and satisfying work. and organi-
zations get the talent and energy they need for success.
Therefore, Bolman and Deal’s human resource frame supports that people who work in
organizations have needs; especially since the change in the highly competitive workforce, it is
important to invest in people to support them and make them more motivated and competent
individuals. This framework supports the theme of providing teachers training to prepare
students for PRONAFECYT to reach desired goals.
The first form of data to support the theme comes from results from teacher survey
responses. Teachers from Escuela Militaria and Escuela Colón gave responses that support that
teachers received training to prepare for PRONAFECYT. According to findings from the survey
at Escuela Militaria, 77.8% of the teachers agreed that they are provided training and
professional development opportunities to prepare their students for PRONAFECYT but only
50% of the teachers at Escuela Colón agreed to this statement. Furthermore, when asked about
the training to support classroom instruction related to PRONAFECYT, 77.8% of the teachers at
Escuela Militaria stated that they had received such training, but only 60% of the teachers at
Escuela Colón reported having received training to support classroom instruction. Also, 83.4%
of the teachers at Escuela Militaria stated that they had been trained on leadership decision
making related to PRONAFECYT, while only 60% of the teachers at Escuela Colón reported
that they had received training to support classroom instruction. Also, 83.4% of the teachers at
Escuela Militaria stated that they had been trained on leadership decision making related to
PRONAFECYT, while only 60% of the teachers at Escuela Colón reported on receiving that
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 110
training. The survey data indicate that a successful practice that teachers at Escuela Militaria are
using is participation in training to prepare students for schools PRONAFECYT.
The second form of data to support the theme of teacher training was gathered through
interviews conducted with teachers, school directors, and school science fair coordinators. The
first interview that supports the theme was with Escuela Militaria’s school director, Mrs.
Sanchez, who explained how teachers from Escuela Militaria participate in training. Even though
not all teachers attend training sessions first hand, there is a system in place by which the other
teachers receive the training from the people who attend.
Yes, the committee is the only one that has gone for training. So they pass on the training
to our colleagues so they are aware on how the process and change is going to be done.
There is a colleague in each class that is aware of any doubts that our coworkers have and
they help and guide them with that.
This quote is an example of how teachers at Escuela Militaria participate in training. In an
interview with third-grade teacher Mrs. Flores, she shared that teachers receive various types of
training from the MEP level, specifically to prepare them for the science fair.
We have received Science Fair workshops, science training, counseling on part of the
counselors. There are science counselors, mathematic counselors, so for example, at the
beginning of the year, the principal requests topics from us, and one of the topics we
always suggest receiving training about is the Science Fair and how to approach the
research and experimentation process within the classroom.
In an interview with Escuela Militaria’s second-grade teacher, Mrs. Ramirez, she stated
that MEP normally trains the school coordinator and the school coordinator in turn trains all
teachers on campus. Teachers at Escuela Militaria stated that it is crucial that all teachers on
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 111
campus receive proper training to prepare students for PRONAFECYT. Training that focuses on
classroom instructional strategies is important to enable teachers to teach students the proper
skills to complete science projects for the fair. Teachers who were interviewed (Mrs. Estorga,
Mrs. Flores, Mrs. Ramirez, Mrs. Reynolds, and Mrs. Vega) stated that teacher training is
necessary for successful implementation of PRONAFECYT. Conversely, interview data from
Escuela Colón indicate that those teachers participate in very little training to prepare them for
PRONAFECYT. An interview with Science Coordinator Garcia revealed great need for teachers
to participate in training for preparation for PRONAFECYT. Mr. Garcia stated that teachers who
attend the training sessions often do not bring back the information to the other teachers as they
are supposed to do. He also stated that teachers would prefer to get the training first hand from
the trainers themselves than from another teacher. Even though both groups of teachers agreed
that more training is needed, interview data revealed that more teachers at Escuela Militaria are
participating in teacher training.
The third form of data to support the need to provide training for teachers to prepare
students for PRONAFECYT was gathered through classroom observations. During the school
observations at Escuela Militaria, the classroom teachers were providing effective instruction
through the use of differentiated instructional strategies and various learning modalities. The
majority of the classroom teachers at Escuela Militaria used interactive notebooks to support
students in their instruction, PBL, and application of the scientific method. It was apparent that
teachers at Escuela Militaria used best practices to support students in their learning. On the
other hand, during the school observations at Escuela Colón, in the majority of the classrooms
visited there was minimal instruction taking place. In one classroom, students were coloring
pictures that appeared to have no connection to an instructional learning objective. In another
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 112
classroom, students appeared to have no teacher instruction and the students were entertaining
themselves while the teacher organized materials. The school-wide observations at Escuela
Colón suggest that teachers are in need of participating in training that will prepare them to
prepare students for PRONAFECYT.
Summary of Results for Research Question 2
Understanding the purpose of PRONAFECYT and teachers participating in training were
two themes that emerged from surveys, school observations, and interviews conducted at two
elementary schools. It was found that at Escuela Militaria, teachers communicate the purpose
and urgency of PRONAFECYT to their students and participate in training to prepare students
for PRONAFECYT. Both are teacher practices that have demonstrated success as measured by
participation in PRONAFECYT.
Results for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, “How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to
equip students with 21st-century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican
National Science and Technology Fair?” Through the effects of globalization and the
establishment of MNCs in Costa Rica, educational leaders have re-evaluated their current
educational practices to ensure that students are equipped with 21st-century skills to meet the
demands of the job market. Preparing students with proper skills requires system leaders to
provide students with the proper education and activities. Participation in PRONAFECYT allows
students to practice real-life experiences through PBL and access content such as researching,
analysis, and the use of the scientific method. Supporting these efforts will guarantee a 21st-
century-ready workforce that will help to maintain a successful economy and meet the demands
of MNCs such as the ones that currently exist in Costa Rica. To support student achievement and
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 113
success in the national and international science and technology fairs and prepare students for the
future, local schools and classroom instruction must be evaluated to ensure that correct support
and direction are provided to the students to promote academic achievement and success in the
STEM fields.
Through analysis of survey responses, classroom observations, and interviews from
Escuela Militaria, two themes that support how site and system leaders have prepared their
schools to equip students with 21st-century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the
Costa Rican National Science and Technology Fair emerged: (a) making content accessible, and
(b) access to PBL opportunities. According to the data, site and system leaders have prepared
their schools to equip students with 21st-century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican
National Science and Technology Fair by making appropriate content accessible to students and
by allowing students to participate in PBL opportunities. This section presents the framework
that supports the themes, the data from survey responses, observation findings, and interview
data.
Theme 1: Access to Content
Preparing students with 21st-century skills requires leaders to understand new concepts
and designs that prepare students to meet the demands of the 21st-century workforce. Through
collaboration, critical thinking, inquiry-based learning, and creativity, school leaders prepare
students to compete in an ever-growing globalized economy (Capraro & Slough, 2009). Ensuring
that students have access to content such as PBL, the scientific method, research, and analysis
skills will equip students with skills to participate in the PRONAFECYT.
Ensuring that system and site leaders provide access to content specific skills to students
is a necessity in preparing students for the 21st century. To support this theme, the Capraro et al.
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(2013) STEM PBL framework was used. Capraro et al. (2013) described the design of learning
environments as part of the STEM PBL framework: (a) making content accessible, (b) making
thinking visible, (c) helping students to learn from others, and (d) promoting autonomy and
lifelong learning. For the purpose of this theme, the second design of learning—making content
accessible—is described. Capraro et al. (2013) explained that making content accessible allows
students to engage in problem solving while connecting to prior knowledge. Allowing students to
connect to prior knowledge allows students to build on ideas, use personally relevant
investigations, and evaluate data and scientific evidence according to their personally relevant
problems.
The first form of data to support this theme came from student and teacher responses by
63 students from Escuela Militaria. The first survey data presented reflects how students feel
related to them learning the scientific method. According to the survey data, 82% of the students
agreed that their teachers regularly help them to learn the scientific method through science
activities and technology. This statement supports that students have access to learning the
scientific method. By learning the scientific method, students will learn to investigate, research,
and create hypotheses to attempt to solve problems, all skills that are needed in real-life
scenarios. Furthermore, 89% of the students agreed that teachers assign projects in which
students collaborate to solve problems. These item responses support the theme of having access
to content because, when students are exposed to collaboration skills to solve problems, they are
being prepared to work in the demanding job market where collaboration and problem-solving
skills are key to success.
The second form of data that supports the theme arose from survey responses by teachers
at Escuela Militaria. All of the teachers agreed that they offer students opportunities to
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participate in projects that incorporate investigation or engineering as part of the regular daily
curriculum. When teachers offer students opportunities to participate in investigation or
engineering as part of their daily curriculum, students will have access to skills that are preparing
for 21st-century jobs. Student and teacher data support the theme that students should have
content accessible to them to prepare for 21st-century skills.
Interview data from interviews conducted with Mrs. Sanchez, Escuela Militaria school
director; Mrs. Ramirez, Escuela Militaria’s second-grade teacher; and Mrs. Estorga, Escuela
Militaria’s first-grade grade teacher, are presented. The first interview that supports the theme of
teachers providing access to content skills was found that with Mrs. Sanchez. When asked what
teaching practices are used to prepare students for PRONAFECYT, Mrs. Sanchez stated that
teachers conduct extensive research activities in class because many students would not be able
to conduct research activities at home due to not having the equipment or resources. Mrs.
Ramirez shared that teachers train students by doing activities that push students to create,
discover, and conduct research. Mrs. Ramirez stated that, as students do those type of activities,
they learn new ideas and information. Mrs. Estorga stated that students are given the opportunity
to conduct investigations, which prepares them for investigation and analytical thinking as
adults. The interview data demonstrate that teachers at Escuela Militaria provide students access
to content skills such as research, investigation, and analysis that will prepare them for 21st-
century jobs.
To triangulate the data retrieved from surveys and interviews, observations at Escuela
Militaria were conducted. During classroom observations, teachers were conducting lessons that
incorporated the scientific method and allowed students to collaborate to solve problems
presented by the teacher. Specifically in one classroom, a teacher was scaffolding a project
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related to the scientific method that required students to conduct research as a team. In a second
classroom a teacher was conducting a science experiment and students created a hypothesis and
found evidence to support the hypothesis. In two classroom observations, a way of conducting
collaborative research work was demonstrated through use of interactive notebooks as a method
of writing important information and providing supportive evidence to validate important
information. Classroom observations supported the theme that access to content is important to
preparing students for PRONAFECYT.
Equipping students with 21st-century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican
National Science Fair is a practice that teachers at Escuela Militaria are working toward. Based
on analysis of student and teacher surveys, interviews, and classroom observations, it was
evident that the school director and teachers at Escuela Militaria are providing students with
access to content such as analytical thinking, research, and investigation skills to prepare them
for PRONAFECYT. Thus, it was clear that it is important to make content accessible to all
students to guarantee that they are able to engage in problem-solving opportunities and make
personal connections in relation to preparing for PRONAFECYT.
Theme 2: PBL Opportunities
PBL provides students the opportunity to enhance real-world applicability and helps to
prepare students for postsecondary education, with an emphasis on making connections to what
STEM professionals actually do on the job (Capraro & Slough, 2009). Capraro and Slough
(2009) described the benefit of allowing students access to PBL activities through their theoreti-
cal framework. Capraro and Slough described PBL as a way of allowing students to think criti-
cally and analytically and practice higher-order thinking skills. PBL requires collaboration, peer
communication, problem solving, and self-directed learning (Capraro & Slough, 2009). This
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 117
framework provides support to the theme of the importance of providing access for students to
participate in PBL opportunities. Capraro and Slough described the foundations in the learning
sciences that influence the design of PBL: (a) preexisting knowledge; (b) feedback, revision, and
reflection; (c) teaching for understanding; (d) metacognition.
Preexisting knowledge allows students to connect to previous experiences, which is
known to influence how they understand and make sense of what they are taught. Feedback,
revision, and reflection give students opportunities to have a conceptual understanding of the
work that they have done, revise if needed, and reflect on their learning process. Teaching for
understanding allows teachers to transfer information to students in a matter in which students
comprehend factually and conceptually. In order for students to learn with understanding, factual
knowledge must be balanced within a conceptual framework (Capraro & Slough, 2009).
Metacognition is described as a person’s ability to reflect on knowledge and skills and learning
ability. The metacognitive process allows students to take control of their own learning. Capraro
and Slough (2009) described PBL as teaching a student to ride the bike. There are several steps
that must be followed to be successful in their learning process.
Surveys conducted with teachers and students demonstrated supporting evidence that
Escuela Militaria offers students access to PBL opportunities at the school. Of 63 students
surveyed, 89% agreed that their teachers assign projects that allow them to collaborate with peers
to solve problems. From the same group of students, 86% agreed that their teachers support them
to guarantee that their projects will be ready for the fair. A survey question asked students
whether they are familiar with skills such as critical thinking, problem solving, collaboration,
communication, analysis, and curiosity; 83% agreed. Furthermore, 86% reported that social
abilities are improved when they participate in the science fair. Teacher survey data supported
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 118
that Escuela Militaria gives students opportunities for PBL. When teachers were asked whether
they offer students opportunities to participate in research projects as part of the regular
classroom instruction, 100% agreed. Also, 83% stated that they utilized PBL to teach. Survey
data showed that access to PBL opportunities exists at Escuela Militaria.
Interviews were conducted with the school director, science coordinator, and teachers
regarding students’ opportunities and access to PBL. The school director, Mrs. Sanchez, stated
that students work on projects in the classroom and teachers work very hard in class to guarantee
that students are learning in the process. The assistant principal, Mrs. Hernandez, shared that
teachers work hard in building concepts from the beginning because many students do not have a
foundation and it is important for students to know the beginning in order for them to gain
understanding. Mrs. Hernandez stated that teachers teach step by step with hands-on projects to
help the students to understand what they are learning in a visual and tactile manner. Mrs. Flores,
the Science Coordinator, stated that instructional practices such as group work prepare students
for the PRONAFECYT. Mrs. Flores stated that students are creating projects and the teacher is
the facilitator to guide each student in completing the project. These interviews at Escuela
Militaria support that another method for preparing students with 21st-century skills is use of
PBL.
The third form of data to support this theme was classroom observations. During the
classroom observations at Escuela Militaria, three classrooms were participating in hands-on
learning projects. In one classroom, a student was in front of the class with a plastic bottle,
demonstrating to the class the results of gas mixed with pressure and air. In another class, the
teacher was introducing a project that would be completed by students and started the
introduction by allowing students to connect to a personal experience related to the project. In
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 119
other classrooms, observations included projects that were displayed throughout the school such
as planters that contained plants and different forms of art projects related to specific content
subjects. On the campus, the school director presented to the research team a classroom with a
set of student desks and explained that students had worked with the organization Dos Pinos to
recycle milk cartons to create the desks. Students were very excited to explain the process of
recycling the milk cartons and demonstrated a conceptual understanding of the process of
recycling. Campus-wide and classroom observations support that Escuela Militaria prepares
students for PRONAFECYT through the use of PBL as an instructional practice.
Summary of Results for Research Question 3
Survey, interview, and observation data support that Escuela Militaria makes specific
content accessible and provides students with opportunities to participate in PBL. Through the
content access to the scientific method, analysis, research, and investigation, students access the
content and skills needed to succeed in the PRONAFECYT. Furthermore, through exposure to
PBL activities, students solve real-world problems through application of problem-solving skills.
PBL activities were evident in the surveys, explained through the interviews, and supported in
the classroom observations at Escuela Militaria.
Results for Research Question 4
Research Question 4 asked, “How has participation in the Costa Rican National Science
and Technology Fair affected instructional practices?” After implementation of Law 7169, which
requires participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT, instructional practices have changed to
ensure that students are prepared for PRONAFECYT. Part of the preparation includes exposure
to and practice of scientific inquiry skills such as research, investigation, PBL, and use of the
scientific method. Through these practices, students design, discuss, reflect on others’ ideas, and
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 120
formulate even faulty arguments for scientific explanations and each other’s connections. This
process allows students to create social interactions and norms that enable them to hear ideas in
the words of peers, experts, and members of diverse cultural groups (Capraro & Slough, 2009).
Through analysis of data from the surveys, classroom observations, and interviews, two
themes emerged that focus on the instructional practices that Escuela Militaria uses to train
students for PRONAFECYT. The first theme was use of research and inquiry skills as an
instructional practice to prepare students for PRONAFECYT. The second theme was use of the
scientific method as an instructional practice to prepare students for PRONAFECYT. This
section presents a literature review, the framework that supports the themes, and the data from
surveys completed by students and teachers, interviews, and observations.
Theme 1: Research and Inquiry
Training students to conduct research and inquiry activities is necessary to establish
foundations to prepare students for PRONAFECYT. The framework to support this theme
emerged from Capraro et al. (2009) PBL. Capraro et al. discussed the importance of teaching
students how to conduct inquiry to become lifelong learners. The four principles grounded in
metacognition and inquiry are encouraging and monitoring, providing complex projects,
revisiting and generalizing the inquiry processes, and scaffolding critique (Capraro et al., 2013).
According to Capraro et al. (2013), with complex projects and inquiry skills, students are
empowered to establish personal goals, seek feedback from others, interpret comments, and
adjust behavior accordingly. Through this framework, teachers are encouraged to design ways to
scaffold students as they devise new explanations and arguments in the context of inquiry
(Capraro et al., 2013). Training students in inquiry and research skills has changed instructional
practices at Escuela Militaria due to PRONAFECYT.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 121
To support this theme, survey responses from 63 upper-grade students were analyzed.
When asked about being familiar with skills such as inquiry, critical thinking, problem solving,
and curiosity, 86% of the students answered positively. To the item “My teachers speak to me on
the importance of social skills and the impact of my success as a student,” 87% of the students
agreed and 86% stated that their 21st-century skills, including inquiry, are improved when they
participate in the science fair. Student survey data supports that students use research and inquiry
skills as a means to prepare for PRONAFECYT. Teacher survey data further support the use of
research and inquiry skills as a way in which teachers prepare students for PRONAFECYT.
All of the teachers agreed with the survey item, “I offer opportunity for my students to
participate in projects of scientific research or engineering as part of my daily instructional
teaching.” Moreover, 83% reported that they offered students opportunities to conduct learning
through PBL, which includes inquiry and research instructional practices. All of the responding
teachers agreed that students develop 21st-century skills, including inquiry and research, by
participating in PRONAFECYT. Survey data revealed that students acknowledged that they are
being provided instructional practices that include inquiry and research and teachers agreed that
their instructional strategies include inquiry and research skills because of PRONAFECYT.
The data to support the theme that teachers provide students with research and inquiry
skill opportunities to prepare for the PRONAFECYT came from staff interviews at Escuela
Militaria. When the school director, Mrs. Sanchez was asked, “What teaching practices do
teachers use to prepare the students for PRONAFECYT?” she stated that the teachers do research
in class. She also Sanchez stated that, when she conducts informal classroom observations,
teachers are having students conduct research activities through reading various books or using
the computer lab. Similarly, Mrs. Flores, the science coordinator, stated that teachers use
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 122
research as a regular teaching practice at Escuela Militaria. Mrs. Flores stated that much of the
training and support that she provides to teachers focuses on ways of having students conduct
research. Mrs. Flores stated that students should be able to do research because that is the way
they will solve many problems in life. Mrs. Reynolds was asked how the educational curriculum
or school culture has changed to adapt to the PRONAFECYT.
It’s been 3 years in which the project within the Science Program has been developed in
which we encourage research; the discovery of research in children. As a student, you’re
going to research, your own knowledge through development, which constructivism is
one of the three pillars of our national educational policy, which exists since 1994; so we
started there. Curricular changes, improvements, adaptations according to needs. Educa-
tion, the application of education, we have to have teaching tools for the practice of edu-
cation, and the teacher is responsible for that.
Mrs. Reynold’s statement supports the use of research and inquiry skills in her classroom. This
quote, along with the other interview data, provided support that teachers at Escuela Militaria use
research and inquiry practices to prepare students for the PRONAFECYT.
The third form of data used to triangulate the survey and interview data was school
observations. During the classroom observations, 10 of the 18 teachers were speaking to the
students about the importance of conducting research to solve problems. Each teacher had a
method for explaining to students the importance of conducting research by demonstrating that
different answers are possible when solving problems in different ways. In another classroom,
the students were in a computer lab conducting research on a specific topic of their choice. Based
on the visits, research and inquiry activities were taking place at Escuela Militaria.
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Based on data from surveys, observations, and interviews, research and inquiry skills are
offered at Escuela Militaria as a result of the school participating in PRONAFECYT.
Theme 2: Use of the Scientific Method
Research demonstrates that the use of the scientific method blended with real-life
application prepares students to meet the demands of the 21st century. These findings have
significant implications for America’s competitiveness in a global innovation economy. Student
mastery in STEM is essential to economic growth (Fulton et al., 2011). Results of a pilot study
showed that scaffolding specific scientific practices such as creating and testing scientific models
and constructing scientific explanations is an important approach to classroom inquiry (Krajcik
& Czerniak, 2014). The following framework, survey, interview and observation data support
that Escuela Militaria uses the scientific method to prepare students for STEM education and the
PRONAFECYT.
Capraro and Slough’s (2009) STEM PBL theoretical framework describes the importance
of modeling scientific thinking to allow students to make their thinking visible. Capraro et al.
stated that modeling the scientific process allows students to distinguish their notions, interpret
feedback from others, reconsider information in light of experimental findings, and develop a
commitment to the scientific endeavor. The designs of learning environment include (a) making
content accessible, (b) making thinking visible, (c) helping students to learn from others, and (d)
promoting autonomy and lifelong learning. Each design principle provides students a conceptual
understanding of STEM content while preparing them for real-world problem solving.
The first form of data used to support this theme was responses to teacher and student
surveys. Student survey data revealed that students are regularly exposed to the scientific
method. When asked whether teachers regularly help them to learn the scientific method through
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 124
science activities and technology, 85% of the 63 students agreed. When asked whether they are
familiar with 21st-century skills, 83% agreed. When asked whether teachers communicate the
importance of 21st-century skills and their impact on student success, 88% agreed. The teacher
surveys revealed that students are offered opportunities to learn and apply the scientific method.
When teachers were asked whether they offer opportunities for students to participate in projects
of scientific research or engineering as part of the regular teaching, all 18 agreed.
The second form of data that supported this theme came from interviews with the school
director, science coordinator, and teachers. When asked how the educational curricula and the
school culture have changed to adapt to the fairs, the coordinator of the science fair for the
secondary grades stated,
So generally, the principal personally chooses-not by preparation because, we’re all pre-
pared, but to motivate the educational motivation using what is the scientific method of
research giving the children that aspect with regards to education. And to improve the
science system because, usually those classes are sometimes monotonous, so using it in a
more creative way, everything that educational to motivate them to participate.
When asked about ways by which teachers guarantee that all students participate in the
PRONAFECYT, the coordinator stated that all teachers are provided follow-up by the school
director and overall it is seen as a type of projection toward preparation for the use of the
scientific method. The coordinator stated that the scientific method must be used in the
classrooms to prepare students for the PRONAFECYT. The coordinator emphasized that the
MEP prepared teachers regarding research method and how to use it in the classrooms. Another
teacher stated that the ministry did specific training that solely prepared them on the scientific
method and how to transfer the information to the students. Interview data demonstrate that
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 125
teachers at Escuela Militaria infuse the scientific method to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
To validate and triangulate the data, school and classroom observations were conducted
at Escuela Militaria. The classrooms observations showed that teachers apply the scientific
method to complete science projects. In one of the sixth-grade classrooms, the teacher was
explaining to the students the purpose of the scientific method and how it applies to solving real-
life problems. In one third-grade class, the students were conducting an experiment and the
teacher had the word hypothesis on the board and the students were describing their hypotheses.
In one of classrooms, the teacher had a poster of the scientific method that included a step-by-
step breakdown of the method. Of the 21 classrooms visited, 50% demonstrated at least one part
of the scientific method through projects, visuals, or student work. Observation data supported
that the scientific method is being used at Escuela Militaria to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
Summary of Results for Research Question 4
Survey, interview, and observation data supported that instructional practices at Escuela
Militaria have been modified to adapt to the implementation of PRONAFECYT. Teachers at
Escuela Militaria now use more research and inquiry skills and are practicing infusion of the
scientific method because of participation in the PRONAFECYT. Through introduction and use
of the scientific method, analysis, research, and investigation, students access the content and
skills needed to succeed in the PRONAFECYT. Furthermore, through exposure to specific
research and inquiry activities, students solve real-world problems through application and
problem-solving skills. Research and the use of the scientific method were evident in the
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 126
surveys, explained in the interviews, and supported in classroom observations at Escuela
Militaria.
Chapter Summary
The data analysis included a review of the literature, surveys, interviews, and
observations conducted at Escuela Militaria. The data were aligned and analyzed using the
following frameworks: reframing organizations (Bolman & Deal, 2013), leading change (Kotter,
2012), and PBL, an integrated STEM Approach (Capraro & Slough, 2009).
Data analysis for Research Question 1 produced three themes. The first theme focused on
effective communication needed by all leaders so that all stakeholders reach desired goals
through communication of a specific purpose. The second theme identified the importance of
motivating and providing rewards and recognition to all stakeholders involved in preparation for
the PRONAFECYT. Motivation and rewards allow people to feel recognized and appreciated
and motivate them to work harder to reach goals. The third theme identified the need for
continuous support from the school director to implement the PRONAFECYT at the schools. As
the school leader, the school director has the power to influence change and provide support to
all key players to allow change to initiate.
Data analysis for Research Question 2 identified two themes. The first theme identified
the importance of teachers communicating the purpose and urgency of the PRONAFECYT to the
students. If students do not know the purpose and urgency of the PRONAFECYT, they will not
be motivated or interested in participating. The second theme identified the importance of
teachers participating in training to prepare students for PRONAFECYT. Participating in teacher
training is a teacher practice that is crucial to the successful participation in the PRONAFECYT.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 127
Data analysis for Research Question 3 revealed that making content accessible to students
is necessary for students to participate in PRONAFECYT. Through content such as
collaboration, critical thinking, inquiry-based learning, and creativity, school leaders prepare
students to compete in an ever-growing globalized economy. The second theme identified the
importance of providing students access to PBL opportunities to solve-real world problems while
preparing for the PRONAFECYT. Data analysis revealed that PRONAFECYT has affected
instructional practices through the need to conduct research and inquiry activities to prepare for
the PRONAFECYT. The third theme was that the scientific method is being used throughout
Escuela Militaria to prepare students for the PRONAFECYT. All themes revealed positive
findings at Escuela Militaria that prepare students for the PRONAFECYT.
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CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Costa Rica has experienced economic, educational, social, and cultural changes due to
the expansion of globalization. Globalization has led MNCs to establish businesses in Costa Rica
due to its low overhead and abundant natural resources (Biesanz et al., 1999). Because of the
increase in MNCs, Costa Rica’s FDI has reached an all-time high. Furthermore, MNCs provide
jobs and the opportunity for Costa Rica to become a hub of trade and investment. Costa Rica’s
economic future lies in the hands of FDI and MNCs and the people who maintain the MNCs.
Therefore, because of the high demand to prepare people to fill jobs of the MNCs, the Costa
Rican education system has evolved in the past decade to prepare students to meet the demands
of 21st-century jobs. Chapter 5 presents a discussion of the findings based on the data and
includes a conclusion and possible implications for practice. The chapter also presents
suggestions for future research opportunities related to the study.
To prepare students for 21st-century jobs, Costa Rica implemented Law 7169, which
requires participation in the PRONAFECYT. Through this program, all schools are required to
participate in local school science fairs that support students to transfer to the national science
fair. This law was implemented to support students in learning through implementation of 21st-
century skills that will transfer to preparation to meet demands of the workforce in Costa Rica.
Since implementation of Law 7169, schools in Costa Rica have shown an inconsistent rate of full
implementation and participation.
The purpose of this study was to identify the role of educational leaders in implementing
the PRONAFECYT initiative. The study examined leadership practices, instructional strategies,
and professional development practices at various schools to identify key components of
successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 129
The research team used the following frameworks: reframing organizations (Bolman &
Deal, 2013), leading change (Kotter, 2012), and PBL, an integrated STEM approach (Capraro &
Slough, 2009). The frameworks were used to address four research questions:
1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the PRONAFECYT affected instructional practices?
To address these questions, the research team chose a qualitative case study approach.
The approach included gathering data via surveys, interviews, and observations. The interviews
were conducted with various government agency key players, business collaborators, local
school directors, teachers, and science fair coordinators. Surveys were completed by the
government officials, business collaborators, school directors, teachers, and students. The
findings support the crucial role of educational leaders in promoting implementation of the
PRONAFECYT. Specifically, the role of the school director and teachers was found to be crucial
to the success of the PRONAFECYT initiative at Escuela Militaria. It was found that the role the
school director, and teachers play at Escuela Militaria affects implementation of
PRONAFECYT. This chapter begins with a discussion of the findings and includes a conclusion
and possible implications for practice. Suggestions for future research opportunities related to the
study are presented.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 130
Discussion of Findings
Analysis of data analysis from surveys, interviews, and observations revealed nine
themes related to implementation of the PRONAFECYT: (a) effective leadership
communication, (b) motivation, (c) continuous support from the school director, (d) teachers
communicating the purpose of PRONAFECYT to students, (e) participation in training, (f)
access to content, (g) PBL opportunities, (h) research and inquiry skills, and (i) use of the
scientific method. The themes are presented according to their relationship to each research
question. All themes are then discussed as they relate to Escuela Militaria.
Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, “What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the
PRONAFECYT initiative?” Through analysis of data from surveys, interviews, and
observations, it was evident that educational leaders play a critical role in successful
implementation of the PRONAFECYT at the school sites. Without clear direction from the
leader, the organization will not understand the direction and purpose and not reach desired
outcomes. Data revealed that effective communication by the school director is crucial to
successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT. This finding supports Kotter’s leading change
framework Step 4, which speaks of importance of communicating the change vision to the
organization. Kotter’s key elements in effective communication of vision are presented in Table
5. Data revealed that the school director, Mrs. Sanchez, communicates effectively with teachers,
parents, and students regarding the PRONAFECYT initiative.
The second theme identified the need for the school director to motivate and reward
stakeholders for their efforts in implementation of the PRONAFECYT. Bolman and Deal (2013)
posited that people are the most important part of an organization and that valuing them by
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 131
recognizing them motivates them to work harder to reach company goals. In Kotter’s eight-step
change framework, generating short-term wins allows people to celebrate short-term results
while working hard to celebrate the next short-term win.
The third theme identified the importance of the school director providing continuous
support throughout the process. Bolman and Deal (2013) and Kotter (2012) addressed the notion
that leaders of the organization will drive where the organization will go. Through the leader’s
vision, guidance, and support, the team will move toward making changes needed to reach
desired goals. The leaders in the organizations pave the way through the entire process by
providing resources to complete objectives while supporting each individual along the way.
Each theme supports the findings to address Research Question 1, which asked, “What is
the role of educational leaders in implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative?” Through the use
of effective communication and motivation by the Escuela Militaria school director, Mrs.
Sanchez, teachers and students implement the PRONAFECYT initiative. Furthermore, at
Escuela Militaria, when Mrs. Sanchez offers continuous support to the staff and students,
implementation of PRONAFECYT has occurred. Resources includes financial support, purchase
of materials, and clarification of questions from teachers and students. All three themes are
examples of the roles that educational leaders to contribute to success in implementing the
PRONAFECYT initiative at Escuela Militaria.
Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, “How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from
teacher practices at less successful schools as measured by participation in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?” Through observation of Escuela Militaria, a successful school, and Escuela
Colón, a less-successful school, as measured by participation in the PRONAFECYT, it was
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 132
found that Escuela Militaria is preparing students for the PRONAFECYT by training teachers for
the PRONAFECYT initiative. Through Bolman and Deal’s (2013) human resource frame model,
it is explained that people are the organization’s greatest asset. It is important to invest in the
professional growth of each individual to be able to reach goals. Data revealed that teachers at
Escuela Militaria participated in direct training that exposed them to preparation for the
PRONAFECYT. At Escuela Colón, teachers received a manual and were expected to implement
new strategies to prepare students for the PRONAFECYT without proper training. Teachers at
Escuela Militaria received training in preparation for the PRONAFECYT, which made them feel
valued and appreciated and allowed them to transfer to students information that they had
learning in training sessions.
The second theme for this research question identified the importance of teachers
communicating the purpose of the PRONAFECYT initiative to the students. Kotter’s eight-step
change framework describes the importance of communicating change vision.
A great vision can serve a useful purpose even if it is understood by just a few key
people. But the real power of a vision is unleashed only when most of those involved in
an enterprise or activity have a common understanding of its goals and direction. (Kotter,
2012, p. 87)
At Escuela Militaria, data revealed that students understood the purpose of the
participating in the PRONAFECYT initiative. The level of participation in PRONAFECYT was
a norm because all students understood that they were not only getting prepared for the fair but
were getting prepared for life. According to the data, Escuela Militaria had a high participation
rate in PRONAFECYT. Therefore, at Escuela Militaria, teachers communicating with their
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 133
students the purpose of participating in PRONAFECYT contributed to successful practice by
teachers to prepare students for the PRONAFECYT.
Each theme supports the findings to address Research Question 2, which asked, “How do
teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less successful schools as
measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?” Teacher implement the
PRONAFECYT by communicating its purpose to students. Students at Escuela Militaria
understand why they are participating and comprehend the value of participation. Furthermore, at
Escuela Militaria, when teachers participate in training, they can implement PRONAFECYT
more successfully than schools such as Escuela Colón that do not participate in training. Both
themes are examples of effective practices taking place at Escuela Militaria, which is a
successful school as measured by the level of participation in the PRONAFECYT initiative.
Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, “How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to
equip students with 21st-century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican
National Science and Technology Fair?” In this study, it was found that teachers at Escuela
Militaria have changed much of their instructional program to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT. It was found that teachers are making content accessible by incorporating 21st-
century skills throughout their daily instructional practices. Teachers at Escuela Militaria are
incorporating skills such as collaborating, analyzing data, and focusing on critical thinking and
problem solving. The STEM PLB theoretical framework by Capraro et al. (2013) identifies the
importance of exposing students to these 21st-century skills, which will allow Costa Rican
students to prepare for the knowledge economy workforce and participation in the
PRONAFECYT.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 134
Findings related to the second theme indicated that students at Escuela Militaria are better
prepared for the PRONAFECYT when they have had continuous access to PBL opportunities.
PBL is not only academic exposure to 21st-century skills; it is an opportunity to prepare students
for real-life problem-solving situations. At Escuela Militaria, students are being exposed to PBL
opportunities throughout their courses. Teachers are allowing students opportunities to create,
solve, and capture hands-on learning activities to connect them to preparation for
PRONAFECYT.
The two themes support the findings to address Research Question 3, which asked, “How
have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-century skills?”
Data demonstrated that site leaders at Escuela Militaria have provided students access to content
needed to succeed in 21st-century jobs. Access was afforded to content that included use of
collaborating, analyzing data, and critical thinking skills at Escuela Militaria. Through access to
specific content, teachers at Escuela Militaria are equipping students with 21st-century skills.
Furthermore, at Escuela Militaria, students are being equipped with 21st-century skills through
access to PBL opportunities. PBL at Escuela Militaria has become a normal practice and students
are able to experiment and learn through this practice. Both themes are examples of ways in
which site leaders at Escuela Militaria are equipping their students with 21st-century skills.
Research Question 4
Research Question 4 asked, “How has participation in the Costa Rican National Science
and Technology Fair affected instructional practices?” Analysis of the data showed that
instructional practices at Escuela Militaria have been modified to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT. The first emergent theme was the practice of research and inquiry skills. It was
found that teachers now expose student to research and inquiry skills as part of their regular
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 135
instructional practice. This practice has benefited the students in moving on to participate in the
PRONAFECYT. Capraro and Slough (2009) explained the importance of exposing students to
research and inquiry skills as a means of allowing students to think critically and analyze data
while teaching them to solve problems. Instructional practices in Costa Rica should incorporate
research and inquiry skills to prepare students for the PRONAFECYT.
The second theme identified continuous use of the scientific method as an instructional
practice. Teachers at Escuela Militaria stated that the scientific method was a necessary practice
that can be used for all content subjects. According to Mrs. Ramirez, Escuela Militaria’s second-
grade teacher, students are not trained to ask a questions, do background research, construct a
hypothesis, test their hypothesis by doing an experiment, analyze the data, draw a conclusion,
and communicate results. The scientific method is a step-by-step guide to prepare students for
the PRONAFECYT. Not only does it incorporate critical thinking skills; it incorporates 21st-
century skills needed to succeed in this knowledge economy and participate in the
PRONAFECYT.
The two themes support the findings to address Research Question 4, which asked, “How
has participation in the Costa Rican National Science and Technology Fair affected instructional
practices?” At Escuela Militaria, the use of research and inquiry skills has been incorporated
recently as instructional practices to prepare students for PRONAFECYT. Also, use of the
scientific method at Escuela Militaria has been included as part of regular teaching practice to
prepare students for PRONAFECYT. The use of research and inquiry skills and the scientific
method are examples of how instructional practices at Escuela Militaria have changed to prepare
students for PRONAFECYT.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 136
Conclusion of Findings
The findings here indicated that, at Escuela Militaria, the school director, Mrs. Sanchez,
plays a crucial role in implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative. Through effective leadership
communication, motivation, and continuous support, Escuela Militaria’s School Director has
guided implementation of PRONAFECYT. Furthermore, Escuela Militaria has successfully
implemented PRONAFECYT as measured by participation in PRONAFECYT compared to less-
successful schools. Practices such as teachers communicating the purpose of PRONAFECYT to
the students and participating in training have allowed Escuela Militaria to implement
PRONAFECYT successfully. Also, leaders at Escuela Militaria have prepared students with
21st-century skills by providing them access to content and PBL activities. Through access to
these skills, students are able to prepare for PRONAFECYT. Findings from Escuela Militaria
demonstrate that instructional practices are more inclined to include the use of research and
inquiry skills and the use of the scientific method. The findings presented here have addressed
the four research questions:
1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century Skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the PRONAFECYT affected instructional practices?
Implications for Practice
Analysis and findings of this study support that strong leadership plays a critical role in
implementation of the PRONAFECYT at the local school level. Effective communication is
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 137
necessary at all levels to implement the PRONAFECYT. In order for the organization to reach
participation level, all stakeholders must be aligned to the vision; through effective
communication by the school director, change will be initiated. This study provided evidence
that motivating teachers and students through recognition will encourage them to work harder to
implement the PRONAFECYT. Continuous support from the school director is necessary for
successful implementation. Support includes allocation of resources, providing training, being
visible, and communicating along the entire process to support teachers and students. When
students understand the purpose of the PRONAFECYT, they are more interested in participating.
Escuela Militaria has a high rate of participation in the PRONAFECYT, and teachers
communicate the purpose of the PRONAFECYT to the students. Another finding revealed that
teacher training is a crucial to successful participation in the PRONAFECYT. Guaranteeing that
teachers are adequately trained to prepare students for the PRONAFECYT is important.
This study found that, in order for students to be prepared to participate in the
PRONAFECYT, teachers must make content accessible. Students must be exposed to 21st-
century skills such as collaboration, critical thinking skills, PBL, and the scientific method as
part of their regular instruction. Access to PBL activities is crucial to preparing students for the
PRONAFECYT, in addition to solving real-life problems. Much of the instructional practice at
Escuela Militaria has changed due to participation in the PRONAFECYT. Specifically, use of
research and inquiry as part of regular instruction has become a standard. Students are taught
how to research to solve problems and find answers. They are exposed to the scientific method
and use it regularly across disciplines. It was evident in this study that, in order for a school to
prepare students for the PRONAFECYT, leaders and teachers must take urgent actions,
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 138
beginning with communication of the purpose and goals of students’ daily instruction. Every act
is crucial to successful participation in the PRONAFECYT.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study was conducted by an 18-member team of researchers. The researchers were
divided into three groups. Each group visited six schools in 3 days. Key players were
interviewed and surveyed and classroom observations were conducted. It is suggested to allot
more time to visit each school, at a minimum of 2 days. During the 2-day visit, researchers can
gather more survey data by allowing more students and parents to participate. Having a broader
range of survey data will expand the results of the data. Also, the researchers can gather more
interview data from parents, students, and more staff. More time will allow the researcher to
observe staff meetings, and professional development in which teachers can participate.
To gather additional data on how to implement PRONAFECYT fully at school sites,
future research could include the study of a student or a group of students who were
PRONAFECYT participants and conduct a longitudinal study on their continued success after
PRONAFECYT participation. The findings could then be used to observe the benefits for a
student who had participated in the PRONAFECYT.
A longitudinal study of a school that was not successful in implementing the
PRONAFECYT would be beneficial. The study would focus on implementation of successful
strategies through the theoretical frameworks and track progress for a period of 5 years. Kotter’s
change progress could be used as the theoretical framework for foundation of implementation
strategies.
This study showed that the school director plays a leading role in successful
implementation of the PRONAFECYT at the school site. A continuation of this study could
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 139
focus on the school director. School directors at successful schools and school directors at
unsuccessful schools could be interviewed, surveyed, and observed, focusing on educational
background, years of experience at the school level, and years of experience in administration.
Conclusion
The impact of globalization, MNCs, and FDI has caused Costa Rica to re-evaluate its
education system. National decrees require schools to participate in programs to prepare students
to meet the demands of the workforce, such as the PRONAFECYT. Through this study, it was
evident that successful schools have established practices that prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT. Survey responses and data from interviews with government officials, business
partners, school directors, teachers, and students, as well as school observations, showed that
leaders play a crucial role in guaranteeing that PRONAFECYT is implemented at school sites.
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 140
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LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 145
APPENDIX A
List of Research Sites

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 146
APPENDIX B
Teacher Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Position:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. How have you been prepared for the PRONAFECYT?
2. In what ways do you elicit teacher feedback to improve implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
3. How do teachers ensure that all students participate in the PRONAFECYT?
4. How do you acquire resources necessary for participation in the PRONAFECYT?
5. How are teachers recognized for their efforts with regard to implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
6. Please describe how curriculum, pedagogy, or school culture has changed to
accommodate the PRONAFECYT.
7. How does the PRONAFECYT benefit students?
8. What instructional practices do teachers at your school use to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT?
9. How have your teachers been trained to help students to prepare for the PRONAFECYT?

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 147

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cómo se han preparado para el PRONAFECYT?

2. ¿De qué manera provocan los directores retroalimentación con respecto a la
aplicación de el PRONAFECYT?

3. ¿De qué manera aseguran que todos los estudiantes participen en el PRONAFECYT?

4. ¿Cómo obtienen los directores de escuelas los recursos necesarios para participar en
la PRONAFECYT?

5. ¿Cómo son reconocidos los maestros por sus esfuerzos en lo que respecta a la
aplicación de la PRONAFECYT?

6. Por favor describa cómo currículo, pedagogía, o la cultura de escuela ha cambiado
para adaptarse a la PRONAFECYT.

7. ¿De qué manera el PRONAFECYT beneficia a los estudiantes?

8. ¿Qué prácticas de enseñanza utiliza para preparar a los estudiantes para el
PRONAFECYT?

9. ¿Cómo ha sido entrenado para ayudar a los estudiantes prepararse para el
PRONAFECYT?

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 148
APPENDIX C
School Director Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Position:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. How have you been prepared for the PRONAFECYT?
2. In what ways do you elicit teacher feedback to improve implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
3. How do teachers ensure that all students participate in the PRONAFECYT?
4. How do you acquire resources necessary for participation in the PRONAFECYT?
5. How are teachers recognized for their efforts with regard to implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
6. Please describe how curriculum, pedagogy, or school culture has changed to
accommodate for the PRONAFECYT.
7. How does the PRONAFECYT benefit students?
8. What instructional practices do teachers at your school use to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT?
9. How have your teachers been trained to help students to prepare for the
PRONAFECYT?
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 149

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cómo se han preparado para el PRONAFECYT?
2. ¿De qué manera provoca retroalimentación con respecto a la aplicación de el
PRONAFECYT?

3. ¿De qué manera aseguran los maestros que todos los estudiantes participen en el
PRONAFECYT?

4. ¿Cómo obtiene los recursos necesarios para participar en la PRONAFECYT?
5. ¿Cómo son reconocidos los maestros por sus esfuerzos con respecto a la aplicación
de la PRONAFECYT?
6. Por favor describa cómo currículo, pedagogía, o la cultura de escuela ha cambiado
para adaptarse a la PRONAFECYT.
7. ¿De qué manera el PRONAFECYT beneficia a los estudiantes?
8. ¿Qué prácticas de enseñanza utilizan los maestros en su escuela para preparar a los
estudiantes para el PRONAFECYT?

9. ¿Cómo ha sido entrenado sus maestros para ayudar a los estudiantes prepararse para
el PRONAFECYT?

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 150
APPENDIX D
Government Official/Business Leaders Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Position:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. What are your country’s goals for economic growth and creating an innovation-based
society?
2. How are the goals coordinated among the various governmental agencies?
3. Based on your perception, who are the key leaders in developing an innovation-based
sworkforce?
4. How does the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT)
support the national goals of developing an innovation-based workforce?
5. What role(s) do educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT?
6. How does government policy encourage PRONAFECYT participation?
7. Does the government provide schools with resources necessary for participation in the
PRONAFECYT? If so, what kind of resources are provided? If no, what would those
resources be?
8. Does the government recognize schools and/or regions for successful participation in the
PRONAFECYT? If so, please describe.
9. What is the government’s vision for implementation of science, technology, engineering,
and mathematics (STEM) in Costa Rican Schools?
10. What skills should schools promote to prepare students for the PRONAFECYT?

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 151

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cuáles son las metas de su país para el crecimiento económico y la creación de una
sociedad basada en la innovación?
2. ¿Cómo son estas metas coordinadas entre las distintas agencias gubernamentales?
3. En base a su percepción, ¿quiénes son los líderes clave en el desarrollo de una fuerza
laboral que está basada en la innovación?
4. ¿Cómo apoya el Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología (PNFCT) a los
objetivos nacionales en el desarrollo de una fuerza laboral que está basada en la
innovación?
5. ¿Qué función(es) desempeña(n) los líderes del sistema educativo en la aplicación del
PNFCT?
6. ¿De qué manera la política del gobierno fomenta la participación en el PNFCT?
7. ¿El gobierno proporciona a las escuelas con los recursos necesarios para participar en el
PNFCT? Si es así, ¿qué tipo de recursos se proporcionan? Si no, ¿cuáles serían esos
recursos?
8. ¿El gobierno reconoce a las escuelas y/o regiones por su participación en el PNFCT? Si
es así, por favor describa como lo hace el gobierno.
9. ¿Cuál es la visión del gobierno para la integración de la ciencia, tecnología, ingeniería y
matemáticas en el plan de estudios de las escuelas en Costa Rica?
10. ¿Qué habilidades cree usted que las escuelas deben promover para preparar a los
estudiantes para el PNFCT?
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 152
APPENDIX E
Parent Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Position:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. How has your child been prepared for the PRONAFECYT?
2. In what ways do School Directors elicit parent feedback to improve implementation of
the PRONAFECYT?
3. How do teachers ensure that all students participate in the PRONAFECYT?
4. How do School Directors acquire resources necessary for participation in the
PRONAFECYT?
5. How are students recognized for their efforts with regard to implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
6. Please describe how curriculum, pedagogy, or school culture has changed to
accommodate the PRONAFECYT.
7. How does the PRONAFECYT benefit students?
8. What instructional practices does your child’s teacher use to prepare him/her for the
PRONAFECYT?
9. How have you been trained to help your student(s) to prepare for the PRONAFECYT?

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 153

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cómo se ha preparado su hijo/a para el PRONAFECYT?

2. ¿De qué manera provoca retroalimentación los directores de escuela con respecto a la
aplicación de el PRONAFECYT?
3. ¿De qué manera aseguran los maestros que todos los estudiantes participen en el
PRONAFECYT?
4. ¿Cómo obtiene los directores de escuelas recursos necesarios para participar en la
PRONAFECYT?
5. ¿Cómo son reconocidos los estudiantes por sus esfuerzos con respecto a la aplicación
de la PRONAFECYT?
6. Por favor describa cómo currículo, pedagogía, o la cultura de escuela ha cambiado
para adaptarse a la PRONAFECYT.
7. ¿De qué manera el PRONAFECYT beneficia a los estudiantes?
8. ¿Qué prácticas de enseñanza utilizan los maestros de su hijo/a en su escuela para
preparar a los estudiantes para el PRONAFECYT?
9. ¿Cómo ha sido entrenado usted para ayudar a su estudiante (s) prepararse para el
PRONAFECYT?

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 154
APPENDIX F
Student Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Grade:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. How did you get ready for the science fair project?
2. How does your teacher make sure everyone participates in the science fair?
3. How do you get all the things you need for your science fair project?
4. Are you rewarded for participating in the science fair? If so, how are your rewarded?
5. How does participation in the science fair help you?
6. How do your teachers get you ready for the science fair?

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 155

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cómo te preparas para el proyecto de feria de ciencias?

2. ¿Cómo se asegúra su maestro de que todos participen en la feria de ciencias?

3. ¿Cómo obtienes todo lo que necesitas para tu proyecto de ciencias?

4. ¿La escuela los recompense or celebra por su participación en la feria de ciencias? Si
es así, ¿Cómo celebra la escuela?

5. ¿Cómo te ayuda la participación en la feria de ciencia?

6. ¿Cómo te preparan los maestros para la feria de ciencias?

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 156
APPENDIX G
Teacher Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. The School Director plays a critical
role in ensuring that teachers imple-
ment the National Programs of
Science and Technology Fairs
(PRONAFECYT).
    
2. Teachers need support from the
school Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and
effectively.
    
3. The School Director elicits teacher
feedback to improve implementation
of the PRONAFECYT.
    
4. The School Director communicates
the purpose and urgency of the
PRONAFECYT.
    
5. I provide opportunities for students
to engage in scientific inquiry as
part of my regular instruction.
    
6. I utilize project-based learning
(PBL) in my teaching.
   
7. I am provided adequate training to
prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
8. My school has adequate resources
that allow me to prepare students for
the PRONAFECYT.
    
9. I am familiar with soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
    
10. My School Director talks about the
importance of soft skills and their
impact on student achievement.
    
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 157

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
11. Students develop soft skills through
participation in the PRONAFECYT.
    
12. I have received training on how to
integrate soft skills in the classroom.
    
13. Student participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized
throughout my school.
    
14. Teachers at my school work
together to plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration in my
classroom.
    
16. Teachers are given the leadership
capacity to make decisions about
projects for the PRONAFECYT.
    
17. There is a school-wide vision for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
18. There is a positive culture at my
school regarding the
PRONAFECYT.
    
19. The School Director communicates
the goals for participation in the
PRONAFECYT.
    
20. Teacher training was useful in
preparing students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
22. I am provided yearly training on the
PRONAFECYT guidelines.
    
23. There is a high level of participation
in the PRONAFECYT at my school.
    

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 158
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente
en
desacuerdo
No estoy
seguro
1. El director de la escuela tiene un papel
crítico en asegurar que los maestros
participen en el Programa Nacional de
Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología
(PNFCT).
    
2. Los maestros necesitan el apoyo del
director de la escuela para
implementar el PNFCT plena y
efectivamente.
    
3. El director de la escuela solicita
retroalimentación de los maestros para
mejorar la implementación del
PNFCT.
    
4. El director de la escuela comunica el
propósito y la urgencia del PNFCT.
    
5. Yo ofrezco oportunidades a mis
estudiantes para participar en
proyectos de investigación científica o
ingeniería como parte de mi
enseñanza regular.
    
6. Yo utilizo el aprendizaje basado en
proyectos (ABP) cuando doy clase.
    
7. Yo recibo formación y entrenamiento
adecuado para preparar a mis
estudiantes en la competencia de la
PNFCT.
    
8. Mi escuela tiene recursos suficientes
que me permiten preparar la
competencia estudiantil en la PNFCT.
    
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas,
colaboración, comunicación,
capacidad de adaptación, análisis,
curiosidad e imaginación).
    
10. El director de la escuela comunica la
importancia de las habilidades
sociales y su impacto en el
rendimiento estudiantil.
    
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 159

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente
en
desacuerdo
No estoy
seguro
11. Los estudiantes desarrollan
habilidades sociales a través de la
participación en el PNFCT.
    
12. He recibido capacitación de cómo
integrar habilidades sociales en el
aula.
    
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la
colaboración estudiantil en mi aula.
    
16. Maestros en mi escuela reciben la
capacidad de liderazgo para tomar
decisiones de proyectos relacionados
con el PNFCT.
    
17. Existe una visión en mi escuela sobre
el PNFCT.
    
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en mi escuela.
    
19. El director de la escuela comunica los
objetivos de participación en el
PNFCT.
    
20. La capacitación de maestros fue útil
para preparar a los estudiantes para el
PNFCT.
    
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la
escuela para preparar la competencia
estudiantil en el PNFCT.
    
22. Yo recibo capacitación anual sobre las
directrices del PNFCT.
    
23. Hay un alto nivel de participación en
el PNFCT en mi escuela.
    
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 160
APPENDIX H
School Director Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. School Directors play a critical role in
assuring teachers implement the
National Science and Technology Fair
(PRONAFECYT).     
2. Teachers need the support of the school
Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and effectively.
    
3. I elicit student feedback to improve
implementation of the PRONAFECYT .
    
4. I communicate the purpose and urgency
of the PRONAFECYT.
    
5. My teachers provide opportunities for
their students to engage in scientific
inquiry as part of regular instruction.

    
6. My teachers utilize project-based
learning (PBL) in their teaching.
   
7. I am provided adequate training to
prepare teachers and students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
8. My school has adequate resources to
prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
9. I am familiar with soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
    
10. I communicate with teachers about the
importance of soft skills and their
impact on student achievement.
    
11. Students develop soft skills through
participation in PRONAFECYT.
    

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 161
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
12. I have received training on how to
integrate soft skills in the classroom.
    
13. Student participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized
throughout my school.
    
14. Teachers at my school work together to
plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration at my school.
    
16. Teachers are given the leadership
capacity to make decisions about
projects for the PRONAFECYT.
    
17. There is a school-wide vision for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
18. There is a positive culture at my school
regarding the PRONAFECYT.
    
19. I communicate the goals for
participation in the PRONAFECYT.
    
20. My teachers receive useful training that
assists to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
22. I am provided yearly training on the
PRONAFECYT guidelines.
    
23. There is a high level of participation at
my school in the PRONAFECYT .
    

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 162
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente
en
desacuerdo
No
estoy
seguro
1. Los directores de las escuelas tienen un
papel crítico en asegurar que los
maestros participen en el Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología (PNFCT).
    
2. Los maestros necesitan el apoyo del
director de la escuela para implementar
el PNFCT plena y efectivamente.
    
3. Yo solicito retroalimentación de los
estudiantes para mejorar la
implementación del PNFCT.
    
4. Yo comunico el propósito y la urgencia
del PNFCT.
    
5. Mis maestros ofrecen oportunidades a sus
estudiantes para participar en proyectos
de investigación científica o ingeniería
como parte de enseñanza regular.
    
6. Mis maestros utilizan el aprendizaje
basado en proyectos (ABP) cuando dan
clase.
    
7. Yo recibo formación y entrenamiento
adecuado para preparar a los maestros y
estudiantes en la competencia del
PNFCT.
    
8. Mi escuela tiene recursos suficientes para
preparar la competencia estudiantil en el
PNFCT.
    
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas, colaboración,
comunicación, capacidad de adaptación,
análisis, curiosidad e imaginación).
    
10. Yo comunico la importancia de las
habilidades sociales y su impacto en el
rendimiento estudiantil con mis
maestros.
    
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 163

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente
en
desacuerdo
No
estoy
seguro
11. Los estudiantes desarrollan habilidades
sociales a través de la participación en
el PNFCT.
    
12. He proporcionado capacitación de cómo
integrar habilidades sociales en el aula.
    
13. La participación estudiantil en el
PNFCT se reconoce en mi escuela.
    
14. Los maestros en mi escuela trabajan
juntos para planificar y prepararse para
el PNFCT.
    
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la colaboración
estudiantil en mi escuela.
    
16. Mis maestros reciben la capacidad de
liderazgo para tomar decisiones de
proyectos relacionados con el PNFCT.
    
17. Existe una visión en mi escuela sobre el
PNFCT.
    
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en mi escuela.
    
19. Yo comunico los objetivos de
participación en el PNFCT.
    
20. Mis maestros reciben capacitación útil
que ayuda a preparar a los estudiantes
para el PNFCT.
    
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la escuela
para preparar la competencia estudiantil
en el PNFCT.
    
22. Yo recibo capacitación anual sobre las
directrices del PNFCT.
    
23. Hay un alto nivel de participación en el
PNFCT en mi escuela.
    

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 164
APPENDIX I
Government Official Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. School Directors play a critical role
in assuring teachers implement the
National Program of Science and
Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT).
    
2. Teachers need the support of the
school Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and
effectively.
    
3. School Directors elicit student feed-
back to improve implementation of
the PRONAFECYT.
    
4. Schools communicate the purpose
and urgency of the PRONAFECYT.
    
5. Schools provide opportunities for
students to engage in scientific
inquiry as part of my regular
instruction.
    
6. Teachers utilize project-based
learning (PBL) in their teaching.
   
7. Schools are provided adequate
training to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
8. Schools are provided adequate
resources to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
9. I am familiar with soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
    
10. We communicate the importance of
soft skills and their impact on
student achievement.
    

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 165

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
11. Students develop soft skills through
participation in PRONAFECYT.
    
12. We have provided training on how
to integrate soft skills in the
classroom.
    
13. Student participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized
throughout the schools.
    
14. Teachers in this region work
together to plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration at schools in
my region.
    
16. Teachers are given the leadership
capacity to make decisions about
projects for the PRONAFECYT.
    
17. There are school-wide visions for
the PRONAFECYT.
    
18. There is a positive culture at schools
regarding the PRONAFECYT.
    
19. The goals for participation in the
PRONAFECYT are communicated
by school site leaders.
    
20. Teachers receive useful training that
assists to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
22. Teachers and administrators are
provided yearly training on the
PRONAFECYT guidelines.
    
23. There is a high level of
PRONAFECYT participation at
schools in my region.
    

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 166
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente en
desacuerdo
No
estoy
seguro
1. Los directores de las escuelas tienen
un papel crítico en asegurar que los
maestros participen en el Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología (PNFCT).
    
2. Los maestros necesitan el apoyo del
director de la escuela para
implementar el PNFCT plena y
efectivamente.
    
3. Los directores de las escuelas solicitan
retroalimentación de los estudiantes
para mejorar la implementación del
PNFCT.
    
4. Las escuelas comunican el propósito y
la urgencia del PNFCT.
    
5. Las escuelas ofrecen oportunidades
para participar en proyectos de
investigación científica o ingeniería.
    
6. Los maestros utilizan el aprendizaje
basado en proyectos (ABP) cuando
dan clase.
    
7. Las escuelas están provistas con
formación y entrenamiento adecuado
para preparar la competencia
estudiantil en el PNFCT.
    
8. Las escuelas tienen recursos
suficientes para preparar la
competencia estudiantil en el PNFCT.
    
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas, colabora-
ción, comunicación, capacidad de
adaptación, análisis, curiosidad e
imaginación).
    
10. Comunicamos la importancia de las
habilidades sociales y su impacto en el
rendimiento estudiantil.
    
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 167

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente en
desacuerdo
No
estoy
seguro
11. Los estudiantes desarrollan habili-
dades sociales a través de la participa-
ción en el PNFCT.
    
12. Hemos proporcionado capacitación de
cómo integrar habilidades sociales en
el aula.
    
13. La participación estudiantil en el
PNFCT se reconoce en las escuelas.
    
14. Los maestros de mi región trabajan
juntos para planificar y prepararse
para el PNFCT.
    
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la
colaboración estudiantil en las
escuelas de mi región.
    
16. A los maestros se les da la capacidad
de liderazgo para tomar decisiones de
proyectos relacionados con el PNFCT.
    
17. Existe una visión en todas las escuelas
de esta región sobre el PNFCT.
    
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en las escuelas.
    
19. Los maestros y los directores de las
escuelas comunican los objetivos de
participación en el PNFCT.
    
20. Los maestros reciben capacitación útil
que ayuda a preparar a los estudiantes
para el PNFCT.
    
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la
escuela para preparar la competencia
estudiantil en el PNFCT.
    
22. Los maestros y administradores
reciben capacitación anual sobre las
directrices del PNFCT.
    
23. Hay un alto nivel de participación en
el PNFCT en las escuelas de mi
región.
    

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 168
APPENDIX J
Business Partner Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. School Directors play a critical role
in assuring teachers implement the
National Program of Science and
Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT).
    
2. Teachers need the support of the
school Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and
effectively.
    
3. School Directors elicit student
feedback to improve implementation
of the PRONAFECYT.
    
4. Schools communicate the purpose
and urgency of the PRONAFECYT.
    
5. Schools provide opportunities for
students to engage in scientific
inquiry as part of regular instruction.
    
6. Teachers utilize project-based
learning (PBL) in their teaching.
   
7. Schools are provided adequate
training to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
8. Schools are provided adequate
resources to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
9. I am familiar with soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
    
10. We communicate the importance of
soft skills and their impact on
student achievement.
    
11. Students develop soft skills through
participation in PRONAFECYT.
    

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 169

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
12. We have provided training on how
to integrate soft skills in the
classroom.
    
13. Student participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized
throughout the schools.
    
14. Teachers at my local schools work
together to plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration at the schools
with which I work with.
    
16. Teachers are given the leadership
capacity to make decisions about
projects for the PRONAFECYT.
    
17. There are school-wide visions for
the PRONAFECYT.
    
18. There is a positive culture at schools
regarding the PRONAFECYT.
    
19. The goals for participation in the
PRONAFECYT are communicated
by school site leaders.
    
20. Teachers receive useful training that
assists to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
22. Teachers and administrators are
provided yearly training on the
PRONAFECYT guidelines.
    
23. There is a high level of
PRONAFECYT participation at
schools I work with.
    

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 170
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente
en
desacuerdo
No
estoy
seguro
1. Los directores de las escuelas tienen un
papel crítico en asegurar que los maestros
participen en el Programa Nacional de
Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología (PNFCT).
    
2. Los maestros necesitan el apoyo del
director de la escuela para implementar el
PNFCT plena y efectivamente.
    
3. Los directores de las escuelas solicitan
retroalimentación de los estudiantes para
mejorar la implementación del PNFCT.
    
4. Las escuelas comunican el propósito y la
urgencia del PNFCT.
    
5. Las escuelas ofrecen oportunidades para
participar en proyectos de investigación
científica o ingeniería.
    
6. Los maestros utilizan el aprendizaje basado
en proyectos (ABP) cuando dan clase.
    
7. Las escuelas están provistas con formación
y entrenamiento adecuado para preparar la
competencia estudiantil en el PNFCT.
    
8. Las escuelas tienen recursos suficientes
para preparar la competencia estudiantil
en el PNFCT.
    
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas, colaboración,
comunicación, capacidad de adaptación,
análisis, curiosidad e imaginación).
    
10. Comunicamos la importancia de las
habilidades sociales y su impacto en el
rendimiento estudiantil.
    
11. Los estudiantes desarrollan habilidades
sociales a través de la participación en el
PNFCT.
    
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 171

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente
en
desacuerdo
No
estoy
seguro
12. Hemos proporcionado capacitación de
cómo integrar habilidades sociales en el
aula.
    
13. La participación estudiantil en el
PNFCT se reconoce en las escuelas.
    
14. Los maestros en las escuelas con las que
colaboro trabajan juntos para planificar
y prepararse para el PNFCT.
    
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la colaboración
estudiantil en las escuelas con las que
trabajo.
    
16. A los maestros se les da la capacidad de
liderazgo para tomar decisiones de
proyectos relacionados con el PNFCT.
    
17. Existe una visión en todas las escuelas
con las que trabajo sobre el PNFCT.
    
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en las escuelas.
    
19. Los maestros y los directores las
escuelas comunican los objetivos de
participación en el PNFCT.
    
20. Los maestros reciben capacitación útil
que ayuda a preparar a los estudiantes
para el PNFCT.
    
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la escuela
para preparar la competencia estudiantil
en el PNFCT.
    
22. Los maestros y administradores reciben
capacitación anual sobre las directrices
del PNFCT.
    
23. Hay un alto nivel de participación en las
escuelas con las que trabajo en el
PNFCT.
    
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 172
APPENDIX K
Parent Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. My child’s school director plays a
critical role in assuring teachers
implement the National Program of
Science and Technology Fairs
(PRONAFECYT).
    
2. My child’s teachers need the support of
the School Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and effectively.
    
3. My child’s school director elicits
student feedback to improve
implementation of the PRONAFECYT.
    
4. My child’s teachers communicate the
purpose and urgency of the
PRONAFECYT.
    
5. My child’s teachers provide me oppor-
tunities to engage in scientific inquiry as
part of my child’s regular instruction.
    
6. My child’s teachers utilize project-based
learning (PBL) in their teaching.
   
7. My child’s school is provided with
adequate training to prepare students for
the PRONAFECYT.
    
8. My child’s school has adequate
resources to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
9. My child is familiar with soft skills (i.e.
critical thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
    
10. My child’s teachers communicate the
importance of soft skills and their
impact on my child’s achievement.
    

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 173
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
11. My child developed soft skills through
participation in PRONAFECYT.
    
12. My child’s teachers have shared how
they have integrated soft skills in the
classroom.
    
13. My child’s participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized at my
school.
    
14. My child’s teachers work together to
plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration in my child’s
classroom.
    
16. My child’s teachers are given the
leadership capacity to make decisions
about projects for the PRONAFECYT.
    
17. There is a school-wide vision for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
18. There is a positive culture at my child’s
school regarding the PRONAFECYT.
    
19. Teachers and the Director at my child’s
school communicate the goals for
participation in the PRONAFECYT.
    
20. My child’s teachers receive useful
training that assist to prepare students
for the PRONAFECYT.
    
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare my child for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
22. My child’s teachers share
PRONAFECYT guidelines with me.
    
23. My child participated in the school’s
PRONAFECYT.
    

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 174
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente
en
desacuerdo
No
estoy
seguro
1. El director de la escuela de mi hijo/a
tiene un papel crítico en asegurar que
los maestros participen en el Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología (PNFCT).
    
2. Los maestros de mi hijo/a necesitan el
apoyo del director de la escuela para
implementar el PNFCT plena y
efectivamente.
    
3. El director de la escuela de mi hijo/a
solicita retroalimentación de los estudi-
antes para mejorar la implementación
del PNFCT.
    
4. Los maestros de mi hijo/a comunican el
propósito y la urgencia del PNFCT.
    
5. Los maestros de mi hijo/a ofrecen
oportunidades para participar en
proyectos de investigación científica o
ingeniería como parte de la enseñanza
regular.
    
6. Los maestros de mi hijo/a utilizan el
aprendizaje basado en proyectos (ABP)
cuando dan clase.
    
7. La escuela de mi hijo/a está provista con
formación y entrenamiento adecuado
para preparar la competencia estudiantil
en el PNFCT.
    
8. La escuela de mi hijo/a tiene recursos
suficientes para preparar la competencia
estudiantil en el PNFCT.
    
9. Mi hijo/a esta familiarizado/a con
habilidades sociales (e.g. pensamiento
crítico y resolución de problemas,
colaboración, comunicación, capacidad
de adaptación, análisis, curiosidad e
imaginación).
    
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 175

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente
en
desacuerdo
No
estoy
seguro
10. Los maestros de mi hijo/a comunican la
importancia de las habilidades sociales
y su impacto en su rendimiento
estudiantil.
    
11. Mi hijo/a desarrolla habilidades sociales
a través de la participación en el
PNFCT.
    
12. Los maestros de mi hijo/a platican de
cómo integran habilidades sociales en el
aula.
    
13. La participación de mi hijo/a en el
PNFCT se reconoce en su escuela.
    
14. Los maestros de mi hijo/a trabajan
juntos para planificar y prepararse para
el PNFCT.
    
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la colaboración
estudiantil en el aula de mi hijo/a.
    
16. Los maestros de mi hijo/a reciben
capacidad de liderazgo para tomar
decisiones de proyectos relacionados
con el PNFCT.
    
17. Existe una visión sobre el PNFCT en la
escuela de mi hijo/a.
    
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en la escuela de mi hijo/a.
    
19. Los maestros y los directores las
escuelas comunican los objetivos de
participación en el PNFCT.
    
20. El director de la escuela y los maestros
de mi hijo/a reciben capacitación útil
que ayuda a preparar a los estudiantes
para el PNFCT.
    
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la escuela
que prepara a mi hijo/a para el PNFCT.
    
22. Los maestros de mi hijo/a platican de
las directrices del PNFCT conmigo.
    
23. Mi hijo/a participo en el PNFCT de su
escuela.
    
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 176
APPENDIX L
Student Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. n/a     
2. n/a     
3. n/a     
4. My teachers talk about why we are
doing science fair projects.
    
5. My teachers often help me learn
about the scientific method through
science and technology activities.
    
6. My teachers have us work on group
projects where we solve problems
and work together.
    
7. My teachers help me get my science
fair project ready.
    
8. My school has all the things I need
to help me with my science fair
project.
    
9. I know about soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
    
10. My teachers talk about the import-
ance of soft skills and how they will
help me do well in school.
    
11. I can improve my soft skills when I
do projects for the science fair.
    

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 177
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
12. n/a     
13. My school rewards students who
participate in the science fair.
    
14. n/a     
15. n/a     
16. n/a     
17. People at my school enjoy getting
ready for the science fair.
    
18. n/a     
19. n/a     
20. n/a     
21. n/a     
22. n/a     
23. n/a     

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 178

Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente
en
desacuerdo
No
estoy
seguro
1.     
2.     
3.     
4. Mis maestros hablan del por qué
estamos haciendo proyectos para la feria
científica.
    
5. Mis maestros a menudo me ayudan a
aprender del método científico por
medio de actividades de ciencia y
tecnología.
    
6. Mis maestros nos asignan proyectos de
trabajo de equipo donde colaboramos
para resolver problemas.
    
7. Mis maestros me apoyan para que mi
proyecto esté listo para la feria
científica.
    
8. Mi escuela tiene todo lo que necesito
para mi proyecto de la feria científica.
    
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas, colaboración,
comunicación, capacidad de adaptación,
análisis, curiosidad e imaginación).
    
10. Mis maestros hablan de la importancia
de las habilidades sociales y de su
impacto en mi rendimiento como
estudiante.
    
11. Mejoro mis habilidades sociales cuando
participo en la feria científica.
    
12.     
13. Mi escuela recompensas a alumnos que
participan en la feria científica.
    
14.     
15.     

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 179

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente en
desacuerdo
No
estoy
seguro
16.     
17. La gente de mi escuela disfrutan la
preparación para la feria científica.
    
18.     
19.     
20.     
21.     
22.     
23.     

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 180
APPENDIX M
Observation Protocol

School:

Grade Level: Total Students:
Teacher:

Observer(s):

Questions
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Evident
1. School Directors communicate with teachers.
2. School Directors are visible in the classrooms.
3. STEM/PBL activities related to NSTF are
apparent (process).

4. Evidence of student projects is related to the
implementation of the NSTF. (outcome)

5. The school has resources to prepare students
for the NSTF.

6. Teacher collaboration is evident.
7. Teachers are facilitating soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving, collaboration,
communication, adaptability, analysis, curiosity,
and imagination).

8. Training and professional development are
evident.

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 181

9. Other
Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Evident
1. School directors communicate with
teachers.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Evident
2. School Directors are visible in
classrooms.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 182
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Evident
3. STEM/PBL activities related to NSTF
are apparent (process).
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
4. Evidence of student projects is related to
the implementation of the NSTF (outcome).
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 183

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
5. The school has resources to prepare
students for NSTF.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
6. Teacher collaboration is evident. 4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 184

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
7. Teachers are facilitating soft skills
(critical thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication, adaptability,
analysis, curiosity, and imagination).
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
8. Training and professional development is
evident.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 185

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
9. Other 4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Observation Checklist
Capraro
(STEM PBL)
Wagner
(Soft Skills)
Observed
Student Group Work/Collaboration X X
Discourse and Questioning
(student-student, teacher-student)
X
Student Work
Student Engagement X X
Computers in the Classroom X
Student Centered X X
STEM Integration Across Content Areas X

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 186
Appendix N
Recruitment Letter

DATE

Dear XXX,

On June 15, 2015, a group of 18 doctoral students from the University of Southern California,
Rossier School of Education, will travel to Costa Rica as part of a study team led by Dr. Michael
Escalante. The purpose of our research is to understand the effects of educational leadership on
participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (NPSTF) in primary
schools in Costa Rica. Specifically, we are interested in the roles of primary school leaders in
preparing and implementing this initiative. As part of our study, the following questions will be
addressed:

1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT
initiative?

2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?

3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?

4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional practice?

We would appreciate an opportunity to speak with you, members of the Ministry of Education,
and educational leaders at regional and school site levels. It is our goal to conduct surveys and
interviews to gather data to address these research questions. Your input will be invaluable to our
study.

Thank you for considering our request. We are available to meet with you any time between
from June 15 through June 19. Please feel free to contact any member of our study team if you
have any questions.

Sincerely,

USC Doctoral Students
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 187
APPENDIX O
Consent Form
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089

INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN PARTICIPATION IN THE NATIONAL
PROGRAM OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FAIRS IN COSTA RICA

You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who vol-
untarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should
ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to understand the effects of educational leadership on participation
in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs in primary schools in Costa Rica.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a 15-minute survey, a
30-minute audiotaped interview, and/or a 10-minute classroom observation. You do not have to
answer any questions that you don’t want to answer; if you don’t want to be taped, you can still
participate in this study.

CONFIDENTIALITY
There will be no identifiable information obtained in connection with this study. Your name,
address, or other identifiable information will not be collected.

The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable infor-
mation will be used.

LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 188
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION

Principal Investigator:
Dr. Michael Escalante, University of Southern California,
mescalan@usc.edumailto:mescalan@usc.edu; mailto:mescalan@usc.edu

Co-investigators:
Oryla Wiedoeft, Assistant to Dr. Escalante,
wiedoeft@usc.edumailto:wiedoeft@usc.edu
Patricia Brent-Sanco, Principal, Paramount Unified School District,
pbrent@usc.edumailto:pbrent@usc.edu
Cindy Chavez Swenson, MWP Lecturer, University of California, Merced,
ccswenso@usc.edumailto:ccswenso@usc.edu
Jesus Corral, Senior Director, Los Angeles County Probation Dept.,
jesuscorral1@gmail.commailto:jesuscorral1@gmail.com
Ricardo Esquivel, Principal, Partnership to Uplift Communities,
ricardoe@usc.edumailto:ricardoe@usc.edu
Carin Fractor, Teacher, Saugus Union School District,
fractor@usc.edumailto:fractor@usc.edu
Miguel Gonzales, Assistant Principal, Santa Barbara Unified School District
gonzalmm@usc.edumailto:gonzalmm@usc.edu
Denise Harshman, Coordinator, Orange County Department of Education
harshman@usc.edumailto:harshman@usc.edu
Mathew Kodama, Assistant Principal, Pasadena Unified School District
mathewwk@usc.edumailto:mathewwk@usc.edu
April Leon, Teacher, West Covina High School,
aprilleo@usc.edumailto:aprilleo@usc.edu
Jennifer Lashier, Assistant Principal, Arcadia Unified School District,
lashier@usc.edumailto:lashier@usc.edu
Omar Lopez, Clinical Associate Professor, Assistant Director of Field Education, USC School of Social
Work, omarl@usc.edumailto:omarl@usc.edu
Christin Molano, Principal, Glendale Unified School District, cwalley@gusd.netmailto:cwalley@gusd.net
Fernando Marquez, Teacher on Assignment, Oro Grande School District,
fmarquez@usc.edumailto:fmarquez@usc.edu
Maribel Martinez, Principal, Lynwood Unified School District
Mart632@usc.edumailto:Mart632@usc.edu
Wendy Poffenberger, Assistant Principal, Long Beach Unified School District,
wpoffenb@usc.edumailto:wpoffenb@usc.edu
Bea Spelker-Levi, Principal, Paramount Unified School District,
bspelker@paramount.k12.ca.usmailto:bspelker@paramount.k12.ca.us
Richard Storti, Vice President of Administrative Services, Fullerton College,
rstorti@usc.edumailto:rstorti@usc.edu
John Tung, Assistant Principal, Arcadia Unified School District,
johntung@usc.edumailto:johntung@usc.edu; mailto:johntung@usc.edu; mailto:johntung@usc.edu

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edumailto:upirb@usc.edu
LEADERSHIP AND PARTICIPATION IN PRONAFECYT 189
APPENDIX P
Summary of the Research Proposal

USC Rossier
School of Education
March 1, 2015

Summary of the Research Proposal: Globalization has resulted in increased competition among countries
for economic growth. Costa Rica has initiated many actions designed to increase the nation’s
competitiveness. In the educational system, changes have been made to increase development of student
competencies in the STEM areas, one of those changes being mandated participation in the National
Program of Science and Technology Fairs (NPSTF). Unfortunately, there is currently a disparity in the
levels of success across the country in participation and quality of the NPSTF initiative at individual
school sites.

Goals of the Research: The purpose of this study is to understand the effects of educational leadership on
participation in the NPSTF in primary schools in Costa Rica. The study will identify the role of school
leaders in development and implementation of the NPSTF initiative. Also, the study will explore how
schools may have restructured their educational programs by focusing on sharing of leadership and
teacher training.

Brief Description of the Methodology: Interviews of leaders: School Director interviews will typically
last about 30 minutes. In the past, interviews were longer only when the director wanted to talk more
about the school—which is great!

Teacher surveys: There will be no teacher interviews, just a short survey. Last year we put it online so
teachers could complete it before our students arrive. For those with limited Internet access, we had paper
surveys for them when we arrived.

Classroom observations: Classroom observations are about 10 minutes per room unless the Director or
teacher wants our students to stay longer.

Most of our students are subdirectors or directors or hold higher positions, so they understand the pressure
on school directors and are very respectful of their time and the time of their teachers. We do not want to
be an interruption or imposition. We are very grateful for the time that people spend with us and are
humbled by the high quality of academics that we see in Costa Rican schools, particularly with respect to
the science fairs.

Thank you for your assistance.

Sincerely,
Dr. Michael Escalante and Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft
Michael Escalante, Ed.D. Oryla Wiedoeft, Ed.D.
Executive in Residence Adjunct Assistant Professor
USC Rossier School of Education USC Rossier School of Education

University of Southern California
3470 Trousdale Parkway, Suite 1004B, Los Angeles, California 90089-1234
 Tel: 213 740 3711  Fax: 213 740 3553

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Globalization has caused nations around the world to evolve to stay afloat with many of the economic demands that globalization brings. With the rise of multinational corporations and the increase of foreign direct investment in Costa Rica, the country’s education system has undergone changes to meet the necessities of a knowledge economy. Through the implementation of Law 7169, all schools are required to participate in the Costa Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología [PRONAFECYT]). Through participation in the PRONAFECYT, students will be exposed to real-world experiences and be better prepared for the workforce. The purpose of this study was to identify the role of educational leaders in implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative. The study examined leadership practices, instructional strategies, and professional development practices at various school sites to identify key components of successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. Through data gathered from surveys, interviews, and observations, the findings revealed that effective leadership practices play a crucial role in the successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT. Effective communication, professional development opportunities, motivation, and continuous support are examples of leadership practices demonstrated by schools that had a high participation rate in the PRONAFECYT. Schools that did not have a high participation rate in the PRONAFECYT demonstrated a lack of effective leadership.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Martinez, Maribel (author)

Core Title The effects of educational leadership on participation in the Costa Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Escuela Militaria in the National Region

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/20/2016

Defense Date 02/19/2016

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Costa Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs,Educational Leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,PRONAFECYT

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael (committee chair), Cash, David (committee member), Garcia, Pedro E. (committee member), Verdugo, David (committee member)

Creator Email mari32480@hotmail.com,mart632@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-236281

Unique identifier UC11278576

Identifier etd-MartinezMa-4318.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-236281 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-MartinezMa-4318.pdf

Dmrecord 236281

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Martinez, Maribel

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA