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A comparative analysis of the role of educational leadership on the participation of two schools in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs in Costa Rica

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A comparative analysis of the role of educational leadership on the participation of two schools in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs in Costa Rica

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Content Running head: GLOBALIZATION & COSTA RICAN SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 1

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP ON THE
PARTICIPATION OF TWO SCHOOLS IN THE NATIONAL PROGRAM OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY FAIRS IN THE CENTRAL REGION OF COSTA RICA

by

Patricia Brent-Sanco

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2016

Copyright 2016 Patricia Brent-Sanco
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Dedication

I dedicate this body of work to all of those from whom I descended. Their blood, sweat,
and tears made this moment in time possible for me. With God all things are made possible.
To my father, the late Dr. William Matthew Brent, Sr.: I thank him for being a powerful
example of what a man should be. He was a true champion and scholar. Because he dared to
take this journey, so have I. All that I am I owe in part to his love, positive influence, spiritual
guidance, and wise council. He raised me to have the intestinal fortitude to be whatever I chose
to be. I thank him for his life and legacy; I promise to keep the dream alive. His virtuous teach-
ings have guided me; his example has led me; and the memory of his love has sustained me.
To my mother, Mrs. Mary Louise Matthews Brent: I salute her as my queen, for she is
worth her weight in gold. I thank her for being a woman, wife, mother, and grandmother second
to none. She is my pillar of strength, my rock of Gibraltar, and my comforting inspiration. I am
who I am because she is who she is. I thank her for all of the life lessons, prayers and spiritual
guidance, words of wisdom, and ongoing support. Her love and dedication to the field education
for over 34 years fueled a fire and passion for learning and teaching in me. I thank her for
passing the torch. She is simply the best.
To my husband, Mr. Christopher James Sanco: I thank him for all the love and support he
has shown during this journey. Our marriage is a gift that I value and cherish. The years of
sharing, growing and discovering as a couple make me look forward to our future together. I
thank him for being a great dad, for having a listening ear, and for all the encouragement to stay
the course.
To my daughters, Miss Courtney Joy Sanco and Miss Cassidy Jade Sanco: For my two
beautiful butterflies, the sky is the limit. My wish for them is to climb the mountains they desire
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to climb, soar to the heights they wish to soar, and be what they want to be. I thank them for their
patience with me while I was working on this degree. I did it all for them—both make me so
proud. They are exceptional girls and will be phenomenal women someday. Let God guide their
path; let wisdom give them direction; and let love show them the way. I love them to infinity and
beyond.
To my two guardian angels, Mrs. Kimberle Powers-Morris, and Ms. Germaine Latessa
Sanders: A sister’s bond transcends time, space, and death. It lives in the ages for eternity. Their
love has provided me with a lasting comfort. Their presence has been felt throughout this
journey, and I know that my sisters have been watching over me.
To the ultimate support team—my sister, Myra J. Hitchens; my godmother, Mrs. Ruby
Sanders; my godfather, Dr. G.J. West II: and my aunt, Mrs. Sylvia Ivy Conrod: My sister is so
encouraging and always made me feel that I was capable of not only completing this journey but
also succeeding. I love her.
Momma Ruby has been in my corner all my life. I thank her for her ongoing love and
support. She has been there from start to finish, and I love her for it.
Pops has truly blessed me with his sound advice, prayers, and words of encouragement. I
thank him for being a wonderful father figure to Chris and me and an awesome “G- Daddy” to
the girls. We love him.
Auntie Ivy is a calming force in my life. I thank her for her wisdom, support, prayers, and
encouragement and love her very much.
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Acknowledgments

“I’ve learned that people will forget what you said, people will forget what you did, but
people will never forget how you made them feel” (Angelou, n.d., para. 1).
I want to acknowledge each and every person who assisted me in some way, whether
large or small, with the completion of this dissertation and my coursework.
To my entire family and church families: I thank them all for their love and support.

Their encouragement helped me in a myriad of ways, and I will be eternally grateful.

I have been blessed with supportive “sister friends” who helped me stay on track and with
anything else I needed. They are all phenomenal women, and it is an honor to have them in my
life.
I would like to acknowledge the support I received from Pastor and Mrs. Keith Williams.

Their calls of support and encouragement meant so much.

I want to acknowledge my friend, confidant, and colleague, Dr. Beatriz Spelker-Levi. We
started this journey together, and now it is complete. Having a partner in crime made things so
much fun. You are a true friend and work sister.
I would like to acknowledge the support that I received from the Paramount Unified
School District (PUSD) management team: Assistant Superintendents Dr. Myrna Morales and
Dr. Deborah Stark—both Trojans, “Fight On”; and Co-Interim Superintendents Dr. David
Verdugo - a Trojan, Mrs. Delores Stephens and the late Mrs. Claudette Powers, my mentor.
PUSD has been my home for the past 20 years. It is a special place because of them. My thanks
go to the PUSD Trojan family, especially Dr. Topekia Jones, Dr. Greg Francois and the late Dr.
Alvaretta Baxter. Their support made a world of difference.

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I would like to acknowledge my friend and brother, Mr. Richard Morgan. I thank Richard
for giving me my first administrative job and for modeling all the characteristics of an authentic
leader.
I would also like to acknowledge the staff and students at Howard Tanner School and
Mark Keppel School. I thank them for allowing me to be their instructional leader during this
journey: “You are the best, and you will succeed.”
I would like to acknowledge the support of my editor, Mrs. Phyllis Parmet. I thank her
for her time and talent. Both were appreciated.
The support I have received from the USC Rossier School of Education, Dean Karen
Symms Gallagher and the Deans Superintendents Advisory Group has been outstanding. I thank
them for providing such a high-quality program for students in the K–12 concentration. All of
my professors have impacted my learning and outlook in a most positive way, and for this I am
very grateful.
One of the most significant influences on my life during my time at USC has been my
dissertation chair, Dr. Michael Escalante. I thank him for his wisdom, witty humor, and steadfast
approach to keeping the group on track. I appreciate the time he took to build relationships with
all of us. His understanding of leadership and what it takes to run an organization is vast. We
have been very fortunate to have such a wonderful teacher, mentor, and friend chart our path.
The members of my dissertation committee are all pantheons in the field of education. I
thank Dr. Verdugo, Dr. Sheehan, and Dr. Garcia for serving on my committee and for the valu-
able feedback they provided.
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Finally, I want to acknowledge the best dissertation group ever: Pura Vida, my Costa
Rica 2015 friends especially: Dr. Fernando Marquez, Dr. Jennifer Lashier, Dr. Christin
Molano, and Dr. Beatriz Spelker- Levi. Each of them will leave an indelible mark on the
path to positive school reform. I hope they will be the institutional agents they were born to
be.
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Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 4
List of Tables 10
List of Figures 11
Abstract 12
Chapter One: Introduction 13
Statement of the Problem 13
Purpose of the Study 15
Research Questions 15
Importance of the Study 16
Definition of Terms 16
Organization of Study 18
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 19
Overview of Costa Rican History 20
Geography, Culture, and Demographics 20
Political History 21
Economy 23
Educational System 24
Globalization 27
Globalization Described 27
Economics of Globalization 29
Effects of Globalization on Education 32
Multinational Corporations 35
Impact of FDI and Promotion Agencies 35
Impact of Investment by Intel and Other MNCs 37
STEM Education and PBL 39
STEM Education 39
PBL 40
Connection Between STEM and PBL 41
STEM–PBL Connections to Local and International Science Fair Participation 43
Leadership in the 21st Century 46
Leadership Defined 46
Transformational Leaders 47
Authentic Leadership 48
Bolman and Deal’s Leadership Frames 48
Kotter’s Change Framework 51
Principal Leadership 52
Teacher Leadership 54
PD and Training for STEM Educators 56
Chapter Summary 59
Chapter Three: Research Methodology 60
Problem Restated 60
Purpose of Study Restated 61
Research Questions 61
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Research Team 62
Research Design and Methodology 62
Population and Sample 63
Instrumentation and Protocols 64
Survey and Interview Protocols 66
Observation Protocols 66
Document Collection 67
Data Collection 67
Interviews 68
Observations 68
Surveys 69
Data Analysis 69
Ethical Considerations 71
Reliability and Validity 71
Limitations and Delimitations 72
Chapter Summary 72
Chapter Four: Study Findings 74
Purpose Restated 74
Participants 75
Interviewed Participants 77
Surveyed Participants and Observations 78
Guiding Frameworks 79
Leadership 79
STEM PBL 80
Change 81
Twenty-First-Century Learners 82
Findings for Research Question 1 82
A Vision for Implementation 83
The Critical Role of the School Director 87
Results Summary for Research Question 1 93
Findings for Research Question 2 94
Teachers’ Knowledge and Use of STEM PBL and the Scientific Method 95
Teacher Collaboration and Professional Development 100
Results Summary for Research Question 2 104
Findings for Research Question 3 105
Effective Use of Distributed Leadership 105
Emphasis on 21st-Century Skills or Soft Skills 109
Results Summary for Research Question 3 115
Findings for Research Question 4 116
Increased Focus on Student Collaboration 116
Increased Focus on Inquiry-Based Instruction 120
Results Summary for Research Question 4 123
Summary of Findings 124
Chapter Five: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations 126
Summary 128
Research Question 1 129
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Research Question 2 130
Research Question 3 131
Research Question 4 133
Implications for Practice 134
Recommendations for Future Research 136
Conclusion 137
References 139
Appendices
Appendix A: Recruitment Letter 146
Appendix B: List of Research Sites 147
Appendix C: Consent Form 148
Appendix D: Teacher Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 150
Appendix E: School Director Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 154
Appendix F: Government Official Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 158
Appendix G: Business Partner Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 162
Appendix H: Parent Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 166
Appendix I: Student Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 170
Appendix J: Teacher Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 174
Appendix K: School Director Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 176
Appendix L: Government Official/Business Leaders Interview Protocol: English
and Spanish Versions 178
Appendix M: Parent Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 180
Appendix N: Student Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 182
Appendix O: Observation Protocol 184
Appendix P: Summary of the Research Proposal 190
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List of Tables

Table 1: Identification of Study Participants 65
Table 2: Alignment of Research Questions, Frameworks, and Survey Questions 70
Table 3: Interviewed Participants 78
Table 4: Survey Data Collection 79
Table 5: Survey Data Regarding Vision for the Implementation of the Science Fair 88
Table 6: Survey Data Regarding the Role of the Director in the PRONAFECYT 91
Table 7: Survey Data Regarding Successful School Practices 98
Table 8: Survey Data Regarding Emphasis on 21st-Century Skills (Soft Skills) 113
Table 9: Summary of Survey Data Regarding Student Collaboration 119
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List of Figures

Figure 1: Percentile of global income distribution 31
Figure 2: Framework for 21st-century student learning 34
Figure 3: STEM–PBL framework 43
Figure 4: Bolman and Deal’s four frames 50
Figure 5: Kotter’s eight-step change process 52
Figure 6: Guiding questions for professional learning communities 58
Figure 7: Leadership roles for the National Science and Technology Fair (Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología; PRONAFECYT)

84
Figure 8: Percentage of participants indicating that there is a vision for the implemen-
tation of the PRONAFECYT

88
Figure 9: Percentage of participants feeling that teachers need the support of the
school director to fully implement the PRONAFECYT

91
Figure 10: Percentage of participants believing that teachers utilize project-based
learning (PBL) as part of their instruction

98
Figure 11: Percentage of teachers feeling that they were provided with adequate yearly
training on the science fair guidelines

103
Figure 12: Percentage of teachers feeling that they were provided with leadership
capacity to make decisions about projects for the science fair and that
school directors elicited feedback from them

108
Figure 13: Percentage of participants feeling that they were familiar with soft skills and
that school director talked about soft skills

113
Figure 14: Percentage of participants feeling that students develop soft skills through
science fair participation

114
Figure 15: Percentage of participants feeling that there is improved student collabora-
tion and students work together on group projects as a result of the
science fair

119
Figure 16: Percentage of teachers feeling that scientific inquiry is used in instruction 122
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Abstract

The purpose of this study was to understand the effects of educational leadership on
student participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología [PRONAFECYT]) in the primary schools of Costa
Rica. The study identified the role that governmental, community, and school site leaders have
in the development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. Leadership practices,
instructional strategies, and professional development practices at governmental agencies, com-
munity organizations, and various school sites were examined to identify key components of the
successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT.
This study analyzed leadership practices at a primary school (School A) and compared
those findings with another school (School B) in the Central Region as well as the region as a
whole. This study found (a) that there was a clear vision for the implementation of curricula
focusing on science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) and project-based learning
(PBL); (b) that the role of the school director is critical in terms of the school site implementation
of the PRONAFECYT initiative; (c) that teachers were aware of and used STEM, PBL, and the
scientific method; (d) that teachers collaborated on the implementation of the PRONAFECYT;
(e) that both governmental and school site leaders used the concept of distributed leadership; and

(f) that there was a clear emphasis on 21st-century skills, student collaboration, as well as an
increased focus on inquiry-based instruction.
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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Costa Rica’s achievements as a country have been guided by the principals of globaliza-
tion. As a concept, globalization represents changes that occur in the spatial and temporal
contours of a society and the shifts in perspectives that drive people to rely upon one another
globally (Scheuerman, 2014). Globalization is a multipronged, long-term process that involves
the triad of deterritorialization, interconnectedness, and social acceleration (Scheuerman, 2014).
It was the very forces of globalization that led Costa Rica to actively search out opportunities to
expand economically into global markets using the principles of foreign direct investment (FDI).
Costa Rica’s goal of establishing new avenues for economic growth and expanding the
development of a highly qualified workplace began with the creation and implementation of a
new economic strategic plan. This plan allowed the country to forge lasting relationships with
multinational corporations (MNCs) that, in turn, assisted with the educational focus on science,
technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM).
Costa Rica has successfully transitioned itself from a predominantly agrarian exporter to a
global leader in the area of technological development and production as well as medical manu-
facturing. The focus on developing human capital to meet the needs of an ever-changing and
challenging workplace has allowed Costa Rica to invest financial and knowledge-based resources
in STEM-related instructional subjects in the educational system. One notable method of encour-
aging this focus has been the participation of Costa Rican students in the regional, national, and
possibly eventual entry into international science fair competitions.
Statement of the Problem

Costa Rica has endured many changes since gaining independence in 1859 (Biesanz,
Biesanz, & Biesanz, 1999). Since its independence and the abolishment of its military, Costa
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Rica has focused on education, students, and teachers (Palmer & Molina, 2006). With education
being the primal focus, the curricula have morphed to fit the globalized demands of Intel and the
Costa Rican Investment Promotion Agency (CINDE; Biesanz et al, 1999). During this time, the
world has undergone what Friedman (2007) described as a flattening process. As a result of
globalization, educational systems are no longer competing with other school systems in the
same city, state, or even nation. Globalization necessitates a change in the types of skills students
develop that will ensure that they are globally competitive (Friedman, 2007).
Internationalization and the interconnectedness of societies are old phenomena. How-
ever, societies throughout the world have undergone drastic changes over the last few decades as
a result of the powerful forces of globalization (Armstrong, 2007). Misra (2012) defined global-
ization as the “integration of economies and societies through cross- country flows of informa-
tion, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance and people” (p. 69), which have led to
a highly competitive and rapidly changing environment for countries throughout the world.
In recent years, the Costa Rican economy has experienced growth due to the forces of
globalization, as expressed through the influence of MNCs. In order to benefit from the effects
of FDI and to continue its current trajectory of economic growth and opportunity, Costa Rica
must ensure that its educational system prepares students with the requisite skills to enter the
knowledge-based economy of the 21st-century. Toward that end, government policies have
emphasized the development of STEM programs and 21st-century learning skills as a national
initiative. One component of this initiative has been compulsory participation in the Costa Rican
National Science Fair (NSF).
To successfully pursue this mandate, educational leaders and the schools they serve have
been compelled to rapidly adapt their approach to education through the integration of
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technology and the implementation of 21st-century skills-based STEM programs. Although this
policy has been established at the national level, local actors struggle with implementation due to
the need for school leaders and teachers to develop new skill sets. Without strong leadership in
support of the development of innovative teaching practices, Costa Rican schools will not have
the ability to sustain economic development through the building of human capital.
Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to understand the effects of educational leadership on
student participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología [PRONAFECYT]) in the primary schools of Costa
Rica. The study identified the role that school leaders have in the development and implementa-
tion of the PRONAFECYT initiative. Additionally, the study explored how schools may have
restructured their educational programs by focusing on sharing of leadership and teacher training.
The study examined leadership practices, instructional strategies, and professional development
(PD) practices at various school sites to identify key components of the successful implementa-
tion of the PRONAFECYT initiative. The Costa Rican Ministry of Public Education (MEP; the
Ministry of Science, Technology, and Telecommunications (MICITT); and the University of
California’s (USC) Rossier School of Education have worked collaboratively in the completion
of this study.
Research Questions

The following research questions guided this study:

1. What is the role that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative?
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2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
Importance of the Study

The MEP is interested in determining the effects that leadership has on the
PRONAFECYT initiative in terms of a high participation rate in the science fairs versus limited
participation in the science fairs. It is imperative to identify the leadership practices that have led
to high participation in the PRONAFECYT initiative. Schools in Costa Rica must continue to
maintain innovative practices because educational systems are no longer competing with other
school systems in the same city, region, or even nation but rather are competing with schools
around the world (Wagner, 2008).
Definition of Terms

For the purpose of this study, the following terms are defined:

CINDE: This agency was created in 1984 for the purpose of providing information and
encouraging outside investment from foreign direct investors. It tracks data on the educational
quality and trends, labor pool and regulations, free trade zone and investment incentives, eco-
nomic indicators, suppliers and vendors, as well as life in Costa Rica (CINDE, 2015).
FDI: This is direct investment into production or business in a country by a company in
another country, either by buying a company in the target country or by expanding operations of
an existing business in that country (Zakaria, 2011).
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Globalization: Spring (2008) described globalization as a phenomenon characterized by
increased economic integration among nations, and movement of people, ideas, and customs
across geographical borders. Theodore Levitt has been credited with creating the term globaliza-
tion and defining it as the global changes that occur which affect production, consumption, and
investment (Stromquist, 2002).
MEP: The Costa Rican MEP (El Ministerio de Educacion Publica de la Republica de
Costa Rica) is the central agency that seeks to provide quality and accessible education to chil-
dren in K–12 public education in Costa Rica. Its mission is to promote the development of a
high-quality education system that provides access to education to the entire nation. The main
goal is centered on the personal development of its students and the promotion of a Costa Rican
society united through opportunity and social equality (CINDE, 2015).
Programa Estado de la Nacion (PEN): This is an organization that was created in 1994.
It issues detailed reports on the Costa Rican educational system approximately every 2 years. The
report provides an overview of services, evaluated programs, and gives recommendations for
improving the educational system (PEN, 2013).
STEM project-based learning (PBL): This is a method that integrates the teaching of
science and mathematics disciplines by infusing the practices of scientific inquiry, technological
and engineering design, mathematical analysis, and 21st-century interdisciplinary skills (Capraro,
Capraro, & Morgan, 2013).
Twenty-first-century skills (soft skills): The concept of the 21st-century learner describes
the skills, knowledge, literacies, and expertise that students must master in order to compete in
the global marketplace (Wagner, 2008).
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Organization of Study

The dissertation is comprised of five chapters. Chapter One has provided an overview of
the study: the background of the problem, a statement of the problem, purpose of the study,
research questions, significance of the study, as well definitions for key terms.
Chapter Two includes a literature review made up of five sections. The first section
focuses on the history of Costa Rica and its social, political, economic, and educational develop-
ment. The second section focuses on globalization, the definition of globalization, theoretical
perspectives, 21st-century skills, and the effects of globalization on Costa Rica’s economy and
educational system. The third section examines the influence of MNCs), the role that MNCs
have played in developing Costa Rica’s economy and investing in technical education, and the
impact of CINDE and FDI. The fourth section provides an overview of STEM, PBL, and how
these skills prepare students for participation in the local and international science fairs. The last
section focuses on leadership and examines Bolman and Deal’s (2008) leadership framework,
Kotter’s (1996) change framework, and effective administrative and instructional practices that
promote STEM education and facilitate positive outcomes for students who participate in local
and international science fairs.
Chapter Three discusses the research design and methodology that were used to conduct
this study. It deals with the participants who were interviewed, surveyed, and/or observed.
Chapter Four presents the findings of the study, including detailed analysis of the data
organized by the four research questions. Chapter Five presents a summary of the study and
includes possible implications for practice. Suggestions for future research opportunities relating
to the same phenomena are also included in this chapter.
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CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Costa Rica’s ability to develop human capital, create various platforms for technological
advances, and change the economic landscape of the country has been rooted in the principles of
globalization and interconnectedness. The implementation of a new economic strategic plan that
included building relationships with MNCs has led to improvements to the educational system in
Costa Rica and has allowed the country to play a role in the international marketplace (Organisa-
tion for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], Development Centre, 2012). Over
the last 30 years, Costa Rica has increased the amount of resources assigned to education and has
created a greater focus on STEM education. The combination of this focus and financial re-
sources has led to Costa Rica’s participation in the international science fair and a greater empha-
sis on technologically based career opportunities.
This literature review consists of five sections. The first section focuses on the history of
Costa Rica and its social, political, economic, and educational development. The second section
focuses on globalization, the definition of globalization, theoretical perspectives, 21st-century
skills, and the effects of globalization on Costa Rica’s economy and educational system. The
third section examines the influence of MNCs), the role that MNCs have played in developing
Costa Rica’s economy and investing in technical education, and the impact of CINDE and FDI.
The fourth section provides an overview of STEM, PBL, and how these skills prepare students
for participation in the local and international science fairs. The last section review focuses on
leadership and examines Bolman and Deal’s (2008) leadership framework, Kotter’s (1996)
change framework, effective administrative, and instructional practices that promote STEM edu-
cation and facilitate positive outcomes for students who participate in local and international
science fairs.
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Overview of Costa Rican History

To better understand the context of both the progress and problems that surround the
educational system in Costa Rica, one must gain an understanding of Costa Rica’s rich history
and culture. This section explores the geography, cultural aspects, and demographics of Costa
Rica, as well as the history of the political and educational systems in Costa Rica. To best under-
stand the changes that have taken place and to accurately capture the reasons that motivated
decisions that were made to advance the educational systems in Costa Rica, the history of the
country must be examined.
Geography, Culture, and Demographics

Costa Rica is located in Central America between Nicaragua and Panama and borders
both the Caribbean Sea and the north Pacific Ocean. Costa Rica has a landmass of 51,100 square
kilometers (Central Intelligence Agency [CIA], 2014). Costa Rica has a population of approxi-
mately 4.7 million people and is about the size of West Virginia (CIA, 2014). The country is
separated by rugged mountain and has over 100 volcanoes. Costa Rica’s coastal plains, tropical
climate, and rich biodiversity set it apart from other countries in Central America. The landscape
makes it a beautiful tourist destination, and 25% of the country is protected in national parks
(CINDE, 2015).
Costa Rica was first explored by the Spanish in the early 16th century. Christopher
Columbus first sighted the region on September 18, 1502. When he saw that many of the native
people were wearing ornate gold ornaments, he named the region Costa Rica, translated as “rich
coast.” In 1563 Governor Juan Vasquez de Coronado established the first permanent settlement
in the Central Plateau of Cartago; however, in 1723 the eruption of the Irazu volcano destroyed a
21 GLOBALIZATION & COSTA RICAN SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION

large part of the town. In 1823 this town became known as San José, which is now the capital of
Costa Rica (Daling, 2002).
San José remains the most populated city in Costa Rica. According to the CIA (2014),
83% of the population is White; 3%, Black; 1%, American Indian; 1%, Chinese; and 1%, other.
Catholicism is the main religion, and 73% of Costa Ricans identify themselves as Catholic. The
age structure of Costa Rica is as follows: 41% under the age of 24, 43.8% between the ages of 25
and 54, and 13.8% 55 years or older. Over 1.5 million people live in San José, with the remain-
der of the population living within the other six provinces: Alajuela, Cartago, Guanacaste,
Heredia, Limon, and Puntarenas (CIA, 2014). Costa Ricans enjoy a peaceful lifestyle, as indi-
cated in their national slogan, Pura Vida (Daling, 2002).
Political History

Since the 19th century, Costa Rica has had only two brief periods of violence, and
political unrest have occurred during its democratic development. On September 15, 1821, Costa
Rica gained independence from Spain. In 1823 Costa Rica joined the Republic of the United
States of Central American along with Guatemala, Nicaragua, Honduras, and El Salvador
(Daling, 2002). Also in 1824, Costa Rica elected its first head of state, Juan Mora Fernandez.
Mora Fernandez succeeded in building houses, schools, and creating an elite class of powerful
coffee barons. In 1838 Costa Rica became a fully independent country. In 1847 José Maria
Castro Madriz became the first president of Costa Rica and is known for being the founder of the
republic (Mitchell & Pentzer, 2008).
Three key events were pivotal in the development of the Costa Rican democracy. The
first event began with General Tomas Guardia taking over the country and ruling as a dictator
until 1882. Guardia’s leadership is known for some of the most progressive reform efforts in the
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areas of education, military policy, and taxation (Mitchell & Pentzer, 2008). Known as a social
reformist, Guardia established Costa Rica’s social security system, established minimum wage
guidelines, and regulated working conditions (Lopez, 1996). The first democratic elections were
held in 1889. The second pivotal event took place in the 1940s. After incumbent President Dr.
Rafael Angel Calderon refused to relinquish power, a civil war began. José Figueres Ferrer
(“Don Pepe”), one of Costa Rica’s most influential leaders, defeated Calderon and implemented
vast reforms in public policy and civil rights. During 1948–1952, women and citizens of African
descent in Costa Rica gained the right to vote, the Communist party was banned, banks were
nationalized, presidential term limits were established, and a new constitution was adopted
(Daling, 2002). It was also during Don Pepe’s three terms that Costa Rica began to participate
economically on a global scale and the army was dismantled (Lopez, 1996).
Today Costa Rica has a multiparty system that includes 13 parties. Presidential and legis-
lative elections take place every 4 years. The government is divided into three branches: execu-
tive, legislative, and judicial. Legislative administrative divisions in Costa Rica consist of seven
provinces that are divided into 20 areas called Cantons. The legislative assembly holds 57 seats.
Members are elected by direct popular vote to serve 4-year terms. Legislative assemblymen are
referred to as Deputados (Lopez, 1996).
Costa Rica has been able to maintain both peace and democracy and spread those princi-
pals to other counties in Central America. In 1987 President Oscar Arias Sanchez created a
peace plan with Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Honduras that guaranteed free elections, a cease fire
by all participating countries, and basic democratic freedoms. In 2010 Laura Chinchilla became
Costa Rica’s first woman president. During her term she worked to increase spending in
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education, promote job and economic development, and develop technical enterprises on a global
level. The current president, Luis Guillermo Solis, was elected on February 7, 2014.
Economy

Costa Rica’s relatively political stability has aided the country in building economic
progress that exceeds other countries in the region. Costa Rica’s economic history begins with
the coffee boom. In 1740, as a small colony, Costa Rica began producing coffee. Those who
owned farms and sold coffee became the leaders of the country and were known as coffee barons.
Wealthy, large coffee growers created greater advantages for themselves by controlling the
market and buying out smaller farms. Those who were subject to work in the labor force and did
not own land were known as ticos (Daling, 2002). Unlike other countries, high wages attracted
workers from other regions of Central American and kept the ticos from poverty and civil unrest
(Booth, 1998). In 1845 Costa Rican began direct export of coffee to Europe. Coffee became
Costa Rica’s entrance to the global marketplace. From 1850 to 1890, the sale of coffee accounted
for almost 90% of the country’s export revenue (Mitchell & Pentzer, 2008). In 1882 General
Tomas Guardia instituted regulations on exports and imports as well as the formation of unions
and labor organizations (Booth, 1998). The expansion of the government’s role controlled the
coffee barons and limited their political and economic influence. The construction of the railroad
beginning in 1871 from San José to the Atlantic Ocean paved the way for a new industry,
bananas.
Costa Rica’s tropical climate made it an ideal place for growing banana crops, and the
railroad system provided the means to transport the crops across the Atlantic. This new industry
came at a time when coffee production had slowed and the economy required reviving (Booth,
1998). Following World War I, coffee and bananas would continue to be the main export and
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backbone of the Costa Rican economy. From 1951 to 1979, Costa Rica maintained an average
annual growth of 6% (Booth, 1998).
A pivotal event occurred in 1984 with the creation of CINDE. The mission of this coali-
tion is to promote national development and economic opportunities for Costa Rica. Funded by
the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), CINDE provided the much-
needed boost to the economy that was needed after the recession in the 1980s. Costa Rica has
been able to attract many foreign investors and expand its exports to include microprocessors,
medical equipment, textiles, and microchips (CIA, 2014). Part of this attraction lies in the fact
that Costa Rica has implemented economic policies that encourage foreign investment and has an
educated work force to meet the demands of growing corporations (Mitchell & Pentzer, 2008).
Educational System

Because of its focus on education, economic development, and improving living condi-
tions in rural areas, Costa Rica has been able to maintain lower poverty rates than other countries
in Central America and a better quality of life (Lopez, 1996). The first school was founded in
1814 at the end of the colonial era, and in 1843 the Universidad de Santo Tomas was founded.
Since 1870, education in Costa Rica has been free and mandatory (CINDE, 2015). The disman-
tling of the Costa Rican army in 1949 provided financial resources that were used for free public
education of all citizens. The Colegio de San Luis Gonzaga in the city of Cartago opened in
1869 and was the first public school to open in Costa Rica (Mitchell & Pentzer, 2008). The
University of Costa Rica (UCR) opened in 1941 under the leadership of President Guardia. In
1949 the Costa Rican constitution was amended to include Title VII, which guaranteed free
access to public education at the primary and secondary levels (Booth, 1998). Costa Rica has a
96.2% literacy rate and invests 7.1% of its GDP in education (CINDE, 2015). In 1957 the
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Fundamental Law of Education was approved. This law established guidelines and goals for the
Costa Rican educational system, including the establishment of the MEP (Daling, 2002).
Organization of the education system. In Costa Rica the MEP oversees the educational
system, which includes public primary and high schools as well as provides licenses to private
schools in the country. The MEP employs over 28,000 people, and 80% of educational expenses
are allotted to salaries and wages. The MEP serves as the governing body of the Costa Rican
educational system. It is responsible for the development of curriculum and the promotion of
programs that allow students access to a quality education. The National Educational Council is
presided over by the MEP. There are three directors, and their committees work with Costa
Rica’s seven provinces and local school boards. There are 2,800+ preschools and 4,000+ ele-
mentary schools in Costa Rica (CINDE, 2015).
In addition to the MEP there are other national agencies that promote the development of
STEM education and careers in STEM-related fields. The MICITT works with the MEP to
promote, inspire, and boost the creation of favorable conditions for research, innovation, knowl-
edge, and technology development. The Omar Dengo Foundation is a nonprofit foundation that
works in conjunction with the MEP through a cooperation agreement. The Omar Dengo Founda-
tion oversees the Program of Educational Informatics. This program provides professional
development for teachers across the nation, works with schools to establish robotic and computer
labs, provides lab teachers to run technical labs in selected schools, and improves the technical
skills of adult citizens (CINDE, 2015).
The primary schools consist of Cycles I and II; the high school program consists of
Cycles III and IV. Primary education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 13, and almost
every child in the country attends school. A student must be at least 6 years 6 months old to
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attend school. Primary education in Costa Rica lasts for 6 years, with 3 years in each cycle.
According to the CIA (2014), 90% of all elementary schools are public, and schools are estab-
lished even in remote areas of the country so that students have access to a free education.
Secondary education allows students to choose one of three tracks: academic (5 years), artistry (5
years), or technical (6 years). All of the tracks enable students to acquire a high school diploma
that would qualify them for education at the university level (Mitchell & Pentzer, 2008). The
academic track is considered the college-preparatory track. The artistry track allows students to
earn a professional certification, and the technical-vocational track offers students a professional
certification that would allow then to enter the workforce. The MEP introduced programs in
English and computer sciences in efforts to create and maintain a workforce that is on par with
international standards (CINDE, 2015).
Assessment. To ensure that students are prepared for entrance into college and the
workplace, Costa Rica has established a mandatory testing system that occurs during Grade 6,
Grade 9, and during the final year of high school. The sixth-grade exam is referred to as Pruebas
Nacionales de Sexto and includes testing on math, social studies, Spanish, and science. The final
exams that students must take in order to earn a diploma are referred to as Bachillerato and
include testing on math, social science, Spanish, English, French, biology, and civics (Mitchell &
Pentzer, 2008). Unfortunately, if students do not demonstrate proficiency on these exams, they
will not receive a diploma and will not qualify for entry to the university level. Consequently,
some students drop out of school during their high school years, particularly in rural areas
(Mitchell & Pentzer, 2008). Nevertheless, the MEP has introduced programs that foster both
English competency and technological literacy in all schools and has programs that encourage
students to stay in school and stay on track (CINDE, 2015).
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Globalization

Costa Rica’s geographic and political stability have enabled the country to establish itself
as a leader among countries in Central America. Costa Rica is a land of natural beauty and
wonder. Limited political uprising and democratic stability have allowed the country to establish
a higher quality of life in comparison with other Central American countries. The investments
that have been made to maintain economic stability and an educational system that promotes
literacy and technical skills have prepared Costa Rica to participate in the global marketplace.
Costa Rica’s achievements as a country have been guided by the principals of globaliza-
tion. As a concept, globalization represents changes that occur in the spatial and temporal
contours of a society and the shifts in perspectives that drive people to rely upon one another
globally (Scheuerman, 2014). Spring (2008) described globalization as a phenomenon that is
characterized by increased economic integration among nations and movement of people, ideas,
and customs across geographical borders. Theodore Levitt has been credited with creating the
term globalization and defining it as the global changes that occur that affect production, con-
sumption, and investment (Stromquist, 2002).
Globalization Described

Globalization is the extension of markets and industries beyond national borders
(International Monetary Fund [IMF] Staff, 2008). The word cosmopolitan, which predates the
term globalization, is derived from the Greek word kosmopolites (citizen of the world). At its
core, the meaning indicates that humans are all connected to a single community (Dicken, 2003).
Evidence from the value of trade, FDI, international stock and trade, and a global workforce
suggests that people do indeed live in a global society (IMF Staff, 2008). However, the impetus
for establishing a global society was born out of the need to explore, learn, and grow. Watson
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(2015) described globalization as the “process by which the experience of everyday life, marked
by the diffusion of commodities and ideas, can foster a standardization of cultural expressions
around the world” (p. x).
According to Chanda (2007), globalization emerged from the basic human urge to seek a
better life and has been driven by many personalities who can be identified as traders, preachers,
adventures, and warriors. Chanda went on to say that one of the first effects of globalization was
the dispersal of humans across the globe. Early villagers traveled in search of the unknown,
better life conditions, and land. Trade transformed societies and introduced new goods, services,
and markets that did not exist in certain geographical regions of the world. These early traders
were people who produced and carried products and services to consumers around the globe,
thereby creating an interconnected world. Consumer demands and new trade routes spurred on
the global journey towards interconnectedness. Transportation has always been the vehicle that
assisted with connecting the world. From camel caravans to ship voyages and now to e - com-
merce, the world has found ways to connect, thereby creating global markets and marketplaces.
Costa Rica has used its commodities, and human capital to propel itself as a player in the global
marketplace.
Globalization is a multipronged long-term process that involves the triad of deterritorial-
ization, interconnectedness, and social acceleration (Scheuerman, 2014). Contemporary analysts
have associated the term globalization with deterritorialization, meaning a severance with
cultural norms and practices in exchange for an openness of outside ideas and practices (Scheuer-
man, 2014). Global events and communication can occur simultaneously within seconds across
the globe. Globalization represents the increased possibilities for advancement that these con-
nections bring. According to Blanchard (2010), globalization represents four popular trends:
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population, science and technology, integration, and interdependence, and governance. Popula-
tion trends indicate where human capacity can be found and generated into a workforce, while
science and technology trends include the internet and other forms of communication as well as
scientific advances that promote advancement in products, goods, and services. The trends seen
in Costa Rican governance show how international laws can govern transnational and economic
activity, while integration and interdependence includes all areas of economic life including trade
of goods and services across geographical borders (Dicken, 2003).
Economics of Globalization

Costa Rica’s transformation from an exporter of primarily banana chips to microchips
represents its ability to meet the demands of a global society (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). Because
Costa Rica developed a workforce that was prepared to meet the demands of MNCs, it was able
to reap the economic benefits from those partnerships (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). According to
Friedman (2007),
the global economy has flattened the world in terms of skills and technology. A new
work force of problem-solvers, innovators, and inventors who are self-reliant and able to
think logically is one of the critical foundations that drive a state economy’s innovation
capacity. (p. 477)
National economies have changed from being isolated entities to a system of international
networks that depend on one another for productivity and economic growth. What would the
impact be on China’s economy if they were unable to sell their products around the globe?
Currently, national economies are dependent upon and subject to the demands of the global
marketplace.
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According to Friedman (2007), the flat-world platform has created an emergence of col-
laborative business models that are unprecedented in history. Costa Rica has attracted one of the
highest levels of FDI per capita in Latin America (CIA, 2014). The partnerships that Costa Rica
has forged with various corporations and business partners have enabled them to compete in
global markets to which they previously did not have access. International trade agreements have
spurred global economic progress through the elimination of trade barriers. A greater number of
imports provide consumers with a variety of products and encourage domestic products to remain
competitive. Exports are a source of economic growth that provides domestic jobs and new
industries (IMF Staff, 2008). Pew Research data from the IMF Staff (2008) indicated that coun-
tries that have embraced globalism have grown economically and that those that did not seem to
be left behind (see Figure 1). According to World Bank economists David Dollar and Aart Kraay
globalization has contributed to a reduction in poverty rates as well as a reduction in income
inequalities (IMF, 2008).
Chanda (2007) traced the growth of trade from “camel commerce to e- commerce” (p.

41). Along with transportation and communication networks, the emergence of a seamless
international payment and clearing system has transformed how nations do business. According
to Chanda (2007), “the method of recording business transactions has evolved from Sumerian
clay tablets to tablet PCs” (p. 69). Recent technological advances have been credited with being
the driving force behind globalization. Because of the speed at which businesses can buy and sell
goods, nations that do not embrace the tenants of globalization find themselves outside of the
economic equation. Opponents of globalization say that the deterritorialization, the intercon-
nectedness, and social acceleration are detrimental to national identities and that nations that
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Figure 1. Percentile of global income distribution. From The Changing
Patterns of Global Income Distribution, Pew Research, 2015, retrieved
from http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/11/08/chart-of-the-
week-the-changing-patterns-of-global-income-distribution/

choose not to participate or are unable to participate suffer economic consequences (Chanda,
2007).
According to Zakaria (2011), between 2000 and 2007, the world economy grew at its
fastest pace in nearly 4 decades. Income per person across the globe rose 3.2%. One of the
pillars of Costa Rica’s economic development has been its trade liberation policies. These
policies have allowed trade exports to exceed 37% of its gross domestic product (GDP; CINDE,
2015). The transformation of products, goods, and services, along with the diversification of the
economy, has led to the ability to compete globally. In addition to Costa Rica’s investments in
imports and exports, the investment in education has prepared a human capital workforce to meet
the demands of a global society.
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Effects of Globalization on Education

According to Spring (2008), globalization is not only defined in terms of economic
growth or prosperity but also in the approach to global education. Globalization is intertwined in
the processes that affect education, human capital, and discourses on economic development and
multiculturalism. Spring identified four approaches to the process of global education: the world
culture view, the world system approach, a postcolonial analysis, and a cultural approach. The
world culture view is grounded in the idea that Western ideas of schooling should serve as a
model for the rest of the world. The world systems framework proposes that education is a
human right and that world standards should ensure that access to a quality education is equit-
able. The postcolonial framework views globalization as a vehicle to impose practices that favor
the rich and disenfranchise large masses of citizens. Finally, the culturalist framework questions
the idea that Western models of education are imposed; rather, it recognizes different forms of
knowledge and models. The approach to education, particularly in developing countries, can
determine the trajectory of their economic development and their level of participation in a global
society. Developing countries that persist in using postcolonial educational models that leave
masses of citizens without access to education will not be able to compete in key global sectors.
Global competitiveness. According to Clifton (2011), the key factor that will spur on
economic development and global competitiveness is the creation of well-paying, meaningful
jobs. Three kinds of people will be the catalyst for this kind of sustained growth: entrepreneurs,
inventors, and super mentors. Educational programs are key in producing the kind of workforce
that is needed to thrive in a global society (Blanchard, 2010; Clifton, 2011; Dicken, 2003). Costa
Rica’s investment in education has paid off with big dividends. The country has created a work-
force that is recognized for its high educational standards and productivity level (CINDE, 2015).
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Along with a focus on literacy, the MEP has established programs to support literacy in computer
science and the mastery of English as a second language (CINDE, 2015). Costa Rica has 113
technical high schools with over 50 different specialty areas including accounting, banking,
computer programming, electronics, software development, industrial maintenance, and network
informatics. High school education in Costa Rica is focused on achieving competitive skills
needed for the workforce and successfully completing a college degree. The national plan to
create a multilingual, technologically literate citizenry has been Costa Rica’s response to in-
creased global demands for human capital that is equipped with 21st-century skills (CINDE,
2015; Wagner, 2008).
Twenty-first-century skills. Intrinsically connected to the concept of globalization is the
idea that students need to be prepared 21st-century learners. The concept of the 21st-century
learner describes the skills, knowledge, literacies, and expertise that students must master to
compete in the global marketplace. According to Wagner (2008), education is the key to closing
the global achievement gap. He has identified seven survival skills: critical thinking and problem
solving, collaboration across networks, agility and adaptability, effective oral and written com-
munication, accessing and analyzing information, and curiosity and imagination. These skills
that will be delineated below were developed using input from business leaders from around the
globe. Business leaders share the characteristics of people whom they either hire or are looking
to hire. These skills illustrate how globalization has affected education. Students need skills that
allow them to matriculate in various settings and environments at a high level (see Figure 2).
Wagner (2008) asserted that critical thinking has been defined as the ability to tackle sit-
uations, issues, and problems by being able to understand the nature of the problem and how it
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Figure 2. Framework for 21st-century student learning. Taken from
Overview: Framework for 21st Century Learning, by Partnership for 21st
Century Skills, 2009, retrieved from http://www.p21.org/overview/
skills-framework

evolved. Being able to work collaboratively with team mates to solve problems and creating
innovative solutions are paramount to being able to work in a global society. Because technology
has transformed communication, teams can now work collaboratively across the globe. Being
able to adapt to new and challenging situations, to learn new skills, and to be cross trained is
necessary because the job market changes rapidly based on the demands of the global market-
place and global economies. Leaders seek out employees with leadership ability. Job creators
are searching for those who can show initiative, entrepreneurship, and drive. Wagner noted that
80% of the employers he surveyed stated that high school graduates have deficient oral and
written communication skills. This problem is caused in part by the simplistic form of writing
that is required on standardized tests. Employees must be able to access and analyze information
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and then communicate that information orally or in writing. The seventh survival skill requires
that employees think outside of the box—a skill that is needed to advance innovation and create
new markets and business platforms. Job creators are searching for employees who can create
the next big thing using curiosity and imagination. According to Wagner (2008), the world has
changed, and students need skills that will enable them to thrive in a global knowledge economy.
Multinational Corporations

Investments from MNCs that were attracted to Costa Rica through agencies such as
CINDE have contributed significantly to FDI and education in Costa Rica (OECD, Development
Centre, 2012; Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). Costa Rica employed specific strategies to attract MNCs
that were rooted in growing the national economy and creating jobs. During the mid 1980s
through the 1990s, Costa Rica used an economic development model that incorporated trade
liberalization, export promotion, tax incentives, and an opening of the economy to new markets
for both exports and imports (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). The main priority was to attract FDI and
promote nontraditional exports (OECD, Development Centre, 2012).
Impact of FDI and Promotion Agencies

Institutions such as the Costa Rican Ministry of Foreign Trade, the Foreign Trade Corpo-
ration of Costa Rica, the Consejo de Promocion de Competitividad, and CINDE have worked to
explore new, unconventional markets that Costa Rica could become a part of as well as develop
strategies to attract FDI (OECD, Development Centre, 2012). In addition to the establishment of
these agencies, Costa Rica developed a plan to provide fiscal incentives to foreign investors. The
Export Processing Zone regime allowed companies to import all of their inputs and equipment
tax free and without having to pay income tax for 8 years. After the initial 8 years, companies
would have to pay only 50% of the taxes due during the next 4 years (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
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The transition from an import-based economic model to an export-based one was sup-
ported by CINDE, a private nonprofit organization. CINDE was founded in 1983 by prominent
business people and was supported not only by the Costa Rican government but also by USAID
(Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). Its primary mission is to assist with the development of the Costa
Rican economy by attracting FDI from MNCs and businesses. In the early years, CINDE di-
rected its efforts toward attracting investment in agriculture and apparel manufacturing. When
CINDE realized that the country was unable to remain competitive in unskilled, labor-intensive
industries, a strategic plan was created that focused on sectors associated with electrical, elec-
tronics, and telecommunications sectors. These sectors were chosen due to their fast growth in
other countries and because they were thought to be a good match with Costa Rica’s skilled
workforce, English literacy, and the country’s political stability (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). In
1995 DSC Communications established a manufacturing plant in Costa Rica and was followed
by Sawtek, Merrimac and Remec Industries. Through these partnerships, CINDE acquired a
firsthand knowledge of how to attract and keep foreign direct investors in Costa Rica.
CINDE’s growing knowledge of the electronic field and how to promote itself as a
worthy candidate for FDI helped it to create a campaign to attract Intel to the country. CINDE
used this knowledge to create a presentation for Intel (the world’s largest semiconductor manu-
facturer) regarding placing Costa Rica on Intel’s list of possible locations (OECD, Development
Centre, 2012). CINDE’s presentation highlighted the country’s political stability, legal system,
knowledge of English, literate work force, high quality of life, natural resources, health services,
and educational system (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). After several visits to the country, Intel placed
Costa Rica as a top contender on a list of four countries: Costa Rica, Brazil, Chile, and Mexico.
In November of 1996, Intel announced that it had selected Costa Rica as the location of its new
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assembly and testing plant. This investment was projected to be somewhere between $300 and

$500 million (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). By December of 1999 Intel had already invested $390
million and was employing more than 2000 people (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
Impact of Investment by Intel and Other MNCs

Intel’s investment in Costa Rica has continued to have a positive effect on its educational
system and national economy (CIA, 2014; CINDE, 2015; OECD, Development Centre, 2012;
Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). Intel’s decision to invest in Costa Rica became worldwide news and
therefore gained the attention of other MNCs that were looking for new markets with a highly
qualified workforce (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). Because of Intel’s reputation for using stringent
guidelines and a rigorous site selection process, other MNCs knew that they could rely on Intel’s
opinion of the country and the prospects for a positive investment experience. Having being
selected by Intel legitimized Costa Rica as a credible location for FDI. During the past 10+
years, Costa Rica has been able to attract over 120 companies that employ more than 66,000
people. Products from Intel account for 20% of Costa Rica’s national exports (OECD, Develop-
ment Centre, 2012). The Costa Rican investment strategy has been successful at attracting FDI
from a variety of other business entities as well.
In addition to providing jobs and strengthening the national economy, Intel has invested
in training for its employees and the higher educational system in Costa Rica. Known for its
rigorous training programs, Intel continues to invest heavily in training programs for its employ-
ees. Intel’s training programs provide specialized PD in manufacturing and research and devel-
opment (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). Intel employees are able to travel across the globe to visit other
Intel plants, and some of Intel’s former Costa Rican employees have taken that knowledge and
created spin-off companies modeled on Intel’s structure and principles (OECD, Development
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Centre, 2012). In addition to the manufacturing plant, Intel has recently established a research
and development division in Costa Rica that has created 300 additional jobs. In order to ensure
that the workforce was capable of meeting productivity demands, Intel has continued to work
with the Costa Rican government and the MEP (CINDE, 2015; Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
Prior to selecting Costa Rica as a location, Intel identified areas in education that they
could partner with the MEP, particularly in technology education. Stronger technology curricula
were developed at three of the major universities in the country: Instituto Tecnológica de Costa
Rica (ITCR) and UCR. Intel has worked closely with ITCR (Costa Rica’s main technical univer-
sity) to enhance its English programs, and skills required for work in the corporation (OECD,
2012, Development Centre). Because of ITCR’s partnership with Intel, several positive changes
have occurred: new degree programs, improved teacher training in technical fields, creation of a
certificate program for technical high schools, creation of an associate degree program, and a
language training program in both English and Spanish (CINDE, 2015; Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
Intel’s investment in the economic and educational systems of Costa Rica has been suc-
cessful. Not only did Intel’s presence in Costa Rica legitimize the country as a viable market for
FDI, but it also allowed the country to refine its strategies in attracting and retaining MNCs (CIA,
2014; Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). Costa Rica has been able to continue establishing global relation-
ships with MNCs globally and to expand its use of an export-based economic growth model
(OECD, 2012, Development Centre). Intel has continued to invest in the Costa Rican education
system through collaboration with the MEP, public universities, as well as the PD of its employ-
ees in all areas of STEM (CINDE, 2015). Nonprofit foundations such as the Omar Dengo
Foundation have also supported the introduction, implementation, and evaluation of technology
use in education (OECD, 2012, Development Centre).
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STEM Education and PBL

STEM PBL is the combination of the interdisciplines of science, technology, engineering
and mathematics with the mastery of those subjects using real-world, hands-on projects. This
section explores the concepts of STEM education and PBL separately to establish a clear context
of their meaning and then examines the connections between the two areas. STEM-PBL has
developed into an educational theory and set of instructional practices that include an eight-
concept theoretical framework. The STEM-PBL framework and how it connects to discreet
subject areas is discussed, as well as the opportunities for hands-on research provided by local
and national science fair participation.
STEM Education

STEM education is the integration of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics.
There are multiple approaches to creating the integration of these core subjects. STEM-enhanced
models are programs where schools have added additional STEM course work. The more
desirable approach to STEM education involves an integrated STEM model that includes the
teaching of science and mathematics disciplines by infusing the practices of scientific inquiry,
technological and engineering design, mathematical analysis, and 21st-century interdisciplinary
skills. STEM education seeks to incorporate all of the disciplines by having students engage with
real-world problems using 21st-century skills (Johnson, 2012).
Educational sectors around the globe have relayed the importance of the STEM fields of
study. Resent research has stated that 1 out of 3 jobs in the next 3 years will come from a STEM
field (Friedman, 2007). There has been powerful momentum from global leaders who express
the connection between technology and global citizenship with respect to a global STEM reform
movement (Holbrook, 2008). The STEM reform movement has been driven by three main goals:
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(a) to increase the number of students who pursue advanced degrees and careers in STEM, (b) to
expand STEM participation in the workplace, and (c) to increase students’ STEM literacy
(Johnson, 2012).
PBL

PBL is an approach to learning that is student driven and teacher facilitated (Bell, 2010).
This approach to instruction teaches curricular concepts through a project. The project is guided
by an inquiry question and allows students to acquire their own knowledge through a process that
incorporates interdisciplinary subjects. Students benefit from this approach to instruction
because they can develop a focus question or subject of inquiry, develop and organize a plan to
solve or answer the problem, and then create a way of communicating their results. Teachers
provide guidance on the structure of the project and oversee each step. Students are able to use
their technology skills and work collaboratively with others to solve real-world problems (Bell,
2010).
Instruction using PBL creates outcomes that produce a greater understanding of the
subject matter because students are able to be independent thinkers who are responsible for their
learning (Capraro et al., 2013; Fulton & Britton, 2011; Johnson, 2012). Students want to learn
because they are in control of their learning. Because they are engaged at a higher level, their
understanding of the subject matter is greater (Capraro et al., 2013; Bell, 2010). PBL projects
include reading, writing, and mathematics; many are science based with connections to current
social problems. With PBL, students have the opportunity to collect and organize research,
analyze the data, and select a way to display what they have learned in the form of a project. The
three learning outcomes that PBL fosters are responsibility, independence, and discipline. The
teacher’s role as the facilitator helps students to stay on track, and daily goal setting encourages
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student accountability throughout the project. This approach to learning is motivating for
students and allows them to use all of the 21st-century skills that are needed to compete in a
global society (Bell, 2010; Capraro et al., 2013; Wagner, 2008).
Connection Between STEM and PBL

Capraro et al. (2013) defined STEM PBL as “ill-defined task within a well-defined
outcome situated within a contextually rich task requiring student to solve several problems that
when considered in their entirety showcase student mastery of several concepts of various STEM
subjects” (p. 2). In short STEM PBL is the melding of the two concepts. STEM represents the
“what” of what students need to know, while PBL represents the “how” of how they will learn
what they need to know. STEM provides the core subject matter, while PBL provides the
authentic experience by which a student can engage with the subject matter (Capraro, Capraro, &
Morgan, 2013).
STEM–PBL framework. Eight concepts make up the theoretical framework for STEM
PBL (Slough & Milam, 2013). These eight concepts are divided into two categories: design of
learning environments, and foundations in the learning sciences. When designing programs that
support STEM PBL one must consider the learning environment. According to the framework
the environment should make content accessible, make thinking visible, help students learn from
others, and promote autonomy and lifelong learning (Slough & Milam, 2013). Instruction should
provide opportunities for students to ask questions, conduct investigations, collect data, and
verbalize their own theories. Modeling scientific thinking that uses deductive reasoning and
hypothesis development helps make scientific thinking visible to the learner. Students need to
learn how to learn from others (Capraro et al., 2013). These skills require students to listen to
others, design discussions, and understand norms and social structures (Slough & Milam, 2013).
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The second category of the STEM PBL framework is foundations in the learning sci-
ences. This category explores the concepts of preexisting knowledge, teaching for understand-
ing, metacognition, and feedback, revision and reflection (Slough & Milam, 2013). Preexisting
knowledge influences what students observe and what connections they form. Factual knowl-
edge must be used and placed into a conceptual framework in order for it to become working
knowledge (Capraro et al., 2013; Mayer, 2011). Therefore, teaching must be done using strate-
gies that stimulate multiple senses and learning modalities (Ambrose, Bridges, DiPietro, Lovett,
& Norman, 2010; Mayer, 2011). Students must be able to process and actively engage with new
content in order to see its connection to current understandings (Slough & Milam, 2013).
Effective STEM PBL instruction must include opportunities for students to reflect on their own
learning and receive constructive valid feedback from their teachers (Capraro et al., 2013). The
theoretical framework for the design of STEM PBL includes skills that are used to ensure that
students are prepared to compete in national science fairs as well as to enter successful career in
the 21st century.
STEM–PBL instruction connects discrete subject areas and learning activities that are
integrated with real-world issues and practices (Bell, 2010). According to Capraro et al. (2013),
there are nine steps when developing STEM–PBL lessons: determining the real problem, stating
the real problem, identifying alternative perspectives, determining constraints, gathering informa-
tion, generating possible solutions, choosing the best solution, planning the steps for implement-
ing the solution, and adapting the solution. These steps are guided by the teacher, who engages
students with open-ended questioning to move them through the process (Capraro et al., 2013).
This process is very similar to the process that is used to solve problems and search for innova-
tive solutions in today’s workplace (Friedman, 2007; see Figure 3).
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Figure 3. STEM–PBL framework. STEM = science, technology, engineer-
ing, math; PBL = project-based learning. Taken from STEM Project-Based
Learning: An Integrated Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathemat-
ics (STEM) Approach (2nd ed.), by R. M. Capraro, M. Capraro, and J. Mor-
gan, 2013, Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense.
STEM–PBL Connections to Local and International Science Fair Participation

Science fairs provide students with the opportunity for hands-on research using the prin-
ciples of STEM–PBL instruction (Bellipanni & Lilly, 1999). Costa Rica has made STEM
education and PBL a national educational priority. In addition to providing financial resources
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specifically earmarked for developing a STEM-literate society, the country has also mandated
student participation in science fairs. The first national science fair in Costa Rica took place in
1987 and was managed by the MEP, the MICITT, the National Board for Scientific and Tech-
nological Research (CONICIT), and the UCR. During the 1990s, the Science and Technology
Development Promotion Act (Law 7169) created the National Science Foundation. The purpose
of this organization was to stimulate students’ interest in science and encourage then to expand
their skills in the areas of science and technology (Valencia, 2009).
Costa Rican science fairs. By 2000, Costa Rica’s 20 regional science fairs were estab-
lished and included over 700 schools. In 2004, National Decree #31900 by the MEP and
MICITT made institutional science fairs (fairs at each school) mandatory, and created a national
school calendar. The National Program of Science and Technology Fairs Program
(PRONAFECYT) includes all preschools and the first, second, and third cycles of elementary
schools, high schools, and technical professional schools. That year over 2,300 schools partici-
pated, and Costa Rican students won third place at the Intel International Science and Engineer-
ing Fair (ISEF). By 2007, science research as a process was integrated into the core curriculum
and the engineering fair was created (Valencia, 2009).
MEP-MICITT Executive Decree No. 31.900 defines the implementation of the science
fair program as well as the responsibilities of the organizations involved as follows: to organize
the science and technology fair, to ensure compliance with guidelines, to establish a headquarters
for the execution of the science fair, to encourage and motivate schoolwide participation, to
promote teacher training, and to guarantee the involvement of schools by establishing liaisons
and advertisements (Valencia, 2009).
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Costa Rican science fair guidelines indicate that there are four participation categories for
students to submit projects: monographs, demonstrations of scientific or technological principles,
scientific research projects, and technological research and development projects (Valencia,
2009). According to the Science and Technology Fair Manual (2007-2009; as cited in Valencia,
2009) , there are nine categories in which students can develop projects: biology, environmental
science, computer science, earth and space science, social and behavioral sciences, physics and
mathematics, engineering and technology, chemistry, and health and medicine.
Science fairs in Costa Rica are organized from the school site level to the national level,
and guidelines are overseen by the MEP, MEP, CONICIT, and public universities (Valencia,
2009). Science fairs are structured into four levels: (a) institutional science and technology fairs
that take place at the school sites, (b) circuit science and technology fairs that involve winners
from schools in that municipality, (c) regional science fairs that include winners from each of the
circuit science and technology fair winners, and (d) winning projects from the regional science
fair that participate in the PRONAFECYT. Those winners then go on to the Intel ISEF (Valen-
cia, 2009).
ISEFs. The ISEF is the largest precollege scientific research event in the world. The Intel
ISEF was established in 1950 and has been sponsored by Intel since 1997 (Bencze & Bowen,
2009; Intel, 2015). Millions of students worldwide compete at the local, regional, and national
levels in order to participate in the ISEF. More than 70 countries now participate in the Intel
ISEF, where more than 600 individual and team awards are presented (Intel, 2015). Awards can
range anywhere from $500 to $5 million (Bencze & Bowen, 2009).
To prepare students for science fair participation, the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT has a
training process. This process involves all school regions in the county and is structured
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according to modules. The modules include topics that support the organization of the fair but
not classroom instructional practices that support student success at local, circuit, and regional
fairs (Valencia, 2009). Intel has developed the Estudiantes como Cientificos (Students as Scien-
tist) program in collaboration with the MEP and the UCR (Intel, 2015).
Costa Rica has a focused approached on stimulating student’s interest in STEM fields.
The investment in the national educational system as well as the resources provided by MNCs
have allowed Costa Rica to grow their science fair programs, and nationally to promote the use of
STEM PBL (OECD, 2012, Development Centre; CINDE, 2015; Valencia, 2009).
Leadership in the 21st Century

Costa Rica’s economic and educational investment strategy has been driven by strong
leadership that was committed to transforming the organizational structures and priorities of the
nation (Booth, 1998; Lopez, 1996). It was strong leadership that guided the country as it devel-
oped the various economic and education entities. Key leadership strategies can be seen in Costa
Rica’s rich and relatively peaceful political history, such as the social reform efforts by President
Guardia or the dismantling of the Costa Rican army by Don Pepe (Booth, 1998). This section of
the literature review explores the concepts of leadership, the change process, leadership that will
be needed to advance the work that has been done in STEM PBL to prepare students for science
fair participation, and the type of PD that will be required to make these efforts successful.
Leadership Defined

According to Northouse (2013), “leadership is a process whereby an individual influences
as group of individuals to achieve a common goal” (p. 5). Leadership as a process involves influ-
encing a group of individuals to direct their energy and resources to develop and work toward a
mutual purpose or goal. There are several approaches to leadership and the processes that leaders
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use to gain influence over the individuals that follow them. Northouse distinguished between
leadership and management: Management produces order and consistency; managers engage in
activities such as planning and budgeting, organizing and staffing, and controlling and problem
solving. Leaders produce change and movement; they engage in activities that establish direc-
tion, align people with resources, and provide motivation and inspiration. According to Kotter
(1996) and other scholars, management and leadership are two distinct constructs. However,
researchers have agreed that there are times when both management and leadership must work in
conjunction with one another to achieve the desired goal (Bolman & Deal, 2008). In addition to
various styles of leadership, there are two common forms: assigned and emergent. Assigned
leadership is based on a title or position; emergent leadership results from the actions of leaders
and the support that the leader receives from followers (Northouse, 2013).
Transformational Leaders

Northhouse (2013) noted that transformational leaders are those who can engage others,
create connections, and raise the level of motivation and morality in those who follow. Transfor-
mational leaders who gain the position either by assignment or the emergent mode have the
ability to develop a vision, persuade other that it is the right vision, and motivate them to take
steps toward the vision. Transformational leaders develop human capital and help them to
realize their fullest potential. Bolman and Deal (2008) developed the concept of four frames that
represent leaders’ actions and decisions. Transformational leaders have the ability to work in
multiple frames to push a vision forward and make progress (Bolman & Deal, 2008; Northouse,
2013).
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Authentic Leadership

According to Northouse (2013), “Authentic Leadership is a complex process that empha-
sizes the development of qualities that help leaders to be perceived as trustworthy and believable
by their followers” (p. 254). Authentic leadership represents one of the newest areas of leader-
ship research. This approach focuses on whether leadership is genuine and real. Although still in
the formative phase of development, this theory incorporates well- defined qualities of leadership
that show how the internal motivations of leaders translate to external results. George’s (2007)
approach to authentic leadership focused on the actual qualities of the leader and how one can
develop these qualities. George identified five key dimensions:
1. Leaders understand their purpose.

2. Leaders have strong values about the right thing to do.

3. Leaders establish trusting relationships with others.

4. Leaders demonstrate self-discipline and act on values.

5. Leaders are passionate about their mission—act from their heart. (p. 196)

Bolman and Deal’s Leadership Frames

According to Bolman and Deal (2008), “a frame is a mental model—a set of ideas or
assumptions that you carry in your head to help you understand and negotiate a particular terri-
tory” (p. 11). Bolman and Deal (2008) have identified four frames that describe leadership char-
acteristics and actions and that can be used as lenses through which leadership traits, decisions,
and actions can be viewed. The four frames are structural, human resource, political, and sym-
bolic.
Structural frame. Structural leaders, or those operating in the structural frame, empha-
size productivity, order, policies, and focus on program implementation. They work best when
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goals are clarified and priorities are made clear. Structural leaders design and implement struc-
tures to fit the circumstances. They focus on facts, logic, and details rather than personalities or
emotions. The makeup of structural leaders’ style includes analysis and design of their environ-
ment and tasks that are to be completed (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
Human resource frame. Human resource leaders believe in people and communicate
that belief through their actions and interactions with them. They believe that people are the
heart of an organization and that people will produce greater results when their needs are satisfied
in a trusting work environment. Human resource leaders are visible, empowering, and create
dispersed leadership by providing opportunities for others to share in decision making. Human
resource leaders can move decision making down in to the organization (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
Political frame. Political leaders recognize the reality of navigating political environ-
ments. Political leaders are savvy at building linkages to key stakeholders. They are able to
properly access the distribution of power and identify the power brokers in an organization.
Political leaders are able to build power bases and create new avenues for negotiation and
compromise. They can build power bases and use power wisely. Political leaders use persua-
sion, negotiation, and coercion when necessary (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
Symbolic frame. Symbolic leaders shape a culture and provide meaning, belief, and a
clear mission for an organization. Symbolic leaders lead by example and use symbols to inspire
followers to make the organization the best that it can be. Symbolic leaders are able to articulate
an exciting vision that others want to be a part of. They model the values, vision, and mission of
an organization. In turn, the members of the organization want to emulate the symbolic leader’s
characteristics (Bolman & Deal, 2008; see Figure 4).
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Figure 4. Bolman and Deal’s four frames. Taken from Re-

framing Organizations: Artistry, Choice, and Leadership
(4th ed.), by L. Bolman and T. Deal, 2008, San Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bass, p. 119.

Each of the four frames contains leadership characteristics that assist with change.

Moving an organization forward through refinement of practices and procedures requires a leader
who is symbolic (i.e., able to be an example of change), political (i.e., has the ability to negotiate
with power brokers through the change process), human resource minded (i.e., understands the
needs of people during times or change), and structural (i.e., able to provide order and clarity
during times of change; Bolman & Deal, 2008; Kotter, 1996). According to Fullan (2010), in
order to become a change agent, one must exhibit seven competencies: (a) challenging the status
quo, (b) building trust through the use of clear communication techniques, (c) creating a plan for
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success, (d) focusing on team versus individual needs, (e) having a sense of urgency, (f) commit-
ting to continuous improvement, and (g) building external networks and partnerships.
Kotter’s Change Framework

According to Kotter (1996, p. 8), there are eight common mistakes that leaders and
organizations make when it comes to embracing and going through the change process. These
mistakes are often visible in the day-to-day operations of an organization as well as in an orga-
nization’s culture. Kotter described these eight mistakes in the following ways: (a) allowing to
much complacency, (b) failing to create powerful coalitions, (c) underestimating the power of
vision, (d) undercommunicating the vision, (e) permitting obstacles to block the vision, (f) failing
to create short-term wins, (g) declaring victory too soon, and (h) neglecting to incorporate
changes into the organization’s culture.
Change is a multistep process that creates power, energy, and motivation. Change is
driven by leadership. This leadership must simply managerial (Fullan, 2010; George, 2007;
Kotter, 1996). According to Kotter (1996, p. 47), there is an eight-step change process through
which leaders should guide their organizations: (a) establishing a sense of urgency, (b) creating
the guiding coalition, (c) developing a vision and strategy for the change effort, (d) clearly com-
municating the change vision, (e) empowering broad based action, (f) generating short-term
wins, (g) consolidating gains to produce more change, and (h) anchoring new approaches in the
culture. The effectiveness of this change process is seen when the steps are implemented sequen-
tially. Because of the nature of the steps, leaders, not managers, are necessary to guide an organi-
zation through the process (Kotter, 1996; see Figure 5).
The use of Kotter’s eight-step change process is evident in the leadership in Costa Rica.
Leaders in Costa Rica created a sense of urgency in terms of attracting FDI, investing in STEM–
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Figure 5. Kotter’s eight-step change process. Taken from Leading Change, by

J. Kotter, 1996, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business Press.

PBL education, and creating a national focus in the STEM fields (CINDE, 2015; Valencia,
2009). Coalitions were established and a mission for change was developed. Each coalition
(CINDE, MEP, MICITT) communicated their mission and vision for the country and has em-
powered broad based action (CINDE, 2015; Valencia, 2009).
Principal Leadership

High-quality principal leadership at the school site level must be in place in order for
positive changes to continue to occur in Costa Rican STEM education. Effective school leaders
have the ability to build intellectual capital in schools by making curriculum choices that will aid
in students learning at high levels and establishing schoolwide expectations for students and staff
in terms of learning outcomes (Fink & Resnick, 2001). Schools where principals serve as the
instructional leader are able to develop a collaborative environment where all stakeholders work
together to make a common vision a reality (Marks & Printy, 2003; Marzano, Waters, &
McNulty, 2005).
Waters, Marzano, and McNulty (2003) identified 21 key areas of school leadership that
correlate with student achievement. Among them are establishing a learning culture, creating
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order and positive discipline, having knowledge of and involvement with the curriculum, being
able to provide intellectual stimulation, being a change agent, and being a relationship builder
who knows how to maximize both human capital and financial resources. It should be noted that
woven within these characteristics are aspects that are reflected in Bolman and Deal’s (2008)
four frames, Fullan’s (2010) process for change, as well as Kotter’s (19960 change framework.
A principal’s values and beliefs guide how he or she will interact with stakeholders and
shape their vision for a school site. According to Gurr, Drysdale, and Mulford (2006), teaching
and learning outcomes are determined by the level of expectation that is set. Principals are able
to provide and model high expectations for their staff members who, in turn, establish high
expectations for students (Ambrose et al., 2010; Bolman & Deal, 2008; Gurr et al., 2006).
Transformational principals. According to Yang (2014), principals who are able to
successfully incorporate the values, personal characteristics, and actions required to make change
are transformational principals. These principals develop over time in a three-stage process.
This process can be used to determine the level of leadership that a principal is portraying as well
as the transformational stage. During the first stage, transformational leadership is embryotic.
Principals in this stage have no clear sense of the vision for the school. During the second stage,
transformational leadership is formative. The principal has a clear vision but does not know all
of the skills needed to make the vision a reality. The third stage of transformational leadership is
the mature stage. Here the principal has all the tools needed to move the organization forward
and to turn the vision into a reality.
Successful principals are able to set a direction for a shared vision but, more importantly,
cultivate the human capital to propel the vision forward. Youngs and King (2002) referred to this
set of actions as capacity building; others have referred to it as distributed leadership. According
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to Youngs and King, principals can enhance teacher’s knowledge and skills by connecting their
staff to external expertise, by creating internal structures for continuous learning, and by estab-
lishing trusting relationships with all stakeholders. Principals must have both internal and
external factors that make them search out better practices that lead to a continuous cycle of
improvement. Internally, they need passion and enthusiasm for learning, the ability to communi-
cate skillfully, and an open-minded approach to problem solving (Leithwood, 2005). Externally,
principals need to ability to draw upon and develop leadership from their school staff. In short
leaders need the ability to create leaders (Leithwood, 2005).
Teacher Leadership

Teacher leadership as a concept has evolved over time. The 1980s have been viewed as a
pivotal decade in terms of the explosion of districtwide and site-based opportunities for teacher
involvement. Some credit the publication of the report, A Nation Prepared: Teachers for the
21st Century (Carnegie Corp. of New York, 1986) and the creation of the National Board for
Professional Teaching Standards as changing the landscape and mindset of how teacher leader-
ship roles were viewed and valued (Urbanski & Nickolaou, 1997). Since the 1990s, the role of
leadership and its types has been explored. From this exploration came emerging models of
teacher leadership and its implications on student achievement (Urbanski & Nickolaou, 1997).
Recent literature has sought to define the qualities of teacher leaders, to synthesize best practices,
to create theoretical frameworks for understanding distributed leadership, and to provide insight
into future practices (Kingsley, 2012).
Qualities and roles. Researchers have defined teacher leaders as using both qualities
that teacher leaders have and the actions that they take to enrich their school communities
(Lieberman & Miller, 2005; Mangin & Stoelinga, 2010). According to Martin (2007), there are
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layers of teacher leadership that can be defined as formal and informal. Formal teacher leaders
are those who have been assigned a specific role that allows them to utilize specialized skills
outside of the classroom. Informal teacher leaders are those who lead within the framework of
their classrooms by providing successful learning environments. Martin’s definition of a teacher
leader combines both attributes and actions: “My new short version of a teacher leader is a
person who leads by example, has credibility and expertise, is a problem solver and relates well
to others” (p. 47). Other researchers have concluded that teacher leaders have many of the same
attributes as other leaders: the ability to build trust and rapport, making organizational diagnosis,
managing work, creative problem solving, and building skill and confidence in others (Lieber-
man & Miller, 2005).
Best practices. Lieberman and Miller (2005) developed three broad conceptions of the
role of teacher leader and then compiled empirical studies of best practices of teacher leadership
roles that fit within each conception. The first conception identifies works on individual teacher
leader roles and organizational realities. Four tenets of leadership summarize the role of the
teacher leader: experience, knowledge, vision, and respect for children. The second conception
describes the idea of learning in practice. The literature on reflective practice establishes the
theoretical framework for how collaborative learning takes place. Teacher leaders facilitate col-
laborative learning and reflective practice by consistently engaging their colleagues in meaning-
ful dialogues about teaching, learning outcomes, refinement, management of change, and pur-
pose (Bowman, 2004). Teacher leaders move the conversation forward from individualism to
colleagueship and then further to refinement of practice. The last concept, according to Lieber-
man and Miller, is the broadening conceptions of the teacher leader role and the description of
best practices. It is now known that the use of these best practices by teacher leaders helps to
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build professional learning communities (PLCs) and contributes to the overall achievement of the
school (DuFour, DuFour, Eaker, & Karhanek, 2010).
Future practices. In response to the increased expectations and accountability measures,
schools and districts are turning toward models that use nonsupervisory, school-based instruc-
tional teacher leader roles to provide support to teachers, improve instruction, increase collegial-
ity, and enhance student learning (Mangin & Stoelinga, 2010). More work is needed to develop
teacher leaders during teacher preparation at the college level. In addition, support is needed to
guide administrators as they implement distributed leadership models at their school sites.
According to Mangin and Stoelinga (2010), increased opportunities to learn about teacher lead-
ership will help to facilitate the implementation and institutionalization of teacher leader roles.
The relationship between subject area expertise and effective instructional teacher leadership as
well as how roles are distributed in correlation to site administration training on PLCs should be
explored (Ludlow, 2011; Mangin & Stoelinga, 2010).
PD and Training for STEM Educators

Part of the job of a good leader is to provide meaningful PD and training that will propel
the vision forward. Teachers of STEM subjects need quality PD in both content and strategies,
such as PBL, that make the content more meaningful for students (Bell, 2010). This section of
the literature review will identify the components of an effective PD program, describe the
process of establishing PLCs that foster ongoing PD, and discuss the implications of PD pro-
grams for STEM education.
Effective PD. Hunzicker (2010) identified five key areas of effective PD: supportive, job
embedded, instructionally focused, collaborative, and ongoing. PD should be supportive of the
goals, learning needs, and accommodate varying teaching styles and content areas. Job-
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embedded PD includes activities that enable the participant to apply them in their daily work. It
also allows for reflection on the learning after trying out a new skill or strategy. Quality PD must
emphasize the instructional focus and training in which increased knowledge or skills is required.
PD should equip teachers, particularly of STEM disciplines, with strong content knowledge and a
wide range of instructional strategies (Capraro et al., 2013; Hunzicker, 2011). Finally, PD must
be collaborative and ongoing. It should engage teachers on multiple levels and provide opportu-
nities for them to continuously have conversations and discourses that allow them to share
strategies and to reflect on learning (DuFour et al., 2010; DuFour, DuFour, Eacker, & Many,
2010; Hunzicker, 2011).
In their book, Learning Communities That Work, DuFour et al. (2010) outlined a frame-
work for establishing PLCs. PLCs create opportunities for ongoing PD and reflection on
instructional practices and procedures. PLCs are established by creating learning teams within a
school that will plan instruction, decide on instructional strategies, learn new techniques together,
and review and reflect on data.
The three key ideas that form the core agreements of a PLC are the following:

1. The purpose of the school is to ensure that all students achieve at a high level;

2. Helping students requires a collaborative effort; and

3. The effectiveness of helping students must be assessed by analyzing results and using
those results to inform and improve professional practice (DuFour et al., 2010).
The work of PLCs is guided by four overarching questions (see Figure 6):

1. What will students learn?

2. How will we know if students are learning?

3. How will we respond when students do not learn?
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Figure 6. Guiding questions for professional learning commu-
nities. Adapted from Learning by Doing: A Handbook for
Professional Learning Communities at Work, by R. DuFour,
R. DuFour, R. Eacker, and T. Many, 2010, Bloomington, IN:
Solution Tree Press.

4. How will we enrich and extend the learning for students who are proficient (DuFour
et al., 2010, p. 24)?
In order for schools to utilize this approach, staff members must be divided into meaning-
ful teams. Time must be provided for teachers to collaborate, and team structures must be devel-
oped. Work is clarified and monitoring of the work are done by providing meaningful feedback,
celebrating short-term wins, and confronting those who do not contribute to the success of the
team (DuFour & Marzano, 2011).
According to Fulton and Britton (2011) “STEM teaching is more effective and student
achievement increases when teachers join forces to develop strong professional learning commu-
nities in their schools” (p. 4). STEM learning teams that have used the PLC model for PD
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demonstrated an increase in their content knowledge as well as the use of more research-based
methods for teaching the content. Participating in STEM PLCs also helps teams to successfully
engage in discourse about the subject areas and therefore helps them to understand the fields of
mathematics and science better. The use of diverse modes of learning strategies enhances stu-
dents’ abilities to access the curriculum. In order for this result to be achieved, teachers must
have a clear understanding of the curriculum themselves and be able to deliver instruction that
will produce high levels of student learning (Capraro et al., 2013).
Chapter Summary

Costa Rica’s history, leadership, global immersion, educational system, and economic
enterprises were presented to give the reader an understanding and background on how these
various forces combined to create a national STEM culture. Three frameworks relating to
education and leadership were presented to provide an understanding of the various roles that
leaders play in implementing change and sustaining progress (Rodriguez-Clare, 2001). Costa
Rica’s focus on STEM education and its participation in local, regional, national, and interna-
tional science fairs have been the result of many historical, political, economic, and education-
related actions and decisions (Daling, 2002; Rodríguez-Clare, 2001; Valencia, 2009). Because of
the leadership decisions that were made, Costa Rica has created opportunities that have allowed
the country to participate in the global marketplace. This participation has propelled STEM
education programs as well as participation in both national and international science fairs.
60 GLOBALIZATION & COSTA RICAN SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Problem Restated

Global changes have led to an extremely competitive and rapidly developing intercon-
nected workforce (Friedman, 2007). In order for Costa Rica to separate itself from other Central
American Countries, it had to move from being an agrarian exporter to a producer of goods and
services that were marketable in the 21st century. Costa Rica’s decision to invest in its education
system, as well as to secure FDIs through the development of promotion agencies, has helped
propel the country to be a leader in the field of technology manufacturing and the production of
medical devices. Globalization necessitates change; and in order for that change to occur stu-
dents must possess the skills needed to succeed and compete in a global workforce (Wagner,
2008).
Costa Rica’s growth as a country can be linked directly to its investment in education.

Collaborating with MNCs to create a highly qualified, technologically ready workforce has
allowed the country to compete on a level that other countries in Central America have not been
able to replicate. Government policies have emphasized the development of STEM programs
and the integration of programs that teach 21st-century learning skills. One component of this
initiative has been the compulsory participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT.
To successfully implement the PRONAFECYT, leadership is required. This study seeks
to discover leadership trends and practices that lead to successful participation in the science fair.
Three frameworks will be used to illuminate these trends and provide insight into what practices
work best. Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four frames identify leadership characteristics that can be
utilized to clarify leadership actions and reactions. Kotter’s (1996) change model identifies eight
steps that can be used to guide organizations through the change process. Capraro et al. (2013)
61 GLOBALIZATION & COSTA RICAN SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION

have developed a STEM-PBL framework that identifies key instructional practices and lesson
delivery techniques that are aimed at guiding students through an integrated process of engaging
with the STEM subjects using PBL.
Purpose of Study Restated

The purpose of this study was to understand the effects of educational leadership on
student participation in the PRONAFECYT in primary schools in Costa Rica. The study will
identify the role that school leaders have in the development and implementation of the
PRONAFECYT initiative. The study will examine leadership practices, instructional strategies,
and PD practices at various school sites in order to identify key components of successful imple-
mentation of the NSF initiative. Additionally, the study will explore how schools may have
restructured their educational programs by focusing on sharing of leadership and teacher training.
The Costa Rican MEP, MICITT, and the USC Rossier School of Education have worked col-
laboratively with the research team in the completion of this study (see recruitment letter in
Appendix A).
Research Questions

The following research questions guided this study:

1. What is the role educational leaders play in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
62 GLOBALIZATION & COSTA RICAN SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION

4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practice?
Research Team

The research team for this study was comprised of 18 doctoral students from the USC
Rossier School of Education under the direction of Dr. Michael Escalante. The research team
met bimonthly with both Dr. Escalante and his assistant, Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft. The group worked
collaboratively to establish research questions, examine and present relevant literature, and
develop an understanding of conceptual frameworks for the study. Team members were divided
into pairs (one English-speaking researcher and one Spanish-speaking researcher).
Research Design and Methodology

This study employed a multimethod qualitative approach that uses interview, survey, and
observation protocols. In addition, the study utilized the six-step process for conducting research
identified by Creswell (2014): (a) select a research problem, (b) review and analyze current
subject literature, (c) develop a purpose for the research, (d) collect data using data collection
protocols and instruments, (e) triangulation of the data and analysis of results, and (f) clearly
articulate the findings.
According to Creswell (2014), qualitative research has eight key components that distin-
guish this type of research method from the quantitative research method. Qualitative research
takes place within the natural setting (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Data are collected in the field at
the site where a problem or phenomenon is occurring and multiple sources of data are gathered.
Qualitative researchers try to uncover meaning and make sense of the world around them.
According to Merriam (2009), qualitative researchers are interested in understanding how
people interpret their experience and what meaning they attribute to their experience. In
63 GLOBALIZATION & COSTA RICAN SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION

qualitative studies, the researcher is the primary instrument in terms of data collection. The
researcher conducts inductive and deductive data analyses both to capture key moments and then
to reflect upon them (Creswell, 2014).
The process for conducting qualitative research is emergent. This process allows for
reflexivity and the gathering of holistic accounts by collecting multiple perspectives and identify-
ing various factors that encompass a problem or phenomenon (McEwan & McEwan, 2003). The
qualitative method was chosen for this study because the aim was to gather meaning and under-
standing about the leadership practices, instructional strategies, and PD practices at various
school sites in order to identify key components of successful implementation of the
PRONAFECYT initiative. Data for the study were collected during a trip to Costa Rica that took
place June 12–23, 2015. School site visits were conducted to gather firsthand data. The re-
searcher for this study was the primary instrument in collecting data and will use an emergent
design while gathering holistic accounts through interviews and observations.
Population and Sample

Sampling is the process of selecting appropriate interview respondents that are able to
give information that relates directly to the research question (Maxwell, 2013). According to
Maxwell (2013), there are three types of sampling: probability, convenience, and purposeful
selection. The purposeful selection strategy deliberately selects particular settings, persons, or
activities to provide information that is relevant to the research questions and goals of the study.
Participants in this study were purposefully selected in that 18 schools in Costa Rica were
selected by the MEP from various regions of the country (see Appendix B). These schools were
selected based on their level of implementation of initiatives that support PRONAFECYT
participation. Nine of the schools selected by the MEP had a strong implementation of practices
64 GLOBALIZATION & COSTA RICAN SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION

that led to their participation in the PRONAFECYT; the other nine schools had an emergent
implementation of practices. In addition to school site visitations, Regional Directors, Agents of
the MEP, corporate partners, educational leaders, local administrators, teachers, and students
were part of the study population. Planned visits with interviews were scheduled with Vanessa
Gibson of CINDE; Mary Helen Bialas of Consejo de Promoción de la Competitividad; Dr. Alicia
Vargas, Director of the Teacher Training Program at the UCR; Alica Porras, Vice Minister of
Public Education; Natalie Valencia, Director of the National Science Fair Programs; Assembly-
man Javier Cambronero; Ana Lourdes Acuña, Coordinator of Science at the Omar Dengo Foun-
dation; Eduardo Monge, Project Development and International Relations at the Omar Dengo
Foundation; Ana Hernandez, Program Evaluations, Omar Dengo Foundation; Regional Director
José Sanchez (San José Central). Access to all participants was granted through the collaborative
partnership among USC Rossier School of Education, the Costa Rican MEP, and the Costa Rican
MICITT. See Table 1 for list of participants, affiliations, and types of data that were collected.
Instrumentation and Protocols

According to Glesne (2011), participants should be made aware that their participation is
voluntary, any aspects of the research that might affect their well-being, and that they may choose
to end their participation in the study at any time. The participant must be made aware of these
facts through informed consent (Weiss, 1994; see Appendix C). The informed consent form
included the following: identification of the researcher, identification of sponsoring institution,
identification of the purpose of the study, identification of the benefits for participating, identifi-
cation of the level and type of participant involvement, notation of risks to the participant, guar-
antee of confidentiality for the participant, assurance that the participant can withdraw at any
65 GLOBALIZATION & COSTA RICAN SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION

Table 1

Identification of Study Participants

Participant Title Affiliation Survey Interview Observation

Sylvia Ugalde
Fernandez

Costa Rican Con-
sulate General

government

X

Alicia Porras Vice Minister of
Public Education
MEP X X X
Natalie Valencia Director MICITT X X X
Vanessa Gibson Director CINDE X X X
José Sanchez Science Fair Director MEP, San José Central X X X
Mary Helen Bialas Director Consejo de Promoción X X X
Ana Lourdes
Acuña
Coordinator Omar Dengo Foundation X X

Ana Hernandez Program Evaluator Omar Dengo Foundation X X

Eduardo Monge Program Developer Omar Dengo Foundation X X

Eugenia Morales Director Omar Dengo Foundation X X

Isabella Roman Director Estado de Nacion X X

Alejandrina Mata Director/Faculty UCR Department of X X X
Segreda
Christian Jimenez Dean Don Bosco H.S. X X X
School site ad-
ministrators
Directors MEP X X X
Teachers and
students
Study participants MEP X

X

Note. MEP = Ministry of Public Education; MICITT = Ministry of Science, Technology, and
Telecommunications; CINDE = Costa Rica Investment Promotion Agency; UCR = University of
Costa Rica; H.S. = high school.
66 GLOBALIZATION & COSTA RICAN SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION

time, and provision of names of persons to contact if questions arise (Creswell, 2014; see Appen-
dix C).
Survey Protocols and Interview Protocols

According to Creswell (2014), surveys provide a quantitative or numeric description of
trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population. A cross-
sectional and longitudinal study using questionnaires will be generated from the sample popu-
lation. An interview protocol serves as a guide to assist the researcher in making sure all aspects
of the structured conversation are covered (Weiss, 1994). The interview protocol for this study
was developed to ensure that the structured conversation would flow well for the participants and
that the interview questions were clear. Both the survey protocols (see Appendices D-I) and
interview protocols (see Appendices J-N) were completed by the dissertation group for business
leaders, directors, government officials, school administrators, teachers, students, and parents.
Surveys and interviews were created to gather information about (a) the role the partici-
pant plays in implementing the PRONAFECYT, (b) the support needed to fully and effectively
implement the PRONAFECYT, (c) the level of opportunities for students to engage in scientific
inquiry as part of their instructional curriculum, (d) training that participants may have received
to implement the PRONAFECYT, and (e) the participants’ level of understanding of soft skills
relating to 21st-century skills.
Observation Protocols

An observational protocol was also developed for this study (see Appendix O). An
observational record form was used that included space to document the time, place, setting, and
participants being observed. Diagrams were used to capture visual representations of the envi-
ronment where the observations took place. The observational protocol also provided a space
67 GLOBALIZATION & COSTA RICAN SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION

where comments and mental observations could be noted. According to Merriam (2009), the
content of field notes and observation records should include the setting, people, activities, direct
quotations, and observer comments. The goal of the observational records for this study was to
include all of these aspects of recording observations.
Document Collection

Documents for this study were collected before, during, and after the visit to Costa Rica.
Document collection enabled the researcher to obtain written evidence of the language and words
of participants and/or subject area. Documents that were the most relevant to this study were (a)
school plans that indicated science fair participation, (b) training manuals or modules, (c) public
documents or decrees regarding science instruction, (d) public documents or decrees regarding
the PRONAFECYT, (e) regional science fair implementation plans, and (f) memoranda of
understanding between corporations and other support providers with the MEP.
Data Collection

To obtain permission for data collection in Costa Rica, Dr. Michael Escalante and Dr.
Oryla Wiedoeft presented a summary of the research proposal to the MEP (see Appendix P).
Interviews, observations, and documents were used to triangulate the data for this study
(McEwan & McEwan, 2003). All of the data for this study were collected during a trip to Costa
Rica in June 2015. The use of the qualitative design method shaped the process for which the
problem was identified, how the research questions were developed, and how the data will be
collected (Creswell, 2014). The data collection protocols were submitted to the USC Institu-
tional Review Board (IRB) for approval. The entire dissertation group participated in the com-
pletion of the IRB process. Each member completed the Collaborative IRB Training Initiative
(CITI) training online. The CITI is an online training program that offers a certificate upon the
68 GLOBALIZATION & COSTA RICAN SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION

completion of various modules. Each module ensures that the participant has an understanding
of ethical considerations when conducting research. It also provides each participant with a clear
understanding of how to collect data for the study with fidelity. The use of the qualitative design
method shaped the process for which the problem was identified, how the research questions
were developed, and how the data was collected (Creswell, 2014).
Interviews

Interviews are used to find out information we cannot gain by observation alone (Patton,
2002). According to Weiss (1994), interviewing gives one access to the observations of others.
Through interviewing, one learns about people’s interior thoughts and perceptions and how they
interpret those perceptions (Weiss, 1994). According to Bogdan and Biklen (2007), qualitative
interviews can be used in two ways: as a dominant strategy or in conjunction with other methods
of data collection. In addition to participant interviews, this study will use formal observations.
The dissertation group worked with Dr. Escalante and his assistant, Dr. Wiedoeft, to acquire a list
of available participants to interview. Per the interview protocols, a recruitment-consent letter
was signed by all participants. All interview data and recordings have remained confidential.
Each interview was recorded based on the consent given by the participants, and each interview
was translated and transcribed. These data were shared among all members of the dissertation
group.
Observations

Observational data represent a firsthand encounter with a problem or phenomenon for the
purpose of gathering data (Merriam, 2009). Observation as a research tool should be systematic
and address a specific research question. Being able to capture natural phenomenon through the
use of field notes requires detailed, accurate, and rich descriptions of the who, what, where, why,
69 GLOBALIZATION & COSTA RICAN SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION

and how of what is occurring (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). All observations were noted using the
protocols and recorded by the researcher. All observational findings will be shared with the
dissertation group.
Surveys

Survey forms were delivered to participants during the data collection trip in June 2015.
The surveys were distributed and collected on the same day as the site visit. Data were sorted,
coded, and shared with the dissertation group. Survey data were used to identify trends that
provided insight on perspectives from multiple participants.
Data Analysis

According to Merriam (2009), the process of data collection and analysis is recursive and
dynamic. Qualitative data analysis is inductive, comparative, and is a process used to answer
research questions. This study used Creswell’s (2014, pp. 197–202 ) six-step process for analyz-
ing data: (a) “organize and prepare data,” (b) “read though data and identify general ideas,” (c)
“code the data for detailed analysis,” (d) “categorize the data into themes or categories,” (e)
“describe how themes will be represented,” and (f) “interpret the data and provide a detailed
interpretation of the findings.” The process of analyzing the data for this study began after the
first interview. Each interview for this study was recorded with the permission of the participant.
After each interview, the researcher reviewed the recordings and added additional notes to ensure
that she had accurately captured what the participant was stating. A similar process occurred for
the observations. The researcher identified segments of the data that responded to the research
questions for this study as well as any new phenomenon that may have developed during the
course of the data collection. The researcher then compared the segments and added further
notations. In short, the process of openly coding data was utilized. After coding all the data, the
70 GLOBALIZATION & COSTA RICAN SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION

researcher grouped the open codes. This process is called analytical coding because it is coding
that is based upon interpretation and meaning (Merriam, 2009). Categories and themes were
identified by comparing data responses from each data source. Within each of these categories or
themes, subcategories were identified under each of the main categories or themes. From these
themes, categories, and subcategories, the researcher developed a code list. Each category and
subcategory was assigned a color. The color-coded system allowed the researcher to identify
trends and anomalies within the data. All interview and survey protocol questions have been
aligned to both a research question and theoretical framework (see Table 2 for a synthesis of
alignment).
Table 2

Alignment of Research Questions, Frameworks, and Survey Questions

Research
questions

Bolman and Deal
a

Kotter
b

Capraro
c

Wagner
d

RQ1

3 questions

3 questions

0 questions

0 questions
RQ2 0 questions 0 questions 3 questions 1 question
RQ3 0 questions 1 question 0 questions 5 questions
RQ4 2 questions 4 questions 1 question 1 question

a
Based on Reframing Organizations: Artistry, Choice, and Leadership (4th ed.), by L. Bolman
and T. Deal, 2008, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
b
Based on Leading Change, by J. Kotter,
1996, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business Press.
c
Based on STEM Project-Based Learning: An
Integrated Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Approach (2nd ed.), by
R. M. Capraro, M. Capraro, and J. Morgan, 2013, Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense.
d
Based
on The Global Achievement Gap: Why Even Our Best Schools Don’t Teach the Survival Skills
Our Children Need—and What We Can Do About It, by T. Wagner, 2008, New York, NY: Basic
Books.
71 GLOBALIZATION & COSTA RICAN SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION

Ethical Considerations

The researcher worked to ensure that the following ethical practices remain in place
during the entire study: (a) protecting the anonymity of all participants; (b) safekeeping of all data
and documents collected during this study; (c) resolving issues regarding data ownership; (d)
ensuring that misuse of data or mishandling of data will not occur; (e) respecting cultural norms
and values; and (f) not including in the final paper false or misleading information or information
that is biased toward any racial, ethnic, gender-sexual orientation, disability, and/or age group.
Prior to the beginning of the study, access to the participants was secured through the
MEP. All norms, rules, and ordinances that pertain to this study were followed. Each participant
received the same respectful treatment and was not deceived in terms of the study’s purpose or
intention.
Reliability and Validity

In qualitative research, the researcher must ensure that the approach to the research and
data gathering process is consistent across the individual researchers and projects (Creswell,
2014). This concept is referred to as reliability. To ensure that this study is reliable, transcripts
were checked for accuracy, codes were established as a group to ensure consistency, and cross
referencing of codes took place to ensure clear communication and interpretation of the findings
(Creswell, 2014).
Validity refers to the accuracy of the findings and requires researchers to employ specific
steps to ensure that the findings represent the data clearly. This study utilized the eight strategies
recommended by Creswell (2014, pp. 201–202) to ensure the validity of this study: (a) “triangu-
late the data”; (b) “use member checking”; (c) “use rich descriptions to convey findings”; (d)
72 GLOBALIZATION & COSTA RICAN SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION

“clarify the bias”; (e) “present negative or discrepant information”; (f) “spend time in the field”;

(g) “use peer debriefing”; and (h) use an external auditor.

Limitations and Delimitations

The limitations of this study included the following:

1. The primary researcher lives in California, a significant distance from San José, Costa

Rica.

2. The research trip took place over a 10-day period.

3. The schools that were visited were selected by the MEP.

4. The researcher is not fluent in Spanish, the primary language of most participants.

5. There are differences in educational terminology.

Delimitations are restrictions that researchers impose prior to the inception of the study to
narrow the scope. The following delimitations have been imposed in this study:
1. The number of schools that were visited were determined based on the amount of
time in the country.
2. Interviews were prearranged in specific time slots due to time constraints.

3. Time was set aside during the 10-day trip to analyze the raw data.

4. Schools that were visited were geographically mapped out to ensure availability and
access to transportation.
Chapter Summary

This study examined the leadership practices, instructional strategies, and PD practices at
various school sites in Costa Rica in order to identify the key components of successful imple-
mentation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. Chapter 3 discussed the research design and meth-
odology that will be used to conduct this study. The study utilized a qualitative research method;
73 GLOBALIZATION & COSTA RICAN SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION

data were collected via interviews, observations, and documents. The interviews, observations,
and documents were used to triangulate the data for the study; analysis of the data was conducted
using an open coding system. The study incorporated ethical considerations as well as steps to
ensure reliability and validity.
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CHAPTER FOUR: STUDY FINDINGS

Purpose Restated

The purpose of this study was to understand the effects of leadership on student participa-
tion in the PRONAFECYT in the primary schools of Costa Rica. This study identified the role
that governmental leaders, school site leaders and teachers play in the development and imple-
mentation of PRONAFECYT. Leadership practices, instructional strategies, and PD practices
were identified at six schools within the Central Region of San José. Additionally, this study
explored how schools may have restructured their educational program by focusing on STEM
and inquiry-based learning. The impetus of this restructuring was to equip students with the
21st-century skills needed to propel Costa Rica into a greater position of economic power
globally.
Data gathered from interviews, surveys, observations, and the literature were analyzed
and triangulated to identify trends and themes. The triangulated data were analyzed through the
viewpoints of three frameworks that identified the leadership characteristics, a model for change,
and the implementation of STEM programs. This chapter presents the findings from the analysis
of the information gathered from interviews, surveys, and observations, as well as literary
sources and frameworks. The following questions were utilized to understand the purpose of this
study:
1. What is the role that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
75 GLOBALIZATION & COSTA RICAN SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION

3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with the
21st-century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
Chapter Four deals with the participants who were interviewed, surveyed, and observed at
two schools (referred to as School A and School B) in the Zapote area of the Central Region.
The primary researcher in this study focused on the implications for School A; data from School
B and the Central Region as a whole were used to validate the findings for School A. The
findings for each research question will be presented by stating the themes that were found as a
result of analyzing the surveys, interviews, and observations. The triangulated data will be ref-
erenced to support each theme.
Participants

This study included participants from a sample population of school site administrators,
teachers, government officials, and business partners. School sites and directors were selected
from 18 schools and divided by region. Three regions located in the surrounding areas of San
José were selected: Central, Oeste, and Occidente. For these regions, three groups of researchers
were formed, with group members studying six schools within their particular region. This study
focused on the comparison of two schools within the Central Region and also with the Central
Region as a whole.
The Central Region is situated in the heart of San José. Schools within this region are
considered urban schools, and each school is faced with challenges that are typical of urban
school sites. All of the schools except one is considered a public school run by the MEP. For the
purpose of recording the findings for this study, the primary school that was the focus for this
76 GLOBALIZATION & COSTA RICAN SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION

researcher will be referred to as School A. The comparison school within the Central Region
will be referred to as School B, and the region as a whole will be referred to as the Central
Region.
School A, established in 1961, is located in the Zapote area of the Central Region. It has
a population of 430 students from first to sixth grade; 91 students receive additional instructional
support. This school has consistent parent involvement and a preschool program. Facilities
include a robotics lab, a computer lab, a dental clinic, a gym, sports program, and auditorium.
This school has been a fixture in the community. Parents and students take pride in the school
and its history. School A is a beautiful, bright, open-concept school. Murals and student art
work are displayed in the hallways. All doorways, railings, and the lower portion of the hallways
are painted bright blue. Areas covered with green grass are sprinkled throughout the campus.
Palm trees and other green foliage have been planted in courtyard areas. Single-story buildings
are connected by covered hallways with checkerboard tile flooring. Along with a large basketball
court, there is a playground area with a jungle gym and other equipment for smaller children.
Plaques located throughout the school share information on School A’s history, mission, and
vision, which is to promote values and critical thinking that lead to a comprehensive and quality
education. The mission is to teach values and life skills to strengthen the personality of each
individual to contribute to the development of society. Religious symbols are visible as well as
statements about positive character traits.
School A is a vibrant, active school in the heart of the city. Staff and students were
friendly and welcoming to the researchers. Upon entering the school, the researcher and team
members were greeted warmly, and the Director was available to meet with the team. The
77 GLOBALIZATION & COSTA RICAN SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION

Director of School A has worked at this school for the past 14 years and has spent the last 2 years
as the Director. School A is a clean, well-run school and appears to be very organized.
School B is located in the heart of the city of San José. It has 550 students, 121 of whom
receive extra support. The school’s motto is, “Persevere and you will succeed.” There are 24
teachers and one Director, who is an administrator with years of experience but who has been in
the position of Director of School B only for the past 3 months. School B is well maintained and
has a robotics lab, a computer lab, dental clinic, and auditorium. There is a high level of parental
involvement at School B.
School B occupies a two-story building that has a large courtyard in the center. Class-
rooms are located both upstairs and downstairs. Hallways display student work and painted
murals. The cafeteria located on the second floor serves only fresh, nutritious food that is cooked
daily for students. Religious symbols and plaques that detail the school’s history are on display.
A large sculpture is located at the front entrance of the school. This sculpture was created to
recognize victims of violence—a cause the school has adopted.
Interviewed Participants

During the visit to School A, the Director, science fair coordinator, three students, two
parents, and a teacher were formally interviewed. At School B the Director, science fair coordi-
nator, and two parents were interviewed. All interviews were recorded with the permission of
the participants. Data were coded using both the frameworks and the research questions.
Themes were developed by analyzing the codes and the tabulation of survey data. The
participants listed in Table 3 were also interviewed; these interviews were transcribed and coded
as well. Interviews conducted at the six schools in the Central Region were shared among the
78 GLOBALIZATION & COSTA RICAN SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION

key researchers for each school site. All interviews were conducted as a team with the exception
of the individual school site interviews.

Note. MEP = Ministry of Public Education; MICITT = Ministry of Science, Technology, and
Telecommunications; CINDE = Costa Rican Investment Promotion Agency.
Surveyed Participants and Observations

Survey data were collected from School A as well as five additional schools in the
Central Region. Survey data were also collected from seven government officials, and three
business partners. The Director, 20 teachers, 126 students, and two parents completed surveys at
School A. At school B, the Director, 17 teachers, 39 students, and 12 parents were surveyed. A
total of six Directors, 85 teachers, 50 parents, and 358 student surveys were collected from the
six schools visited in the Central Region (see Table 4). A total of 11 observations were con-
ducted for School A and 12 for School B.
Table 3

Interviewed Participants

Participant

Title

Affiliation

Sylvia Ugalde Fernandez

Costa Rican Consulate General

Government
Javier Cambronero Assemblyman Government
Carolina Vasquez Soto Vice Minister of MICITT Government
Alicia Porras Vargas Vice Minster of Education MEP
Natalie Valencia Director MICITT
Vanessa Gibson Director CINDE
Mary Helen Bialas Director Consejo de Promoción
Ana Lourdes Acuña Coordinator Omar Dengo Foundation
Ana Hernandez Program Evaluator Omar Dengo Foundation
Eduardo Monge Project Developer Omar Dengo Foundation
School site administrators Directors Central Region
Teachers and students Study participants Central Region
Parents Study participants Central Region

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Table 4

Survey Data Collection

Location

Director
surveys

Teacher
surveys

Student
surveys

Parent
surveys

School A

1

20

126

2
School B 1 17 39 12
Central Region 6 85 358 50

Guiding Frameworks

Leadership

Three frameworks were used in this study to establish lenses through which the findings
would be analyzed: Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four frames of leadership, the STEM–PBL
framework developed by Capraro et al. (2013), and Kotter’s (1996) theory of change. In addition
to these three frameworks, Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century learners was also used to connect the
concepts of globalization and the global STEM imperative with the data that were gathered.
Bolman and Deal (2008) identified four frames by which leadership styles can be defined:
structural, human resources, political, and symbolic. Leaders who work within the structural
frame emphasize goals, specialized roles, and formal relationships. They establish clear respon-
sibilities, rules, policies, and procedures. Systems and systems management are clearly defined
and maintained. Leaders who work from the human resource frame see their organization as an
extended family and feel that the human capital needs of an organization are paramount to its
success. Leaders work with the human resource frame work to establish positive working
relations with all stakeholders of the organization; they attempt to make everyone feel good about
the organization and their contribution to the organizations success.
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The actions and ideas that define the political frame are rooted in the principles of politi-
cal science. In this frame, leaders view the organization as an arena with conflicting and compet-
ing ideas. Leaders manage the organization by managing the competing power struggles and
conflicts through bargaining, negotiation, coercion, compromise, and the establishment of coali-
tions. Finally, leaders who are viewed as symbolic and work within this frame draw from the
notion that the organization is a cultural entity with rituals, ceremonies, and heroes. The sym-
bolic leader represents what the organization stands for and serves as a model of consistency and
pride (Bolman & Deal, 2008). Bolman and Deal (2008) clearly noted that effective leadership
requires a multiframe approach. Using the four frames, this researcher was able identify leader-
ship styles and frames when observing participants in this study. The frames were also used to
discover leadership traits and characteristics that were exhibited by the leaders in this study.
STEM PBL

STEM PBL is the combination of the interdisciplines of science, technology, engineering,
and mathematics with the mastery of those subjects using real-world, hands-on projects. Capraro
et al. (2013) described STEM PBL as an ill-defined task within a well-defined outcome.
Students are required to solve several problems and showcase their mastery of a concept. The
well-defined outcome helps to establish expectations for student learning outcomes and the
guidelines for the completion of a task. The ill-defined task allows students the freedom to create
their own interpretation of a problem and formulate innovative solutions for the problem.
STEM PBL has developed into an educational theory and set of instructional practices
that include an eight-concept theoretical framework. Eight concepts comprise the theoretical
framework for STEM PBL (Slough & Milam, 2013). These eight concepts are divided into two
categories: design of learning environments and foundations in the learning sciences. STEM–
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PBL instruction connects discrete subject areas and learning activities that are integrated with
real-world issues and practices (Bell, 2010). According to Capraro et al. (2013), there are nine
steps when developing STEM–PBL lessons: determining the real problem, stating the real
problem, identifying alternative perspectives, determining constraints, gathering information,
generating possible solutions, choosing the best solution, planning the steps for implementing the
solution, and adapting the solution. Using this framework, the researcher was able to identify
concepts that comprise the STEM–PBL framework when examining each school’s implementa-
tion of PRONAFECYT.
Change

Because of the national transformation that has occurred in the country of Costa Rica, it
was necessary to establish an understanding of the steps that were taken toward the implementa-
tion of PRONAFECYT. Kotter’s (1996) eight-step change process was used to identify how the
process of change has occurred and the potential next steps in their implementation of the
PRONAFECYT.
Kotter (1996) defined the change process as a series of steps through which leaders
should guide their organization. These steps provide a clear path to change implementation: (a)
establishing a sense of urgency, (b) creating the guiding coalition, (c) developing a vision and
strategy for the change effort, (d) clearly communicating the change vision, (e) empowering
broad-based action, (f) generating short-term wins, (g) consolidating gains to produce more
change, and (h) anchoring new approaches in the culture. Data were analyzed to identify
characteristics consistent with the steps in the change process as well as to determine potential
recommendations or next steps.
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21st-Century Learners

According to Wagner (2008), in order for students to compete globally and to engage in
global markets, they must acquire seven survival skills. Educational leaders in Costa Rica refer
to these skills as soft skills. These seven survival skills have been identified as critical thinking
and problem solving, collaboration across networks, agility and adaptability, effective oral and
written communication, accessing and analyzing information, and curiosity and imagination.
Using these seven skills (soft skills), the researcher was able to identify trends in instructional
practices and the instructional priorities of site and system leaders that assist students in develop-
ing as 21st-century learners.
Findings for Research Question 1

Research Question 1 asked, “What is the role that educational leaders play implementing
the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?”
Educational leadership is a complex phenomenon that has multifaceted components that
affect the outcome of learning goals and new initiatives. The role that educational leaders play in
developing a clear mission and vision, creating a sense of buy-in and urgency, effectively com-
municating the vision, and empowering their constituency for sustained growth is critical to the
educational organization’s success. This question seeks to understand the role that site and
system leaders in Costa Rica have played in the implementation of PRONAFECYT at both the
school site and governmental levels. Some of the questions that help delineate the role that
educational leaders play in the implementation of the science fair are the following:
1. What have site leaders done to support teachers and staff members in order to effec-
tively implement the science fair program?
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2. Has the school site leader clearly communicated the purpose and urgency of the
science fair initiative?
3. Does the site leader elicit feedback to improve the implementation of the science fair
initiative?
The data analysis and triangulation revealed two common themes: (a) a vision for the
implementation of STEM and PBL as they related to the science fair initiative and (b) the critical
role of the school Director.
A Vision for Implementation

As a result of the implementation of PRONAFECYT, a multitiered system of leadership
has been established starting with both the Vice Minister of Public Education and the Vice
Minister of Science and Technology, the Director of the MICITT, three Regional Science Fair
Directors who are a part of the MEP, school site directors and administrators, school site science
fair coordinators, and educational agencies that promote STEM PBL such as the Omar Dengo
Foundation (see Figure 7). Collectively, these educational leaders have worked together to
establish the science and technology fair program. Alicia Vargas, Vice Minister of Education,
described the relationship by stating, “It’s a matter of leading together, not only one ministry and
the other—both of us have to lead towards a common goal, which is the science and technology
fairs, but we have to do it in a partnership” (interview, June 17, 2015). Kotter (1996) identified
vision as one of the key steps toward lasting change. Vision must be developed collaboratively,
clearly communicated, and used to empower all stakeholders to work as team toward a common
goal.
The vision for the implementation of a national science and technology fair has been a
joint effort between the MEP and the MICITT since the inception of National Decree No. 31900
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Figure 7. Leadership roles for the National Science and
Technology Fair (Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología; PRONAFECYT). MICITT = Ministry of Science,
Technology, and Telecommunications.

MEP-MICITT that formalized the creation of the PRONAFECYT. Their vision was to establish
a national program that would allow students to develop an understanding of the scientific
method process and provide a forum for students to showcase their learning. Alicia Vargas, Vice
Minister of the MEP, stated that
vision is necessary. We know that we need our youth to study engineering, to study
science, and to be investigators. We have to encourage the innovation skills in children
and in adolescents so that the result will be a society based on innovation and a desire to
research. (interview, June 17, 2015)
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Alicia Vargas was asked to elaborate on the role that educational leaders play in the implementa-
tion of the national program. She noted:
Who are the key leaders? In this case, the government policies in our country are exe-
cuted from the National Council of Education and cascade down to the different actors
such as teachers; however, all of them are leaders for this change: the teacher and the
administrative staff. (interview, June 17, 2015)
Ana Hernandez of the Omar Dengo Foundation stated that “we believe that the program
was conceived as the possibility that the kids have to work in scientific research. That is marvel-
ous. That is the project we wish to strengthen. We have to propel it”(interview, June 22, 2015).
Natalie Valencia, Director of the PRONAFECYT, stated that

this administration has a national plan of technology and telecommunications which is
aimed at creating human capacity and resources in the field of science and technology.
One of the key aspects is to develop and build up the National Program of Science and
Technology Fairs. (interview, June 13, 2015)
Congressman Javier Cambronero Arguedas was asked to describe the national goals for
PRONAFECYT. He noted that
it is necessary to have more injection of resources, and we don’t see that as an expendi-
ture but as an investment that will enable us to have in the short and medium term more
science and a more extensive range of possibilities in the field of science and investiga-
tion, earth science, space science, biomedical technology, and nano technology. (inter-
view, June 14, 2015)
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According to Kotter (1996), one’s vision helps to empower broad-based action. As a national
program, the PRONAFECYT has called to action a broad-based coalition of stakeholders who
work together to propel the vision forward.
Survey data also indicated that the communication of the purpose of the science fairs was
key in establishing vision for the program at each school site. When asked if there is a school-
wide vision for the science fair, 83% of the government officials who were surveyed stated that
they felt that this was so. Fifty percent of the teachers at School A indicated that they either
agreed or strongly agreed that there was a school-wide vision for the science fair at their school,
in comparison to 56.3% of the teachers at School B and 63% of the teacher in the Central Region.
Observations at four of the six schools in the Central Region showed that the directors, teachers,
and students understood the vision of the science fair initiative and their implementation was
evident. For example at School A, the Director, science fair coordinator, and teachers were able
to share preparation documents and pictures of their recent science fair. The Director, science
fair coordinator, parents, and a fifth-grade teacher were interviewed; they were all able to articu-
late the importance of the fair and the school’s role to prepare students for participation in the
science fair. The researcher observed student science fair projects and students giving oral
presentations on their projects.
At School B, the researcher was able to attend and observe the school science fair.

Similar to School A, the Director, science fair coordinator, parents, and teachers at School B
could to articulate the vision of the science fair initiative. The Director at School B shared
planning documents on how the science fair was organized at the school site. Observations at
both Schools A and B indicated that there was an understanding regarding the purpose for the fair
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and national goals for the fair. Both School A and School B showed clear signs of implementa-
tion, as evidenced by student work samples and projects as well as planning documents.
Survey data, interviews, and observations indicated that there is a vision for the imple-
mentation of the PRONAFECYT. How that vision has been communicated and the importance
placed on the initiative by the school site directors and other personnel seems to determine the
level of implementation of the vision. According to Kotter (1996), clear communication of a
shared vision is key in establishing change and making that change sustainable (see Figure 8 and
Table 5).
Implications for School A. The results of this researcher’s analysis indicated that
School A has a vision for the implementation of the science fair; however, not all stakeholders
are clear on the schoolwide vision. The Director has a system for the organization and develop-
ment of the science fair at School A. Additional steps should be taken to develop schoolwide
goals that align to the national vision for PRONAFECYT implementation. Interestingly, 82% of
the government officials surveyed indicated that there was a vision for implementation of the
PRONAFECYT; however, a much lower percentage of teachers at Schools A and B indicated
that there was a schoolwide vision for the implementation of the science fair. This finding leads
to the question of whether governmental entities are clearly communicating its vision to all
stakeholders, including directors and teachers at school sites.
The Critical Role of the School Director

National-level leaders provide the guidelines and regulations regarding the science fair
initiative; however, it is up to the school directors to implement the initiatives at a high level.
Transformational principals are able to use human resources to build energy and capacity that
will propel a vision forward (Yang, 2014). The role of School Director is needed to give staff
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Figure 8. Percentage of participants indicating that there is a
vision for the implementation of the PRONAFECYT.
PRONAFECYT = Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología (National Program of Science and Technology
Fairs).

Table 5

Survey Data Regarding Vision for the Implementation of the Science Fair

Survey question 17
Government
personnel
School A
teachers
School B
teachers

There is a school-wide vision for the

PRONAFECYT.
Strongly agree 0 4 4
Agree 5 3 5
Disagree 1 4 6
Strongly disagree 0 2 0
Not sure 0 1 1

Note. PRONAFECYT = Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología (National
Program of Science and Technology Fairs).
members a clear understanding of the vision of the science fair initiative and to provide the
resources they need to implement the vision of the initiative. School directors are responsible for
appointing a science fair coordinator who will assist with the organization of the science fair.
The director must work with the science coordinator to communicate the purpose and vision for
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the PRONAFECYT to the staff, as well as the details of how the fair will be conducted at the
school site. Directors must also elicit feedback from the teaching staff to improve the implemen-
tation of the PRONAFECYT. They must also include the parents in the process and clearly com-
municate the science fair guidelines to them. Directors are responsible for providing motivation
for student participation and a plan for how student work will be celebrated. Bolman and Deal
(2008) spoke to the need of having a multiframed leadership approach. In order for school
directors to fully enact their role in the implementation of the PRONAFECYT, they must work
within multiple frames. Structurally, they must organize and plan how the science fair will be
conducted at their school sites. Directors must use a human resources support-based approach to
gain buy-in from the faculty. Symbolically, the director should be seen as the champion of the
fair and an advocate for student participation in it. Finally, directors must be politically savvy
and know how to navigate the system in order to acquire additional resources for their school
sites.
Question 1 on the survey asked participants to indicate whether they believed the school
director plays a critical role in assuring that teachers implement the PRONAFECYT. Of the
government officials surveyed in the Central Region, 85.7% indicated that they either agreed or
strongly agreed that the director plays a critical role. All three business partners surveyed indi-
cated that they strongly felt that the director plays a critical role. At School A, 65% of the
teachers surveyed indicated that the director plays a critical role in comparison with 68.8% of
teachers at School B. When examining data as a region, 87% of teachers surveyed at all six
schools in the Central Region indicated that they felt the school director plays a critical role.
Survey question 2 asked participants if they felt that teachers needed the support of the
school director to fully implement the program. Of the government officials, business partners,
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and teacher surveyed at School A, 100% indicated that they either agreed or strongly agreed that
teachers needed the directors’ support to fully implement the program. Teacher surveys taken at
School B indicated that 81.3% felt that teachers needed support from the director, compared to
91% of the teachers surveyed in the Central Region (see Figure 9 and Table 6).
According to Mary Helen Bialas, Director of Consejo de Promocion,

if the principal does not agree, doesn’t want to do the work, and doesn’t want to do that
then it dies. Unfortunately, all those kids in that school don’t have the opportunity to
participate and it becomes a tradition in that school not to participate. (interview, June
15, 2015)
Alicia Vargas, Vice Minister of Education, commented that

the main person responsible for the development of the school is of course the principal.
He or she is the person who should enable the process to be carried out. . . . The scientific
fair and all types of activities that we have in the schools have norms and regulations that
are given at the national level, so they are very well regulated, and the principal is the
person who should establish how the activities are going to develop according to the
norms and regulations. (interview, June 17, 2015)
The science fair coordinator and teacher at School A described the role of the director at
the school in her interview:
In meetings the principal encourages the teachers to start the process in advance. Motiva-
tion is done in advance. The principal is in charge of that—she also provides the commit-
tee with a lot of support; we have meetings with her to organize the fair. She also helps
us try to look for financial support. More than anything, she helps motivate the teachers.
(interview, June 19, 2015)
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Figure 9. Percentage of participants feeling that teachers need the
support of the school director to fully implement the
PRONAFECYT. PRONAFECYT = Programa Nacional de Feri-
as de Ciencia y Tecnología (National Program of Science and
Technology Fairs).

Table 6

Survey Data Regarding the Role of the Director in the PRONAFECYT

Survey question 1

Government
School A
teachers
School B
teachers

Teachers need the support of the school director to

fully and effectively implement the PRONAFECYT.
Strongly agree 6 12 13
Agree 1 2 0
Disagree 0 0 2
Strongly disagree 0 0 0
Not sure 0 0 1

Note. PRONAFECYT = Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología (National
Program of Science and Technology Fairs)
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According to Natalie Valencia, Director of the PRONAFECYT, “a principal who is com-
mitted, involved in the educational community, and empowers his teachers makes a difference.
We are able to notice that in the visits we made to different schools” (interview, June 13, 2015).
Observation data from School A showed strong leadership and direction from the Direc-
tor in regard to the PRONAFECYT. She was able to clearly articulate how the process worked at
School A. She shared documents that were used to plan the fair, including meeting agendas and
program outlines. Similarly, the Director at School B had a clear plan for the science fair and
used her role as Director to promote the science fair as a key program at the school. Directors at
both Schools A and B utilized a teacher as a science fair coordinator. They worked closely with
the coordinator to motivate teachers, explain the process, provide resources, establish schedules
and school guidelines, provide parent information letters and other forms of communication to
the parents, and provide recognition to the students who participated. It was also noted that three
students from School A were able to participate in the Circuit Science and Technology Fair and
then were chosen to compete further in the Regional Science and Technology Fair. Interestingly,
at School A, only 55% of the teachers surveyed indicated that they believed the school director
communicated the purpose and urgency of the science fair compared to 81.3 % of the teachers at
School B and 76% of the teachers from the entire Central Region.
In addition to providing the organizational structures for the fair, the director is responsi-
ble for making sure that students are recognized for their efforts. According to Kotter (1996),
celebrating short-term wins helps to anchor a new approach into an organization’s culture.
Survey data indicated that 82% of the teachers surveyed in the Central Region felt that student
participation in the fair at their school had been recognized.
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The triangulation of the data indicated that the role of the school director is critical to the
success of the PRONAFECYT. These administrators must work within multiple frames to
provide the structural leadership supports to organize their schools’ fair, to energize human
capacity to carry out the fair, to navigate the political climate to secure funding for the fair, and to
be viewed as symbolic leaders who believe in the national initiative and want students to partici-
pate (Bolman & Deal, 2003).
Implications for School A. The results of this researcher’s analysis indicated that 45%
of the teachers surveyed at School A need more communication from the school director regard-
ing the purpose and urgency of the PRONAFECYT. When comparing the responses from School
A to School B and the region as a whole, over 25% more teachers than at School A indicated that
they believed the school director communicated the purpose and urgency of the science fair.
However, communication memos sent from School A’s Director to the teachers of that school
indicated the purpose of the fair and outlined details of how the fair would be organized. Data
from School A indicated that 65% of the teachers (13 out of 20) surveyed believed that the
Director had elicited teacher feedback to improve the implementation of the science fair. This
finding shows that the Director is involving teachers in the process to improve the implementa-
tion of the PRONAFECYT. Further data indicated that School A’s Director A is using her role
as an instructional leader to organize the implementation of the PRONAFECYT at her
school.

Results Summary for Research Question 1

The role that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT starts with
understanding and communicating the vision of the fair. That vision that is then transformed into
guidelines and regulations must be supported fully by the school site directors. Triangulated data
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indicated that there is a vision for the implementation of the PRONAFECYT at the governmental
level; however, how that vision is communicated varied at individual school sites. There was a
direct correlation between how clearly the vision was communicated and the level of implemen-
tation of the PRONAFECYT at school sites. Data indicated that governmental leaders and
directors have a clearer sense of the vision of the science fair than some of the teachers surveyed
at schools in the Central Region. According to Kotter (1996), vision is an absolute necessary step
in the change process.
The directors are the key to successful implementation of the program and have the
capacity to propel the vision forward by encouraging the use of PBL across the curriculum. Tri-
angulated data indicated that 100% of the teachers surveyed at School A as well as the govern-
ment officials and business leaders felt that the support of the school director was needed to fully
and effectively implement the PRONAFECYT. Further, 13 of the 20 teachers surveyed at School
A agreed that the director plays a critical role in assuring that teachers implement the science fair.
These findings support the theme that the role of the school director is critical in the implementa-
tion of the science fair. To put it simply, strong school site leadership matters, and leadership
that works within multiple frames is required.
Findings for Research Question 2

Research Question 2 asked, “How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from
teacher practices at less successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?”
Successful instructional practices translate into successful results (Rueda, 2011). Re-
search has proven that a teacher’s knowledge and use of key instructional practices is crucial to
obtaining positive student learning outcomes (DuFour et al., 2010; Marzano & Pickering, 2001;
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Mayer, 2011; Rueda, 2011). In order to understand the role of educational leadership on the
participation in the PRONAFECYT, instructional practices that affect the level of implementa-
tion of science fairs at individual school sites had to be identified and examined.
The dissection of data regarding teacher practices revealed two themes: (a) teachers’
knowledge and use of STEM PBL and the scientific method and (b) teacher collaboration and
PD.
Teachers’ Knowledge and Use of STEM PBL and the Scientific Method

Costa Rica’s response to the changing global and economic world landscape has been
multifaceted. One area of transition has been the focus on STEM education aimed at producing a
knowledge-ready worker for the 21st century. The curricular shifts that have taken placed have
been geared to offer students more opportunities to experiment, develop curiosity, and problem
solve. Current research indicates that students who are given opportunities to work collabo-
ratively using the principles of PBL and inquiry are able to develop the skills needed to compete
in the global workforce (Clifton, 2011; Wagner, 2008).
Interview data supported the finding that teachers have knowledge of and use the princi-
ples of STEM PBL and the scientific method. The science fair coordinator at School A was
asked to describe the instructional process that teachers use to prepare students for the science
fair:
We start by explaining what the objectives are. Students then select a subject area to
study. We then work on the investigation problem. We explain to them what an investi-
gation problem is and how you have to link it to the project title you have selected. Stu-
dents work in groups of no more than three students. I then encourage them to observe,
read on the subject, and research online. In the cognitive aspect, let’s say that this would
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be all the knowledge they get from the investigation—the ability to search in different
resources. We integrate assignments, because when they have to write something down.
We work with writing, grammar, and oral expression. (interview, June 19, 2015)
According to Ana Lourdes Acuña of the Omar Dengo Foundation, the foundation works
with teachers and schools to develop and understand scientific research. She stated that “all of
our focus is set on how to do real scientific research in the STEM sciences and how data is
logged and how the results happen. That is what we have been working on with the projects”
(interview, June 22, 2015).
During an interview, a fifth-grade teacher at School A stated that “we explain the investi-
gative process and scientific method. We start by explaining what the objectives of the projects
are then have student select the subject and identify the problem they want to work on” (inter-
view, June19, 2015). The Director at School A also spoke to the shift in instructional practices
at the school. She stated that “teachers have to pose questions and get students curious about
learning. It’s no longer teaching from the blackboard but rather encouraging them to think
critically”(June 19, 2015). Two students at School A were interviewed. When asked how their
teacher helps them prepare for the science fair, one stated that “she helps us understand the steps.
She tells us how to create a problem and research to find the answer” (interview, June 19, 2015).
Survey data indicated that teachers not only had knowledge of the process of scientific
inquiry but also provided students with opportunities to engage in scientific inquiry. When
teachers at School A were asked whether they provided students with an opportunity to engage in
scientific inquiry as part of their regular instruction, 90% stated that they agreed or strongly
agreed. When teachers at School B responded to the same question, 87.5% indicated that they
provided inquiry opportunities for students. Additionally, 89% of teachers in the Central Region
97 GLOBALIZATION & COSTA RICAN SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION

responded that they had provided inquiry opportunities to students during their regular instruction
time.
Survey data indicated that teachers at School A utilized PBL as part of their instruction.

The responses from teachers at School A indicated that 75% had utilized PBL as part of their
instruction, compared to 68% of teachers at School B and 65% of teachers in the Central Region.
Student survey data also revealed that students felt that their teachers helped them learn the
scientific method by using science and technology activities. When the students at School A
were asked if their teachers helped them learn the scientific method, 93% agreed or strongly
agreed, compared to 97.4% at School B and 90% in the whole Central Region (see Figure 10 and
Table 7).
Observation data from School A indicated that teachers provided opportunities for
students to engage in scientific inquiry and utilize PBL in their regular instruction. Teachers at
School A were eager to share projects completed by students in the various areas of science using
the technology at the school. Another interesting observation was that teachers configured their
classrooms so that students’ desks were arranged in partner pairs and some were in groups of
four. This situation indicated that students work together on projects regularly. During a visit to
a fourth-grade classroom at School A, one student presented her project on electricity. She was
prepared with a model and board, as well as a written description of her work. She created a
model of a house and used two forms of electricity to generate light for the house. After her
presentation, the other students asked questions and made comments about her research. One
student asked specifically about the process she utilized to determine which two types of
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Figure 10. Percentage of participants believing that teachers
utilize project-based learning (PBL) as part of their instruction.

Table 7

Survey Data Regarding Successful School Practices

Survey question

School A
teachers

School B
teachers

#5: Teachers provide opportunities for students to engage in scientific
inquiry as part of their regular instruction.
Strongly agree

7

8
Agree 5 6
Disagree 1 2
Strongly disagree 1 0
Not sure 0 0

#6: Teachers utilize project-based learning in their teaching.

Strongly agree 4 6
Agree 5 5
Disagree 2 3
Strongly disagree 1 0
Not sure 1 2

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electricity she would use. The level of discourse and questions that were posed by teacher and
students indicated that students had been exposed to the process of scientific inquiry.
Students at School A have an active robotics program. The fully equipped lab was
donated by the Omar Dengo Foundation. Students worked in teams to create various mechanical
structures and working parts. One student shared his group’s project on a mechanical recycling
machine. Another student created a robotic hand that picks up garbage and takes it to the closest
trash can. Students were also observed working in the computer lab on research projects.
Students were given general objectives and asked to research and gather information to solve
real-world problems. Students used the components of scientific inquiry to identify real-world
problems, to research possible solutions, and to create a robotic model to represent their findings.
It should be noted that students at School B also had access to a robotics lab provided by
the Omar Dengo Foundation. During the researcher’s visit to School B, both the Director and
teachers talked about how the scientific method and inquiry process were used in their regular
instruction. During the visit to School B’s science fair, students from all grade levels of the
school presented their findings and were able to articulate how they conducted their research.
They also shared how the teacher supported them during the process of preparing for the fair.
Students from School B indicated that the teacher works with them in class to develop and
answer questions about the subject area they were studying.
Implications for School A. Reflecting on the interview, survey, and observation data
makes it evident that teachers at School A were creating opportunities for students to engage in
ill-defined tasks using well-defined outcomes that are paramount to the implementation of
STEM–PBL instruction. Teachers were also engaging students using an interdisciplinary ap-
proach to solving real-world, hands-on projects. The theory of STEM PBL developed by Capraro
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et al. (2013) is divided into two parts: design of learning environments and foundations in the
sciences. It should be noted that while many of the classrooms appeared to be very sparse in
comparison to U.S. classrooms that at times appear too cluttered, there was a clear attempt to
create a learning environment in which students would be guided by the principles of collabora-
tion, questioning, and inquiry. In conclusion, it was found in this study that School A teachers
were providing opportunities for students to engage in scientific inquiry and utilize PBL in their
teaching. These two practices generate success and therefore create the distinction between
successful schools and less successful schools.
Teacher Collaboration and Professional Development

DuFour et al. (2010) described a process for creating a culture of collaboration, starting
with giving teachers the opportunity to think, plan, engage, and reflect on what is being taught
and determining how they are going to teach the material and how they are going to respond
when students do not master the material. Teachers at successful schools had a greater
opportunity to engage in this process as compared to teachers at schools with less successful
implementation of the science fair program. This study found that teachers had the opportunity
to engage in this process at both School A and B; however, they desired additional PD and
training on the science fair program and process.
Interview data indicated that in order for the science fair program to grow, teachers
needed additional PD. Vice Minister Carolina Vasquez noted, “Well, the first thing is to preserve
curiosity, posing questions and not remain satisfied with just one answer, but before preparing
students, we need to prepare educators” (interview, June 13, 2015). She went on to say that “we
are trying to generate a training module, hopefully online, virtual and modal for science teachers,
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so they can have access to more material that is generated specifically for science and technol-
ogy” (interview, June 13, 2015).
Mary Helen Bialas underscored the idea that teacher training is key. She stated that “you
need teacher training incentives to bring teachers up to speed on what they would like to see in
the curriculum” (interview, June 15, 2015). Natalie Valencia also commented on the changes in
curriculum:
I believe that the transformation of the curriculum is fundamental in the sense that investi-
gation has to be integrated as a component of the science curriculum. To teach science,
you have to do it practically, and investigation is a key component to accomplish this.
(interview, June 13, 2015)
Currently, school site directors work with science coordinators and regional directors to
provide training to teachers. The Director of School A noted that “we prepare ourselves at the
beginning. First, we hold a directors’ meeting where the science fair process are reviewed, and
after that a science fair committee is formed—an institutional committee” (interview, June 19,
2015). The Science Coordinator at School A provided some insight into the type of PD and
planning that teachers at School A engaged in this year:
The Director provides us with spaces to teach workshops to our colleagues. Last year we
had a very good workshop where we presented videos. We are constantly sending docu-
mentation to our other co-workers with websites they can access to get updated and be
informed about current changes, where they can see examples of how the projects are
done so they can guide their students to be a to work on a successful project. (interview,
June 19, 2015).
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The Science Coordinator went on to discuss the training that teachers received in the inquiry
method. This training was provided by the MEP; teachers who attended became trainers and
subsequently presented the information to the whole staff. During an interview, a fifth-grade
teacher stated: “I am a member of the Science Fair Committee, so we have been passing on
memos, giving information to other colleagues. We give them documents that they have to have
in order to guide the students” (interview, June 19, 2015). While the researcher was visiting
School B, the Director stated that “teachers who teach science receive training. José Sanchez,
Regional Science Fair Director, holds a workshop. We send teachers, and they bring the informa-
tion back and share with all of the staff” (interview, June 17, 2015).
Survey data indicated that teachers at School A, School B, and throughout the region
would like to receive additional training. Teachers were asked if they were provided with
adequate training to prepare students for the science fair program. Of the teachers from School A
who responded, only 30% indicated that they received adequate training, compared to 43.8% at
School B and 43% in the Central Region as a whole. Teachers were also asked if the training that
they received was useful. Of the teachers from School A who responded, 50% indicated that they
agreed or strongly agreed that the training was useful, compared to 62.5% at School B and 63%
in the Central Region as a whole.
Teachers were asked via survey if they were provided with yearly training on the science
fair guidelines. Of the teachers who responded at School A, only 25% indicated that they re-
ceived yearly training, compared to 43.8% at School B and 35% in the Central Region as a
whole. Teachers were also asked whether there was a school curriculum plan to prepare students
for the science fair. Of the teachers who responded at School A, 55% indicated that they either
agreed or strongly agreed that there is a school curriculum plan, compared to 75% at School B
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and 67% in the Central Region as a whole (see Figure 11). Teachers throughout the region also
indicated that they would like additional resources to help prepare students for the science fair. At
School A, 80% of the teachers surveyed indicated that they needed additional resources, com-
pared to 50% at School B and 50% in the Central Region as a whole.

Figure 11. Percentage of teachers feeling that they were provided
with adequate yearly training on the science fair guidelines.
Observation data indicated that teachers had received more PD in the area of inquiry and

soft skills rather than the science fair itself. During informal conversations with teachers, it was
evident that they had an understanding of the scientific inquiry process and at School A were
eager to share their students’ projects and work samples. The Directors and Science Coordina-
tors at both School A and School B were primarily responsible for providing training and PD
materials. They frequently mentioned the need for more resources and training opportunities.
This study found that although teachers had received some form of training, many did not view
that training as adequate for a higher level of implementation of the science fair. Additional time
is needed to provide teachers with the opportunity to plan, reflect, collaborate on ways to improve
the science fair process, and develop instructional techniques that will support science fair
implementation.
Implications for School A. Teachers at School A are providing opportunities for stu-
dents to engage in scientific inquiry as part of their regular instruction. The researcher was able to
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observe students using technology to answer real world problems, and engage in dialogue with
their teachers and fellow students about scientific topics. There was observable evidence that
teachers have used the science fair as an opportunity to teach students the scientific method.
Teachers at School A indicated that additional professional development and teacher collabora-
tion time to plan would help them implement the science fair at a higher level and better prepare
students to participate in the science fair. In addition to professional development, teachers at
School A and throughout the region felt that they needed additional resources to prepare students
for participation in the science fair.
Results Summary for Research Question 2

Research Question 2 asks, “How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from
teacher practices at less successful schools, as measured by participation in PRONAFECYT?”
Teachers at School A were utilizing successful practices, such as PBL and inquiry, to guide their
instruction. Data indicated that teachers provided opportunities for students to engage in scien-
tific inquiry as part of their regular instruction. Students indicated that their teachers assisted
them with learning the scientific method and that their teachers provided projects for them to
work on in collaborative groups. The triangulated data gathered from School A supported the
theme that teachers’ knowledge and use of STEM PBL and the scientific method were successful
practices that correlated directly to the implementation of the science fair.
Teachers at both School A and B would benefit from additional PD opportunities specifi-
cally related to the implementation of the PRONAFECYT. Teachers are using successful
practices at both School A, School B, and throughout the region. Data indicated that teachers felt
prepared to teach students the scientific method and scientific inquiry but needed more informa-
tion on how to prepare students for the science fair. Data also indicated that teachers would
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benefit from additional collaboration time to plan together in grade-level teams regarding science
preparation. Data further indicated that the resources available to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT varied by site; however, both School A and School B teachers indicated that
they could use additional resources to help prepare students to participate in the science fair.
Findings for Research Question 3

Research Question 3 asked, “How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to
equip students with 21st-century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?”
Educational leaders in Costa Rica have dedicated themselves to ensuring that students are
prepared for the future. Part of this preparation begins in the primary schools and continues
throughout each student’s educational experience. Directors and teachers are preparing students
at the primary level by focusing on 21st-century skills that they refer to as soft skills. As dis-
cussed earlier, soft skills are overarching skills that are woven into all curricular content areas.
The use of a distributed leadership model is seen at both the national and school site levels. The
use of distributed leadership has allowed site and system leaders to present information on
instructional practices that encourage the teaching of soft skills. Two themes emerged from the
data: (a) the use of distributed leadership and (b) a clear emphasis on 21st-century skills or soft
skills.
Effective Use of Distributed Leadership

Understanding who leads and the relationship that develops between leaders and follow-
ers reveal the nuances about the organizational structure, climate, and the culture of a school site
or organization (Marzano et al., 2005). The concept of teachers as leaders on school campuses is
a form of distributed leadership (Ludlow, 2011). As a concept, distributed leadership is the
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process in which other individuals who are not considered the primary leaders contribute to the
mission of an organization by enacting leadership roles. These roles can be assigned or dissemi-
nated on a voluntary basis (Bowman, 2004).
According to Bolman and Deal (2003), leaders who can work within multiple leadership
frames are also able to motivate the members of their organization by providing meaningful
leadership opportunities in various areas of their organizations. Kotter (1996) also highlighted
the fact that in order for an organization to move forward and change, there must be buy-in from
its constituents. This buy-in can be generated by providing leadership opportunities to members
of the organization. This study found that the use of distributed leadership at both the site and
system levels enabled schools to equip students with the soft skills needed to participate in
science fairs.
Interview data revealed that site and system leaders used distributed leadership. At the
national level, Vice Minister Carolina Vasquez explained the role of Natalie Valencia, Director
of the PRONAFECYT:
Well, I would stress at this moment the activity performed by Natalie as leader of the
process. Natalie represents the human resources that make the science fair possible. She
connects the process and program information with the human capital (teachers) needed.
Natalie is always thinking about how to improve the process, so we have generated a deep
involvement in the process for scientific and technological fairs. (interview, June 15,
2015)
Mary Helen Bialas commented on the fact that it takes leaders at all levels to implement
the science fairs: “We have to have leaders at all levels in order for the system to work and grow.
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That means leadership at the national level, universities, outside organizations, and school sites”
(interview, June 15, 2015).
Teachers at School A also spoke to their work as leaders in the science fair process.

Teachers could indicate the support that they received from the Director. A fifth-grade teacher at
School A stated, “I am a member of the Science Fair Committee. Our Director meets with the
committee and the coordinator regularly and supports the efforts we give” (interview, June 19,
2015). The science fair coordinators at both School A and School B talked about the leadership
roles they were given to support the science fair. Each of the coordinators stated that they felt
supported in this role by the director of the school. The coordinator at School A noted, “I meet
regularly with the Director, and we plan together. She allows me to present information to the
staff and provide them with support” (interview, June 19, 2015). The interview data revealed
that distributed leadership was used by both site and system leaders to promote the teaching of
soft skills through the science fair process.
Teachers at all schools in the Central Region were asked via survey if teachers were given
the leadership capacity to make decisions about projects for the science fair. There were 85
teachers who responded in the Central Region, and 60% of them indicated that they either
strongly agreed or agreed that teachers are given the leadership capacity to make decisions about
projects for the science fair, compared to 50% of teachers at School A and 56.3% of teachers at
School B. Teachers were also asked if the director elicits feedback from teachers to improve the
implementation of the science fair. Of the teachers who responded at School A, 65% indicated
that they either strongly agreed or agreed, compared to 68% of teachers from School B and 76%
of teachers in the entire Central Region (see Figure 12).
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Figure 12. Percentage of teachers feeling that they were provided with
leadership capacity to make decisions about projects for the science
fair and that school directors elicited feedback from them.
Observation data gathered from School A revealed that the School Director used a dis-
tributed leadership model and provided teachers on the staff with leadership opportunities. At the
beginning of the science fair season, she meets with the coordinator (a teacher on staff) and forms
a Science Fair Committee comprised of teachers from various grade levels. The Director then
meets with them regularly and provides support as they work with the staff members on the
process and procedures regarding the science fair. At the time of the interview with the Director,
she asked if the coordinator could join her because the latter individual was an integral part of the
implementation of the science fair. The concept of distributed leadership was also observed at
School B. The Director of School B also used a teacher on staff to work as the Science Fair
Coordinator and a team of teachers to form a planning committee. When examining the data
through the lense of Bolman and Deal’s (2003) four frames, it was evident that the Director used
multiple frames to implement the science fair. The Director was viewed symbolically as the
leader of the fair, yet she utilized aspects of the structural and human resource frames to provide
leadership opportunities for the Science Fair Coordinators (Bolman & Deal, 2003).
Implications for School A. Distributed leadership was evident in the interview, survey,
and observation data gathered during the visit to Costa Rica. The Director of School A was able
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to provide leadership on multiple levels to implement the PRONAFECYT. Data from School A
indicated that teachers A were given the opportunity to provide feedback regarding the science
fair implementation and that teacher leadership was used to assist with the implementation of the
PRONAFECYT. The Director at School A allowed the coordinator to communicate information
to teachers via memos and presentations at staff meetings. She also allowed the coordinator time
to help teachers prepare students for participation in the PRONAFECYT. The facts that School
A has a coordinator and a science fair committee who work along with the Director indicates that
distributed leadership is used at School A to implement PRONAFECYT.
Emphasis on 21st-Century Skills or Soft Skills

Wagner (2008), who has identified seven survival skills needed to survive in the 21st
century, stated that
increasingly in the 21st century, what you know is far less important than what you can do
with what you know. The interest in and ability to create new knowledge to solve new
problems is the single most important skill that students must master today. All success-
ful innovators have mastered the ability to learn on their own “in the moment” and then
apply that knowledge in new ways. (p. 142)
Educators in Costa Rica refer to these skills as soft skills. They are further identified as critical
thinking and problem solving, collaboration across networks, agility and adaptability, effective
oral and written communication, accessing and analyzing information, and curiosity and imagina-
tion (Wagner, 2008). This study found strong evidence that showed a consistent emphasis on the
soft skills that will prepare students for the future and will expand their capabilities to lead and
innovate.
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Interview data from both site and system leaders consistently demonstrated an awareness
and understanding of the importance of soft skills. According to Alicia Vargas,
the fairs become an opportunity to develop not only the scientific skill or the technologi-
cal skills but also some soft skills like to how to communicate, how to dialogue, how to
defend your work, and how to make what your are presenting more interesting, more
creative. In that way our educators not only play a role of supporting an event which is a
science fair but also to improve in the students different types of skills: academic skills
and soft skills. (interview, June 17, 2015)
Patricia Arias, Regional Science Fair Director, concurred that the science fair as a process
adds opportunity for students to develop additional skill sets outside of the normal curricular
areas:
Surprise and creativity are the skills we have to develop more. For example, the child has
the natural capacity to surprise himself; and as I said, when they are part of a system that
is so square, that capacity is lost. We want children to keep on surprising themselves that
they develop creativity. (interview, June 15, 2015)
The Director at School A offered reflections of the presence of soft skills as an instructional
practice:
I think its team work which helps them get ready for life; there are kids with more critical
thinking skills—they learn to solve problems in their community and at a national level.
It lets them be very innovative. It gives them motivation that moves them to investigate
and ask questions about the reason of things they see and search for answers in their
environment. (interview, June 19, 2015)
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Ana Lourdes Acuña of the Omar Dengo Foundation discussed innovation in education and what
she felt are the goals of the country: “We want to be a country that goes hand in hand with
science, technology, and innovation to be able to give a qualitative leap towards development”
(interview, June 22, 2015). She went on to define the work that the foundation does in terms of
innovation and how she viewed it as a necessity:
When we talk about innovation, when we work with children and we talk about innova-
tion, I divide the word into three sections: in-nova-tion. In meaning I am doing, nova
meaning something new and the end syllable meaning action. In short, it’s taking what
you know and doing something new. At our foundation we use technology as a tool to
assist with innovation, but we never lose sight that in the end what we are doing is in-
creasing the level of skill of the people and students we serve. We see the level of pro-
ductivity, which in the end will have an effect on the country’s development conditions.
(interview, June 22, 2015)
Teachers at School A discussed how they teach students the soft skills and incorporate
them throughout the curriculum. The Science Fair Coordinator at School A noted that “through
the science fair process, students are able to work on a variety of skills like critical thinking, oral
communication, collaboration, and analyzing information. They develop a real curiosity for the
subject area they are studying” (interview, June 19, 2015). Overall, interview data from both site
and system leaders indicated a focus and emphasis on the soft skills.
Survey data regarding the soft skills indicated a consistent focus across the survey popula-
tion. From government officials to students, all stakeholders had a strong background on the soft
skills and the necessity of mastering them. Question 9 asked participants if they were familiar
with the soft skills. Many of the participants indicated either strongly agree or agree. For
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example, 100% of government officials and business partners stated that they were familiar with
the soft skills, as well as 100% of the directors in the Central Region. Of the teachers surveyed at
School A, 90% indicated they were familiar with soft skills, compared to 87.6% from School B
and 89% of teachers from the region as a whole.
Question 9 for students asked if they knew about the soft skills, and 80% of the students
at School A responded either strongly agree or agree. Students at School B and at the other four
schools in the Central Region also responded to question 9. Over 94% of School B students and
82% of students in the Central Region indicated that they knew about the soft skills. Two parents
were surveyed at School A, and both indicated that they were familiar with the soft skills.
Question 10 asked if the school directors spoke about the importance of soft skills and
their impact on student achievement. Of the government officials who responded, 100% indi-
cated that they agreed or strongly agreed, and 66% of business officials indicated that they agreed
or strongly agreed. Of the teachers surveyed at School A, 80% indicated that the Director talked
about the importance of soft skills, compared to 87% at School B and 87% in the Central Region.
Both parents surveyed at School A and 87% of the students responded that the Director talked
about the importance of soft skills. Survey data for these two questions demonstrated a strong
correlation and indication of a clear focus among various groups of educational stakeholders (see
Figure 13 and Table 8).
Survey participants were also asked to respond to two additional questions regarding the
soft skills. Question 11 asked if they believed that students develop soft skills through participa-
tion in the science fair. Of the government officials who responded, 85.7% indicated that they
agreed or strongly agreed that students develop soft skills through science fair participation; 67%
of the business partners also indicated that they agreed that the science fair assisted students in
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Figure 13. Percentage of participants feeling that they were
familiar with soft skills and that school director talked about soft
skills.

Table 8

Survey Data Regarding Emphasis on 21st-Century Skills (Soft Skills)

Survey question 11

Government
School A
teachers
School B
teachers

Students develop soft skills through participation in the

PRONAFECYT.
Strongly agree 6 5 9
Agree 0 7 5
Disagree 1 0 1
Strongly disagree 0 2 0
Not sure 0 0 1

Note. PRONAFECYT = Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología (National
Program of Science and Technology Fairs).
developing soft skills. Of the teachers who responded at School A, 85% indicated that they
agreed or strongly agreed that students develop soft skills through science fair participation,
compared to 87.6% of teachers at School B and 84% of the teachers in the Central Region (see
Figure 14).
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Figure 14. Percentage of participants feeling that students develop
soft skills through science fair participation.
When students were asked if they could improve their soft skills when they complete
projects, 89% at School A indicated that they either agreed or strongly agreed, compared to
92.1% at School B and 88% of students surveyed in the Central Region
The last survey question asked teachers if they received training on how to integrate the
soft skills in the classroom. Of the teachers who responded at School A, 50% indicated that they
had received training, compared to 62.5% of the teachers at School B and 47% of teachers in the
Central Region.
Observation data also confirmed the emphasis on soft skills. As part of the science fair
process, students must complete both written and oral explanations of their analysis. Students are
encouraged to work collaboratively and to access information from multiple sources. Students at
School A were seen giving oral presentations using data analysis sheets that they created for their
projects to detail information about their research. Students at School B also used soft skills to
develop, analyze, and present information for their projects. Directors at both School A and
School B spoke to the need for the development of soft skills across curricular areas.
Implications for School A. Teachers at School A were familiar with the soft skills that
foster the development of critical thinking and problem solving, collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and imagination. In addition to teacher familiarity with the soft
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skills, data indicated that School A’s Director has placed an emphasis on student development of
soft skills. She stresses the importance of transforming instructional practices to include a focus
on the soft skills. Both the Director and teachers at School A believed that students develop the
soft skills through their participation in the PRONAFECYT. The emphasis on 21st-century skills
(soft skills) was very evident at School A.
Results Summary for Research Question 3

This study found that the use of distributed leadership was evident and used to promote
the growth and development of the PRONAFECYT. Teachers are able to assume leadership
roles in the organization for preparation for the science fair at School A. School A’s Director
utilizes the teaching staff to prepare for various aspects of the science fair. Teachers were able to
express what their role was in the science fair process and how the Director has helped to elicit
teacher feedback regarding the fair.
In addition, this study found a strong emphasis on the integration of soft skills throughout
the curriculum, particularly relating to the preparation of students for the PRONAFECYT. The
emphasis on soft skills was clearly evident at School A. The Director and teachers at School A
saw a strong correlation between student participation in the science fair and their development
of soft skills. Data indicated that teachers and students at School A, School B, and across the
region knew about the soft skills and that teachers had specifically included the soft skills in their
instruction.
Research Question 3 asked, “How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to
equip students with 21st-century soft skills necessary to participate in PRONAFECYT?” This
study found the use of distributed leadership at both the governmental level and the site level.
The use of regional science directors from the MEP and the use of school site science
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coordinators help to support school site implementation of 21st-century soft skills. The clear
focus on teaching students the soft skills and incorporating the instruction of the soft skills in
various curricular areas has prepared schools to equip students with the skills necessary to
participate in the PRONAFECYT.
Findings for Research Question 4

Research Question 4 asked, “How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT
initiative affected instructional practices?”
The Costa Rican PRONAFECYT has given students the opportunity to learn the scientific
method, engage in the process of scientific inquiry, and increase their use and knowledge of the
soft skills, including student collaboration. The benefits for students would not be possible
without positive changes to instructional practices and a shift in instructional focus areas. Two
themes emerged when the researcher examined how the initiative has affected instructional
practices: (a) increased focus on student collaboration and (b) increased focus on inquiry-based
instruction.
Increased Focus on Student Collaboration

Mayer (2011) described collaborative learning as learning that “occurs when a group is
given a challenging problem, task, or project to carry out on their own” (p. 82). Current research
indicated that students who are given the opportunity to work collaboratively can use multiple
skills simultaneously and gain a richer learner experience (Bell, 2010). According to Bell (2010),
the use of collaboration as a vehicle for PBL allows students to engage in real-world, hands-on
tasks while utilizing 21st-century skills such as critical thinking, analysis, and the ability to
clearly articulate their thoughts. Interview data revealed an increased focus on student collabora-
tion.
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According to Mary Helen Bialas, collaboration not only was good for students but also
changed the way that teachers approached the curriculum:
We know that 21st-century skills are important. Part of that means students should work
as a team, be innovative, use the skills. Actually we did some research last year, and we
found not only teachers felt that this was the opportunity for the kids. They also felt it
changed the way they taught. (interview, June 15, 2015)
When asked about the changes in instructional practices, Patricia Vargas noted that

this has been changing along the years. It has been hard work because our system is quite
mechanical, so the first steps took place in the year 2008 or 2009 in science sphere when
they modified the pedagogical mediation towards an inquiry-based process with the
intention that from the early stages of primary school, children learn to be more creative,
where they can solve a problem with the corresponding tools. (interview, June 15, 2015)
The Director at School A also talked about the importance of team work during an
interview: “I think it’s team work which helps them get ready for life. Team works helps provide
them with more critical thinking opportunities, so they can solve local problems in their commu-
nity and at the national level” (interview, June 19, 2015). Along with the focus on students’
collaboration, there was a clear focus on problem solving and using knowledge to better the
country as a whole.
Survey data validated the finding that there is an increased focus on collaboration. Teach-
ers in the Central Region were asked if the science fair has improved students’ collaboration in
their classrooms. All schools had positive responses regarding the science fair’s influence on
increased collaboration. At School A, 70% of the teachers either agreed or strongly agreed;
87.5% of teachers at School B either agreed or strongly agreed; and 71% of teachers in the region
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as a whole either agreed or strongly agreed that the science fair has improved student collabora-
tion in their classrooms. Students were also asked if their teachers gave them group projects
where they would have to solve problems and work together. Responses indicated that 89% of
students at School A agreed or strongly agreed that their teachers had provided these types of
projects, compared to 97.4% at School B and 86% in the Central Region (see Figure 15 and Table
9).
Observation data collected from school visits in the Central Region supported the finding
that there has been an increased focus on student collaboration. At School A, students were
observed working in pairs and in groups of three to four students. Students were engaged in
group discussions and were not hesitant to ask one another questions regarding their projects.
Students worked in pairs on projects in both the computer lab and the robotics lab. One pair of
students was observed to be studying the energetic potential of magnets and how magnetism can
be used in new ways. Students were also able to share and reflect on the collaborative process
they utilized with other projects. For example, one team shared their work with color and the
change process: “We like working together because we can learn from each other” (interview,
June 19, 2015).
Observation data collected from School B validated the finding that there has been an
increased focus on student collaboration. During the science fair at School B, students presented
their work in teams and collaborated on each step of the inquiry process. One team of three
students investigated the natural phenomenon of triplets. They conducted research on the fre-
quency and occurrence of triplets in the country of Costa Rica. Another group of two researched
the effects of Coca Cola on everyday products. While visiting another school in the Central
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Figure 15. Percentage of participants feeling that there is improved
student collaboration and students work together on group projects
as a result of the science fair.

Table 9

Summary of Survey Data Regarding Student Collaboration

School A

School B
Survey question 15 teachers teachers

PRONAFECYT has improved collaboration in my

classroom or school.
Strongly agree 1 6
Agree 7 8
Disagree 4 1
Strongly disagree 2 0
Not sure 0 1

Note. PRONAFECYT = Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología (National
Science and Technology Fair).
Region, it was also noted from that school’s director that students are encouraged to work
together as a scientific research team.
Collaboration allows students to drive their own learning through inquiry (Bell, 2010).
The triangulation of the interview, survey, and observation data validated the finding that teach-
ers and students in the Central Region had an increased focus on collaboration and were using
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collaboration throughout the science fair process. Collaboration allows students to take true
ownership of their learning. Students are able to solve real-world problems and are motivated dig
deeper into the subject area content. Students also have the opportunity to develop other skills
during the collaborative process, such as negotiation, communication, and organization.
Implications for School A. The School Director and 70% of the teachers surveyed indi-
cated that student participation in the science fair has improved student collaboration. Only four
of the 20 teachers at School A disagreed that student participation in the science fair has im-
proved collaboration. Observation data also indicated that student collaboration using the
principles of PBL was evident during the school visit. Survey data indicated that 89% of the
students at School A responded that their teachers gave them projects to work on in collaborative
groups. There was strong evidence at School A to support the fact that there has been an in-
creased focus on student collaboration as a result of student participation in the PRONAFECYT.
Increased Focus on Inquiry-Based Instruction
Inquiry-based instruction is a student-driven, teacher-facilitated approach to learning.

Students pursue topics that have piqued their curiosity and develop questions to which they want
to find the answers (Bell, 2010). The goal of inquiry-based instruction is to teach the curricular
concepts through a project. The project starts with one question, which then drives the research.
The research helps to identify the findings. Students in the Central Region were given opportuni-
ties to refine this procedure and engage in the inquiry process. This study found that there was an
increased focus on inquiry-based instruction as a result of the participation in the
PRONAFECYT.
Interview data indicated that the inquiry process as well as the scientific method were
vital to students’ understanding the purpose of the science fair. Teachers who used the process
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and understood their role as facilitators felt that it positively impacted their instruction. Accord-
ing to Mary Helen Bialas,
teachers who participate in science fairs felt that they became much more innovative in
their teaching. They became much more open to children exploring new things, and they
did that as a process of helping the kids develop their projects. (interview, June 15, 2015)
Costa Rica has experienced a shift in instructional practices in the effort to create students
who are equipped with 21st-century skills. Part of that shift has been an increase in inquiry-based
instruction and instructional practices. Patricia Vargas noted:
One year ago there was another change in the curriculum of social studies, and this year
we changed the Spanish curriculum. These new changes are focused on having work-
shops, allowing the students to be more creative, finding answers and solutions to the
different situations presented to them and participating in self-regulation of the learning
process. (interview, June 15, 2015)
These changes have been noticed by the MEP as well as other agencies that work in
partnership with the MEP. Ana Lourdes Acuña of the Omar Dengo Foundation stated that “all of
the projects we work on here seek to generate the development of abilities that allow us to bring
this country a step closer to development and hopefully closer to creativity and innovation”
(interview, June 22, 2015). Eduardo Monge of the Omar Dengo Foundation noted that
if we do good work in kindergarten and primary school, then in the high school we are
going to have a better scientific thinker because he or she are going to have the conditions
to be a good investigator, a good scientific thinker. I think this is one of our main goals.
(interview, June 22, 2015)
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Business leaders such as Mary Helen Bialas also reflected on the benefits on inquiry-
based instruction: “Project-based instruction and inquiry provides an opportunity for kids to
actually do something that challenges them, and it helps them develop 21st-century skills”
(interview, June 15, 2015).
Survey data from teachers in the Central Region indicated that teachers were providing
opportunities for students to engage in scientific inquiry as part of their regular instruction.
Survey data indicated that 90% of the teachers at School A either agreed or strongly agreed that
they provide inquiry opportunities for students, compared to 87.5% of teachers at School B and
89% of teachers in the Central Region as a whole. It was important to note that the question did
not ask teachers if they used inquiry solely during the science fair process (see Figure 16).

Figure 16. Percentage of teachers feeling that scientific inquiry is
used in instruction. PBL = project-based learning.
Inquiry-based instruction is a process and not just part of a lesson (Capraro et al., 2013).

The components of the process involve questioning, data dissection, examining, and recording.
Observation data indicated that students attending schools in the Central Region were engaging
in the process of scientific inquiry particularly as it related to their preparation for and participa-
tion in the science fair. At School A, students were observed to be working in pairs discussing
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questions that the teacher gave them on cards. Each card contained a question related to the topic
that they were studying in their science book. Students were then asked to discuss the question in
their partner groups and create additional questions that they could research. Students at School
B used the computer lab to complete inquiry-based projects. They were able to generate a
question and then use technology to gain data and research on the question. Students would then
go back to class and present their findings.
Implications for School A. Providing opportunities for students to engage in scientific
inquiry as part of their regular instruction is an area of strength at School A. Students are given
the opportunity to use technology and engineering to develop solutions to real-world problems
both individually and collaboratively. One implication for School A is to monitor how the use of
inquiry-based instruction in science is transferring to student participation in the school site
science fairs. Survey data from School A indicated that not every teacher participates in the
school site science fair and that some teachers encourage a higher level of participation than
others.
Results Summary for Research Question 4

According to Capraro et al. (2013), students who engage in instruction using the princi-
ples of PBL and inquiry-based instruction want to learn because they are in control of their
learning. Because they are engaged at a higher level, their understanding of the subject matter is
greater. Triangulated data showed that the Directors of both School A and B have placed an
emphasis on student collaboration and inquiry based instruction. This focus has translated in to
classroom instructional practices. Teachers are incorporating collaboration and scientific inquiry
into their instructional delivery.
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Research Question 4 asked, “How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT
affected instructional practices?” It was the finding of this study that there was an increased
focus on student collaboration and inquiry-based instruction at School A and at School B and that
this focus has been as a result of participation in the PRONAFECYT.
Summary of Findings

As a country, Costa Rica has invested its resources in providing students with one of the
best educational school systems in Latin America. The impetus to have students become life-
long learners who are critical thinkers and problem solvers comes from the country’s drive to be
globally competitive. Education in Costa Rica is focused on students achieving the skills needed
to implement the national plan to create a multilingual, technologically literate citizenry able to
utilize 21st-century skills (soft skills). This study identified the role that school leaders and
teachers play in the development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT. Leadership prac-
tices, instructional strategies, and PD practices were identified at six schools within the Central
Region of San José, Costa Rica. Additionally, this study explored how schools may have restruc-
tured their educational program by focusing on STEM and inquiry-based learning.
Research Question 1 asked, “What is the role that educational leaders play in implement-
ing the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT initiative?” This study found that educational leaders had a
clear vision for the implementation of the science fair initiative at School A, in the Central
Region, and nationally. As well, this study found that the role of the school director in the
science fair implementation process was critical to the program’s success both at School A, in the
Central Region, and nationally.
Research Question 2 asked, “How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from
teacher practices at less successful schools, as measured by the level of participation in the Costa
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Rican PRONAFECYT initiative?” This study found that teachers at schools with successful
participation in the science fair had a strong knowledge and use of PBL and inquiry-based
instructional practices. Teachers at School A utilized PBL as part of their regular instruction.
This study also found that teacher collaboration and PD were two practices in place at successful
schools. Teachers at Schools A and B did work collaboratively; however, they desired additional
training, PD, and collaboration time.
Research Question 3 asked, “How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to
equip students with the 21st-century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?” This study found that site and system leaders effectively used dis-
tributed leadership and there was a strong emphasis on 21st-century skills (soft skills).
Distributed leadership and an emphasis on 21st-century skills (soft skills) were found at School A
and at other schools in the Central Region.
Research Question 4 asked, “How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT
initiative affected instructional practices?” This study found that there was an increased focus on
student collaboration and inquiry-based instruction at School A and at other schools in the
Central Region.
Costa Rica’s investment in education is providing students with the skills required to
succeed in a competitive global workforce. The science fair initiative has been used a vehicle
that gives students the opportunity to engage in scientific inquiry, STEM-PBL, and enhance their
development of soft skills. Leadership with the science fair process matters. Leadership helps
create the organizational structures so that students have the opportunity to participate in this
meaningful program.
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CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The impetus for Costa Rica’s use of STEM, PBL, and inquiry-based lessons came from
the desire to have a workforce that was prepared to compete in the global marketplace. Using the
principals of globalization, Costa Rica actively sought out opportunities to enrich its educational
system. These opportunities manifested themselves because Costa Rica gained partnerships with
other countries through FDI. In addition to the resources gained through FDI, Costa Rica in-
vested resources as a country to support its educational system, education governmental agencies,
and nonprofit foundations. Costa Rica’s understanding of the connection between acquiring
21st-century skills and job creation has been paramount to their success as a nation.

The PRONAFECYT has been used as a vehicle to promote interest in STEM-related
fields at various grade levels. This study examined the leadership practices of educational leaders
as they implement the science fair initiative in elementary schools. Survey data, interview data,
and observational data gathered from six school sites, government agencies and officials, and
nonprofit agencies were utilized. A comparative study was conducted between the researcher’s
focus school (School A) , another school in the Central Region (School B), and the region as a
whole.
Chapter One included the statement of the problem, purpose of the study, and outlined the
research questions. In addition, the chapter provided an overview of the study and its signifi-
cance to the ongoing conversation regarding global competitiveness and the acquisition of 21st-
century skills. All terms used in this study were defined in Chapter 1.
Chapter Two provided a detailed review of the literature as it related to Costa Rica’s
ability to develop human capital, create various platforms for technological advances, and change
the economic landscape of the country. The literature review consisted of five sections: the
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social, political, economic, and educational history of Costa Rica; globalization and 21st-century
skills; the influence of MNCs; an overview of the STEM–PBL framework; and theories of
leadership.
Chapter Three presented the research methodology utilized in this study. It described
how the qualitative approach was used to gather data and the process used to triangulate gathered
data. This chapter described in detail the procedures, protocols, and the data analysis process.
Chapter Four presented the findings for this study. It included a detailed description of
the data gathered and the themes that emerged from the data. This chapter provided data analysis
for each research question along with the implications for School A.
Chapter Five presents a summary of the study and implications for practice. Using an
analysis of the implications for practice, recommendations were suggested for PRONAFECYT
implementation. Recommendations for future research relating to same phenomena are also
provided in this chapter.
The purpose of this study was to understand the effects of educational leadership on
student participation in the PRONAFECYT in the primary schools of Costa Rica. The study
identified the role that school leaders have in the development and implementation of the
PRONAFECYT initiative. Leadership practices, instructional strategies, and PD practices at
various school sites were examined to identify key components of the successful implementation
of the PRONAFECYT.
This study used three theoretical frameworks to establish lenses through which the
findings were analyzed: Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four frames of leadership, the STEM–PBL
framework developed by Capraro et al. (2013), and Kotter’s (1996) theory of change. In addition
to these three frameworks, Wagner’s (2008) contentions regarding 21st-century learners were
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also used to connect the concepts of globalization and the global STEM imperative with the data
that were gathered.
The following research questions guided this study:

1. What is the role that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
This study employed a qualitative case study approach. Interviews were conducted with
governmental officials and employees, business leaders, site administrators, teachers, and stu-
dents. Survey questions were formulated to gather participants’ perceptions and were aligned to
the four research questions. Observations were recorded using an observation protocol that was
developed by the research team.
Summary

Through the analysis of data gathered from interviews, surveys, and observations, eight
main themes emerged:
1. A vision for the implementation of STEM and PBL as they related to the science fair
initiative,
2. The critical role of the school director,

3. Teachers’ knowledge and use of STEM PBL and the scientific method,
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4. Teacher collaboration and PD,

5. The use of distributed leadership,

6. A clear emphasis on 21st-century skills or soft skills,

7. An increased focus on student collaboration, and

8. An increased focus on inquiry-based instruction.

Research Question 1

What is the role that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative? Educational leaders play a key role in the implementation of the PRONAFECYT by
having a vision for the science fair. Understanding and communicating the vision of the fair is
paramount to its success. That vision is then transformed into guidelines and regulations that
must be supported fully by the school site directors. Triangulated data indicated that there was a
vision for the implementation of the science fair at the governmental level; however, how that
vision was communicated varied at individual school sites. As a result of the data analysis, it was
determined that School A had a vision for the implementation of the science fair and should
continue efforts to clearly communicate that vision to all stakeholders. According to Kotter
(1996), one’s vision helps to empower broad-based action. A broad-based coalition of educa-
tional stakeholders work together to propel the vision forward.
Transformational principals are able to use human resources to build energy and capacity
that will propel a vision forward (Yang, 2014). School directors play a critical role in implement-
ing the science fair guidelines and procedures at their school sites. When enacting their role,
school directors give staff members a clear understanding of the vision of the science fair initia-
tive and provide the resources needed to implement the vision of the initiative. Data indicated
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that the director at School A worked with the science coordinator and teachers to implement the
PRONAFECYT and ensured that students learn the scientific method.
Research Question 2

How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT? Successful
instructional practices translate into successful results (Rueda, 2011). Research has proven that a
teacher’s knowledge and use of key instructional practices is crucial in obtaining positive student
learning outcomes (DuFour et al., 2010; Marzano & Pickering, 2001; Mayer, 2011; Rueda,
2011). The dissection of data regarding teacher practices revealed two themes: (a) teachers’
knowledge and use of STEM PBL and the scientific method and (b) teacher collaboration and
PD.
Reflecting on the interview, survey, and observation data made it evident that teachers at
School A had knowledge of and used the principles of STEM PBL and the scientific method.
Teachers at School A created opportunities for students to engage in ill-defined tasks using
well-defined outcomes that are paramount to the implementation of STEM–PBL instruction.
Teachers used an interdisciplinary approach to engage students in solving real-world, hands-on
projects. These practices generated success and therefore created the distinction between schools
with a high level of participation and those who needed additional support.
The second theme that emerged also showed practices that created a distinction between
high-implementation schools and those schools that needed more support. Teacher collaboration
and PD were identified as key practices that led to success. DuFour et al. (2010) described a
process for creating a culture of collaboration, starting with giving teachers the opportunity to
think, plan, engage, and reflect on what is being taught, determining how they are going to teach
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the material, and how they are going to respond when students do not master the material.
Teachers at successful schools had a greater opportunity to engage in this process compared to
teachers at schools with a less successful implementation of the science fair program. Although
teachers at School A had the opportunity to engage in this process, they desired additional PD
and training with respect to the science fair program and process.
Teachers were using successful practices at School A, School B, and throughout the
region. However, data indicated that although teachers felt prepared to teach students the scien-
tific method and scientific inquiry, they desired more information on how to prepare students for
the science fair. Data indicated that teachers would benefit from additional collaboration time to
plan together in grade-level teams regarding science preparation. Resources available to prepare
students for the science fair varied by site; however, both School A and School B indicated that
they could use additional resources to help prepare students to participate in the science fair.
Research Question 3

How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT? Directors
and teachers were preparing students at the primary level to meet the challenge of preparing
students for higher education by focusing on 21st-century skills that they referred to as soft skills.
Soft skills are overarching skills that are woven into all curricular content areas. The use of a
distributed leadership model was seen at both the national and school site levels. Distributed
leadership is the process by which other individuals who are not considered the primary leaders
contribute to the mission of an organization by enacting leadership roles. These roles can be
assigned or disseminated on a voluntary basis (Bowman, 2004). The use of distributed leadership
has allowed site and system leaders to present information on instructional practices that
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encourage the teaching of soft skills. Two themes emerged from the data: (a) the use of distrib-
uted leadership and (b) a clear emphasis on 21st-century skills or soft skills.
Data from School A indicated that teachers at School A were given the opportunity to
provide feedback regarding the science fair implementation and that teacher leadership was used
to assist with the implementation of PRONAFECYT. Distributed leadership was evident at
School A. School A has a coordinator and science fair committee who work along with the
director and fellow teachers. The use of distributed leadership was also evident at both the gov-
ernmental level and school site level. The use of regional science directors from the MEP and the
use of school site science coordinators helped to support school site implementation of 21st-
century (soft) skills. Additionally, the clear focus on teaching students the soft skills and incor-
porating the instruction of the soft skills in various curricular areas has prepared schools to equip
students with the skills necessary to participate in the PRONAFECYT.
Twenty-first-century skills, referred to as soft skills in Costa Rica, are skills that cross all
curricular subject areas. They are overarching skills that are identified as critical thinking and
problem solving, collaboration across networks, agility and adaptability, effective oral and
written communication, accessing and analyzing information, and curiosity and imagination
(Wagner, 2008). This study found a consistent emphasis on the soft skills that will prepare
students for the future and will expand their capabilities to lead and innovate. The emphasis on
soft skills was clearly evident at School A. Data indicated a strong correlation between student
participation in the science fair and their development of soft skills. Data also indicated that
teachers and students at Schools A and B and across the region knew about the soft skills and that
teachers had specifically included the soft skills in their instruction.
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Research Question 4

How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional prac-
tices? The Costa Rican PRONAFECYT has given students the opportunity engage in the process
of scientific inquiry, to increase their use and knowledge of the soft skills, and to learn the scien-
tific method. The benefits for students would not be possible without positive changes to instruc-
tional practices and a shift in the instructional focus areas. Two themes emerged when the
researcher examined how the initiative had affected instructional practices: (a) increased focus on
student collaboration and (b) increased focus on inquiry-based instruction.
Students who are given the opportunity to work collaboratively can use multiple skills
simultaneously and gain a richer learner experience (Bell, 2010). According to Bell (2010), the
use of collaboration as a vehicle for PBL allows students to engage in real-world, hands-on tasks
while utilizing 21st-century skills such as critical thinking, analysis, and the ability to clearly
articulate their thoughts. Collaboration provides an opportunity for students to engage in the
content of a lesson and enriches their learning by providing them with the opportunity to partici-
pate in academic discourse with their peers. Interview data revealed an increased focus on
student collaboration. The triangulation of the interview, survey, and observation data validated
the finding that teachers and students at School A and in the Central Region had an increased
focus on collaboration and were using collaboration throughout the science fair process.
Inquiry-based instruction is a student-driven, teacher-facilitated approach to learning.

Students pursue topics that have piqued their curiosity and develop questions to which they want
to find the answers (Bell, 2010). This instructional process begins with the posing of questions,
problems, and scenarios. In contrast, traditional instructional methods present established facts
rather than utilize a learning facilitator who guides students through the process of creating
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knowledge. The goal of inquiry-based instruction is to teach the curricular concepts through the
development of a project that involves a real-world question or phenomenon. Teachers in the
Central Region were given opportunities to refine their role as facilitators and engage students in
the inquiry process. This study found that there was an increased focus on inquiry-based instruc-
tion as a result of participation in the PRONAFECYT. Opportunities for students to engage in
scientific inquiry was seen as part of their regular instruction and was an area of strength at
School A. Students were able to transfer their learning in the areas of technology and engineering
to develop solutions to real-world problems, both individually and collaboratively.
Triangulated data showed that the directors of both School A and B had placed an empha-
sis on student collaboration and inquiry-based instruction and that this focus has translated into
classroom instructional practices. Data indicated that teachers were incorporating the instruc-
tional strategies of collaboration and scientific inquiry into their instructional delivery. This
study found that there was an increased focus on student collaboration and inquiry-based instruc-
tion at School A and at School B and that this focus has been as a result of their participation in
the PRONAFECYT.
Implications for Practice

Costa Rica’s growth as a country can be linked directly to its investment in education.

Collaborating with MNCs to create a highly qualified, technologically ready workforce has
allowed the country to compete on a level that other countries in Central America have not been
able to replicate. Government policies have emphasized the development of STEM programs
and the integration of programs that teach 21st-century learning skills. One component of this
initiative has been the compulsory participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT. The
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following recommendations are meant to serve as supportive suggestions to help propel the
vision of PRONAFECYT even further:
1. School A has a vision for the implementation of the science fair; however, not all
stakeholders are clear on the schoolwide vision for School A. Additional steps should be taken to
develop schoolwide goals that align to the national vision for science fair implementation. Inter-
estingly, 82% of government officials surveyed indicated that there was a vision for implementa-
tion of the science fair. A much lower percentage of teachers at Schools A and B indicated that
there was a schoolwide vision for the implementation of the science fair. Clear communication
from regional science directors is needed to ensure that the vision and process of implementing
the PRONAFECYT is clear. One way of facilitating this type of communication is to hold an
annual regional coordination meeting hosted by the regional science fair director and attended by
the school directors and their science fair coordinators.
2. Data indicated that teachers felt prepared to teach students the scientific method and
scientific inquiry but needed more information on how to prepare students for the science fair.
Data also indicated that teachers would benefit from additional collaboration time to plan to-
gether in grade-level teams regarding science preparation.
3. Teachers throughout the Central Region indicated that their schools needed additional
resources to further the implementation of PRONAFECYT. Directors also indicated that finan-
cial resources to support the science fair would assist in the implementation of the
PRONAFECYT at individual school sites. Additional resources, both financial and material,
should be allocated for each school site.
4. Data indicated that there are varying levels of participation by teachers in the science
fair. Additional PD on how to connect the teaching of the scientific method to the science fair
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process would calibrate school sites’ implementation of PRONAFECYT. It is recommended that
each school site develop a team of teachers who will become the trainer of trainers for their
faculty. This team would attend PD seminars provided by a joint effort of the MEP, MICITT, and
the Omar Dengo Foundation. The team would take the new learnings and materials back to their
school sites. The school site teams would work with their faculty members to develop imple-
mentation goals for their schools and a plan for the upcoming science fair. This model would
build capacity for leadership and generate additional participation in the PRONAFECYT.
Recommendations for Future Research

This study examined the leadership practices, instructional strategies, and PD practices at
various primary school sites in Costa Rica in order to identify the key components of successful
implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. It is recommended that this study be replicated
at middle and high school sites in order to compare the level of implementation between primary
school sites and higher grade level school sites.
Another suggestion for future research would be to examine the leadership practices at
governmental agencies and nonprofit foundations that support the implementation of the
PRONAFECYT.
It would be also interesting to replicate this study in another region of Costa Rica, such as
the coastal regions and the more rural communities. In addition, this study could be replicated in
another country. An examination of other nations’ implementation of STEM PBL in comparison
to Costa Rica could yield valuable information regarding leadership characteristics that generate
success.
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Conclusion

The beauty of Costa Rica lies in citizens’ love for their country and sense of pride as a
nation. The educational leaders in Costa Rica are forward thinking and are on a quest to ensure
that all students are equipped with the 21st-century skills needed to complete in a global work-
place. This zeal to have a citizenry that is forward thinking and technologically advanced began
with the dismantling of the Costa Rican army. Financial resources were used to create schools
supported by the MEP and nonprofit foundations. In order to infuse new opportunities for educa-
tion and career development, the Costa Rican government created agencies that promoted FDI
incentives. Costa Rica utilized the resources that were provided by large corporations along with
existing educational structures to create a greater focus on STEM education and STEM-related
job fields. Part of this focus has been the creation of a national decree that established science
fairs at every school site in Costa Rica. This study sought to discover the leadership phenomena
that have led to successful PRONAFECYT implementation.
To fully understand educational leadership roles and their effects on student participation
in the PRONAFECYT, this study began with an introduction, statement of the problem, and the
purpose of this study. Four research questions were developed in order to understand the purpose
of the study. Literary analysis and research was conducted and reported on the history, educa-
tional system and implementation of PRONAFECYT. Data were gathered from interviews,
surveys, and observations conducted during a research trip to Costa Rica. Frameworks on lead-
ership, change, STEM PBL, and 21st-century skills provided the researcher with lenses to
analyze the data.
This study analyzed leadership practices at the researcher’s primary school (School A)
and compared those findings with another school in the Central Region (School B) as well as
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well as the region itself. The findings indicated that there was a clear vision for the implemen-
tation of STEM PBL, that the role of the school director is critical in terms of the school site’s
implementation of the PRONAFECYT, that teachers were aware of and used both STEM PBL
and the scientific method, that teachers collaborated on the implementation of the
PRONAFECYT, that both governmental and school site leaders used the concept of distributed
leadership, that there is a clear emphasis on 21st-century skills, and that an increased focus on
student collaboration was evident as well as an increased focus on inquiry-based instruction.
Costa Rica’s focus on educational success through the use of STEM PBL, inquiry-based
instruction, student collaboration, and the infusion of technology throughout curricular content
areas has allowed the country to advance its standing and level of participation in the global
workforce. The use of these strategies will allow Costa Rica to continue to thrive and prepare
students to compete globally.
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Appendix A
Recruitment Letter

DATE

Dear XXX,

On June 15, 2015, a group of 18 doctoral students from the University of Southern California,
Rossier School of Education, will travel to Costa Rica as part of a study team led by Dr. Michael
Escalante. The purpose of our research is to understand the effects of educational leadership on
participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT) in
primary schools in Costa Rica. Specifically, we are interested in the roles of primary school
leaders in preparing and implementing this initiative. As part of our study, the following ques-
tions will be addressed:

1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?

2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?

3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with
21st-century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?

4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practice?

We would appreciate an opportunity to speak with you, members of the Ministry of Education,
and educational leaders at regional and school site levels. It is our goal to conduct surveys and
interviews to gather data to address these research questions. Your input will be invaluable to
our study.

Thank you for considering our request. We are available to meet with you any time between
from June 15 and June 19. Please feel free to contact any member of our study team if you have
any questions.

Sincerely,

USC Doctoral Students
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Appendix B
List of Research Sites

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Appendix C
Consent Form

University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089

THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN PARTICIPATION IN THE NATIONAL
PROGRAM OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FAIRS IN COSTA RICA

You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You
should ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to understand the effects of educational leadership on participation in
the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs in primary schools in Costa Rica.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a 15-minute survey, a
30-minute audiotaped interview, and/or a 10-minute classroom observation. You do not have to
answer any questions that you don’t want to answer; if you don’t want to be taped, you can still
participate in this study.

CONFIDENTIALITY
There will be no identifiable information obtained in connection with this study. Your name,
address, or other identifiable information will not be collected.

The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.
INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NONMEDICAL RESEARCH
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INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION

Principal Investigator:
Dr. Michael Escalante, University of Southern California,
mescalan@usc.edumailto:mescalan@usc.edu; mailto:mescalan@usc.edu

Co-investigators:
Oryla Wiedoeft, Assistant to Dr. Escalante,
wiedoeft@usc.edumailto:wiedoeft@usc.edu
Patricia Brent-Sanco, Principal, Paramount Unified School District, pbrent@usc.edumailto:pbrent@usc.edu
Cindy Chavez Swenson, MWP Lecturer, University of California, Merced,
ccswenso@usc.edumailto:ccswenso@usc.edu
Jesus Corral, Senior Director, Los Angeles County Probation Dept.,
jesuscorral1@gmail.commailto:jesuscorral1@gmail.com
Ricardo Esquivel, Principal, Partnership to Uplift Communities, ricardoe@usc.edumailto:ricardoe@usc.edu
Carin Fractor, Teacher, Saugus Union School District,
fractor@usc.edumailto:fractor@usc.edu
Miguel Gonzales, Assistant Principal, Santa Barbara Unified School District
gonzalmm@usc.edumailto:gonzalmm@usc.edu
Denise Harshman, Coordinator, Orange County Department of Education
harshman@usc.edumailto:harshman@usc.edu
Mathew Kodama, Assistant Principal, Pasadena Unified School District
mathewwk@usc.edumailto:mathewwk@usc.edu
Jennifer Lashier, Assistant Principal, Arcadia Unified School District, lashier@usc.edumailto:lashier@usc.edu
April Leon, Teacher, West Covina High School,
aprilleo@usc.edumailto:aprilleo@usc.edu
Omar Lopez, Clinical Associate Professor, Assistant Director of Field Education, USC School of Social Work,
omarl@usc.edumailto:omarl@usc.edu
Christin Molano, Principal, Glendale Unified School District, cwalley@gusd.netmailto:cwalley@gusd.net
Fernando Marquez, Teacher on Assignment, Oro Grande School District,
fmarquez@usc.edumailto:fmarquez@usc.edu
Maribel Martinez, Principal, Lynwood Unified School District Mart632@usc.edumailto:Mart632@usc.edu
Wendy Poffenberger, Assistant Principal, Long Beach Unified School District,
wpoffenb@usc.edumailto:wpoffenb@usc.edu
Bea Spelker-Levi, Principal, Paramount Unified School District,
bspelker@paramount.k12.ca.usmailto:bspelker@paramount.k12.ca.us
Richard Storti, Vice President of Administrative Services, Fullerton College, rstorti@usc.edumailto:rstorti@usc.edu
John Tung, Assistant Principal, Arcadia Unified School District, johntung@usc.edumailto:johntung@usc.edu;
mailto:johntung@usc.edu; mailto:johntung@usc.edu

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edumailto:upirb@usc.edu
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Appendix D
Teacher Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

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Appendix E
School Director Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

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Appendix F
Government Official Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

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Appendix G
Business Partner Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

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Appendix H
Parent Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

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Appendix I
Student Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

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Appendix J
Teacher Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

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Appendix K
School Director Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

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Appendix L
Government Official/Business Leaders Interview Protocol: English and
Spanish Versions

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Appendix M
Parent Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

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Appendix N
Student Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

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Appendix O
Observation Protocol

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Appendix P
Summary of the Research Proposal

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to understand the effects of educational leadership on student participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología [PRONAFECYT]) in the primary schools of Costa Rica. The study identified the role that governmental, community, and school site leaders have in the development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. Leadership practices, instructional strategies, and professional development practices at governmental agencies, community organizations, and various school sites were examined to identify key components of the successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT. ❧ This study analyzed leadership practices at a primary school (School A) and compared those findings with another school (School B) in the Central Region as well as the region as a whole. This study found (a) that there was a clear vision for the implementation of curricula focusing on science, technology, engineering and math (STEM) and project-based learning (PBL)

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Asset Metadata

Creator Brent‐Sanco, Patricia Dawn (author)

Core Title A comparative analysis of the role of educational leadership on the participation of two schools in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs in Costa Rica

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Defense Date 02/19/2016

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Costa Rica,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,role of leaders,science and technology,STEM

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael (committee chair), Garcia, Pedro E. (committee member), Sheehan, Richard (committee member), Verdugo, David (committee member)

Creator Email pbrent@usc.edu,pbsanco@yahoo.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-222902

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Identifier etd-BrentSanco-4183.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-222902 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-BrentSanco-4183.pdf

Dmrecord 222902

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Brent‐Sanco, Patricia Dawn

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