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The benefits of mentorship to new high school assistant principals and principals

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The benefits of mentorship to new high school assistant principals and principals

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Content BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP

THE BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP TO NEW HIGH SCHOOL ASSISTANT PRINCIPALS
AND PRINCIPALS
by
Suena Chang

A Dissertation Proposal Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2016

Copyright 2016 Suena Chang

BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 2
THE BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP TO NEW HIGH SCHOOL ASSISTANT PRINCIPALS
AND PRINCIPALS
by
Suena Chang

A Dissertation Presented

in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA

2016

APPROVED:

___________________________________
Dr. Pedro Garcia, Ed.D.
Committee Chair

____________________________________
Dr. Rudy Castruita, Ed.D.
Committee Member

_____________________________________
Dr. Gregory Franklin, Ed.D.
Committee Member

BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 3
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine what methods administrators who were new to their
positions used to cope with their ever-evolving roles and the vast amounts of responsibilities
associated with a position in educational administration. It was also to determine whether
mentorship, either formal or informal, was beneficial to new administrators, and if so, how it was
beneficial. This was a mixed-methods study triangulating survey and interview data of school
administrators who were new to administration, as well as, experienced administrators who were
moved to new positions or unfamiliar settings. The participants of this study were secondary
administrators at conventional high schools in addition to one K-12 district superintendent. The
participants in this study found that proper use of communication, previous leadership
experience, their inner, and their organizational skills were essential to succeeding in their
positions. This study verified that new administrators struggled in their first years and that
mentorship is highly beneficial, especially informal mentorship, and those who did not have
mentors struggled significantly more. This finding indicates that district offices need to increase
their priority and investment in equipping new administrators. There should also be resources
spent on advocating mixers, networking events, or collaboration time amongst administrators
with various levels of experience. Since the state is making efforts to include mentorship in the
Tier II credentialing programs, a close eye should be kept on the effectiveness of this model and
if an informal process can be advocated for the success of the new administrators.

BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 4
PREFACE
Some of the chapters of this dissertation were coauthored and have been identified as
such. While jointly authored dissertations are not the norm of most doctoral programs, a
collaborative effort is reflective of real-world practices. To meet their objective of developing
highly skilled practitioners equipped to take on real-world challenges, the USC Graduate School
and the USC Rossier School of Education have permitted our inquiry team to carry out this
shared venture.
This dissertation is part of a collaborative project with two other doctoral candidates,
Katie Males and Donald Rafter. We three doctoral students studied the need and importance of
mentorship for new administrators. However, the process for dissecting and resolving the
problem was too large for a single dissertation. As a result, the three dissertations produced by
our inquiry team collectively address the need for new administrator mentorship (see Males,
2016; Rafter, 2016).

BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 5
DEDICATION
This is dedicated to my loving husband and kids (Stephen, Timothy, and Ethan) who not
only understood the time commitment, but supported me in completing the program.
I would also like to dedicate this to all the new high school administrators and encourage
them to seek out mentorship and sponsorship.

BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 6
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
“In their hearts humans plan their course, but the
Lord establishes their steps.” Proverbs 16:9
(New International Version)
I would never have imagined going back to school for a doctorate degree. It was never a
part of my plan, but I believe that God has guided my footsteps to fulfill His purpose for me. It
was by His grace that I was able to complete this program and start in the administrative field of
education, and I look forward to how He will guide me in the future.
Three years ago, my husband, Stephen, and I had a serious discussion. I left it up to him
to make the final decision of whether I should pursue this path because it would have meant that
I would only focus on work and school and he would take care of the house and the kids. Three
years later, I can wholeheartedly say that it was because of his hard work that I was able to focus
on my studies and succeed in completing this dissertation. I would also like to thank my kids
(Timothy and Ethan) for understanding why mom wasn’t able to look over their homework and
spend more time with them and for being responsible so that I did not have to worry about them.
I would also like to thank the rest of my family and friends. My siblings (Sookyung,
Sueyoung, and Sueah) and friends have encouraged and supported me with their prayers and
love. They were understanding of why I was MIA at gatherings and did what they could to help
me stay focused on my studies. Honorable mention goes to my mom, Yun, who continuously
encouraged me with words of wisdom and expressions of her pride in my pursuit, as well as,
with scholarships.
My dissertation team, Katie Males and Donnie Rafter, were invaluable to me by making
this process easier and keeping me accountable. It was thanks to them that I was able to
complete this dissertation in a timely fashion.
I also want to acknowledge all the participants of this study. It is thanks to their time and
input in providing valuable information that made this study possible.
Finally, I would like to thank my committee, Dr. Pedro Garcia (chair), Dr. Rudy
Castruita, and Dr. Gregory Franklin. Their patience and guidance clarified the dissertation
process, and their constructive feedback in the process resulted in a successful dissertation.

BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 7
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Tables ...........................................................................................................8
List of Figures ..........................................................................................................9
List of Appendices .................................................................................................10
Chapter One: Overview of the Study .....................................................................11
Introduction of the Problem .......................................................................11
Background/Overview of the Problem ......................................................13
Statement of the Problem ...........................................................................14
Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................15
Importance of the Study .............................................................................16
Assumptions, Delimitations, Limitations ..................................................17
Definition of Terms....................................................................................17
Chapter Two: Literature Review ...........................................................................19
Introduction ................................................................................................19
History/Research ........................................................................................20
Increasing Difficulty/Changing of the Job .................................................22
Administrator Shortage ..............................................................................22
The Importance of Well Prepared Administrators .....................................24
Leadership Impacts Student Achievement .................................................25
Theory to Practice ......................................................................................27
Gap/Inconsistencies ...................................................................................37
Summary of Chapter Two ..........................................................................42
Chapter Three: Methodology .................................................................................43
Introduction ................................................................................................43
Sample and Population ..............................................................................44
Instrumentation ..........................................................................................45
Data Collection ..........................................................................................49
Data Analysis .............................................................................................50
Chapter Four: The Findings ...................................................................................51
Background ................................................................................................51
Purpose .......................................................................................................51
Guiding Questions .....................................................................................51
Research .....................................................................................................52
Summary ....................................................................................................79
Chapter Five: Summary, Implications, and Conclusions.......................................82
Summary ....................................................................................................82
Summary of Findings .................................................................................84
Implications................................................................................................87
Recommendations for Future Research .....................................................89
Limitations .................................................................................................89
Conclusion .................................................................................................90
References ..............................................................................................................91

BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 8
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Interview Participants School/District Demographics:
Key Characteristics from 2013-14 ...........................................................53
Table 2. Survey Participants by Ethnicity ..............................................................54
Table 3. Superintendent Profile: Characteristics ...................................................54
Table 4. Interview Participants (Secondary School): Key Characteristics ............55
Table 5. Survey Participants: Gender ....................................................................55
Table 6. Survey Participants by Age Group ..........................................................56
Table 7. Survey Participants by Experience in Education .....................................57
Table 8. Survey Participants: Highest Level of Education ...................................58
Table 9. Survey Participants: Response Rate ........................................................59

BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 9
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Quantitative Survey: Experience Contributing to Success as an
Administrator ..........................................................................................63
Figure 2 Quantitative Survey: Effectiveness of Current Coping Skills .................68
Figure 3 Quantitative Survey: Belief that a Mentor in Some Capacity would
Help Develop/Improve Necessary Coping Skills ...................................70
Figure 4 Quantitative Survey: Importance of Having a Mentor First Years
as an Administrator .................................................................................71
Figure 5 Quantitative Survey: Areas that Benefitted from Mentorship .................73
Figure 6 Quantitative Survey: Positive Influence of a Mentor in
Understanding Role as an Administrator ................................................76

BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 10
LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix A Pre-Interview Invitation Email .........................................................97
Appendix B Online Survey ...................................................................................98
Appendix C Interview Protocol: New Administrators........................................104
Appendix D Interview Protocol: Superintendent ................................................106

BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 11
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Authors: Suena Chang, Katie Males, and Donald Rafter
1

Introduction of the Problem
Studies clearly indicate that leadership in education is significant to the success of
schools through the leadership provided to all staff and students. Research on effective school
leadership states that leadership plays a crucial role in ensuring the school’s success, however, as
administrators take over the role of such a daunting task minimal hands-on experience is
provided (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006). Lacking real-world experience, educational leaders rely
on personal experiences to provide the opportunities to develop as administrators. The process
of developing real-world experiences can take years of on-the-job-training to develop an
effective administrator. Mentorship provides the opportunity to provide the real-world
experiences for those administrators who have already experienced the aspects of the position
(Mertz, 2004).
Leadership is a process that develops over time, however, within educational
organizations this leadership comes from a person who once served as a classroom teacher and
has completed an administrative educational program. Through the completion of a classroom
program, prior classroom teachers make the move from teacher to administrator. Even though
the move in positions has been made, the experience necessary to make such a move is lacking.
Many educational leadership programs focus on teaching the theories of how an administrator
should lead, but often leave out the real-world experiences for administrators. These limitations
of real-world experiences lend itself to book knowledge, without the ability to access real-world

1
This chapter was jointly written by the authors listed, reflecting the team approach to this project. The authors are
listed alphabetically, reflecting the equal amount of work by all those listed.
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 12
application (Thessin & Clayton, 2013). This real-world application is the missing component for
administrator’s to be able to lead successfully.
This lack of real-world experience proves to be a difficult problem to overcome for new
administrators. Problems arise for administrators who lack such experience when the demands
of the job begin to develop. New administrators lack the on-the-job knowledge that is necessary
to be successful when trying to balance the responsibilities that come with such a position.
Research continues to review how much experience a person must have in real-world application
of administrative duties to be successful in such a position (Thessin & Clayton, 2013). As
research continues on how much experience is necessary for success, this research has already
uncovered the benefits of mentorship programs for new administrators (Brown-Ferringo & Muth,
2004). However, across California, mentorship programs for new administrators are limited
(Darling-Hammond, Orphanos, LaPointe, & Weeks, 2007).
One of the greatest influential factors on student learning that is school-related is school
leadership. Leithwood, Patten, and Jantzi (2010) stated that classroom instruction is the only
school-related factor that outweighs the influence of school leadership. Since there is enough
evidence to justify the significant leadership effects on student achievement, Leithwood, Patten
et al. (2010) tested how leadership influences student learning. Thus, in terms of practical
application of leadership effects, it is only logical to ensure that the educational policies and
practices invest in the building of school leadership capacity through programs such as
mentorship. The requirements for these mentorships and the educational administrator licensures
have little effective accountabilities, great inconsistencies, and variance. For example, in
Virginia, a teacher working to become an administrator must complete 320 clock hours of
structured and supervised internship experience to be licensed, while, in Maryland, only some
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 13
form of internship or practicum supervised by the local school system and university is required
(Thessin & Clayton, 2013). Yet in California and in many more states, no internship is
specifically required to become an educational administrator (Thessin & Clayton, 2013).
Composite findings from research suggest that the disconnected linkage between administrator
recruitment, preparation, and placement is a critical problem (Browne-Ferrigno & Muth, 2004).
Background/Overview of the Problem
The Elementary and Secondary Act (ESEA, Public Law 89-10, 1965) was reauthorized
by the United States Congress in 2001 and immediately renamed the “No Child Left Behind Act
of 2001 (NCLB, Public Law 107-110, 2002).” Its intentions were to close the achievement gap
between students in American public school systems and those in other countries and to better
prepare American students for a 21st century global society (Gonzalez, Hamilton, & Stecher,
2003). This legislation demanded increased accountability at the federal, state, and local level
and also called for better alignment of standardized testing with curriculum. NCLB also
demanded a greater focus on the management of educational funding and total transparency for
parents and community members to access data relating to school management. These changes
have led to a greater focus on the decision making made at school sites, have given permission
for the community to access records, and have put a substantial amount of pressure on both
administrators and superintendents (Pounder & Crow, 2005).
One of the enduring issues yet to be addressed upon examining the current state of
education from a global perspective is the potential scarcity of qualified administrators. A 1996
study that took place in Utah reported that roughly half of the school districts surveyed found
administrator shortages at all school levels (Galvin & Sperry, 1996). Two Colorado studies
reported that between 75% and 90% of public school superintendents indicated a moderate to
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 14
severe shortage of administrator candidates, with 90% predicting a future shortage (Whitaker,
2003). Urban districts such as New York and Los Angeles have a more problematic time hiring
administrators as temporary administrators are assigned to many schools (Whitaker, 2003).
In School Leadership that Works, Marzano, Waters, and McNulty (2005) outlined 21
research-based responsibilities that should be standard operating procedures for effective
administrators. After describing the 21 responsibilities, the authors themselves stated how
difficult it is to be an effective school leader and daunting the task of mastering these skills can
be. Numerous districts across the United States are struggling to find and retain quality
administrators, especially since there are great difficulties associated with the position.
Therefore, it is important that researchers re-examine the roles that administrators have
traditionally played in school success and the ways in which they were supported.
Today, there exists a need to discover how some administrators manage to cope with the
stress and workload associated with their jobs while others struggle in the position and are
unable to survive in the position. Studies show that mentoring future leaders is a vital part of the
development process for administrators as it allows a hands-on learning approach that cannot be
acquired in a classroom (Clarke & Wildy, 2010; Leithwood, Jantzi, & Coffin, 1995; Daresh &
Playko, 1994).
Statement of the Problem
In 2001, “the California Commission on Teacher Credentialing had more than 34,000
people on file with administrative credentials in California – [which was] more than enough to
fill the approximately 23,000” educational leadership positions needed (Bell, 2001, para. 7). Bell
(2001) pointed out that the problem is that “many educators with administrative credentials are
instead seeking administrative work as teacher mentors or curriculum directors, [which are] jobs
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 15
that carry less responsibility” (para. 7). California administrators also face a higher pupil-to-
administrator ratio than the rest of the country. Richard Elmore (2005) explained that school
leadership is asked to assume responsibilities they are largely untrained for, and the
consequences of failure are high for everyone, especially children. Despite the school leaders’
tremendous responsibilities, not all new leaders are equipped with the skills necessary to be
successful in dealing with the responsibilities and challenges of the new position. Research
shows that these skills necessary for success can be best taught through the guidance of a mentor
through real life experiences (Browne-Ferrigno & Muth, 2004; Clarke & Wildy, 2010;
Leithwood, Jantzi et al., 1995; Silver, Lochmiller, Copland, & Tripps, 2009; Thessin & Clayton,
2013).
Purpose of the Study
In order to better understand how to prepare administrators, school administrators were
studied. The purpose of this study was to determine what methods administrators who are new
to their positions used to cope with their ever-evolving roles and the vast amounts of
responsibilities associated with a position in educational administration. It was also to determine
whether mentorship, either formal or informal, was beneficial to new administrators, and if so,
how it was beneficial. This study involved school administrators who were new to
administration, as well as, experienced administrators who were moved to new positions or
unfamiliar settings. The research questions for this study were:
1. What coping methods do new school administrators use to deal with the vast amounts of
responsibilities they encounter?
2. Which of these coping methods worked best for them?
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 16
3. What are the new administrators’ perceptions of formal or informal mentoring in
fulfilling their responsibilities as secondary administrators?
4. How are the skillsets that are developed through formal or informal mentoring for new
administrators beneficial in fulfilling their responsibilities?
Importance of the Study
In a 2003 article titled Principal role changes and influence on principal recruitment and
selection, Kathryn Whitaker suggested that over the course of the last decade, the roles for
school leaders has changed drastically. Reforms such as higher standards, greater levels of
accountability, higher levels of parent demands, and site-based management have led to an
increased workload for principals. These changes have led to increasing evidence of difficulties
in recruiting and retaining individuals in the principalship (Whitaker, 2003). Whitaker goes on
to suggest that one of the recommendations for addressing the lack of qualified leaders to take on
the role of principal, is to provide ongoing support and mentoring for principals (Whitaker,
2003). Research suggests that mentoring programs for new principals are crucial to their
success.
The findings from this pilot study can be compared to future studies of a similar nature of
mentored administrators new to their positions so that University-District partnership mentorship
programs can apply the comparison study results in building up trained and prepared educational
leaders. This study will also be significant to new leaders in the field of education and those who
may be considering a career in educational leadership. The contents of this study will serve as a
resource to new and aspiring administrators who may question what specific strategies used by
new administrators are, in fact, deemed successful.

BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 17
Assumptions, Delimitations, Limitations
Three assumptions were made in this study: (1) The range of districts participating in the
study are representative of the educational institutions; (2) the experiences of the administrators
interviewed and surveyed represent the experiences of all new administrators who went through
the same preparation programs; and (3) previous research on new administrators can be
expanded to new administrators.
Three delimitations included the low number of administrators used, lack of data
collection variety beyond surveys and interviews, and the limited number of districts used in
sampling. In addition, limitations were present in the time available, the small sample of new
administrators at a given time, and the limitation of self-reporting data. These last two
limitations reduce the generalizability of the findings due to the small sample as well as the depth
of perspective, with only new administrators’ perspectives captured through the data-collection
processes.
Definition of Terms
The terms listed below were used throughout this study.
 New administrators: an administrator who has served in that administrative position for
three years or less
 Formal Mentorship: a structured and coordinated approach by a third party to mentoring
where individuals (usually novices – mentees and more experienced persons – mentors)
agree to engage in a personal and confidential relationship that aims to provide
professional development, growth, and varying degrees of personal support (Hansford &
Erich, 2006, p. 39).
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 18
 Informal Mentorship: a mentorship relationship that develops as the parties involved see
the need or feel the desire to confide and advise; mentorship is meant to be a
developmental relationship where a more experienced and knowledgeable person helps
an individual with less experience and knowledge (Casavant & Cherkowski, 2001).
 Conventional high school administrators: administrators at a traditional high schools (9th-
12th grade schools); typically larger than 1700 students

BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 19
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Authors: Suena Chang, Katie Males, Donald Rafter
2

Introduction
As the responsibilities and expectancies of a school leader has evolved into a more
complex and instructionally impacting role, the number of qualified and equipped candidates has
decreased. Studies show that mentorship programs better prepare qualified school leaders to
fulfill this demanding role (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006; Browne-Ferrigno & Muth, 2004; Clarke
& Wildy, 2010; Ehrich, Hansford, & Tennent, 2004; Fink & Brayman, 2004; Leithwood, Jantzi
et al., 1995; Orr & Barber, 2005; Parylo, Zepeda, & Bengtson, 2012; Silver et al., 2009; Thessin
& Clayton, 2013). This chapter reviews the past history and research on the quality of education
and the impact that school leadership has on student achievement. Then it addresses the shortage
of administrators and the increasing demands of the position as the role is redefined through
time. Following this discussion, an explanation of the need for preparing administrators in order
to support student achievement will be presented. Administrator readiness can be accomplished
through a well-structured mentorship program which promotes putting theory into practice and is
beneficial to the novice, mentor, and district. Well-structured mentorship programs provide
support/skills, socialization, satisfaction/reward, professional development, and
recruitment/network opportunity for those involved. Finally, this chapter concludes with the
discussion of the gaps and inconsistencies of current mentorship programs and what difficulties–
such as mentor/novice compatibility, mentor quality, limited resources, and university-district
partnership challenges–need to be overcome in order to offer a successful mentorship programs.

2
This chapter was jointly written by the authors listed, reflecting the team approach to this project. The authors are
listed alphabetically, reflecting the equal amount of work by all those listed.
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 20
History/Research
In the 1970s and early 1980s, there was a widely held belief that the American education
system was failing and that the education gap between the United States and the rest of the world
was rapidly narrowing (Gardner, 1983). As a result, in 1981 T. H. Bell (as cited in Gardner,
1983), who at the time served as the Secretary of Education, created the National Commission on
Excellence in Education (Introduction, para. 1). A group of 16 professionals from across the
country were assembled to investigate the quality of education in the United States and assigned
the task of producing a report within 18 months outlining the state of the American education
system (Gardner, 1983). The report that emerged from this commission was entitled A Nation at
Risk and in it a bleak picture of American education system was painted: “If an unfriendly
foreign power had attempted to impose on America the mediocre educational performance that
exists today, we might well have viewed it as an act of war” (U.S. Department of Education,
1983, p. 2). It was from this report that the move towards accountability and standards-driven
frameworks were derived. A Nation at Risk was the nexus of the standards and accountability
movement that called for the establishment of technical standards that would be assessed through
the use of standardized testing (Horn, 2002).
When the school reform movement began in the 1980s, the first consequence for school
leaders was pressure to put student learning at the center of their jobs. In 2002, 22years later,
President George W. Bush published No Child Left Behind (NCLB, Public Law 107-110) which
again placed accountability and standards at the forefront of American Education. The document
was 34 pages long and contained 26 occurrences of the word “accountability.” Definitions of
what an instructional leader is and the role that they play has changed significantly since the No
Child Left Behind Act was first penned. Today, instruction remains a dominant theme, but it is
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 21
taking a much more complex form. Standards of learning and pressure to provide evidence of
student success have confirmed the importance of educational leadership (Lashway, 2002).
Standards-based accountability systems defy traditional assumptions about instructional
leadership. Principals are now being asked to lead teachers to produce concrete results on
rigorous academic standards where once a leader was asked to encourage teachers’ efforts. This
requires not just innovative practices, but a different mindset (Lashway, 2002). A school
principal that was once considered a manager of resources, a goal setter, and a staff evaluator is
now someone who takes a much more involved role in the process of teaching and learning and
carries more sophisticated views on professional development (Lashway, 2002).
To further illustrate the evolving role of educational administrators, specifically at the site
level, the Education Commission of the States, in analyzing how the No Child Left Behind Act
will affect leaders, noted that they not only need a sophisticated understanding of assessment,
they should be master teachers (or at least recruit master teachers) so assessment data can be
used intelligently (Anthes, 2002). Yet, another description of the role of educational
administrator recognizes that these leaders need to be “educational visionaries, community
builders, public relations experts, budget analysts, facility managers, special programs
administrators, and expert overseers of legal, contractual, and policy mandates and initiatives”
(Darling-Hammond, LaPointe, Meyerson, Orr, & Cohen, 2007, p. 3). These same leaders are
expected to balance the competing interests of parents, teachers, students, district office officials,
unions, and state and federal agencies while always keeping the best interests of the students in
mind (Darling-Hammond, LaPointe et al., 2007). The research tells us that it is apparent that the
role of educational leaders is constantly evolving and becoming more daunting a task as each day
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 22
goes by. These changing conditions necessitate a conscious commitment to the preparation and
retention of qualified educational leaders.
Increasing Difficulty/Changing of the Job
Several studies have noted the changing role of educational leaders. Role changes such
as pressures related to high-stakes testing, new accountability measures, increased role of
management, changing relationships with the community, and site-based or collaborative
decision making models are changes often referenced in the literature (Hart and Bredesen, 1996;
Murphy, 1994; Whitaker, 1999; Williams & Portin, 1997). Although it could be argued that
these changes are a necessity and that they have had several positive impacts on education as a
whole, these changes have led to an increase in overall workloads and have contributed to an
increase in the stress levels of principals (Pounder & Merrill, 2001; Whan & Thomas, 1996). In
the 2013 MetLife Survey of American Teachers, it was reported that “75% [of principals felt]
their jobs have become too complex . . .about half . . . feel under great stress . . . several days a
week” (Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, 2013, para. 5). and the percentage who said they
felt satisfied in their work dropped from 62 to 39 since 2008 (Metropolitan Life Insurance
Company, 2013, para. 5). In his recent book, The Principal, Michael Fullan (2014) wrote: I
don’t think, “There has never been a time when the circumstances for the role of the principal
have been more volatile. Facing the unpredictable, principals must be able to handle a good deal
of ambiguity while displaying strong lead learner qualities” (p. 145).
Administrator Shortage
In addition to the excessive demands of the job that can make it difficult for principals to
focus on teaching and learning, studies have also shown there appears to be a growing shortage
of people who are both willing to take on the position of the principalship and are well qualified
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 23
to lead instructional improvement, particularly in culturally diverse, low-income communities
and schools (Darling-Hammond, LaPointe et al., 2007). School districts across the nation are
already reporting principal shortages. One report finds that nearly 60% of principals will retire,
resign, or otherwise leave their position in the next five years (Peterson, 2002). In California,
specifically, the problem is not necessarily a shortage of certified administrators, but rather a
shortage of quality administrators willing and committed to working in underserved communities
and schools (Peterson, 2002). Principal candidates and existing principals are often ill-prepared
and inadequately supported to organize schools to improve learning while managing all of the
other demands of the job (Levine, 2005; Young, 2002).
Recent literature has pointed to the increased need for school districts to attract and retain
highly qualified educators to serve in administrative roles. A chief cause for this is the alarming
unavailability of qualified administrators available to fill current positions and the potential
positions likely to open in the near future (Pounder & Crow, 2005). An exploratory study
conducted by Education Research Service (ERS) in 1998 for the National Association of
Secondary School Principals (NASSP) and the National Association of Elementary Principals
(NAESP) indicated that half of the districts surveyed reported a shortage of qualified candidates
for the principal positions they had attempted to fill. They also stated that these shortages were
not limited to a single level or location. Rural, urban, and suburban districts were susceptible to
the shortages and so were elementary, middle, and high school levels (Educational Research
Service, 1998). Forsyth and Smith (2002) suggested that these shortages do, in fact, display
themselves differently at different levels. According to Forsyth and Smith, these shortages are
seen most often in the positions of the high school principalship or the district superintendency
(Forsyth & Smith, 2002). A blend of demographic changes and dissatisfaction with leadership
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 24
roles as a result of the standards-based movement have been cause for rapid turnover in the
position of principals and other leadership roles in schools (Earley, Collarbone, Evans, Gold, &
Halpin, 2002). Ironically, as several studies pointed out, leadership and particularly the
leadership of the principal is a crucial ingredient in school success and improvement (Louis &
Miles, 1990; Fullan, 2001; Glickman, 2002; Sergiovanni, 2000; Stoll, Fink, & Earl, 2002).
Effective recruitment and selection of school leaders continues to be one of the more
challenging human resource functions (Pounder & Young, 1996). School districts are struggling
to attract and retain an adequate supply of highly qualified candidates for leadership roles
(Knapp, Copland, & Talbert, 2003). Principal candidates and existing principals are often ill-
prepared and inadequately supported to organize schools to improve learning while managing all
of the other demands of the job (Levine, 2005; Young, 2002). The difficulty districts face in
recruiting and retaining highly qualified individuals is due in large part to the addition of new
educational initiatives, new conceptualizations of leadership, and changing student
characteristics (Pounder & Young, 1996).
The Importance of Well Prepared Administrators
In the 2004 publication How Leadership Influences Student Learning, the authors pointed
out two distinct claims at the onset of the publication: “1. Leadership is second only to classroom
instruction among all school-related factors that contribute to what students learn at school” and
“2. Leadership effects are usually largest where and when they are needed the most” (Leithwood,
Seashore Louis et al., 2004, p. 5). According to the authors, leadership is a key factor in
accounting for differences in the success of a school and its student population. Leadership and
its effects account for approximately a quarter of a school’s total effect. Leaders contribute to
student learning indirectly, through their influence on other people or features of their
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 25
organization (Leithwood, Seashore Louis et al., 2004). An increasing number of publications
indicated that school principals influence student achievement through the support and
development of effective teachers and the implementation of effective organizational processes
(Darling-Hammond, LaPointe et al., 2007). Evidence suggested that a principal’s ability to lead
is central to the task of building successful schools that promote powerful teaching and learning
for all students (Darling-Hammond, LaPointe et al., 2007)
Researchers have found that principal leadership in the context of accountability-driven
reform is being redefined to focus on effective management of the school improvement process.
In general, Annual Performance Index (API) scores were higher in schools with principals whose
responses indicated they act as managers of school improvement, driving the reform process,
cultivating the school vision, and extensively using student assessment data for a wide variety of
school improvement areas of focus, including evaluation of teacher practice and assistance to
struggling students (Williams, Kirst, & Haertel, 2005).
Leadership Impacts Student Achievement
Leadership at the school sites is also very important to student achievement. Mid-
continent Research for Education and Learning (McREL) performed a quantitative research on
school leadership spanning about 30 years (Waters, Marzano, & McNulty, 2004). The study
answered two important questions of what impact the quality of leadership has on student
achievement and what specific leadership responsibilities and practices have the greatest impact
(Waters et al., 2004). Waters et al. (2004) found that focus of change is important. Focus of
change refers to correctly identifying the factors that will positively impact the student
achievement and properly adjusting to ensure change in practice. Having established that school
leadership can have tremendous influence on student achievement, it is imperative that there
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 26
would be a focus of change ensuring that all administrators are ready to take on the school site
responsibilities. Midcontinent Research for Education and Learning’s (McREL) meta-analysis
of 30 years of research on school-level leadership examined the relationship between school
leadership and student achievement (Grubb & Waters, 2004).
McREL’s meta-analysis resulted in three major findings that support the claim that
school-level leadership matters in terms of student achievement (Grubb & Waters, 2004). They
determined the effect size of leadership on student achievement was .25, expressed as a
correlation. They also listed 66 leadership practices principals use to fulfill 21 responsibilities
that affect student achievement. The top responsibility was situational awareness. Thirdly, just
as leaders can have a positive impact on student achievement, Grubb and Waters (2004) found
that leaders also can have a marginal or negative impact on achievement.
Leithwood, Patten et al. (2010) further supported that leaders have significant positive
impact on student achievement outcome. According to their study, there are many things that
leaders can do to set the goal and school climate towards student learning. The authors outline
four distinct “Paths” along which leadership influence flows to improve student learning:
Rational, Emotions, Organizational, and Family paths. The Rational path deals specifically with
the knowledge and skills staff members have with regards to teaching and learning. The
Emotions path includes the feelings and dispositions of staff members about school related
matters and can be directly compared to Bolman and Deal’s Human Resource frame (Bolman &
Deal, 1991). Variables in the Organizational path consist of school policies and practices or
“standard operating procedures” that must be in place for a school to run effectively. Lastly, the
Family path consists of a focus on the home environment of students. Estimates from one study
pointed out that everything schools do within their walls accounts for about 20% of the variation
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 27
of student achievement (Bosker & Scheerens, 1994; Mortimore et al., 1988; & Scheerens, 1992
as cited in Creemers & Reezigt, 1996, p. 203). Leithwood, Patten et al. (2010) suggested that
leaders wishing to run effective schools should attend to variables needing strengthening on all
Paths, which again, illustrates the all-encompassing job of educational leaders.
Theory to Practice
As shown through the early studies and research, there needs to be an improvement in not
only selecting the right candidates to become administrative leaders, but in the implementation of
theory to practice taught in the higher institutions. This implementation involves training the
candidates through real life experiences so that they feel well-equipped and adequately supported
by the program and the district. Investing in these programs will improve the shortages of highly
qualified administrative leaders.
Mentorship of Administrators
Imagine a doctor entering a surgery room without being trained on how to perform an
open heart surgery or even second hand experience. It is the first time entering the surgical room
and first time having to cut into the heart. The doctor was only taught what to expect through a
text book and the instructor in a university course. That is the scenario for many new
administrators in California. Other than theory that is studied in the lecture hall, many new
administrators step into their offices not having been trained in real-life situations or any
experience (Fink & Brayman, 2004). They are put in charge of an enormous task for which they
have not been trained in.
Many leadership positions in different careers such as medicine, business, architecture,
and engineering provide a type of internship or apprenticeship (Darling-Hammond, LaPointe et
al., 2007; Ehrich et al., 2004). For example, the business sector has recognized that the
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 28
impending retirement of the baby boomers will create a shortage of business leaders and contend
that systemic succession programs must be implemented to replace these leaders with highly
qualified leaders (Fink & Brayman, 2004).
In educational leadership, there appears to be a shortage of candidates desiring the
principalship (Darling-Hammond, LaPointe et al., 2007; Grissom & Harrington, 2010).
According to Darling-Hammond, LaPointe et al. (2007) and Grissom and Harrington (2010), the
candidates do not view principalship as a doable job or are adequately supported by the district.
Moreover, they feel inadequately supported and unprepared to take on the challenging work.
Even current principals feel this pressure leading to high principal turnover. The more turnover
there are of principals, the more resistant teachers become to leadership efforts as constant, yet
inconsistent, plans are implemented by the revolving leaders (Fink & Brayman, 2004; Louis,
Leithwood, Wahlstrom, & Anderson, 2014).
Grissom and Harrington (2010) carried out a quantitative research on professional
development for principals and their effectiveness. They studied principals, teachers, and other
stakeholders for multiple factors such as teacher perception, teacher satisfaction, teacher
retention, student achievement, and classroom conditions. Their study indicated that mentorship
is positively associated with teacher’s perception of principal effectiveness. Darling-Hammond,
La Pointe et al. (2007) indicated that principals who go through good mentorship programs tend
to be more positive and strongly committed to their jobs. In addition, they spend more time as
instructional leaders engaging in activities that build teacher capacity and encourage instructional
dialogue.
Browne-Ferrigno and Muth (2004) analyzed data from participants of several cohorts in
clinical practice and mentorship, and reviews of research on clinical practice, leadership
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 29
preparation programs, and mentoring programs. The study suggested that an effective leadership
program provides the candidates the opportunity to gain authentic administrative experiences.
These programs provide the opportunity for both aspiring and novice administrators to obtain a
more positive perception of principalship leading to greater numbers of talented educators
seeking the position. Browne-Ferrigno and Muth suggested that well-structured mentorship
programs provide a carefully matched mentor-novice pairing where the novice feels supported.
The novice is led through socialization with the help of the mentor. They provide an award to
one another and experience satisfaction, recognition, and even motivation from seeing the
success of the novice. In addition, the continual discourse and reflection provides professional
development for both parties. Lastly, both the parties have extra exposure and create more
opportunities for networking and being recruited for new positions.
Support skills. Alsbury and Hackmann (2006) ran a study of formative assessments
where a mentorship/induction program of Iowa State was studied to identify the beneficial
components of an administrator mentoring program. This evaluation research found that not
only did the mentorship benefit the novices, it also benefitted the mentors and the district. This
study confirms that an important component of mentoring programs is the supportive mentor-
novice relationship. This sense of belonging built through the relationship fosters a positive
leadership perspective in the novice (Daresh, 2004).
A well-developed program teaches the novices the “tricks of the trade” (Alsbury &
Hackmann, 2006). Thessin and Clayton (2013) indicated that experiencing the problems first
hand through these authentic learning environments allow new skills and problem-solving
strategy development. Through this time, the novice receives role clarification and technical
guidelines and expertise (Browne-Ferrigno & Muth, 2004). Novices gain confidence about their
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 30
professional abilities as they develop skills and witness the unfolding of lessons learned from
books through daily interactions with their learning communities (Daresh, 2004). Direct
interaction improves other skills through the mentorship relationship. For example,
communication skills improve as the interaction and discussion take place between the mentor
and the novice (Daresh, 2004).
Even more than this is the encouragement and the continued support of a more
experienced mentor (Browne-Ferrigno & Muth, 2004; Ehrich et al., 2004; Hansford & Ehrich,
2006). In Browne-Ferrigno and Muth’s (2004) study, survey participants of the programs
studied cited the encouragement and support from their sponsors as the most important influence
in program engagement and in seeking principalship. Ehrich et al. (2004) even stated that
friendship of the mentors has led to positive outcomes for the novice. In the long run, the novice
who receives great support will likely become a lifelong learner and will be more likely to
volunteer as a mentor (Daresh, 2004). This cycle will create a culture of collegiality and a
trusting support system within the learning community.
Socialization. Socialization is the process where the new administrator “acquires the
habits, beliefs, and accumulated knowledge of society through education and training for adult
status” (Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 1995, p. 641). Becoming a principal involves a personal
transformation, and mentorship programs provide the context where the novice simulates
socialization (Browne-Ferrigno & Muth, 2004). Browne-Ferrigno and Muth (2004) explained
that as this transformation from teacher to administrator takes place, the new role identity as
principal is constructed. For example, there are unspoken cultural models where the norms and
performance expectations are constructed through social activities.
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 31
The cultural model helps define the acceptable norm in an organization that are
intangible, invisible, and, often times, unnoticeable. According to Rueda (2011), the cultural
model is the customary and normal day-to-day ideas. Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) referred
to it as the shared mental schema of how the world works around them. Clark and Estes (2002)
explained that the organizational culture consciously and subconsciously dictates how to do our
jobs. Therefore, a cultural model is the automatic shared understanding such as the culture of
trust, appropriate values, etc. Moreover, socialization is a strategy for learning the culture, skills,
and knowledge along with the behaviors, norms, and values so that the novice can be prepared to
take on the complex leadership role as an administrator (Silver et al., 2009).
The mentor can provide a presence or the sense of being supported so that the novice
does not feel alienated in the new culture. It is important to prevent the novice from
experiencing social isolation (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006; Hansford & Ehrich, 2006). Alsbury
and Hackmann’s (2006) study confirmed that the important part of the mentorship relationship is
to develop a supportive relationship especially through socialization. Parylo et al. (2012) further
supported this relationship with their findings from their qualitative study of interviews with 16
principals that having a mentor was very important in having peace of mind and not feeling alone
or isolated.
Some of the socialization can be work-embedded. For example, as the novice shadows
and interviews the mentor, the novice will be socialized into the administrative community and
become familiar with the practices readily used (Browne-Ferrigno & Muth, 2004). Daresh
(2004) explained that socialization to leadership roles is developmental mentoring and a key part
of novices becoming effective leaders.
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 32
Rewarding. Serving as a mentor can be difficult, but it is even more rewarding. There
are challenges as the mentor tries to take on another engagement into their already full schedules,
but Daresh (2004) and Parylo et al. (2012) found that being a mentor can be satisfying to the
mentors. It is satisfying because mentors found that advising a novice administrator was both
challenging and stimulating. Although mentors have to add a greater work load to their plate,
they are molding the culture and values of the next generation of leaders. This fact rejuvenates
the mentors leading to increased productivity and improved recruitment efforts (Ehrich et al.,
2004). Even the senior staff can be motivated and reenergized. Some mentors found fulfilment
in the recognition they received from their peers (Daresh, 2004).
Professional development. Carefully conceived mentoring programs provide excellent
professional development (PD) for both the mentors and novices in the form of reflection. The
role of principals have evolved from just managing the school to a continual reflection of the
vision, goal, and practices (Orr & Barber, 2005). From the mentor-novice dialogue, reflective
conversation between the two parties encourages introspection not only in the novices, but also
serves as a catalyst for the mentors (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006; Browne-Ferrigno & Muth,
2004; Ehrich et al., 2004). The reflective questioning techniques used on the novices can
become a self-reflective tool for the mentors. Research shows that ongoing leadership
development should include opportunities for actively reflecting on leadership experiences
(Clarke & Wildy, 2010; Darling-Hammond, LaPointe et al., 2007; Ehrich et al., 2004; Hansford
and Ehrich, 2006; Leithwood, Jantzi et al., 1995; Thessin & Clayton, 2013). These opportunities
build capacity for even the veteran principals (Browne-Ferrigno & Muth, 2004). In fact,
reflection itself is not only PD in itself, it is an extension to other PD the mentors and novices
previously had received (Parylo et al., 2012).
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 33
Moreover, mentoring fosters the development of leadership skills (Browne-Ferrigno &
Muth, 2004). The continued sharing of the keen perspective of the mentors and the new views
presented by the novices provide greater collegiality as mutual respect is shown (Daresh, 2004;
Ehrich et al., 2004). It is an opportunity of personal growth tapping into the new pool of
knowledge, insight, talent, and energy.
Another important aspect of mentoring is the individualized learning experience around
the needs of the novice. The improvement of the effective experiential learning is facilitated
through reflection that is possible in mentorship (Hansford & Ehrich, 2006; Orr & Barber, 2005).
The mentorship allows for inputs of the novices to set the needs and direction of the relationship
so that the supports offered by the mentors are direct responses to the specific needs of the
novices. Thus, mentorship relationships provide a formalized platform enabling customized
professional development for both parties involved (Browne-Ferrigno & Muth, 2004; Thessin &
Clayton, 2013).
The district also reaps higher levels of employees that result from this natural PD created
through the mentorship program. Grissom and Harrington (2010) used teacher surveys of
principal effectiveness from the nationally representative sample from the Schools and Staffing
Survey (SASS, 2003-2004, p. 3). Their quantitative study showed positive correlation between
professional development and principal performance as well as between principal participation in
formal mentoring programs and principal performance. One possible reason is due to continuous
dialogue between the mentors and the novices generating more capable leaders who are highly
motivated, possess greater self-esteem, and improved productivity (Daresh, 2004).
Recruitment and network. Mentorship provides greater networking and chance for
recruitment (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006; Ehrich et al., 2004; Orr, & Barber, 2005; Parylo et al.,
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 34
2012). Alsbury and Hackmann (2006) found that strong mentorship programs increased self-
efficacy of the new administrators due to the various support received. As the novices are
guided through the various situations that allow for practicing theory, there is an increase in the
comfort level of the new position. With this ease, productivity increases. In this study, Alsbury
and Hackmann found that there was an increase in female and minority job placement. Their
study indicated that candidate visibility, cultural acuity, and networking provided access to new
job opportunities. More obvious is that the novices in mentorship relationships are interacting
with practicing principals and district administrators and forming new networks (Brown-Ferrigno
& Muth, 2004).
For the mentors, as well, increased recognition also brings about more opportunities for
career advancement (Daresh, 2004). This door for advancement is paved by the professional
growth aforementioned as well as the networking that is created which opens access to job
opportunities as the mentors gain greater visibility (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006).
University-District Partnership
If mentorship is imperative, then the most effective method of rolling out the mentorship
is through a University-District partnership. Preparing effective school leaders calls for close
ties between the universities and districts (Browne-Ferrigno & Muth, 2004). Louis, Leithwood
Wahlstrom, and Anderson (2014) explained that districts need to support the leadership by
supplying support and helping them develop a realistic sense of self-efficacy. Orr and Barber
(2005) stated that it is critical because of the impact it has on participation, quality, relevance,
and career advancement of the novices.
In Grissom and Harrington’s (2010) study discussed earlier, one of the hypotheses
addressed graduate level of study and principal effectiveness. They found that graduate course
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 35
work negatively correlates with principal effectiveness. The very purpose of graduate course
work is to better equip potential leaders for the duties (Browne-Ferrigno, 2004), however, many
universities may be teaching ineffective strategies (Nicholson & Leary, 2001). Some programs
have misalignment with the student and district needs.
Orr and Barber’s (2005) research found that University-District partnership programs
have more quality attributes than conventional programs in the same institutions. Orr and Barber
found that these programs yielded higher levels of graduate-reported learning, aspirations to take
on leadership roles, and leadership advancement. A district that provides an authentic
opportunity for the novices under the guidance of the mentors to practice the newly acquired
knowledge and engage in socialization will generate a pool of highly trained leaders to hire from.
The graduates of these exemplary programs who become principals are more likely to become
positive leaders who are strongly committed to their jobs, spend more time as instructional
leaders engaging in activities that build a professional learning community, and engage in
instructional dialogue (Darling-Hammond, LaPointe et al., 2007).
Recruitment. Moreover, candidates who successfully complete the leadership program
should be able to find placement more easily. Having the University-District partnership and
allowing the exposure and networking will mend the disconnected bridge between principal
preparation and recruitment (Browne-Ferrigno & Muth, 2004). This collaborative partnership
will produce principal candidates that are ready for the regional contexts of the specific districts.
These incentives not only provide candidates with greater support, but they are encouraged since
there is a high possibility of being recruited (Darling-Hammond, La Pointe et al., 2007). When
collaborating with local districts, leadership preparation programs can help novices build career
capacity and make a smoother advancement of positions in the field (Orr & Barber, 2005).
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 36
At the same time, Grissom and Harrington (2010) found that mentorship positively
correlates with principal effectiveness. If a program is partnered with the district, the theory can
focus on what is important in the field and in turn the theory can be put into practice. Browne-
Ferrigno and Muth (2004) commented that a well-designed program would build an authentic
opportunity where the aspiring principals can apply what they have learned in class. It needs to
produce real products that can be used by schools in the district. Without the practical
application, the theories learned in the universities would be impractical and irrelevant. In a
University-District partnership, the university can be specific in addressing the District’s needs.
Districts can have greater confidence knowing that the candidates’ preparation was catered to the
needs of the District. This can lead to a pipeline or a stream-lined process of hiring (Darling-
Hammond, LaPointe et al., 2007).
Customized professional development. A strong University-District relationship
allows for bidirectional communication and meeting of one another’s need. A university that
works closely with the district can address the district needs and therefore offer courses that
address the pressing concerns of the districts and provide contextualized theory (Darling-
Hammond, LaPointe et al., 2007). This also means that the support and PD offered are relevant
and directly associated with the needs of their positions in that district.
In addition to the PD customized to the needs of the district, the novices can apply the
theory, readings, and discussions that they have learned in class directly into their fields as they
see events unfold (Darling-Hammond, LaPointe et al., 2007). This type of well-established
University-District collaboration will provide quality professional development since the novices
will be better equipped with the skills needed to support student achievement while being held
accountable by the university in conjunction to their district (Goldring & Sims, 2005). For
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 37
example, the curriculum and instruction of the preparation program can be better aligned to the
leadership priorities of the district. A clear communication between the university and the
district will allow the university to take into account current leadership challenges the districts
are facing in order to improve the leadership preparation programs at the universities (Orr &
Barber, 2005).
Collegial relationship. Darling-Hammond, LaPointe et al.’s (2007) study found that
exemplary programs were distinguished in that both the districts and universities established
policies that allowed for collaboration. For example, some districts in partnerships allowed for
earning of credits and development of curriculum. The study explains that some universities
provide tuition waivers and mentors for the novices. Moreover, the partnership creates an
efficient resource system as the two institutions work together, financially and in human
resources.
Mentorship programs are essential in supporting the new school leaders. Silver et al.
(2009) interviewed and observed the experiences of new administrators, coaches, and principals.
Silver et al. found that university-based mentoring was generally viewed positively by the
members involved. There are many factors to consider, however, in creating a well-structured
mentorship programs.
Gap/Inconsistencies
Gaps and inconsistencies exist within the current programs and models for mentorship for
new administrators. These gaps and inconsistencies exist within the districts of those who
participated as a survey or interview participant, and further lead to a necessary examination of
current models in place.

BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 38
Weakness of Mentorship Programs
Poorly designed programs. Mentorships are often mentioned as being beneficial to
administrators such as new principals and new superintendents, but programs do have limitations
in the effectiveness provided to the people who have newly acquired these positions. While
examinations of many mentorship programs have produced positive results, there are studies that
have uncovered the exact opposite of successful mentorship. Mentorship programs that are
designed poorly result in mentorships that can be detrimental to the participants (Alsbury &
Hackmann, 2006). The purpose behind mentorship is to further develop skills in future
educational leaders such as principals and superintendents; however, some mentorship programs
create an over-reliance in the mentor-novice relationship. This is created when a novice is
unable to make choices without the guidance of the mentor with whom they have developed a
myopic relationship through the mentorship process. This narrowed view limits opportunities
for growth in the perspective that only limited options are proposed based on previous
experiences developed in the mentor-novice process.
Alsbury and Hackmann (2006) further explored other problems that develop when
mentors are chosen from a pool of leaders who have become inflexible in their choices and
routines. Administrators as explored through this article were chosen not because of the
educational expertise they could provide, but instead only because they were willing to
participate in the process. This view as proposed by Alsbury and Hackmann stated that mentors
should be instead chosen in a very selective process that seeks only the educational leaders that
can provide novices expanding opportunities for growth through the mentorship process.
Through a restructuring of the mentor recruiting process by seeking only the most successful
educational leaders creates a process by which new principals and new superintendents acquire
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 39
professional, on-the-job skills (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006). Therefore, further exploration of
mentorship programs should be conducted to ensure that thorough screening processes discover
only the most forward thinking and organized educational leaders are chosen for participation.
Poor mentors. Ehrich et al. (2004) further concluded that while mentoring has
tremendous potential for new leaders to learn skills of the profession leading to professional
growth, there are still opportunities to produce conflicting results. Studies have revealed that
poor mentoring can be worse for future leaders than no mentoring at all (Hansford & Ehrich,
2006). Their exploration of mentorship programs concluded that most unsuccessful mentoring
programs were as a result of poor planning and inadequate leaders who are chosen to be mentors.
Planning inconsistencies with regards to mentors were a result of those in charge of creating such
programs not reviewing the current literature on mentoring prior to implementation.
Therefore, without current input on successful mentorship programs, many programs are
created without the necessary supports to produce successful results. Necessary supports were
viewed as time spent with the mentor as well as time developing leadership skills (Parylo et al.,
2012). Mentor support as part of a career-related mentorship was seen as contributing more
positive results to professional growth than mentorship provided as part of a university program.
Therefore, support of mentors should be integrated in a workplace program, instead of a focus on
the academic university level.
Mentor lack of availability. Another weakness that the literature revealed is the lack of
ability for mentorship programs to develop necessary leadership skills (Alsbury & Hackmann,
2006). Many new administrators look to every learning opportunity to develop skills necessary
for leadership positions; however, the counter narrative research does not support mentorship as
being a strong contributor to such skills. Alsbury and Hackmann (2006) stated that while skill
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 40
development is not a result of mentorship programs, these programs provide the ability for
novices to have a strong connection for open communication with another in the same position.
This open communication can in turn lead to opportunities for growth in the area of leadership
and learning to communicate with the school community. Availability of the mentor to the
novice is considered necessary and often can prove to be quite difficult if this availability is not
created as part of the initial supports of a program.
Narrow focused programs. Another concern with mentorship programs is that
programs can become too narrowly defined, therefore, limiting the opportunities for growth
available to those participating within the program (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006). Narrowed
mentorship programs become too focused on specific areas or processes and by doing so limit
opportunities for professional growth. Conception of mentorship programs should account for
all aspects of an educational leader who is currently in a successful leadership position and then
look to mirror such successful traits along with supports such as the correct mentor, time, and
availability; however, often the focus of the program is left from the development, thereby
resulting in a limited learning opportunity (Waido, 2013).
Challenges of Mentorship
Time as a resource. Critical effects of mentorship programs that are not adequately
designed results in a lack of time. This time is considered by those who participated within the
mentorship programs as one of the most important aspects according to Hansford and Ehrich
(2006). Time within a program is critical in ensuring that mentorship has the time necessary to
produce positive results; however, studies indicate that most mentors and mentees claim that
there is not enough time which results in a decrease in effectiveness of such programs. Mentors
have stated that in order to establish compatibility between mentor and mentee, time is crucial
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 41
and in short supply. They further explain that time is critical in the establishment of processes
that will create positive results for mentors who have participated in the mentorship program.
Time is further necessary in ensuring that the mentors who participate are trained and have the
skills necessary to create a successful mentor program (Hansford & Ehrich, 2006).
Time constraints also diminish the capacity of any program and its effectiveness when
participants feel that time is too crucially limited (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006). Explanations
given for the crucial amount of time that is required for the establishment of the fundamentals of
a successful mentorship are further elaborated and inherent flaws are viewed when this time is
not established. Therefore, while time is crucial, effective mentorship programs must focus on
the quality of the activities which are designed to develop the mentee participating in the
program even while dealing with the availability of crucial time.
Skills taught within a mentorship program. Mentorship processes have also been
questioned as to whether they are contributing to the knowledge base of those new administrators
who are participating. Research on mentorship stated that practices should be grounded in the
day-to-day realities of schools to be effective for new administrators (Clarke & Wildy, 2010).
Clarke and Wildy (2010) note that mentorship programs are grounded in the normative process
of administration, but lead to little applicable skills or knowledge in the daily work of
administrators. Gaps existing between mentorship processes and applicable skills often lead to
discontent with those who participate in a program that provides limited administrative skills.
Limitations of university-district programs. While a University-District partnership
would be ideal in creating a program that teaches the theory that is dynamic and reflective of the
field while providing the structure to implement the theories with support and guidance, creating
this partnership is not easy. Most literature on such university-district partnerships focuses on
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 42
the challenges and approaches, while few studies have assessed the impacts of specific program
models (Browne-Ferrigno & Muth, 2004). University-based programs that integrate mentorship
processes as part of an educational administration program are often looked at as a first step to
moving novices forward in their skill sets and experience. However, the skills that are provided
through this program are limited, except those skills that allow administrators to make
meaningful connections to professionals in the field. Programs that connect administrators to
other working professionals focus on limited skill sets over a short period of time that does not
provide the necessary time to develop last skills.
Summary of Chapter Two
This chapter provided a review of the literature that was most current regarding the
impact of mentorship programs on educational leaders such as new principals and new
superintendents. Through this literature review, the history of mentorship programs for
educational leaders and the importance of creating successful new principals and new
superintendents and the impact such leaders have on student achievement were studied. Current
practices of mentorship programs were explored and what research suggests for the
implementation of successful programs. Literature was also examined to determine the gaps and
inconsistencies that exist for current mentorship programs and how these gaps effect new
principals and superintendents and how they lead schools and districts. In Chapter Three, the
methodology for this study will be discussed, how the research will be conducted, and the
introduction of the research questions.

BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 43
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Authors: Suena Chang, Katie Males, Donald Rafter
3

Introduction
This chapter will explain the methodology of this study. Creswell (2008) identified six
steps to the process of research: (1) identifying the research problem, (2) reviewing the literature,
(3) specifying a purpose and research questions, (4) collecting data, (5) analyzing and
interpreting data, and (6) reporting and evaluating research. Chapter One discussed the problem
of new educational administrators unequipped with the skills or experience necessary to be
successful in dealing with the responsibilities and challenges of the new position (Bell, 2001;
Elmore, 2005). The purpose of this study was to determine what support structures
administrators who are new to their positions have access to and to what extent mentoring played
a part in coping with their ever-evolving roles and the vast amounts of responsibilities associated
with a position in educational administration. In Chapter Two, significant past research and
literature were discussed along with controversies and gaps in those studies. Chapter Three will
elaborate on Creswell’s step four, five, and six by discussing the sample and population,
instrumentation, data collection, and data analysis process in order to answer the following
research questions:
1. What coping methods do new school administrators use to deal with the vast amounts of
responsibilities they encounter?
2. Which of these coping methods worked best for them?

3
This chapter was jointly written by the authors listed, reflecting the team approach to this project. The authors are
listed alphabetically, reflecting the equal amount of work by all those listed.
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 44
3. What are the new administrators’ perceptions of formal or informal mentoring in
fulfilling their responsibilities as secondary administrators?
4. How are the skillsets that are developed through formal or informal mentoring for new
administrators beneficial in fulfilling their responsibilities?
The methodology utilized in this section was a mixed-methods study. A mixed-methods
study involves the combined use of a quantitative and qualitative approach (Creswell, 2008).
This study used surveys to gather responses from a larger sample and triangulated those results
with a smaller sample of educational administrators who were interviewed. The survey results
and interviews were used to triangulate and draw a holistic picture of how new administrators
cope in their new positions and the benefits of mentorship in their first years. Triangulation
allows for a stronger study findings since multiple data has been incorporated (Creswell, 2008;
Johnson, Oweuegbuzie, & Turner, 2007; Westat, 2010).
Sample and Population
The research questions address how new administrators learn to manage their new roles.
Individuals best suited to provide insight and directly answer questions regarding the specific
coping strategies are the administrators themselves and the superintendents who oversee district
administrative mentorship or support initiatives. A single stage, mixed-method approach using
both qualitative and quantitative data were used during the course of data collection for this
project. Qualitative data was collected in the form of semi-structured interviews with new
administrators and superintendents and quantitative data were collected through the use of
electronic surveys that were sent out via email to new administrators who participated in the
study. Data was not collected until approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at the
University of Southern California was received. Data collected from this study were secured and
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 45
only used by the approved researchers. No identifiable data were collected such as name of the
participant or the name of the district. All data were kept confidential.
Surveys were used to gather data from new administrators around the local districts. The
research team identified local districts and sought out entry into the districts via public email
lists. Merriam (2009) explained that it is important to gain access to conduct the study. The
districts that granted entry and access were 10 southern California school districts. At these
districts, the list of new principals was obtained and each was emailed a short electronic survey.
A total of 120 samples were emailed and the responses of 34 surveys were received. These
principals were given the option to participate in an interview in order to identify potential
interview candidates.
Participants for interviews were chosen using a purposeful sampling method from a list
of available administrators. Purposeful sampling allows for the identification and inclusion of
participants with particular characteristics (Patton, 2002). In order to gain a wide range of
perspectives, three new administrators and one superintendent were selected based on years of
experience, district of employment, geographical location, and availability for interviews.
Instrumentation
The instrumentation selected for this study was a mixed method and included both
interviews and surveys of superintendents and new administrators at secondary schools in ten
comprehensive, public school districts. Most of the interviews were completed by new
principals or assistant principals, but some were interviewed to gather data and information about
new principal’s induction process in their districts. Mixed methods allow for the depth of
understanding through the qualitative method, as well as the breadth that is made possible in
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 46
gathering quantitative data through a larger sample (Creswell, 2008; Johnson, Oweuegbuzie, &
Turner, 2007; Westat, 2010).
Qualitative Methods
The study conducted fell into the category of “applied research” as it sought to improve
the practice in the field of educational administration (Merriam, 2009). Specifically, the study
sought to generate an understanding of the means by which new administrators develop the skills
and knowledge necessary to be successful educational leaders. Qualitative methods were chosen
because this study sought to gain an understanding of the unique experiences and understanding
had by school leaders (principals and superintendents) regarding the benefits of mentorship to
new administrators (Merriam, 2009). Merriam (2009) explained that qualitative researchers are
interested in understanding how people construct their worlds as they interpret and make
meaning of their experiences. Just as each district, school site, student body, and teaching staff
are different, so too are the experiences each principal and superintendent have faced. In order to
best understand the experiences had by each principal and superintendent, their experiences were
mined to gain important insight. Interviews served as a tool to extract specific experiences each
administrator has had that helped create both positive and negative mentoring experiences in
their respective districts. Interviews were also selected because responses given by participants
may have warranted further questioning and a potential to probe deeper for answers to complex
questions that an informal interview allows for (Merriam, 2009).
Each respondent was been interviewed in a semi-structured format. Scripted questions
were posed while follow-up and probing questions were asked as needed. A semi-structured
format was used because personal responses from each participant were expected to yield an
opportunity to delve deeper into the specific experiences each respondent had (Merriam, 2009).
When the opportunity for important follow-up presented itself, the interviewer was able to ask
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 47
questions that further detailed the unique experiences faced by each respondent. These follow-
up questions provided a unique opportunity to delve deeper into the experiences faced by
respondents that would not be attainable through a survey or a completely structured process.
Other data available through the interview were the participants’ backgrounds, experiences,
opinions, beliefs, values, feelings, knowledge, experience of the senses, and demographics
(Merriam, 2009; Patton, 2002). In addition, the questions that were asked during the interview
were not limited to the present but their experiences in the past or their plans or hopes for the
future (Patton, 2002).
Quantitative Methods
Surveys were selected for their ability to reach several additional participants that may
not have been accessible through direct means of communication (interviews, phone calls, etc.).
A 4-point Likert scale was used to provide a forced-choice response and eliminate the neutral
response of “either agree or disagree” so that the research team could determine the respondent’s
definite response (Fink, 2013). Quantitative data allows for numerical data analysis and
assessment of amount of evidence (Maxwell, 2013). For example, surveys yield quantitative
description of perception, attitudes, or opinions of a population by studying a sample of the
population (Creswell, 2008). In other words, quantitative methods provide quantitative evidence
to test and support claims.
Validity
Validity, or credibility and trustworthiness, in qualitative research is how true the
conclusion is to the data while validity in quantitative research is how well a test measures what
it set out to measure. Maxwell (2013) stated that validity depends on the conclusion’s
connectedness to reality. Merriam (2009) explained that validity in qualitative research is
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 48
different from quantitative research in that the conclusion reached in qualitative research must
make sense provided the detail of the study. Creswell (2008) explained that validity in
quantitative studies has to do with accuracy of the interpretation of the data and when both
validity and reliability or repeatability is high, the study is considered strong.
To ensure credibility and trustworthiness, data collected were used to support the
assertions. To ensure quality data, interviews were recorded and transcribed word by word. The
transcripts were thoroughly examined and coded on the columns while constantly referring back
to the research questions to maintain focus. To ensure reliability or repeatability, a large sample
of 34 survey results were collected throughout the local districts.
While not all performance validity checks could be performed, triangulation of collecting
data from interviews of the principals, assistant principals, and superintendents were used in
conjunction to the survey data from the new administrators. Maxwell (2013) explained that
while triangulation does not automatically increase validity, if variety is applied, it can improve
the credibility.
LeCompte and Preissle (1993) pointed out four factors that a researcher should consider
in support of the claim of high internal validity. Among the four factors, they identified
“participant observation” as a key data source that should be utilized to gain a better perspective
on respondent experiences. They argued that participant observation should be conducted in
natural settings that reflect the normal experiences of the participant. As a result, interviews for
this study were conducted in settings that were natural to the respondents. Interviews were
conducted at the respondent’s place of employment in their office at either their office desk or a
conference table. The validity, however, of an interview relies on whether the interviewee is
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 49
willing to tell the truth or not. By using interview data in the participants’ natural setting,
findings gain greater validity (Maxwell, 2013).
Glesne and Peshkin (1992) pointed out that participants have every right to expect that
“when they give you permission to observe and interview, you will protect their confidences and
preserve their anonymity” (p. 117). To assure interview respondents that all information
collected would be kept confidential, the interview protocol was designed to be anonymous. No
identifiable data, such as names or addresses, were collected either in the surveys or in the
interviews.
Data Collection
It is important to gather accurate data from the participants of the study. For the online
survey, an initial email introducing the study and an invitation to participate was sent with a link
to the survey (see Appendix A and B). These participants were identified by district personnel.
An introduction was provided in the email to allow participants to understand the nature of the
study and how their participation in such a study would contribute to the continued development
of the profession. Participants were asked to complete the survey within a week from receipt for
timely aggregation of the data received. Data received was reviewed for completion on a routine
basis to determine the level of participation and the amount of data received. The final question
on the survey was an invitation to participate in a follow-up interview.
Once there were sufficient responses, the research team looked at which participants
volunteered for the interview. The interview protocol for the new administrators (see Appendix
C) and for superintendents (see Appendix D) outlined the main questions that would be asked,
but it was semi-structured so that the interviewer could probe for more information as needed.
Merriam (2009) and Lichtman (2014) recommend recording and transcribing the interviews.
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 50
Interviews were recorded and notes on significant points that could be related to mentorship were
taken during the process. Upon completion of each interview, the recordings were transcribed.
After completion of the transcription of interviews, the data was disaggregated through a coding
process.
Data Analysis
The key phrases that could be related to specific mentoring process or theories were
coded and analyzed for the purposes of transforming the collected data into findings (Merriam,
2014). As Strauss (1987) pointed out, the goal of coding is not necessarily to count things but to
fracture them into categories that facilitate comparison. Codes were created based on recurring
themes that emerged from the transcriptions. The researchers employed a coding strategy by
segmenting responses into categories and labeling each category with a code or theme (Merriam,
2009).

BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 51
CHAPTER FOUR: THE FINDINGS
Background
School leadership has great influence on student achievement (Leithwood, Patten et al.,
2010), yet many new administrators take on their leadership position without being trained
(Elmore, 2005). Studies show that administrators can benefit from mentorship through a hands-
on experience and guidance (Browne-Ferrigno & Muth, 2004; Clarke & Wildy, 2010;
Leithwood, Jantzi et al., 1995; Daresh & Playco, 1994; Silver et al., 2009; Thessin & Clayton,
2013).
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to determine whether mentorship, either formal or
informal, was beneficial to new administrators, and if so, how it was beneficial. In order to
ascertain this, the researchers first collected data to better understand effective coping methods
for new high school administrators with evolving and vast responsibilities. This study involved
school administrators who were new to administration, as well as, experienced administrators
who were moved to new positions or new settings.
Guiding Questions
This chapter provides an analysis of data collected from the current study which sought to
discover methods new high school administrators used to cope with their ever-evolving roles and
the vast amounts of responsibilities associated with a position in secondary education
administration. The interviews and survey questions were designed to align with the following
research questions:
1. What coping methods do new school administrators use to deal with the vast amounts of
responsibilities they encounter?
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 52
2. Which of these coping methods worked best for them?
3. What are the new administrators’ perceptions of formal or informal mentoring in fulfilling
their responsibilities as secondary administrators?
4. How are the skillsets that are developed through formal or informal mentoring for new
administrators beneficial in fulfilling their responsibilities?
Research
Demographics of Organizations
In this study, new assistant principals and principals from conventional high schools were
surveyed. These high schools were mainly from Los Angeles County, Orange County, and
Riverside County. The number of administrators staffed at these high schools varied from one to
eight people, with the most common number being four, which was 32% of the schools. The
population of these schools ranged from under a 1000 students to more than 3000 students with
the most common school size being between 2001 to 3000 students as indicated by 35% of the
survey participants.
In addition, four people were interviewed: one superintendent, two principals, and one
assistant principal from Orange County and Riverside County Districts. Table 1 organizes the
demographics and characteristics of the organizations for these four interviewees gathered from
Ed-Data 2013-14 (2015) profile. The superintendent oversaw an urban district with a population
of about 53,000 pupils while the school site (assistant) principals were at schools with student
population in the 2000s. The top two largest subgroups were Hispanic/Latinos and White
population which made up 71% to 91% of the student population. The White subgroup varied
from 29% to 51% while the Hispanic/Latino subgroup ranged from 20% to 52% of the
population. The English Language Learners made up 2% to 13% of the student population and
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 53
varying proportions of students were on free and reduced lunch program ranging from 12% to
43%.

Table 1

Interview Participants School/District Demographics: Key Characteristics from 2013-14

Demographic Admin SC1 Admin SC2 Admin SC3 Superintendent

Population 2360 2483 2315 53,000
Largest Subgroups

White- 51%
Hispanic- 20%
Hispanic- 40%
White- 42%
White- 48%
Hispanic- 43%
Hispanic- 52%
White- 29%

English Language
Learner 2% 6% 5% 13%

Free/Reduced lunch 12% 29% 37% 43%

Demographics of Participants
Personal characteristics. The average profile of a participant in this study was a White
male in their early 40’s. The great majority of the participants identified their racial background
as that of non-Hispanic White as indicated by 74% of those surveyed in Table 2. The
superintendent, however, was of Asian descent as shown in Table 3. There was a large gap
between the White subgroup and other racial subgroups. Other than the White subgroup, the two
largest subgroups were the Hispanic subgroup which made up 18% of the survey participants and
the Asian subgroup making up 12% of the survey participants. There were 3% that identified
themselves as other.

BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 54

Table 3

Superintendent Profile: Characteristics
Characteristics Profile

Age 48

Sex Male

Education
Degree in Aerospace Engineering
Ed.D.

Experience

Superintendent – 4 yrs
HS AP – 4 yrs
HS Principal – 2 weeks
HR Coordinator – 2 yrs
HR Director – 8 yrs
Asst Sup of HR – 3 yrs
Family

Married
2 kids

Ethnic Background Immigrant from Taiwan at age 13

Table 2

Survey Participants by Ethnicity

Ethnicity Number of Participants Percent of Participants

Asian 4 12

Hispanic or Latino 6 18

White (not Hispanic or Latino) 25 74

Other 1 3
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 55
There were a significantly greater percentage of male administrators compared to
female counterparts in the survey and interview samples as can be seen in Table 4 and
Table 5. In the survey sample of 34 participants and interview of four people, there were
56% male survey participants and 75% male interview participants, respectively. On the
other hand, there were 44% female survey participants and only 25% female interview
participants.

Table 4

Interview Participants (Secondary School): Key Characteristics

Administrator Age Sex Family Education High School Experience
Admin SC1 41 F Married, 3 kids Ed.D.

AP – 4 years
Principal - 2 years

Admin SC2 38 M Married, 3 kids MA AP - 1 year
Admin SC3 44 M Married, 5 kids MA

AP - 6 years
Principal - 1 year
Superintendent 1 48 M Married, 2 kids Ed.D.

AP - 4 years
Principal - 2 weeks

Table 5

Survey Participants: Gender

Gender Number of Participants Percent of Participants
Female 15 44

Male 19 56
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 56
All of the interviewed participants were married and had their own children. Two of the
administrators had three children while the third administrator had five children and the
superintendent had two children as seen in Table 4. The participants grew up in the southern
California region, including Superintendent 1 who immigrated to the United States at the age of
13.
Moreover, the age range of the participants varied from below 30 years of age to 55 years
of age, as shown in Table 4 and Table 6. Of the survey participants, 30% were between 41 and
45 years, 24% were between 31 and 35 years, and 21% were between 36 and 40 years of age.
The median age group was 41 to 45 years old and only three participants were either under 31
years or over 50 years old. All of the interview participants were in their 30s and 40s.

Table 6

Survey Participants by Age Group

Age Group Number of Participants Percent of Participants

30 years or younger 1 3

31–35 years 8 24

36–40 years 7 21

41–45 years 10 30

46–50 years 5 15

51–55 years 2 6

BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 57
Professional characteristics. Many of the administrators were veterans in the field of
education. Table 7 shows that 47% of the participants indicated that they had 11–15 years of
experience in education and a total of 86% of the participants indicated having more than 11
years of experience. Only 15% of the survey participants had 10 years or less of experience.
Table 4 displays those interviewed had one to seven years of total high school experience.

Table 7

Survey Participants by Experience in Education

Years in Education Number of Participants Percent of Participants

1–5 years 1 3

6–10 years 4 12

11–15 years 16 47

16–20 years 6 18

21–-25 years 3 9

26–30 years 3 9

31+ –years 1 3

The education level of the participants varied. As shown in Table 4 for interview
participants, 50% of the administrators obtained their Doctorate in Education and the
other 50% possessed their master’s degree. The highest degrees possessed by the survey
participants shown in Table 8 were 53% with a master’s degree and 24% possessing their
doctorate degree in education; none of the doctorate degrees were Ph.Ds.

BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 58
Table 8

Survey Participants: Highest Level of Education
Education Number of Participants Percent of Participants

BA or BS 1 3

MA 18 53

Doctorate in Progress 5 15

Ed.D. 8 24

Ph.D. 0 0

Other 2 6

Table 4 also displays the three high school administrators with less than three years of
experience in their current positions that were interviewed. Two of them had one year
experience and one had two years of experience. The interviewed participants were part of those
who took the survey and volunteered to be interviewed. Although all of them were chosen due
to the three years or less of experience in the current high school position, the number of
administrative experience varied significantly. There was one administrator who only had one
year of experience while another administrator had seven years of experience. The average high
school administrative experience of the interview participants was five years.
Process for Gathering Data
A mixed-method approach was used in analyzing the quantitative and qualitative data.
The different data sources utilized enabled a better triangulation of the data and generation of a
more reliable conclusion. The data was analyzed and interpreted using triangulation where
several data sources are collected in an attempt to substantiate the findings (Merriam, 2009).
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 59
Quantitative data was collected through the use of an online survey tool which was
distributed to 110 administrators in the Southern California region. This survey was co-created
by the researcher and the cohort she worked with. While the survey questions were crafted
together, the data was independently analyzed. The data figures were summarized by the
automated docs.google.com form. Surveys were sent out by the research cohort members and
the data was collected by docs.google.com form.
Table 9 shows the Response Rate, the number of people invited to respond, and the
number of participants who responded. In the survey, respondents were first asked to identify
the number of years of experience they had in their current positions. Respondents who stated
that they had three years or less in their current administrative position were allowed to continue
the survey, while those who stated they had four or more years were not permitted to continue
the survey. There were 34 respondents who took and met the criteria of having three or fewer
years in an administrative position at the secondary level. This yielded a participation rate of
31%.

Table 9

Survey Participants: Response Rate

Position Held No. Invited to Respond No. Participated % Participated

Administrators 110 34 31

The last question to the survey was a call to volunteer for an interview. These volunteers
were contacted and interviewed to collect the qualitative data. In order to ensure confidentiality
and illicit honest responses, names of respondents were not collected. Qualitative data was
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 60
collected through the use of semi-structured interviews including one superintendent with
extensive experience to draw upon and three high school administrators who had three years of
experience or less in their current positions. The semi-structured format allowed the researcher
to ask follow-up or probing questions if the need to elaborate arose. While the survey data were
shared by the research cohort of the researcher, the interviews were not shared and ran
independently consisting of different participants. This chapter presents the findings from the
data analysis of the mixed-method study of shared 34 participant survey data and independent
four participant interviews.
Report of Findings
1. What coping methods do new school administrators use to deal with the vast
amounts of responsibilities they encounter?
New administrators use a variety of methods to learn and effectively execute the vast
amounts of responsibilities they are in charge of. The administrators in this study found that
proper use of communication helped them navigate through their new positions. They also felt
their experience from their prior positions taught them some of the skills needed for their current
positions. Moreover, their intrinsic characteristics helped them through the challenges. In
addition, they alluded to their organizational skills as what was necessary to being successful in
their positions. At times, the new administrators postponed responsibilities, but referring to their
role-models or an experienced mentor guided them through tough situations in their first years.
Communication
This study indicated that the use of communication skills is a vital part in surviving as a
new administrator. Throughout the interview, the theme of communication appeared with all of
the interviewees. The new administrators in this study directly communicated by reaching out to
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 61
people around them and soliciting information. For example, when the participants were asked
how they were able to figure out what needed to be done in an unfamiliar situation Admin SC3
said, “Asking a lot of questions” and “what I did was enlisted people who are here . . . somebody
knows.” The participants did not shy away from asking, but openly asked their colleagues, co-
workers, and assistants for the institutional knowledge and past practices.
They not only asked for help within their new worksites, but they also reached out to the
network of people who would be able to guide them in their situations. Admin SC1 shared a
difficult incident where a football player was taken into the emergency room and ended up dying
and here is how she coped with having to speak to the football community.
So I didn’t want to speak, I wasn’t prepared to speak, don’t know what to say, I’ve never
given a eulogy at a funeral, nothing in your admin credential prepares you for anything
even close. Um, and you call on everybody you possibly can . . . but you call on the
giants of education. You call on the people bigger than you to help you out, you call and
you keep calling and you don’t care if you’ve never met them. If you know and you have
a phone number from a friend 2 doors down that you’ve barely met but are willing to
give you the phone number, then you call them. I called my professors at SC and I called
superintendents, I called Dr. P . . . each one of them has given me a piece that you
absolutely critically need it . . . that helped me through the entire situation . . . [police
officer] said, ‘You’re gonna go in there and you are gonna address that team. And you’re
just going to speak from your heart and you are not going to worry about a thing . . .’ and
sure enough I was stressed about it . . . I was calling clergy, I was calling anybody to
figure out the right things to say. (Admin SC1)

As it is evident in the above interview response, the participant reached out to a network of
resources. Her ability to reach out to the “giants of education” and the police officer, as well as
the clergy helped her “through the entire situation.”
Communication skill is also important in building up trust and relationship within the
education community. Continuing the example from above, Admin SC1 had to communicate the
memorial plan to the stake holders. She shared, “We had to set up uh, times to address the
(football and school) teams and time just to address the parents and times to have a candle light
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 62
vigil . . . we had to coordinate with the city and have emergency vehicles on campus to handle
the crowds that came” . . .. Since people are sensitive while coping with student deaths, such as
in this football incident, it was crucial to have clear communication skills so that all the
stakeholders were informed with accurate information while being sensitive to the emotional
needs of the people. With the skill of great communication, Admin SC1 was able to unify the
school community.
The participants expressed the importance of communicating by talking uninterrupted
and displayed many forms of communication. The participants in the interview expressed that
they needed “more time to sit and talk” and even suggested meeting at Starbucks where school
business cannot interrupt their discussions. Admin SC3 emphasized that communication was
important because this process formed the perspective that the school community would have on
the school leader and, whether true or not, perspective played a vital role in creating the culture.
It was part of doing business and getting support in executing their responsibilities.
Experience
The participants found that their prior leadership experiences helped them fulfill their
duties more easily. Figure 1 shows that 72% of the participants attributed prior leadership
experience to administrative success. Admin SC2 served as a teacher on special assignment
prior to taking his position and found that the interaction he had with teachers in that position
helped him gather interpersonal skills that he needed as a new administrator. Admin SC3 had an
immense variety of experience at various levels (middle and high school) serving in different
capacities as a teacher, a coach, and an administrator. Admin SC1 had taught and counseled at
urban and suburban schools as well as title I and affluent neighborhoods. All of them had
educational leadership experience as their foundation that made the transition to becoming site
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 63
administrators smoother. Superintendent 1 had worked as an engineer in the aero-science
industry, business sector, as well as the various positions in education that equipped him to be a
superintendent. He recognized the significance of successful school site leaders in improving
student achievement.

Figure 1: Quantitative Survey: Experience Contributing to Success as an Administrator

Their experience also taught them to better manage the stress level elevated by the
daunting task assigned to their positions. When asked how they would advise the younger
version of them, Admin SC1 said that she would advise herself to not put so much pressure on
herself. Admin SC2 said, “You need down time. Family time is important. You still need to
have that. No job is severing all that. We do weekends sometimes. It’s easy to work four times
as much.” Admin SC3 shared that he does not take work with him when he goes home. He had
five children and when he went home, it was their time. From their experience, all of them had
learned that key to success in their jobs was to balance their lives with off time and family time
without over taxing their bodies and minds.

BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 64
Intrinsic Abilities
Another theme that emerged from this study was that the administrators’ intrinsic abilities
or characteristics kept them motivated in fulfilling their duties and overcoming challenges
associated with their new positions. In the following example, one can sense the Admin SC1’s
passion that guided her to work hard:
My first teaching job was in E Detroit HS, so, it was a really rough school, it was a rough
neighborhood. And that was challenging. I was basketball coach at the same time and
track coach. And you got to see kids and really the entire school was kind of a fringe . . .
the kids didn’t participate and you really want them to participate at a higher level. And
when you got them to . . . got them to buy in at a higher level you could see that, uh, it
was a good thing, not only for you, but a good thing for them. But that was a constant
challenge, it just didn’t fit the culture of the surrounding area. And so you know those
kids are going against the cultural norm. It was just really hard for them to select . . . but
they enjoyed the interaction so much that they ended up doing it . . . it was kind of fun
and really nice to see . . . and I keep in touch with them.

Throughout the interview, she mentioned how “fun” it was to work with students and how
rewarding it was to work on their behalf more than seven times. It was this strong sense of duty
and conviction that helped drive the administrator in tackling the vast amount of responsibilities.
Admin SC3 responded that by the time people become administrators, the administrators
made it that far because they possessed all the abilities needed. He said, “And they are pretty
good about self-evaluating. You don’t get to your position unless you can do that . . .. When
you have that ability.” Admin SC2 explained that when he was a teacher, his principal saw in
him the ability to succeed as an administrator and gave him opportunities to rise. He said that
the principal would call him aside and encourage him to try applying for specific positions that
were made available. His principal had recognized in him intrinsic abilities that made him likely
to succeed as an administrator.

BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 65
Organization
The administrators also pointed out in the interview the need to organize their minds in
order to handle the daunting task of their responsibilities. For example, Admin SC1 pointed out
how “that (the task at hand) becomes a daunting task, only if you think about it . . . so you push
those thoughts out of your mind and you just have to do whatever things you have to do to get
through that moment.” She handled the daunting task by not thinking about the task, but
organizing what needs to be done into a list.
Admin SC2 confessed that since it was a new site, even keeping up with the students who
were tardy to class was a daunting task. Initially, he confessed that he could not even think of
keeping up with it, but that his organization was improving to allow him to attempt it the second
semester.
Then you have to follow up, did they go to the detention. You know and that, all that it’s
so time consuming that the first semester I just didn’t even. I’m like I can’t even get to it.
Second semester since we start over, everyone starts back at zero, I tried to really keep it
going and follow up on it and it’s still overwhelming. And I had a person to help a
couple periods, but it didn’t. It was still bad and so attendance would give me all the
PLASCO slips for Saturday schools and then we would go through and try to get, umm,
however many kids we could get. And if they don’t go to Saturday school then I am
following up on that. (Admin SC 2)

He recognized the importance on staying organized and following through in order to be
successful.
A shortcoming that one administrator shared was the lack of leadership provided through
the organization of the district office. For example, Admin SC1 pointed out that “you are largely
on your own.” Some districts were well organized and had a systematic structure in place to
offer support and training while other districts did not. The new administrators shared their
successes and failures as a direct result of the support system. In some districts, there were no
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 66
mentors assigned to them who had the institutional knowledge to advise and guide them in
successfully acclimating to their new positions; this made the first years especially challenging.
Postponing
At times, the participants admitted to postponing responsibilities. For example, during
Admin SC2’s first year, he was in charge of discipline but could not find enough time to follow
up on whether students attended detention when assigned. He said, “You know and that, all that
it’s so time consuming that the first semester I just didn’t even . . ..I’m like I can’t even get to it.”
Two of the interview participants expressed how the first time they had difficult
conversations, they postponed them.
Here is my hard part is here is something that we don’t learn. Umm, personnel issues,
you know. As a teacher we never had to make those personnel issues or we never had to
have those hard conversations. That’s my biggest downfall because I am kind of, I am
always that positive guy, you know. Ugh, and so when I would have to make, when I
knew I was going to have to have a conversation I would sit on it and I would wake up at
night thinking about it, you know. And that’s what drove me crazy. (Admin SC 2)

Admin SC2 learned that postponing made it more difficult. Admin SC3, however also added to
his trepidation of having difficult conversations and how it was a challenge he knew he had to
face:
Don't be afraid to have those conversations. It's okay, just practice the conversation
before you have it so you have in your head what direction you want to go but be
prepared for difficult questions and for things possibly to go sideways, if they do, don't be
afraid to stop the meeting and say, we'll reconvene again in a couple days.

He recommended practicing the conversation to make it easier and to not be afraid to reconvene
the meeting if there was a need.

BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 67
Role Model or Mentor
All the participants attributed their success to specific individuals. All of the participants
named specific people who were part of their coping mechanism. Admin SC1 reflected in the
leadership style of Dr. P and sought to emulate that impact:
Um, also the leadership style . . . leadership style, before Dr. P and after and vastly
different . . . before the leadership style was laid back . . . it was more management type
focus. Just maintaining the school, maintaining the level we were at . . . may be increase
a little bit, there was no high pressure to increase. Just maintain. Do good. Make sure
everyone is comfortable here. It was more important to make it a comfortable place to
work, the feeling of coming to work . . . that was very important to the superintendent . . .
who was Dr. R at the time . . . when Dr. P came, very much the same demeanor of
superintendent, very professional, very polished and he had high expectations on the
academic side and high expectation on the leadership spectrum. So his focus instantly
became cultivating and creating instructional leaders which was vastly different and his
focus largely became putting in the systems and the processes and standards to maintain
that . . . so should he leave, the school district would be left in a better place. Um, that
was definitely the case. You could see that it took him a while to get that change to take
place, but you could see that it was a broad across all 6 of the schools and it was
uniformly applied.

Dr. P’s influence on the district was something to be replicated and modeled after in the mind of
Admin SC1.
2. Which of these coping methods worked best for them?
The new administrators in the survey indicated that their coping skills were effective
from the range of little effective to very effective as seen in Figure 2. Admin SC3 described how
all administrators have the tools to succeed because otherwise they would not have gotten to
their administrative positions, and that to an extent it was trial and error.
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 68

Figure 2: Quantitative Survey: Effectiveness of Current Coping Skills

As addressed under question 1, the new administrators communicated and built up
relationships by asking questions and reaching out, relied on their previous experience and
character, organized themselves, and at times postponed responsibilities. While all of these
helped them make it through the first year, there were some coping skills that were more
effective than others, as can be seen in the ratings of effectiveness of the coping skills in
Figure 2.
A repeated theme that emerged was the importance of building up relationships. Admin
SC1 expressed:
You gotta make time in other people’s time frames. The only way you can figure out the
inter-workings of things is if you invest the time. I can’t take people home. I can take
work home, but I can’t take people home.

She emphasized that the administrator had to make the time to build relationships with the staff
during the staff work hours.
Admin SC3 said building up relationship was what made work fun. He said,
I wanna build relationships with the people, be myself, and I’m kind of a fun out there
joking about things, just getting to know people, ask about your family, you know those
kinds of things . . . just build relationships.

BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 69
Role Model/ Mentor
Building up relationship with their role models and communicating with them the issues
the administrators were having was a large part of succeeding in the first year according to the
participants. Admin SC2 asked his mentor for everything
I went to Justin quite a bit. ‘Hey, here’s this. What do we do here?’ You know or even
Ed, ugh, just learning. You know you have your matrix but it’s so gray, you know, for
different things. Should we give a day suspension? Should we do this? Do we just give
a Saturday school?

Admin SC2 was learning to be successful through on-the-job training with his principal.
Admin SC3 declared, “so that's why I ask for help for sure” after describing a situation
that ended up in the media:
I was able to pick up the phone and just talk to an assistant superintendent, 2 or 3 of
them, different ones and get their input, I talked to our PR person and between all of us
together came up with a great response to the situation so they make themselves available
and that’s really nice to have that.

Admin SC3 found comfort in knowing that if and when he needs specific advice, he had
someone knowledgeable to reach out to.
In fact, the survey participants and the interview participants alluded to mentorship being
an integral part of the first year of their positions. Figure 3 displays the overwhelmingly positive
response to the helpfulness of mentorship in developing or improving the necessary coping skills
of administrative leadership. Out of the survey participants, 91.2% believed mentorship was
helpful in developing or improving the necessary coping skills and 64.7% of them believed it
was “very helpful.”
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 70

Figure 3: Quantitative Survey: Belief that a Mentor in Some Capacity would Help
Develop/Improve Necessary Coping Skills

Intrinsic Abilities/Character
Another coping method that was helpful was having a calm character and thicker skin.
Admin SC3 recognized early on that he was going to make mistakes and that that was okay:
I would say understand that you cannot control everything and don't take it personally. It
is a physical impossibility for you to be everywhere all the time and make sure
everything is happening correct. Things will go wrong and how you deal with those
mistakes is really, really big in how you continue your principalship.

Admin SC3 spoke bluntly that he could not be in all places all the times and please everybody.
Not Postponing
It was an important lesson learned that dealing with the issue and trusting oneself in the
process was better than postponing. Admin SC1 expressed, “I’m really grateful that I had done
them. Trust your process and stick to it . . . do not do not do not deviate from it . . .. I had done
that with the hiring process.” Admin SC2 and Admin SC3 also shared how postponing only
elongates the sleepless nights when the difficult conversations are not as difficult as imagined.
At the same time, Admin SC3 added that there is wisdom in not rushing to a decision
without thinking things through, including the perspective and looking at the bigger picture:
Whatever the response in the situation . . . what's the perspective of the outcome. What’s
the perspective of the staff and the faculty. Uh, when you make a decision how are they
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 71
going to perceive it. And you have to think about what effect it’s going to have on the
school 2, 3, 4 years down the road. Uh, and you gotta keep your students in mind.
You’re always thinking, what’s in the best interest of your students. And so when you
put those things into play and take your emotion out the way and do let’s put you in that
situation where it’s got your fervor up and you’re a little upset because something
happened, don’t make a decision at that point. It's okay to say give me 48 hours and I’ll
get back to you. Give me 48 hours I need to do some research and I'll get back to you
that's fine cuz what he does is give you that time just bring yourself back down to think
clearly about it in and take the emotional side out you say OK.

So, while Admin SC3 did not try to please everybody, he took into account the bigger picture of
how his decisions would be perceived.
3. What are the new administrators’ perceptions of formal or informal mentoring in
fulfilling their responsibilities as secondary administrators?
Survey participants felt the strongest factor contributing to their success as an
administrator was informal mentoring with 87.5% as seen in Figure 4. Another 28.1% believed
formal mentoring was beneficial in contributing to their success. What was surprising was how
much less believed in formal mentoring as the contributing factor compared to that of informal
mentoring. Informal mentoring was more beneficial to the administrators by 59.4% than the
formal mentorship. Nevertheless, survey results indicate that mentorship is crucial in the first
few years of an administrator as shown in Figures 1 and 4.

Figure 4: Quantitative Survey: Importance of Having a Mentor First Years as an Administrator
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 72

All of the interview participants spoke highly of mentorship, as well. Admin SC2 who
just completed his first year expressed how without the mentorship of his principal, he would
have had a very difficult time. He had this to say about the impact of mentorship:
Huge, I think any admin, any person in a new position especially administrative they
need that support. Umm, it’s from a teacher’s standpoint you kinda have an idea of what
needs to happen, what you need to do, but until you’re in the position you don’t. You
know it’s like a lot of brand new items and if you don’t have any support you’re going to
sink.

Admin SC2 believed that a new administrator without a mentor was like the sink or swim model.
Admin SC3 said:
So, John was a great influence on me and uh helped me building my professionalism [and
believed this because,] mentors are important for your professional growth and I think the
key to that is the confidentiality that you can share what you are struggling with
personally, what your stresses and how should you deal with those stresses. Those are
really helpful.

One finding was that the match between the mentor and mentee mattered. Ehrich et al.
(2004) discussed the importance in taking into account the personalities of the parties when
matching the mentor with the mentee. Admin SC3 expressed that there were some mentors that
were not beneficial at all except for in providing collaborative times with other mentees, but said
this about mentors who were beneficial:
. . . but he was really good. Very very low key, mild mannerism, let me say what I
would like to do, just those kinds of things and just encourage me to go a different
direction and how to handle certain things and it was good, it was good.

Other perceptions with mentorship were that it is a difficult balance if it is with a boss in
the district.
Another part of the problem is I see strong leaders in this district, but they also my
bosses, so it’s really hard to have them as your mentor when they’re your boss. Then you
got this weird dynamics. So, you almost need to find someone who is not in your district
but is high level. (Admin SC3)

BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 73
Admin SC3 continued to say that he would feel more comfortable looking outside the district:
One that I would feel comfortable approaching would be like Dr. T who is over, uh
superintendent over Walnut district. I knew him for a while and he’s really just a nice
guy. And he would be someone who would make a really great mentor. So, sometimes
you gotta look outside.

Nevertheless, Superintendent 1 recognized the importance of mentorship and was vested in
systematizing it in his district.
4. How are the skillsets that are developed through formal or informal mentoring for
new administrators beneficial in fulfilling their responsibilities?
Figure 5 shows the result of the survey question where the participants were asked to
check all the benefits of mentorship. In the order of highest to lowest percentage, the benefits
the majority of the participants experienced were “encouragement and support,” “tricks of the
trade,” “problem solving strategy,” “reflection,” “networking,” and “socialization.” These data
confirmed all five conceptual frameworks of this study as well as introducing “sponsorship,” a
new theme to the benefit.

Figure 5: Quantitative Survey: Areas that Benefitted from Mentorship

BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 74
Encouragement and Support
As new administrators learn to fulfill their responsibilities, studies have shown that they
need the encouragement and support from their mentors (Browne-Ferrigno & Muth, 2004;
Ehrich et al., 2004; Hansford & Ehrich, 2006). This study also validated this theme. Admin
SC2, who had just completed his first year as an administrator, said the following:
He is right there by your side the whole way, you know. He allows you to make
decisions. He kind of lets you make your own choices, but he will guide you and if you
need help he is right there behind you. Umm, especially discipline. The first five months
or so, any big decisions made in discipline, he was right there in the office.

Admin SC2 benefitted from the encouragement and support his mentor provided. Part of the
encouragement and support became evident when he realized that even after making the wrong
decision he had support. He accredited his success to:
having the open communication and knowing that you are supported no matter what
decision you are going to make. That if it is the wrong decision you’re still going to be
supported by them, but they are going to guide you in a different way to handle it.
(Admin SC2)

Encouragement and support improves great self-efficacy and confirms great decisions, but these
supports are especially meaningful when wrong decisions are made.
The encouragement was also experienced in the support that mentees experienced when
their ideas were affirmed. For example, Admin SC3 explained that his mentor would reinforce
his ideas. He added that the benefit was the “encouragement factor and the reinforcement
piece.”
One of the problems found in mentorship that were not beneficial was the incompatibility
between the mentor and the mentee (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006; Daresh, 2004; Ehrich et al.,
2004; Waido, 2013). As Figure 1 showed, about 28% of the survey participants found formal
mentorship beneficial to their success while approximately 88% of them found informal ones
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 75
beneficial. Superintendent 1 recognized that the mentorship program in his district needed to
occur more naturally.
So I think our job is to create an environment of mentoring is important, encouraging,
seeking and creating opportunities but that connection of mentor and mentee has to come
in a very natural way. So, it’s almost like dating, I don’t know how to tell you this, like
harmony, eHarmony. EHarmony doesn’t say you and you both go meet up and, you
know, they say here’s a group of people, here’s what personality matches, I’m giving you
a group of people, you go out there seek that relationship, you know.

For this encouragement to occur, the mentor and mentee must be a good match.
Professional Development and Reflection
Mentors were beneficial in professionally developing the new administrators, often times
by walking them through their experience (Browne-Ferrigno & Muth, 2004; Clarke & Wildy,
2010; Darling-Hammond, LaPointe et al., 2007; Ehrich et al., 2004; Hansford and Ehrich, 2006;
Leithwood, Jantzi et al., 1995; Parylo et al., 2012; Thessin & Clayton, 2013). Admin SC2 shared
the following comment about a mistake he made that was too embarrassing to talk about in
detail:
There was an incident where [E] and [J] were off campus and it was just [C] and I and
something happened and, umm, we didn’t really make the right decision. Umm, and
when it came back like the, it was on a holiday weekend. It was really we should of done
something else and so he kind of just talked to us about it and said, “Hey that is pretty
serious and it should have been handled this way, but he didn’t it wasn’t like, ugh, you’ve
learned and the next time it happens now you know what to do.”

All the new administrators who had mentors similarly expressed their gratitude toward their
mentors and were thankful for the reflective piece. One of the survey participants’ response to
what skillsets they have developed through mentorship was, “I have learned to be self-reflective
and to evaluate the effectiveness of my choices, changing my path if need be.”
The interview participants recognized that their mentors’ time with them was helping
them grow professionally. Admin SC3 described that:
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 76
Mentors are important for your professional growth and I think the key to that is the
confidentiality that you can share what you are struggling with personally, what your
stresses and how should you deal with those stresses. Those are really helpful.

Professional growth through open discussions, reflection of struggles, and coping with stress
were benefits that Admin SC3 experienced in working with his mentors.
At the district level, Superintendent 1 recognized the intentional building of the
mentorship program as leadership professional development by his predecessor, “[K] did a great
job putting pieces in place for mentoring, for training, for sustainability and leadership
development, for PD and all of that.” He shared that he would continue to build up this program
by adding on the level 2 which took administrators through possible scenarios and re-enacting
them.
Socialization
Survey participants believed that the support provided by the mentors helped the
administrator understand their roles and learn the new culture as shown in Figure 5 and Figure 6.
Socialization which involves learning the culture and norms is an important factor in succeeding
at a new site and taking on a complex leadership responsibility (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006;
Hansford & Ehrich, 2006; Silver et al., 2009).

Figure 6: Quantitative Survey: Positive Influence of a Mentor in Understanding Role
as an Administrator
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 77
Experience
Another benefit that was expressed by all participants was the learning that took place in
mentors modeling for the new administrators. New administrators gained confidence about their
professional abilities as they witnessed and learned from their mentors modeling. Studies have
shown that real-life lessons are beneficial to novice administrators (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006;
Daresh, 2004; Thessin & Clayton, 2013). Admin SC2 explained:
A lot of times he would take the lead on it and I would watch what he does and how he
spoke and I would kind of follow up with that. Yeah, he is very much a lead by example
type mentor.

He further added other examples where his principal led by modeling:
Ed’s way is like you know what let them be kids and if they make a really bad decision
that’s when we will hammer them. If not, like they don’t have their i.d. for the dance
then we kinda know who they are or ask them something about the school, make them do
pushups or just something funny. Do something funny and then they are fine and they
are in. Or we had two kids that, umm, that snuck in and his [the principal] mentality is
like maybe they don’t have money to be here or to pay for it. So we kinda of give them a
hard time, we let them stay and then we follow up with them during the school week.
You know, but instead of kicking them out, ‘You know get out of here,’ he kind of brings
them in and gets that trust from the kid.

Watching his mentor handle a situation gave Admin SC2 a guideline for how he should handle
similar situations.
Mentorship also is a resource for new administrators. Admin SC3 shared,
What I liked from my mentor was when they would reinforce those ideas and maybe give
me some insights as to things I might want to do along the way or people I may want to
contact because they’re good resources.

Mentors were helpful in helping the new administrators see the bigger picture. Admin
SC1 was given advice by the “education giants” to look at the bigger picture and consider the
perspective. Admin SC2 was told to make decisions that would benefit the students in the long
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 78
run. Admin SC3 was trained to slow down and look at how his decisions would impact the
school two to four years in the future. He expressed,
I don’t think it is a matter of not knowing what needs to be done as it is to slowing down
and thinking about your approach to handle the situation. And being strategic in the
approach and I learned that from [Dr. T] actually.

Due to their great experience and perspectives, mentors are able to provide advice to the
new administrators. Admins SC2 explained how he was able to overcome his struggle in being
an AP over discipline. He admitted:
. . . so that was my thing is I remember having a conversation with him like three months
into it. I am battling being the disciplinarian, yet not knowing with my personality how
hard do I need to be on them. So that was the struggle and he saw that and he said you
just got to be you, be your own personality and have those conversations with students
and kids.

Admin SC2 shared that his mentor even provided him with caution advice: “Ed at the
very beginning, Ed told me you’re going to hear things, see things, you know you never even
thought you would, you know. And number one is you can’t take it home with you.”
All the participants pointed to receiving advice from their experienced mentor on
situations that were difficult. Admin SC3 firmly affirmed, “If I had to give a quote or make
comments or answer questions for the press I would definitely ask for some insight first before I
do that.” Thus, the insights and advices by the mentors were highly valued by the participants of
this study.
Network
Collaboration. Some of the mentors that were not as effective in their roles still
provided benefits to the mentee as other mentees were gathered. Admin SC3 for example saw
the benefit in being able to meet and collaborate with other principals:
I had another assigned mentor this past year and I didn’t get as much benefit out of that. I
felt like the benefit came in the fact that I met with two other of our my colleagues at the
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 79
same time. I got more out of the discussions I had with my colleagues and directionality
and sharing best practices and things like that than I got out of the mentor but the mentor
did a good job of being a facilitator of our group discussion; but really as principals in
our district we do a great job of collaborating anyway, really good job. We meet even
outside hours and just talk.

The mentor served as a facilitator where the principals were given opportunity to collaborate.
Sponsorship. A new theme that emerged was sponsorship. Superintendent 1 not only
emphasized the wisdom gained from a mentor, but he said, “the other one is about providing
opportunities.” He believed that administrators should be given opportunities and guided
towards their next potential positions. He shared his experience of how he became principal, HR
coordinator, and assistant superintendent by the sponsoring of his mentors.
Summary
Reflection on Findings
New administrators used different methods to learn and execute their responsibilities.
While many of their methods were effective, not all of the methods were healthy for them. The
administrators in this study found that proper use of communication with their staff, colleagues,
and the experienced mentors were vital to success. They also found their previous leadership
experience helpful in their current positions. Moreover, inner characteristics helped them in
persisting through the challenges. The new administrators found that their organizational skills
were essential to succeeding in their positions. At times, the new administrators discovered
deferring their responsibilities easier, but realized that was not the best coping method. The
greatest coping method was following the lead of a role model or mentor who had more
experience.
An overlapping theme whether it is communication, experience, intrinsic abilities,
postponing, or mentor was that involved building up relationship. So a successful coping
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 80
method for the new administrators was investing time into building up relationship with not only
their staff or colleagues, but also their mentors. Unexpectedly, although building up relationship
was vital to successful leadership, the limited time coupled with the amount of responsibilities
placed on the leadership made it extremely difficult.
Not surprisingly, a vast majority of the participants believed that mentorship was helpful
to new administrators, especially in their first year. What was surprising was how much more
informal mentoring was looked upon as a contributing factor to success compared to formal
mentorship. Although one of the problems of mentorship was finding the right match (Alsbury
& Hackmann, 2006; Daresh, 2004; Ehrich et al., 2004; Waido, 2013), it is worth noting that
informal mentorship was seen more than three times more beneficial than formal mentorship.
This signifies the need to create opportunities for much more organic mentor-mentee
relationships as superintendent 1 emphasized.
Many of the findings from this study further supported the conceptual framework and the
studies that are currently linked to mentorship. The participants found the encouragement and
support, professional development, learning of their roles and culture, and experience of the
mentors extremely beneficial in fulfilling their responsibilities. In addition, although the term
mentorship was used, some of the instances would have been better suited by the term
“sponsorship.” This new emerging theme was what allowed the new administrators leap towards
their next steps.
The findings from this study accentuated the detrimental state of many of the districts that
are in need for mentorship. A shortcoming that was pointed out by the administrators was the
lack of leadership provided through the organization of the district office. Not only do new
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 81
administrators need the guidance of experienced mentors, it needs to be organically initiated and
developed into sponsorship.
In Chapter Five, a summary of this entire study will be presented in conjunction with the
findings. In addition, further implications of this study will be explained, as well as,
recommendations for future practice. Finally, the need for future research will be discussed in
order to ensure that practitioners are informed with the current study on what is beneficial to new
administrators.

BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 82
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, IMPLICATIONS, AND CONCLUSIONS
Summary
Background
Student achievement is greatly impacted by the administration at the school site-level
(Leithwood, Patten et al., 2010). The site administrators are largely responsible for not only
managing the school, but they are also responsible for equipping the staff and making decisions
that impact all students. It is crucial, then, to ensure that the administrators receive proper
training. Otherwise, the new administrators are left to learn on their own as they experience
situations first hand, which may take many more years to perfect without the guidance of
mentors (Clarke & Wildy, 2010; Elmore, 2005; Leithwood, Jantzi et al., 1995; Daresh & Playko,
1990).
Moreover, studies have pointed to upcoming administrator shortage as seasoned
administrators retire and a less number of educators enter administration due to the challenging
nature of the position and the lack of support for the new administrators (Galvin & Sperry, 1996;
Whitaker, 2003). While the new school leaders that do enter administration are learning how to
lead, the students may be the ones to suffer the consequences of the administrators’
unpreparedness. In order to avert the shortage in administration and have better prepared
leaders, successful means of training and supporting administrators must be implemented.
Purpose of Study
Studies have shown that mentorship is beneficial to new administrators (Browne-Ferrigno
& Muth, 2004; Clarke & Wildy, 2010; Leithwood, Jantzi et al., 1995; Silver et al., 2009; Daresh
& Playco, 1994; Thessin & Clayton, 2013). In this study, data was collected from new
administrators in order to determine how they cope with the new responsibilities of the position
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 83
and how mentorship, either formal or informal, was helpful to them in developing skills
necessary to be successful in dealing with the vast amount of responsibilities..
Research Questions
The research questions that guided this study were:
1. What coping methods do new school administrators use to deal with the vast amounts of
responsibilities they encounter?
2. Which of these coping methods worked best for them?
3. What are the new administrators’ perceptions of formal or informal mentoring in
fulfilling their responsibilities as secondary administrators?
4. How are the skillsets that are developed through formal or informal mentoring for new
administrators beneficial in fulfilling their responsibilities?
Methodology
A mixed-methods design was used to gather data in order to answer the research
questions in this study. Mixed-methods study involves the combined use of a quantitative and
qualitative approach (Creswell, 2008). This study used an online survey to gather responses
from a larger sample and triangulated those results with a smaller sample of interviews of new
high school administrators. The survey and interview data were used to triangulate and draw a
holistic picture of how new administrators cope in their new positions and how mentorship
benefitted them in succeeding through their first years. Triangulation allows for a stronger study
findings since multiple data has been incorporated (Creswell, 2008; Johnson, Oweuegbuzie, &
Turner, 2007; Westat, 2010).

BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 84
Summary of Findings
1. What coping methods do new school administrators use to deal with the vast
amounts of responsibilities they encounter?
The first research question in this study dealt with the coping methods of new
administrators in dealing with the vast amounts of responsibilities in their new position. School
Leadership That Works outlines 21 research-based responsibilities that should be standard
operating procedures for effective administrators (Marzano et al., 2005). After describing the 21
responsibilities, the authors themselves stated how difficult it is to be an effective school leader
and how daunting the task of mastering these skills can be. The participants of this study
identified some of the methods they used that helped them in obtaining the skills to handle some
of these responsibilities. The new administrators studied found that proper use of
communication with the staff and colleagues helped them become successful leaders.
Communication encompassed the mode of communication such as email, phone calls, or face-to-
face conversations. It also included what to communicate, including asking questions to obtain
institutional knowledge. The most important aspect of communication was building up the
relationship in order to build trust and confidence.
Also, their experience from their prior positions helped them have skills that were needed
in the administrative position. Thessin and Clayton (2013) showed that the experience a person
has in real-world application of administrative duties was an indicator to be successful in such a
position. In addition, their intrinsic characteristics and their organizational skills helped them
successfully maneuver the responsibilities of the new position. Most importantly, their mentors,
if they had good mentors, guided them in coping with situations in their first years. Therefore,
while research shows that new administrators find that minimal hands-on experience is provided
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 85
(Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006), this study found that some new administrators felt this was true
while others felt that their mentors provided much appreciated guidance and on-the-job training.
Sometimes, they postponed doing things, but learned that postponing was not a
successful coping mechanism. Without the proper guidance, new administrators were stressed
by the situations and resorted to escaping the negative interactions.
2. Which of these coping methods worked best for them?
Having given the various coping methods, question two sought to determine which of the
coping methods worked well. The various coping methods mentioned above were effective. As
mentioned above, communication skills, prior leadership experiences, intrinsic characteristics,
organizational skills, and mentorship were helpful. Notably, building relationship was a key
factor in both improving communication as well as having positive mentorship experiences.
This finding supports the research that mentorship programs are beneficial for new
administrators (Brown-Ferringo & Muth, 2004).
What did not work was postponing difficult conversations. Participants who postponed
difficult situations found that the elongated time added stress to them and on hind sight, regretted
postponing. They found that many times it was never as bad as they had imagined.
3. What are the new administrators’ perceptions of formal or informal mentoring in
fulfilling their responsibilities as secondary administrators?
The last two research questions focused on the mentorship aspect of the new
administrator’s experience. The third question addressed the perception of mentorship, either
formal or informal, by the new administrators. The participants of this study believed that
mentorship, especially informal mentorship, was positively helpful in the success of the new
administrators. Out of the survey, it was found that 28.1% of the participants found informal
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 86
mentorship as being beneficial and another 87.5% of the participants found formal mentorship as
a contributing factor to their success as an administrator. Moreover, 100% of the interviewed
participants felt that mentorship, both formal and informal, were beneficial to their personal
experience as an administrator which aligns with research which showed that the skills necessary
for success can be best taught through the guidance of a mentor through real-life experiences
(Browne-Ferrigno & Muth, 2004; Clarke & Wildy, 2010; Leithwood, Jantzi et al., 1995; Silver et
al., 2009; Thessin & Clayton, 2013).
4. How are the skillsets that are developed through formal or informal mentoring for
new administrators beneficial in fulfilling their responsibilities?
The last question addressed how skillsets developed through mentorship was beneficial in
achieving their responsibilities. Mentorship was helpful in many ways. It provided a support
system where the new leader was able to receive the encouragement whether the new
administrator made the right decisions or not. It improved self-efficacy and confirmed great
decisions. This encouragement and the continued support of a more experienced mentor, even if
it is just their friendship, greatly impacted the new administrators (Browne-Ferrigno & Muth,
2004; Ehrich et al., 2004; Hansford & Ehrich, 2006).
The participants also found that professional development naturally occurred through the
conversations and reflection that took place in spending time with the mentors. Professional
growth through open discussions, reflection of struggles, and dialogue around coping with stress
were benefits that administrators experienced in working with their mentors. This finding
supports the research that showed ongoing leadership development should include opportunities
for actively reflecting on leadership experiences (Clarke & Wildy, 2010; Darling-Hammond,
LaPointe et al., 2007; Ehrich et al., 2004; Hansford and Ehrich, 2006; Leithwood, Jantzi et al.,
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 87
1995; Thessin & Clayton, 2013). In addition, it supported that mentorship is a venue for
personalized PD, since effective experiential learning is facilitated through reflection (Hansford
& Ehrich, 2006; Orr & Barber, 2005).
Furthermore, the mentor was helpful to the new leaders as they learned their roles and
culture surrounding their work place. Studies have confirmed that the important part of the
mentorship relationship is to develop a supportive relationship especially through socialization
(Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006; Hansford & Ehrich, 2006; Parylo et al., 2012). Mentorship
facilitates this socialization process.
The experience of the mentors was particularly beneficial to new administrators in
fulfilling their responsibilities. Watching the mentors as they handled situations, tapping into
their experience for advice, and gaining insight through their holistic perception was a great
resource for the new administrators.
Implications
This study verified that new administrators struggle in their first years and heavily
benefitted from mentors, when available. The data indicates that mentorship is highly beneficial,
especially informal mentorship, and those who did not have mentors struggled significantly
more. It points to the fact, then, that district offices need to increase their priority and investment
in equipping new administrators. For example, Districts should purposefully make available
opportunities for mentors and mentees to find one another. There should be resources spent on
advocating mixers, networking events, or collaboration time amongst administrators with various
levels of experience. This would lead to very personalized PD and the sense of support so that
school leadership can be more influential. The District should be mindful in teaching new
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 88
administrators how to reach out to potential mentors so that informal mentorship that is initiated
by the mentee can be established.
Prior to the mentorship encouraged by the District employing the administrator,
mentorship should be incorporated into administrator preparation programs. The earlier the
aspiring administrators are entered into a mentor/mentee partnership, the more the aspiring
administrator can benefit. Research indicated that many administrator preparation programs lack
this component and candidates are not trained or experienced for their future positions (Fink &
Brayman, 2004; Louis, Leithwood, Wahlstrom, & Anderson, 2014).
Administrator organizations designed for supporting administrators should also include
opportunities for finding and partnering mentors and mentees. For example, there are many
networking opportunities through Association of California School Administrator, ACSA.
ACSA can use their conferences and available network to provide opportunities for matching
mentors and mentees by hosting and creating events bringing the parties together for the purpose
of systematizing an event where informal mentoring can be established. This matching
opportunity should be more than just a mixer, but it should purposefully and explicitly guide the
mentors and mentees on finding their match.
Lastly, the new Administrative Tier II Clear Credential programs need to carefully utilize
the mentorship model. While studies show the benefits of mentorship, this study broke down
that informal mentorship was about four times more beneficial than formal mentorship.
Research indicates that some of the problems with formal mentorship is due to personality
mismatch (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006; Ehrich et al., 2004). The finding that informal
mentorship was more beneficial should be heeded in partnering the mentors and mentees so that
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 89
it may be a beneficial relationship and not a meaningless hoop jumping in order to obtain the
credential.
Recommendations for Future Research
In order to better understand the current study, the following recommendations are made
for future study:
1. This study found that informal mentorship was much more beneficial than formal
mentorship. Further study should be done on informal mentorship. This study will shed
more light on why informal mentorship is more beneficial and how to better facilitate
informal mentorship so that it may be made readily available to new administrators.
2. Although the term mentorship was used throughout this study, some of the uses would
have been better suited by the term “sponsorship.” There should be future study on how
sponsorship can be better established to assist the growth of potential leaders and how to
maximize the sponsorship relationship by identifying the best characteristics match on
pairing.
3. The new administrative clear Tier II clearing requirements have incorporated the
mentorship model. It will be interesting to study the effectiveness of this mentorship
requirement piece, since findings from this study point out that informal mentorship
relationship were much more beneficial than formal mentorship relationships.
Limitations
In doing a qualitative study, much of the results are reliant on the information that the
participants are able to recall. In addition to what was discussed in Chapter One, not only is the
information dependent on the integrity of self-reporting, but it is also reliant on the accuracy of
how much they can recall.
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 90
Another limitation was the aggregate information on the survey. The survey data were
collected and the aggregate summative result was used; however, due to the nature of the survey
being kept non-identifiable, each response was separate and not linked to other responses. In
other words, responses were not trackable to a specific participant. For example, if a participant
said mentorship was not beneficial, it is not possible to determine whether this participant is
referring to their experience of formal mentorship or if their experience was with informal
mentorship.
Conclusion
With the shortage of educational administrators on the rise and responsibilities of
administrators broadening, it is vital to better equip the new administrators. New administrators
are coping but are ill prepared. Unless educational institutions adjust the current method of
preparing the educational leadership, there will be a great negative impact on student
achievement. Educational institutions, at the district, county, and state level need to better
support the new administrators in better succeeding through mentorship.

BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 91
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Appendix A: Pre-Interview Invitation Email
Date, 2015
Dear __________
Hello!
We are Suena Chang, Katie Males, and Donnie Rafter, doctoral students in the Rossier School of
Education at the University of Southern California. We are doing our dissertation on the topic of
how to better prepare new administrators, especially with mentorship as a key instrument to
equipping new administrators. We are conducting this study under the guidance of Dr. Pedro
Garcia.

You have been identified as a new principal at a secondary site with two years of experience or
less. Participation in this survey would take around 15 minutes and benefit the study. We ask
that you complete the survey a week from the date of receipt to allow for timely review of the
responses.

Following the completion of this survey, we are asking for volunteers who would be interested in
participating in a personal interview based on the topic surveyed. If you are available for an
interview, please respond at the completion of the survey with contact information.

Participation in this study is completely voluntary. Your identity will be kept confidential at all
times.

If you have any questions, please contact us via email or phone:

Suena Chang: suenacha@usc.edu 714-628-5321
Katie Males: kmales@usc.edu 714-307-6469
Donnie Rafter: drafter@usc.edu 714-306-1757

Thank you for your participation,
Suena Chang, Katie Males, and Donnie Rafter
Doctoral Candidates, University of Southern California

Survey link: https://docs.google.com/forms/d/14-mG6owGajrLI24T-
Hcub4yAZTzAYCQDal5M2KWtTmU/viewform?usp=send_form

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Appendix B: Online Survey

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BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 102

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Appendix C: Interview Protocol: New Administrators
RQs:
1. What are the new administrators’ perceptions of mentorship programs in fulfilling their
responsibilities as secondary administrators?
2. How are the skillsets that are developed through a mentorship program for new
administrators beneficial in fulfilling their responsibilities?
3. What coping methods do new school administrators use to deal with the vast amounts of
responsibilities?
4. Which of these coping methods worked best for them?
Interviewee: new administrators
Introduction
Thank you for agreeing to help with my study about your work as an administrator. The data
from this interview may be used to complete the dissertation on new administrators. The
information you provide in this interview will only be used for this dissertation. Your identity
will remain private and confidential. In order to accurately collect your thoughts, I would like to
record this interview. Is that all right with you?
Do you have any questions for me before we start?
Interview Questions:
1. Can you state your job title and how long you have been in your current position?
2. Let’s start by learning about your career background. Please describe your background
and career pathway that led you to your current position. (Where and how long?)
3. How many mentors have you had related to an administrative position?
4. Can you give me instances of how they have been helpful to you, if they have?
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 105
5. As a mentee, what do you find to be most beneficial from mentors?
6. Overall, what do you think about the benefits of the mentorship program, if any?
7. So, what are the responsibilities of your current position?
8. As you are fulfilling your responsibilities in this new position, I’m sure there have been
times where it led you to unknown territory. Think of situations where you didn’t know
what needed to be done and how they needed to be done. Can you describe some of
these situations and how you figured out the what and the how?
9. If you were the mentor of you in your first year as an administrator, what advice would
you share with the younger you to better learn and execute the responsibilities? (Give
examples.)
10. This question is similar but more general. In general, what coping skills would you say
first year administrators most need to be able to “hit the ground running?”
Thank you so much for your time.

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Appendix D: Interview Protocol: Superintendent
RQs:
1. What are the new administrators’ perceptions of mentorship programs in fulfilling their
responsibilities as secondary administrators?
2. How are the skillsets that are developed through a mentorship program for new
administrators beneficial in fulfilling their responsibilities?
3. What coping methods do new school administrators use to deal with the vast amounts of
responsibilities?
4. Which of these coping methods worked best for them?
Interviewee: Superintendent
Introduction
Thank you for agreeing to help with my study about your work as an administrator. The
information gathered from this interview will be used in my research on mentorship and its
impact on school administrators. The information you provide in this interview will only be used
for study purpose of this study. Your identity will remain confidential. In order to accurately
record your thoughts, I would like to record this interview. Is that all right with you?
Do you have any questions for me before we start?
1. Can you state your job title, and how long you have been in your current position?
2. Let’s start by learning about your career background. Please describe your background
and career pathway that led you to your current position. (Where and how long?)
3. If you had to give ONE specific role, task, job, or experience that prepared you the most
for a career in educational administration, what would that be and why?
BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP 107
4. Are there any individuals in your career that you would consider a mentor (formal or
informal)?
5. Can you give me instances of how they have been helpful to you, if they have?
6. As someone who may have experienced what it is like to be mentored, what do you find
to be most beneficial from mentors?
7. Does your current or former district employ any sort of formal mentorship program for
new administrators and can you describe some key components of it?
8. Research indicates that mentoring programs are relatively scarce in the field of
educational administration. What do you feel are some possible reasons that mentorship
programs are the exception rather than the rule?
9. Assuming that resources were not an obstacle, what would an ideal mentoring program
look like for new administrators?
Thank you so much for your time.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to determine what methods administrators who were new to their positions used to cope with their ever-evolving roles and the vast amounts of responsibilities associated with a position in educational administration. It was also to determine whether mentorship, either formal or informal, was beneficial to new administrators, and if so, how it was beneficial. This was a mixed-methods study triangulating survey and interview data of school administrators who were new to administration, as well as, experienced administrators who were moved to new positions or unfamiliar settings. The participants of this study were secondary administrators at conventional high schools in addition to one K-12 district superintendent. The participants in this study found that proper use of communication, previous leadership experience, their inner, and their organizational skills were essential to succeeding in their positions. This study verified that new administrators struggled in their first years and that mentorship is highly beneficial, especially informal mentorship, and those who did not have mentors struggled significantly more. This finding indicates that district offices need to increase their priority and investment in equipping new administrators. There should also be resources spent on advocating mixers, networking events, or collaboration time amongst administrators with various levels of experience. Since the state is making efforts to include mentorship in the Tier II credentialing programs, a close eye should be kept on the effectiveness of this model and if an informal process can be advocated for the success of the new administrators.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Chang, Suena (author)

Core Title The benefits of mentorship to new high school assistant principals and principals

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 02/23/2016

Defense Date 12/14/2015

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag administrators,assistant principal,benefits,High School,mentorship,new administrator,OAI-PMH Harvest,Principal,support

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Garcia, Pedro E. (committee chair), Castruita, Rudy (committee member), Franklin, Gregory (committee member)

Creator Email hisblessing@gmail.com,suenacha@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-213920

Unique identifier UC11279162

Identifier etd-ChangSuena-4149.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-213920 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-ChangSuena-4149.pdf

Dmrecord 213920

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Chang, Suena

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA