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An examination of the protective factors that facilitate motivation and educational attainment among foster youth
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An examination of the protective factors that facilitate motivation and educational attainment among foster youth
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Content
Running head: FACILITATING MOTIVATION 1
AN EXAMINATION OF THE PROTECTIVE FACTORS THAT FACILITATE
MOTIVATION AND EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT AMONG FOSTER YOUTH
by
Amy Schneider
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2016
Copyright 2016 Amy Schneider
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 2
Acknowledgements
This dissertation is dedicated to my family for their continued support. My parents,
Lawrence and Judy Schneider, were sincere advocates of this dissertation topic from the time of
its inception. Most importantly, I would like to dedicate this dissertation to my 15-year-old son,
Christian. During my endless hours of attending USC and working on this study, Christian’s
patience and understanding was mature beyond his years. I love you dearly.
I wish to give a very heartfelt acknowledgement and gratitude to the eight participants in
my dissertation study, who I referred to as Robert, Sonia, Kelly, Samantha, Evan, Diana, Derek,
and Cynthia. Their openness to participate in this study, unrelenting commitment to benefit the
lives of foster youth, and keen insight into this important topic was extraordinary. I am humbled
by the opportunity to have conducted this qualitative study with such a remarkable group of
individuals. I sincerely thank each and every one of you for these meaningful interviews and
your immeasurable contributions to the betterment of foster youth.
Last, but certainly not least, I would like to thank my dissertation committee at the
University of Southern California. Dr. Kimberly Hirabayashi, Dr. Eugenia Mora-Flores, and Dr.
Susanne Foulk have provided me with outstanding guidance and direction on a very sensitive
dissertation topic. Since the beginning, the nature of my topic caused some serious barriers to
data collection and completion of my dissertation. With my committee’s assistance and
recommendations I was able to slightly change the parameters of my study, thus allowing me to
progress on my dissertation. I am eternally grateful for your support and guidance.
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 3
Table of Contents
Abstract 5
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 6
Background of the Problem 7
Statement of the Problem 9
Purpose of the Study 10
Research Questions 11
Importance of the Study 11
Definition of Terms 12
Organization of the Study 14
Chapter Two: Literature Review 16
Table 1: Overview of Research Literature Findings 16
Risk Factors for Foster Youth 18
Educational Attainment of Foster Youth 19
Educational Attainment of Foster versus Homeless Youth 21
Childhood and Adolescent Trauma 22
Motivation 26
Social Cognitive Theory 27
Goal Orientation Theory 29
Protective Factors 30
Federal and State Legislation 33
Transitional Living Programs 35
Mentoring Programs 36
Support Systems 38
Summary 40
Chapter Three: Methodology 41
Research Questions and Hypothesis 41
Population and Sample 42
Subject Population 1 43
Subject Population 2 43
Interview Protocol 43
Interview Guide for Subject Population 1 44
Interview Guide for Subject Population 2 45
Research Design 46
Data Collection 46
Data Analysis 48
Chapter Four: Data Collection 50
Participant Population 1: Former Foster Youth 50
Former Foster Youth 1 (FFY1): Robert 50
Former Foster Youth 2 (FFY2): Sonia 54
Former Foster Youth 3 (FFY3): Kelly 59
Former Foster Youth 4 (FFY4): Samantha 62
Participant Population 2: Mentors of Foster Youth 65
Mentor 1: Evan 65
Mentor 2: Diana 67
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 4
Mentor 3: Derek 69
Mentor 4: Cynthia 72
Research Questions (Former Foster Youth/Mentors) 74
Research Question 1 74
Research Question 2 93
Research Question 3 101
Interesting Finding/Disclosure 114
Summary 114
Chapter Five: Discussion of Findings 116
Discussion of Findings 116
Theme 1 117
Theme 2 120
Theme 3 123
Adolescents and Self-Efficacy 126
Implications for Practice 128
Future Research 132
Limitations and Delimitations 135
Conclusion 136
Appendices 138
Appendix A: Interview Guide for Former Foster Youth 138
Appendix B: Interview Guide for Mentors 141
Appendix C: Participant responses/research questions (FFY) 143
Appendix D: Participant responses/research questions (mentors) 147
References 152
Running head: FACILITATING MOTIVATION 5
Abstract
In the United States, there are approximately 400,000 foster youth. The state of California
accounts for approximately 20% percent of youth placed in the foster care system. As a whole,
this population is exposed to a multitude of risk factors while placed in the foster care system
and as they emancipate. Re-victimization is not uncommon as youth exit the system. Thus,
educational attainment and socio-emotional development are often negatively compromised by
involvement with the foster care system. Historically, research on foster youth has focused
primarily on risk factors, with limited research on protective factors for foster youth. This
qualitative study examined the relationship between motivation and protective factors facilitating
educational attainment in former foster youth. Research has reflected that former foster youth
typically have dismal academic achievement. Nearly 25-50% of foster youth do not graduate
from high school. Furthermore, only 3 to 6% graduate from college. The purpose of this
dissertation study was to address this less extensively studied area—protective factors promoting
academic achievement and social development in foster youth. Additionally, foster youths'
motivational characteristics were examined in relation to educational achievement. The
underlying theoretical framework in this study was Bandura’s social cognitive theory. The
qualitative data were collected through individual interviews with two subject populations: (a)
four former foster youth, and (b) four mentors of foster youth. Each of the former foster youth
participants', in this study, were attending a four-year university or had graduated from a four-
year university. This study found that the former foster youths' educational trajectory was
strongly influenced by their academic self-regulation and self-efficacy. Additionally, this study
found that mentors’ connection to youth was of paramount importance in shaping educational
and career opportunities for youth as they entered adulthood.
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 6
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
This study examined the motivational characteristics and protective factors that facilitated
educational attainment in former foster youth. The educational achievement of foster youth is of
paramount importance. Youth face a number of academic challenges if they are placed into the
foster care system. The risk factors for foster youth are often exasperated when youth experience
multiple foster placements. More specifically, these challenges may serve as barriers to
educational attainment. Subsequently, youth are vulnerable to risk factors such as, teenage
pregnancy (Dworsky & Courtney, 2010); involvement with juvenile justice system and adult
corrections (Ryan, Hernandez, & Herz, 2007); homelessness (Kimberlin & Lemley, 2010); and
low educational attainment (Barrat & Berliner, 2013; Lovitt & Emerson, 2008; Berliner, 2010;
Naccarato, Brophy, Courtney, 2010). My objective in this dissertation study was to gain greater
insight into what sustained foster youths’ motivation to pursue post-secondary options.
The purpose of this study was to examine risk factors and protective factors for foster
youth and their impact on motivation. Further, this study explored the relationship between
motivation and protective factors among foster youth. More specifically, it examined foster
youths’ self-regulatory processes and self-efficacy related to educational and career attainment.
The role of mentors and their impact on mentees was central to the study.
My dissertation was divided into three separate sections: (a) risk factors associated with
foster youth, (b) motivational characteristics of foster youth and underlying theoretical
frameworks, and (c) protective factors facilitating motivation and educational attainment in
foster youth.
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 7
Background of the Problem
A vast amount of research pertaining to risk factors among foster youth exist, however;
there was little research found on protective factors and their impact on motivation. This study
focused on motivation and educational attainment in former foster youth. As such, the research
compiled for this study was rather broad.
In the United States, there an estimated 400,000 foster youth (Child Welfare Information
Gateway, 2013). The state of California accounts for approximately 75,000 foster children
(Kimberlin & Lemley, 2010). The number of emancipated youth from the foster care system is a
pervasive problem in the United States. As adolescents age out of the system, many encounter a
number of challenges. According to the Adoption and Foster Care Analysis Reporting System,
in 2013 there were nearly 25,000 adolescents 18 and older, who aged out of the foster care
system and went on to live independently (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, 2008).
Many youth who exit the system are not equipped to transition into independent living (Avery,
2010; Dworsky & Courtney, 2010; & Propp, Ortega, NewHeart, 2003). Thus, extended services
for foster youth as they emancipate from the system is imperative.
Emerging adulthood, as defined by Arnett (2004), is the period following adolescence
that occurs prior to adulthood. Throughout emerging adulthood, youth work through the
transition to adulthood through identity exploration, instability, self-focus, feelings of being
neither an adolescent nor an adult, and optimism (Arnett, 2004). In line with my study, the
critical period of emerging adulthood aptly reflects my subject population. Thus, the transition to
adulthood comes with a multitude of risk factors as youth age out of the system.
Foster youth who have aged out of the system are at increased risk for homelessness,
unemployment, low educational attainment, incarceration, substance abuse, and mental health
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 8
problems (Courtney & Dworsky, 2006; Kimberlin & Lemley, 2010). Foster care alumni
negotiate a series of challenges to independent living as they transition into adulthood (Arnett,
2000). Further, foster youth have preexisting risk factors related to poverty, race, family
background, education, physical and mental health issues, and access to resources (Ryan,
Hernandez, & Herz, 2007).
Historically, placement in the foster care system has profoundly impacted academic
achievement. Among foster youth, poor academic achievement can be attributed to both
individual and systemic factors (Lovitt & Emerson, 2008). Youth living in foster care are at an
increased risk for school failure (Barrat & Berliner, 2013; Berliner, 2010; Naccarato, Brophy, &
Courtney, 2010). The educational outcomes of foster youth consistently indicate low levels of
academic achievement (Barrat & Berliner, 2013; Berliner, 2010; Kimberlin & Lemley, 2010;
Lovitt & Emerson, 2008). Naccarato et al. (2010) identified a number of factors that contributed
to poor educational outcomes: out-of-home care, attending low-achieving schools, low reading
achievement, old for grade level, and placement in special education. Barrat and Berliner’s
(2013) research suggests alarming educational disparities for foster youth enrolled in the
California public school system. Further, students in the foster care system are more likely to be
enrolled in the lowest-performing schools statewide.
Foster youth are faced with greater barriers to academic achievement and attainment
across the board—from primary school to secondary school and post-secondary options. For
foster youth, low levels of academic achievement at the elementary level are associated with
high rates of high school drop-out and reduced likelihood of college enrollment (Naccarato et al.,
2010). Students in the foster care system are more likely to drop-out of high school than all
other comparison groups (Barrat & Berliner, 2013). National estimates indicate that 25-50% of
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 9
foster youth exit care without completing high school (Smith, 2011). Furthermore, national
estimates indicate that only 3% of former foster youth earn a college degree (Lovitt & Emerson,
2008).
Foster youth are twice as likely as the general population to exit school without a
diploma and to enter bleak prospects as they age out of the foster care system (Berliner, 2010).
Grappling with the Gaps purpose was to set the groundwork and address the educational
achievement gap for children and youth in foster care. Collectively, 12 foster care experts
described gaps in knowledge contributing to dismal educational outcomes for youth (Berliner,
2010). More recently, the WestEd (2013) study examined the achievement gap between foster
youth and other at-risk subgroups enrolled in the California public school system. The research
suggests that foster youth are the most vulnerable academically in comparison with other at-risk
subgroups (Barrat & Berliner, 2013).
Statement of the Problem
As I researched foster youth, motivation, and educational attainment, I encountered a vast
array of research on risk factors associated with foster youth. By contrast, there was limited
research on motivation and its impact on educational attainment in foster youth. Consequently, I
approached this topic knowing that foster youth face more risk factors than the general
population. I reviewed research on barriers to educational achievement and attainment; however,
there was little research on protective factors facilitating motivation and, ultimately, promoting
educational attainment in foster youth. This fueled my interest to examine protective factors
contributing to favorable educational outcomes in former foster youth.
To date, foster youth remain one of the most vulnerable groups, in the educational
system. Personally, this is of great concern that we know little about protective factors among
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 10
this underserved population. As a school counselor, for the last 12 years I have worked
predominantly with at-risk students; including foster youth. I have observed counselees
overcome adversity and, remarkably, sustain the motivation and determination needed to pursue
their educational goals. My initial thought was that these students displayed a range of
motivational characteristics, including resilience, strong self-efficacy, and adaptive self-
regulatory processes. My objective for this study was to delve deeper into the motivational
characteristics of foster youth, considering the protective factors that contributed to their positive
educational achievement.
Motivational characteristics are critical for former foster youth attending post-secondary
schools. This study attempted to further examine the motivational factors that facilitated
attending college and defying educational odds in former foster youth. Both internal and
external motivational factors were explored in this study.
Pintrich and Schunk (1996) defined motivation as the internal psychological process that
gets us going, keeps us moving, and helps us get the job done. Motivation influences three
critical aspects of our lives: (a) choosing goals, (b) persistence in achieving goals, and (c) mental
effort to complete a task (Clark & Estes, 2008). Goals, persistence, and mental effort were
explored in this study, with consideration for contextual factors. More specifically, this study
examined protective factors facilitating participants’ goal setting, persistence, and mental effort
while pursuing education.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this dissertation study was to examine the motivational characteristics of
former foster youth. As previously noted, there is considerable research on the risk factors for
foster youth; however, there is limited research on the motivational characteristics that facilitate
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 11
educational attainment. My qualitative study focused on two subject populations: former foster
youth and mentors of foster youth.
As the principal investigator, I conducted individual interviews with the participants. I
created an interview guide for each group of participants. Questions in the interview guide were
developed based on the research questions. The objective of the in-depth interviews was to gain
greater insight into former foster youths’ perceived protective factors and motivational
characteristics facilitating positive educational outcomes.
Participants were 18 years or older and included employees at non-profit agencies, school
district personnel, university students, university personnel, and law enforcement personnel.
Participants were recruited through professional contacts and contacts in the principal
investigator’s doctoral program.
Research Questions
1) What are the motivational characteristics and self-regulatory beliefs of former foster
youth?
2) What personal and contextual challenges did former foster youth feel affected their
academic growth and development?
3) What do former foster youth and foster youth mentors feel have positively or negatively
influenced their own or their mentees academic motivation?
Importance of the Study
To date, protective factors have not been researched as extensively as risk factors
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2014). Protective factors are described as
individual or environmental characteristics, conditions, or behaviors that reduce the effects of
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 12
stressful life events (CDC, 2014). More importantly, these factors increase an individual’s
ability to avoid risks; they promote social and emotional competence to thrive in all aspects of
life. Protective factors are imperative for at-risk, vulnerable populations. Placement within the
foster care system exposes students to a number of risk factors. This study examined the
perceived protective factors that buffered these risks for former foster youth. Additionally, it
explored motivational characteristics associated with positive outcomes in foster youth.
This study is significant because it provides practices that may be helpful in assisting
youth currently in the foster care system. Additionally, it examined positive practices for youth
as they emancipate from the system. This study explored protective factors that promoted
student achievement among youth placed in the system. More specifically, it examined the
perceived motivational characteristics, self-regulatory beliefs, and educational attainment of
former foster youth. This research aimed to identify the most effective ways to facilitate youths’
transition from foster care to independent living. The relationships among motivation, protective
factors, and educational attainment were of paramount importance. Findings from this study
could potentially assist in creating effective mentoring programs for foster youth.
Definition of Terms
Assembly Bill 12: Assembly Bill 12 was signed into law on September 30, 2010 and took
effect on January 1, 2012. The bill implemented provisions to the Federal Fostering Connections
to Success and Increasing Adoptions Act of 2008 (PL 110-351) to improve outcomes for youth
in foster care. Eligible child welfare or probation youth may remain in care up to the age of 21.
California opted to extend assistance up to the age of 19 in 2012, age 20 in 2013, and recently up
to 21 (dependent on the appropriation of additional funds by the legislature in 2014; California
Department of Social Services).
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 13
Emancipation: Emancipation refers to exiting the foster care system and transitioning
into independent living. This generally occurs between the ages of 18 and 21. Emancipation is
also referred to as “exiting the system” or “aging out of the system.”
Foster care: Foster care refers to the placement of a minor in a ward, group home, or the
private home of a state-certified caregiver (referred to as a “foster parent”). The placement of
the child is usually arranged through the government or a social service agency. The institution,
group home, or foster parent is compensated for caregiving expenses. The state—via the family
court and child protection agency—acts in loco parentis to the minor, making all legal decisions,
while the foster parent is responsible for the day-to-day care of the minor (“In Loco Parentis,”
n.d.).
Goal orientation theory: Goal orientation explains achievement behavior and focuses on
why individuals approach and engage in a task.
Independent living program (ILP): ILPs are programs for foster youth as they transition
to adulthood and prepare to emancipate from the foster care system. Youth learn skills and are
provided support to lead self-sufficient, healthy, productive, and stable adult lives. Youth
receiving these services may be in state custody, living in a foster care or kinship care home, or
in a residential treatment or group home setting (Council on Accreditation).
Protective factors: Protective factors are individual or environmental characteristics,
conditions, or behaviors that reduce the effects of stressful life events. These factors also
increase an individual’s ability to avoid risks or hazards, and promote social and emotional
competence to thrive in all aspects of life—now and in the future (CDC, 2014).
Self-efficacy: Self-efficacy refers one’s beliefs in his or her capabilities to organize and
execute the actions required to attain specific goals (Bandura, 1997).
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 14
Self-regulation: Self-regulation is the process by which students personally activate and
sustain behaviors, cognitions, and affects that are systematically oriented toward the attainment
of goals (Bandura, 1997).
Social cognitive theory: Albert Bandura’s (1986) model which illustrates how the
relationships among behavior, cognition, and environment are reciprocal in nature.
Transitional living programs: Transitional living programs extend services to individuals
who have aged out of the system (18 to 21 years old). They typically provide subsidized
housing, life skills training, education and employment assistance, mental and physical health
care, and interpersonal skill building (Brown & Wilderson, 2010; Courtney et al., 2005;
Kimberlin, Lemley, Byrnes, 2008).
Organization of the Study
My dissertation was divided into three major components: (a) overview of the risk factors
associated with foster youth; more specifically, how risk factors impacted individuals’
educational attainment; (b) overview of motivational theories and underlying theoretical
frameworks related to former foster youth; and (c) examination of the protective factors
facilitating motivation and educational attainment in former foster youth.
Chapter 2 is a review of the literature pertaining to foster youth. As such, the literature
compiled for this study was rather broad. The literature review starts with research most heavily
studied, including the risk factors associated for foster youth. More specifically, special attention
is given to the risk factors pertaining to educational attainment among youth. The underlying
theoretical framework for this study is primarily viewed through Albert Bandura’s social
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 15
cognitive theory. Motivational theories were further explored. Last, the perceived protective
factors were examined as described by the participants.
Chapter 3 includes the methodology for this dissertation study. Further, chapter 3
discusses the research questions, qualitative research design, population, and sample size.
Chapter 4 discusses the data analysis and themes that emerged from the interviews with two
subject populations. Chapter 5 concludes with a summation of the study’s findings and
recommendations for helping professionals that serve foster youth.
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 16
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
There are three major topics covered in Chapter 2 (a) risk factors for youth in the foster
care system, (b) motivational characteristics and underlying theoretical frameworks, and (c)
protective factors facilitating motivation in foster youth. Table 1 shows an overview of these
three topics.
As I conducted research on this topic, it became abundantly clear that there was a wealth
of information on risk factors for foster youth; however, less research focused specifically on
protective factors. Thus, the purpose of this dissertation was to examine protective factors
facilitating motivation and educational attainment in former foster youth. The literature I drew
from for this section was quite broad.
Table 1
Overview of Research Literature Findings
Topic Findings
Risk Factors • Aged out of the system (Courtney & Dworsky, 2006; Hook & Courtney,
2010; Kimberlin & Lemley, 2010; Lenz-Rashid, 2006; Propp et al.,
2003; Ryan et al., 2007; U.S. Department of Health & Human Services,
2008)
• Homelessness (Courtney & Dworsky, 2006; Courtney, Hook, & Lee,
2012)
• Unemployment (Hook, 2010)
• Low educational attainment (Barrat & Berliner, 2013; Berliner, 2010;
Lovitt & Emerson, 2008; Naccarato et al., 2010)
• Incarceration (Ryan et al., 2007)
• Substance abuse problems (Courtney et al., 2012;
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 17
• Mental health problems (Courtney & Dworsky, 2006; Courtney et al.,
2012; Dvir, Denietolis, & Frazier, 2013; Middlebrooks & Audage, 2008;
Rashid, 2006)
• PTSD (Jackson, O’Brien, & Pecora, 2011; Yule & Smith, 2008)
Motivational
Characteristics
• Motivation as internal psychological process (Pintrich & Schunk, 1996)
• Goals, persistence, and mental effort (Clark & Estes, 2008)
• Social cognitive model: self-efficacy and self-regulation (Bandura,
1982)
• Goal orientation theory
Protective Factors • Five protective factors to aid development of foster youth (Horton,
2003)
• Federal and state legislation
• ILPs established in 1986 (federal)
• Assembly Bill 12 - extended services to youth 18 to 21 years of age
• Transitional Housing Placement Plus program (state)
• Transitional living programs (positive outcomes in educational
attainment, employment opportunities, and physical/mental health
benefits)
• Mentoring relationships in youth associated with positive transition to
adulthood (Ahrens, DuBois, Richardson, Fan, & Lozano, 2008; Ambroz,
2007; Foulk, 2015; Osterling & Hines, 2006; Pei, 2009)
• Support systems: meaningful engagement (Ambroz, 2007; Pei, 2009)
• Programs that promote goal-setting skills and solution-focused thinking
(Walker, 2008)
• Possible selves: reflecting on and envisioning one’s future through the
articulation of goals and aspirations (Markus & Nurius, 1986)
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 18
Risk Factors for Foster Youth
Risk factors include biological, psychological, family, community, or cultural factors that
are associated with a higher likelihood of problem outcomes (O’Connell, Boat, & Warner, 2009).
Research on risk factors for foster youth is abundant. Historically, foster care has been found to
severely and negatively impact development and education in youth (Smith, 2011). For the
purpose of my study, I examined educational attainment in former foster youth. Research on
youth aging out of the foster care system was of particular importance in this literature review.
Youth emancipated from the foster care system face systemic and individual problems
(Avery, 2010; Lovitt & Emerson, 2008; Propp et al., 2003). Research suggests that youth
typically lack resources as they exit the system, which often leads to re-victimization in
adulthood (Dworsky & Courtney, 2010; Propp et al., 2003; Ryan, Hernandez, & Herz, 2007).
Nationally, there are nearly 400,000 foster youth (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2013).
According to the Adoption and Foster Care Analysis Reporting System, in 2013 there were
nearly 25,000 adolescents who aged out of the foster care system to live independently (U.S.
Department of Health & Human Services, 2008). In California, approximately 4,500 youth age
out of the foster care system every year when they reach 18 (Kimberlin & Lemley, 2010).
Former foster youth often encounter undesirable outcomes as young adults, including low levels
of employment, low educational achievement, high rates of homelessness, pregnancy, and
involvement with the criminal justice system (Kimberlin & Lemley, 2010). Aging out of the
system appears to be a very critical period for foster youth in terms of educational attainment
(Lovitt & Emerson, 2008), career attainment (Hook, 2010; Lenz-Rashid, 2006), and successful
independent living (Avery, 2010; Propp et al., 2003).
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 19
Arnett (2000) suggested that the transition to adulthood is a vulnerable developmental
period, which looks markedly different from development in past generations. Emerging
adulthood, as defined by Arnett (2004), is the period following adolescence that occurs prior to
adulthood. Throughout emerging adulthood, youth work through the transition to adulthood
through identity exploration, instability, self-focus, feelings of neither being an adolescent nor an
adult, and optimism (Arnett, 2004). For foster youth, the transition to adulthood can be quite
unpredictable and is influenced by the services provided as they exited the system.
Foster youth who have aged out of the systems of care are vulnerable to a number of risk
factors (Courtney & Dworsky, 2006; Hook & Courtney, 2010; Kimberlin & Lemley, 2010;
Lenz-Rashid, 2006; Propp et al., 2003; Ryan et al., 2007). More specifically, foster youth are at
increased risk for homelessness, unemployment, low educational attainment, incarceration,
substance abuse, and mental health problems (Courtney & Dworsky, 2006; Kimberlin & Lemley,
2010). Foster care alumni negotiate a series of challenges to independent living as they
transition into adulthood (Arnett, 2000). They often find the transition harsh and shocking
(Propp et al., 2003), especially when services terminate at the age of 18. By contrast, youth who
have extended services up to age 21 typically have better educational and career opportunities.
Educational Attainment Among Foster Youth
Research indicates that foster youth are vulnerable to lower educational achievement for
a multitude of reasons. Poor academic achievement for foster youth can be attributed to both
individual factors and systemic factors (Lovitt & Emerson, 2008). Youth living in foster care are
at an increased risk for school failure (Barrat & Berliner, 2013; Berliner, 2010; Naccarato et al.,
2010). Naccarato et al. (2010) found several factors contributed to poor educational outcomes,
including out-of-home care, attending low-achieving schools, low reading achievement, old for
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 20
grade level, and placement in special education. The National Council on Disability (2008)
examined the educational and employment outcomes of youth with disabilities in the foster care
system. Youth with disabilities are between 1.5 and 3.5 times more likely to have experienced
abuse or neglect than their non-disabled counterparts (Lovitt & Emerson, 2008).
Foster youth encounter barriers to educational achievement and attainment at all grade
levels—from primary school to secondary school, and beyond. Low levels of academic
achievement for foster youth at the elementary level are associated with high rates of high school
drop-out and reduced likelihood of college enrollment (Naccarato et al., 2010). According to
national estimates, 25-50% of foster youth exit care without completing high school (Smith,
2011). Foster youth are twice as likely as the general population to exit school without a
diploma (Berliner, 2010).
According to the West Ed study (2013), the California public school system’s high
school graduation rate for foster youth was 58%, but the general high school population’s
graduation rate was 84% (Barrat & Berliner, 2013). In addition, foster youth were the most likely
sub-group to drop out of high school, across all grade levels (Barrat & Berliner, 2013). Foster
youth were consistently more likely than the general population to attend California’s lowest-
performing schools. Approximately 15% of foster youth attended the lowest-performing schools;
in contrast, only 2 percent of foster youth were enrolled in the highest- performing schools
(Barrat & Berliner, 2013). Further, the West Ed study (2013) concluded that foster youth
experience the greatest educational disparities in comparison with other student sub-groups.
Notably, foster youth that qualified for special education were categorized as emotionally
disturbed at significantly higher rates than all other sub-groups (Barrat & Berliner, 2013).
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 21
Similarly, Naccarato et al. (2010) found that the dropout rate in Chicago for youth in
foster care was 50%. Further, foster youth were more likely to complete the GED (28.5%) than
youth not in care 5% (Naccarato et al., 2010). National estimates indicate that only 3% of former
foster youth earn a college degree (Lovitt & Emerson, 2008). This data was particularly relevant
to my present study. Participants interviewed in my study were attending a 4-year university,
had graduated from a 4-year university, or were attending graduate school. The primary
objective, in the present study, was to examine the high-achieving group of former foster youth
participants’ who prioritized their educations, despite many barriers. Additionally, the
relationship between former foster youths’ motivational characteristics and perceived protective
factors that facilitated educational attainment was further explored.
Educational Attainment of Foster Youth Versus Homeless Youth
Foster youth are vulnerable to a number of risk factors compared to their non-foster youth
counterparts. However, research comparing former foster youth with former homeless youth has
suggested that those placed in the foster care system are at an advantage over those who never
received any services. Brown and Wilderson (2010) examined educational attainment in youth
who exited foster care compared to former homeless youth. The study compared intervention
programs (Larkin’s Street - homeless youth) with prevention programs (LEASE and Holloway
House - former foster youth). One group included participants formerly in foster care (i.e., the
prevention program). The second group included former homeless youth (i.e., the intervention
program). The researchers’ found that students in the prevention program were more likely to be
enrolled in school (48%) than youth in the intervention program (27%). Findings also indicated
that youth in the prevention program had higher graduation rates (60%) than youth in the
intervention program (39%). According to Brown and Wilderson, youth in the intervention
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 22
program faced more acute risk factors upon entering the program than their counterparts in the
prevention program, thus explaining the disparity in graduation rates between the two groups.
This research suggested that prevention and extended services for former foster youth were a key
component to educational attainment. Notably, homeless youth have shown lower educational
attainment than youth in foster care (Brown & Wilderson, 2010). This study is significant in that
it suggests that risk factors for educational attainment are perhaps even more severe for former
homeless youth than for former foster youth.
Childhood and Adolescent Trauma
About one-fourth of children experience a traumatic event before the age of 18 years
(Dvir, Denietolis, & Frazier, 2013). The traumatic events may include physical or sexual abuse;
domestic, community, or school violence; and/or the traumatic death of significant others (Dvir
et al., 2013). Thus, neglect and placement in the foster care system are also among childhood
adversities.
Socio-emotional and cognitive development can be negatively impacted by involvement
in the foster care system. Many foster youth have experienced trauma, including abuse, neglect,
interrupted family relationships, and multiple foster care placements (Smith, 2011).
Consequently, the levels of stress experienced by foster youth are particularly elevated.
Stress is described as the internal or external influences that disrupt an individual’s
normal state of well-being (Middlebrooks & Audage, 2008). As many foster youth have
experienced abuse or neglect, they are exposed to toxic stress. This type of stress results from
intense adverse experiences’ which may be sustained for long periods of time—lasting weeks,
months, or even years. Child maltreatment is a common form of toxic stress; 1 in 7 children
between the ages of 2 and 17 years old have experienced maltreatment (Middlebrooks &
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 23
Audage, 2008). Developmentally, children are unable to effectively manage toxic stress by
themselves. Stress can lead to permanent changes in the development of the brain. Thus,
children and youth, in the foster care system, may have trauma symptoms that impede learning.
In turn, learning difficulties and problematic behaviors surface in the school environment, as a
result of childhood trauma and effects on the brain (Berliner, 2010). Furthermore, trauma may
effect cognitive and socio-emotional functioning. Negative effects can be lessened or somewhat
reversed with the presence and support of caring adults (Middlebrooks & Audage, 2008; Yule &
Smith, 2008). This research is significant to my study in that it provides hope for overcoming
the negative effects of childhood maltreatment; caring adults, such as mentors, can mitigate the
effects of maltreatment.
A seminal study, the Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) study, examined the link
between childhood stressors and adult health (Middlebrooks & Audage, 2008). The ACE study
was a collaborative effort of the CDC and Kaiser Permanente’s Health Appraisal Clinic in San
Diego. It was one of the largest studies of its kind, with over 17,000 adults. The study was
significant because it examined the link between specific violence-related stressors (i.e., child
abuse, neglect, and repeated exposure to domestic violence) and risky behaviors and health
problems in adulthood. ACE researchers were particularly focused on participants’ past history
of abuse, neglect, and family dysfunction and associations with current behaviors and health
status. High-risk health behaviors in childhood and adolescence were related to adverse
childhood experiences, including pregnancy, suicide attempts, early onset of smoking, sexual
activity, and illicit drug use (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for
Injury Prevention and Control; 2008). More importantly, as the number of adverse childhood
experiences increased, the number of co-occurring health conditions increased (Middlebrooks &
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 24
Audage, 2008). Drawing on the ACE study, risk factors in childhood and adolescence and their
impact on developmental and educational outcomes were further examined in my study. In fact,
for most adolescents the transition to adulthood is a gradual process. More specifically, true
“adult” functioning, in relation to cognitive, behavioral, and social maturity is not reached for
most emerging adults until their third decade of life (Avery, 2010).
There is solid evidence that childhood adversity is associated with increased risk for
psychosis in adulthood (Dvir, et al.2013). Childhood adversity is defined as sexual abuse,
physical abuse, emotional/psychological abuse, neglect, parental death, and bullying. Childhood
maltreatment is a risk factor that leads to psychosis and schizophrenia in adulthood (Dvir et al.,
2013). An increased number of adverse childhood experiences leads to an increased number of
co-occurring health problems in adulthood (CDC, 2006). According to Dvir et al. (2013),
childhood trauma has a cumulative effect, ultimately increasing risk for psychosis in adulthood.
PTSD studies with foster care alumni have reflected a range in percentage of former
foster youth affected by the disorder. In the Midwest Evaluation of the Adult Functioning of
Former Foster Youth (Midwest Study) of alumni at age 21 it was discovered that 11.7% were
diagnosed with the condition (Courtney, Dworsky, Cusick, Havlicek, Perez, & Keller, 2007). In
contrast, the Casey Family Programs Northwest Foster Care Alumni Study (Northwest study) of
alumni between ages 20 and 33 found 25.2% affected with PTSD (Pecora, Kessler, Williams,
O’Brien, Downs, English, White, Hiripi, White, Wiggins, & Holmes, 2005).
Researchers have examined the effects of PTSD in youth who have experienced child
abuse or neglect (Dvir et al., 2013; Jackson, O’Brien, & Pecora, 2011; Yule & Smith, 2008).
PTSD is a major diagnosis associated with early child maltreatment (APA, 2000). PTSD shifted
from the class of anxiety disorders into a new class of trauma and stressor-related disorders (5th.
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 25
ed., APA, 2013) The APA (2013) conditions for diagnosis includes exposure to a traumatic or
stressful event as a diagnostic criterion.
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd. ed., rev.; APA, 1987)
applied the diagnosis to children who had experienced a markedly distressing event. Following a
traumatic event, children are likely to be distressed, tearful, frightened, and in shock (Yule &
Smith, 2008). Thus, the need for protection and safety is heightened. Adolescent survivors of
trauma report high rates of clinical depression, suicidal thoughts, and suicidal attempts in the
year following the event. Also, a number of studies have indicated that females are at a higher
risk for developing PTSD following a traumatic event than males (Jackson et al., 2011; Yule &
Smith, 2008).
Research on the lasting effects of childhood maltreatment was particularly important to
my study. Many children who enter foster care are exposed to abuse and neglect during critical
developmental periods (Berliner, 2010; Smith, 2011). Removal from the abusive home and
placement in the foster care system cannot ensure that children/adolescents are no longer
exposed to these risk factors; however, some research has suggested that the presence of caring
adults can mitigate the negative impact of trauma (Middlebrooks & Audage, 2008). This study
examined the impact of caring adults on foster youths’ emotional development. Further, my
study explored how risk factors impacted youth development and educational achievement.
Teenage pregnancy is another risk factor for foster youth. Dworsky and Courtney (2010)
found that females in foster care system were more likely to become pregnant than their peers in
the general population; however, staying in care beyond the age of 18 seemed to mitigate their
risk of becoming pregnant. The study used data from a longitudinal study of foster youth who
made the transition to adulthood and from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health.
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 26
Participants included youth from Iowa, Wisconsin, and Illinois. Youth in Iowa and Wisconsin
typically aged out of the system at age 18, whereas youth in Illinois typically remained in care
until the age of 21. The authors examined three research questions: (a) How likely were females
aging out of the foster care system to experience a teenage pregnancy? (b) How does the
likelihood of becoming pregnant compare to that of adolescents in the general population? (c)
Does allowing foster youth to remain in care beyond age 18 reduce the risk of teenage
pregnancy? Dworsky and Courtney found that foster youth were more likely to experience
teenage pregnancy than their peers in the general population. However, extending care beyond
18 years of age seemed to reduce the risk of becoming pregnant (Dworsky & Courtney, 2010).
Teenage pregnancy is a critical risk factor that can prevent young adults from pursuing
educational and career goals. Thus, the advantages of extending services to age 21 were
explored in this study.
Motivation
Motivation is the process whereby goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained
(Schunk et al., 2008). Motivation is reciprocal in relation to both learning and performance. As
such, motivation can influence what, when, and how we learn (Schunk et al., 2008). In line with
this study, motivation was of paramount importance as it pertained to former foster youths’
educational attainment.
Three facets of motivation come into play in a work environment (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Active choice involves the active pursuit of a goal. Persistence involves investing in the most
important goals. Mental effort is determined largely by our confidence. Consistent with my
study, active choice, persistence, and mental effort were three facets of motivation that
contributed to former foster youths’ educational goal attainment. Similarly, perceived self-
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 27
efficacy refers to beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the actions necessary to
attain a goal (Bandura, 1997). Thus, if people feel they can produce desired effects by their
actions, they will have more incentive to act. Former foster youths’ self-efficacy and self-
regulatory processes were explored in this study.
Theoretical Framework
The underlying theoretical framework for this dissertation was Albert Bandura’s social
cognitive theory. This study examined self-efficacy and self-regulatory beliefs related to
educational attainment in former foster youth. Albert Bandura’s (1982) social cognitive model
illustrates how the relationships among behavior, cognition, and environment are reciprocal in
nature. According to social cognitive theory, behavior, environment, and cognition are key
factors in development (Santrock, 2011). Bandura (1986) described his framework of triadic
reciprocality as follows:
In the social cognitive view people are neither driven by inner forces nor automatically
shaped and controlled by external stimuli. Rather, human functioning is explained in
terms of a model of triadic reciprocality in which behavior, cognitive and other personal
factors, and environmental events all operate as interacting determinants of each other.
(p.18)
Bandura (1997) described self-efficacy as people’s judgments of their capabilities to
organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances. Self-
efficacy influences achievement behaviors, such as choice of tasks, persistence, and effort
(Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008). Perceived self-efficacy is a good predictor of diverse forms
of behavior. Efficacy beliefs and the types of performance outcomes expected within given
social systems can be predicted by human behavior (Bandura, 1997). Behavior largely
determines the outcomes one experiences. Outcome expectation is a judgment of the likely
consequence such performances will produce. Efficacy beliefs vary in level, strength, and
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 28
generality. The outcomes that derive from a given course of action can yield positive or negative
physical, social, and self-evaluative effects (Bandura, 1997).
Self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations typically are related, however, it is
possible for an individual to have high self-efficacy and low outcome expectations. Bandura
(1982) suggests that both efficacy and outcome judgments are best considered as continuums.
Further, this suggests that a simple high/low efficacy and high/low outcome expectations provide
insight into behavior and affect (Bandura, 1982).
Self-regulation is described as the process by which students activate and sustain
cognitions and behaviors that are systematically oriented toward the attainment of goals
(Zimmerman, 1995, 2000). One critical element of self-regulation is that learners have some
choice available in at least one area and preferably in others (Schunk et al., 2008). Efficacy
beliefs play a critical role in the cognitive regulation of motivation. In cognitive motivation,
people motivate themselves and guide their actions through forethought (Bandura, 1997).
Social Cognitive Theory
Bandura’s (1982) social cognitive theory was central to this study. Bandura (1986)
described his framework of triadic reciprocality. People are neither driven by inner forces nor
automatically shaped and controlled by external stimuli in the social cognitive theory. More
specifically, Bandura’s (1997) theory is based on several key assumptions (a) reciprocal
interactions among personal, behavioral, and environmental factors; (b) the relation of learning
to motivation; and (c) enactive and vicarious learning (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2003).
For the purpose of this study, social cognitive theory was viewed through the lens of two
components: self-efficacy and self-regulation. Self-efficacy (a personal factor) influences such
achievement behaviors as choice of tasks, persistence, and effort (Schunk et al., 2008). Bandura
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 29
(1997) described self-efficacy as people’s judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute
courses of action required to attain designated types of performances. Perceived self-efficacy is
a good predictor of diverse forms of behavior. Efficacy beliefs and the types of performance
outcomes expected within given social systems can be predicted by human behavior (Bandura,
1997). Behavior largely determines the outcomes one experiences. Outcome expectation is a
judgment of the likely consequence such performances will produce. Efficacy beliefs vary in
level, strength, and generality. The outcomes that derive from a given course of action can yield
positive or negative physical, social, and self-evaluative effects (Bandura, 1997).
In the present study, FFY’s self-regulation was particularly important. More specifically,
the process by which former foster youth activated and sustained cognitions, behaviors, and
affects systematically oriented towards the attainment of educational goals was crucial
(Zimmerman, 1989, 2000). As such, the learners (former foster youth) had some choice
available in at least one area and preferably in others (Schunk et al., 2008). FFY’s efficacy
beliefs play a critical role in the cognitive regulation of motivation. Furthermore, in cognitive
motivation people motivate themselves and guide their actions through forethought (Bandura,
1997).
Goal Orientation Theory
Goal orientation theories were developed specifically to explain achievement behavior.
The qualitative research design, in this study, attempted to explain the a-typical achievement
behaviors of former foster youth. According to Schunk et al. (2008), goals are cognitive
representations of a general energy construct, and they have a long-standing history in
motivational psychology. Different goal orientations can lead to either adaptive or maladaptive
motivational, cognitive, affective, and behavioral outcomes. Pintrich (2003) defined goal
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 30
orientations as the purposes or reasons for engaging in achievement behaviors. Goal orientation
theory focuses on why individuals approach and engage in a task. Why do individuals approach
and engage in educational tasks?
Learning and performance goals are represented in the different goal orientation theories
(Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Elliott & Dweck, 1988). Mastery goal orientation is focused on
learning, mastering the task, developing new skills, improving or developing competence, trying
to accomplish something challenging, and trying to gain understanding or insight (Schunk et al.
2008). Performance goal orientation is focused on demonstrating competence and assessing how
ability will be judged relative to others. Both mastery and performance goals are commonly
measured with self-report instruments on Likert-type scales. The Patterns of Adaptive Learning
Scale operates with the underlying framework of goal orientation theory.
Protective Factors
Protective factors are individual or environmental characteristics, conditions, or
behaviors that reduce the effects of stressful life events (CDC, 2014). These factors increase an
individual’s ability to avoid risks or hazards; they promote social and emotional competence to
thrive in all aspects of life. The focal point of my study was on the perceived protective factors
facilitating motivation in foster youth, and more specifically, the impact of these factors on
educational attainment. To date, there has been less extensive research on protective factors than
on risk factors for youth (CDC, 2014). Protective factors include but are not limited to
mentorships, support systems, prevention programs, connectedness to adults, school
connectedness, and positive social orientation.
In 2012, the Administration on Children, Youth and Families awarded the Developmental
Services Group a contract to review the research on protective factors (Developmental Services
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 31
Group, n.d.). The populations included (a) infants, children, and adolescents who were victims
or were at risk for child abuse or neglect; (b) runaway and homeless youth; (c) youth in or
transitioning out of foster care; (d) children and youth exposed to domestic violence; and (e)
pregnant and parenting teens. The research served as the protective factors framework for the
Administration on Children, Youth and Families, a framework which intends to serve the most
vulnerable populations. The protective factors examined included in the framework were
strengths and supports that helped youth and families to work through negative life experiences
and to reduce negative consequences (Developmental Services Group, n.d.). Ideally, these
factors can promote resilience. The factors were categorized into three levels: (a) individual, (b)
family and close social connections, and (c) community.
The publication School Connectedness also focused on the strategies for increasing
protective factors among youth (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, 2009). The
model suggested that students who feel more connected to school are more likely to have
positive health and educational outcomes. Six strategies were described to increase school
connectedness: (a) create decision-making processes that facilitate student, family, and
community engagement; academic achievement; and staff empowerment; b) provide education
and opportunities to enable families to be actively involved in their children’s academic and
school life; (c) provide students with the academic, emotional, and social skills necessary to be
actively engaged in school; (d) use effective classroom management and teaching methods to
foster a positive learning environment; (e) provide professional development and support for
teachers and other school staff to enable them to meet the diverse cognitive, emotional, and
social needs of children and adolescents; (f) create trusting and caring relationships that promote
open communication among administrators, teachers, staff, students, families, and communities.
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 32
Although the six strategies were designed for the general population, its relevance to
foster youth was apparent. Many of the strategies utilized to increase school connectedness
focused on the role of the adults in school or in the home. The absence of healthy relationships
with biological parents can leave an emotional void for many foster youth. The importance of
healthy, quality relationships with adults among foster youth may serve as a protective factor.
Early education programs are essential to building protective factors for youth and
families. Effective early care and education programs help to build protective factors, which in
turn, reduce child abuse and neglect among foster youth (Hook & Courtney, 2010; Horton, 2003;
Lovitt & Emerson, 2008; Rhodes, 2004; Walker, 2008). Horton (2003) examined exemplary
programs that effectively build protective factors among foster youth. Five protective factors
were identified as key components to aid in the healthy development (Horton, 2003). The first
protective factor was parental resilience, which can be developed through the capacity to
empathize with the self and others through the medium of a safe, caring relationship (Horton,
2003; Rhodes, 2004; Walker, 2008). The second protective factor was social connections.
Increasing social connections—as opposed to social isolation—has been shown to reduce child
maltreatment (Horton, 2003; Rhodes, 2004; Walker, 2008). A third protective factor was
knowledge of parenting and child development (Berliner, 2010; Horton, 2003). The fourth
protective factor was concrete support in times of need (Horton, 2003). The fifth protective
factor was social and emotional competence (Berliner, 2010; Horton, 2003, Rhodes, 2004;
Walker, 2008).
Reid and Ross (2005) examined protective factors in youth who aged out of the foster care
system. They focused on a specific curriculum, First Voice, which focuses on encouraging
adolescents in foster care to have a voice and play an active role in envisioning and planning for
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 33
a successful transition to adulthood. The curriculum utilized a philosophy—the Circle of
Courage—which contains four parts: independence, belonging, mastery, and generosity. The
purpose of First Voice was to promote autonomy for youth aging out of the foster care system.
Foster Care Legislation
Legislation for foster youth has served as a protective factor, reducing both child abuse
and neglect (Avery, 2010; Kimberlin & Lemley, 2010; Propp, Ortega, & NewHeart, 2003).
Legislation at both the federal and state level has served to facilitate more successful transition
from foster care to independent living. State legislation in California such as the AB 12 (U.S.
Fed News Service, 2010) extends services to youth in care to 21 years. The AB 12 provides
support during critical years to obtain an education and reduce the likelihood of homelessness.
Additionally, the Transitional Housing Plus program (THP-Plus) created in 2001 provides
subsidized housing coupled with comprehensive support services for youth aged-out of the
system ages 18 to 24.
Federal and state legislation have provided stability for many youth as they have
emancipated from the foster care system. Legislation at both the federal and state level was
established to assist foster youth in their transition from foster care to independent living.
(Avery, 2010; Kimberlin & Lemley, 2010; Propp et al., 2003) Federal legislation established
ILPs in 1986 through the Title IV-E Social Security Act. ILPs supported the development of
independent living services, which focus on basic life skills; services are designed to smooth the
transition from foster care to independent living. The Fostering Connections to Success and
Increasing Adoptions Act of 2008 amended Title IV-E of the Social Security Act. Under the
revised legislation, beginning in the fiscal year 2011, states became able to claim federal
reimbursement for the costs of eligible foster youth until the age of 21 rather than 18.
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 34
During the transition to adulthood, many young adults depend heavily on their families
for support. Thus, the policy change was deemed developmentally appropriate for foster youth
(Settersten, Furstenberg, & Rumbaut, 2005). In 1999, the Foster Care Independence Act (also
known as the Chaffee Act) doubled funding for independent living services and allowed more
comprehensive services for foster youth until the age of 21 years. Propp et al (2003) stressed the
importance of interdependence, connection, and collaboration as youth age out of the foster care
system. Thus, youth that age out of foster care strictly to independent living, at the age of 18, are
more likely to experience homelessness, unemployment, unplanned pregnancy, legal system
involvement, substance abuse, and lack basic health care services (Avery, 2010). Most recently,
Governor Brown signed legislation to protect the most vulnerable Californians, homeless
children and adults and foster youth (Office of the Governor, 2014). As such, this research
examined the impact of extended services on youths’ transition to adulthood and on their
educational attainment.
At the state level, California offers foster care alumni transitional housing through the
Transitional Housing Placement Plus program. Transitional living programs typically provide
subsidized housing, life skills training, education and employment assistance, mental and
physical health care, and interpersonal skill building. Research has demonstrated that youth
involved in independent living skills programs have shown positive outcomes, including
increased work participation, hourly wages, and school enrollment, as well as lower involvement
with the criminal justice system (Courtney et al., 2005; Kimberlin et al., 2008).
In 2010, the Governor of California signed legislation to provide support for foster youth
aged 18 to 21 (Judicial Council of California, 2010). This historic legislation was termed
Assembly Bill 12. The bill was created in an attempt to find safe and permanent homes for
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 35
California’s 75,000 foster children. Assembly Bill 12 is imperative because foster youth
provided with support during the critical period, of 18 to 21 years old, are more likely to obtain
an education and are less likely to be homeless. Assembly Bill 12 is also important because it
offered extended services and assistance to former foster youth in reaching their educational
goals.
Transitional Living Programs
Research has demonstrated that transitional living programs are beneficial to foster youth
in a number of ways (Brown & Wilderson, 2010; Courtney et al., 2005; Kimberlin et al., 2008).
In the absence of transitional living programs, foster youth are vulnerable to a number of risk
factors, including but not limited to homelessness, unemployment, low educational attainment,
incarceration, substance abuse, and mental health problems Furthermore, youth who transition to
adulthood with more resources and fewer risk factors are more likely to successfully connect to
support services (Brown & Wilderson, 2010).
Transitional living programs have many positive outcomes for youth 18 to 21 years old.
Participation is associated with increased educational attainment, greater employment
opportunities, and improved physical and mental health (Kimberlin & Lemley, 2010).
Transitional living programs operating on a prevention model have demonstrated the highest
levels of successful transition to adulthood for foster youth.
Courtney, Hook, and Lee (2012) suggested that a person-oriented approach is key to
understanding the various elements that benefit foster youth as they enter adulthood. The
person-oriented approach assumes that development cannot be understood by examining single
factors in isolation from their relationships with other interacting factors (Magnusson, 1995). In
their study, Courtney et al. (2012) applied the person-oriented approach to identifying subgroups
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 36
of former foster youth with a population drawn from the Midwest Study of former foster youth at
ages 23 and 24. This study demonstrates the variation among foster youth as they emancipate
from the system and enter adulthood. Former foster youth were classified into four unique
categories: (a) accelerated adults, (b) struggling parents, (c) emerging adults, (d) and troubled
and troubling.
Class 1 participants, known as accelerated adults, were most likely to have made
successful transitions to living independently, beginning to raise children, and completing their
secondary degrees. On the other hand, Class 2—struggling parents’ experiences—was
dominated by their parenting under difficult circumstances; these participants were the least
likely to have finished high school and the least likely to have attended college. Class 3,
emerging adults, were living with friends, relatives, or in other settings and were not fully on
their own. In line with Arnett’s (2004) description, the emerging adults were delaying some
transition markers, such as living on their own, finishing school, and having children. Class 4
was referred to as “troubled and troubling.” Participants in this class were most likely to be
currently incarcerated or otherwise institutionalized, homeless, and most likely to have
experienced high residential mobility. Two-fifths had not finished high school only about one-
tenth had any college. The class variation illustrated in Courtney et al. (2012) is reflective of the
complexities among foster youth, particularly as they emancipate from the foster care system.
Furthermore, the distinct subgroups suggest a need for targeted policy and practice for older
adolescents and young adults within the child welfare system (Courtney et. al., 2012).
Mentoring Programs
Foster youth often have a history of unhealthy relationships with their biological parents
and/or foster parents. Consequently, the importance of healthy relationships with adults is
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 37
paramount. Researchers have found that mentor programs for adolescent foster youth serve as a
protective factor as youth enter adulthood (Ahrens et al., 2008; Ambroz, 2007; Osterling &
Hines 2006; Pei, 2009). Though it has been demonstrated that mentoring relationships have a
positive effect on adolescents (Ahrens et al., 2008), less is known about the impact of mentoring
relationships on at-risk youth. Foulk (2015) suggests that a successful mentoring relationship is
imperative to foster youth throughout their educational experience. Mentoring programs that
support natural mentoring relationships for foster youth should be developed and evaluated. In
summary, mentoring relationships are associated with positive transitions to adulthood in foster
youth (Ahrens et al., 2008; Ambroz, 2007; Osterling & Hines 2006; Pei, 2009). Foulk (2015)
further suggests that it is crucial for mentors to be deliberate in promoting self-regulation and
self-efficacy among foster youth. Thus, the roles of mentor and mentee and their impact on foster
youths’ educational attainment were of critical importance in this study.
Caring relationships with program staff have also been identified as critical to the success
of foster youth (Ahrens et al., 2008; Osterling & Hines 2006; Pei, 2009; Rhodes, 2004). Ahrens
et al. (2008) found that youth in foster care with adult mentors during adolescence had improved
outcomes in adulthood. Mentoring relationships have positive effects for at-risk youth, including
increased positive self-concept, increased educational attainment, decreased use of drugs and
alcohol, decreased violence, and improvements in parent–child and peer relationships (Osterling
& Hines, 2006). Ambroz (2007) found that his own personal experiences in the foster care
system lead to a successful outcome due to his relationship and guidance from his mother.
According to Ambroz, his mother’s slogan—“educate to elevate”—coupled with his motivation
and drive helped him to graduate from law school at the University of California, Los Angeles,
and continued to drive him toward success thereafter. Thus, mentorships that occur naturally or
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 38
within the context of a program have both been shown to have positive effects on adolescents
(Ahrens et al., 2008; Ambroz, 2007; Osterling & Hines, 2006; Rhodes, 2004).
Support Systems
Support systems have been shown to be a critical ingredient for foster youth as they age
out of the system (Pei, 2009; Rhodes, 2004). Pei (2009) examined the role of academic advisors
of former foster youth in post-secondary education. Pei suggested that a trusted academic or
program advisor—who meets regularly with students and is knowledgeable about foster care—
can help students navigate successfully through college. By contrast, Ambroz (2007) found that
many foster youth are subjected to a world of educational indifference. Though many helping
professionals have adequate knowledge of foster care, they are often consumed by their day-to-
day work and heavy caseloads. It is imperative for foster youth to have meaningful engagements
with their mentors (Ambroz, 2007; Pei, 2009). Rhodes (2004) found that after-school programs
that stressed caring relationships with staff were critical to foster students’ success.
Kemshall, Boeck, and Fleming (2009) found in their study in the United Kingdom that
young people generally value supportive relationships with non-judgmental adults who help
them to negotiate their way through difficult circumstances. Extensive network connections and
pro-social mentoring promote personal development and help at-risk youth to access new
opportunities. Kemshall et al. (2009) found that troubled youth were more likely to achieve
desirable outcomes through pro-social mentoring.
Walker (2008) found in her study of homeless youth that participation in supportive
groups was a critical component to helping youth set goals. The “Waikiki Youth Circle” is a
solution-focused group, which has been found to be beneficial in assisting youth in finding their
own solutions to problems (Walker, 2008). Youth were recruited from the Waikiki Youth
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 39
Outreach Center, a day-shelter for homeless youth. The circles meet twice a month for 1-hour
group sessions. The primary objective of the group sessions was goal setting to resolve issues.
According to Walker, a typical question asked of the members was, “What do you want in your
life?” Responses included the following: “get a home,” “get a job,” or “go to college.” The
goal-setting strategy of the Waikiki Youth Circle was to focus on incremental baby steps so that
homeless youth could accomplish their goals within the 2-week period.
Self-regulation was a key component to successful goal setting among youth in the
program (Walker, 2008). Self-regulation requires both goals and motivation (Bandura, 1986).
Furthermore, goals influence motivation through level of effort and persistence. The relationship
between goal-setting and self-regulation was crucial to future achievements in Walker’s (2008)
study of homeless youth. The Waikiki Youth Circle also encouraged motivation by being
solution-focused and optimistic. The program succeeded in assisting youth in learning goal-
setting skills essential for connecting to society (Walker, 2008). Mentors in the program would
ask youth about their goals for the future. Youth articulated their goals to their mentors, which
helped them to plan for their futures.
Markus and Nurius (1986) also alluded to the importance of articulating goals. The
researchers’ referred to possible selves, which emerge as part of the process of reflecting on and
envisioning one’s future through the articulation of goals and aspirations (Markus & Nurius,
1986). In this view, people have the ability to conjure up specific self-images of future successes
and failures. Possible selves that are well-articulated may serve several functions (Bandura,
1997). They may represent both one’s hopes and fears. Positive selves motivate people to
realize their desired futures. Unwanted and feared selves can block action or avoidance of what
one fears. However, the balance of both positive and negative selves may have a motivational
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 40
effect, ultimately shaping one’s desired self. Articulating goals to mentors during Waikiki Youth
Circle sessions served to foster the development of possible selves in youth (Walker, 2008).
Thus, social circumstances can help to activate possible selves or to explore the desired self by
promoting appropriate behaviors (Markus & Nurius, 1986).
Summary
This literature review covered three major areas: (a) risk factors for foster youth, (b)
overarching theoretical frameworks used to examine academic development and achievement,
and (c) protective factors facilitating motivation and educational attainment in former foster
youth. For the purpose of this study, research on protective factors was of paramount
importance. To date, there is a wealth of information on risk factors for foster youth, but little is
known about protective factors facilitating motivation and educational attainment.
An emphasis on the perceived motivational characteristics and the perceived protective
factors, as viewed by the former foster youth and mentor participants’ was further examined in
this study. The relationship between perceived motivational characteristics and protective factors
and their impact on former foster youths’ educational attainment were explored.
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 41
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Historically, foster youth have been vulnerable to various risk factors. This study closely
examined the protective factors that buffered these potential risk factors for former foster youth.
Further, it examined former foster youths’ educational and career attainment. Qualitative data
were collected from in-depth interviews with former foster youth and mentors of foster youth.
All participants were 18 years of age or older. Further, the data collected from the two subject
populations investigated the interplay of self-regulation, self-advocacy, mentorships, and foster
youth legislation that aided former youth in attaining their educational goals.
Research Questions
The research questions examined the relationship between foster youths’ motivation and
academic achievement. They were examined using interviews with former foster youth and
mentors. The hypothesis was that qualitative data would reveal former foster youths’
motivational characteristics and self-regulatory beliefs. It was expected that the data would be
rich and would provide insight into protective factors facilitating academic achievement in foster
youth. The research questions are listed below.
1) What are the motivational characteristics and self-regulatory beliefs of former foster
youth?
2) What personal and contextual challenges did former foster youth feel affected their
academic growth and development?
3) What do former foster youth and foster youth mentors feel have positively or negatively
influenced their own or their mentees academic motivation?
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 42
Population and Sample
Purposeful sampling was used in the recruitment process. Qualitative interviews allowed
me to collect more in-depth data from a smaller sample. I selected participants who would be
able to provide rich information through past experiences. Participants were identified through
either professional or doctoral program contacts. Former foster youth provided greater insight
into the motivational characteristics that aided in educational and career attainment. Mentors
shared rich case histories, describing the positive relationships they had developed with former
foster youth. Participants included employees at non-profit agencies, school district personnel,
university personnel, university students, and law enforcement personnel. Two subject
populations were interviewed in my study: former foster youth and mentors of foster youth. I
conducted individual, in-depth interviews with each participant. Interviews were conducted with
adults, aged 18 and older. Four Former Foster Youth participants, were individually interviewed,
that were either enrolled at a four-year university or had graduated from a four-year university.
Four mentor participants, were individually interviewed, who had mentored foster youth that
went on to attend and/or graduate from a post-secondary school. More details on the individual
participants will be provided in Chapter 4.
My sample included participants 18 years and older. Participants were volunteers,
employees, and/or students. As the principal investigator, I verbally recruited all participants
through professional or doctoral program contacts. I made initial contact with participants via
email or the telephone. Subject Population 1 (Former Foster Youth) included four former foster
youth; Subject Population 2 (Mentors) included four mentors. Interviews were conducted in
either an office or at a public setting, such as a coffee shop.
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 43
Former Foster Youth
Former foster youth were recruited from various organizations. Foster youth who
demonstrated academic success were included in the study. Participants were considered
successful if they had graduated from high school and attended a post-secondary school.
Participants included emancipated youth who were currently attending a 4-year university, had
graduated from a 4-year university, or were attending graduate school.
Former foster youth were selected if they had dealt with a great deal of emotional
adversity, yet still sustained their motivation to pursue college. The initial criterion was that
participants had to be attending a university or attending community college with plans to
transfer to a 4-year college. Four participants, for population 1 were interviewed, and interviews
lasted 2 to 3 hours. Protective factors facilitating foster youths’ motivation to reach educational
goals were explored throughout the interview process.
Mentors
Mentors were included from a variety of organizations. Mentors who were known to be
successful, within their respective careers and in their community, in providing guidance to
foster youth were included in the study. Mentors were defined as successful if they assisted
youth in placements as they exited the system, if youth graduated from high school, and/or if
they facilitated youth attending a 4-year university. Mentors had mentored one or more foster
youth. Interviews with the mentors lasted 1 to 2 hours.
Interview Protocol
After my study was amended to be strictly qualitative, I was not limited to conducting
interviews with participants from any one organization. I was given the autonomy to verbally
recruit adult participants from a variety of educational settings. Participants included employees
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 44
at non-profit agencies, school district personnel, university personnel, university students, and
law enforcement personnel.
A list of general questions was used to guide the interviews. I created an interview guide
for both subject populations, which made the interview process more systematic and
comprehensive. Questions examined foster youths’ motivational characteristics, self-regulatory
beliefs, personal and contextual challenges, and protective factors. All of the questions from the
guide were asked in each individual interview. Additional follow-up questions were used to
clarify participants’ responses. As the interviewer, I remained free to build a conversation on a
particular topic and to word questions spontaneously, or to ask pertinent follow-up questions
(Patton, 2002).
An interview guide was used for each of the two subject populations. According to
Patton (2002), interview guides ensure that the same basic areas of inquiry are examined with
each interview. The interview guide provided a systematic approach to my interviews. It
allowed me to ask follow-up questions based on participants’ responses in order to obtain more
information-rich data.
Interview Guide for Subject Population 1
I interviewed four former foster youth. The interview guide for former foster youth
focused primarily on participants’ motivational characteristics and self-regulatory beliefs. The
questions were developed to explore former foster youths’ personal and contextual challenges, as
well as personal characteristics and protective factors. A few of the interview questions were
adapted from the Motivated Strategies Learning Questionnaire (Pintrich, Smith, Garcia, &
McKeachie, 1991) and the Patterns of Adaptive Learning Scale (Midgley et al., 2000).
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 45
Appendix A presents the interview guide containing the original research questions and
corresponding interview questions. The questions were designed to further explore former foster
youths’ motivational characteristics and self-regulatory beliefs. The interview guide questions
were developed utilizing social cognitive theory and goal orientation theory as the theoretical
frameworks. More specifically, the interview questions were intended to address self-regulatory
beliefs and self-efficacy. The questions designed to address self-regulation- examined FFY
participants’ time management and goal-setting strategies. The questions designed to address
self-efficacy examined FFY participants’ efficacy in terms of academics. Interview questions
were intended to expand on youths’ reasons for engagement in achievement behaviors (Pintrich,
2003).
Interview Guide for Subject Population 2
I interviewed a total of four mentors for my study. The interview guide for mentors
focused on the capacity in which they worked with foster youth. Mentors’ perceptions of risk
factors and protective factors for foster youth were explored in interviews. Protective factors
facilitating motivation in foster youth were examined in detail.
Appendix B presents the original research questions and corresponding interview
questions. Social cognitive theory and goal orientation theory served as the underlying
theoretical framework for questions developed for former foster youth. In contrast, the mentor
interview guide questions’ examined the mentors’ perceptions regarding youths’ self-regulatory
beliefs, academic self-efficacy, as well as, risk factors and protective factors The questions were
designed to gain meaningful insight into mentors’ perceptions of their mentees’ motivational
characteristics, self-regulatory skills, and goal orientations.
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 46
Research Design
Initially, the purpose of this study was to examine the risk factors, motivational
characteristics, and protective factors among foster youth. The relationship between motivation
and perceived protective factors in foster youth emerged as central to former foster youths’
educational attainment.
A qualitative research design was utilized in this study. Qualitative data were collected
from in-depth interviews with participants. Through purposeful sampling, I was given the
opportunity to interview two subject populations and obtain rich data. I interviewed both
mentors and former foster youth. For each subject population an interview guide was used to
maintain consistency in the questions asked; however, I asked follow-up questions, which made
the data unique to each participant’s personal experiences. Thus, a wealth of rich information
was obtained through the in-depth interviews. The data provided greater insight into protective
factors facilitating motivation and educational achievement in former foster youth.
Data Collection
Data collected for this study was strictly in the form of individual interviews. As the
Principal Investigator, I verbally recruited two subject populations for individual interviews.
Data was collected and derived from in-depth interviews with former foster youth and mentors.
The participants were identified through my professional and doctoral program contacts. I
reached out to the potential participants by either phone or email. As the Principal Investigator,
of the study, I provided basic information on the purpose of the interviews and the study. I
further explained to the potential participants that their participation was completely voluntary.
Additionally, I expressed to participants’ they would be interviewed individually by myself at a
public place. Further, we could schedule a time and public place that would be convenient and
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 47
non-intrusive to their schedules. I provided an information sheet to the participants that agreed to
participate in this study. Moreover, I let subjects’ know that the study was examining motivation
among former foster youth. Subjects were told that they would receive a gift card, no amount
specified, following their participation.
Interviews were conducted in person and were audio recorded. They lasted 1 to 3 hours.
Interviews were conducted at either an office or public setting, such as a coffee shop. I used my
own personal audio recorder to tape the interviews. Participants were provided an information
sheet on the study prior to the interview and consented to participate. After completion of the
interview, participants received a gift card for their participation. Gift cards were provided in
incremental amounts, depending on the length of the interview.
I started collecting my data and conducting interviews after I received my initial IRB
approval in April 2013. I completed my individual interviews with one subject population, the
mentor participants’, between May 2013 through July 2013. I received an IRB amendment to my
study, in July 2014, to conduct a strictly qualitative study. At that time I was able to move
forward with my individual interviews with the second subject population, former foster youth. I
conducted my interviews and collected my data from the former foster youth participants
between July 2014 and October 2014.
My subject population, foster youth, was and is an extremely protected population. The
mentor participants’ that advocate for foster youth also required anonymity. Therefore,
participants’ confidentiality was particularly important in this study. To protect participants’
anonymity, data were de-identified and participants received unique codes. None of the
participants were identified by name or organization.
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 48
Data Analysis
Patton (2002) suggested that the qualitative approach selected should align with one’s
research questions. This was certainly the case in my qualitative study. Through careful
selection and advisement by my dissertation chair, my research questions were strategically
open-ended. The interview guides for each subject population were designed to facilitate
participants’ self-reflection regarding their personal experiences. Thus, the qualitative design
was very unique to my research study. Further, the data collected for this study was analyzed
through the theoretical lens of social cognitive theory and goal-orientation theory, respectively.
As Principal Investigator, I completed the transcriptions verbatim. According to Patton
(2002), qualitative interviews are open-ended, containing questions that probe for in-depth
responses regarding individuals’ experiences, perceptions, opinions, feelings, and knowledge.
The data obtained from the interviews consisted of verbatim quotes.
After the data from the interviews was transcribed and reviewed, I examined themes in
the data. My focal point was on data supporting my research questions. There was a great
amount of rich data that surfaced through the interviews. Because I had two groups of
participants—former foster youth and mentors—I was able to examine consistencies in
responses. Results are reported in Chapter 4.
The data were transcribed and coded prior to being analyzed. After common themes
surfaced from the in-depth interviews, they were further analyzed (see Chapter 4). Interviews
were conducted, transcribed, and analyzed by the principal investigator (Patton, 2002). This type
of analysis enabled patterns in participants’ experiences to emerge. For each participant group,
similarities and differences as they related to each of the research questions were analyzed.
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 49
The themes found through data analysis (and presented in Chapter 4), were initially
organized around the responses from the interview guide questions: former foster youth
(Appendix A) and mentors (Appendix B). The interview guide questions were intended to
address the three research questions from the two subject populations’ perspectives. After I
transcribed the interviews, for each subject population, I coded specific interview guide
questions and examined the similarities and differences in their responses, to explore common
themes.
The individual interviews were coded and analyzed, by the principal investigator.
Individual participant responses and their relationship to the RQ’s are reflected in Appendix C
(former foster youth) and Appendix D (mentors), respectively. I organized the data around
research questions and subsequent themes that emerged. After coding the individual interviews
and analyzing the data, I placed data accordingly in Appendix C (former foster youth responses)
and Appendix D (mentors responses) that addressed the three research questions. Subsequently, I
examined the themes embedded in the research questions that emerged during the process.
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 50
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS
This study focused on the protective factors that facilitated motivation among former
foster youth. Specifically, the educational attainment and motivation of former foster youth were
examined. Two participant populations were included in this study: (a) former foster youth, and
(b) mentors of foster youth. Data were collected from individual in-depth interviews with each
participant. Participants’ descriptions are listed below.
Participant Population 1: Former Foster Youth
Former foster youth ages 18 and older were individually interviewed. To meet the
selection criterion, participants had to have graduated from a 4-year university and/or were
currently attending a 4-year university. Interviews were conducted at a public setting and lasted
between 2 and 3 hours. Participants are referred to using pseudonyms: Robert, Sonia, Kelly, and
Samantha.
Former Foster Youth 1 (FFY1): Robert
Robert is 22 years old and currently attends a 4-year state university. Robert is a
business major with junior standing. More specifically, he has been studying entrepreneurial
management for administration. Following high school graduation, Robert attended a
community college and graduated with an associate’s degree and certificate in automotive
technology. Throughout his college career, he has been employed as a fire mechanic. Robert’s
educational and career goals are to earn his business degree, continue working as a fire
mechanic, and to eventually manage his own fire mechanic business.
Robert had a rather unique past. Robert was placed in the foster care system during his
freshman through senior year of high school. Throughout high school, he was placed in only one
foster care home. Robert moved in with his best friend’s family that he had known since
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 51
elementary school. Although he was only placed in one foster placement, during high school
Robert was actually pulled from his parents at the age of 2 or 3 years old. Robert aptly described
his experience with foster care as:
Well it goes back to my freshman year. Actually started with my parents, we got pulled
from them at the age of 2 or 3. My sister was pulled from them and then we were placed
in an orphanage. Then my grandmother adopted us. My grandmother had us all the way
up through high school. Then the situation started to fall apart. For her own personal
problems, she could not quite give us the care that we needed. So we were placed in the
foster care system. So it went form being with our parents, to an orphanage, then
adopted, and back into the system.
Robert and his sister remained with their grandmother until he entered high school when
he stated she was at a point where she could no longer provide the care that they needed. He
recalled looking out for his younger sister. Robert stated that since about the first grade he and
his sister would get up and get prepared for school themselves. They would make their own
breakfast and get on the bus without any supervision. Then, during junior high school the living
situation worsened and family problems prevailed, making it impossible to continue living with
their grandmother. Consequently, they were placed in the foster care system when Robert
entered high school. Robert remained in foster care during his high school experience and
emancipated from the foster care system on his 18th birthday.
During Robert’s high school education, he stated that he felt that he was just going
through the motions. However, he continued to challenge himself and enroll in rigorous courses
and would never accept a failing grade. In fact, he never received anything below a “C.” Robert
mentioned a few of his achievements in high school, including taking and passing calculus his
senior year. Robert also reflected on a time in high school when he had some difficulty in
chemistry. At that time, his foster family arranged for him to have a tutor. Subsequently, he
received an “A” in the course. After earning an “A” in chemistry, he felt “that he could do
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 52
anything.” However, despite his academic success in high school, he said felt that getting good
grades was in some way separate from the real world. For example, he did not believe that his
academic achievements would necessarily guarantee a good career. Nonetheless, Robert’s
motivation and determination to challenge himself and maintain rigorous courses did not
dissipate.
As Robert transitioned from high school to college, he became involved in a program
called Inspire. The criteria entailed that you attend school full time and work part time. As a
result, one is provided with inexpensive housing and placed with other former foster youth.
Robert considered this incentive a major motivator for his academic performance and work ethic
during college. Currently, Robert is a full-time student at a 4-year university and works part time
as a fire mechanic. In addition, he lives in one of the “boys’ homes” with other former foster
youth. Robert pointed out that this opportunity has allowed him to focus on his studies, continue
gaining work experience, and live in affordable housing. Consequently, he has also gained life
skills during this process and is currently saving for his future. Robert’s Independent Living
Program (ILP) worker had a profound impact on his positive outcome.
Robert has maintained a well-balanced education and career and his ILP workers have
taken notice. His ILP worker selected him to be sent to Sacramento to speak to state legislatures
and connected with California initiatives. Along with other ambassadors, Robert’s involvement
with state legislation has been instrumental in the development of Assembly Bill 12.
1
Assembly
Bill 12 created state policy changes to extend foster youth services from 18 to 21 years of age.
1
Assembly Bill 12 was signed into law September 30, 2010 and took effect on January 1, 2012. To implement
provisions of the Federal Fostering Connections to Success and Increasing Adoptions Act of 2008 (PL 110-351) to
improve outcomes for youth in foster care. Eligible child welfare or probation youth may remain in care up to the
age of 21. California has opted to extend assistance up to the age of 19 in 2012, age 20 in 2013, and up to 21 years
of age subsequently, dependent on additional monies being appropriated by the Legislature in 2014 (Department of
Social Services).
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 53
Notably, Robert was one of a handful of individuals to be sent to Sacramento as an ambassador.
He recalled his two visits to Sacramento; the first trip included a group of former foster youth,
from his county, to participate in workshops concerning what to do with services that would be
provided. On the second trip, he flew to Sacramento with one other individual from his
community college. The two former foster gave their individual statements to state legislators
regarding their thoughts on extended services for foster youth. Robert stated that his main focus
was on foster children that need services. His purpose was for foster youth to get the services
extended a little longer and thus, increase their chances of success once on their own. Notably,
Robert was very unassuming and humble in sharing this story and the impact the state legislation
change has on future generations of foster youth.
In an attempt to sustain his solid grades and strong work ethic throughout college, Robert
proactively formed study groups with his classmates. His primary focus was on goal-setting, by
balancing challenging college courses and maintaining his job. Robert stated that this had to do
with the fact that, just as in high school, he would not allow himself to ever fail a class. More
specifically, Robert did not receive any grades below a “C” which maintained his college
eligibility throughout high school. In addition to goal-setting, Robert was efficiently managing
his time by balancing the A-G courses and becoming involved in Fire Explorers his sophomore
year in high school. He thus continued with this determination and drive as he entered college.
As a result, Robert continued to maintain college-accepted grades and enroll in rigorous courses
in college.
Robert mentioned that he considered his foster family his mentors as well as his support
system. More importantly, Robert considers his foster family a “regular blood family.” Robert
stressed the point that he considers his foster family his parents and his brothers. In fact, to this
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 54
day he sees the family almost every other weekend. Robert keenly acknowledged the rarity of
this dynamic and bond he still shares with his foster family. Robert attends church with them,
they go to dinner, and they even take vacations together. Furthermore, he considers his foster
father a role model. Robert’s foster father was instrumental in connecting him with his career
and facilitating his motivation to excel.
Similarly, Robert and his younger sister have more recently re-connected and remain an
active part in each other’s lives. Robert suggested that once he and his younger biological sister
emancipated from the foster care system, their bond grew stronger than ever. According to
Robert, his motivation stems from a combination of factors, including that he wants to do well
for himself, look out for his younger sister, and set an example for his future family. His
younger sister played a critical role in his motivation to excel. Robert stated that his younger
sister is what really pushed him to set the standard. Robert will be the first in his family to earn a
bachelor’s degree. Robert has sustained his motivation, academic rigor, work ethic, and positive
outlook to this day. Given his success thus far, it seems likely that Robert will continue to thrive
throughout his remaining college education and beyond.
Former Foster Youth 2 (FFY2): Sonia
Sonia is the director of a foster youth
2
program at a state university. In this capacity, she
provides support to foster youth on the campus. The program provides extensive services to
foster youth to improve their likelihood of graduating from college. To date, Sonia holds a
master’s degree in educational psychology with a pupil personnel services credential and a
bachelor’s degree in liberal studies. Sonia is currently enrolled in a doctor of education program.
2
Guardian scholars programs are offered at 4-year universities to foster youth who have aged out of the foster care
system. These program provide comprehensive services, including scholarship support to cover the full cost of
attendance. On average, programs accepts between 10 and 15 applicants per year. Scholarships cover up to 5 years
of attendance for first-time freshman and up to 3 years for transfer students.
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 55
Sonia attended college directly out of high school and maintained a rigorous course load in high
school. She stated that she had always planned on attending college right out of high school.
Sonia was placed in the foster care system just before she turned 17 and at the beginning
of her senior year of high school. Due to being placed in the system at such a late stage, the
court extended her case past 18 to make the transition to college as seamless as possible. Sonia
was 18.5 when she officially exited the foster care system. Due to abusive living circumstances,
Sonia had run away from home during her junior year of high school, which actually prompted
her being placed in the system. Sonia described this critical period in her life.
There was a time when it was very short and temporary but I had runaway from my
house as a junior, so I was 16 at the time. I was staying with a friend. It was one of my
classmates and her mom adopted children before. She had also shared with me that she
had been abused when she was little, so she was able to pick up on my behavior and what
was going on. So I did stay with her for sometime. But it wasn’t until senior year
that I actually got pulled out and placed into the system.
Sonia had a total of five siblings in her original household. She had one biological older
sister, one biological younger brother, and two younger half siblings. For a brief time, Sonia and
her biological brother and two half siblings were placed in a home that could accommodate four
children. Shortly after the court decision, Sonia was placed in her second home, where she spent
the majority of her foster youth experience. At that time, her younger biological brother decided
that he would return to their original home. Sonia speculates that he made that decision because
the abuse was not directed at him. In turn, Sonia and her two half siblings went to live in their
second placement together. Sonia spent the majority of time in this placement, which was the
actual home of the assistant principal of her high school. The assistant principal was then
approved and received her foster care license.
Sonia stated that the high academic expectations were present even prior to entering
foster care. In her biological home she was not allowed to bring home a grade of “C.” She
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 56
stated that her parents did not really know that she was taking advanced courses; however, they
just wanted her to do well in school. Sonia made a very poignant distinction that her instability
evolved from the emotional difficulties brought upon by the family dynamic rather than
academic neglect. Sonia disclosed that she had experienced suicidal ideation while she was
living with her biological family and that this was never really addressed with her parents.
Instead, she talked with her older sister and closest friends about her stressors. This is what led
to Sonia running away from home her junior year. The family did take notice that Sonia was not
content at home and shortly thereafter, she was placed in the foster care system. Sonia said her
suicidal thoughts dissipated once she was placed in the system. Rather, she had the ideations
while living in her biological home and noted that she did not really want to die—she just did not
want to deal with the exposure to the abuse. Admittedly, she never really got to the point where
she would self-inflict harm. Rather, she stated that she simply did not have a space to share that
emotional turmoil with her parents.
While in the foster home with the assistant principal, she stated that she felt safe. Sonia
would arrive to school early and leave late due to her foster mother’s responsibilities. Sonia
stated that she had the ability to concentrate and did not have something to stress over
emotionally. Sonia greatly valued the relationship she developed with her foster mother her
senior year in high school. More specifically, the conversations she had with her foster mother
who had a background in counseling were quite instrumental to her motivation and drive. The
conversations addressed the stressors in her life, prior to entering foster care, and her aspirations
for the future. Fortunately, Sonia was given the opportunity to maintain her rigorous classes,
participate in sports, and be extremely involved in school. Sonia enrolled in Advanced
Placement (AP) courses and continued to challenge herself academically.
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 57
When asked where her motivation derived from, Sonia stated that it was her faith and
desire to do well school. More specifically, Sonia said she knew she wanted to attend college
and get away from her biological home life structure/dynamic. School was Sonia’s safe haven
and she internally believed she was going to do well and attend college. Additionally, the
relationship with her younger half-sister was one of great importance in maintaining Sonia’s
motivation. In many ways, Sonia felt very protective of her and felt it her responsibility to look
out for her safety. Her younger sibling is approximately 10 years younger. Sonia points out to
this day she often takes on a parental role with her younger sibling. She states, however, that she
needs to take a step back at this juncture in her life and stop herself form taking on that role.
Sonia said that she did feel to a certain extent that if she did well and took rigorous
courses in high school she would in some way be guaranteed a fulfilling career. During her high
school education, she was not certain what career she desired but knew she wanted to go to
college to get away from home and have a stable place to live. In addition, Sonia was compelled
to get a job early on. She states that at that time she became interested in nursing and was taking
a computer class. She was asked what she might like to do for a career and when she stated she
wanted to be nurse, she got a job working in a nurse’s office. She said she felt so driven that she
did not want to settle for a typical job that adolescents get and she wanted to sustain that passion.
Sonia was very successful in high school and went directly to a 4-year university.
Nonetheless, she noted she questioned herself a lot as an undergrad and felt that college was
more challenging academically than high school. Although she continued to take rigorous
courses, she says that she did not do as well as she would have liked to at that time. She noted
that she felt as though she had emotionally and mentally processed everything but still ended up
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 58
with an overall college GPA of 2.97. In fact, she said one semester she received all “A’s” and
one “D.”
In college, Sonia was enrolled in the Educational Opportunity Program (EOP) program.
Her junior year of college she entered her school’s specific foster youth program and enrolled in
the courses they advised her to take. The founding director of the program at her university was
hugely instrumental and Sonia notes that he motivated her to continue her education and career.
In fact, she pointed out that once she was in the foster youth program and a role model to other
students, she began to do a lot of self-reflection. During her undergraduate education she was a
full-time student and worked from 2:00 to 6:00 pm, thus not allowing her time for tutoring. Due
to work time constraints, Sonia’s study habits included working in small study groups. Instead,
the small study groups and interactions/conversations with her advisors and founding director
were a major contributor to her academic and career success.
Currently, Sonia is the director of a foster youth program and mentors foster youth in this
capacity. Her personal experiences and background make her an inspiration to her
students/mentees. She openly shares with her students her similar struggles of being placed in
foster care, going to therapy, getting an advanced degree, getting married, and working full time.
Sonia’s commitment to her career and serving the needs of the former foster youth is apparent.
In addition, she is enrolled in a doctoral program and would like to pursue her career in perhaps a
Chancellor’s office or non-profit agency. Sonia is focused on changing the educational outcome
statistics in foster youth. In her role as a director and as a mentor, she feels that she has positively
impacted the lives of many former foster youth. Based on her past experience, it seems apparent
that Sonia will continue to improve foster youths’ educational trajectory with her influence,
guidance, and compassion.
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 59
Former Foster Youth 3 (FFY3): Kelly
Kelly is currently enrolled at a 4-year state university and studying in the bachelor of
social work program. In the future, Kelly is also interested in pursuing a master’s program in
social work. In fact, a former mentor of Kelly’s who is affiliated with a master of social work
program at a prestigious university has informed her that if she maintains a 3.0 GPA in her
undergraduate program, she will be admitted to this master’s program. Kelly is very motivated
and determined to make this opportunity a reality. She believes that her experience in foster care
and commitment to make a difference drives her to excel. Kelly described her experience in the
foster care system.
I believe I was a freshman in high school. So I was 13 or 14, one of those two ages. I was
in three placements. I was, maybe, in each placement for about a year, Until I was about
17, so about a different home each year. I did move homes but I had one school, during
each placement.
During her 4 years in the system she was placed in three homes. Throughout each
placement she remained at one school. Kelly states that her third placement during her junior
year was her favorite. She said that this family welcomed and included her in everything, thus
never feeling like a foster home. Interestingly, during her senior year she moved back with her
grandparents. As a result, they had parental foster care over her.
Kelly emancipated from the system a week or two after high school graduation at 18
years old. After emancipation, she remained with her grandparents while attending a community
college. However, there was some tension at home and she ended up moving into a transitional
living program for 2 years. Kelly believes that this was a very positive experience and she
learned to see a whole new perspective. Currently, Kelly has a good relationship with her
grandparents.
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Before entering foster care, Kelly was the one that initiated for social services to get
involved. Her primary reason in seeking out social services was her younger sister’s safety. Her
biological sister is 4 years younger than Kelly. She did not feel that they were in a safe
placement when living with their biological parents. Kelly disclosed that her parents had both
been in and out of jail. Consequently, since third grade Kelly and her sister were seen by a social
worker every month. Kelly states that when they first entered foster care she was relieved but
felt that her sister was discontent because she did not want to be separated from her parents.
Today, she and her sister have a decent relationship, but unfortunately, they do not have the
opportunity to see each other as often as Kelly would like.
Kelly maintained a rigorous course load for the majority of her high school career.
However, she noted that due to emotional issues there were times when her grades began to
suffer. For example, during Kelly’s sophomore year she was separated from her sister, which
deeply affected her. In fact, she went from have an A or B average to a C or D average. Kelly
still maintained honor’s courses from her freshman year to junior year of high school. Kelly
mentioned that during her senior year there was a tremendous amount of stress and, after
speaking with her ILP worker, she decided to stop taking honors classes.
Unfortunately, she was not really aware of all of the opportunities that college offered,
though she did attend community college after high school. While attending community college,
her ILP worker helped connect her to services and events on campus. In addition, the dean of the
program’s foster youth program Educational Opportunity Program (EOP) reached out to Kelly
and set high standards for her college performance. The dean informed Kelly that if she failed a
course she would be kicked out the foster youth program. He did, however, provide an open-
door policy so that if she was ever failing a paper she could come in to speak with him. Kelly
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stated that he was very determined to help and that this was a turning point when she began to
realize that people do actually care about her future.
Kelly took on a very proactive role in the EOP program while attending community
college. She was very active, knew everyone, and those in the program became like a family to
her. Kelly would unite the former foster youth and coordinate luncheons with the group. Kelly
was instrumental in the development of this EOP program at the community college. Currently
as a junior with senior standing at a 4-year college, her motivator is to do well in her
undergraduate program. Currently, her incentive is to maintain a 3.0 GPA in college, since she
will be guaranteed a space in the master’s program she desires to attend.
Kelly’s motivation persisted from high school through college. She said that, to this day,
her sister is what motivates her to succeed. Kelly looks out for younger sister and feels that if
she fails, then she will fail her sister. Another motivator during high school was the foster
support group she attended which was very beneficial and allowed her to share what was going
on her life with others. Kelly feels well equipped to practice her coping skills and intervene on
those that may be dealing with issues related to being placed in the system. During her senior
year high school, she participated in a foster youth support group. She states that this is what
really kept her on track and helped her to connect with others in the system and promote
awareness.
Kelly is a very insightful individual and she is dedicated to supporting foster youth in
assisting with the struggles they may encounter. Kelly maintains a close bond with her foster
mom (from the third placement), her grandparents, and younger sibling. Interestingly, she also
speaks to her parents a few times a month. She says this is one of the longest times her parents
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have been clean from substances. Kelly stated that when her parents are substance-free it is the
only time she can actually have a relationship with them.
She is determined to earn her master’s degree in social work. She hopes to work for the
county after completion of her master’s. Kelly has a great deal to offer the field based on her
personal background and positive interactions with youth. In her late adolescence, she was
innovative in working with the advisor of the foster youth program at her community college.
Together, they created and developed a program that provides outreach to those at the college
level.
Former Foster Youth 4 (FFY4): Samantha Samantha is a former foster youth. She is
currently a life coach/case manager at a transitional housing program for former foster youth.
The transitional housing program really supports former foster youth to get on their feet and
learn practical living skills. It thus allows emancipated youth to enter adulthood with a greater
sense of hope and encouragement for their future.
Samantha holds a bachelor’s degree in behavioral science. Samantha has maintained a
rigorous schedule since she was in high school. In addition to taking AP courses in high school,
she worked consecutively. In fact, Samantha pointed out that this is the first year she will have
only one W2 tax form.
Samantha is the oldest of five children. She described her placement in the foster care
system as such:
“I was placed (in foster care) I think I was seven or eight. I was there (in foster
placement) for eleven years. I had three placements. I stayed with my third placement for ten
years.”
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Fortunately, all five siblings were placed together. In the third placement, Samantha explained
that the foster mother took care of all five children really well. As the eldest sibling, she stated
that she felt more compelled to have to take care of her younger siblings in the first two
placements because she did not feel that they were being cared for properly. At the age of 13,
Samantha was the only one of her siblings still in foster care, as the others returned to the
mother. She states that she knew her mother was still hitting them and she did not want to return
to her. Thus, Samantha officially aged out of the system at 19.
Samantha stated that she always wanted to do well in school. She said someone told her
that education would be her only way out the and only way to become successful. This really
stuck in with her and she continued to do her best. In middle school, she maintained a 4.0 GPA.
She said that she always wanted to go to college and live in a dorm. Originally, she wanted to be
a therapist or social worker and currently, she is continuing to pursue this goal. Samantha said
that the major motivator was her younger siblings, especially the youngest one. Ultimately, her
goal was to have her life together so that she could care for her youngest sister. Samantha’s goal
became a reality in 2012 when her sister came to live with her.
In high school, Samantha maintained a highly rigorous course load. Every year, she
enrolled in two or three AP courses. She graduated high school with a 3.4 to 3.5 GPA.
Samantha also worked full-time her junior and senior year in high school. She mentioned that
her grades began to drop slightly her senior year. However, she continued her work schedule
and maintained her AP classes. Samantha noted that her high school teachers “babied” her more
than her college professors. To sustain A‒G college requirements during high school, she
worked with small study groups. The study group consisted of another student with similar
struggles. These students helped and supported one another during challenging times.
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Samantha attended a 4-year university directly out of high school. As an undergraduate,
she worked full time while a full-time student. In lieu of study groups, she would spend all night
studying individually. The Renaissance Scholar program that she was a part of in college
provided a great deal of support to her and other former foster youth. Specifically, the program
advisor also took the role of mentor to Samantha. She would not only go to her for guidance in
college, but also for counseling. The advisor was not only a mentor, but also served as a role
model to Samantha. In this capacity, the advisor exemplified the type of career and future
Samantha envisioned for herself.
Similarly, Samantha said that it was the support from her caring foster family and the
Renaissance Scholar program that helped achieve her accomplishments. However, Samantha
pointed out that many others provided support to her while placed in of foster care. Fortunately,
in college, Samantha’s advisor in the Renaissance Scholar program provided a great amount of
both guidance and support. Additionally, Samantha’s motivation to do well for herself and
support her younger sister guided her as she navigated her way from her childhood in foster care
to adulthood.
Samantha’s future goals are to attend graduate school and earn a master’s degree in social
work. She would like to work as a social worker for the county or for a foster agency.
Ultimately, she would like to progress into the position of supervisor. Given Samantha’s
background, education, it is perhaps unsurprising that she would be interested in pursuing such a
career path. Thus far, Samantha has not only worked as a life coach at the transitional housing
program, but also serves as a mentor to former foster youth. Her compassion does not end there,
however. As previously mentioned, she has taken care of her younger sister since 2012.
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Samantha’s relevant background and natural ability has continued to benefit foster youth both
professionally and personally.
Participant Population 2: Mentors of Foster Youth
The second group of participants included four mentors of foster youth. The participants
were interviewed individually. Mentors were persons 18 years and older who had successfully
mentored foster youth and facilitated their post-secondary options. Mentors included a
university employee and founder of a non-profit organization, two school- district employees,
and an employee of a non-profit organization, and a law enforcement employee. Interviews
lasted 1 to 2 hours. Mentors were given the following pseudonyms: Evan Diana, Derek, and
Cynthia.
Mentor 1: Evan
Evan has worked in law enforcement for 14 years. His previous experience includes
working with the sheriff’s department, the field services division, investigative units, and as a
school resource officer with juvenile investigations. Evan’s experience in juvenile investigations
had directly placed him in contact with many foster placements. Thus, he intervenes during the
critical period, adolescence, as youth emancipate from the system.
Evan is a decorated officer and well respected within the community. His experience has
involved working in collaboration with social services regarding foster placements. Evan has
often had to respond to calls because foster youth would run away from their home or site. Evan
explained that much of his response involved mentoring and talking with the individual about his
or her predicament. As Evan connected with foster youth his main focus was to forge
meaningful conversations to address the youth’s primary concerns. Evan further described his
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interactions with the youth when he had responded to a call. As he explained in the following
quote, Evan responds to calls where youth have runaway from the foster placement.
Some of it is mentoring. You know, trying them to get them to understand that they are
not a victim of circumstance. A lot of times we will get calls because they runaway.
They’ll runaway from the foster youth sites. Or they just kind of feel like they are a
person in a home with no one that really cares about what they have to say, and that they
are just a paycheck to somebody. So a lot of times I will get them to open up and let them
know that they are not a victim of circumstance. That they can turn it around just because
their situations aren’t ideal, that they can still improve their situation.
From that point, Evan would get them to open up and discuss their concerns. He noted that the
field services division involved much briefer interactions with the youth, spending perhaps 15 to
20 minutes in responding to a call. In contrast to working with juvenile investigations as a
school resource officer Evan was able to see and check in on students in the school on a daily
basis. Consequently, this helped him to better monitor their academic and social progress.
The personal history of the foster youth Evan has worked with is often quite tragic. He
stated that he has seen many youth that were removed from the home for being physically or
sexually abused by their biological parents. Furthermore, other foster youth had parents that
were in prison or were drug users in the home. Considering such unconscionable pasts the youth
had faced, it was all the more critical that Evan carefully and tactfully facilitate meaningful
conversation. When speaking with youth, Evan addresses many of the risk factors foster youth
are faced with including drug abuse and teen pregnancy. He says that, as law enforcement, he
tries to educate them on these issues. He explained that many youth have never had someone in
the parental role to explain why their actions are wrong or dangerous. Evan’s ability to help the
youth open up about very sensitive issues has had a profound effect on their outcomes.
Evan frequently meets with youth when they are experiencing crisis and at their lowest
moments. Evan aims to provide a sense of security and dignity to foster youth at the critical
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times. In his role in working with juvenile investigations, he has assisted in mentoring several
foster youth.
In Evan’s mentoring role, he connected with the youth, showed regard for the individual
and his/her predicament, and explored his/her opportunities through meaningful conversation.
Together, they would devise a plan to help the youth reach his/her goals. Evan started the
process by asking youth about their long-term goals. Typically, this would start with what they
want to do after high school. Next, they would discuss the immediate steps needed to take to
meet these goals. If possible, short-term goals were developed to meet these long-term goals.
The foster youths’ goals have included examining their current placement, graduating high
school, attending programs outside of the school, and attaining post-secondary education.
Evan shared one particular story in which he assisted a foster youth and the foster parent
with information to connect to an academy that the youth was very interested in attending. Evan
linked the family to the organization and expedited the process to facilitate the foster youths’
goals. As a result, the student and family were very thankful to Evan for his extensive work to
benefit the youth and connect him to a well-matched program. This was just one example of
how Evan would go above and beyond to help youth, both academically and socially.
Evan continues to mentor youth today. As a police officer, Evan assists youth to attain
their goals and facilitate their motivation. Most importantly, Evan provides support to foster
youth when it is most needed.
Mentor 2: Diana
Diana has approximately 30 years experience in the educational system and holds a master’s
degree. She has a background as a school counselor and school administrator. For the last 5
years, Diana has worked as the coordinator in student services for her school district. In this
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capacity, Diana has numerous job responsibilities, one of which includes acting as foster youth
liaison for the district. Diana demonstrates sincere regard for her mentees and a keen
understanding of the foster care system.
As foster youth liaison, Diana followed her predecessor who worked with social services
to conduct a presentation at their high school for foster youth services. Diana continued this
project and expanded it to all the high schools in the district. After the expansion and full
support of the district, the program included all high school foster youth students within the
district. The program includes a foster youth orientation, college visits, and resiliency
celebrations. These events are open to all ninth through 12th grade foster youth within the
district.
Diana’s district is unique in that it provides a comprehensive program for foster youth.
The purpose of this program is to assist foster youth with their educational goals. As foster
youth liaison, Diana oversees foster youth graduation rates and promotes college opportunities.
Diana tells of the AB167.
3
She has worked with numerous students in the foster youth program
that have met the criteria for the AB167. All but one qualified student graduated under the bill.
Diana points out that this program made a big difference in these students’ lives. It has provided
students hope when they felt like they wanted to otherwise give up.
Diana described one of the mentorships she maintained with a foster youth student within
the district:
Well, that one student graduated 2012 or 2013. She graduated from the continuation
school. I work with the at-risk youth at the continuation high school on a continual basis.
So she and I became close. Once she graduated I still kept in contact with her via phone
calls, dinner, Facebook. Trying to mentor is very difficult without any parental support.
3
AB167 is a bill that allows youth to graduate from high school with 130 credits rather than 220 credits. The
eligibility criteria for the AB167 is that youth transfer schools within their junior and senior year and meet the basic
core classes. However, students that are on track to graduate on time and can meet the 220 credits are not eligible
for this program.
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Once you turn 18 and you try to go out in the world and try to make your way. She has
been really successful in having a job and she’s had several. And she is going to
community college and taking a couple classes. She is able to receive the AB 12 money
through social services, which helps her with her bills, in addition to what she makes in
her job.
This fueled Diana’s desire to maintain contact with former foster youth students as they graduate
from the district and exit the foster care system. Diana currently maintains contact with three or
four former foster youth from the district.
Diana further explained that she has seen through the lives of former foster youth how
“truly poor” they often become as they exit the system. In an attempt to buffer the risk factors
for youth as they age out of the system, Assembly Bill 12 extends services to youth from age 18
to 21. Diana believes that the mentoring allows the kids to feel close to an adult during the high
school years; thus, keeping in touch and having regular communication with them can be quite
helpful. As a mentor, the level of trust and rapport Diana has established with the former foster
youth has had immeasurable impact to their future endeavors.
Mentor 3: Derek
Derek has worked for 8 years as a school counselor and holds a master’s degree. Prior to
his work as a school counselor, Derek was employed as a social worker for 9 years in Los
Angeles County. Throughout this interview, Derek offered keen insight to the critical role of
both a school counselor and social worker as it pertained to the betterment of foster youth.
In the following quote, Derek provided a glimpse into his background as a social worker with
youth in foster placements:
I had a generic caseload, which all new social workers have- meaning I had families and
children in re-unification programs. There were problems in the home, so efforts that they
were making needed to be documented. Children were still placed in the home. So they
remained on my caseloads until they aged out.
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I got to do a bunch of different jobs while I was a social worker. The last two or three
years a dependency case investigator. So I was assigned as a secondary worker and I
wrote court reports for the pre-trial resolution. I’d have the resolution conference
hearing. And basically for the court to make a decision on which way they are going to
go. In that capacity, I would probably have the case for two months, six months on the
long end.
Derek went on to explain the ways that his background in social work and involvement
with many intensive cases evolved into his desire to provide meaningful programs for foster
youth within the high school setting.
Derek is currently a school counselor working in a program with emotionally disturbed
students. The program is rather intensive. In this capacity, Derek works at a high school,
intermediate school, and elementary school within his district. Students’ behavior prohibits them
from being in the regular classroom. One of Derek’s responsibilities within this role includes
working with foster youth. His valuable background as a social worker has provided the district
with a fresh perspective in working with the most high-risk populations.
Prior to working in the intensive program, Derek worked as a guidance counselor in a
comprehensive high school. During that time, he started a foster youth support program, having
felt that his background in social work equipped him with specific knowledge and expertise for
foster youth in his high school. Derek created a support group that addressed the specific needs
of foster youth in relation to both the socio-emotional and academic concerns.
Derek offered keen insight into the role of the social worker, given his previous
background. Derek explained that the job responsibilities of the social worker include providing
information to the youth. However, that does not necessarily include the social worker
reviewing the material with the individual. Derek stated that foster youth at the comprehensive
high school would say to him that they received information from their social worker but did not
know what to do with the information. He pointed out that the social worker honored their
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obligation of providing the information; however, the youth were not really served in that matter.
Consequently, Derek designed the foster youth support group to address those critical needs of
both the academic and socio-emotional component.
As Derek, pointed out the support group offers foster youth a space to discuss their goals
for the future. Derek’s goal in the support group was to enhances their motivation and sense of
belonging within the high school. In addition, Derek hits many key elements within the group
specific to foster youths’ needs. As he pointed out, sometimes the counselor must provide
support that a parent or other family member would in a non-foster family. One of those
components included assistance with college applications and filling out the Free Application for
Federal Student Aid (FAFSA). Derek’s expertise most certainly has had a profound effect on
foster youth.
After about three to four years of working with the foster youth support program, many
of his students had achieved academic success. Three students from his group were admitted to
a state university and received the Guardian Scholars scholarship. Typically, the Guardian
Scholar is offered to 10 students a year. In fact, three students were from this foster youth
program alone. Derek is very humble in this accomplishment, however, and rather stresses the
students’ hard work throughout their high school career. Clearly, the youth had to excel in order
to receive this competitive scholarship. Nonetheless, Derek’s mentoring has had a profound
impact on their educational attainment. Derek described his mentoring relationship with these
three youth:
They were from my initial program at the comprehensive high school. Three of those
youth I had been working with for three or four years. My third year I had some time
with them. I was doing everything I could to prepare them for post-secondary options.
Three of my group received the Guardian Scholars scholarship. They just paid for
everything for them. They paid for college, tuition, books, everything, room and board.
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Mentor 4: Cynthia
Cynthia holds a doctorate in education and a master’s degree. Cynthia founded a non-
profit organization in 1999. In this capacity, she supervises volunteers to mentor a project for
children in foster care. In addition, she recently developed a literacy program in children’s court.
Thus, this non-profit organization has assisted foster youth in the areas of mentoring and literacy.
It evolved while Cynthia was developing a small school. She had a goal of what she wanted to
do and contacted some individuals; one of those contacts was through the children’s court.
Cynthia further explained that the court had just received a grant, so she went to look at
children’s needs. The literacy program started by facilitating workshops, writing workshops,
reading stories, and bringing guests in for younger children. Cynthia notes that engagement in
the program for the older children was more difficult because they had spent more time in the
system and incurred more traumatic incidents. She thus added a room that housed several
computers to try to engage them in writing projects. In addition, she had career counselors meet
with them.
Cynthia did the same for the mentoring program. She would write referrals to the
children’s court and identify those that needed assistance with literacy and make
recommendations to the court. Many of these recommendations were for tutoring. However,
she recalled that many of these students realistically would be unable to make it to tutoring from
their group home or foster home and thus, she envisioned a mentoring program that involved
both mentoring and tutoring.
Cynthia stressed the importance of the socio-emotional component to learning for foster
youth. She stated that her organization faced many barriers and shifts, and in fact, some of these
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programs discontinued. Thus, it was of critical importance for Cynthia to have mentors that
were continually involved in the process. Her non-profit organization involved the collaboration
of the children’s court, the Department of Children and Family Services, and Court Appointed
Special Advocates.
Cynthia shared a couple very positive stories of mentoring foster youth. One particular
student that Cynthia mentored was from the children’s court. She said that they simply
connected and kept in touch through the social worker. After this little girl had moved, Cynthia
volunteered to go through the stages to become an official mentor. Cynthia would visit the little
girl at her group home on a weekly basis. As a literacy specialist, they would read together,
discuss poetry, and they began playing guitar. The mentorship began when the little girl was
only 11; she is 25 now and they still keep in touch through social media.
Cynthia told me of another child that she mentored. He was 4 years old and Cynthia was
already his teacher. The little boy was raised by his grandmother. Cynthia’s relationship with the
boy developed naturally and she still maintains contact with him through Facebook. This long-
term mentorship spanned many years. They would read together extensively, which seemed to
strengthen his interest in books. This young man is now 24 and was just recently accepted into
college. He told Cynthia, “you were like a surrogate to me when my mother was not there. You
taught me how to read and that was like a window into my life.”
Although there were many foster youth that Cynthia mentored over the years, these two
individuals really stood out. The fact that these two mentorships/relationships spanned into
adulthood speaks volumes of the profound impact Cynthia had on these individuals’ lives.
Cynthia’s mentorship style was that of a natural relationship. From their inception, the
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mentorships focused on literacy and she gradually garnered their trust. These ultimately evolved
into meaningful relationships. Cynthia described her mentoring philosophy:
So for me it’s not just tutoring and getting them to read. It’s an opportunity to get them
to have a sustained friendship, that’s nurturing and caring, and stays with them through
the transitions, placements... One of the goals in the mentoring is that we learn how
to overcome the obstacles with technology to fulfill the friendship.
In the appendix, refer to the participants’ individual responses to the interview guide
questions: C (former foster youth) and D (mentors) provides more detailed information on each
of the participants’ responses.
Research Question 1
What are the motivational characteristics and self-regulatory beliefs of former foster youth?
Research question 1 addressed the self-regulatory beliefs and motivational characteristics
of the former foster youth participants, in this study. Examining the self-regulatory beliefs of
FFY was a critical component. FFY participants’ positive educational attainment, under
challenging circumstances, deserved special attention. As part of self-regulation, the participants’
educational goals were described as graduating from high school, enrollment in a four-year
university, and/or a college degree. Based on my individual interviews, with the four former
foster youth, the participants’ goals included: education was the key to a successful and
promising future. Thus, their personal experiences influenced their goal-setting and time-
management strategies.
Further, research question 1 explored self-efficacy of former foster youth. Academic self-
efficacy emerged as a key component to FFY’s educational attainment. The FFY envisioned a
clear relationship between educational attainment (i.e., college degree) and a better life.
Collectively, FFY participants’, stressed the importance of taking A-G courses, in high school, to
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be college eligible. Further, each participant reflected on their backgrounds and the
imperativeness to plan for future educational and career opportunity. Seemingly, this motivated
and guided the former foster youth in their academic choices.
Elements of self-regulation, such as goal-setting and time-management were present
among the former foster youth participants, from adolescence into adulthood. Notably,
educational and career goal setting was a central theme for FFY. Subsequently, the participants
set long-term goals of attending college to reach their career goals. In turn, this influenced their
academic rigor and choices in high school. As such, the four FFY participants enrolled in A-G
courses and completed high school with college eligibility, while sustaining jobs. Based on the
interviews, the FFY participants possessed motivational characteristics, such as self-motivation
and drive to acquire their short and long-term goals.
The four former foster youth participants were a high-achieving group of individuals.. All
have attended a four-year university in various capacities. Robert (FFY1) is currently a junior at
a four-year university. Sonia (FFY2) has an advanced degree and is currently working on her
doctorate. Kelly (FFY3) is currently a junior at a four-year university. Samantha (FFY4) is a
college graduate -currently holds a bachelors degree- and has educational goals of pursuing a
graduate degree. Research question 1 explored the motivational characteristics and self-
regulatory beliefs that made these four individuals so rare in their educational attainment. More
specifically, this research question examined the characteristics and beliefs that the four (FFY)
individuals possess, that differ from the general foster youth population and the typical
compromised educational outcomes.
Interview guide questions were designed to address research question 1, of FFY
participants (See Table 2) and the Mentors participants (See Table 3), respectively. Similarly,
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FFY individual responses (See Table 4) and Mentors individual responses (See Table 5) are
presented. Four themes emerged from the interviews. First, FFY were proactive in their goal-
setting and time management. Second, Mentors supported goal-setting in foster youth.. Third,
Self-Efficacy, in terms of possible selves emerged among FFY.. Last, high academic self-
efficacy was present in FFY participants.
RQ1 Theme 1: Proactive Goal-Setting and Time-Management Skills
FFY participants were proactive in their time management to maintain their studies and
jobs. Self-regulation requires both goals and motivation (Bandura, 1997). Subsequently, the
FFY thought the relationship between goal-setting and motivation was crucial to their future
academic achievements. Collectively, the former foster youth had goals of going to college or
having a better life. Additionally, their motivation was sustained. The participants were
proactive in their time management by maintaining rigorous courses in high school and working;
notably, they balanced both domains successfully.
In the data analysis the theme emerged that FFY were proactive with their goal setting
and time management skills, from adolescence into college. More specifically, each of the four
FFY participants maintained A-G courses in high school. Notably, Sonia (FFY2) and Samantha
(FFY4) attended a four-year university directly after graduating high school. Similarly, Kelly
(FFY3) was enrolled in Honors courses from her freshman to junior year in high school and was
one grade level ahead. Robert (FFY1) successfully took courses such as Chemistry and Calculus
because he felt that he should set high academic standards for himself.
The following quotes are examples of FFY focused on goal setting and/or time
management. Robert (FFY1) and Sonia (FFY2) were beginning to explore their fields of
interests, during high school, through job experience. In fact, both Robert (FFY1) and Sonia
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(FFY2) took initiative in pursuing and exploring their careers. The next two examples of Robert
(FFY1) and Sonia (FFY2) are about motivation. As goal setting and time management were still
factors. Robert (FFY1) described his motivation to become a fire mechanic, which evolved
during his sophomore year in high school. Throughout high school, Robert (FFY1) was proactive
in his time management by maintaining solid grades in rigorous courses and balancing that
delicately with his work. In addition, Robert (FFY1) was geared toward goal-setting, from high
school and beyond. The following quote depicts Robert’s (FFY1) motivation and drive, to hone
in on his short and long term career goals by taking initiative, during his sophomore year in high
school:
I think I know what I wanted to do in my life. I started out wanting to become a
fireman and I actually joined the Fire Explorers- they teach you about the environment-
what you can do for the environment- and what you would be studying. I’ve been doing
this for almost four years now. There is this shop I have been working since I graduated
high school. I thought I can work right next door to this place. I just wanted to get a tour
and introduce myself. I went in for an interview and that same day I got the job.
To this day Robert (FFY1) is working at this shop as a fire mechanic and studying
“Entrepreneurial Mgmt. Administration”. Most fitting, Robert’s (FFY1) career goal is to manage
and run his own shop as a fire mechanic.
Similarly, Sonia (FFY2) further described her motivation to maintain her academic goals,
in terms of both schooling and career. She stated that her motivation stemmed from her
experiences in her biological family. She further explained that her parents’ expectations along
with her motivation to leave home seem to drive her. While living with her biological family the
expectation was to do well in school but her motivation was to also go to college to get away
from the home life and abuse. Sonia (FFY2) explains her high school experience- while still
living with her biological family- before being placed in the foster care system. Sonia (FFY2)
stated that her biological parents did not really understand that she was taking rigorous courses
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 78
but school was still something they pushed. In addition, Sonia’s (FFY2) biological parents did
not want to see even a “C” on her report card.
Sonia (FFY2) went on to explain her motivation- to not only get a job but eventually a
career- evolved out of her observations (of her mother’s circumstances) in her home life. Sonia
(FFY2) started her first job during her junior year in high school. Time management and goal-
setting was central to her work ethic. As such, Sonia (FFY2) was working and taking college-
level courses while in high school. The following quote further described Sonia’s (FFY2)
motivation to balance her time between work and studies.
At that point I couldn’t see what I was going to do as a career. But I knew I wanted to go
to college to get away from home and so I had some place to live. That was for me the
dots that were connected. I thought well, I will get a job- because I saw my mom even
though she didn’t have a degree she got jobs. So I thought I could get a job. My first job
was my junior year. I was taking a computer class- I was asked what I wanted to do, said
I wanted to be a nurse. The teacher said there is this opportunity to work in this office.
Would you be interested? And I said “yes”- so that was my first job. That job I realized
was not going to settle for working at McDonalds. Because I figured if I could get this
job I should be able to get another job. But I also realized that I didn’t want to be a nurse,
but then I decided I wanted to be a teacher. So when I went to college that was my focus
to become a teacher.
The following quotes from Samantha (FFY4) and Kelly (FFY3) were examples of
practicing time management skills to maintain their rigorous A-G courses while working.
Similarly, both Samantha (FFY4) and Kelly (FFY3) alluded to the fact that they enjoyed
working while maintaining their studies, but wish the amount of time working was not so
excessive.
Kelly (FFY3) was working in high school into college. During high school, 9
th
through
11
th
grade, Kelly (FFY3) was enrolled in Honors courses and one grade level ahead. At one
point, in college, Kelly was working approximately 30 hours a week while enrolled as a full-time
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 79
college student. She decided at that point to not work for one school quarter. As Kelly (FFY3)
states it was quite an adjustment.
I kind of miss working, because I can do all my homework in one day. I can do all my
work in one day. I can get a part-time job. I can still do what I’m doing. There is no
reason for me to not be doing well in school. I am now not spending all day and all night
doing homework. My sleeping schedule is finally back to normal. I am getting 6-8 hours
a night of sleep.
Samantha (FFY4) described her intensive high school schedule, including enrollment in
Advanced Placement (A.P.) courses. In fact, Samantha (FFY4) maintained her grades and
college bound courses in high school to enter a four-year university directly after graduation.
Despite, her accomplishments Samantha (FFY4) further reflected on the distinction of her
academic achievements between middle and high school. Notably, she successfully managed her
time between both work and studies.
Since middle school, I just knew someone told me education is your only way out, to be
successful. It just stuck in my head. In middle school I had 4.0’s then in high school I
tried my best. It was always like going to college and wanting to be a therapist or a social
worker. So I’m almost in the same field. I just knew I needed to do something because I
wanted to be on my own. Yeah, looking back I actually don’t know how I did it. I wished
I wouldn’t have worked (during high school) and gotten better grades. Because I think I
graduated (high school) with a 3.4 or 3.5 GPA. But I was at a 4.0 (middle school) before.
As this quote exemplified the high academic standard Samantha (FFY4) maintained from middle
school through college. As Samantha (FFY4) noted she wishes she wouldn’t have worked in
high school and solely focused on her grades as she did middle school. As such, she maintained a
4.0 in middle school and a 3.4-3.5 GPA in high school. Although Samantha (FFY4) attended a
four-year university directly after high school, her quote reflects the high standards and high
academic expectations she consistently sustained for herself. Additionally, in college Samantha
(FFY4) worked a full-time and a part-time job just to “provide for herself”. Subsequently,
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Samantha’s (FFY4) self-regulation remained strong from middle school into college; as she
managed her time between studies and work and set both short and long-term goals.
Seemingly, the FFY participants’ motivation stemmed from their challenging life
experiences. FFY suggested they did not want the lives they had been exposed to while living
with their biological parents (i.e., substance abuse, incarceration, mental health issues, domestic
violence, child abuse, etc.). The FFY’s actions mirrored the belief that education was the key to
a better life. The former foster youths’ goal setting and time management skills were positively
impacted by their personal life experiences. Each of the FFY took a very pro-active role in
achieving educational feats to open the door to greater opportunities.
Collectively, the FFY participants’ high self-motivation carried over from their high
school experiences into college life. More specifically, the FFY participants’ time management
and goal-setting skills were evident in their academic and career ventures. During high school,
Samantha’s (FFY4) time-management and academic goals were displayed. As such, Samantha
(FFY4) arranged for small study groups in between her courses and two jobs. Robert’s (FFY1)
self-motivation characteristics carried over from his high school career to his college education.
Robert (FFY1) took the initiative of forming study groups while in college to stay on top of his
studies. Similarly, in college, Kelly’s (FFY3) motivation and initiative was instrumental in
coordinating foster youth gatherings on campus, along with her advisor, which evolved into a
targeted foster youth program at the college.
In conclusion, the FFY participants’ maintained strong time management in order to
balance rigorous course loads and employment. Each of the former foster youth successfully
balanced work with studies from high school into college, by being proactive in time
management and goal setting. The FFY’s motivation and goal setting appeared to be fueled by
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 81
their desire to further their education to enable them to have a more promising career. More
specifically, in high school, each of the former foster youth sustained strong time-management
and academic goal-setting. Each of the four former foster youth maintained A-G high school
classes. In high school, Robert (FFY1) took Chemistry in which he received an “A” and
successfully took Calculus because he felt he should challenge and set high academic standards
for himself. Similarly, Kelly (FFY3) was enrolled in Honors courses throughout high school (9-
11
th
grade). In fact, Kelly (FFY3) was one grade level ahead during her high school career.
Notably, Sonia (FFY2) and Samantha (FFY4) both successfully took Advanced Placement
courses while in high school and attended a four-year university immediately following their
high school graduations.
RQ1 Theme 2: Mentors Support Goal Setting and Connect Youth to Relevant Programs
and Services
During the data analysis the theme emerged that mentors support goal setting in foster
youth. More specifically, the mentor participants revealed various motivational characteristics
they observed in academically successful youth. Mentors supported goal setting for foster youth
in various ways.
Mentors were mindful of the fact that foster youth are vulnerable to numerous risk
factors; including but not limited to, a compromised education. Collectively, all mentors shared
stories of connecting with foster youth, in various capacities. As such, Mentors expressed a keen
understanding of the youths’ academic and career goals and supported youth in a few ways:
First, goals of high school graduation were achieved or made possible, for youth, through
enrollment in alternatives programs or access to specific legislation, facilitated in part by the
mentor. Second, goals of college acceptance to a four-year university, directly from high school,
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 82
through specific foster youth scholarship programs facilitated in part by the mentor. Third,
mentors connected foster youth to helpful resources that supported their academic and career
goals.
Mentors’ support goal setting, in foster youth, by promoting/advocating the youths’
goals; which in turn, supports’ their self-regulation. Mentors suggested the imperativeness to set
goals with foster youth in a clear, concrete manner that align to their, short and long term,
academic and career goals. Similarly, the mentors suggested that self-regulation was a focal
point of former foster youths educational achievement. Youth needed to demonstrate self-
regulation in sustaining their goals and although mentors facilitated and supported their goals,
foster youth still needed to activate, sustain, and practice systematic methods toward the
attainment of these goals. As an added buffer, mentors supported the youths’ goals in numerous
ways.
Evan (Mentor 1) is a law enforcement officer that supports youths’ goals in graduating
from high school by connecting youth with appropriate alternative programs within the school
system and through social services. Diana (Mentor 2) is a district employee that works closely
with foster youth and social workers to identify those eligible for legislation that may assist in
graduation from high school due to numerous transitions and fragmented educations. Derek
(Mentor 3) is a high school counselor, with a social work background, that works with a targeted
foster youth support program and encourages youth that are eligible to pursue and apply for
scholarships specific to foster youth. Cynthia (Mentor 4) through her non-profit organization
advocates for foster youth by connecting youth to a mentor- she stressed the importance of the
mentor/mentee relationship that facilitates learning and self-regulation. The quotes that follow
reflect the instrumental role of the mentor to youth in supporting academic and career goals.
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 83
For instance, Derek (Mentor 3) would go beyond simply providing information to foster
youth and actually explain the process to help connect them with various programs. Derek
(Mentor 3) described his interactions with youth -in terms of goal setting- as one of balancing the
emotional component while setting obtainable goals.
The kids (foster youth) barrier is you know the short-term thinking, instead of long-term.
I think to look at the short-term goals to see if they support your long-term goals.
Derek (Mentor 3) elaborated on the quote by explaining that he explores the youths’ short-term
goals while addressing and aligning to their long-term goals. In Derek’s (Mentor 3) foster youth
support group, as their mentor, he would see to it that information that was disseminated to youth
(by county workers) was also thoroughly explained to them through his group/program. In fact,
three of Derek’s (Mentor 3) group members were admitted to a four-year university and received
the Guardian Scholars scholarship. Derek (Mentor 3) explained that he had worked with the
three foster youth, for three-four years, that were admitted to the program.
Three of my group, from XYZ high school, were admitted to XYZ university and
received the Guardian Scholars scholarship. They just paid for everything for them.
They paid for college, tuition, books, everything, room and board.
Notably, the Guardian Scholars program is very selective and competitive. The fact that 3 of
Derek’s (Mentor 3) mentees were admitted to the program is rare.
Diana (Mentor 2) took a hands-on approach to identifying youth that were eligible for
either the AB167 or AB216. Consequently, if it were aligned to their academic goals, Diana
(Mentor 2) would work collaboratively with the youth to see that they could achieve their
aspirations. In turn, Diana (Mentor 2) supported and promoted goal setting in her mentees.
Foster youth are vulnerable to constant transitions and fragmented educations. Subsequently,
legislation was put into place to support foster youth from graduating from high school, if the
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individual is eligible for the program. Diana (Mentor 2) astutely, described the AB167 in greater
detail in the following quote:
AB167 came into effect January of 2012. It is legislation that was passed that enables
foster kids who transfer within a district or from one district to another. In 11
th
or 12
th
grade they qualify to graduate with 130 credits instead of 220 credits to graduate from
high school. The 130 credits are established by the state of California. They are just
basic core classes. So if the students’ meet the criteria they may graduate with the 130
credits instead of the 220. That program has been very successful, at least in XYZ
school district. I think all kids that have been placed in the AB167 program have
graduated except for one. Now students who are on track to graduate would not qualify
for that program. It is for students that are credit deficient and transferring their junior or
senior year, within school or school districts.
Diana (Mentor 2) further explained that the AB167 (now AB216) program has been very
successful among her students that were eligible for the program. In fact, she is currently in
contact with a few of the individuals that successfully graduated in this program. She elaborated
on the AB167 program to say that, “it has made a big difference in their lives”. Diana (Mentor 2)
pointed out that some foster youth have “basically given up” and this program provides hope for
the youths’ future. Diana (Mentor 2) masterfully oversees the AB167 (now the AB216)
program. In addition, she collaborates with the county and social workers to ensure the program
is appropriate for the individual and they are actually eligible to participate in the program and
receive services.
Cynthia (Mentor 4) focused on her mentees’ strengths and interests when moving toward
goal setting. Cynthia (Mentor 4) distinctively described the dynamic in which learning takes
place for foster youth, in the following quote:
It’s through the relationship (mentor/mentee) that the learning will occur. We may
bring the tool, but it’s only the tool. The goal is to encourage the interaction. I think the
difference in our program is the understanding of how learning occurs. And taking in
research-based, not just what will make kids successful- also facilitate self-
regulation.
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 85
Cynthia (Mentor 4) described the relationship as the precursor to effectively shift towards goal
setting for foster youth. Cynthia (Mentor 4) further elaborated on her approach.
I am developing a project that will actually train the mentors. It will be online and face
to face. So we don’t lose the children, or the mentors once they start working with them.
The research shows that if the mentor begins and then aborts it is worse than if they never
started at all. One of the goals in the mentoring is that we learn to overcome the obstacles
in the technology to fulfill the friendship.
Thus, this relationship and trust is at the core of getting to know the individual and better
understand their needs. Cynthia (Mentor 4) further explained that in her program they look at
addressing the whole child and that the interactions (mentor/mentee) can develop and strengthen
the self-regulatory beliefs of foster youth.
Similarly, Evan (Mentor 1) would support youth goals once an individual demonstrated a
vested interest by directly connecting him/her and the family to programs that extended well
beyond high school. Evan’s (Mentor 1) descriptions of goal setting with foster youth
encapsulated the process of facilitation- not control- as a guiding principle to motivate people:
So we do set goals we make them obtainable, just continue to talk about how we are
going to reach those goals. Like I said, my main goal is to get them to graduate. To give
them that piece of paper, the opportunity to move on. A lot of them (foster youth) never
thought they were going to get that paper to begin with . They were just like, you know
what, “yah I’m at school but I’m not going to graduate. I’m failing 3 classes. You know I
have been put in four different homes and I need credits. Listen I need to go to the credit
recovery school”. So that is my in. The credit recovery school has an accelerated
program. If you need credits and your credit deficient, well, hey you need to do X, Y, and
Z. You say get the application in and we will talk to the administrators over at the credit
recovery school. They’ll (foster youth) say wait this might help me get my
diploma, my ship’s not sunk yet. Then they start to get motivated.
Notably, Evan (Mentor 1) facilitates youths’ motivation by guiding the process to reach their
goals. Evan (Mentor 1) would extend his mentoring beyond that of law enforcement and provide
the guidance to connect youth with appropriate agencies and organizations that would assist
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 86
foster youth in reaching their academic goals. As indicated, Evan’s (Mentor 1) primary goal was
to assist in finding the right school or program for youth so that they could graduate from high
school.
In summary, the mentors collectively advocated for foster youth as they navigated
through high school. As such, the 4 mentors provided needed support to their mentees during
important milestones in their lives. For example, the mentors supported youths’ academic/ career
goals by connecting them with various resources or programs to help them either graduate from
high school or attend college. Thus, as foster youth were struggling with the grim possibility of
not graduating high school- the mentors would realistically explore their options with them. As a
result, the mentors’ meaningful conversations with their mentees provided insight into the foster
youths’ future aspirations. Subsequently, the mentors supported the youths’ academic and career
goals by connecting them with appropriate programs and services.. The mentors’ direction and
guidance in setting concrete goals with foster youth instilled a sense of hope in their mentees. As
such, the mentors reflected on cases where their mentees were able to graduate from high school
or accepted to a four-year university with a scholarship. The critical assistance the mentors
provided to the youth, in terms of goal-setting, was beneficial in assuring more promising
futures. Consequently, the mentees’ sustained self-regulation in conjunction with the academic
goal-setting to support their long-term educational goals..
RQ1 Theme 3: Possible Selves were explored by FFY with Another Individual
In the data analysis the theme of- possible selves- emerged. More specifically, the theme
emerged that FFY were supported, by mentors and/or caring adults, which explored their
possible selves. Former foster youth were able to articulate their future goals with mentor/foster
parent/caring adult. Markus and Nurius (1986) described “possible selves” within self-efficacy
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 87
as reflecting on and envisioning one’s future through the articulation of goals and aspirations.
Furthermore, possible selves provide a framework for interpreting our experiences and influence
the way people view their potential and options (Markus & Nurius, 1986). Each of the former
foster youth at one time or another had the ability to discuss their “possible selves” with some
type of caring adult. Although possible selves were not anticipated in this study it is significant.
In line with this study, the relationship of mentors was instrumental to many foster youths’
educational outcomes. In addition, the sharing and communication of one’s future goals with
another individual was of paramount importance to former foster youth. In the absence of
biological parents, FFY participants thought that the opportunity to share their dreams and
aspirations with another individual was beneficial to their future goals.
The FFY participants’ reflected on their ability to share their personal experiences and
discuss their future goals with another individual. Robert (FFY1), Sonia (FFY2), and Samantha
(FFY4) alluded to the sharing of their possible selves included their mentors. In contrast, Kelly
(FFY3) found her targeted foster youth support group in high school along with the counselor
individuals she could discuss her possible self.
For Robert (FFY1), he shared common career interests with his mentor, which was
instrumental in his career success today. As such, Robert (FFY1) views his foster father as his
mentor. In turn, Robert (FFY1) was provided the opportunity to engage in empowering
conversations, regarding his future aspirations, with his mentor throughout his adolescence.
Similarly, Sonia (FFY2) stated that the meaningfulness of the conversations she had with her
foster mother, stating “I think some of the techniques in her tool belt of how to get people to talk
about things on another level. She had a background in counseling.” Furthermore, Sonia (FFY2)
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 88
stated the positive impact of her foster mom and the insightful conversations. Sonia (FFY2)
considered her foster mother her mentor and one that she could share her possible selves.
Emotionally I didn’t know how I was going to get through because I didn’t even know
how to express it. Being in that environment with my foster mom, she was very, very
supportive. She was very encouraging. It’s almost like she exudes so much
positivity that it’s almost like it balanced all the inconsistencies and all that
confusion at that time in my life.
Samantha (FFY4) said it was her Renaissance Scholar program advisor that not only
provided guidance but also the needed support during college. She could walk in with an open-
door policy to talk about things going on in her life and how she could navigate through these
issues. Samantha (FFY4) described the significant relationship she forged with her Renaissance
Scholar program advisor, in the following quote:
In college it was my (Renaissance Scholar program advisor). To deal with every-
thing from my personal life to I think my third year. I struggled with marriage and
school and she was able to help me with that.
Poignantly, Kelly (FFY3) described her experience with therapists while in foster care as
beneficial. However, she was sent to numerous therapists as she further explained:
I got switched around a lot (therapists). I can’t even tell you how many I had-
because of the refusal to take medication. When I was with my foster family I would
explain to them that I am depressed. Any normal person would be depressed. That is
what a lot of them didn’t understand. I understand that I am anxious and nervous. I feel
like that comes along with being taken from your family.
Kelly (FFY3), in fact, described a group setting in high school that benefitted her. She
was a part of a foster youth support group in high school where students with similar challenges
in the system discussed their predicaments. Thus, they set goals and focused on solutions. Kelly
(FFY3) found the group’s collaboration along with the counselor highly beneficial. The possible
selves emerged in this targeted group setting, for Kelly (FFY3). As such, she was provided the
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 89
opportunity to discuss her academic and career goals and reflect on her experiences that
influenced her motivation.
In summary, the opportunity for foster youth to connect with a mentor, or a caring adult,
and discuss their possible selves played an instrumental role. Based on the FFY’s life
experiences and adversity they have endured, the opportunity to connect with another individual
and articulate their future goals is imperative. Each of the former foster youth, in this study,
echoed the meaningfulness in the relationships that were forged with caring adults- while they
were able to articulate their goals and aspirations, through possible selves. Ryan (FFY1) stressed
the importance of his mentor/foster father that shared his common career interests. Sonia (FFY2)
expressed the meaningful connection and conversations with her foster mother- whom she also
considered her mentor. Kelly (FFY3) found her outside therapists, school counselor, and high
school support group to be rather beneficial. Samantha (FFY4) described her mentor-
Renaissance Scholar advisor- as one that she could always talk to about navigating life’s many
challenges.
RQ1 Theme 4: Academic Self-Efficacy
In the data analysis the theme, strong academic self-efficacy, emerged. Interview guide
questions were intended to address the academic self-efficacy of FFY in high school into college.
The theme emerged that FFY maintained strong academic self-efficacy from high school to
college.
Former foster youth exhibit strong academic self-efficacy during high school into college.
Academic self-efficacy was continually strong for each subject. First, the former foster youth
participants’ believed that they should succeed in high school and take rigorous courses despite
stressful lives. Second, the FFY’s successful academic achievement maintained in high school
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 90
transferred into their college enrollment and academic performance. Self-efficacy is described as
belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce
given attainments (Bandura, 1997). Each of the four former foster youth possessed strong
academic self-efficacy. As such, the FFY participants believed it was critical to enroll in A-G
classes in high school and successfully passed these courses to be considered college-eligible.
Despite a great number of stressors in their lives, each believed in their academic capabilities.
Based on my interviews with the FFY participants and my observations it appeared that the
FFY’s self-efficacy was strengthened by their personal life experiences. Notably, their belief in
their own capabilities was sustained to yield positive educational outcomes.
The following quotes and examples depict the academic standards and rigor of the four
FFY participants, throughout high school, to maintain college eligibility. Robert (FFY1) stated
that he would never allow himself to fail a class, earning solid grades in rigorous courses such as
calculus and chemistry. He indicated that he received an “A” in Chemistry and then felt like he
could accomplish anything after that academic achievement. Robert (FFY1) more aptly
described his academic rigor in high school:
It’s funny because in high school I was kind of just going through the motions. But I
would never fail a class, I wouldn’t even get close to a “D”. I was doing really well. I
made it up to Calculus my senior year. I took all the hard courses but I didn’t see the
importance. But I knew I was never going to fail a course.
Robert’s (FFY1) academic rigor was connected to his strong academic self-efficacy. As such,
Robert (FFY1) maintained rigorous classes and the confidence to sustain the A-G courses to
meet college eligibility. Similarly, Kelly (FFY3) described her academic self-efficacy and ability
in high school as such:
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I was always one grade above my class. I was taking honors classes up through my Junior
year. But when it came to my sophomore year my sister and I got separated. It did affect
me. I maintained them (honors courses) but I was getting suspended and in isolation. I
went from an A-B average to a C-D average.
Kelly (FFY3) explained that she was comfortable being one grade above her class and felt
confident taking Honors courses from her freshman to junior year. However, she addressed in the
previous quote that the separation from her sister is what caused her grades to drop temporarily.
Kelly (FFY3) further stated that her junior year became a little easier to cope with the personal
loss and separation of her biological sister, from the same foster home, by seeing an outside
counselor. In turn, addressing the socio-emotional component assisted in getting Kelly’s grades
back on track in her Honors courses.
Instinctively, Sonia (FFY2) noted that she knew she needed to get good grades in order to
get into college and leave home. Sonia’s (FFY2) academic self-efficacy was consistently strong
while living with her biological family, to foster placement, and through college. Solid grades,
such as an “A” or “B” were the expectation in Sonia’s (FFY2) biological home. She met that
expectation while successfully taking Advanced Placement courses in high school. Sonia’s
(FFY2) following quote aptly depicts her academic motivation and foster care experience in high
school.
My plan was to go to college. My goal was to go to college to get away from home. So if
people live on campus- I thought – well that is where I will live. I will live on campus.
Um, so I did decent when I went to school. School was kind of like my safe haven. So
when I went to school I focused on my academics. Because I didn’t want to get in trouble
-because then it would bring attention to my abuser. But when I got placed in the system,
(I want to say it was around November), I had not completed my college applications
yet. And I thought forget it, I’m not going to go. But because my second foster mom
(was my Assistant Principal) she really advocated for me and my education. And to
make sure I would apply for college. The campus was nearby. So that was the only
campus I applied to and that is how I got there.
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 92
Similarly, Samantha (FFY4) described her motivation and enrollment in A.P. classes,
throughout high school, as “a way out”. In fact, Samantha (FFY4) graduated high school with a
3.4 or 3.5 GPA, while maintaining A.P. courses and working full-time both her junior and senior
year in high school. She further reflected on her motivation and confidence in taking rigorous
courses while working full-time.
I think because I was in AVID (Advanced Via Individual Determination) since middle
school, I just wanted to go to college. I think what helped me out was my motivation
from my classmates. It was like if your going to college then I am going to college.
To reiterate, Sonia (FFY2), Samantha (FFY4), and Kelly (FFY3) took honors and/or AP courses
during high school and succeeded. Although, Robert (FFY1) did not enroll in AP courses he
took rigorous courses and sustained an “A-G” schedule throughout high school.
The FFY’s strong academic self-efficacy was demonstrated by their belief in their own
academic capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action (i.e., enrollment in rigorous/
A-G courses) to yield educational attainment (college enrollment). Additionally, the FFY’s
challenging life experiences positively impacted their self-efficacy and sustained their academic
achievement from high school through college.
In summary, the motivational characteristics and self-regulatory beliefs of former
foster youth ,were echoed by both subject populations, to enhance student achievement
and post-secondary options. The motivational component in relationship to educational
attainment was frequently addressed by all participants/subjects. Thus, research question 1 found
that high academic self-regulation and self-efficacy strongly influenced the former foster youths’
educational trajectories. Furthermore, possible selves- as it pertained to self-efficacy -was crucial
to former youths’ ability to articulate their goals and aspirations with other individuals.
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In line with this study, the participants FFY participants’ strong academic self-efficacy
and self-regulatory beliefs were impacted by the interplay among personal factors, behavior, and
environment. As such, the notable educational trajectories of FFY were predominantly viewed
through the social cognitive lens.
Research Question 2
What personal and contextual challenges did former foster youth feel affected their academic
growth and development?
Foster youth are vulnerable to a multitude of personal and contextual challenges that may
impact their academic growth and development. Research question 2 addressed the area of
research mostly studied- risk factors for foster youth. In alignment with the first section of this
dissertation, RQ2 further explored, the risk factors youth are exposed to while placed in the
foster care system and as the emancipate from the system. Consistently, both subject populations
disclosed common challenges of foster care placement including: high turnover rate of social
workers, multiple foster placements/schools, and youth primarily having only their basic needs
met. More specifically, the participants (FFY) stressed the distinction between social workers
with that of independent living program workers (ILP). The interviews revealed that the ILP
workers were quite instrumental in FFY’s successful emancipation from the foster care system.
In contrast, one of the major challenges within the foster care system– as suggested by both
subject populations- was the high turnover rate and inconsistency of social workers.
Furthermore, the participants (Mentors) pointed out one of the major drawbacks of the foster
care system for youth is that only their basic needs are addressed.
Research question 2 addressed these challenges within the foster care system that may
have affected FFY’s academic growth and development. Interview guide questions were
designed to address research question 2, of FFY participants (See Table 2) and for Mentor
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participants (See Table 3). Two themes emerged for this research question. First, challenges with
social services versus the benefits of ILP (Independent Living Program) workers were explored.
Second, youth only have their basic needs addressed in the foster care system.
RQ 2 Theme 1: Challenges with Social Services vs. Benefits with ILP
In the data analysis, challenges within social services emerged. Conversely, the benefits
of the Independent Living Program workers for foster youth emerged during the interviews. The
personal and contextual challenges for foster youth, in the system, were addressed. The theme
emerged that FFY experienced numerous challenges with social services; however, ILP workers
were beneficial.
FFY participants’ disclosed that one of the personal and contextual challenges of foster
care placement was the inconsistent interactions’ with their social workers. Social workers had
high turnover rates and little consistency with the youth. In contrast, the Independent Living
Program workers (ILP workers) were instrumental for all former foster youth in connecting them
with services starting at 16 years old through emancipation and into adulthood. The participants
made reference to the benefit of having an ILP worker in their lives as they emancipated from
the system. ILP workers played an integral role as they entered adulthood; many were
instrumental in facilitating their transition to independence as adults.
The following two quotes and examples from Robert (FFY1) and Kelly (FFY3) stressed
the critical role that ILP workers played in their lives. Robert (FFY1) stated the following:
I didn’t really need any more resources besides them (ILP worker). They provided plenty
when it came to book vouchers. If I was kind of tight on work they would give me gas
cards. There was a lot of resources that ILP gave me, so I didn’t need another program on
top of that.
Robert (FFY1) further described his meaningful interactions with his 3 ILP workers as
such:
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I went through 3- ILP workers- but I was working with them all the time. So it was not
like they just disappeared. Those 3 people were the most beneficial to me because when
I was at XYZ – they told me about financial aid, to guide me. The foster care program
really grabbed me and was actually really beneficial to me. And it was also a support
system to me because I could just go into their offices and ask them about tutoring
appointments and they always knew. They always knew the answer or they would get the
answer for me.
Similarly, Kelly (FFY3) considered her ILP worker—whom she had from 16 years old
through junior college—her mentor. She stated that she formed a very positive, strong bond with
the ILP worker. Kelly (FFY3) also articulated her goals and planned for the future with her ILP
worker.
The former foster youth participants’ made the clear distinction between the benefits of
the ILP worker as opposed to the limited interactions with a social worker. Thus, former foster
youth described one of the challenges while in the system was the high caseloads and turnover
rate of social workers. The three following quotes from Kelly (FFY3), Robert (FFY1), and
Samantha (FFY4) reflect the personal challenges they experienced while in foster care placement
with their social workers. Kelly (FFY3) astutely, described one harrowing experience while in
the foster care system. As Kelly (FFY3) noted, the challenging foster care experience involved
the relationship with her social worker, in contrast her ILP worker.
Sophomore year was really the worst year I could have. So I had gotten sick and I had
moved. My foster mom did not listen to what the doctor said. My sister and I had to
move. I got her (foster parent) to lose her foster license – shut down. We had a window
locked down, no closet, no door. Our bedroom was directly across from the garage that
had the water heater (fire hydrant - that was in the kitchen). So if there was a fire we were
stuck. We weren’t going to be able to break those things. There was period in that house
where all the food was bad and anything that was good was for their children. She (foster
mother) would drop us off where are parents were supposed to be- but if my parents
didn’t show up- we were stuck there for two hours. So we couldn’t even contact her
(foster mother). The social worker at the time, wasn’t listening to what I had to tell her.
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Robert (FFY1) echoed a similar message in that he had very little consistency with his
social workers as opposed to his 3 ILP workers. Although the 3 ILP workers were incredibly
instrumental to Robert (FFY1) as he emancipated from the system, he had this to say in terms of
his social workers.
It is just in the foster care system a lot of social workers do not have a very good
reputation. They do not get too personal. Or they switch them every other month-
something that you do not want to attach yourself to.
Samantha (FFY4) shared her experience with a county worker, as one in which she could
talk with the county worker about personal issues but unfortunately was not always the most
resourceful. While Samantha (FFY4) was in high school there was one person (social worker)
that she could talk to and connect with in terms of socio-emotional concerns. Samantha describes
this relationship as such:
My county worker, she was with me the last two- three years before I left. She
connected with me, but I don’t think she was very resourceful. I could talk to her but she
didn’t have the answers for me. It’s really hard being from XY county and living in
AB county. There was much for me down here, because even to emancipate, I was
a year into college before they emancipated me. It was just a quick meeting that they had-
it wasn’t at all helpful.
Samantha (FFY4) went on to further explain that this county worker was supportive of
her. More specifically, Samantha (FFY4) could definitely talk with the county worker- as she
would make herself available. However, because Samantha (FFY4) was from one county and
living in another county the resources were not readily available to her. In addition, Samantha
(FFY4) distinctly described her perspective of having numerous social workers while placed in
the foster care system and the challenges it presented in the following quote.
Because the social workers kept switching- I think the kids (foster youth) that are
doing good and not problematic they get lost and do not get much attention.
Because I needed help with financial aid, and things like that, I messed up the
application and had to pay for it myself.
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In contrast, Sonia (FFY2) told a more positive story of her experience in dealing with her
social worker during a very critical, transitional, period.
We were very fortunate. They actually wanted to split us into three different homes. But I
kept telling the social worker I have to be able to take care of my siblings and somehow
they were able to find us a home in XYZ that was able to take four children. My oldest
sister because she was nineteen didn’t get pulled into the system but everyone else
did. So they placed us in XYZ. This part gets a little fuzzy. I want to say we were there
for about a week until we had court. Then we got placed into our second foster home.,
which was the assistant principal at my high school. Um, she got approved, got her
foster care license – she took in the two younger ones and myself. My fifteen
year old brother got the opportunity to decide whether or not he wanted to stay in the
system or go back home. I’m not quite sure if it was because the abuse wasn’t directed at
him. I’m not quite sure why he got sent back but he decided to go back home. So just
myself, and my two younger siblings, went into the foster home.
Sonia (FFY2) further noted the rarity of this case. Thus, the court and social worker were
able to keep the family intact and really advocate for what Sonia (FFY2) felt was most beneficial
to both she and her siblings.
In summary, FFY revealed from their interviews that a personal and contextual challenge
of being placed in the foster care system was the inconsistent interactions with their social
workers. Thus, the high turnover rates of social workers potentially impacted the FFY’s
academic growth and development. In contrast, the ILP workers seemingly maintained an active
presence in their lives as (FFY) youth emancipated from the system. Further, the ILP workers
proved to be beneficial to youth as they aged out of the system and entered adulthood.
RQ 2 Theme 2: Basic Needs only for Youth Addressed
In the data analysis, the theme emerged that only the basic needs for youth are addressed
in the foster care system. The theme emerged, from Mentors viewpoint, that youth only have
their basic needs met in the system.
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Mentors echoed a unique perspective addressing flaws in the foster care system.
Education and other entities need to extend beyond bare minimum human needs to help youth
flourish. Youth in foster care often have their basic needs met by social services in terms of
safety and shelter. However, the role of social services is to focus on the most critical
component of safety as it pertains to child welfare.
The following four participant quotes address the challenges for foster youth as observed
by Mentors. Overwhelmingly, the mentors suggested that Department of Social Services
provides adequate youth services in regards to their basic needs. However, the mentors suggested
that it is in many ways it is the job of educators and/or other agencies to provide guidance,
support, and additional services to youth that extend beyond basic needs. Cynthia (Mentor 4)
made an insightful analogy to Maslow’s (1954) hierarchy of needs. She described the
Department of Social Services as providing comprehensive services to youth at the lower level of
the hierarchy, stating:
The kids (foster youth) are aging out of the system. So we have to work with the
organizations that are working with the kids. If you look at Maslow’s hierarchy, DCFS
works at the bottom level of safety. In education we need to go beyond that to give
added accountability—to go beyond those basic needs. We could call it self-worth—a
sense of purpose.
Additionally, Derek (Mentor 3) explained that social workers carry excessive workloads,
stated:
Well all students that are aging out of foster care are involved in some programs. The
reason I started the group was because I have been involved in those programs. I know
that county workers are taxed with their work load. Sometimes they (foster youth)
would say my social worker gave me a packet last week but I don’t know what’s in it. So
the social worker fulfilled their obligation but the youth is not really served in that matter.
Derek (Mentor 3) further went on to say “They (social workers) will make sure [youth]
have the information, but may not go over it with them. So the [social workers] met their
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requirement.” This is what, in turn, drove Derek (Mentor 3) to develop the foster youth program
at the high school. Derek (Mentor 3) would go over the information with students and make
certain they understood their options. In addition, Derek (Mentor 3) would bring expertise from
his background along with other guest speakers to make sure the information hit home for youth
on a more personal level.
Similarly, Evan (Mentor 1) pointed out that social services will adequately remove a
child from an abusive home, but that the focus is on the child’s immediate safety. Evan (Mentor
1) described that his role as an officer goes beyond providing a minimal level of safety. Evan
(Mentor 1) described the way in which he has connected with foster youth on a more personal
level- to better understand the pain of being removed from their home and biological parents in
the following quote:
A lot of times their (foster youth) attitude towards law enforcement is because they have
arrested mom and dad, or incarcerated mom and dad. They don’t understand that they
were removed for their own safety- but all they see is the face value of the police took
me from my mom and dad. When it is explained to them a little bit more that your mom
and dad made a conscious decision, they were a grown adult, and they needed to be
responsible for you. They chose not to do that. They were involved in criminal activity.
We are trying to give you a better way of life or make sure that you are not harmed.
You are not eighteen- you can’t make those types of decisions yet. They start to
understand a few things. Once it has been explained to them- all they know is that they
have been taken away from mom and dad. They have been placed in an unfamiliar
residence because of law enforcement. So once they are able to speak with a law
enforcement officer on a more interpersonal level, rather than just a call for
service. It’s more inter-personal, behind closed doors. They start to get the point a
little bit more.
Instead, Evan (Mentor 1) hones in on socio-emotional needs by listening to youth and
letting them know they are being heard. Subsequently, he explains available options and
programs to help youth cope with stressors in a proactive manner.
Diana (Mentor 2) additionally stressed that youth are in dire need of extended services
beyond emancipation. Diana (Mentor 2) has worked in connecting youth to needed services or
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programs for which they are eligible that serve as protective factors to youth as they age out of
the system. Many of the critical components mentors pointed out were in collaboration with
social workers/ILP workers with the educational system. Diana (Mentor 2) echoed a similar
description of former foster youth – she mentored- having only their basic needs met:
In her (mentees) situation, she has taught me a lot about well – what it is to be truly poor.
Because she has to rent a room; they charge her an exorbitant amount of money. Just
trying to rent a room or stay ahead. Having to go to the check place and have them dual
out money before your paycheck. There is a lot of things that I have seen with her
[mentee/former foster youth] in terms of poverty. It is so devastating to a human being, to
try to get ahead. It’s like two steps forward and five steps back.
In summary, the personal and contextual challenges associated with placement in the
foster care system loom large. These challenges range from systemic to individual issues. Thus,
the high turnover rate and little consistency with social workers were problematic among both
former foster youth and mentors. Additionally, foster youth may only have their basic needs
while placed in the system.
As the (FFY) participants reflected on their personal histories they suggested that their
ILP workers were particularly beneficial in going beyond the basic needs. More specifically, as
the social workers would address the basic needs; the ILP workers went above and beyond to
help them successfully navigate their way from the system into adulthood. Subsequently, the
presence of the ILP workers strengthened the FFY’s academic growth and development.
Additionally, the (Mentors) participants focused primarily on a systemic challenge for
youth is that only their most basic needs are met. The 4 Mentors suggested that the educational
system and outside agencies must go beyond the minimum basic needs and address the protective
factors that buffer these systemic and personal challenges for foster youth. More specifically, the
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Mentors intervened with foster youth providing additional support, where the social workers
responsibilities end.
Research Question 3
What do former foster youth and foster youth mentors feel positively or negatively influenced
their own or their mentees academic motivation?
Many elements may positively or negatively influence foster youths’ academic
motivation. As the participants’ revealed in their interviews, risk factors and protective factors
were shown to impact academic motivation. Positive influences suggested that positive
relationship-based played an integral role in the educational trajectories of former foster youth.
By the same token, negative relationships with adults, while placed in the foster care system can
lead to poor educational outcomes for youth as they emancipate. Subsequently, positive
relationships with mentors/foster parents/caring adults facilitated youths’ academic motivation.
Research question 3 addressed the impactful relationships that shaped former foster youths’
academic motivation. More specifically, RQ3 explored the protective factors – the less
extensively studied factor –that facilitated academic motivation and ultimately, academic
achievement. Central to the protective factors which influenced FFY’s academic motivation was
relationship-based factors. Furthermore, the socio-emotional component as it pertained to
educational attainment emerged as a focal point of research question 3.
Four themes emerged for this research question. First, FFY model and protect younger
siblings. Second, FFY found that counseling was beneficial. Third, FFY had a positive foster
placement. Fourth, Mentors are critical to foster youth: Foster youth develop positive
relationships with caring adult/mentor. Focus on belonging and sense of worth.
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RQ 3 Theme 1: FFY Modeling and Protecting Younger Siblings
In the data analysis, the theme FFY model and protect their younger siblings emerged.
In this study, the FFY’s academic and career goals’ appeared to be influenced by their family
dynamics. In fact, each of the four FFY participants’ reflected on younger siblings that were a
motivating factor to pro-actively set goals and manage their time wisely. Kelly (FFY3) stated,
when asked what motivated her in high school? “I wanted to motivate my sister. If I failed, I felt
then I failed her”. Kelly’s (FFY3) quote echoed the same message of the other FFY participants
in this study. Thus, the FFY’s relationships with their biological families seemingly impacted
their self-regulation and goal-setting accordingly.
Four former foster youth had one or more younger biological siblings that inspired their
motivation. Three of the four former foster youth were the eldest sibling in the household. One
of the former foster youth was the second to oldest in her family and had three younger siblings.
Consistently, each of the former foster youth stated that a younger sibling was the motivator to
succeed academically and set a positive example. As such, FFY participants were geared towards
modeling and protection of their younger siblings. In many respects, they aspired to take on a
parental role to their younger siblings.
The four following quotes reflect each of the FFY participants’ motivation to model
and/or protect the well being of their younger siblings. Samantha (FFY4) described her
motivation to protect her younger sister:
It wasn’t overwhelming. It was something I kind of wanted to do. Especially with the
first two homes because they didn’t take care of us very well. My little sister was a
newborn and I felt like they weren’t taking care of her right. So I felt like I had to take
care of her. But with the third foster home, she (the foster mother) really took care of us.
So I didn’t need to worry much.
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Similarly, once Kelly (FFY3) emancipated, she attempted to have her younger sister live
with her. In addition, Kelly (FFY3) further described her reasons for encouraging social services
to intervene and protect her younger sister:
When I did it I was the one who asked for social services to get involved because I was
concerned for my sister’s safety. We had been seeing them for every month, since third
grade. So when we first entered I was relieved - but I also felt like I betrayed my sister-
because she didn’t even want to be separated from my parents. My sister and I talked the
other day. She said thank you for showing me how they were.
It could be said, that both Samantha (FFY4) and Kelly (FFY3) protected their younger
siblings by attempting to maintain a safe environment for them. In turn, this may or may not
have negatively influenced their own academic motivation or their siblings. Additionally, Robert
(FFY1) said that looking out for his younger sister was a constant. Robert (FFY1) indicated that
believed the desire to model and protect his younger sister is what influenced him to set these
educational goals for himself. He described the motivating factor to excel as such:
I believe it was my little sister is what really pushed me. Knowing that I will be the
first one to get a Bachelor’s degree. I wanted to set the standard for her. To see that don’t
stop trying to excel in whatever you want to do. If I become a cop or a veterinarian,
whatever you choose. If I am going to get my Bachelor’s, even if it doesn’t apply to my
field exactly I took advantage of what was given to me. I don’t want you to spoil what
has been given to you.
Sonia (FFY2) was also mostly concerned for her younger siblings and having them
removed from the biological parents for their safety. As such, Sonia (FFY2) reflected on her
childhood and stressed the importance of modeling and protecting her younger siblings. More
specifically, when her younger sister was the same age as Sonia (FFY2) when her abuse started,
she felt the need to protect her. Further, the motivation to get to where she is today and be the
positive role model for her younger sister was a constant. Sonia (FFY2) instinctively described
her relationship dynamic with her younger siblings as major motivator in the following quote:
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I think my senior year was very tough, because everything that was going on with my
family. My brother was still going to the same high school and was a sophomore. We did
have a falling out so even at high school it felt a little toxic, because he had sided with my
mom. Um, so it was hard to just be a student at school. Somehow I knew I was going to
be ok. But I didn’t know if I was going to go to college anymore. I thought well, ok if I
don’t go to school I am going to get a job- because I had my brother and sister. That is
how I interpreted in my head. You have a foster mom and she is taking care of you guys-
but in my mind it was like that is my responsibility. I don’t know if it is a cultural t
hing because at home we were already doing that kind of stuff. So now mom’s not there I
have to make sure that this is getting done- I have to make sure they are going to school. I
n my mind, it just became so strong as a sense. I have to take a step back with my little
sister who is now 18-19. I have to say hey I am not her mom.
In summary, each of the four FFY participants’ had younger siblings, which impacted
their academic motivation and drive. As indicated in their (FFY) interviews, their desire to set a
positive example for their younger siblings was of paramount importance. As such, many FFY
took on a very protective, parental role. Collectively, the former foster youth continue to take an
active role in the lives of their younger siblings today.
RQ 3 Theme 2: FFY Counseling was Beneficial
During the data analysis, the theme counseling was beneficial to former foster youth
emerged. Every former foster youth received some type of mandatory counseling while in the
system. Most found the counseling to be beneficial. Three of the four participants received
counseling while in the foster care system. Typically, foster youth receive mandatory counseling
while in the foster care system, although there are some exceptions.
The following quotes or examples from each of the four FFY participants’ suggests that
counseling was beneficial; however, length of time in counseling and appropriate placement in
group counseling settings should be carefully considered. One participant, Samantha (FFY4), did
not receive counseling but felt that if she would have the opportunity in high school, it would
have been beneficial. Robert (FFY1) felt that the counseling could have been helpful; however,
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he felt that it was excessive, stating, “how many times can you tell the same story”. Sonia
(FFY2) felt that her counseling was helpful, but that she was grouped with individuals who had
more extreme, intense behaviors. Thus, she felt somewhat misplaced in the group counseling.
Sonia (FFY2) poignantly said:
Yeah, I was in counseling while I was in the system. I felt like I had it better than other
youth who were going there; they had very self-destructive behaviors. I remembered
being in group counseling and thinking, why am I here? We’ve had similar
experiences but why am I not cutting myself or suicidal at that point. I did have suicidal
ideation before I got placed in the system. But once I was placed in the system and
applying for colleges, I felt very out-casting myself in the group. I was the only one
going to college. The individual counseling was helpful. When I was in college I went to
more counseling that was more in-depth and that was very helpful.
Interestingly, Kelly (FFY3) noted, “Group counseling: That is something every foster youth
should have at high school.” Kelly (FFY3) poignantly depicted her harrowing experiences. In
addition, Kelly (FFY3) described her experience with outside counseling as such:
My junior year was a little bit easier. I had to take counseling. Then my junior year I
refused to take medication for my depression, anxiety, anger management. So my junior
year I was fighting a depression.
Kelly (FFY3) went on to say that when she was involved in a foster youth support group in high
school, it allowed youth to be together and share their experiences.
In summary, the FFY participants believed that counseling was helpful and may have
impacted their academic motivation and ultimately, their educational attainment. Thus,
counseling served to be therapeutic and meaningful to the youth coping with serious stressors in
their lives- while placed in the foster care system. Although, placement in group setting and
length of counseling sessions must be relevant to the individuals’ needs.
RQ 3 Theme 3: FFY had Positive Foster Placement:
In the data analysis, the theme emerged that former foster youth had at least one positive
foster placement As such, each former foster youth had a positive foster family relationship.
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Every former foster youth experienced their longest—and in most cases their last—placement
like family. To this day, three of the participants see or speak regularly to their former foster
parent/family. The uniqueness and importance of the positive foster placements was noted by
each of the FFY participants. Thus, this was a very select group of foster youth that cultivated
meaningful relationships with at least one foster family placement.
The following three quotes from Robert (FFY1), Kelly (FFY3), and Samantha (FFY4)
reflects the close, lasting, bond they established with their foster family. Robert (FFY1) astutely
described his foster home experience:
My foster family- I am super close with still. Even once I emancipated I go by and visit
them almost every other weekend. We go to church - we go on vacations together. I bring
my fiancé with me and I really do not think of the, as a foster family but as a regular
blood family.. There is no thought that this is my foster family- those are my brothers,
those are my parents, we go to dinner, we got church together. I just hang out with them
like a normal family.
Similarly, Kelly (FFY3) stated that it was very difficult to actually leave her last
placement when she returned to live with grandparents. To this day, she and her foster mother
see each other regularly. Kelly (FFY3) described in greater detail the powerful relationship she
established with her foster mother and the lasting impact she had on Kelly (FFY3) to this very
day:
When I went to live with my grandparents she (foster mother) cried. She came back to
see me. She was on vacation and her mom was in the hospital. They were really nice and
they are no longer foster- I was their last foster kid. Yeah, my sister would come over and
they were like here come and eat. They are really nice.
In addition, Samantha (FFY4) spent 10 years of her life with the last foster family. She pointed
out what a positive, lasting impact the relationship had left on her and she has sustained the
positive dynamic family relationship. Samantha (FFY4) further explained:
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I was already seeing my foster family on the weekends and my foster mom was still
getting paid that first year I was in school (college). They are like my family and my
foster sisters. They are all really close to me. Yeah, I will go over or she will come over
to see me.
In summary, the FFY participants experienced meaningful and lasting relationships with
their foster families. Unfortunately, these positive relationships are not always forged while in
the foster care placement. In fact, only one (Sonia- FFY2) of the four former foster youth has
maintained minimal contact with her longest placements/foster family due to uncontrolled
circumstances. Thus, the (FFY) positive foster placements served to be a protective factor. As
such, FFY had the ability to live in a stable, safe environment while in the foster care system. In
turn, this may have influenced their academic motivation and educational outcomes.
RQ 3 Theme 4: Mentors are Critical to Foster Youth
During the data analysis, the theme emerged that mentors are critical to foster youth.
Former foster youth were motivated by a mentor, that extended beyond high school graduation
(i.e., a true mentor/natural relationship). Former foster youth participants disclosed that they had
some type of mentor that motivated their academic success. In line with this study, mentors were
a focal point to foster youths’ academic motivation and drive. Thus, the FFY noted the integral
role mentors played in shaping their motivation and ultimately, their educational trajectory. In
fact, three of the four (FFY) still see or continue to see their mentor on a regular basis.
The following three quotes from Robert (FFY1), Kelly (FFY3), and Samantha (FFY4)
suggests that the mentor was not only instrumental in motivating youth to pursue their academic
and career goals, but one that they could rely on, to deem a sense of understanding. As such, the
relationships for these three FFY extended form adolescence into adulthood. Samantha’s (FFY4)
mentor and advisor from Renaissance Scholar program in college currently has an active role in
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her life, as they collaborate professionally in their respective fields. Samantha (FFY4) went on
to further explain the positive impact her advisor from college had on her to this day:
Yeah, I still attend county meetings and they are so supportive. My supervisors know me
by name. It’s really good to have those connections. I can call them and they can help me
at any time. In college it was my Renaissance Scholar advisor- to deal with everything
from my personal life- to I think my third year. I struggled with marriage and school and
she was able to help me with that. I think she was my advisor for one year, but then she
moved up. But I would still go to her. She always had an open-door policy.
Similarly, Robert (FFY1) considers his foster father both a mentor and a role model. Robert
(FFY1) added:
My foster dad actually put my name out there to the Captain of the Fire department. He
really pushed for me and helped me out in that way. What’s the name I’m looking for?
An advocate. Which was huge because he was really a father figure; and to have someone
that would do that for you, its huge.
To this day, Robert (FFY1) goes to church with his foster family and they take family vacations
together. Additionally, Sonia (FFY2) said that she mostly considered her foster mother during
her senior year her mentor. Sonia (FFY2) discussed her hopes and aspirations for the future with
her mentor and this relationship has had a lasting impact on her. Although she is still an integral
part of her life, they do not see each other as frequently as Sonia (FFY2) would like.
Kelly (FFY3) expressed the impactful and lasting relationship she had with her second
ILP worker as:
I would say my ILP worker, my second one. We became really close. When I found out
the program and she was going to be leaving – I was hysterical. It was really dreadfully
awful. Then I had to do a presentation. I got halfway through- and I was supposed to do
her portion and I walked out the room. I was like I am done - I can’t do this anymore. I
was in tears. I couldn’t handle it. So I had her all through high school and then all
through junior college. Because she worked at the junior college- so I was always with
her. I would just go back there and have lunch with her and conversations. I still talk to
her until this day.
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In summary, mentors were instrumental to foster youths’ academic motivation and
educational attainment. Sonia (FFY2) considered her foster mother her mentor in high school
and feels that she was an integral part of her applying for college and meeting the deadlines and
eligibility. Robert (FFY1) shared that his foster father, his mentor, was critical to his professional
aspirations. As such, he influenced Robert’s (FFY1) motivation to attend a four-year university
and earn a degree in his respective field. Samantha (FFY4) shared that her advisor and mentor in
college was also the motivation behind the degree she pursued in college and is now considering
graduate school. Kelly (FFY3) developed a very strong bond with her ILP worker and mentor.
Subsequently, in her community college she was motivated to start and establish a foster youth
program on campus along with an advisor. Kelly (FFY3) is currently a student at a four-year
university is looking into the possibility of applying for graduate school in social work. The
FFY participants collectively stressed the importance of a positive mentor in their lives.
Subsequently, the relationship between mentor and mentee (FFY) served to be a protective factor
to the numerous stressors the youth had endured.
Similarly, mentors echoed the same message, and many described the importance of a
positive relationship with an adult that extended beyond emancipation from the foster care
system. As such, the mentors emphasized the critical period of emerging adulthood- as it
pertained to foster youth and their academic motivation - and the impactful role of a meaningful
relationship (i.e., mentor, foster parent, or caring adult) that extends beyond emancipation.
Both Cynthia (Mentor 4) and Diana (Mentor 2) to this day have sustained positive
relationships with one or two former foster youth they mentored into their adulthood. Diana
(Mentor 2) described her ongoing mentorships with some of her former students as such:
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She graduated from the continuation high school – I work with at-risk youth at the
continuation high school on a continual basis. So she and I became close. Once she
graduated I still keep in contact with her via phone calls, dinner, Facebook. Trying to
mentor it’s very difficult without any parental support. Then there is just a few other
students that call. I talk to- throughout the year and see them at school and the events. I
would really do anything for them. It is difficult when they get out of high school,
hopefully, I can stay in touch with the three or four foster kids that I have gotten close to.
Each of these are examples of more natural mentoring relationships. Cynthia (Mentor 4)
described one of her mentoring relationships that extended beyond the foster care placement:
We are in touch through Facebook. He was recently accepted into college and he said
you were like a surrogate to me when my mother wasn’t there. And you taught me how to
read and that was like a window into my life.
Interestingly, both Evan (Mentor 1) and Derek (Mentor 3) successfully connected youth
to either colleges or programs that provided needed support beyond their high school experience.
Yet, both mentors noted that they did not see them as much after connecting them with the
programs. In some ways the mentor role that both Evan (Mentor 1) and Derek (Mentor 3)
provided, promoted autonomy in their mentees, as they entered adulthood. Although Derek
(Mentor 3) does maintain contact with many of his former counselees in the following,
important, way:
But I do keep in contact with a handful of students from (high school) and that was from
three years ago. I guess the model that I tried to use was just provide that extra support,
they weren’t getting from somewhere else. So when that was cut off- being that they
graduated and still moved on. I would get phone calls saying Mr. X its time for me to fill
out my FAFSA. I was wondering if we could meet up at Starbucks or the bookstore and
knock this out again. So a few of them followed- that I keep in touch with a handful of
them. Some have younger siblings, I’ve used resources for students that were about to
emancipate and age out. I would run through this and get more information.
In summary, the (Mentors) collectively noted the critical period of emerging adulthood
for foster youth- as crucial to forging meaningful relationships that extended beyond foster
placements. Subsequently, the mentors focused on the importance for foster youth to establish a
positive relationship with adults to facilitate their academic motivation and attainment. Further,
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Mentor participants’ suggest, foster youth need to establish a sense of belonging and self-worth
to enhance motivation. Instinctively, the participants (Mentors) honed in on the significance of
establishing a sense of trust and rapport with the youth they mentored.
The following quotes, from each of the four Mentors, emphasize the importance of the
interpersonal relationship- between mentor and mentee - that facilitate motivation. As Evan
(Mentor 1) stressed, many foster youth feel - they have in some way lost some value as a human
being. Evan (Mentor 1) described his interactions with foster youth as such:
They just kind of feel like they are a person in a home -with no one that really cares about
what they have to say- or that they are just a paycheck to somebody. So I lot of times I
will get them to open up and let them know that they are not a victim of circumstance.
That they can turn it around- just because their situations aren’t ideal, they can still
improve their situation. A lot of it is one-on-one discussion with them at the Resource
Officer level.
Similarly, Derek (Mentor 3) pointed out that the sense of belongingness at school for
youth is critical component to their outcomes. Derek (Mentor 3) distinctly described the
dynamic of his foster youth support group that facilitated belongingness:
They worked hard. We did a lot of stuff as a group. In terms, of filling out their
FAFSA doing their college applications. Just hitting a lot of the points that kids that are
not in foster care have the support of their counselor but their family or extended family.
These kids, initially I thought they would be embarrassed to meet. I thought they (youth)
were going to say I am not going to say anything out loud. But it took me by surprise
when they would yell across campus when are we going to meet for the foster youth
group again? It got to a point where they got to be proud in the group. I think that
“belongingness” is what helped them most. So when we would do things as a group. We
would hit the points that the ones that were motivated would hit without the intervention.
Thus, school may be the only opportunity youth have to feel connected with others. Cynthia
(Mentor 4) stressed that a sense of self-worth and purpose is the focal point for youths’ success.
Diana (Mentor 2) noted the importance of foster youth programs at school that connect youth
with peers going through similar experiences. Such groups can create a sense of belonging for
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youth by providing an outlet to share similarities—rather than only differences—with peers.
Each of the mentors described relationships with youth whereby they listened to the individual
and his/her unique needs and allowed him/her to process those feelings. Further, each mentor
described the mentor/mentee relationship as one of trust. Mentors described the importance of
being direct and clear with youth. Additionally, they noted that following through with one’s
word establishes trust. Cynthia (Mentor 4) poignantly stated that her mentorship approach is one
that involves a sustained friendship, that’s nurturing and caring. Furthermore Cynthia (Mentor 4)
stated:
Constant loss- and how do you live your life without having one friend? One person that
listens to you- to share your dreams and goals. Sometimes these relationships move on.
That friendship is a sense of healing for them. Trust and/or friendship is a sense of
healing for youth.
Similarly, Derek (Mentor 3) worked closely with youth on their college applications for
the competitive Guardian Scholars program. Derek’s (Mentor 3) intervention was rather
successful in that 3 of the FFY in his support group were admitted to the Guardian Scholar’s
program at a local university. Diana (Mentor 2) assisted youth and followed through with those
that qualified for either the AB167, or now the AB216, program to meet high school graduation
requirements. As she explained youth often have trust issues due to their living predicament. In
turn, this makes the, ongoing, follow through Diana (Mentor 2) has maintained with her mentees
all the more critical – which she described in this quote.
For foster youth, the fact that they don’t always have a safe foster home and they get
moved frequently- so there’s no stability in their family life. Another risk factor is their
lack of trust with people. Especially with adults- I would say especially if they have been
abandoned by parents. So there is abandonment issues and trust issues. You want to build
a relationship with the students. But if they are just not their long enough to do that, they
don’t have mentors that they can get close to because of their movement and lack of trust.
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In addition, Evan (Mentor 1) connected one youth to a program aligned to the
individual’s needs and interests extending beyond high school and connected youth to a credit
recovery school as necessary. To promote, trust and belonging- with youth - Evan (Mentor 1)
often connects foster youth with a particular organization that is focused on getting jobs. Evan
(Mentor 1) further explained the importance of the organization for youth within this following
quote:
I (youth) am at an age to get a job. I just want to know how to do it. I will say ok, I know
this organization that does youth placement for jobs. So I will basically call down there
and say I’ve got his kid, when is your next orientation? What this organization does
is, you send them down there to this meeting. What they will do is find a placement for
whatever your forte or line of work is- whether it is I summer job for construction. Say
you’re good at computers- whatever your niche is- the XYZ organization actually pays
your salary. It’s like a minimum wage salary, but then what is does is it unlocks the
door to these companies. I tell these kids, look if you do a good enough job for these
companies- they will actually hire you when the program is over.
Notably, each of these mentors went above and beyond in listening to each individual’s
needs and then connecting them to appropriate programs. Collectively, the mentors’ stressed the
importance of their relationships, with foster youth, to be one based on trust. Furthermore,
youths’ value as a human being was of paramount importance within the relationship. Youths’
success was in many ways achieved through the reciprocal relationship and proactive manner of
the mentor.
In summary, impactful relationships/mentorships were at the core of former foster
youths’ academic motivation and attainment. Both subject populations focused on the
relationship-based elements influencing their motivation and drive to succeed. In line with this
study, positive relationships and established trust were critical components to former foster
youths’ academic motivation and attainment. Youth placed in the foster care system are often
exposed to unhealthy relationships with adults, in turn, lead to removal from their biological
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homes. Thus, it is understandable that cultivating healthy relationships and establishing trust with
adults- while placed in the system- is crucially important both academically and socially.
Beyond the scope of this study, the mental health component of foster youth emerged.
Several youth discussed dealing with depression either while living with biological family or
foster family. One dealt with suicidal ideation while with biological family/abusive household,
while one coped with depression while in foster care due to grieving the loss of her family (both
parents were incarcerated).
In line with child adversity research, a couple of the former foster youth disclosed dealing
with a significant amount of stress while either being placed in the foster care system or while
living with their biological family. One participant (Sonia - FFY2) stated that she dealt with
suicidal ideation while living with biological family. Furthermore, she explained that the
expectation to excel in school was a given of her biological family, yet the emotional turmoil
caused the ideations. Once she was placed in the foster care system, however, her thoughts of
suicide dissipated. Kelly (FFY3) also said she attended outside counseling but discontinued the
therapy when she felt pressure to take medication for her predicament. Furthermore, she said
that she felt that any “normal” person would be feeling the same way. Her belief was that she
did not want to numb feelings that she felt were normal for grieving the loss of her incarcerated
parents.
Summary
Several themes emerged in the qualitative data. Both participant populations—former
foster youth and mentors—suggested key components that they believed were critical to foster
youths’ educational trajectories. One theme that emerged in the findings was that foster youth
need some type of caring adult in their life to help them successfully navigate adulthood. A
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second theme youth need to be able to articulate their goals with another person—preferably a
mentor—to discuss their “possible selves.” A third theme that emerged was that youth practice
elements of self-regulation; such as goal setting and time management skills, along with high
academic self-efficacy to attain their educational goals.
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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
To reiterate, this study examined the motivational characteristics and protective factors
that facilitated motivation among former foster youth. Interviews were conducted with two
participant populations—former foster youth and youth mentors—to gain greater insight as to
what promotes educational attainment. More specifically, educational achievement was assessed
in former foster youth who had attended post-secondary schools or had graduated from post-
secondary schools. This qualitative study attempted to examine the following research
questions:
1) What are the motivational characteristics and self-regulatory beliefs of former foster
youth?
2) What personal and contextual challenges did former foster youth feel affected their
academic growth and development?
3) What do former foster youth and foster youth mentors feel have positively or negatively
influenced their own or their mentees academic motivation?
Discussion of Findings
The themes that emerged from my study suggest that foster youth are a very complex and
unique population. As is the case with most vulnerable populations, there are many individual
factors and nuances that may contribute to various educational outcomes. The themes that
surfaced in this study could be most aptly viewed through the social cognitive lens. From a
social cognitive perspective, people are neither driven by inner forces nor automatically shaped
and controlled by external stimuli (Bandura, 1997). The social cognitive model suggests that
human functioning is explained in terms of the relationships among behavioral, cognitive, and
personal factors, as well as environmental events (Bandura, 1986). This model most closely
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explains the remarkable educational trajectories of the former foster youth participants within the
study.
Research suggests that approximately 3 to 6% of foster youth earn a college degree
(Smith, 2011). The participants in the current study were either attending a four-year university
or had graduated from a four-year university, thus making for a very high-achieving participant
sample. As with the social cognitive model, the former foster youth participants collectively
demonstrated the interplay among personal factors, behavior, and environment. More
specifically, the participants displayed both strong academic self-efficacy and strong self-
regulatory beliefs. In addition, I felt the protective factors framework deserved special attention
in examining individuals’ educational achievement. Thus, the notable educational success among
former foster youth was attributed to multidimensional factors.
Several themes emerged within the qualitative data. The two participant populations
suggested key elements that they believed were most critical to foster youths’ educational
trajectories. Three common themes emerged collectively among the eight total participants.
Firstly, foster youth need some type of caring adult in their life to help them successfully
navigate into adulthood. Secondly, youth need to be able to articulate their goals with another
person—preferably a mentor—to discuss their possible selves. Lastly, foster youth practice
elements of self-regulation, such as goal setting and time management skills, and high academic
self-efficacy to attain their educational goals. Findings can be viewed using social cognitive
theory.
First, foster youth need some type of caring adult in their life to navigate successfully into
adulthood. As youth emancipate from the foster care system, it is imperative they have familiar,
dependable people to support them during the transition to adulthood. In fact, many foster youth
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that exit the system to live independently, at age 18, find the transition to be harsh and shocking
(Propp et al., 2003). The need for extended services for foster youth- to 21 rather than 18 years
of age- is crucial because it decreases the chances of many societal ills (Ahrens et al., 2008;
Avery, 2010; Propp et al., 2003). In line with this study, those that age out of foster care to live
independently, at 18, are less likely to graduate from high school, less likely to earn enough
money to support themselves, and less likely to pursue post-secondary education or training
(Avery, 2010). Further, research suggests that 18, is not an appropriate developmental age or
time for youth to be severed from transitional services and/or support systems (Propp et al.,
2003). Emerging adulthood, as described by Arnett (2007), is the transition from adolescence
into adulthood. This period, of emerging adulthood lasts from approximately 18-25 years of age.
A gradual progression towards independence, during this span, is considered optimal. The three
domains that develop during emerging adulthood include: cognitive domain, emotional domain,
and behavioral domain (Arnett, 2007). Thus, a shift from independence to interdependence (i.e.,
connection and collaboration) is considered more desirable and deemed developmentally
appropriate for foster youth entering adulthood (Propp et al., 2003).
Preparing youth for life on their own, by gradually learning practical life skills, is most
synonymous with many transitional living programs. Further, research suggests that the
developmental outcomes, for former foster youth exiting the system, are better for adults that
have experienced continuity in significant relationships than those lacked these support systems
(Avery, 2010; Propp et al., 2003).
The emphasis on cultivating and maintaining positive relationships for foster youth
during adolescence and as they emancipate from the system, to improve adult developmental
outcomes, is significant to the findings and themes in my study. I believe this finding suggests
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that the role of the caring adult in many cases, whether a mentor or foster parent, facilitated the
youths’ academic growth and development. This theme most closely resembles the
environmental component within the social cognitive model (Bandura, 1986). The former foster
youth participants, in the study, described the impactful role of a trusted, caring adult in their
lives in supporting their academic and career development. More specifically, each of the FFY
participants had a consistent caring adult in their life that carried over from adolescence into
adulthood. Robert’s (FFY1) caring adult was his foster father, whom he also considers his
mentor. Sonia (FFY2) suggests in high school her caring adult, as well as her mentor, was her
foster mother. She states that she does not see her foster mother as much as she would like today,
however, they still have a relationship. Kelly’s (FFY3) foster mother was her consistent, caring
adult. In addition, Kelly (FFY3) alluded to the fact that her relationship with her grandparents
from high school into college has continued to grow as well. Samantha (FFY4) stated that her
foster mother, whom she lived with for ten years, was the consistent caring adult in her life. That
said, when youth age out of foster care and transition into adulthood it is essential, for youth, to
have access to extended services as well as meaningful, lasting relationships to adjust and live
interdependently.
Similarly, the mentors described the meaningful interactions with foster youth in aiding
their transition to adulthood more seamlessly. Research suggests that mentoring relationships
among foster youth are associated with positive transitions to adulthood (Ahrens et al., 2008;
Osterling & Hines, 2006; Pei, 2009). As such, mentoring relationships with non-parental adults
have shown to have positive effects on adolescents, as well as improved adult outcomes (Ahrens
et al., 2008). In line with this study, mentors intervened with foster youth at critical times, as they
approached emancipation and entered adulthood.
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Second, foster youth need to be able to articulate their goals with another person,
preferably a mentor. Markus and Nurius (1986) described possible selves as reflecting on and
envisioning one’s future through the articulation of goals and aspirations. Furthermore, possible
selves provide a framework for interpreting our experiences and influence the way people view
their potential and options (Markus & Nurius, 1986). Such was the case in the current study.
Each of the participant populations stressed the importance of foster youth having an outlet to
articulate their goals with another person. Those in the child welfare system may have their
immediate needs met in terms of safety, housing and food. However, the opportunity to help
facilitate youths’ goals and self-efficacy through meaningful conversation is of critical
importance to those in the foster care system.
As the mentors pointed out, foster youth may at times feel that they do not have a voice.
It is paramount for youth to feel that they have a voice, are heard, and are able to address their
individual needs. Collectively mentors focused on the importance of hearing the foster youths’
concerns and supporting them to have an active voice in their own future. Additionally, the
mentors provided verbal encouragement and reinforcement to youth as they articulated their
future goals. Central to the relationship between the mentor and mentee was one based on trust.
As a result of the meaningful conversations, shared between the mentor and mentee, the mentors
gained greater insight into the youths’ complex needs. In turn, the positive relationships,
established trust, meaningful conversations, and verbal encouragement may raise foster youths’
self-efficacy.
Mentors’ supported the youths’ academic and career goals in the following ways. Evan
(Mentor 1), a law enforcement officer, supports youths’ goals in graduating from high school by
connecting youth with appropriate alternative programs within the school system and through
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social services. Diana (Mentor 2) is a district employee that works closely with foster youth and
social workers to identify those eligible for legislation that may assist in graduation from high
school due to numerous transitions and fragmented educations. Derek (Mentor 3) is a high
school counselor, with a social work background, that works with a targeted foster youth support
program and encourages youth that are eligible to pursue and apply for scholarships specific to
foster youth. Cynthia (Mentor 4) through her non-profit organization advocates for foster youth
by connecting youth to a mentor- she stressed the importance of the mentor/mentee relationship
that facilitates learning and self-regulation.
Additionally, the former foster youth echoed the same message. Subsequently, the
possible-selves that were well articulated serve several functions. The meaningful conversations
with mentors/care-providers served to facilitate the former foster youth participants’ motivation.
This was achieved through the reciprocal relationship between the mentor (or other helping
professional) and the foster youth. As such, youth were able to articulate their goals, receive
verbal encouragement and feedback from mentors, and pro-actively plan for their future. In turn,
this facilitated youths’ motivation and increased their likelihood of achieving their goals.
The former foster youth participants stressed the significance of articulating their goals
with another person as highly beneficial to their a-typical educational outcomes. More
specifically, each of the FFY participants suggested that involvement in targeted groups and
support programs were instrumental in pursuing post-secondary options and addressing personal
challenges. Robert (FFY1) and Kelly (FFY3) participated in targeted foster youth support groups
in high school. Subsequently, in college, EOP (Educational Opportunity Programs) support
programs provided ongoing support to former youth by the advisors. Robert (FFY1) noted the
impactful relationships in college with his ILP workers that were also his advisors in the EOP
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program. Additionally, Kelly (FFY3) reflected on the benefits of a targeted foster youth group in
high school. Subsequently, she took the initiative in college, along with her advisor through
EOP, to start an ever-expanding foster youth program on their college campus. Similarly,
Samantha (FFY4) noted the benefits of a county worker in high school that she could talk with
regarding any personal challenges. In college, Samantha (FFY4) shared the meaningful
relationship she forged with her Renaissance Scholar program advisor, through the EOP
program. In fact, her advisor became Samantha’s (FFY4) mentor, whom she partly credits for
her success today. Sonia (FFY2) also discussed the benefits of the EOP program in college and
the advisor as very crucial to her motivation and educational attainment today. Collectively, EOP
advisors were very influential in helping the former foster youth participants, in this study,
throughout college. As such, the advisors listened to the FFY’s personal challenges and assisted
in helping youth navigate through to reach their academic and career goals.
Pei (2009) highlights the important role of academic advisors to former foster youth in
college. As such, it is recommended that academic advisors be well informed of foster youth
programs, but also meet regularly with youth to monitor their progress (Pei, 2009). Similarly,
Ambroz (2007) further suggests that it is critical for helping professionals (i.e., advisors, social
workers, counselors, therapists) to not only be knowledgeable about foster youth services and
programs but to be readily available to youth emotionally. Moreover, foster youths’ motivation
needs to be empowered through the guidance and support of helping professionals (Ambroz,
2007). At the core of the FFY’s successful target and support groups, were the positive
relationships’ cultivated and sustained between the mentors and the foster youth.
Along the lines of Markus & Nurius (1986) possible selves, Reid and Ross (2005)
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examined protective factors in youth who aged out of the foster care system. They focused on a
specific curriculum, First Voice, which focuses on encouraging adolescents’ in foster care to
have a voice and play an active role in envisioning and planning for a successful transition to
adulthood.
Similarly, programs that are solution focused and promote learning by setting goals can
benefit former homeless youth in a group setting (Walker, 2008). Like those in Walker’s study
(2008) and Reid and Ross’s (2005) study, the ILP workers, counselors, and/or advisors would
ask the FFY participants’ questions regarding their future goals. The participants, in the study,
would self-reflect and focus on goal setting, by aligning their short and long-term goals, through
meaningful conversations with mentors. The impactful discussions and self-reflections, of the
participants, enabled the former foster youth to envision their futures and move towards their
possible selves. This was the case in my current study.
Third, foster youth consistently practice elements of self-regulation to attain their
educational goals. Additionally, this finding is anticipated or reflected in non-foster youth
counterparts, as well. Furthermore, the mentors facilitated self-regulation within their
relationships and roles with foster youth. Through impactful conversations, targeted support
groups, and identification of the individuals goals; mentors facilitated youths’ self-regulation by
working collaboratively on establishing and addressing their short and long-term goals. The
themes from both participant populations suggested that the former foster youths’ academic self-
regulation was consistently strong from high school and beyond. More specifically, the former
foster youths’ time-management and goal-setting were consistently strong. I believe this is
related to their self-efficacy (i.e., personal factors) in that they believed they could succeed
academically. Each former foster youth enrolled in rigorous course throughout high school and
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maintained solid grades. Notably, this was achieved through their own self-regulation of
studying, maintaining jobs, and balancing their challenging personal lives.
For the purpose of this study, research question 1 was viewed predominantly through
Bandura’s social cognitive theory. Thus, it was critical to examine the motivational
characteristics that produced positive educational outcomes for the FFY participants. As such,
this high-performing group of participants had attended a four-year college or had graduated
from a four-year college. More specifically, the unique characteristics were viewed through the
social cognitive lens: self-regulation, self-efficacy (academics), and possible selves. Research
question 1 further explored the motivational characteristics and self-regulatory beliefs’ of former
foster youth- in relation to student achievement and post-secondary options.
Self-regulation of former foster youth was key to their educational outcomes. As already
noted, the former foster youth subjects were highly motivated in terms of their self-regulation
and self-efficacy. Clearly, this was a high achieving group of former foster youth that had
sustained their motivation to achieve educational success- each had graduated from a four-year
college or were currently attending a four-year college. Further, each of the FFY enrolled in
college-bound (“A-G”) courses throughout their high school education, while maintaining solid
GPA’s. This study and interviews discovered that both subject populations believed self-
regulation was a contributing factor to the educational trajectories of former foster youth. The
participants demonstrated their strong self-regulation from high school into college, in terms of
goal setting, by balancing A-G courses with work schedules. Additionally, self-efficacy in terms
of academics was a key component to youth’s success from adolescence into early adulthood.
Subsequently, both populations suggested that elements of self-regulation; such as goal setting
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and time management skills, high academic self-efficacy, and possible selves were many of the
motivational characteristics that promoted student achievement and educational success.
Research question 1 addressed this critical component to former foster youths’ atypical
academic achievement. The motivational characteristics were defined by former foster youth that
were focused on goal setting and self-motivated. The participants, as I noted, were proactive in
setting goals with short-term and long-term goals. As such, the short-term goals were to do well
in school and take A-G courses. This was achieved by their strong time-management skills of
balancing outside jobs with their high school studies, while maintaining strong self-efficacy to
sustain their GPA’s and be college-eligible. The long-term goals were to go to college and earn,
at minimum, a Bachelors’ Degree. Their, drive, as I observed was derivative of their motivation
to have a better life for themselves than what they had been exposed to by their biological
families and within the foster care system. Further, their drive and persistence was fueled by
their motivation to have greater opportunity in their future for themselves, as well as their
younger siblings. Thus, each of the four former foster youth were very goal-oriented in taking
rigorous courses and maintaining “A-G” schedules throughout their high school educations to
take them to the next level, post-secondary schools.
Similar to the role of mentor participants, in this study, Schunk et al., (2008) points out
that the goal-content theory conceptual framework is focused on facilitation, not control, as the
guiding principle to motivate people. This was broken down into four elements (1) help students
activate a relevant goal for completing a task (2) ensure that goals that are activated are clear,
compelling, and presented in such a way that students understand what they need to do to
accomplish them (3) help students activate multiple goals (4) create appropriate emotions that
facilitate motivation (Schunk et al., 2008). Consistent with the mentors’ relationship with their
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mentees the same strategies could be said to motivate their mentees. As was reflected in the
mentors’ responses, setting obtainable, relevant goals were highly critical. Furthermore, the
mentors suggested exploring youths’ long-term goals and then making certain they are aligned to
the short-term goals that were currently in place. Collectively the Mentors’ demonstrated
facilitation not control, by supporting youth, in setting both short and long-term academic and
career goals, which in turn, motivated the foster youth.
Adolescents and Self-Efficacy
Adolescent development was relevant to my dissertation study. This study examined
former foster youths’ self-efficacy as related to educational attainment. More specifically, it
examined self-efficacy in former foster youth who attended post-secondary schools. Adolescent
development was critical to former foster youths’ educational paths. Stronger self-efficacy
during high school positively impacted participants’ educational trajectories. The manner in
which youth develop personal efficacy during the transition to adolescence can play a major role
in setting the course of their life paths. As such, self-efficacy can be fostered through the
mentoring relationship (Foulk, 2015).
Bandura (1997) suggested that the passage from adolescence to adulthood has become
riskier for at-risk youth growing up in conflicted and fractured families in impoverished
communities. Adolescents manage risks and challenges based on their personal efficacy
developed through prior mastery experiences (Bandura, 1997). School transitions can be
beneficial or detrimental to the growth of personal efficacy.
The passage from adolescence to adulthood that Bandura (1997) alluded to as well as, the
complex lives of the former foster youth participants, in my study, should be considered by
helping professionals and educators, in both the educational system and private organizations. In
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 127
an attempt to better serve the complexities and nuances that exist among foster youth. As we
already know, foster youth often live in constant transition with minimal consistency. As a
result, their academic and social lives are frequently disrupted during adolescence.
My dissertation study found that the positive relationships that youth forged with adults
and/or mentors was critically important and perceived as a protective factor by both former foster
youth and mentor participants. The positive relationships allowed FFY to discuss their possible
selves and start planning for their futures in a pro-active manner. In addition, FFY participants’
perceived motivational characteristics and academic self-efficacy were strong during high school
and their adolescence, leading into adulthood. Seemingly, this influenced FFY’s academic
choices and likelihood of attending and/or graduating from a four-year university.
These motivational characteristics, I believe, can be supported and cultivated by school
personnel. I think the implications for helping professionals suggests that we need to be mindful
of the unique and complex lives of foster youth and realize that there many factors that
contribute to an individual’s educational achievements. I do not believe that there is any one
specific, generic, program that can facilitate foster youths motivation and in turn, increase their
levels of educational attainment. In my study, at the core of the FFY’s educational success, was
that they possessed strong motivational characteristics coupled with at least one caring adult (i.e.,
mentor, foster parent) in their lives. Subsequently, helping professionals need to acknowledge a
person-oriented approach that supports foster youth in their short and long-term goals.
Many adolescents successfully navigate through transitional stressors in ways that
increase their sense of personal competence (Nottelmann, 1987). As such, my study examined
foster youth’s motivation and the perceived protective factors that enabled students to flourish in
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 128
their transition from adolescence to adulthood. Despite challenging lives, the FFY achieved
notable academic success due to a multitude of individual and systemic factors.
Recommendations for Practice
Implications for practice suggest that foster youth are a multidimensional and complex
population. Thus, there is not a one-size-fits-all approach or model that encompasses all the
nuances and complexities among foster youth. Similar to my study, the variable-oriented
approach may be appropriate for identifying risk and protective factors associated with a
particular outcome. Subsequently, one approach cannot simply explain foster youths’ successful
transition to adulthood. My qualitative study would most closely resemble the person-oriented
approach (Magnusson, 1995).
Based on my findings within my study, I would recommend helping professionals be
mindful of the vulnerable and complex nature of foster youth. Most importantly, practitioners
should focus great attention on foster youth having a voice in their futures by working
collaboratively with positive adults (preferably mentors). As youth articulate their future goals
with helping professionals, practitioners can support youths’ self-efficacy and self-regulation
through developing meaningful relationships in the school setting or private sector. In turn,
cultivating healthy relationships with a caring adult can help youth navigate adulthood
seamlessly.
Recommendations for practice can be viewed through the three common themes found
within my study. First, foster youth need some type of caring adult in their lives to help the
successfully navigate adulthood. Second, youth need to be able to articulate their goals with
another person, preferably a mentor, to discuss their possible selves. Third, youth can be
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 129
instructed to practice elements of self-regulation (i.e., pro-active in goal-setting and time-
management skills) and foster high academic self-efficacy to attain their educational goals.
The FFY participants and mentors, in my study, collectively stressed the importance of a
caring adult in the lives for foster youth, that extended beyond their foster care placement. Youth
need ongoing support that extends beyond high school graduation. Guidance counselors at the
high school level and academic advisors at the college level can help prepare youth for
transitioning to adulthood in concrete ways: 1) Listen to foster youths’ individual and unique
concerns and address any issues realistically with the student (Markus &Nurius, 1986); 2)
Collaboratively devise a plan that will meet their educational and career goals(Ambroz, 2007;
Pei, 2009, and Walker, 2008); 3) Remain in direct contact with youth, at minimum twice a month
to monitor their academic progress or any ongoing concerns (Walker, 2008); and 4) As helping
professionals, continue to stay abreast of the latest research and programs available to current
and former foster youth by attending relevant trainings and ongoing professional development
(Ambroz, 2007; Pei, 2009).
As youth approach emancipation and adulthood, the reliance on guidance counselors, in
the high school setting, is crucial. Counselors can closely monitor youths’ enrollment and
progress in college-eligible courses, as well as other relevant educational programs that can assist
in their educational experience. Regardless of the youths’ goals (e.g., high school graduation or
college admission) counselors can stay connected to youth and listen to their unique concerns.
This can be achieved by direct contact with the registrar’s office to be updated on any foster
youth that are currently enrolled at your respective school site. Not only is it important to be
aware of the influx of youth to offer A-G courses, but also relevant programs youth may be
eligible for that would allow them to graduate high school and enter the work force. Similarly,
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 130
academic advisors at the college level can to help prepare youth as they navigate adulthood.
Advisors, as they demonstrated with the FFY participants in this study, were readily available,
caring, and very knowledgeable about the services offered to youth as they enter adulthood. They
maintained constant contact with former foster youth not only in terms of their academics, but
also their personal and social concerns. The personal and social concerns could effectively be
addressed in target and or support groups specific to foster youths’ needs. Such was the case with
Kelly (FFY3). She stressed the importance and benefits of participation in a targeted, foster
youth, support group in high school. Practitioners can arrange the group meetings, at minimum
twice a month, to monitor the socio-emotional needs of foster youth. The meetings may consist
of having additional guest speakers from the county that provide additional layers of support to
youth.
In addition, setting concrete, realistic goals with youth is imperative. Mentors, in this
study, believed aligning short and long-term educational goals for youth was essential to their
outcomes. Derek (Mentor 3) demonstrated that setting incremental goals for youth that were
aligned to their long-term goals is very effective. In Derek’s support group, three of his students
received the competitive Guardian Scholarship. As such, guidance counselors and academic
advisors at both the high school and college level can give foster youth short assignments or
tasks to complete between their meetings or regular sessions. They can debrief on the outcome of
their tasks. These tasks and assignments need to be aligned to youths’ educational and career
goals. In turn, these strategies can help promote self-efficacy and elements of self-regulation in
youth, such as goal-setting and time management skills. The objective would be that youth
proactively move towards their educational and career goals.
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Counselors and advisors can also connect and collaborate with foster youths’ caregivers.
In this study, former foster youth suggested that they had healthy relationships with their last or
longest foster placement. In part, this was because the foster parents seemed connected and
supportive of the students’ educational goals. In the school setting and or private organizations,
helping professionals can seek the support and buy-in from foster parents. This dynamic and
collaboration can be very powerful for foster youth educational outcomes. Arranging monthly
meetings with foster parents in a group, or individually, to address any concerns or questions can
be quite beneficial. The support provided to the foster families can be both educational and
personal. Providing outreach to foster families can be immeasurable to foster youths’ educational
success. Foster parents may have specific questions in terms of youth successfully navigating
adulthood. Opening up dialogue with the families can address both academic and personal or
social concerns. In turn, practitioners can connect the youth and families to relevant programs for
ongoing support. Subsequently, this collaboration suggests to youth that they have adults in their
lives that genuinely care about them and their futures.
Positive possible selves can be addressed with any caring adult, preferably a mentor, as
was the case in my study. This serves many functions. If youth have the opportunity to articulate
their goals with another person they can begin to address both positive and negative selves. The
balance of the positive and negative or unwanted selves is helpful for youth as they navigate
adulthood. Foster youth need this type of meaningful dialogue with another person regarding
their futures. The discussion helps youth start to devise a plan and process their feelings. As
practitioners, it is key to develop quality relationships with foster youth. Listening to the youths’
concerns and letting them know that they are heard is of paramount importance. The mentors in
my study developed relationships with their mentees that were based on trust. The mentors
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 132
would go above and beyond in helping foster youth reach their educational goals and connect
them with appropriate programs or services. The mentors listened to their mentees future goals
and supported them by devising plans that would make their possible selves a reality. This was
mentioned by the former foster youth as key to the their identity development into emerging
adulthood. As practitioners we can and should listen to the foster youths future goals and devise
a reasonable plan of action; support them in their youth, and establish trust by following through
with them regularly. In turn, this support can strengthen their self-efficacy and self-regulation
skills and help them progress toward their educational goals through meaningful discussions.
Continuing to be honest with foster youth and address any barriers that may surface throughout
the process could also be beneficial.
Future Research
Future research should focus greater attention on motivational characteristics in foster
youth. As we know, educational attainment among foster youth has historically been low. The
risk factors for youth have been well documented, however; research of the protective factors -
specifically for foster youth - have been sparse. Thus, the relationship between motivation and
protective factors pertaining to educational achievement, among youth, will be profoundly
important for future research.
More specifically, future research could also address the educational system’s role in
fostering motivation and in turn, academic achievement and attainment. Thus, previous research
has examined the role of the school as a protective factor among students (CDC, 2009). Yet, this
research has primarily focused on the school systems’ responsibility to the general population
(Bandura, 1997 & CDC, 2009). The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2009)
explored strategies for increasing protective factors among youth. Although these practices are
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 133
geared toward the general student population they are applicable to the foster youth population.
Further, the strategies could serve as a critical component to promote school connectedness
among a very underserved population. Interestingly, CDC (2009) identified four factors that
influence school connectedness; a) adult support, b) belonging to a positive peer group, c)
commitment to education, and d) school environment. These factors were echoed among my
participants in my study. Sonia (FFY2), Kelly (FFY3), Derek (Mentor3), and Cynthia (Mentor 4)
stressed the importance of belonging to a positive peer group and adult support in the school
setting. Further, the presence of these two elements in the school environment further enhanced –
their commitment to education.
The school system could potentially play an integral role in facilitating motivation in
students. Bandura (1997) describes the school as an agency for cultivating self-efficacy. Thus,
children develop cognitive competencies and acquire the knowledge and problem-solving skills
essential for participating effectively in society (Bandura, 1997). In line with my study, the
participants appeared equipped with self-regulatory capabilities that enabled them to educate
themselves. Bandura (1997) suggests that it is a fundamental goal of education to equip students
with these imperative skills. As such, the school system can create programs that support at-risk
populations such as foster youth. Perhaps the most effective programs need to address the unique
complexities of the foster youth population, support foster youth in goal-setting, and develop
positive relationships with caring adults that may serve as mentors to the youth. Notably, all 4 of
my former foster youth participants’ maintained strong self-regulatory profiles that enabled them
to flourish academically and achieve extraordinary feats. Seemingly, their success was due in
part to their individual characteristics as well as perceived protective factors.
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 134
Increasingly, research has addressed the mental health component for foster youth. For
example, studies have begun examining the relationship between foster youth and PTSD (Dvir et
al., 2013; Jackson et al., 2011; Yule & Smith, 2008). Beyond the scope of my study, two of the
former foster youth stressed the impact of situational stressors on their lives. More specifically,
these two participants described their battle with depression from coping with placement in their
abusive biological families’ homes and dealing with the absence/loss of their families while
placed in the foster care system. According to the American Psychiatric Association (DSM-5,
2013) 1 in 10 children between the ages six and twelve experience persistent feelings of sadness,
the indicator of depression. In addition, approximately one-fourth of children experience a
traumatic event before the age of 18 years (Dvir et al., 2013). As such, neglect and placement in
foster or institutional care are also among childhood adversities (Dvir et al., 2013). Practitioners,
I believe, need greater attention and focus on the mental health concerns to the complex needs of
those in the foster care system.
The fact that this topic surfaced during the interviews seemed significant from my
perspective. To explain, my study and interview guide questions were designed to primarily
address the participants’ academic and motivational characteristics. Interestingly, in two of my
interviews the participants shared their personal struggles pertaining to depression and or suicidal
ideation. Clearly, this was a harrowing experience for both individuals’ which left an impact on
their current lives. Future research should further address the impact of stressors among foster
youth in relation to PTSD and its effects on motivation and/or educational attainment. To date,
little is known about the prevalance of post-traumatic stress disorder in former foster youth
(Jackson et al., 2011). Subsequently, there is great need to address the less studied topic of
mental health concerns and PTSD among adolescents in the foster care system.
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 135
In summary, future research could focus greater attention on the motivational component;
as well as the protective factors that facilitate educational attainment in foster youth. The school
system can play an instrumental role by enhancing motivation, thus increasing educational
opportunities. Further, mental health concerns of foster youth needs to be identified, addressed,
and provided with the needed additional support. Similar to the participants in my study, their
motivation and personal challenges were addressed, in high school and/or college, through
targeted groups, providing services to foster youth. In turn, the targeted groups and support
programs, provided support in critical times, to aid the youth in their future educational goals.
Limitations and Delimitations
One limitation of this study was that foster youth are an extremely protected population.
Obtaining permissions from organizations was quite challenging; however, once my study was
amended and became strictly qualitative, recruitment became easier. To address this limitation it
was important to maintain ongoing dialogue with the Institutional Review Board (IRB) and my
dissertation chair throughout the dissertation process.
To navigate red tape within organization, the IRB protocol was amended for the study.
In the final sample, adult participants were not directly affiliated with any one organization.
Though recruitment became easier after the study was amended to a qualitative study, this
limited the investigation in other ways. In particular, the sample size was small—only eight
participants. Thus, findings may not be generalizable to the greater population of foster youth.
Another limitation of the study was that the literature compiled was rather broad. The
literature reviewed included research on foster youth, motivation, educational attainment, and
protective factors. Minimal research was located specifically related to foster youths’
motivational factors. As such, the research questions were designed to address limitations in the
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 136
knowledge base—specifically the limited knowledge on perceived motivational factors
influencing educational attainment in foster youth.
Conclusion
Minimal research has focused on the protective factors that facilitate motivation and
educational attainment among foster youth. Interestingly, this is the area that, I believe, deserves
special attention. As this dissertation study sought to explore the relationship between motivation
and educational attainment among former foster youth, the protective factors emerged as the
focal point of this study.
In conclusion, the findings suggest that there is not one specific way to explain the
successful educational careers of the former foster youth. The positive academic achievements
of the former foster youth participants appear multidimensional in nature. As such, their
characteristics, qualities, and individual experiences are complex and unique. These
participants’ remarkable successes can be viewed through the social cognitive theory lens. Thus,
the behavior, personal/cognitive factors, and environment take part in shaping the educational
trajectories of the former foster youth.
In summation, there were a few common themes that emerged from this study. First,
youth need some type of caring adult to help them successfully navigate into adulthood. Second,
youth need to be able to articulate their goals with another person -preferably a mentor- to
discuss their possible selves. Third, foster youth practice self-regulation to attain their
educational goals. As such, these findings were not entirely surprising, however; the mental
health concern, which emerged was of particular importance. Given the challenging lives of the
former foster youth, their educational attainment is a notable success. Thus, the complexities of
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 137
these high achieving individuals, and those like them, deserve greater focus and attention in
future research.
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 138
Appendix A
Interview Guide for Former Foster Youth
1) What are the
motivational
characteristics and
self-regulatory
beliefs of former
foster youth?
2) What personal
and contextual
challenges did
former foster youth
feel affected their
academic growth
and development?
3) What do foster
youth feel have
positively or
negatively
influenced their
academic
motivation?
1) How long were
you placed in the
foster care system?
2) At what age did
you exit the foster
care system?
3) How many
placements had you
lived while in the
system?
4) When you were
in foster care as an
adolescent, did you
feel that if you did
well in school you
would be more
successful as an
adult? In what
way?
5) Did you feel that
getting good grades
in school would
guarantee a good
job or satisfying
career when you
were older? Why or
why not?
6) Were you
involved in any
programs while in
the foster care
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 139
system to provide
additional support?
7) Did you have any
mentors who were
particularly
beneficial to you
while in the system?
8) What was most
challenging to you
while placed in the
system?
9) What benefitted
you the most to get
to where you are
today?
10) In your college
courses, how
confident do/did
you feel that you
can/could
understand the most
complex material
presented? What
skills do/did you
find most helpful?
11) Tell me a little
about you academic
and educational
goals. What do you
feel influenced you
to set these goals?
12) What programs
or advice would you
recommend to youth
who are currently
placed in the foster
care system?
13) In what capacity
do you work with
foster care today?
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14) What do you see
as the greatest
barriers to academic
and career
achievement for
foster youth?
15) In what ways do
you see that youth
can overcome these
barriers?
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 141
Appendix B
Interview Guide for Mentors
1) What are the
motivational
characteristics and
self-regulatory beliefs
of former foster
youth?
2) What personal and
contextual challenges
did former foster
youth feel affected
their academic growth
and development?
3) What do foster
youth feel have
positively or
negatively influenced
their academic
motivation?
1) Please tell me a
little about your
position?
2) How long have you
been in this role?
3) In what capacity do
you work with foster
youth?
4) Have you
specifically mentored
any youth through
various programs?
5) What do you
observe as the major
barriers to foster
youth succeeding
academically or
socially?
6) Are there any
specific programs or
support that you
believe is beneficial to
youth placed in the
foster care system?
7) Is there anything
you would
recommend to youth
who are aging out of
the foster care
system?
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 142
8) Can you tell me
about any individual
cases (without
identifying the
individual) that you
see as a success story?
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 143
Appendix C
Former Foster Youths’ Responses to Research Questions
1) What are the
motivational
characteristics and self-
regulatory beliefs of
former foster youth?
2) What personal and
contextual challenges did
former foster youth feel
affected their academic
growth and development?
3) What do foster
youth feel have
positively or
negatively influenced
their academic
motivation?
FFY1
(Robert)
Ø Self-efficacy belief
that he was capable of
succeeding
academically in both
high school and
college; enrolled and
succeeded in rigorous
courses.
Ø Self-regulation:
Proactive in
organizing study
groups, practicing
study skills, strong
work ethic in
balancing job and
studies, and
advocating for himself
when he needed
services while in the
system
Ø Challenges: Age 2 years
old and was constantly in
a transitory living
situation.
Ø Developed survival skills
at an early age to
prioritize education with
little or no supervision.
Ø Until being placed with
his foster family in 9th
grade he had
demonstrated a parental
role with his younger
sister.
Ø Robert believes
that his motivation
to set the standard
for his younger
sister and be the
first to earn a
bachelor’s degree
in his family has
been a continual
incentive.
Ø Considers his
foster family his
parents and
brothers.
Ø Foster family was
Robert’s support
system as well as
mentors
throughout high
school and
beyond.
Ø ILP workers
instrumental in
connecting him
with needed
services as he
emancipated.
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 144
FFY2
(Sonia)
Ø Innate motivation and
drive to achieve
academically.
Ø Sonia practiced self-
regulation throughout
her educational
experience. Her
biological parents’
expectations were that
she would succeed
and her own desire
was to have a good
life. She knew that a
good education was
the key to enhancing
her career options.
Ø Self-efficacy was
strengthened by
continual enrollment
in rigorous courses,
including AP and
honors courses. In
addition, she was
successful in these
courses.
Ø Sonia described
socioemotional
challenges while she
was living with her
biological family.
Ø Once placed with her
foster family, she stated
that the stressors,
including suicidal
thoughts, dissipated.
Ø Although it was
emotionally challenging
living with her
biological family, the
expectations were that
she succeed in school.
Sonia’s motivation was
sustained from a young
age throughout her
educational experience.
Ø Instilled
expectations that
she would
maintain academic
achievement.
Ø Healthy foster
placement during
the majority of the
time she was in
the system, her
senior year.
Ø Allowed Sonia to
experience a
positive and
healthy
relationship with
her foster parent.
Ø Ability to discuss
her dreams and
goals with a
supportive adult
(Sonia’s foster
parent).
Ø Foster parent was
a mentor to Sonia
and facilitated her
academic
motivation.
Ø Sonia had
continued success
academically
which propelled
her educational
attainment.
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 145
FFY3
(Kelly)
Ø Self-efficacy was
strong in that she took
honors courses.
Ø Successful student due
to prioritizing her
younger sister.
Ø Self-regulation
balanced working and
college.
Ø Challenges encountered:
being separated from her
sister sophomore year.
Ø Socioemotional issues
persisted throughout
high school (depression)
Ø Younger sister (be
a role model) was
the continual
motivator to
succeed.
Ø Third foster
placement was a
very healthy
relationship. She
bonded with her
foster mom.
Ø Counseling
provided a
beneficial outlet to
bond with other
foster youth.
Ø Maintained a
supportive
relationship with
her grandparents.
Ø Downfalls were
that one of the
high schools she
attended, had no
regards for foster
youth and the
issues they are
coping with.
FFY4
(Samantha)
Ø Innate motivation to
succeed academically
and career wise.
Ø Self-efficacy was
strong throughout her
Ø Working full-time
during junior and senior
year of high school,
while enrolled in A.P.
courses.
Ø Samantha’s
younger sister was
a major motivator
in staying focused.
Ø Belief in her mind
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 146
educational career.
Ø She believed education
was the key to a better
future/life.
Ø Self-regulation
maintained schedule
working and full-time
student (high school
and college)
Ø Tension from other
family members when
she was the only one
placed in the system.
Ø Limited number of
people were well-
equipped to provide
actual guidance to what
she was coping with
while in the foster care
system.
that education was
the key to a better
life.
Ø Lack of guidance
to navigate
through the system
in high school was
a challenge.
Ø Guidance and
support (from
Renaissance
Scholar program)
during college was
a contributor to
her success.
Ø Support
throughout from
foster family and
Renaissance
Scholar program
integral part of her
academic success.
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 147
Appendix D
Mentors’ Responses to Research Questions
11) What are the
motivational
characteristics and self-
regulatory beliefs of
former foster youth?)
What are the
motivational
characteristics and self-
regulatory beliefs of
former foster youth?
2) What personal and
contextual challenges
did former foster youth
feel affected their
academic growth and
development?
3) What do former foster
youth and foster youth
mentors feel positively or
negatively influenced their
own or their mentees
academic motivation?
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 148
Mentor 1
(Evan)
Ø Motivational
characteristics of
many of the youth
are lessened because
of the socio-
emotional
component,
especially the trauma
they have
experienced. Youth
may run away from
the foster families
and feel that no one
cares about their
wellbeing. They
often do not feel very
hopeful and
consequently,
motivation dwindles.
Ø Goal-setting is key to
motivating foster
youth and their
outcomes.
Ø Unstable home
environments and
exposure to abuse
or neglect.
Ø Even after placed
in foster care many
still feel that they
do not have value
because of the way
they are treated.
Ø Having a voice regarding
their predicaments has
been very powerful. The
connection with an adult
that actually cares about
their well-being is quite
meaningful.
Ø Examining goals for their
future and making
concrete plans to explore
options as they emancipate
or graduate from high
school.
Mentor 2
(Diana)
Ø Self-efficacy in terms
of their education is
improved as long as
they have
experienced previous
success.
Ø Challenges have
included
devastation. Many
individuals are
truly
disadvantaged as
they enter
adulthood.
Ø Lack of guidance
from a supportive
parent or care-
provider.
Ø Critical that youth have a
clear understanding of
their educational options.
Ø Opportunity to pursue
goals with adults that can
assist youth as they
navigate from high school
to early adulthood.
Ø Exposure to foster youth
programs through the
school to facilitate
motivation of future goals
and/or post-secondary
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 149
options.
Ø Critically important to
have a positive, supportive
adult connection as youth
emancipate from the
system (either from a
foster parent or another
role)
Ø Youth are in dire need of
extended services.
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 150
Mentor 3
(Derek)
Ø Foster youth are
dealing with daily
life struggles. There
may be less focus on
future priorities and
more on the here and
now. Thus,
motivational
characteristics are
compromised.
Ø Beneficial to align
short-term and long-
term goals (goal
orientation theory).
Ø Sense of
belongingness
increased self-
efficacy and
motivation.
Ø Lack of parental
guidance to
successfully
navigate through
adulthood.
Ø High turnover rate
of social workers.
Important
information is
disseminated to
youth but not fully
explained to youth.
Ø Services become
disconnected due
to constant
transitions in
living situations.
Ø Foster youth groups
organized to address the
socioemotional and
academic needs of youth
in the system.
Ø Trust needs to be
established and
maintained to be effective
mentor.
Ø Organizing critical
information to not only be
provided to youth, but also
to assist in implementation
of programs.
Ø Mentors often provide the
guidance not otherwise
available.
Ø Derek mentored and
assisted numerous youth
to successfully transition
from high school, meet A‒
G eligibility, and gain
acceptance into 4-year
universities with tuition
covered through the
Guardian Scholars
program.
Mentor 4
(Cynthia)
Ø Motivational
characteristics for
youth are enhanced
when they work
through obstacles
with the mentor.
Ø A barrier is that
many youth do not
have a mentor,
guardian, or friend
to listen to them
and share their
dreams and goals.
Ø Role of mentor and
mentee of paramount
importance.
Ø Meaningful relationships
with a mentor or caring
adult is crucial to the
development and outcome
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 151
Ø Due to constant
transitions, many
supportive
relationships
dissipate. There is
no continuity.
Ø DCFS works from
Maslow’s
hierarchy (1954).
Focus is on the
immediate needs
of foster youth.
However, there is a
need to move
beyond that in
education.
of youth.
Ø Mentoring through a
natural relationship.
Ø Build on individual
strengths and interests.
Ø Tutoring and literacy also
addressed for youth.
Ø Friendship and trust
provides a sense of
healing for youth.
Ø Focus on self-worth and a
sense of purpose.
FACILITATING MOTIVATION 152
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Abstract (if available)
Abstract
In the United States, there are approximately 400,000 foster youth. The state of California accounts for approximately 20% percent of youth placed in the foster care system. As a whole, this population is exposed to a multitude of risk factors while placed in the foster care system and as they emancipate. Re-victimization is not uncommon as youth exit the system. Thus, educational attainment and socio-emotional development are often negatively compromised by involvement with the foster care system. Historically, research on foster youth has focused primarily on risk factors, with limited research on protective factors for foster youth. This qualitative study examined the relationship between motivation and protective factors facilitating educational attainment in former foster youth. Research has reflected that former foster youth typically have dismal academic achievement. Nearly 25-50% of foster youth do not graduate from high school. Furthermore, only 3 to 6% graduate from college. The purpose of this dissertation study was to address this less extensively studied area—protective factors promoting academic achievement and social development in foster youth. Additionally, foster youths' motivational characteristics were examined in relation to educational achievement. The underlying theoretical framework in this study was Bandura’s social cognitive theory. The qualitative data were collected through individual interviews with two subject populations: (a) four former foster youth, and (b) four mentors of foster youth. Each of the former foster youth participants', in this study, were attending a four-year university or had graduated from a four-year university. This study found that the former foster youths' educational trajectory was strongly influenced by their academic self-regulation and self-efficacy. Additionally, this study found that mentors’ connection to youth was of paramount importance in shaping educational and career opportunities for youth as they entered adulthood.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Schneider, Amy
(author)
Core Title
An examination of the protective factors that facilitate motivation and educational attainment among foster youth
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education
Publication Date
02/09/2016
Defense Date
12/01/2015
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
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Tag
facilitating motivation,former foster youth,OAI-PMH Harvest,positive educational attainment,protective factors,self-efficacy,self-regulation
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Hirabayashi, Kimberly (
committee chair
), Foulk, Susanne (
committee member
), Mora-Flores, Eugenia (
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)
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amyschne@usc.edu,aschneider@cnusd.k12.ca.us
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Tags
facilitating motivation
former foster youth
positive educational attainment
protective factors
self-efficacy
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