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Increasing parent involvement at the high school level using the gap analysis framework

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Increasing parent involvement at the high school level using the gap analysis framework

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Content Running head: INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 1

INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT AT THE HIGH SCHOOL LEVEL USING THE
GAP ANALYSIS FRAMEWORK

by

Zitlali Montes

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2016

Copyright 2015 Zitlali Montes
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 2

Dedication

I dedicate this to my husband Jose and children Adan and Meztli. May you always
remember that dreams begin with a wish and require you to never give yourself the option to quit
even when you are tested physically, mentally and emotionally.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 3

Acknowledgements

To my dear husband who believed in my abilities before I did, I thank you. To Adan and
Meztli who gave me hugs and encouragement when I needed it most, I thank you. To the many
great teachers who challenged me and prepared me for the greatest task of all in the academic
world, I thank you. A special thanks to Dr. Yates who spent countless hours guiding me as well
as Dr. Rueda and Dr. Ochoa for giving their time and attention throughout this process. In
addition, I must thank the great friends who lifted me up when I felt like there would be no end.
The journey to this point has been tumultuous. I have had to get past many roadblocks stemming
from real and imagined inadequacies to finally arrive at this point. Now, I emerge a better
version of myself. Through this transformation I gained the experience and knowledge necessary
to go out into the world and spread the good news. Thank you God for guiding me through this
world with purpose and for blessing me with the gifts I will use to encourage others to succeed.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 4

Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Tables 6
Abstract 7
Chapter One: Introduction of the Problem 8
Context of the Problem 9
Purpose of the Study and Guiding Questions 10
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 12
Parental Involvement 12
Types of Parental Involvement 13
Latino Parent Involvement 15
Benefits of Parent-School Partnerships 15
Influence of Parental Involvement on Academic Achievement 17
Influence of Parental Involvement on Student Motivation 19
Parental Involvement Challenges 22
Latino Parent Involvement Challenges 23
Literature Related to the Gap Analysis Framework 24
Knowledge and Skills (Learning Theory) 26
Motivation 26
Organization 27
Conclusion 28
Chapter Three: Methodology 29
Purpose of the Study and Research Questions 29
Methodological Framework 29
Figure 1. Gap Analysis Model 31
Gap Analysis Approach Applied at the High School Level 31
Validation of Causes 40
Methodology 41
Sample/Participants 41
Instrumentation 42
Data Collection Process 46
Data Analysis 48
Ethical Considerations 49
Chapter Four: Results 50
Participating Stakeholders 51
Results for Knowledge and Skills Challenges 51
Survey Results and Findings for the Knowledge Challenges 52
Knowledge Findings from Open End Survey Items 53
Knowledge Findings from Focus Groups and Interviews 55
Knowledge Findings from Observations 59
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes 60
Results for Motivation Challenges 60
Survey Results and Findings for the Motivation Challenges 60
Motivation Findings from Open End Survey Items 62
Motivation Findings from Interviews 63
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 5

Synthesis of Results and Findings for Motivation Challenges 67
Results for Organization Challenges 69
Survey Results and Findings for the Organization Challenges 69
Organization Findings from Open-Ended Survey Items 70
Organization Findings from Interviews 71
Latino Parent Cultural Beliefs Concerning School Volunteerism and Engagement 74
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Organization Challenges 76
Positive Findings 77
Positive Organizational Factors 77
Positive Parent Factors 80
Summary of Findings 82
Chapter Five: Solutions, Implementation, Evaluation, and Discussion 84
Recommended Solutions for Validated KSMO Causes 85
Research-Based Knowledge Solutions 85
Research-Based Motivation Solutions 87
Research-Based Organization Solutions 92
Summary of Prioritized KSMO Causes and Research- Based Solutions 93
Implementation and Evaluation Plans 98
Validated Needs and Rationale 98
Implementation Plan 100
Phase One 101
Phase Two 102
Solution Integration 102
Evaluation Plan 106
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach 108
Limitations 108
Future Research 110
Conclusion 110
References 113
Appendix A: Survey Instrument 117
Appendix B: Information Sheet 120
Appendix C: Focus Group Protocol 122
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 6

List of Tables

Table 1: Types of Parental Involvement 32

Table 2: Assumed Knowledge and Skill Causes 36

Table 3: Assumed Motivation Causes 37

Table 4: Assumed Organization Causes 37

Table 5: Assumed KSMO Causes Table 39

Table 6: Parent Survey Items Aligned with Assumed Causes 43

Table 7: Knowledge and Skill Survey Question Results 53

Table 8: Validated Knowledge and Skill Causes found through the Open- End Questions 54

Table 9: Motivation Survey Results 61

Table 10: Validated Motivation Challenges found through Open-end Questions 63

Table 11: List of Validated Motivation Causes 68

Table 12: Organization Survey Question Results 69

Table 13: Validated Organization Causes from Open end questions 70

Table 14: Solution Plan for prioritized KSMO Causes 94

Table 15: Implementation Plan Causes, Solutions, Implementation and Evaluation Method 105
Table 16: Evaluation Plan 107
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 7

Abstract

Using the seven step Gap Analysis (Clark & Estes, 2008) framework, the researcher sought to
investigate the contextual barriers negatively impacting parent involvement at a predominantly
Latino serving urban high school. The aim of the study was to identify existing knowledge and
skills, motivation, and organizational challenges that deter parents from becoming involved in
school-related activities as well as to prescribe solutions for challenges. Data collection strategies
included two single interviews, three focus group interviews and a school wide parent survey.
The results revealed existing knowledge and skill challenges stemming from lack of information,
lack of computer skills and inexperience with the American school system. Parent motivation
challenges found were, discomfort with initiating interactions with teachers, lack of
transportation, low interest in parent meeting topics, work obligations, competing commitments,
negative past experiences with volunteerism in other schools and procrastination. Organizational
challenges derived from administrative procedures and processes. However, the findings also
revealed positive factors that increased parent comfort and willingness to come to events.
Organizational factors included the principal‟s friendly disposition, positive interactions between
parents and school personnel as well as the communication methods used to notify parents of
upcoming events. A two-phased solution implementation plan and a four leveled evaluation plan
were created to determine the effectiveness of the solutions. The implications of this study point
to the ability of the Gap Analysis problem solving approach to be applied within local level
educational settings.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 8

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION OF THE PROBLEM

Parental involvement (PI) plays an integral role in student success. Involvement in both,
activities taking place within schools and at home has been evidenced in the literature to
positively affect student academic achievement (Jeynes, 2007) and motivation (Fan & Williams,
2010). For that reason, federal and state education agencies have set mandates that require
schools to create multiple opportunities for parental engagement in order for schools to receive
governmental funding and accreditation. An example of a past federal mandate was found in the
Title 1 section of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001 which requires schools to
provide reasonable support for parental involvement activities, create an annual evaluation of
their parental involvement policies, identify barriers to greater participation, involve parents in
the decision-making process, and provide opportunities for parents with limited English
proficiency or disabilities to engage with school personnel in order to qualify for federal funding
(United States Department of Education, 2002). In addition, the Western Association of Schools
and Colleges (WASC) holds local schools accountable for creating plans of action that include a
wide range of strategies aimed at increasing parental involvement in order to receive and
maintain state accreditation (Western Association of Schools and Colleges, n.d).
Although, school accountability measures serve to ensure that opportunities for
involvement are available for parents at schools, challenges continue to exist in urban schools
which lower parental engagement (Smith, Kuzin, De Pedro & Wohlstetter, 2009). Literature on
the topic of PI points to a consistent relationship between low socioeconomic status and low
parental participation in school-related activities (Zhang, Hsu, Kwok, Benz, & Bowman-Perrott,
2011).
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 9

Although, a significant amount of research has been dedicated to the examination of the
relationship between parental involvement and student academic success (Desimone, 1999), few
studies have focused on identifying and addressing the context specific challenges that exist
within urban school environments that contribute to lower involvement.
Context of the Problem

The high school that participated in the study serves approximately 600 students in the
East Los Angeles area. The student population was made up of 98 percent Latino students, 96
percent of whom qualified for free or reduced lunch. In addition, 16 percent of the students were
identified as English Language Learners and seven percent received special education services
(California Department of Education, 2015).
In recent years, the school‟s principal has implemented a school-wide plan that has set
goals for administrators, teachers, staff, and parents. This study was focused on identifying and
eliminating challenges that have negatively affected parent involvement. The intended result of
the study was to increase parent involvement in school-related activities that supports student
success. The goal required parents to earn a minimum of 15 hours of school-related involvement
and 20 hours of home-related involvement during each school year. The goal was originally
based on an organizational parent involvement goal that has since been eliminated by the school
district that required parents to complete 35 hours of parental involvement activities per year.
However, the district goal did not specify what type of PI was required. With the new goal the
principal sought to create a strong parent-school partnership and to increase communication. In
the past, parents at the school were allowed to donate items such as paper to the school in lieu of
physically coming to the school and volunteering. They were also allowed to donate extra hours
they had accrued to other parents who lacked hours in order to help them meet their 35 hours per
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 10

year requirement. The principal desired to eliminate these practices and create a school
environment that is welcoming to parents and encourages them to come and participate in school
events.
Purpose of the Study and Guiding Questions

Many studies have examined the challenges leading to low parent involvement in terms
of their correlation to low socioeconomic status and cultural backgrounds; however, this study
examined the issue of low parent involvement through a different lens that required the
examining low PI in terms of impactful knowledge, skill, motivation, and organizational
(KSMO) barriers that exist at the local school level. The study examined the issue of low parent
involvement by investigating parental knowledge of upcoming volunteer opportunities, their
ability to record their hours and keep track of their child‟s progress as well as the organizational
practices and procedures used to communicate with parents that may directly influence parent
decisions to become and stay involved. The study was framed using the Gap Analysis Approach
(Clark & Estes, 2008; Rueda, 2011) that required researchers to:
1. Identify the knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational challenges that
parents face.
2. Identify the potential knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational solutions
to address these challenges.
3. Recommend a method to evaluate the implementation of these solutions to increase
parental involvement.
The research questions guiding this study are:

1. What are the knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational challenges that
deter parents from becoming involved in school-related activities?
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 11

2. What are the potential knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational solutions
to address these challenges?
The significance of this study is the use of the Gap Analysis method as a problem-solving
tool used to increase parental involvement at the high school level. This study was meant to add
to the body of research that incorporates organizational problem-solving tools used to solve
common educational issues at the local school level.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 12

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Many studies have examined the relationship between parental involvement and student
academic achievement. Research on the subject has determined a link between student success
and parental engagement in schools and at home. However, this study focused on identifying the
challenges that deter the parent population of a particular high school that deter them from
engaging in activities that enrich their child‟s education. This literature review discusses
research describing the nature of parental involvement, explains the benefits of parental
involvement for schools and students and examines the typical challenges found in past research
studies. In addition, the literature examines human learning, motivation, and organizational
problem-solving, as these theories form the underlying framework through which the challenges
found in this study will be classified.
Parental Involvement

. The California Department of Education (CDE) defined parental involvement as the
effort of any caregiver who assumes responsibility for nurturing and caring for children (CDE,
2005). The positive effect of parental involvement on student success influences public policy
greatly (Bempechat & Shernoff, 2012). For example, at the federal level, the No Child Left
Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) required schools to create multiple opportunities for parents to
become involved in school-related activities in order to receive annual funding (United States
Department of Education, 2002). The Title 1 School-Level Parent Involvement Policy requires
schools to conduct meetings during the morning and evening that offer opportunities for parents
to become involved in the school planning process and provide them with information
concerning the Title 1 program in order to receive federal funding (United States Department of
Education, 2005).
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 13

Similarly, sections 11500-11506 of the CDE Code mandate parental involvement
programs as a condition for funds from as far back as the Elementary and Secondary School
Improvement Amendments of 1988 (California State Board of Education Policy, 1994). It also
is a key component in the California School Improvement Program as well as the Parent
Involvement in the Education of Their Children Policy that describes parental involvement as a
critical dimension of effective schooling and views the task of educating children as a shared
responsibility between schools and parents (California State Board of Education Policy, 1994).
Regulatory agencies, such as the Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC), hold
schools accountable for creating plans of action aimed at increasing parental involvement in
order to maintain state accreditation (WASC, nod).
The accountability measures in place are based on extensive amounts of research that
supports the potential of parental involvement to improve academic achievement and social
outcomes for children of all ages (Hornby, 2000). Themes within the parental involvement
literature center upon defining parental involvement and exploring the benefits of parent-school
partnerships and existing barriers to parental involvement.
Types of Parental Involvement

Research defining parental involvement can be separated into two categories: school-
related and home-related involvement.
School-related. School-related involvement refers to parental interactions with schools
during school hours. School-related involvement represents the practice of parents‟ making
contact with schools by attending school meetings, communicating with teachers, and attending
school events. In addition, parents can become involved at higher levels through participation on
school committees and boards (Pomerantz, Moorman, & Litwack, 2007). Similarly, the CDE
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 14

defines school-related involvement as attending parent-teacher conferences and advisory
committee meetings, visiting and volunteering in classrooms, supervising before and after
school, visiting parent resource centers, volunteering at lunch or after school to support children,
and attending school wide events (CDE, 2011).
According to Smith et al. (2009), school-related parental involvement in charter schools
may also include writing charter school applications, serving on charter school governing boards,
helping in the classroom and in the school office, attending fieldtrips, tutoring or mentoring
students, translating materials, fundraising, grant writing, and/or organizing school-related
community events.
Home-related. Home-related involvement pertains to parental engagement in education-
related activities outside of the school environment. The CDE defines home-related involvement
as providing a quiet space at home for homework, limiting video games, reading with children,
talking about the importance of learning and going to college, responding to surveys,
communicating with teachers, organizing homework, and linking learning to current events
(CDE, 2011). When parents engage in course selections, offer guidance through school projects
and tasks, and talk to their children about their academic progress and success these are also
considered home-related involvement. However, some involvement activities are less obvious.
The literature refers to these activities as cognitive-intellectual involvement and is included in
the home-related involvement research. For example, parents who take their children to plays
and museums or reading books with their children are providing them with cognitive learning
experiences that expose them to new learning environments (Pomerantz et al., 2007). However,
research on the subject has found that homework help is nationally recognized as the most
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 15

frequent type of home-related involvement with 70% of parents reportedly helping their children
at least once a week with homework (Pomerantz et al. 2007).
Latino Parent Involvement

Research dedicated to exploration of the topic of low parent involvement has focused on
identifying the influence of cultural background and socioeconomic status on parent
involvement. A recent study examined the problem by studying the issue through the parental
perspective (Reynolds, Crea, Medina, Degnan & McRoy, 2014). In this study, researchers
examined how an individual‟s psychological factors and contextual factors influence the decision
to become involved. The authors identified specific predictors of parent involvement that include
psychological and contextual motivators as well as life context variables. The psychological
motivators found to predict the level of involvement are the parents‟ role construction as well as
their level of self-efficacy. The influential contextual motivators were described as school or
teacher personal invitations to events. In addition, parent life context variables that includes the
amount of free time parents may have to become involved, the amount of resources they have
available to them as well as their level of knowledge and skills were evaluated (Reynolds et al.,
2014). The study found that role construction, self-efficacy, invitation, parent demographics
including race/ethnicity parent education level, immigration status and the number of people in
the home all were predictive of parent involvement.
Benefits of Parent-School Partnerships

Research suggests there are many benefits for schools that create and maintain parent-
school partnerships. The literature on the topic of the effects of this type of partnership on
student achievement illustrates the long-term impact parent involvement has on student success.
The effects of the partnership are further explained in this section.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 16

According to Wolters (2012), schools that purposefully engage parents and establish
relationships with parents help the school outperform similar schools that do not engage families.
Schools benefit from increased amounts of communication, collaboration, ability to problem
solve, and increased staff morale. The Iowa School Boards Foundation (2007) found that, when
working together, families, schools and communities can successfully increase student learning
and educational goal setting.
Epstein (2011) asserts that schools that engage parents during the school year are good
however, those that treat parents as partners have more success. The author attributes increase in
success to the consistent reinforcement students receive focus while at school and at home. In
addition to the student benefit that the partnership creates, schools and parents also greatly
benefit from the partnership. For example, schools increase collaboration and communication
with parents. Teachers raise their confidence levels and their ability to tailor their curriculum to
the needs of their students (Marschall, 2006). Marschall (2006) asserts that parents benefit from
increased social capital attained through collaboration with other parents and school personnel.
Bempechat and Shernoff (2012) found that home-school partnerships lead to more
engaged parents who were able to participate in their children‟s learning. The partnership helps
create a social capital network operated by individuals who share tangible and intangible
resources for the purpose of enhancing children‟s success. For example, the network makes it
possible to share books, videos, and knowledge about the educational process that leads students
towards admission to college (Bempechat & Shernoff, 2012).
Henderson, Mapp, Johnson and Davies (2007) identified four core beliefs that educators,
principals, district leaders and other school staff must hold in order to successfully engage
parents. First, parents must dream about their children‟s success. Second, parents must have the
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 17

capacity to support their children‟s learning. Third, parents and school staff should be equal
partners and finally, the responsibility for building partnerships between school and home rests
primarily with school staff and administration.
Conclusions. It is essential that schools create parent-school partnerships, as the benefits
reach all stakeholders. However, simply engaging students will not ensure that parents and
schools receive the full benefit of partnerships. Parents who are treated by school personnel as
true partners tend to collaborate, communicate, and engage more often than those who are simply
provided with parent involvement opportunities. The increased communication and collaboration
gained through true partnership allows parents to reinforce educational goals set for their children
at home. In addition, parents benefit from increased social capital through conversations
with other parents and school personnel concerning the educational processes and academic
success.
Influence of Parental Involvement on Academic Achievement

Through the last ten years, parental involvement has been consistently identified as a
significant factor in predicting students‟ academic success. This section examines literature
related to the positive relationship between parental involvement and various types of student
outcomes. Additional student benefits include fewer behavioral problems and increased positive
attitudes toward school (Fan, Williams, & Wolters, 2012).
Associations have been found between American mothers‟ involvement in school
activities and student grades. A longitudinal study investigating the effects of a mother‟s
involvement during the early school years was found to foreshadow a positive impact on student
achievements later in life (Pomerantz et al. 2007). Although, the body of research that focuses
on identifying the effects of home-related involvement on student academic achievement is less
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 18

than school-related research, results of such studies have determined that home-related parental
involvement also positively impacts student academic functioning (Pomerantz et al. 2007).
In addition to the long term positive effect early parental involvement has on students
success, studies which focused on the impact of parental involvement at the high school level
determined that it is never too late for parents to become involved. A meta-analysis reviewing 52
studies on parental involvement found an overall statistical significance regarding the positive
impact of parental involvement on urban secondary school students. Similarly, the study found a
parental involvement at the secondary level to positively affect minority student achievement,
which affirms the impact of parental involvement on student academic achievement across
ethnicities (Jeynes, 2007).
Educational outcomes. Positive effects have been found between parental involvement
and math, reading, self-esteem, child parent relationships and positive student attitudes towards
school. In addition, research also suggests a multitude of positive motivational outcomes for
students whose parents are involved throughout their child‟s schooling (Smith, Kuzin, De Pedro,
& Wohlstetter, 2009).

For example, associations have been found between high parental involvement and
students‟ GPAs, state test scores, attendance, graduation rates, and positive attitudes about
schooling (Bempechat & Shernoff, 2012). However, Pomerantz et al. (2007) cautioned against
pushing for increases in parental involvement without specifying the types of behaviors desired
from parents which could possibly be detrimental to student success. According to Pomerantz
(2007), the quality of the involvement is just as important. Parental involvement may pose
negative effects on students if the involvement is controlling, person-focused, or accompanied by
negative beliefs. Such involvement can become an obstacle for students and schools. Parental
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 19

involvement is most effective when parent behaviors support student autonomy, focus on
processes and characterized by positive affect (Pomerantz, 2007).
Influence of Parental Involvement on Student Motivation

The link between parental involvement and student academic achievement has been
demonstrated through research focused on student performance outcomes. However, recent
inquiries on the topic of the effect of parental involvement on students have examined the impact
of parental involvement on student motivation.
According to Gonzalez-DeHass, Willems, and Doan Holbein (2005), relationships exist
between specific types of parental involvement and student motivation. Some, being negatively
impactful and others positively leading students toward success. The review of literature
regarding the effect of parent involvement on student motivation found a relationship between
the two. The positive effects were increased student effort, concentration, attention, interest and
perceived competence. Motivational effects were also found on the subject of intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation that was evidenced through increases in student accountability, their
adoption of mastery goal orientation and their decision to pursue more challenging tasks.
In addition, the relationship between parental involvement and student motivation was
found to increase persistence through challenges and raise student efficacious beliefs. Parent
involvement has been found to be an essential ingredient for effective learning, the result being
increased student engagement and productive learning behaviors (Gonzalez-DeHass, Willems,
and Doan Holbein, 2005). Gonzalez-DeHass et al. (2005) explain how student perceptions of
control and competence are influenced by their parents‟ actions. Such actions increase student
beliefs in their abilities to achieve success. When parents become active resources for students,
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 20

they are able to share and communicate strategies, provide academic activities at home as well as
scaffold and model desired behaviors.
According to Fan, Williams, and Wolters (2012), parent educational aspirations for their
children and school-initiated contact with parents on benign school issues had strong positive
effects on motivational outcomes including student self-efficacy during adolescence. Children
perceived a greater sense of competence and held more positive expectations about their
academic abilities when their parents highly valued their education and were more involved in
their education and in school functions. Additionally, parental involvement affected student
engagement and intrinsic motivation. Parental involvement led to increased engagement that is
measured in terms of student effort, persistence, concentration, and attention. Also, student
intrinsic motivation was affected by parental involvement, particularly involvement that is
informational and lowered by controlling behaviors (Fan & Williams 2010)
According to Pomerantz et al. (2007), parenting styles and the quality of involvement
contributes to the effectiveness of the involvement. The authors list four qualities of parenting
style that have emerged as influential factors on student motivation: support vs. control, process-
vs. person-focused, positive vs. negative affect and positive vs. negative beliefs about children‟s
potential.
However, student motivation is greatly vulnerable to parents‟ actions. Parent reactions to
student behaviors that come in the form of rewards or punishments affect their child‟s academic
performance, offer a sense of security to them and help students internalize their parent‟s
educational values (Gonzalez-DeHass et al. 2005). Studies focusing on the effects of parental
involvement on student motivation across ethnic groups have shown that social factors such as
perceived parent support and family cohesion have a significant impact on student motivation.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 21

Students‟ perceived relations with their parents link to the construction of their academic beliefs
and opinions of self that are central to their motivation in school. Reversely, increased student
motivation has been found to raise the amount of parental involvement (Gonzalez-DeHass et al.
2005).
Supportive parenting styles allow children to explore their own environment, initiate their
own behavior, and take an active role in solving their own problems. In contrast, controlling
behaviors involve applying pressure on children to achieve specific outcomes (Pomerantz,
Moorman, & Litwack, 2007). Supportive parenting entails encouragement, volunteerism,
emphasis on children‟s abilities, expressed enjoyment and love, and flexibility on behalf of the
parent that allows for children‟s independence. They suggest that supportive parental
involvement may benefit students by serving as a motivational resource that fosters student
engagement in school.
Similarly, process focus (also called mastery orientation) is gained through parents‟ focus
on effort rather than ability. Parents who are process focused enhance student skill and
motivational development and increase their pleasure of effort and learning (Pomerantz et al.,
2007). In addition, parents who display positive affect by keeping their involvement enjoyable
and loving may foster increased intrinsic motivation on their children for learning. Also, when
parents hold and communicate positive beliefs about their child‟s ability, student effort increases.
According to Bempechat and Shernoff (2012), parents are children‟s first and primary
guides through schooling. As such, they have the capability to foster achievement motivation
and student engagement, which are most intense for students who live in poverty. Parent
involvement with homework, their parenting style, and transmission of educational values are
influential factors on student motivation
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 22

According to Moorman and Litwack (2007) several decades of research has shed light on
the multiple ways that parents foster student motivation. For example, the positive influence of
parental involvement on children‟s well-being is a primary protective factor against
disengagement. Grades are great motivators to students, but the interpretation of grades is
mediated through their relationship with their parents. Authoritative parenting is associated with
student mastery orientation and exhibit behaviors such as monitoring children‟s activities,
showing affect, being involved, and actively participating in school activities may instill intrinsic
interest and persistence through academic challenges (Moorman & Litwack, 2007).
Parental Involvement Challenges

According to Smith, Kuzin, De Pedro, and Wohlstetter (2011), the rise of the charter
school movement has been viewed as an opportunity for parents to play a more central role in
their children‟s education. However, results from a survey of charter school leaders revealed that
most leaders felt that increasing parental involvement is a challenge (Smith et al., 2011).
Bempechat and Shernoff, (2012) found that underachievement and school disengagement
have serious consequences, both at the individual and societal levels. Problems associated with
underachievement and disengagement are perhaps most intense for students who live in poverty.
Therefore, it is critical for schools to make more concerted efforts to communicate with parents
and to engage in outreach activities that will improve parents‟ and schools‟ understanding of
each other, increase expectations, overcome barriers, and increase the amount of resources
(Bempechat & Shernoff, 2012).
According to Smith, Kuzin, De Pedro, & Wohlstetter (2009), barriers evidenced in the
literature derive from language, work schedule demands, and disenfranchisement with
educational institutions. Marschall (2006) found lower parental involvement has been shown to
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 23

be linked with minorities and students with low SES backgrounds. Raftery, Grolnick and Flamm
(2012) found challenges are greater for low-income and less educated parents who struggle with
lack of transportation, childcare, flexible work hours, financial resources, time, and disposable
income. Moreover, stressful home-life events, such as stretched economic resources and having
little social support, reported less engagement in cognitive activities with their children. Child
characteristics such as gender also affected involvement. Mothers of boys were found to be less
involved due to the general assumption held by mothers that boys are more independent and,
therefore, needless help (Raftery et al., 2012).
Latino Parent Involvement Challenges

Despite the numerous benefits of family engagement, barriers continue to exist,
particularly for urban, low-income, immigrant, minority, and working class families (Smith,
Kuzin, De Pedro, & Wohlstetter, 2009). According to Marschall (2006), Latino parents face
specific challenges when it comes to their children‟s education that include, language barrier,
school segregation and challenges generally associated with poverty. In addition, Latino parents
face a number of structural barriers that serve to discourage and reduce their participation in
traditional school-related activities such as the need for child care, transportation, translation
services, and flexible scheduling to allow for demanding work schedules.
School interpretations of cultural differences and behaviors may also create challenges.
According to Barri (2002), cultural norms and behaviors of Latino parents can be misinterpreted
by many school personnel. Parents are viewed as uncaring when they remain reserved and
nonconfrontational when in fact, parents are meaning to show respect to teachers and
administrators. Additionally, in Latino culture teachers are highly respected so; interfering or
stepping in is considered a rude or disrespectful act. This cultural belief causes parents to wait to
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 24

be asked to come to the school or class before initiating contact. Although, parent involvement
has been accepted as actions that take place in school and at home, Latinos traditionally consider
parent involvement as informal support provided at home (Barri, 2002).
Most schools do not employ the most effective strategies to increase Latino parent
involvement that include creating a welcoming school environment, trained teachers in teacher-
parent relations and offer ample amount of opportunities for involvement. Schools that do not
provide these key parent involvement strategies build barriers for parents who otherwise would
have become involved (Barri, 2002).
Barris‟ (2002) review of Latino parent involvement literature found five challenges
affecting Latino parent involvement. The first has to do with the negative interactions with the
school environment that lead to feeling unwelcomed or anxious entering their child‟s school. The
second is language barriers that are increased when interpreters are not provided. The third is the
disconnect between the school culture, that promotes competitiveness, and home culture that
emphasizes working cooperatively. The fourth is unrealistic expectations set by schools when
parents have not had as much formal education as school personnel or were not educated in the
United States and are unfamiliar with the educational system. Unfamiliarity can cause parents to
feel intimidated when they walk into schools. Lastly, there are many challenges that stem from
low socioeconomic status which can overwhelm parents such as lack of childcare, transportation,
the scheduling of events, being a single parent, working multiple jobs or working long hours. All
of which challenge parent involvement (Barri, 2002).
Literature Related to the Gap Analysis Framework

Research tools such as, the Clark and Estes‟ (2008) Gap Analysis organizational
problem solving method have traditionally been applied within business contexts that
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 25

traditionally focuses on organizational goal achievement and outcomes. The process entails the
evaluation of subgroup achievement within organizations that leads to the identification of
performance gaps and the causes behind them. Data collection methods employed typically focus
on identifying specific context challenges and prescribing solutions for them. Challenges are
analyzed in terms of individual lacks in knowledge and skills, motivation as well as
organizational factors affecting individual performance. Organizational goals are used to
establish a performance standard that helps create a baseline for comparisons between the desired
performance of subgroups and the current performance of subgroups. The difference identified
between the desired performance and the current performance is used to determine
whether or not a performance gap exists. If one is identified, researchers informally collect a list
of hypothesized causes from individuals within the organization that are believed to act as
barriers to achievement. The data collected through informal methods are then empirically
validated and categorized as, a knowledge and skill, motivation, or organizational cause of low
performance. All validated causes are then prescribed research-based solutions that past research
has found to increase knowledge, skills, motivation and help address faulty organizational
practices or lack of resources. The result is a contextualized solution plan that addresses the
specific needs of the group. Next, implementation and evaluation plans are created that are
informed by context specific factors and current evaluation method literature. The Gap Analysis
is a cyclical process that incorporates reflection and modification of solutions when solutions
have been determined to not work within the intended context. Reflection is used throughout the
process as a catalyst for continual organizational improvement and therefore, the final step is an
analysis of the success of the solutions and the overall success of the solution plan to raise group
performance. When a solution is determined to not have alleviated the problem, organizational
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 26

leaders and researchers prescribe another evidence- based solution that has been proven to solve
the specific issue at hand.
Knowledge and Skills (Learning Theory)

The knowledge and skills category pertains to whether or not individuals acquired the
knowledge necessary to achieve the goal in question. The framework provided by Anderson and
Krathwohl (2001) categorizes knowledge into four domains: factual knowledge, conceptual
knowledge, procedural knowledge, and metacognitive knowledge. Factual knowledge pertains
to an individual‟s knowledge of basic elements such as terminology, details, and symbols.
Conceptual knowledge refers to the interrelationship among basic elements within a larger
structure. Procedural knowledge relates to an individual‟s knowledge of how to accomplish
tasks and methods for reaching goals, and metacognitive knowledge refers to self-awareness in
terms of one‟s own ability to reflect on their own understanding and learning.
Motivation

According to Schunk, Pintrich, and Meece (2008), motivation is the process whereby
goal-directed activity is initiated and sustained. Motivation is dependent on an individuals‟
choice to begin a task, the amount of mental effort s/he puts forth to complete the task and
his/her persistence through challenges.
According to Bandura (1977), an individual‟s belief about his/her ability to achieve
success at a task directly influences his/her success at a task. Similarly, Eccles (2005) noted that
high expectations of success positively influence achievement behaviors that include a person‟s
choice to begin a task as well as his/her persistence through challenges. In addition, Mayer
(2011) described the influence of cognitions on maintaining the amount of effort required to
achieve a goal.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 27

According to Eccles and Wigfield (2002), a person‟s value toward completing a goal can
be examined through four dimensions. Attainment value, sometimes referred to as importance
value, refers to the personal importance of doing well on the task. The intrinsic dimension refers
to the amount of enjoyment the individual gets from performing the activity. Utility refers to
how well a task relates to current and/or future goals. Lastly, cost refers to how much the task
affects the person in terms of anxiety, fear, effort required, and loss of opportunities.
According to Seifort (2004), motivation can be understood as a person‟s attempt to
achieve goals. The two dominant goals of learning are mastery- and performance-oriented.
Mastery-oriented students can be described as self-regulating and self-determining. They believe
their effort or some internal controllable factor is the cause of success or failure. They also
believe that intelligence is malleable. They indicate a preference for challenge, engage in more
strategy use, make more positive self-statements, and accept responsibility for success and
failure. Performance-oriented students are preoccupied with ability concerns. They are
concerned about how well they perform relative to others and how they will be perceived by
others. They are more likely to believe that ability is the cause of success and failure, and
intelligence is a fixed entity. Confidence regulates adaptive or maladaptive behaviors.
Sporadically, researchers have suggested the possibility of a third orientation called work
avoidance in which students are motivated to engage in a task in order to avoid failure.
Organization

Organizational tools for problem-solving are used to identify gaps in performance. The
Gap Analysis is one approach that helps organizations make effective decisions about
performance, products, and services (Clark & Estes, 2008). The purpose of the Gap Analysis is
to increase the knowledge, skills, and motivation of individuals within organizations in order to
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 28

achieve organizational goals. The application of the Gap Analysis in real-world environments
calls for leaders to view stakeholders and employees as capital. By doing so, the stakeholders or
employees become investments and, therefore, require attention and maintenance. According to
Clark and Estes (2008), investment in employees results in positive and profitable results for the
organization. The advantages of research-based organizational tools that focus on organizational
goals are the improvement in the effectiveness of individuals, the creation and achievement of
organizational goals, a focus on performance challenges, the contextualization of the problem
and tailored solutions (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Conclusion

The literature review revealed there are two types of parental involvement (school-related
and home-related), parental involvement impacts student academic achievement and motivation,
and how parents become involved is just as important as being involved (controlling vs.
supportive parenting). In addition, numerous challenges to parental involvement exist.
However, organizational tools traditionally utilized in the business world can be applied in
educational settings to solve intractable problems. Literature on knowledge and skill
development, motivation, and organizational problem-solving tools can provide a contextual lens
through which problems can be investigated.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 29

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

Purpose of the Study and Research Questions

The overall purpose of this study is to increase parent involvement at an urban high
school by identifying and solving parental involvement challenges. As such, the research
questions to guide this study are:
1. What are the knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational challenges that
prevent parents from being involved in school-related activities?
2. What are the potential knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational solutions
to address these challenges?
This chapter will describe the methods that will be used to answer the first and provide
evidence for the second research question. The proposed methods will result in the identification
of: 1. the current challenges that exist for parents. 2. The positive contributors to parent
involvement currently in place at the school. 3. The potential solutions for increasing parent
involvement. Any positive contributors and or solutions identified will inform chapters four and
five of this study.
Methodological Framework

In order to examine the challenges to parental involvement, a comprehensive analysis of
the factors contributing to the problem must be conducted. The Gap Analysis problem-solving
approach used by organizations to set goals, identify current performance levels of groups within
the organization, determine performance gaps, investigate the causes behind gaps, prescribe
solutions, implement solutions, and evaluate outcomes has been chosen to frame this study
because it provides a contextualized process inquiry model (Clark & Estes, 2008). The rationale
behind the decision to incorporate the Gap Analysis was based on its innovative approach to
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 30

organizational problem-solving that entails investigating organizational problems through the
lens of what knowledge and skills, motivational, and organizational (KSMO) challenges may be
causing gaps in performances (Clark & Estes, 2008).
The proposed study will apply this approach to investigate the challenges and potential
solutions that can be used by the administration to increase parental involvement at the school
site. As shown in Figure 3.1, the seven steps of the Clark and Estes‟ (2008) Gap Analysis model
are:
 Step 1: Identify organizational goals (Goals)

 Step 2: Quantify the current achievement (Current Achievement)

 Step 3: Determine gaps between goals and the current performance (Gaps)

 Step 4: Hypothesize and validate empirically how each of the three causes (knowledge
and skills, motivation, and organizational culture) impact the proposed gap (Causes)
 Step 5: Plan systemic and individual gap-closing solutions (Solutions)

 Step 6: Implement systemic and individual gap-closing solutions (Implementation)

 Step 7: Evaluate and modify solutions for continual improvement (Evaluation)
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 31

Figure 1. Gap Analysis Model

Steps five, six and seven of the process will be discussed in Chapters Four, Five and Six of this
dissertation and will not be incorporated into this methodology chapter.
Gap Analysis Approach Applied at the High School Level

The ultimate goal of the school administration is to increase overall student achievement.
Research on the effects of increased parent involvement and student achievement has evidenced
a positive correlation between the two (Raftery, Grolnick, & Flamm, 2012). For that reason, the
administration has partnered with the researcher to gain an understanding of any challenges that
may exist that diminish involvement as well as the current positive contributors that increase
involvement at the school.
Step 1: Identify organizational goals. In order to increase student achievement, the
principal has created a multi-leveled school improvement plan that includes goals for
administrators, teachers, students, and parents (C. Ybarra, personal communication, July 12,
2012). The principal‟s goal is to increase parent involvement in school-related activities. The
goal aims to specifically raise the amount of interactions between parents and the school‟s
Goals
Current
Achievement
Gaps
Assumed
Causes
Knowledge Motivation
Organizational
Barriers
Evaluate Implement Solutions
Validated
Causes
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 32

teachers, counselors and administrators. The principals‟ goal correlates with the mandate set by
the charter school district that requires parents to earn 35 hours of involvement per year.
In past years, parental involvement credit was earned by attending school-related events,
engaging in home-related educational activities, or by donating items to the school. The
principal has decided to eliminate parent donations as a source of credit and to limit home-
related involvement in order to increase the number of parents coming into the school and
becoming involved in school events. The principal has created a list of various school-related
and home-related activities that will be accepted as parental involvement. The various credit
earning activities are listed in Table 1 (C. Ybarra, personal communication, July 12, 2012).
Table 1

Types of Parental Involvement

School-Related Activities Home-Related Activities
Parent conferences
Open house
Parent nights
Parent meetings
Parent workshops
School advisory council meetings
Fundraiser events
Volunteerism during the school day
Attending field trips
Homework help
Parent and child discussions about
education
Grade report reviews
Signing school forms
Setting up school-based appointments
Setting up a homework routine
Providing a quiet place and structured
schedules for studying
Providing positive reinforcement
Taking their child on educational trips
(Museums, Cash for College, and
College Visits)
Watching them play sports
Note. The source for these activities was a personal communication exchange with C. Ybarra on
July 12, 2012.

Step 2: Current performance. Parent involvement is recorded using the Power School
data tool which keeps track of the number of hours each parent earns per year. Involvement
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 33

hours will continue to be recorded using this tool however, due to the new goal specifically
requiring differentiation between school-related and home-related involvement past data cannot
be used to determine current performance. Therefore, the current performance has been set at
0%.
Step 3: Determine the gap in the current performance. The principal desires 100
percent of parents to complete 15 school-related hours and 20 home-related hours of
involvement per year. The novelty of the new goal has created a 100 percent gap in
performance.
Step 4: Identify and validate KSMO causes. According to Clark and Estes (2011), the
causes of gaps should be evaluated in terms of individual knowledge and skills, motivation, and
organizational barriers that may exist in order to determine what is affecting group
performance... The process includes the identification of assumed causes and then the validation
of those causes. Rueda (2011) advises practitioners to validate assumed causes through informal
and formal interviews and data collection methods in order to increase the validity of the results.
The following sections will explain how the assumed causes were collected and how they will be
validated.
Identification of assumed causes of the performance gap. According to Rueda (2011),
this part of the investigation is concerned with uncovering people‟s perceptions of what they
believe is causing the gap in performance. In order to uncover what types of challenges are
being perceived as causes of low involvement, informal interviews were conducted with
administration and school staff.
Scanning interviews. The assumed causes were gained through informal interviews with
school personnel. During the interviews participants were asked three questions. The questions
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 34

were used to extrapolate their perception of the existing challenges contributing to low parent
involvement. They were also asked to identify what they believed to be positively contributing to
increased involvement as well as what they believed to be possible solutions for the challenges
they identified. Their responses were placed into one of three categories: knowledge and skills,
motivational or organizational causes. The results of the scanning interviews are summarized
below.
Assumed knowledge and skill causes. The results of the scanning interviews illuminated
the need for parent workshops and training. The comments made by participants resulted in a list
of assumed causes of low parent involvement from the perspective of school personnel. Factors
contributing to low involvement are assumed to stem from parents‟ lack of knowledge
concerning upcoming meetings and the communicative role of the school counselor to act as a
resource for parents and students. They also assume that parents are not checking student
progress throughout the school year and lack knowledge of the school‟s parental involvement
requirement. One person suggested the possibility that parents may lack knowledge of the
number of volunteer opportunities offered by the school. Another suggested they may not feel
comfortable helping their children with school work at home. The scanning interviews also
pointed towards lack of skills pertaining to computer use that prevents parents from accessing
their child‟s information on the school‟s student information system (C. Ybarra, personal
communication, July 31, 2012; G. Lleva, personal communication, July 31, 2012; E. Viramontes,
personal Communication, July 31, 2012)

Assumed motivational causes. Scanning interviews with school personnel were
conducted to create a list of motivational causes assumed to be preventing parents from
becoming involved in school-related activities. The assumed causes found through the interviews
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 35

included the belief that parents are too busy to become involved in school-related activities that
take place during the school day. Also, that parents do not believe they are capable of helping
their children with homework and do not place school volunteerism as a priority now that their
child is high school aged. Other statements pointed toward parent disenfranchisement that
stemmed from parents having had bad experiences with teachers or school administrators in the
past which keep them from wanting to interact with the school (C. Ybarra, personal
communication, July 31, 2012; G. Lleva, personal communication, July 31, 2013; E.
Viramontes, personal Communication, July 31, 2012).

Organizational assumed causes. School personnel pointed to organizational issues
concerning the timing of school activities. Concerns about the ability of parents to attend
activities conducted during the school day when most parents work was mentioned as well as the
fact that working parents are not given adequate notice in order to be able to request days off
from work (C. Ybarra, personal communication, July 31, 2012; G. Lleva, personal
communication, July 31, 2012; E. Viramontes, personal Communication, July 31, 2012).
Knowledge, motivation, and organizational theories. The placement of an assumed
cause into each of the KSMO categories was informed by current learning, motivation, and
organizational theories. For example, Anderson and Krathwohl‟s Taxonomy for Learning,
Teaching and Assessing (2001) informed the decision to place assumed causes into the
knowledge and skill category. The theoretical constructs included in Goal Theory, Social
Cognitive Theory, and Expectancy-Value theory were used to determine motivational causes.
Lastly, the categorization of assumed organizational causes was informed by the Gap Analysis
framework presented by Clark and Estes (2008) and Rueda (2011).
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 36

Knowledge and skills. Table 2 shows each of the assumed knowledge and skills causes,
categorized into one of the four knowledge domains using Anderson and Krathwohl‟s (2001)
taxonomy.
Table 2

Assumed Knowledge and Skill Causes

Type of Knowledge Assumed Knowledge and Skill Cause
Factual Knowledge Don‟t know that they can participate in meetings and events at
school for at risk children.
Don‟t know that they can ask their child‟s counselor about how
well their child is doing in school throughout the school year.
Are unaware of the 35-hour parental involvement requirement
mandated by Green Dot Public Schools.
Don‟t know about the different opportunities for involvement
offered by the school.
Conceptual Knowledge Don‟t know about the consequences their child faces when they do
not meet the 35-hour requirement.
Procedural Knowledge Don‟t know how they can help their children at home. Don‟t know
how to use the computer “Power School” data system which is
where they record their hours
Metacognitive
Knowledge
Not checking to see how many hours they have completed and/or
need to complete before the school year is over.

Motivation. The assumed motivational causes listed in this study were examined as
challenges affecting a parents‟ choice to become involved, the amount of time spent on
educational activities as well as how they continue to work towards completing 35-hour goal
amongst existing challenges. The link between the motivational constructs and the assumed
motivation causes is illustrated in Table 3.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 37

Table 3

Assumed Motivation Causes

Motivation Assumed Motivation Cause
Goal Setting Parents are too busy
They do not believe it is important to volunteer at their child‟s school
now that their child is older.
Efficacy They do not believe that they are capable of helping their children
with homework.
Expectancy-value They have had bad experiences with teachers or school
administrators in the past and therefore, do not want to engage in
school-related activities.

Organization. Clark and Estes (2008) provide a framework for analyzing organizational
causes of performance gaps. According to the authors, assumed organizational causes can be
identified when flawed organizational processes and procedures are in place, there is a lack of
tools and resources required to achieve goals, or poor facilities are kept (Clark & Estes, 2008).
All of the assumed organizational causes collected were categorized as faulty processes and
procedures as depicted in Table: 3.4 below.
Table 4

Assumed Organization Causes

Organizational Flaw Assumed Organizational Causes
Processes and
Procedures
Reminders for school activities are sent home too close to the
activity and working parents do not have adequate time to request
days off of work.
All school activities are conducted during the school day which
prevents working parents from participating.
The way that the hours are recorded is confusing and complicated.

Assumed Causes Informed by the Literature. In an effort to create a comprehensive
list of assumed causes, the challenges gained through research on barriers to parental
involvement were included as assumed causes. For example, traditional challenges found to
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 38

decrease involvement in urban schools include language barriers, parental work schedule
demands, and parental experiences leading to disenfranchisement with schools (Smith et al.,
2011).
In addition, Hornby (2011) found involvement challenges stemming from student
characteristics, such as the age of students, their ability level, and behavior, impact their choice
as well. The researcher suggested that parent-teacher interactions can reveal differences in terms
of goals, attitudes, and language between parents and teachers that can push parents away.
Furthermore, societal factors (e.g., political, economic, historical, and demographic) affect
parental involvement at schools through changes in school culture and practices. Zhang et al.
(2011) support Hornby‟s (2011) claims that socioeconomic status and cultural backgrounds
impact parental involvement. Lastly, Zhang et al. (2011) add student gender as an influence on
the parents‟ decision to become involved in their child‟s school-related activities.
A summary of the assumed knowledge and skills, motivation, and organization causes is
shown in Table 5.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 39

Table 5

Assumed KSMO Causes Table

Sources Knowledge and Skills Motivation Organization
Informal
Interviews
Parents do not know how to
use the computer “Power
School” data system which
is where they need to record
their hours in order to get
credit for the time they
participate in activities.
They do not know that they
can participate in meetings
and events at school for at-
risk children.
They do not know that they
can ask their child‟s
counselor about how well
their child is doing in school
throughout the school year
and not just when something
has gone wrong.
They are unaware of the 35-
hour parental involvement
requirement mandated by
Green Dot Public Schools.
They do not know about the
different opportunities for
involvement offered by the
school.
They do not know how they
can help their children at
home.
They do not know about the
consequences their child
faces when they do not meet
the 35 hour requirement.
Parents are not checking to
see how many hours they
have completed and/or need
to complete before the
school year is over.
Parents are too busy.
They do not believe it is
important to volunteer at
their child‟s school now
that their child is older.
They have had bad
experiences with teachers
or school administrators in
the past and therefore, do
not want to engage in
school-related activities.
They do not believe that
they are capable of helping
their children with
homework.
All school activities are
conducted during the
school day which prevents
working parents from
participating.
Reminders for school
activities are sent home
too close to the activity
and working parents do
not have adequate time to
request days off of work.
The way that the hours are
recorded is confusing and
complicated
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 40

Table 5, continued
Sources Knowledge and Skills Motivation Organization
Theory Factual, conceptual,
procedural, and
metacognitive knowledge
types (Anderson &
Krathwohl, 2001)
(see Table 3.2)
Choice, mental effort, and
persistence, Social
Cognitive Theory (Self--
efficacy) Expectancy-Value
Theory (task importance)
Processes and procedures,
resources, tools, and
opportunities for
involvement
Literature The language barrier (Smith,
Kuzin, De Pedro,
&Wohlstetter, 2011) and or
lack of translation services
available to parents reduces
communication between
parents and schools
(Marschall, 2006)
Past experiences with
school personnel have led
to parents becoming
disenfranchised with the
school system (Smith et al.,
2011).
The child‟s: age, ability
level, behavior (Hornby
2011) and gender (Zhang et
al., 2011) impact a parents‟
choice to become involved
Negative Parent-Teacher
interactions lower parent
volunteerism (Hornby
2011)
Parental work schedule
demands limit the number
of hours parents are able to
participate in school-
related activities (Smith et
al., 2011) and timing of
events coincide with work
hours (Marschall, 2006)
Social Factors such as
cultural background/
socioeconomic status/
population demographics
influence level of
involvement (Hornby,
2011) and (Zhang et al.,
2011)
Involvement is affected by
lack of child care and
transportation needs
(Marschall, 2006)

Validation of Causes

The second stage of step four in the Gap Analysis is to validate the assumed causes
gained through scanning interviews and literature review with parents. This step also provides
researchers with the opportunity to gain a deeper understanding of existing motivators that
positively affect achievement. Validation of the assumed causes will be obtained through a
school wide parent survey, two focus group interviews and individual interviews with parents.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 41

Methodology

Sample/Participants

Interviews. Interviews were conducted with parent volunteers. The sample of
participants was gained through a self-selection process. Parents were notified of the study and
the need for parent interview volunteers through emails and phone calls conducted by the
school‟s Parent Coordinator. They were asked if they would like to volunteer to take part in
either a focus group interview or individual interview. The interviews were recorded and notes
were taken by the researcher to ensure the accuracy of the results. However, names of
participants were not recorded. In addition, the challenges identified through the interviews were
placed on a validated list of causes. Any motivators or solutions suggested by interview
participants were used to create separate lists of parent motivators and solutions. Those lists
along with the list of assumed causes included in Table 6 were used to create an interview
validated causes list.
Survey. The parent survey was sent home with all students in both English and Spanish
to accommodate the 16 percent of parents that speak only Spanish. However, the final sample
was limited to the number of parents that returned the survey to the school.
Focus groups. According to Patton (2002), focus group interviews should consist of a
group of five to eight participants who belong to a homogenous group with similar backgrounds
and experiences in order to gain insight regarding a group issue. Thus, each of the focus group
interview sessions for this study included parents who were identified by the school‟s parent
coordinator as representative of the school‟s parent population. Focus group participants were
asked to volunteer if their child had attended the school the previous school year as a sophomore,
junior, or senior. The decision behind excluding freshman parents from participating in the focus
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 42

group interviews was based on the need to allow parents to have had at least one full year of
opportunities to be involved at the school.
Instrumentation

Individual interview questions for parents. The interviews were guided by a three
questioned open ended protocol. Participants were asked:
1. What do you think positively influences parent involvement at the high school?

2. What do you think gets in the way of parent involvement?

3. What do you think would help increase parent involvement?

Survey. Survey questions were developed to validate the assumed causes listed in Table

4. Survey participants responded to questions utilizing a four-point Likert scale. They were asked
to indicate their level of agreement with each of the items by choosing one of the following
options: Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Agree, Strongly Agree. The survey was translated into
Spanish in order to accommodate Spanish-speaking parents. An example of the relationships
between the assumed causes and the survey questions are included in Table 6 below. However, a
limited example of the survey, which does not include input from the scanning interviews, can be
found in Appendix A.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 43

Table 6

Parent Survey Items Aligned with Assumed Causes

KSMO
Categories
Assumed Causes Survey Questions
Knowledge and
Skills
KS1. Parents do not know how to
use the computer to access the
“Power School” data system,
which is where they need to record
their hours in order to get credit
for the time they participate in
activities.
SQ14. The Power School Website is
really easy to use.

KS2.Parents do not know that they
can participate in meetings and
events at school for at risk
children.
SQ1. I know about the different
ways to get involved (e.g., parent
meetings, volunteerism and
supervision).

KS3. Parents do not know that
they can ask their child‟s
counselor about how well their
child is doing in school throughout
the school year and not just when
something has gone wrong.
SQ11. I talk with my child‟s
counselor throughout the school year
to find out how my child is doing in
his /her classes.

KS4. Parents are unaware of the
35 hour parental involvement
requirement mandated by Green
Dot Public Schools.
SQ13. I know how many hours I
need to volunteer each year.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 44

Table 6, continued
KSMO
Categories
Assumed Causes Survey Questions

KS5. Parents do not know about
the different opportunities for
involvement offered by the school.
SQ1. I know about the different
ways to get involved (e.g., parent
meetings, volunteerism, supervision).

KS6. Parents do not know how
they can help their children at
home.
SQ10. I know how to help my child
at home with school-related
activities.

KS7.Parents do not know about
the consequences their child faces
when they do not meet the 35 hour
requirement.
SQ15. I am aware that my child will
not receive his/her diploma if I do not
complete the 35 hour requirement.

KS8.Parents are not checking to see
how many hours they have completed
and or need to complete before the
school year is over.
SQ12. I check my parent
involvement hours throughout the
school year.
Motivation M1. Parents are too busy. SQ9. I often cannot go to school
events because they happen in the
day.

M2. Parents do not believe it is
important to volunteer at their child‟s
school now that their child is older.
SQ2. Volunteering is important to
me.

M3.Parents have had bad experiences
with teachers or school administrators
in the past and therefore do not want
to engage in school-related activities.
SQ3. I do not get involved because
of past experiences with the school
staff (e.g., principal, teachers, or
office workers

M4.Parents do not believe that
they are capable of helping their
children with homework.
SQ10. I know how to help my child
at home with school-related
activities.
Organization O1. All school activities are
conducted during the school day,
which prevents working parents from
participating.
SQ9. I often cannot go to school
events because they happen in the
day.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 45

Table 6, continued
KSMO
Categories
Assumed Causes Survey Questions

O2. Reminders for school activities
are sent home too close to the
activity, and working parents do not
have adequate time to request days
off of work.
SQ8. I get information about
upcoming events with enough time
for me to arrange my schedule to go.

O3. The way that the parent
involvement hours are recorded is
confusing and complicated for
parents
SQ14. The Power School Website is
really easy to use.
Assumed Causes
derived from the
Literature
L1. The language barrier and or
lack of translation services
available to parents reduces
communication between parents
and schools
SQ6. I have no problem
communicating in my language with
teachers, counselors, and
administrators.

L2. Past experiences with school
personnel have led to parents
becoming disenfranchised with the
school system
SQ3. I do not get involved because
of past experiences with the school
staff (e.g., principal, teachers, or
office workers

L3. The child‟s: age, ability level,
behavior (Hornby 2011) and
gender (Zhang, Hsu, Kwok, Benz,
& Bowman-Perrot, 2011) impact a
parents‟ choice to become
involved
SQ7. Since my child began high
school, I have been less involved.

L4.Negative Parent-Teacher
interactions lower parent
volunteerism in the classroom
SQ4. I volunteer more when I feel
comfortable with my child‟s teacher.

L5Parental work schedule
demands limit the number of hours
parents are able to participate in
school-related activities (Smith,
Kuzin, De Pedro, & Wohlstetter,
2011) and timing of events
coincide with work hours
(Marschall, 2006)
SQ9. I often cannot go to school
events because they happen in the
day.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 46

Table 6, continued
KSMO
Categories
Assumed Causes Survey Questions

L6. Social Factors such as cultural
background/socioeconomic status/
population demographics
influence involvement
(Excluded from the survey)

L7. Involvement is affected by
lack of child care and
transportation needs
SQ5. It is difficult to attend events
because I don‟t have transportation

SQ16. It is difficult to attend events
because I need to take care of my
other children.

Focus Group Interview Protocol. A protocol was developed based on the assumed
causes listed in Table 6 and the results of the scanning interviews. The proposed semi-structured
protocol aligned with Patton‟s (2002) Interview Guide Approach that requires questions to be
predetermined and sequenced in advance. This approach was chosen because it helps to keep
interactions focused throughout interviews yet allows individual perspectives and experiences to
emerge (Patton, 2002). The author suggests using this approach to increase the
comprehensiveness of data, keep the interview conversational and situational, and help
researchers anticipate and close logical gaps in data. An example of the protocol is available in
Appendix C.
Data Collection Process

Step 1: Conduct scanning interviews. The researcher attended a parent meeting held on
campus during the day in order to gain volunteer participation from key parent leaders. The
researcher explained the purpose of the study and what participation in an interview would entail
(e.g. answering three questions about the positive motivators, challenges, and possible solutions
for increasing parent involvement) at the start of meeting. The researcher also notified parents of
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 47

the opportunity to participate in individual interviews at a later time. Parents who wished to
participate were given the researchers contact information. Parents attending the meeting who
wished to participate immediately following the meeting were accommodated. All responses to
the scanning interview questions were categorized as motivators, KSMO challenges or possible
solutions...
Step 2: Administer parent survey. The survey was sent home with students. An
information sheet that explained the study was attached to the survey. Participants were asked to
return the survey within one week of receiving it. A sign was placed at the front desk of the
school‟s main office which directed people to place their survey into a large envelope. At the
conclusion of the school day the Office Manager placed the large envelope containing the
returned surveys into a locked file cabinet.
Step 3: Conduct focus groups. The parent coordinator initially contacted parent
participants of the two planned focus group sessions. The coordinator contacted participants for
scheduling purposes as well as for distributing the information sheet to participants. Before the
start of the interview, participants were handed an information sheet detailing the purpose of the
study and the focus group interview. The researcher read the focus group information sheet aloud
to participants. The researcher then gained verbal consent from participants in order to be able to
record the interview. Once participant consent was gained, the researcher began recording the
interview and conducting the interview in accordance with the focus group protocol. Some
probing follow-up questions were added throughout the interviews in order to gain clarification
of responses or delve deeper into their meaning. At the conclusion of the session, the researcher
provided an opportunity for participants to offer feedback and notified participants that they may
be contacted by the parent coordinator if any further clarification was necessary. At no point in
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 48

time was any participant contacted following a focus session. Participants were provided with the
researcher‟s contact information should they have wanted to add anything to their statements.
Data Analysis

The purpose of this section is to explain how the list of assumed causes included in Table
6 were validated and consequently answered the first research question: What are the knowledge
and skills, motivation, and organizational challenges that prevent parents from being involved in
school related activities?
The qualitative data collected through the focus group sessions and the quantitative data
collected through the survey was analyzed using the triangulation analysis method described by
Creswell (2009). The analysis included a comparison between the assumed causes list in Table 6
and the causes included in the data. In preparation for the comparison, the qualitative data was
organized using the bottom up approach described by Creswell (2009), which calls for the
transcription of interview recordings, the coding of details, the creation of themes and the
interpretation of data. Similarly, the preparation of the quantitative data entailed running
descriptive statistics using SPSS and the dichotomization of answers from strongly disagree,
disagree, agree, and strongly agree to simply agree or disagree that was used to create a list of
valid causes based on the results of the survey administered to parents.
Once the data collection process was complete, the validation process began and the lists
compiled from the literature review, individual interviews, focus groups and the survey were
merged and compared side-by-side in order to evaluate what challenges exist as deterrents to
parent involvement.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 49

Ethical Considerations

There was minimal risk for participating in this study. However, because this study
explored challenges tied to parental involvement, there was potential for negative feelings to
arise during the focus group interviews that may have cause participants discomfort. The
researcher ensured the comfort of participants by giving them a venue in which they could
express their feelings freely and researched available social service resources available within the
community that could be accessed should a participant require services.
All participants were fully informed of what their involvement would entail. Survey
participants received an information sheet attached to the survey written in both English and
Spanish in order to gain informed consent. Focus group participants had the information sheet
read aloud in both English and Spanish at the start of the interview and were given pseudonyms
in order to protect their anonymity.
In order to maintain participant confidentiality and negate any risks of backlash from the
school, there were no identifiable information collected through the survey or focus group
interviews. Survey responses were returned to the school in sealed envelopes and opened only
by the researcher in a private setting to preserve participant confidentiality. Surveys returned in
person were placed directly into a large envelope that was placed at school‟s main office, rather
than having parents hand the survey directly to school staff. School staff was instructed not to
look at any of the completed surveys. At the conclusion of the study the school received a
summary of responses that were not individually labeled
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 50

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS

The purpose of this study was to utilize Clark and Estes‟ (2008) Gap Analysis
Framework to identify and provide solutions for the specific knowledge and skill, motivation and
organization (KSMO) challenges that decrease parent involvement at the high school. The list of
validated causes included in this chapter completed step four in the gap analysis process that
coincided with the principal‟s improvement plan which called for increased parent involvement
in school-related and home-related educational activities.
A review of the literature and conversations with school personnel concerning assumed
parent involvement challenges was used to create a list of assumed causes that was included in
the methodology chapter of this study. Each of the assumed causes was classified as a knowledge
and skill, motivation or organization challenge. In order to ensure each of the assumed causes
were valid, the assumed causes underwent a validation process that entailed collecting data
through observations, interviews and a parent survey. This chapter discusses the results of the
validation process and culminates with a final list of validated causes.
This study employed both quantitative and qualitative methods to validate school-related
parent involvement challenges. A parent survey was sent to each of the students‟ homes and
interviews were conducted in order to gain parent perspectives on the challenges they face.
Additionally, parents were provided an opportunity to share their ideas concerning possible
solutions for their challenges. The results of the study are discussed in this chapter. However, a
solution plan including recommendations for eliminating parent involvement challenges is
included in the implementation plan in Chapter Five.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 51

Participating Stakeholders

Out of a population of approximately 600 parents, there were 26 respondents to the
survey. Twenty-five of respondents filled out the Spanish version, and one filled out the English
version. No identifiable data was collected through the survey. Two parents chose to participate
in single interviews and 25 parents participated in one of three focus group interviews conducted
at the school. Out of the 27 parents who participated in the interviews, two were men and
twenty-five were women. The participants were parents of students in grades nine through
twelve. The school‟s parent coordinator invited participants who represented each of the parent
subgroups, such as those who have children attending special education classes, those whose
children were identified as English language learners, those whose children are enrolled in
traditional courses and those who are in advanced placement courses. However, due to the fact
that the interview protocol did not include any demographic or identifiable questions, the results
were not able to be disaggregated in terms of parent subgroups. The results of the data are
explained below in the sections labeled knowledge and skills, motivation and organization
challenges.
Results for Knowledge and Skills Challenges

The first research question (RQ1), asked, “What are the knowledge and skills,
motivation, and organizational challenges that deter parents from becoming involved in school
activities?
The survey contained 18 items, and 16 of these gathered quantifiable data and two were
open-ended questions which results are discussed in the qualitative analysis section of this
chapter. Each of the items on the survey and the questions included in the interview protocols
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 52

were classified as having to do with a specific knowledge and skill, motivation or organization
challenge.
The response options of the survey were given a number value for which 1 conveyed
“Strongly Disagree”, 2 meant “Disagree”, 3 meant “Agree”, and 4 meant “Strongly Agree”. The
means of the responses were determined by running descriptive statistics using SPSS, and the
challenges were ranked in order of priority. The most important challenge to address was ranked
first, and the least important to address was ranked last. Means which fell between 1 and 1.499
were labeled Strongly Disagree. Those that fell between 1.5 and 2.499 were labeled Disagree,
Those that ranged between 2.5 and 3.499 were labeled Agree and those which were 3.5 and
above were identified as Strongly Agree.
Survey Results and Findings for the Knowledge Challenges

Five knowledge and skill questions were asked in the survey to inquired about parental
knowledge of the 35-hour requirement, opportunities for involvement, navigating the school‟s
online Power School website, learning opportunities available outside of school, and the
consequences set by Green Dot Public Schools for students whose parents do not fulfill the 35-
hour parent involvement requirement for each school year. Table 7 depicts the priority order for
the knowledge and skill challenges found through the survey.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 53

Table 7

Knowledge and Skill Survey Question Results

Rank Item Question Responses Mean
1 14 The Power School Website is really easy to use. Agree 3.2
2 10 I know how to help my child at home with school-related
activities.
Agree 3.3
3 13 I know how many hours I need to volunteer each year. Agree 3.461
5
4 1 I know about the different ways to get involved (e.g.,
parent meetings, volunteerism, supervision).
Strongly
Agree
3.5
5 15 I am aware that my child will not receive his/her diploma
if I do not complete the 35-hour requirement.
Strongly
Agree
3.523
(1-1.499 Strongly Disagree, 1.5 - 2.499 Disagree, 2.5 to 3.499 Agree, 3.5- 4.0 Strongly Agree)

The result of the knowledge questions in Table 7 indicate that parents are aware of the
importance of continuous educational support at home. They know they must complete 35 parent
involvement hours in order to fulfill the principal‟s requirement and understands the
consequences for their child should they not complete their hours each year. The results also
show that parents are aware of the many opportunities for involvement held on and off campus
throughout the school year. However, the results do point to particular challenges. For example,
not all parents reported knowing how to navigate the school‟s online information website tool
which offers parents a way to keep track of their child‟s progress throughout the academic school
year.
Knowledge Findings from Open End Survey Items

The first open-ended question on the survey offered parents the opportunity to express
what they believe the school did to increase parent participation. The second question allowed
parents to share what they believe could help them overcome personal involvement challenges
that hinder their participation in the school. The two questions asked were “Is there anything that
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 54

the school does that makes it easier for you to come to school events?” and “What do you think
would help you participate in more school events?” The validated causes found through the open
end questions are listed below in Table 8.
Table 8

Validated Knowledge and Skill Causes found through the Open- End Questions

Knowledge and Skill Challenges found in Open End Responses
Challenge Supporting Statements
Lack of Information  I need to receive information about school
events instead of her dad now that my
daughter moved in with me.
 My husband only gets phone calls from the
school and he never tells me anything.

Responses reveal an existing knowledge gap stemming from a lack of information. This
knowledge challenge prevents parents from learning about upcoming events or other volunteer
opportunities offered throughout the school year. This challenge affects both married and
divorced individuals because it is created by the fact that only one parent receives information
directly from the school by mail, phone calls or handouts given to students to take home. The
statement “I need to receive information, instead of her dad now that she lives with me” presents
an example of the choice to be made concerning which parent will directly receive information
from the school. However, this challenge is not limited to divorced couples; married couples
also have to choose which parent will receive the information. The statement “my husband only
gets phone calls from the school, and he never tells me anything” is a clear example of the lack
of information challenge possibly affecting up to half of the parent population.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 55

Knowledge Findings from Focus Groups and Interviews

Three focus group interviews consisting of eight, seven, and ten participants were
conducted for this study. All three focus group sessions took place on campus. The first session
took place in the morning. The second took place in the afternoon, and the last was an
impromptu group session that followed a morning parent meeting. In addition to the three focus
group interviews, two single interviews were conducted with parents. One took place at the
parent‟s home and the other took place on campus following the third focus group session.
The parent coordinator recruited the participants of the first two focus groups. The third
group‟s participants were self-selected volunteers who wanted an opportunity to share their
thoughts on the topic of parent involvement. Due to the fact that no identifiable questions were
included in the interview protocol, there is no way of specifying which subgroup participants
specifically represent.
The focus group interviews followed a predetermined interview protocol that is included
as Appendix C. The protocol followed a semi-structured design that allowed the researcher to ask
follow-up questions that delved deeper into parent responses. The parent knowledge and skill
challenges identified through the interviews are summarized below.
The results reveal existing parent information gaps caused by school/parent
communication practices. The school‟s practice of distributing one paper notification of
upcoming events to students was found to decrease parent knowledge of these events due to the
fact that their children did not hand them the information. During the interviews, parents
expressed frustration with this form of communication. Parent comments on the topic included
statements such as, “My son doesn‟t bring me home anything that he gets at school” and “I do
not receive papers sent home because my child never gives them to me”.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 56

Another information gap caused by school procedures has to do with having to list only
one parent as the primary contact. The school‟s practice of calling one phone number or sending
email or mailing to one address effectively blocked some parents from receiving pertinent
information from the school. As one parent stated, “My husband receives all of the information
on his phone but doesn‟t share it with me so, I don‟t know too much about what is going on at
the school”. Similarly, divorced or separated parents, who reside outside of the student‟s home,
do not receive individual copies of handouts or information through phone calls. Therefore, some
parents are fully dependent on notification of upcoming events through communication from co-
parents, and a break in communication between parents can lead to information‟s being
completely withheld from one. This result is significant, as the lack of information challenge
may affect up to half of the parent population.
Another challenge regarding the receipt of information pertains to the occasional
mistaken identity. One parent explained, “The office kept calling me over and over telling me
that my son owed money for a uniform and that I needed to come to meetings with the principal.
I would tell them it wasn‟t my son and that he just happens to have the same name, but it kept on
happening”. This clerical mistake frustrated the parent receiving the calls but also prevented
information from getting to the actual parent requiring the office notifications.
Other challenges, such as lack of computer skills and confusion regarding the
volunteering process and procedures were also determined to cause knowledge and skill gaps.
For example, lack of computer skills was discovered in the responses to the question asking if
parents utilize the school‟s Power School website. The Power School website is an online tool
used to keep track of an array of information such as student grades, behavior and attendance. It
helps parents stay connected and up to date on events. It can also be used as a communication
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 57

tool in that email messages can be sent to and from teachers, counselors and parents. Although
some parents reported checking the site every day, most parents stated that they do not use the
Power School website due to their inability to use a computer. A few parents expressed not
previously knowing they could access this kind of information online, and some shared their
reluctance to use a computer in general. One parent voiced her concern when she expressed her
“fear of encountering inappropriate sites” or the possibility of her “children encountering bullies
online”. A few other parents echoed the fear of using the computer. The lack of computer skills
and reluctance toward using computers built a barrier between the school and parents that limits
information sharing.
In addition, the data revealed an overall lack of knowledge concerning the American
school system and the college admissions process. One parent expressed her confusion with the
American school system when she stated, “Getting into college is different here than in Mexico.
There, you don‟t have to pay. I don‟t know how they do it here”. Another parent brought up her
need for information concerning the college admissions process by stating, “I don‟t know how to
fill out college applications with my son and I have no idea how to help my kids get scholarships
for college”. These knowledge gaps point to the need for information concerning the American
school system that includes instruction on what it is and how it works. In addition, not
understanding the American school system suggests that parents may not be aware of resources
that can help them guide their children towards educational success at the high school level.
Lastly, during the interviews, parents expressed confusion relating to the 35-hour parent
involvement requirement. Although most were aware of the number of hours they were required
to accumulate, some were unaware of the requirement altogether. One parent stated, “I didn‟t
know we had to complete that much each year”. There was also confusion surrounding the
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 58

record keeping process used by the office to keep count of the hours parents earn throughout the
school year. A parent expressed confusion about the process of becoming a school volunteer that
is required in order to become a Green Dot certified volunteer. None of the parents in the focus
group were able to explain the process of becoming a certified Green Dot volunteer. However,
one parent described how she came to learn about the required certification. She described her
experience as upsetting. She said “I walked into the school and one of the office workers told me
that I couldn‟t volunteer because I did not have permission from Green Dot to enter the school
during the school day”. The parent further explained that she had no idea at that time that parents
had to be certified in order to volunteer. These findings point to a gap in parent procedural
knowledge concerning the steps needed to complete the Green Dot volunteer certification
process.
In sum, the challenges identified through the focus groups and interviews confirm the
existence of parent knowledge and skill challenges. The challenges identified derive from
parents‟ lack of knowledge regarding the American school system and the 35-hour parent
involvement requirement. Also identified was a lack of computer skills that renders parents
unable to navigate the Power School website that provides access to student information and
communication with school personnel.
Results also suggest that access to information is limited by the school‟s practice of
sending notices home with students. Parents report not receiving them from their children.
Additionally, access to information is limited for parents who are not listed as the primary
contact on their child‟s registration forms. Those who are not listed do not receive phone calls,
emails or home mailings from the school, thus creating dependency on the communication with
another parent to receive school-related information, which does not always occur.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 59

Knowledge Findings from Observations

Throughout the course of the study, the researcher had several opportunities to conduct
informal observations on campus. The observations took place at the school‟s main office as well
as at a casual parent meeting called Coffee with the Principal. The observations produced
evidence of lack of knowledge pertaining to graduation requirements and college application
procedures.
For example, during the meeting, parents spoke about their lack of familiarity with what
is required for their children to graduate from high school. One parent asked about the different
tests her daughter must take in order to be eligible to graduate. Another parent mentioned that
her son was applying to colleges, but she had no idea what to tell him or how to help him. A
number of parents expressed their inability to help their children when it came to applying for
college due to their lack of knowledge on the subject. They asked the principal for additional
parent get-togethers and meetings covering high school and college acceptance requirements. In
addition, parents expressed confusion about the American school system in general. Many
parents nodded their heads in agreement when a parent spoke about her lack of knowledge of the
college application process and what actions parents must take. Parents asked the principal for
future education on these subjects.
On a different occasion, a conversation between a Spanish-speaking mother and the
school‟s parent coordinator was observed. The mother told the coordinator that she wanted to set
up a meeting with the principal to check on her child‟s academic progress. The coordinator set
up an appointment with the principal and began a conversation with the mother about the role of
the school counselor in academic guidance and school communication with parents. The
coordinator informed the parent of the counselor‟s ability to provide more specific information
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 60

concerning her child‟s academic progress and how she may come and speak to the counselor
about her concerns.
These observations helped identify some parents‟ knowledge gaps concerning the
American school system, high school graduation requirements, college application process and
the school counselor‟s ability to serve as an information resource.
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes

Data collected through the survey, interviews and observations identify three types of
knowledge and skill challenges causing low parent involvement: lack of information, lack of
computer skills and lack of knowledge concerning the American school system.
The results of the analysis evidenced of lack of information concerning the 35-hour
parent involvement requirement, upcoming events, the existence of the school‟s parent center,
the volunteer certification process, volunteer record keeping process, opportunities available
outside of the school for student enrichment and the monthly school calendars passed out to
students. In addition, computer skills are necessary for parents to independently access student
grades, attendance and behavior regularly, but parents lack these skills. Lastly, lack of
knowledge pertaining to the American school system includes knowledge of high school
graduation requirements, college application process and available parent resources, such as the
school counselors.
Results for Motivation Challenges
Survey Results and Findings for the Motivation Challenges
Seven questions included in the survey inquired about the assumed motivational
challenges included in Table 9. The motivation questions inquired about parents‟ interest in
staying active in their child‟s education throughout their child‟s high school years and the
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 61

possibility of transportation challenges affecting their involvement. They also asked about how
important volunteerism is to them as parents of high school-aged children. Other questions asked
whether bad experiences deterred them from volunteering or whether comfort with their child‟s
teacher affected their volunteerism. Table 9 shows the results of the survey questions that relate
to motivational challenges.
Table 9

Motivation Survey Results

Rank Item Question Responses Mean
1 4 I volunteer more when I feel comfortable with my
child‟s teacher.
Agree 2.72
2 7 Since my child began high school, I have been less
involved.
Disagree 2.1923
3 12 I check how many parent involvement hours I have
earned throughout the school year.
Agree 3.1
4 11 I talk with my child‟s counselor throughout the school
year to find out how my child is doing in his /her
classes.
Agree 3.1538
5 2 Volunteering is important to me. Agree 3.32
6 5 It is difficult to attend events because I don‟t have
transportation.
Disagree 1.7692
7 3 I do not get involved because of past experiences with
the school staff (e.g., principal, teachers, or office
workers).
Strongly
Disagree
1.346
(1-1.499 Strongly Disagree, 1.5 - 2.499 Disagree, 2.5 to 3.499 Agree, 3.5- 4.0 Strongly Agree)

The results from data presented in Table 9 indicate that parent comfort levels with
teachers affect volunteerism in classrooms and that a minority of parents are challenged by their
lack of transportation, contrary to the other assumed motivational causes included in Table 9 that
presumed challenges for parents due to their child‟s age, lack of self-regulation and or past
disenfranchisement, which were not validated through the survey. In fact, the data suggests the
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 62

opposite. Parents do not believe that their motivation was lowered when their child reached high
school. They report continuously checking on their accrued hours and provided no evidence of
disenfranchisement.
The results of the survey contradict most of the assumed motivational challenges.

However, the results were not unanimous, and the desired rate of involvement was set at 100
percent, which means that any statistical discrepancies that point to a minimum of one parent‟s
facing a challenge should be considered by the administration.
Motivation Findings from Open End Survey Items

Questions 17 and 18 of the survey offered parents an opportunity to express their views
on what is currently working to increase volunteerism at the school as well as what they believe
would increase their involvement in school-related activities. Question 17 asked, “Is there
anything that the school does that makes it easier for you to come to school events?” Question 18
asked, “What do you think would help you come to more school events?” Responses to these
two questions were analyzed to create the list of motivation challenges included in Table 10.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 63

Table 10

Validated Motivation Challenges found through Open-end Questions

Motivation Challenges found in Open-end Responses
Challenge Supporting Statements
Lack of Transportation 1. “If they had a pick up vehicle” I would
go.
2. “If I lived closer to the school” I would
go
Low Interest 1. Parents are “not interested in the topics”.
2. There is “low interest in the topics”.
3. I would come more if they had interesting
topics or information sessions.
4. If the school gave more information about
other types of volunteerism in the school I
would go more.
Work 1. Work responsibilities keep me away.
2. “Many things get in the way such as
work”.
3. Economic issues get in the way.
4. I have to work.
Competing Commitments 1. “I need to take care of my parents”.
2. “Doctor‟s visits” get in the way”.
3. “Other community events take priority”.
4. “I go to school”.

The results of the open end questions reveal that parent motivation is affected by lack of
transportation, disinterest in parent meeting topics, the necessity to work every day and other
competing commitments that include taking care of parents, going to doctors‟ visits when ill and
attending school themselves.
Motivation Findings from Interviews

The data reveal a complex set of motivational challenges decreasing parent involvement.

The motivational challenges affecting parent involvement include work obligations, lack of
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 64

transportation, lack of childcare, negative past experiences with volunteerism in general,
negative experiences with teachers, parent procrastination, disinterest in the topics chosen for
parent meetings, belief that completing the 35-hour goal is impossible and other competing
responsibilities.
Need to work, lack of childcare and other competing commitments. Parents who
work, lack childcare or are otherwise committed during the day are extremely limited by the
number of volunteer opportunities available to them. As one parent said, “Parents who don‟t
have money don‟t care about the 35 hours they have to get. They are focused on finding ways to
pay bills. We don‟t have time to spend at the school”. A second parent added, “I have to work
every day. There is no question about it. I can‟t take a day off. If I can come to the school, of
course I will. Lucky this meeting was after I got out of work today, so I could come”. For
parents who are primary caretakers of young children and/or ill parents, participating in school
events seems unrealistic. They are neither able to go to the school regularly nor able to leave
their responsibilities. As stated by one parent, “I have to take care of my kids and my mom
because she is sick. I wish I could come to the school, but it is really hard”. Parents who
expressed having competing commitments shared similar sentiments. One parent said she usually
goes to school during the day and another stated that she requested a home interview because she
did have anyone to leave her baby with if she went to the school. Many parents expressed their
difficulty finding childcare and time in their schedules to volunteer at the school even when
doing so is important to them.
Lack of transportation. Lack of transportation is an especially difficult challenge to
overcome when parents live far from the school. They rely on public transportation and on being
able to walk to events. Although many parents are willing to make the effort to come to events,
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 65

sometimes, the required effort is overwhelming. As one parent stated, “I walked two hours to get
to the school to come to this meeting because I did not have money for the bus, but I can‟t do
that all the time”. Lack of transportation creates an added barrier to parent involvement by
requiring large amounts of time and effort from parents in order to attend an event.
Negative experiences with volunteerism. During a focus group interview, parents
shared how their past experiences keep them from volunteering. One parent recalled an occasion
when she was not able to volunteer at the school due to her not having gone through the Green
Dot volunteer certification process. She stated, “I rode the bus all the way to the school with my
daughter and had to walk far to get the school just so they could tell me I could not volunteer. I
didn‟t even know that parents had to get certified to be a volunteer”. The parent added, “If you
come all the way to the school on the bus or walking and you are willing to help, but people tell
you that you can‟t, it would bother anyone”. She explained she believes it is the school‟s fault
that she could not volunteer, so she should not have to earn all of the hours. Another described
her experience as frustrating. She stated, “I went to the office during the summer and I was told
to wait for the school year to begin to start volunteering because there was not much to do during
the summer. When the school year began, I went to the school and was told to go home because
the school was small, and they had nothing for me to do again”. She was very upset by having
attempted twice to volunteer only to be turned away by the school.
Contrary to the above, which evidences negative experiences with school personnel
leading to lower involvement, the next two experiences allude to decreased involvement due to
interactions with other parents. The first parent shared her experience at another school. She
described it as “drama filled”. She said, “At the last school my daughter attended, I tried to get
involved, but there was a cafeteria full of busybodies who were arguing, and I thought to myself,
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 66

„is this what I want to get involved with?‟ So, then, I decided not to get involved at all”. A
second parent described an occasion where the school planned a parent meeting with a guest
speaker. The speaker came, but no parents showed up. The parent stated, “Parents who have
tried to get other parents to come have been let down and are tired of trying to set up meetings
when nobody shows up. One time, we had a meeting and not one parent showed up. It was sad”.
Comfort level with teachers. Parents expressed the importance of establishing a good
relationship with teachers before volunteering in their class. During the interviews, parents spoke
about being turned away by teachers. One parent said that her child had told her that she could
go on a fieldtrip, so she took the day off from work. When she arrived, the teacher turned her
way and told the student, “We don‟t need parents to come on trips. That‟s why I am here”. The
parent reported feeling angry and not understanding why the school would not allow parents to
go on fieldtrips with their children if they have room and they are not paying an entrance fee for
them.
Procrastination. During the focus groups, the topic of procrastination was discussed.

The parents shared their ideas and behaviors during the final days of the school year. One parent
stated, “They (other parents) think they have all the time in the world to complete their hours and
then they can‟t because they don‟t have enough time”. Another parent added to the comment by
agreeing and admitting that she was one of those parents who waited to the last minute to make
up her ours. She said, “The truth, I don‟t think about it until the last week of school, and then I
rush to buy paper and other donations to make up the hours. It costs a lot of money, but that‟s
what I do every year”.
Disinterest in parent meeting topics. Another challenge influencing the choice to
participate in parent meetings throughout the year are the topics covered in these meetings.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 67

Parents are reluctant to attend events that cover the same topics over and over again such as
“sexuality and bullying”. Others feel topics such as meetings that provide information about
different grade levels than their child is in are irrelevant to them. As one parent stated, “I don‟t
like that they sometimes talk about things that do not go with what my child is doing. Like, my
child is in the tenth grade, yet they talk a lot about 12th grade requirements. It takes a lot of time,
and it gets boring”.
Belief that achieving the task of 35 hours of parent involvement is impossible. During
the interviews, parents shared their thoughts about the 35-hour requirement. Some made it clear
they believe it to be impossible for some parents to achieve, and others said there were not
enough volunteer opportunities for everyone to earn 35 hours per year. They spoke about the
difficulties that parents with young children have in finding babysitters and keeping up with all
of their other responsibilities.
Conclusion. In sum, the findings from the interviews describe a complex set of
challenges causing low parent involvement. The motivational causes reveal that the decision to
engage in school-related activities is affected by work obligations, lack of transportation,
negative past experiences with volunteerism, a parent‟s comfort level with teachers, parent
procrastination, disinterest in the topics covered in parent meetings and the belief that completing
the 35 hour requirement is impossible.
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Motivation Challenges

Motivational causes were identified through the data collected through a parent survey,
written responses to open-ended questions and interviews. The results reveal specific
motivational causes that act as barriers to parent involvement. The identified validated causes are
listed below in Table 11.
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Table 11

List of Validated Motivation Causes

Validated Motivation Causes
Survey Open-end Responses Interviews
 Parent discomfort
with Teachers
 Lack of
transportation
 Low interest in parent
meeting topics Work
 Competing
commitments
 Work obligations
 Lack of transportation
 Negative past experiences with
volunteerism
 Parent discomfort with teachers
 Parent procrastination
 Low interest in parent meeting
topics The belief that completing
the 35 hour requirement is an
impossible task

The survey results suggest that parents‟ comfort level with teachers affect their
volunteerism in classrooms. The open-end responses highlight challenges faced by many parents
that include: lack of transportation, disinterest in parent meeting topics and work obligations.
Similarly, the interview data validated that parent discomfort with teachers affects their
volunteerism in classrooms, as do lack of transportation, low interest in the topics chosen for
parent meetings and work obligations. However, the interview data provide evidence that
validates negative past experiences with volunteerism, parent procrastination and parents‟ belief
that completing the 35-hour requirement is impossible as causes of low parent involvement as
well.
In sum, the data collected through the parent survey, open-end questions and interviews
validate specific motivational challenges causing low parent involvement. The validated
challenges are parent discomfort with teachers, lack of transportation, low interest in parent
meeting topics, negative past experiences with volunteerism, procrastination, work obligations
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 69

and other competing responsibilities as well as believing that completing the goal of earning 35
hours is impossible.
Results for Organization Challenges
Survey Results and Findings for the Organization Challenges
The survey attached as Appendix A contained four organization challenge questions that
pertained to language barriers between parents and school personnel, the amount of advanced
notice parents receive regarding of upcoming events , the timing of school events during the day
and the lack of childcare needed to attend events.
Table 12

Organization Survey Question Results

Rank Item Question Responses Mean
1 16 It is difficult to attend events because I need to
take care of my other children.
Disagree 2.0
2 9 I often cannot go to school events because they
happen during the day.
Disagree 2.307
3 8 I get information about upcoming events with
enough time for me to arrange my schedule to go.
Agree 3.46
4 6 I have no problem communicating in my language
with teachers, counselors, and administrators.
Strongly
Agree
3.579
(1-1.499 Strongly Disagree, 1.5 - 2.499 Disagree, 2.5 to 3.499 Agree, 3.5- 4.0 Strongly Agree)

The results from Table 12 indicate that parents are comfortable communicating in their
language with school personnel and that they receive information concerning upcoming events
with enough time to adjust their schedules. However, the results also reveal challenges for some
parents who work or take care of children during the day. Some parents find it difficult to attend
events that occur within school hours. This result presents evidence that parents are excluded
from school events due to lack of childcare. Thus, the number of opportunities for them to
participate is significantly decreased.
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Organization Findings from Open-Ended Survey Items

As previously mentioned questions 17 and 18 of the survey offered parents an
opportunity to express their views on what is currently working to increase volunteerism at the
school as well as what they believe would increase their involvement in school-related activities.
The responses collected were placed into the organization category are listed below in Table 13.
Table 13
Validated Organization Causes from Open end questions

Challenge Supporting Statements
Lack of Information
Challenge
1. “If they gave more information about other types of
volunteerism in the school because my daughter did not
live with me before and because of that I didn‟t receive
information about school events. Now that she lives with
me I need to receive the information”.
Timing of Events
Challenge
1. “They always have their events in the evening around 5 or
6”.
2. The school‟s events coincide with our other children‟s
school events.
3. They schedule the events when parents are working and
“parents get out of work late”.
4. If they held there events at 9:00 am or 7:00 pm. It would
be easier if they held their events in the evening.
5. I can‟t go because they hold their meetings in the evening.
6. Hold the meetings in the morning.
7. It would be easier if they held them later in the evening.
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Table 13, continued
Notice of Upcoming
Events Challenge
1. They need to give us more notice.
2. “They remind us every so often of upcoming events”.
Lack of Childcare 1. “I need to take care of my children”.
Lack of Incentive 1. “I would come more if they had raffles”.
2. “If they gave us more hours” for coming to school events.
3. I would go to the meetings if the administration told me
that I had to go.
Lack of Parking 1. “There is not enough parking. One time I was given a 58
dollar parking ticket because I parked on the street. I don‟t
think that it‟s fair”.

The organization challenges listed in Table 13 reveal barriers that stem from lack of
information driven by school practice of choosing one parent to send information to, scheduling
conflicts, procedures used to notify parents of upcoming events, lack of childcare during
meetings, lack of incentives for parents to stay involved, and lack of parking around the school
during the day. The data suggests that parents do not receive enough advanced notice before
events. They encounter challenges created by a lack of incentive as well as lack of available
parking during events.
Organization Findings from Interviews

Focus groups and single interviews conducted with parents reveal many organizational
challenges: timing, notification, parking, phone calls, volunteer certification process, record-
keeping process and parent cultural expectations. These challenges were shown to cause lowered
parent involvement. Each challenge is discussed below.
Timing. The timing of events appears to be a crucial barrier for some parents who either
work or have other children. The results reveal that many parents are unable to attend events
during the school day and in the evening. Some parents stated that they are unable to attend
meetings that take place during the school day because of work. Others stated that meetings that
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 72

are held too late in the evening are not convenient because it creates an extra round-trip to the
school in one day when some parents have already gone twice to the school to take and pick up
their child. As one parent said, “They schedule the meetings in the morning when people have to
work. Sometimes, they have them in the evening, but it‟s not right after school, which means I
have to go home, feed my children, and then drive back to the school to go to the meeting. To
tell the truth, sometimes going back to the house makes me feel lazy. I am already tired from
working all day and I don‟t end up going to the meetings.
Another parent stated, “I wish the school would look at the calendars of other middle schools
nearby before scheduling because, a lot of times, I have to choose between coming for one child
or attending another event at my other child‟s middle school”.
Notification. Information about upcoming events is sent to parents throughout the year.

Parents are notified through home mailings, student handouts, emails and phone calls. When
asked about the advanced notice they receive regarding to school events, parents responses were
mixed. Some felt they were well informed and liked all of the different ways the school informed
them. Others commented about not receiving enough notice before events in order to notify their
supervisors at work and get the day off.
Lack of parking. Parking is a significant challenge to parent involvement. It serves as an
obstacle to parents in that they have to circle the surrounding neighborhood for long periods of
time before finding parking and some have been unable to attend events because they could not
find parking at all. As one parent stated, “There was no parking when I came to a meeting. I
looked for a long time, but then got frustrated and left. When I can‟t find parking, I just go home
and never get to go to the meetings”. Another parent said, “Once, I came to drop off a paper and
had to park in the red zone, and I ended up getting a ticket”. Parents are discouraged by the
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 73

parking situation and feel like nothing can be done about it. Frustration is high concerning this
topic, and parents are not hopeful about additional parking becoming available. As one parent
stated, “They can‟t do anything about the parking anyway. It is impossible”. Another parent
added, “I had to get here 40 minutes early to get parking for today‟s meeting, and I can‟t do that
every time they have something going on”.
Phone calls. Another challenge deterring a small minority of parents from participating
in events stems from the number of informative phone messages parents receive from the school.
Some parents feel overwhelmed by the number of messages left by the school, especially when
they receive phone messages from their other children‟s schools as well. Although most parents
appreciated the phone calls, a few claimed them to be overwhelming at times. For example, one
parent discussed not liking to receive so many phone calls from different schools, so she began
deleting the messages before listening to them. Another parent reported not answering the phone
or listening to the messages because there were just too many. The parent stated, “I don‟t like to
listen to all of the phone messages because they‟re always calling from my child‟s middle school
and from here”.
Volunteer certification process. Frustration and confusion were the descriptors given by
parents regarding the official Green Dot volunteer certification process. A large amount of time
was spent discussing the topic during a focus group. One parent who knew about the certification
process, said, “It is a confusing and expensive thing to have to do”. She explained the process
beginning with having to volunteer for twenty hours at the school in order to apply for
certification. Then, parents have to go to Green Dot‟s downtown office to fill out paperwork. She
said, “You have to pay fifty dollars for fingerprinting in order to become certified”. Most parents
were unaware of the certification process and the cost attached to it. The few who were aware
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 74

discussed their inability to pay for fingerprinting. One parent stated that her past experience with
this process led to her unwillingness to try to go through the volunteer process again the next
year.
Record-keeping process. Parents spoke about their concerns with the record-keeping
process. One parent reported that she received receipts from the office every time she
volunteered or participated in an event because she was afraid the office may not count all of her
hours. She recalled a time when the office had not kept track of some of her hours, and she had
to prove that she actually completed the required 35 hours with her receipts. Others reported
similar problems. One parent asked “why should we even come if they are not going to count our
hours?”
Latino Parent Cultural Beliefs Concerning School Volunteerism and Engagement

Throughout the interviews, parents interjected the rationale behind the decisions they
make, which keep them and others from engaging or becoming more involved in school-related
events. Many references shared regarding the Latino culture were based on expectations.
Expectations for mothers, for fathers and school personnel were discussed. Some of the
references provided a glimpse into the decision-making process that preempts parent
involvement or their choice to stay uninvolved. Although parents shared their belief that
education is a priority, the job of educator was not totally agreed upon.
One of the issues spoken about was the cultural generalization that places responsibility
of keeping track their children‟s achievements to the mother. Mothers are expected to know all
about students‟ teachers, classes and friends. However, parents expressed an expectation of a
hands-off approach when discussing the father‟s role in parent involvement. Culturally driven
gender role expectations such as that the father works and the mother takes care of children were
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 75

discussed as the main reason fathers do not participate or get involved at schools. As one parent
explained, “Getting dads to come to events and volunteer is a challenge because they always say
„that‟s why you are home‟ to their wives”.
Another cultural challenge discussed was the overall importance of volunteerism during
school hours. Many reported encountering other parents who did not see any value in it and
regarded it as an unnecessary task for busybody women who do not do anything at home and
volunteer at their kids‟ schools. Parents shared their personal thoughts about school
volunteerism. They expressed a struggle linked to having to decide to take part in it even when
others do not care about it or put them down for it. One parent stated, “Some parents that we
invite to meetings don‟t think they are important at all”, or “they are not sure about what their
children are learning in school and they say leave the teaching to teachers”. As one parent said,
“the school is where children learn. They start when they go into kindergarten”. Cultural beliefs
such as this devalue volunteerism and challenge parents who have to go against cultural norms
and expectations in order to become involved at their children‟s schools.
Lastly, parent preferred method of communication was regarded as having a great impact
on how comfortable parents feel volunteering or checking on their child‟s progress. As included
earlier in this chapter, parents who feel comfortable with their child‟s teacher are more inclined
to volunteer in their classroom. Similarly, parents expressed they prefer to have face-to-face
interactions with counselors and speak to counselors on a personal level rather than receive
emails from them. Parents in the focus group agreed that any other form of communication is
seen as less personal and not as important. Although most parents reported wonderful
interactions with the school counselors, a few parents spoke about their struggles concerning the
way counselors engaged parents at the orientation meeting. One parent reported hearing the
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 76

counselor say, “If parents do not come to us, then we will not go to them”. This approach was
not received well and created a comfort challenge between the parent and the counselor. The
parent said she would prefer to be contacted by the counselor first because then she would not
seem nosy or an abrasive mother. This finding points to a cultural challenge stemming from the
school‟s communication practices that call for waiting for parents to engage with the schools
instead of schools‟ reaching out to parents on a personal basis.
In sum, the data reveal organizational challenges that pertain to the timing of meetings,
notification practices, the lack of sufficient parking, the high number of phone calls to parents as
well as confusing volunteer certification and record-keeping practices. In addition, there were
certain culturally driven challenges such as expectations of gender roles for Latino parents,
importance of volunteerism and parent preferred method of initiating contact with counselors.
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Organization Challenges

Parents are affected by many organizational challenges. The parent survey identified
challenges that derive from decisions made by the administration concerning the scheduling of
events and lack of parking. Results reveal that communication practices limit the number of
parents who receive information by not contacting both parents. This practice acts as a
knowledge barrier for the parents who do not receive information directly from the school. As a
result, up to half of all divorced and married parents are dependent on the other parent‟s sharing
information with them. In addition, the survey determined that the current amount of advanced
notice of events is not sufficient for all parents, but, especially for those who have to ask for time
off work. The timing of events is a challenge for most parents. The lack of childcare for younger
children makes it impossible for many parents to attend certain events.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 77

The results of the interviews identified organizational challenges that pertain to the timing
of events, notification practices, lack of parking, high number of phone calls, and the volunteer
certification and record keeping processes. Cultural belief and expectations of Latino
mother and fathers place a large portion of the responsibility of keeping track of children‟s
education to the mother and fathers are expected to remain distant. Also found was the belief that
the school is solely responsible for the education of students and parents who volunteer are
simply people who have nothing better to do. The data also show the high impact of initial
contact expectations of counselors and parents as contradictory expectations. Counselors rely on
parent initiation of involvement and parents reported a preference towards being contacted by the
counselor.
Positive Findings

Many of the identified challenges in this study were found to stem from school- based
factors which require specific actions and problem solving strategies. However, the data analysis
also revealed positive factors that exist at the school that should remain a vital part of the
school‟s culture and processes. Positive factors such as, the principal‟s leadership and
interactions between parents and school personnel were revealed in the data to encourage parent
involvement at the school. These were important discoveries of the study and are elaborated
upon in the following sections.
Positive Organizational Factors

Parent and school interactions as well as parent interactions with other parents were
found to affect parent involvement at the school by impacting a parent decision to participate or
continue their participation in school- related events.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 78

The p r in c ip a l’ s effect. The most frequently mentioned factor discussed during the
interviews was the personality and behavior of the school principal. Parent comments focused on
how interactions with the principal personally influenced their decision to participate in school-
related activities. Parents stated they gained respect for the principal through their interactions
and trusted that she had their children‟s best interest in mind. They spoke about the principal‟s
direct effect on their increased sense of welcome and comfort through one on one interaction.
The following parent statements illuminate the positive opinions of the principal. Parent
stated, “The principal makes me feel very comfortable, she is very open with us and the students,
she runs a tight ship, she does her part to make things run smoothly and she is very friendly and
humble with everyone” express the overall regard for the current principal.
One parent provided a specific example of the principals‟ high level of efficiency that
directly impacted the parent‟s level of comfort and trust. The parent described an occasion
where her child had a problem at another school for three years and the parent tried to get help
yet could never get a response from the school principal. The parent explained how this principal
was able to resolve the issue immediately once it was brought to her attention. The parent further
commented about how she didn‟t feel comfortable at the other school but now feels comfortable
coming and asking for help whenever she needs it.
Similarly, a parented stated that her son told her that the principal inspires trust because
she sometimes sits with students during lunch and talks. He expressed her interactions with
students as not being limited to addressing bad things that happen but also, the good things they
do. Lastly, parents find the principal to be approachable and patient. As one parent stated, “The
principal is willing to answer questions three, four or five times in a day if a parent needs help”.
Additional statements collected echo the high regard that parents hold toward the principal.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 79

The school personnel. The findings of the data analysis provided evidence of positive
interactions that have taken place between parents and staff. Parents described the counselors as
“great people” and are pleased with how they “go out of their way for students”. They are glad to
receive emails from teachers through the Power School computer system and mentioned that
teacher responses to emails are quick and increase their motivation to engage with that teacher.
Moreover, parents described teachers as being fair and willing to work with them in order to help
their children succeed in their classes.
For example, one parent described a positive outcome for their child due to the efforts of
one of the school‟s counselors. She described a time when her daughter was placed into all
advanced classes and wanted to drop them however, her counselor called and told her to
encourage her daughter to stay in the harder classes because her daughter was capable of success.
She encouraged her daughter and the result was her daughter‟s success. She credited the
counselor as the person that truly helped her daughter succeed. This example illustrates how
counselors actively seek out interactions with parents that lead to increased parent knowledge of
their child‟s academic decision making.
Similarly, the school‟s office staff received high praise from parents. Comments
describing parent reactions to interactions with staff from the first moment were described as
such welcoming. As one parent stated, “when you walk into the school you always feel
welcomed. They make me feel comfortable because they are friendly, fast and nice. One parent
described her interactions with the school as the best she had ever experienced. Another
described the office staff as willing to go above and beyond their job requirements in order to
help parents and exampled an occasion where an office worker taught a parent how to use a
computer because she didn‟t know how to check her son‟s grades.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 80

Though there was an overwhelming consensus of parent support and acknowledgment of
the principal and staff‟s influence on parent opinions and attitude toward participation, there was
no way to measure the extent of which positive interactions have affected parent involvement at
the school.
School communication methods. The communication methods utilized by the school to
inform parents includes, paper notifications sent through mail, school wide student handouts,
emailing and home phone calls. Parents reported receiving copies of the school‟s monthly
calendars regularly that lists upcoming events as well as receiving phone call reminders.
Opinions concerning the communication methods were positive and expressed appreciation for
the automated phone calls from those who received the calls and also consistently listened to
them. One parent explained her thankfulness for the schools continuous effort to keep parents
informed and highlighted her appreciation for mailing home student report cards. Another
described specific communication efforts put forth by the office staff concerning her child‟s
Individual Education Plan (IEP) meeting. She reported it as helpful for her to have time to
understand the process and come to the meeting prepared with questions.
Positive Parent Factors

In addition to the positive organizational factors impacting parent opinion and mood
toward engagement with the school, individual parent actions and behaviors appear to increase
parent knowledge of upcoming events as well as their ability to participate in events.
Interpersonal communication between parents. Parents described many occasions
where their participation in an event derived from a conversation with another parent. Parents
attested to have learned of events taking place from other parents. They expressed the result of
their conversation as increased willingness to participate in events that stemmed from knowing
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 81

someone who was going to attend or knowing someone was going to be able to provide them
with transportation.
Individual parent motivation. The data revealed parent involvement taking place
outside of the school environment. Parents care deeply about their children‟s success and are
willing to express their care through actions. One parent described the huge effort it takes to
travel to events on the bus as secondary to her love for her child. Some of the ways they get
involved includes spending time with their children and encouraging success. They implement
afterschool routines, read with their children, setting up a quite space for their children to study
and check their child‟s progress. Parents who had computers available to them at home reported
checking their child‟s progress online daily on the school‟s Power School website. They also
reported having sought help from school staff through emails and phone calls to teachers and
counselors. Lastly, parent generosity was abundant and has been expressed through volunteerism
and the amount of donated used uniforms the school receives from parents for students in need.
In conclusion, there was an overwhelming level of respect and appreciation expressed by
the parents during the interviews that provided evidence of positive interactions with the school
principal and staff. Similarly, the communication methods used to provide parents with
information has been effective for parent who take the time to listen to the phone messages and
have access to the internet at home. The findings also pointed to existing positive school factors
impacting parent opinion and mood that is felt when entering the school. These findings are
substantial however; no data was collected for the purpose of measuring to the extent of which
these factors influenced parent involvement.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 82

Summary of Findings

The results of the study validated existing knowledge and skill, motivation, and
organizational challenges that have deterred parents from becoming involved in school- related
activities. Contrastingly, organization and parent factors were also identified to positively affect
parent opinion of the school and their willingness to participate in school events. The positive
organization factors were identified as the principal‟s friendly disposition, the school personnel‟s
positive interactions with parents and school communication methods used to notify parents of
upcoming events. However, data collection methods for this study were not designed to quantify
the impact of the positive factors on parent decisions to become involved.
The knowledge and skill challenges were identified as parents‟ lack of information, lack
of experience with the American school system as well as lack of computer skills. The
motivational challenges parents face were identified as low comfort with initiating interactions
with teachers, lack of transportation, low Interest in parent meeting topics, work obligations,
competing commitments, negative past experiences with volunteerism in other schools, parent
procrastination, and the belief that completing the 35 hour requirement is impossible. The
identified organizational challenges were lack of incentive, lack of parking, lack of childcare,
number of phone calls, lack of transportation, confusing volunteer certification process, faulty
hour recording procedure, cultural beliefs about men‟s role in their children‟s education, short
notice given to parents before events, timing of events, and parent meeting topics.
The validation of the KSMO causes contributing to low parent involvement included in
this chapter fulfills the fifth step in the gap analysis which requires the creation of an evidence-
based solution plan that provides the organization‟s leadership contextualized prescriptions for
each of the identified causes. Step 5 requires systemic and individual gap-closing solutions
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 83

(Solutions). The next chapter includes a comprehensive solution plan based on current learning,
motivation and organizational change research. The causes are paired with a solution to make up
a comprehensive implementation and evaluation plan that can be used to increase parent
involvement. Steps 6 calls for implementing systemic and individual gap-closing solutions
(Implementation). Step 7 is to evaluate and modify solutions for continual improvement
(Evaluation).
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 84

CHAPTER FIVE: SOLUTIONS, IMPLEMENTATION, EVALUATION, AND DISCUSSION

The previous chapter provided a list of validated knowledge and skill, motivation and
organization challenges preventing the principal‟s goal of having “100% of parents completing
35 school-related parent involvement hours per year” from being achieved. This chapter includes
solution, implementation and evaluation plans for the administration. The solution plan explains
strategies found in research to address root causes of individual challenges. The implementation
plan describes how the solutions can be executed in consideration of the contextual resources and
limitations. The evaluation plan includes the methods that can be used to determine whether the
solutions worked or if they require further attention.
Steps One, Two and Three of the gap analysis were detailed in Chapter One of this study.

Chapter Two reviewed the literature on the topic of parent involvement, its effect on student
achievement and motivation as well as current motivational and organizational research. Chapter
Three listed the assumed causes of low parent involvement. Chapter Four addressed Step Four of
the gap analysis that calls for identifying and diagnosing the root causes before recommending
solutions. It included a description of the validation process undertaken by the researcher to
identify the root causes of low parent involvement and included a list of possible solutions for
each of the validated causes. The solution plan fulfills the requirement of the fifth step in the gap
analysis. However, the sixth and seventh steps in the gap analysis process, which require the
implementation and evaluation of the solutions, will be carried out by the school administration
due to the limited scope of this dissertation. A full overview of the gap analysis process is
described below.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 85

Recommended Solutions for Validated KSMO Causes

The solutions included in this section address a limited number of the validated causes
due to the need for the researcher to provide an efficient and measurable implementation method
that could be led by changes in practices and procedures by the administration. The rationale for
the prioritization of the challenges and their corresponding list of effective strategies is included
in the section below.
Research-Based Knowledge Solutions

All three of the identified validated knowledge and skill challenges were included in the
solution because of the administration‟s ability to address them:
1. Lack of Information (knowledge of the 35 hour requirement, volunteer certification
process and the record keeping process)
2. Lack of experience with the American school system (i.e., knowledge of the structure
of the system, understanding what resources are available outside of school as well as
the role of the counselor and knowing how to fill out college application forms and
financial aid paperwork)
3. Lack of computer skills (turning on a computer, connecting to the internet, setting up
an email account, registering and accessing information on the Power School
website).
According to Anderson and Krathwohl (2001), knowledge can be categorized as factual,
conceptual, procedural or metacognitive knowledge. Instructional strategies aimed at increasing
knowledge and skills should be based on the specific type of knowledge that individuals will be
acquiring (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). In addition, Clark and Estes (2008) also note that, in
some cases, formal instruction is not required. They state that providing individuals with
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 86

information on a job aid may be sufficient when the knowledge lists facts or procedures (Clark

&Estes, 2008).

The validated knowledge and skill challenges point to existing factual, conceptual and
procedural knowledge gaps hindering parent involvement. Below are summaries of the types of
knowledge parents lack and proposed solutions.
Factual. The data reveal that parents lack information concerning the 35-hour parent
involvement requirement, the volunteer certification process, the record keeping process and
student learning opportunities available outside of school.
According to Anderson and Krathwohl (2001), factual knowledge is very precise and
pertains to the basic elements individuals must know in order to understand a discipline or solve
problems within it. Smith and Ragan (2005) suggest the use of images such as graphic
organizers, maps and lists to acquire new information. In addition, Clark and Estes (2008)
suggest providing a job aid that includes the required information.
Conceptual Knowledge. The data reveal that parents lack conceptual knowledge
pertaining to the American school system. Parents are unfamiliar with the resources available to
them within the system. They lack knowledge of the counselor‟s role in their child‟s education
and as a resource for parents. They have questions about the differences between the educational
system in their country of origin and the American school system.
According to Anderson and Krathwohl (2001), conceptual knowledge refers to the
interrelationships among the basic elements within a larger structure that enable them to function
together. Instructional strategies can include discussion of the similarities and differences
between what is being taught and something an individual already understands. Activities may
also include concept classification, generalization and categorization of pieces of information
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 87

within a framework. Information should be focused on the critical attributes of the concept and
include examples, nonexamples, and a discussion about the similarities and differences of other
concepts. The learning strategies should include generating concept maps, analogies, mnemonics
or images for each concept taught (Smith & Ragan, 2005).
Procedural Knowledge. Parents were found to lack the procedural knowledge necessary
to turn on a computer, navigate the internet, create an email, register and access student
information on the Power School website. According to Anderson and Krathwohl (2001),
procedural knowledge covers the methods used to accomplish a task or goal that include the
techniques, skills and the ability to determine when to, or when not to, use a specific procedure.
Recommended instructional methods to teach procedural knowledge include the use of a job aid
that details the steps necessary to perform in order to complete the procedure, a checklist of
necessary actions or decisions needed to be made in order to complete the task or the correct
answer with an explanation (Clark and Estes, 2008; Smith & Ragan, 2005).
Research-Based Motivation Solutions

Although addressing all of the validated challenges included in Chapter Four is the
ultimate desire of the school administration, the motivation causes that stem from individual
home/life challenges such as lack of transportation, work obligations, competing commitments
and negative past experiences with volunteerism were excluded due to their inability to be
immediately affected by administrative changes. Instead, the causes found to stem from
administrative decisions and practices were included. The solution plan addresses
1. Discomfort with teachers causing low classroom volunteerism

2. Low intrinsic motivation caused by disinterest in parent meeting topic

3. Lack of self-regulation causing procrastination
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 88

4. Low self- efficacy caused by belief that completing 35 parent involvement hours is
possible
According to Schunk, Pintrich and Meece (2008), an individual‟s motivation gets him/her
working on a task, what keeps him/her working through difficulties and dictates how much effort
s/he will spend on a task. Literature on the subject of human motivation refers to these three
aspects as an individual‟s active choice, persistence and mental effort toward achievement of a
goal (Schunk et al., 2008).
Parent discomfort with teachers. The data reveal that parent discomfort with teachers
causes low parent classroom volunteerism. Motivation research on the topic of parent
involvement finds that teachers play a very important role in parent‟s “role construction” and
help define a parent‟s beliefs about what they are supposed to do in relation to their children‟s
education and the pattern of behaviors that follow those beliefs (Hoover-Dempsy, Walker,
Sandler, Whetsel, Green, Wilkins & Closson, 2005). The authors found that parent role
construction is the strongest predictor of parent involvement, especially for Latino parents
(Hoover-Dempsy et al., 2005). This finding suggests that Latino parents can be greatly affected
by their communication and interactions with teachers.
Solutions recommended by Hoover-Dempsy et al. (2005) to increase teacher/parent
communication and role construction include creating parent education programs or well-
designed intervention programs that focus on the ways that parents can become more engaged
with the school, thus raising a parent‟s belief about what they can do inside and outside of school
to enhance their children‟s education. In addition, Hoover-Dempsy et al. (2005) suggest utilizing
leadership to create a collaborative culture that emphasizes a partnership relationship between
teachers and parents to increase overall parent involvement at a school (Hoover-Dempsy et al.,
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 89

2005). Furthermore, Marchall (2006) found that school-parent interactions, especially outreach
efforts, and encouragement from teachers specifically lead to increased Latino parents‟
involvement.
Low intrinsic motivation. The data reveal that parents are not interested in the parent
meeting topics chosen by the administration throughout the year. Interest, also referred to in the
literature as intrinsic interest, is defined as the enjoyment people experience while doing a task or
their subjective interest in the content of a task (Wigfield & Eccles, 1992). In their later work,
Eccles and Wigfield (2002) focus on intrinsic interest in terms of a trait-like characteristic that
can be measured in terms of an individual‟s preference for engagement in challenging tasks.
Learning is driven by curiosity, and whether the learner strives for competence or mastery leads
to positive emotional experiences.
According to Schunk et al. (2008), strategies that facilitate development of a task‟s value
increase an individual‟s interest. The authors (2008) suggest utilizing three strategies. First,
provide rationale of the benefits of the task and discuss the importance and utility value with
individuals. Second, model value and interest in the content. Third, provide individuals with
opportunities for choice and control to activate personal interest. Eccles and Wigfield (2002)
suggest creating relevant, novel and comprehensible tasks in order to increase intrinsic interest.
Ryan and Deci (2000) suggest facilitating an individual‟s sense of autonomy and self-
determination by providing positive performance feedback. The authors argue that higher
autonomy and self-determination will lead to an increase in an individual‟s perceived
competence that regulates intrinsic motivation. Thus, creating a pathway towards higher interest
begins with individual choices supported by positive feedback.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 90

Lack of self-regulation. The data reveal that parents procrastinate until the end of the
school year to complete the 35-hour requirement and, at times, wait until the last month in their
child‟s senior year to complete all 140 hours required. Procrastination is a well-studied
maladaptive behavior defined as the unnecessary delay of activities that one ultimately intends to
complete (Wolters, 2003). Prior research on the subject supports the belief that individuals with
the ability to self-regulate tend to not procrastinate (Wolters, 2003). Zimmerman (2002)
describes self-regulation as a process demonstrated by an individual‟s self-generated thoughts,
feelings and behaviors that are oriented toward attaining goals (Zimmerman, 2002).
According to Wolters (2003), an individual‟s beliefs about procrastination are related to
his/her motivational beliefs and attitudes that predict their self-regulation. Wolter (2003)
suggests utilizing strategies for increasing self- regulation in that focus on the self- regulatory
process, which entails
 Goal setting

 Task Strategies

 Imagery

 Self-instruction

 Time management

 Self- monitoring

 Self- evaluation

 Self- consequences

 Environmental structuring
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 91

Wolters (2003) suggests providing explicit instruction on each of these areas to help individuals
increase their ability to self-regulate. However, Eccles and Wigfield (2002) propose focusing on
creating goals because goals have been found to lead individuals toward action.
Low self-efficacy. The data reveal that parents‟ motivation was challenged by their belief
that completing 35 parent involvement hours is impossible. Individual outcome expectations,
beliefs and cognitions concerning ability have been found to directly determine goal achievement
(Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The foundational research conducted by Albert Bandura (1997) on
the subject of self-efficacy provides evidence of a cause and effect relationship between a
person‟s belief about his/her own capabilities and achievement. According to Bandura (1997), a
person‟s belief about future success or failure on a task directly correlates with his/her
achievement on that task.
Research on the topic of parent beliefs and their effect on parent involvement suggests
that parents who believe their involvement effects their child‟s education, that the school desires
their help and who feel comfortable with the school demonstrate increased involvement.
Strategies that raise self-efficacy include scaffolding, guided practice and rehearsal (Schunk et
al., 2008). However, Bandura (1995) proposes including modeling the task, practice completing
the task and viewing successful achievement of peers to help individuals raise their self-
efficacy. Clark and Estes (2008) suggest raising individual and group confidence by having
organizational leaders
 Assign specific short term, challenging and achievable goals

 Provide information through job aids or training that is directly relevant to their goals

 Provide positive feedback when challenging goals are achieved

 Provide corrective feedback that focuses on the faulty strategy they chose not individuals
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 92

 Point out peoples past successes and remind them when they face similar tasks.

 Project your belief in their ability to succeed

 Listen actively to their concerns and ensure they feel as if you understand their point of view

Research-Based Organization Solutions

The data reveal that parent involvement is affected by many organizational challenges.
However, due to the scope of this dissertation, the challenges included in the solution plan were
chosen due to their connection to administrative decision-making and practices. The
organizational challenges pertaining to parent cultural beliefs about a father‟s role in their
children‟s education, the lack of parking, lack of incentive and lack of childcare were excluded
due to them reaching beyond the scope of this dissertation. The phone call challenge was
eliminated due to the overwhelming positive response to home phone calls by parent
participants. The low priority of the challenge justified its exclusion from the solution plan. The
following five validated organization challenges were prescribed solutions:
1. Confusing volunteer certification process (Faulty process)

2. Hour recording process (Faulty process)

3. Short notice given to parents before events (Faulty procedure)

4. Timing of events (Lack of procedure)

5. Parent meeting topics (Lack of procedure)

According to Clark and Estes (2008), the threat of failure is great when organizational
processes are misaligned with goals, and missing or faulty processes and procedures cause
confusion, waste and missed deadlines. Organizational gaps are typically caused by inefficient or
ineffective processes or lack of material resources that prevent individuals or groups from
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 93

achieving goals (Clark & Estes, 2008). Additional areas to be looked into are organizational
culture and structure as well as policies and practices (Rueda, 2011).
Clark and Estes (2008) suggest addressing organization challenges through leadership-
driven changes. They advise leadership support organizational changes by involving the
leadership through the entire process, providing clear goals, measuring progress, keeping in
constant communication with the individuals working towards goals, and providing information
and training that is necessary to successfully complete the goal. Marschall (2006) states that
Latino parent involvement is fostered through school-initiated efforts and that schools that work
with parents to develop common goals and maintain good communication directly and positively
impact Latino parent engagement (Marschall, 2006).
The prioritized organization causes list is made up of faulty process, practices or lack of
procedures that affect parent involvement. The components of the organization change process
described by Clark and Estes (2008) provide a structure for leadership to follow in order to
address organizational causes. The actions that will be taken to develop new practices and
procedures are described below.
1. Create a clear leadership goal

2. Gather input from individuals working towards the goal

3. Create a practice or procedure that incorporates the information

4. Provide information and training that is necessary to complete the goal. (Clark & Estes,
2008)
Summary of Prioritized KSMO Causes and Research- Based Solutions

Table 5.1 includes all of the prioritized KSMO causes and corresponding solutions that
have been found in past research to solve similar challenges.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 94

Table 14

Solution Plan for prioritized KSMO Causes

Causes Validation
Method
Theory/ Construct Solutions
Knowledge 1. Lack of
Information
1. Open-end
Questions/
Interviews
1. Learning
Theory/
Factual
Knowledge
1. Create images that represent the
information being taught (i.e.,
graphic organizers, maps and lists
that include the necessary
information) (Smith & Ragan,
2005)
2. Job aids (Clark & Estes, 2008)

2. Lack of
knowledge
of the
American
school
system
2. Observation/
Interviews
2. Learning
Theory/
Conceptual
Knowledge
1. Create instructional material
focused on the critical attributes
of a concept. Include learning
activities where individuals must
create, maps, analogies and
images (Smith and Ragan, 2001)
2. Discuss the similarities and
differences among concepts
already known to learners
(Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001).
3. Provide individuals with
examples and nonexamples of the
concept (Anderson & Krathwohl,
2001).

3. Lack of
Computer
Skills
3. Survey 3. Learning
Theory/
Procedural
Knowledge
1. Create a job aid, checklist, or
explanation that includes the steps
necessary to complete a task
(Smith & Ragan, 2001)
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 95

Table 14, continued
Motivation 1. Parent
comfort
Level with
Teacher
1. Survey/
Interviews
1. Attitude/
Affective
Characteristics
1. Create parent education
programs or well-designed
intervention programs that
focus on the ways those parents
can become more engaged with
the school (Hoover-Dempsy et
al., 2005).
2. Utilize the leadership to create
collaborative culture that
emphasizes partnership
relationships between school
personnel and parents to
increase overall parent
involvement at a school
(Hoover-Dempsy et al., 2005).
3. Teacher outreach efforts and
encouragement can specifically
lead to increases in Latino
parent involvement

2. Disinterest
in parent
meeting
topics
2. Open end
questions/
Interviews
2. Low personal
Interest/
Intrinsic
Motivation
1. Increase the task‟s value by
providing rationales of the
benefits gained through the
task. Discuss the importance
and utility value with
individuals. Model value and
interest in the content. Provide
individuals with opportunities
for choice and control to
activate personal interest
(Schunk et al. 2008).
2. Creating relevant, novel and
comprehensible tasks in order
to increase intrinsic interest
(Eccles & Wigfield, 2002).
3. Facilitate an individual‟s sense
of autonomy and self-
determination by providing
them with positive performance
feedback.
4. Allow individuals to make
choices and support them with
positive feedback to increase
interest in a subject
(Ryan & Deci, 2000).
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 96

Table 14, continued
3. Procrasti-
nation
3. Interviews 3. Low Self-
Regulation
1. Provide explicit instruction on
each of the parts of the self-
regulatory process (Wolters,
2003)
2. Create short term goals (Eccles
& Wigfield, 2002).
4. Belief that
completing
the 35 hour
requirement
is
impossible
4. Interviews 4. Low Self-
efficacy
1. Scaffold the process, provide
guided practice and rehearsal
(Schunk et al. 2008)
2. Model the task, practice
completing the task and provide
model of success through
achievement of peers (Bandura,
1995)
3. Increase group and individual
efficacy through leadership led
actions such as:
 Assign specific short term,
challenging and achievable
goals
 Provide information through
job aids or training that is
directly relevant to their goals
 Provide positive feedback when
challenging goals are achieved
 Provide corrective feedback
that focuses on the faulty
strategy they chose not
individuals
 Point out peoples past successes
and remind them when they
face similar tasks.
 Project your belief in their
ability to succeed
 Listen actively to their concerns
and ensure they feel as if you
understand their point of view
(Clark & Estes, 2008).
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 97

Table 14, continued
Organization 1. Confusing
volunteer
certification
process
1. Interviews 1. Faulty process
causing lack of
procedural
knowledge
1. Create a clear leadership
goal
2. Gather input from
individuals working
towards the goal
3. Create a practice or
procedure that incorporates
the information
4. Provide information and
training that is necessary to
complete the goal. (Clark
& Estes, 2008)

2. Faulty hour
recording
procedure
2. Interviews 1. Faulty process
causing lack
of procedural
knowledge
1. Create a clear leadership
goal
2. Gather input from
individuals working
towards the goal
3. Create a practice or
procedure that incorporates
the information
4. Provide information and
training that is necessary to
complete the goal. (Clark
& Estes, 2008)

3. Short notice
given to
parents
before
events
3. Interviews 2. Faulty practice 1. Create a clear leadership
goal
2. Gather input from
individuals working
towards the goal
3. Create a practice or
procedure that incorporates
the information
4. Provide information and
training that is necessary to
complete the goal. (Clark
& Estes, 2008)
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 98

Table 14, continued
4. Timing of
events
4. Open end
questions/
Interviews
4. Faulty
practices
1. Create a clear leadership
goal
2. Gather input from
individuals working
towards the goal
3. Create a practice or
procedure that incorporates
the information
4. Provide information and
training that is necessary to
complete the goal. (Clark
& Estes, 2008)
5. Parent
meeting
topics
5. Interviews 5. Lack of
procedure for
choosing an
interesting
topic for
parent
meetings
1. Create a clear leadership
goal
2. Gather input from
individuals working
towards the goal
3. Create a practice or
procedure that incorporates
the information
4. Provide information and
training that is necessary to
complete the goal. (Clark
& Estes, 2008)

Implementation and Evaluation Plans

The Sixth and Seventh Steps in the gap analysis process require the implementation and
evaluation of the solution plan (Clark & Estes, 2008). However, due to the limited scope of this
study, the researcher designed the implementation and evaluation plans to be conducted by the
school administration. Therefore, the researcher did not collect the results.
Validated Needs and Rationale

The previous chapter provided a list of validated knowledge and skill, motivation and
organization causes hindering parent involvement:
1. Lack of Information

2. Lack of experience with the American school system

3. Lack of computer skills

4. Discomfort with teachers
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 99

5. Lack of transportation

6. Low Interest in parent meeting topics

7. Work obligations

8. Competing commitments

9. Negative past experiences with volunteerism

10. Parent procrastination

11. Belief that completing the 35 hour requirement is impossible

12. Lack of incentive

13. Lack of parking

14. Lack of childcare

15. Number of phone calls

16. Lack of transportation

17. Confusing volunteer certification process

18. Faulty hour recording procedure

19. Cultural beliefs about men‟s role in their children‟s education

20. Short notice given to parents before events

21. Timing of events

22. Parent meeting topics

The list was analyzed to determine which of the twenty two were linked to administrative
practices. The analysis resulted in twelve prioritized causes:
1. Lack of Information (knowledge of the 35 hour requirement, volunteer certification
process and the record keeping process)
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 100

2. Lack of experience with the American school system (i.e., knowledge of the structure
of the system, understanding what resources are available outside of school as well as
the role of the counselor and knowing how to fill out college application forms and
financial aid paperwork)
3. Lack of computer skills (turning on a computer, connecting to the internet, setting up
an email account, registering and accessing information on the Power School website)
4. Discomfort with teachers causing low classroom volunteerism

5. Low intrinsic motivation caused by disinterest in parent meeting topic

6. Lack of self-regulation causing procrastination

7. Low self- efficacy caused by belief that completing 35 parent involvement hours is
possible
8. Volunteer certification process (Faulty process)

9. Hour recording process (Faulty process)

10. Short notice given to parents before events (Faulty procedure)

11. Timing of events (Faulty practice )

12. Parent meeting topics (Lack of procedure)

Implementation Plan

The implementation plan proposed in this chapter was divided into two phases. The first
phase, involves administrative preparation essential to preparing administrators with the
information and resources to implement solutions and support parents through goal attainment.
The plan was structured following the Clark and Estes (2008) recommendation for leadership
driven change. Clark and Estes recommend integrating leadership throughout the entire
implementation process as well as maintaining communication with individuals who work
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 101

towards a goal. For example, organizational leaders can support individuals by creating clear
goals, gathering input from individuals who are working towards the goal and creating new
practices and procedures that support the needs of individuals (Clark & Estes, 2008).
The school administration will begin implementation of Solution One by acquiring the
knowledge necessary to support parent success, creating short-term goals for themselves,
learning about the different processes involved in volunteerism at the school, planning strategies
to stay connected with parents throughout the school year, and creating the instructional
materials that will be used to implement the following solutions.
Phase One

Phase One will entail administrative preparation that requires leaders to acquire
knowledge and create materials for implementation. First, the leaders must gain an understanding
of
 The 35-hour parent involvement goal

 The volunteer certification process

 The record keeping process

 The principal‟s goal for increased parent involvement

 Their role in the implementation and evaluation processes

 The different solutions and the strategies that will be used to implement them

Second, they must design the materials that will be used to implement the solutions and ensure
that necessary resources are in place to support parent achievement. They will prepare by
creating
 Short-term goals for completing the 35-hour requirement
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 102

 A survey that investigates topics parent are interested in, the most convenient time of day
for parents to attend meetings and the amount of time between parents receiving
notification of upcoming events and when they take place.
 New practices and procedures for the volunteer process and hour recording procedures
based upon the parent survey results
 Instructional materials and methods that will be utilized during parent meetings

Third, leadership will implement Solution One by administering a parent survey designed
to provide parents an opportunity to present their thoughts or personal preferences. The survey
will inquire about the topics they are interested in, the amount of days needed to participate in
meetings and the time of day they prefer to attend events at the school.
Phase Two

Phase Two of the implementation plan is the application of the contextualized solutions.
The solutions included in the plan are aligned in order of implementation. They were designed
with an integrative approach to raise the efficiency of the plan. An analysis of the research-based
solutions informed the integration of many causes into three solutions. All of the proposed
solutions included in the implementation plan were designed with the following sequences in
mind:
Organization preparation → Implementation of solutions → Raised parent involvement
(Solution 1 → Solution 2, 3, 4 → Raised parent involvement)
Solution Integration

Solution Two. The parent involvement meeting will addresses all of the following
challenges:
 Parents‟ lack of information concerning the 35-hour parent involvement goal (KS)
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 103

 The volunteer certification process (O)

 The hour recording process (O)

 Parent comfort with teachers

 Disinterest in parenting topics

 Procrastination

 Belief that completing the 35-hour parent involvement goal is impossible

The strategies chosen to resolve the causes listed above provide information on the parent
involvement goal, the steps in the volunteer certification process and the steps in the record-
keeping process.
Strategies are also integrated to increase parent comfort with teachers, interest, self-
regulation and self-efficacious beliefs. Low self- regulation and self- efficacy will be addressed
by scaffolding monthly goal setting with school year template in the form of a calendar that lists
school events and requires parents to choose which opportunities they would like to participate in
during each month. The scaffold will include administrative guidelines set at mid and end of
semester. The short-term goals break down the long-term goal of earning 35 hours into more
manageable chunks of time for parents. The short-term goals also make it easier to keep track of
parent progress on a monthly basis. In addition, parents who meet the short-term goals will
receive recognition from the school when they earn 15 and 35 hours. Also, in an effort to raise
parent self-efficacy, the administration can ask an experienced parent to speak about his/her
success in completing the 35-hour requirement in past years. The parent will act as a positive role
model and provide an example of the ability to complete 35 hours in one year.
Furthermore, teachers will be asked to speak about their positive experiences with parent
classroom volunteers and encourage parents to volunteer in classrooms to increase comfort with
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 104

classroom volunteerism. Low parent interest will be addressed by listing the benefits of parent
involvement on student achievement and motivation.
Lastly, organizational issues will be addressed by administrative actions to ensure parents
are supported throughout completion of the 35-hour requirement. Administrators will express
their confidence in the ability of the parents to meet the goal. They will be open to listening to
parents when parents speak about their challenges and be involved with parents at every stage of
implementation. They will also keep track of parent progress throughout the year and reward
those who achieve the goals.
Solution Three. Solution Three addresses parents‟ lack of procedural knowledge
concerning the use of computers. The solution entails presenting the step-by-step procedures are
necessary to turn a computer on, navigate the internet, create an email account as well as register
and access student information on the Power School website. The administration will provide the
necessary job aids that lists all of the procedural steps included in each of the processes taught to
ensure that parents can practice the procedural steps after of the training.
Solution Four. Solution Four addresses parents‟ lack of conceptual knowledge
concerning the American school system. The parent education meeting will provide the requisite
knowledge through an explanation of its critical attributes. Parents will be provided with
examples and nonexamples of the various school levels within the system, the roles that school
personnel play and the purpose of filling out college application as well as financial aid forms.
Activities will include classification of the levels and categorization of the school personnel‟s
roles. Parents will also be asked to create their own image for the American school system.
Lastly, the presentation will include a discussion of the similarities and differences between the
American school system and the school system parents have experienced. A compiled list of the
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 105

integrated solutions and multiple influential variables of the implementation plan are
summarized in table 15 below.
Table 15

Implementation Plan Causes, Solutions, Implementation and Evaluation Method

Causes Addressed Research-Based Solutions Contextualized Solutions Solution
Lack of interest
Timing of events
Short notice of
upcoming events

Lack of information
concerning the
parent involvement
goal
Provide individuals with
choice and control

Gather input from
individuals working towards
the goal
Provide parents an
opportunity to choose parent
meeting topics. Include
questions concerning the
timing of events and the
amount of advanced notice
needed to request time off
work or make childcare
arrangements

Create an image that
represents the parent
involvement goal
Parent survey

Parent Meeting
on the topic of
Parent
Involvement

Parent
Computer Skills
Training
Volunteer
certification process

Hour recording
process

Parent comfort with
teachers
Create images that represent
the information being taught

Create a job aid that includes
the steps necessary to
complete the task

Create a well-designed
parent education program or
intervention program that
presents the ways that
parents can become involved
at the school

Emphasize the school/
parent partnership

Teacher outreach effort and
encouragement
Create Job aids and
checklists for the Volunteer
certification process and the
hour recording process

Create a parent involvement
meeting

Emphasize the desire for a
school/ parent partnership

Integrate teacher speaker
that will invite parents to
volunteer in her classroom
and encourage parents to
volunteer in others
classrooms

Provide data that on the
student achievement benefits
of parent involvement

INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 106

Table 15, continued
Disinterest in parent
meeting topics

Procrastination

Belief that
completing the 35
hour requirement is
impossible

Increase task value by
discussing the utility and
importance of the task

Allow individuals to make
choices

Provide instructions on the
self-regulatory process

Create short term goals

Provide multiple options for
topics

Create a school calendar.
Have parents choose the
events, count hours to total
35

Provide parents with
instruction on how to fill out
the calendar template

Assign monthly goals

Lack of procedural
knowledge

Lack of knowledge
of the American
School System

Scaffold the process provide
practice and rehearsal
Include a parent speaker that
will speak about how they
were able to complete the 35
hour goal
Create a job aid that includes
step by step instructions on
how to turn on a computer,
navigate the internet, create
an email, register and access
student information on the
Power School website

Presentation on
the American
school system

Evaluation Plan

The evaluation plan will be used to evaluate the effectiveness of the solutions to increase
parent involvement. According to Clark and Estes (2008), evaluation is the only way to
determine whether the solutions closed performance gaps created by KSMO causes. The
evaluation plan created was configured according to Kirkpatrick‟s (1994) Four-Level Training
Evaluation Model that assesses the parents‟ reaction (Level 1), learning (Level 2), behavior
(Level 3) and results (Level 4) immediately after the KSMO solutions are implemented.
Kirkpatrick (1994) suggests evaluating the effectiveness of the solutions at each of the
four levels to completely gain an understanding of whether the changes made have successfully
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 107

eradicated the causes they were meant to resolve. Solution One of the implementation plans was
excluded due to it belonging to administrative preparation during Phase One. Solutions Two,
Three and Four were included, and the chosen evaluation methods structured utilizing
Kirkpatrick‟s (1994) and Champion‟s (2002) evaluation mode is illustrated in Table 16.
Table 16

Evaluation Plan

Level Method Implementation Addressed
1.Reactions Exit Surveys Solutions 2, 3, 4

Parents will complete anonymous surveys at the end of each event.
The survey will ask about parents‟ level of satisfaction
2. Learning Assessments Solutions 2, 3, 4

Solution 2. At the conclusion of the parent involvement meeting
parents will be asked to fill in questions pertaining to the 35 hour
requirement, the volunteer and the record keeping processes

Solution 3. Periodic performance assessments will be conducted at
the conclusion of each step in the process
1. Turn on a computer
2. Navigate the internet
3. Create an email
4. Register on the Power School website
5. Access student information on the Power School website

Solution 4. At the conclusion of the American school System
presentation Parents will be asked to create an image of the system
that includes all educational levels as well as three new pieces of
information they learned in the presentation.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 108

Table 16, continued
3. Behavior Transfer Solution 2. Mid and end of semester analysis of the number of
parent hours recorded.

Solution 3. Analysis of the number of parents registered on the
Power School website.

Solution 4. Keep record of the number of parents who contact the
counseling office.
4. Results Impact End of year evaluation of the percentage of parents who completed
35 hours.

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach

The strengths of this study stemmed from the willingness of parents to share their
thoughts and experiences and the effort put forth by the parent coordinator to recruit interview
participants who were representative of all parent subgroups. However, there were flaws in the
data collection process that derived from the ineffective method chosen for of distributing parent
surveys. The surveys were given to students at school, which meant that parent participation was
dependent upon students handing the survey to them and returning it to the school office. This
method was revealed as an inefficient procedure for communication between school and parents.
The validity of the results was affected by the low number of respondents, which was only eight
percent of the parent population.
Limitations

The first limitation of the study derived from the novelty of the principal‟s parent
involvement goal. Not having a prior measure of the hours parents accrued meant there was no
baseline to measure against. Therefore, the data collected in this study serves as a baseline that
would be measureable against the results of the solution plan The solutions included in the
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 109

implementation plan were specifically tailored to address the school‟s parent population
challenges. Hence, the solution, implementation and evaluation plans are nontransferable.
In addition, the validity of the results could be increased through a higher number of
participants. Future studies would benefit from input gathered from teachers and school staff.
Though the participants in this study were primarily active parents willing to come to the school
and respond to the parent coordinator‟s request for participation as well as the parents who filled
out the survey and sent it to the school. As such, the data collected may be overly representative
of the school‟s active parent group and not of the similarly important inactive group.
Also, the data did not include demographic information that would have been useful
during analysis. Such data would have provided evidence of participation of parents from all
subgroups, in particular those who may be typically inactive at the school or face unique
challenges. Additionally, the disaggregation of the demographic data could have revealed
challenges faced by specific subgroups.
Another limitation was the method used by the parent coordinator during the sampling
phase. Potential participants were chosen and invited through face-to-face conversations, phone
calls and emails. Although effort was made to draw a sample representative of all subgroups, the
parent coordinator more frequently came into contact with parents who maintained a high level
of involvement. This limitation indicates that the most valuable group, which is the least
involved, may have been innately excluded from participating in focus groups and interviews.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 110

Future Research

Adding additional data collection methods and sources would have increased the validity
of the results. The first area that could be improved upon is distribution of the parent survey. In
the future, parents should be given multiple opportunities to fill out surveys. That could include
sending out email surveys and hard copies through standard mail to parents‟ homes. Also, both
parents and guardians should be given the opportunity to fill out a survey. Additionally,
researchers should attempt to conduct more scanning interviews with a wider range of school
stakeholders that would help gain more input from teachers, counselors and staff before creating
an assumed causes list.
Conclusion

This study examined the causes of low parent involvement. Each year, some parents fail
to complete 35 parent involvement hours required by the school. This problem was investigated
through an adaptation of the gap analysis framework. The seven steps included in the gap
analysis problem solving approach entailed the identification of the specific knowledge and skill,
motivation, and organization challenges keeping parents from attending school-related activities.
The results of data analysis validated twenty two causes of low parent involvement:

 Lack of Information

 Lack of experience with the American school system

 Lack of computer skills

 Discomfort with Teachers

 Lack of transportation

 Low Interest in parent meeting topics

 Work obligations
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 111

 Competing commitments

 Negative past experiences with volunteerism

 Parent procrastination

 Belief that completing the 35 hour requirement is impossible

 Lack of incentive

 Lack of parking

 Lack of childcare

 Number of phone calls

 Lack of transportation

 Confusing volunteer certification process,

 Faulty hour-recording procedure

 Cultural beliefs about men‟s role in their children‟s education

 Short notice given to parents before events

 Timing of events

 Parent meeting topics

The causes were prioritized by their affiliation to administrative actions and decisions.
Twelve were integrated into a four-step implementation plan. Each of the solutions addressed
multiple causes in order to increase the plans‟ efficiency. The plan contextualized research-
based solutions recommended by literature on learning, motivation and organization. The
strategies included in the plan have been proven to increase individuals‟ knowledge and
motivation as well as organization performance outcomes. The two-phase implementation plan
begins with organizational preparation and, then, implementation of the strategies. Solutions
Two, Three and Four will provide parents the information necessary to acquire factual
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 112

knowledge about the 35-hour requirement, the conceptual knowledge to understand the structure
of the American school system, and the procedural knowledge inherent in the volunteer
certification process, the hour-recording process as well as computer skills training.
The plan also addresses parent discomfort with teachers, disinterest in meeting topics,
procrastination and the belief that completing 35 hours is impossible by incorporating strategies
to increase comfort, interest, self-regulation and self-efficacy. In addition, the organizational
causes of faulty volunteer certification process, hour-recording process, notification procedure,
timing of events and topics were addressed by applying recommendations from Clark and Estes
(2008) that include leadership-driven change and support for individuals working towards goals.
In addition, evaluation of the solutions is based on the four-level evaluation plan
suggested by Kirkpatrick (1994) which aims to assess the success of the solutions. The chosen
methods include exit surveys, learning assessments, data analysis, and percentage of parents who
complete 35 hours by the end of the school year.
Parental involvement plays an integral role in student success. For that reason, schools
are held accountable for offering parents multiple opportunities to engage in school-related
activities. Due to the large body of evidence that found positive links between parent
involvement and student success (Jeynes, 2007), many schools leaders actively investigate ways
to engage parents. The challenge for some is that a majority of parents do not participate in
events. Thus, identifying why they do not attend becomes extremely important. Future research
aimed at identifying and resolving challenges within educational settings may utilize this study
as an example of how the gap analysis problem-solving approach may be adapted by
administration to identify and resolve challenges that deter parents from participating in school-
related events.
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 113

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INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 117

Appendix A
Survey Instrument
We are interested in increasing parent involvement. Please fill out the survey below in order for
us to determine what challenges you face so that we can work to eliminate them.

How much do you agree or disagree with the following statements? Please check only one box.

Statement
Strongly
Disagree

Disagree

Agree
Strongly
Agree
1. I know about the different ways to get involved
(e.g., parent meetings, volunteerism, and
supervision).

 

 

 

 
2. Volunteering is important to me.
       
3. I do not get involved because of past experiences
with the school staff (e.g., principal, teachers, or
office workers).

 

 

 

 
4. I volunteer more when I feel comfortable with my
child‟s teacher.

 

 

 

 
5. It is difficult to attend events because I don‟t have
transportation.

 

 

 

 
6. I have no problem communicating in my language
with teachers, counselors, and administrators.

 

 

 

 
7. Since my child began high school, I have been
less involved.

 

 

 

 
8. I get information about upcoming events with
enough time for me to arrange my schedule to go.

 

 

 

 
9. I often cannot go to school events because they
happen during the day.

 

 

 

 
10. I know how to help my child at home with school-
related activities.

 

 

 

 
11. I talk with my child‟s counselor throughout the
school year to find out how my child is doing in
his /her classes.

 

 

 

 

INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 118

Statement
Strongly
Disagree

Disagree

Agree
Strongly
Agree
12. I check how many parent involvement hours I
have earned throughout the school year.

 

 

 

 
13. I know how many hours I need to volunteer each
year.

 

 

 

 
14. The Power School Website is really easy to use.
       
15. I am aware that my child will not receive his/her
diploma if I do not complete the parent
involvement requirement.
16. It is difficult to attend events because I need to
take care of my other children.

 

 

 

 
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 119

Please respond to the following questions on your own words

17. Is there anything that the school does that makes it easier for you to come to school events?

18. What do you think would help you come to more school events ?
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 120

Appendix B
Information Sheet
Information Sheet
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089

Increasing Parental Involvement
Using the Gap Analysis Framework

You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You
should ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study is to increase parent involvement. The study will follow the Gap Analysis
Problem Solving Approach which includes: setting goals, determining performance, identifying
gaps, and providing a solution plan that addresses the gaps in performance. The main purpose
for conducting this focus group interview is to provide you with an opportunity to share your
perspective and knowledge about any challenges you may have encountered concerning your
ability to attend school events or enrich your child‟s education at home. The knowledge gained
through this focus group interview will be used to create a list of challenges that decrease parent
involvement. The administration in partnership with the University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education will create a solution plan that addresses the challenges identified.
INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 121

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT

If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a 60 minute audio-taped
interview. You do not have to answer any questions you don‟t want to; if you don‟t want to be
taped, you cannot participate in this interview.

CONFIDENTIALITY

Any identifiable information obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential.
Your responses will be coded with a false name (pseudonym) and maintained separately. The
audio-tapes will be destroyed once they have been transcribed.

The members of the research team and the University of Southern California‟s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.

INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION

Principal Investigator

Zitlali Montes
zmontes@usc.edu
(323) 497-3077

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION

University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu
INCREASING PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT USING GAP ANALYSIS 122

Appendix C
Focus Group Protocol

Introduction:

Before we talk I want to take a few minutes to review the purpose of this study and explain why you
were asked to participate in it. I have an information sheet here [hand to participants] and I‟d like to
quickly review it with you.

Questions:

1. What grade is your child attending?

2. What has been your experience using the Power School website?

3. Has the amount of time you volunteer changed since your child began high school?

4. How and when do you communicate with counselors and teachers?

5. Thinking back to last year, what would you say was the biggest challenge for you to meet
the 35 hour parent involvement requirement?
6. How do you choose to support your child‟s education at home?

7. Do you have enough time in advance to schedule attendance for school events?

8. Is there anything that the school does that makes it easier for you to come to events held
during the day?
9. What do you think would help parents come to more school events held during the day?

10. What do you think would help parents come to more events during the evening?

11. Is there anything else you would like to share?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Using the seven step Gap Analysis (Clark & Estes, 2008) framework, the researcher sought to investigate the contextual barriers negatively impacting parent involvement at a predominantly Latino serving urban high school. The aim of the study was to identify existing knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational challenges that deter parents from becoming involved in school-related activities as well as to prescribe solutions for challenges. Data collection strategies included two single interviews, three focus group interviews and a school wide parent survey. ❧ The results revealed existing knowledge and skill challenges stemming from lack of information, lack of computer skills and inexperience with the American school system. Parent motivation challenges found were, discomfort with initiating interactions with teachers, lack of transportation, low interest in parent meeting topics, work obligations, competing commitments, negative past experiences with volunteerism in other schools and procrastination. Organizational challenges derived from administrative procedures and processes. However, the findings also revealed positive factors that increased parent comfort and willingness to come to events. Organizational factors included the principal's friendly disposition, positive interactions between parents and school personnel as well as the communication methods used to notify parents of upcoming events. A two-phased solution implementation plan and a four leveled evaluation plan were created to determine the effectiveness of the solutions. The implications of this study point to the ability of the Gap Analysis problem solving approach to be applied within local level educational settings.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Montes, Zitlali (author)

Core Title Increasing parent involvement at the high school level using the gap analysis framework

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 02/16/2016

Defense Date 05/18/2015

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag case study,gap analysis,High School,OAI-PMH Harvest,parent involvement

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Yates, Kenneth (committee chair), Ochoa, Sandra (committee member), Rueda, Robert (committee member)

Creator Email dr.zmontes@gmail.com,zmontes@changedevelop.org

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-208921

Unique identifier UC11278520

Identifier etd-MontesZitl-4103.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-208921 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-MontesZitl-4103.pdf

Dmrecord 208921

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Montes, Zitlali

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA