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The role of educational leadership on participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Santa Barbara School in the Nacional region of Costa Rica

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The role of educational leadership on participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Santa Barbara School in the Nacional region of Costa Rica

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Content Running head: EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 1
THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP ON PARTICIPATION IN THE NATIONAL
PROGRAM OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FAIRS AT SANTA BARBARA SCHOOL
IN THE NACIONAL REGION OF COSTA RICA
by
Miguel M. Gonzales
____________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2016
Copyright 2016 Miguel M. Gonzales
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 2
DEDICATION
I dedicate this dissertation to my wife, Vanessa. Vanessa has been my strength and
inspiration. During my 2nd year in the program, she gave birth to twin daughters. During the
weekends for 3 years, I was in class in Los Angeles, 200 miles from home, while she was by
herself with our oldest daughter and newborn twins. I thank her for her strength, sacrifice, and
love, for pushing me to finish, and for forcing me to study at night when I was tired.
I also dedicate this dissertation to my oldest daughter, Gianina, and my newborn twins,
Alessia and Natalia. I want to let all three know that nothing is impossible. I wrote this
dissertation as they slept through the night. At times I held them in my arms while I typed or sat
close to their room while working on this dissertation so they would know that I was nearby. I
thank them for their love and support.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 3
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Foremost, I thank Dr. Michael Escalante for selecting me to be in this dissertation cohort.
I thank him for his vision, encouragement, and guidance throughout this entire program. I also
thank the dissertation committee members, Dr. Pedro Garcia and Dr. Dave Cash. Dr. Garcia took
me under his wing and has been an inspiration in my life; I value our relationship. Thanks go
also to Dr. Dave Cash for hiring me in his district and for his inspired leadership. Phyllis Parmet
put the professional touches on my work.
I had an amazing time collaborating with my cohort in Costa Rica. I am grateful for the
relationships that were made throughout the trip to San Jose. I thank Nathalie Valencia-Chacon,
who opened the doors for us in Costa Rica.
My family, parents, and siblings have given encouragement and support. When I was
about 10 years old, my father walked around the USC campus and said to himself, “Wouldn’t it
be great if my son could attend and graduate from this school?” It finally came true, Dad!
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
List of Tables 7
List of Figures 8
Abstract 10
Chapter 1: Introduction 12
Background of the Problem 13
Purpose of the Study 14
Significance of the Study 15
Limitations and Delimitations 16
Assumptions 16
Definition of Terms 17
Organization of the Dissertation 18
Chapter 2: Review of Literature 19
Purpose of the Chapter 20
Globalization 20
The History of Globalization 21
Globalization and the Economy 23
Globalization and Education 26
Conclusion 28
Costa Rica 29
History of Costa Rica 29
Costa Rica and Education 32
FDI and MNC in Costa Rica 36
CINDE 36
Intel 37
Medical Devices Corporations 39
FDI and Economic Challenges in Costa Rica 39
The Role of FDI and MNC in Costa Rican Education 40
Instructional and Curricular Influence of FDI and MNCs 41
Costa Rican Plight of Technological and Managerial Careers 42
National Science and Technology Fairs in Costa Rica 44
Project-Based Learning 46
STEM Education 47
The Need to Strengthen PBL-STEM Education 48
The Conceptual PBL-STEM Framework by Capraro and Slough 49
Professional Development 50
Effective PD 51
21st-Century Skills Framework in a KBE 52
Leadership Theoretical Framework 54
Bolman and Deal 55
Structural Framework 55
Human Resource Framework 55
Political Framework 56
Symbolic Framework 56
Kotter’s Eight-Step Change Model of Management 56
Chapter Summary 57
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 5
Chapter 3: Methodology 59
Purpose of the Study 59
Research Design 60
Sample and Population 61
Participants 64
Instruments 65
Interviews 66
Surveys 66
Observations 67
Data Collection 67
Data Analysis 68
Ethical Considerations 69
Chapter Summary 70
Chapter 4: Results 72
Overview of the Chapter 73
Theoretical Frameworks 74
Kotter 74
Carpraro and Slough 74
Wagner 74
Bolman and Deal 75
Research Questions 75
Santa Barbara School 76
Results for Research Question 1 77
Theme 1: School Director’s Role 78
Theme 2: The School Director’s Support to Motivate Teachers 82
Theme 3: Feedback From Teachers 86
Discussion of Results for Research Question 1 89
Results for Research Question 2 90
Theme 1: Teachers Give Purpose 92
Theme 2: Instruction Involves Students in STEM PBL 97
Theme 3: Teachers Reaching Out to Parents 105
Discussion of Results for Research Question 2 109
Results for Research Question 3 109
Theme 1: Lack of Financial and Infrastructure Resources 109
Theme 2: Lack of Teacher Training 119
Discussion of Results for Research Question 3 125
Results for Research Question 4 125
Theme 1: PRONAFECYT Projects Are Done at the Classroom Level 125
Theme 2: Survival Skills Prevalent in Instruction 128
Discussion of Results for Research Question 4 131
Chapter Summary 131
Chapter 5: Summary, Recommendations, and Conclusion 134
Key Findings 137
Implications for Practice 140
Future Research 142
Conclusion 143
References 146
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 6
Appendices
Appendix A: Recruitment Letter 152
Appendix B: List of Research Sites 153
Appendix C: Teacher Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 154
Appendix D: School Director Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 156
Appendix E: Government Official/Business Leaders Interview Protocol: English
and Spanish Versions 158
Appendix F: Parent Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 160
Appendix G: Student Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 162
Appendix H: Teacher Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 164
Appendix I: School Director Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 168
Appendix J: Government Official Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 172
Appendix K: Business Partner Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 176
Appendix L: Parent Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 180
Appendix M: Student Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 184
Appendix N: Observation Protocol 188
Appendix O: Consent Form 194
Appendix P: Summary of the Research Proposal 196
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 7
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) Scores
for Costa Rica, 2012 35
Table 2: Implementation of the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs
Process During the School Year 46
Table 3: Wagner’s 21st-Century Skills 53
Table 4: Study Participants 63
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 8
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: National Program of Science and Technology Fairs: The process 45
Figure 2: Kotter’s eight-step change model of management 57
Figure 3: Teachers’ responses to the survey item, “The director plays a critical role
that teachers implement the Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología” 79
Figure 4: Teachers’ responses to the survey item, “Teachers need the support of
the school director to fully and effectively implement the Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología” 83
Figure 5: Teachers’ responses to the survey item, “The school director elicits
feedback to improvement implementation of the Programa Nacional
de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología” 87
Figure 6: Comparison of teachers’ responses from two schools to the item, “There
is a high level of participation at my school in the Programa Nacional de
Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología” 92
Figure 7: Teachers’ responses to the survey item, “The school director communicates
the purpose and urgency of the Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología” 93
Figure 8: Responses by students at the Santa Barbara School to the survey item,
“My teachers talk about why we are doing projects for the Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología” 94
Figure 9: Teachers’ responses to the survey item, “The school director communicates
the purpose and urgency of the Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología” 95
Figure 10: Responses by students at Colón School to the survey item, “My teachers talk
about why we are doing projects for the Programa Nacional de Ferias de
Ciencia y Tecnología” 97
Figure 11: Students’ responses to the survey item, “My teachers often help me learn
about the scientific method through science and technology activities” 100
Figure 12: Comparison of students’ responses from two schools to the item, “My
teachers have us work on group projects where we solve problems and
work together” 103
Figure 13: Comparison of students’ responses from two schools to the item, “I know
about soft skills (i.e., critical thinking and problem solving, collaboration,
communication, adaptability, analysis, curiosity and imagination)” 104
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 9
Figure 14: Comparison of students’ responses from two schools to the item, “My
teachers talk about the importance of soft skills and how they will help
me do well in school” 105
Figure 15: Teachers’ responses to the survey item, “My school has adequate resources
to prepare students for the Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología” 113
Figure 16: Responses by Santa Barbara School teachers to the survey item, “My teachers
receive useful training that assists to prepare students for the Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología” 121
Figure 17: Responses by teachers to survey item, “I am provided yearly training on
the PRONAFECYT guidelines” 123
Figure 18: Teachers’ responses to the survey item, “The Programa Nacional de
Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología has improved student collaboration
in my classroom” 129
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 10
ABSTRACT
The 21st century has ushered in an era of globalization that has significantly influenced
economy and education in many nations. Recognizing the effects of globalization on education
and the economy has caused many nations to reexamine their education system and resulted in a
positive perceived value of education. Costa Rica has blossomed under the effects of
globalization. To compete in a 21st-century knowledge-based economy, the Ministry of
Education (MEP) requires all Costa Rican schools to participate in the National Program of
Science and Technology Fair (PRONAFECYT). However, not all schools are participating
successfully. This study examined (a) the roles and leadership practices of school directors in
Costa Rica in implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative, (b) teacher practices at successful
schools as measured by participation in the PRONAFECYT, preparation by site and system
leaders to equip students with 21st-century skills necessary to participate in the PRONAFECYT,
and (d) the influence of participation in the PRONAFECYT on instructional practice. The
research team visited 18 schools and administered surveys, interviews, and observations with
school leaders, teachers, students, parents, political leaders, government officials, and higher
education personnel. This case study focused on one school. Findings suggested that (a) school
leaders play a significant role in implementing the PRONAFECYT at the school site level, (b)
the target school participates in the PRONAFECYT because teachers focus on the purpose of the
PRONAFECYT and include parents in the initiative, (c) Costa Rica does not have a specified
budget for the PRONAFECYT nor does the MEP offer adequate training to teachers and school
directors regarding how to implement the PRONAFECYT, and (d) PRONAFECYT projects are
done in the classroom and 21st-century survival skills are prevalent in instruction. The study
emphasizes the need for Costa Rica to create a department within the MEP only for the
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 11
PRONAFECYT initiative and to achieve regularity and cohesiveness within these government
agencies when training teachers and school leaders regarding implementation of the
PRONAFECYT initiative.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 12
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The 21st century has ushered in a new era of globalization. This new phase of
globalization is one that is not spread through countries but rather sponsored by corporations and
individuals (Friedman, 2007). The effect of globalization has significantly influenced the culture
and economy of many countries, particularly non-Western nations. As a result, many nations
have been able to improve their economy, which in return has also improved their education
system (Zakaria, 2011).
Recognizing the effect of globalization on education and the economy across the globe
has caused nations to examine and compare their education systems to those of other developing
nations. Such comparisons have had a positive outlook in the perceived value of education
(Spring, 2008). Yet, the challenge to many nations is to know how to create and maintain a
healthy education system to sustain their economy and prepare residents to acquire the skills
necessary to compete in a 21st-century knowledge-based economy (KBE; Clifton, 2011). Such is
the case with Costa Rica.
Costa Rica has blossomed under the influence of globalization. This nation has attracted
hundreds of multinational corporations (MNCs) to invest in their workforce, which in return has
helped to improve their economy and their education system (Costa Rica Investment Promotion
Agency [CINDE], 2013). In order to prepare Costa Ricans to work and compete in a 21st-
century KBE, the Ministry of Education (Ministerio de Educación Publica; MEP) established a
nationwide decree that required all Costa Rican schools to participate in a National Program
Science and Technology Fair (Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología
(PRONAFECYT; Valencia-Chacon, 2011). With the help of Intel (a major MNC) and MEP,
Costa Rica has been prepared teachers for the PRONAFECYT initiative. However, not all
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 13
schools have been able to participate in the PRONAFECYT initiative. Hence, this study is
designed to examine the role and leadership practices of school directors in Costa Rica in
implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative.
Background of the Problem
Misra (2012) defined globalization as the integration of economies and societies through
cross-country flows of information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance, and
people. These global changes have led to a highly competitive and rapidly changing environment
for countries throughout the world. World societies are now more interconnected and
interdependent than ever before (Armstrong, 2007; Friedman, 2007). For a nation to succeed in
an increasingly interconnected global economy, changes to the local economy and education
system must occur (Biesanz, Biesanz, & Biesanz, 1999; Friedman, 2007). Globalization
has necessitated a change in the skills that students must develop to compete in an increasingly
global workforce (Friedman, 2007; Spring, 2008). As a result, educational systems are no longer
competing with other school systems in the same city, state, or even nation but rather are
competing with schools around the world (Wagner, 2008).
Costa Rica has endured many changes since gaining independence in 1859 (Biesanz et
al., 1999). Since its independence and the abolishment of its military, Costa Rica has placed its
primary focus on education (Palmer & Molina, 2004). During the past 30 years, Costa Rica has
adapted and reformed from a rural, agrarian society, to a high-technology hub of innovation in
Latin America (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). In addition, Costa Rica has initiated actions designed to
attract foreign direct investment (FDI), including tax incentives and investments in infrastructure
as well as changes to the educational system (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and
Development [OECD], 2012).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 14
In order to continue to attract FDI, Costa Rica’s economic future is dependent on schools
that produce knowledge and conceptual-based workers with skills in science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics (STEM), in addition to essential 21st-century competencies
Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). However, according to Gereffi, Bamber, Frederick, and Fernandez-
Stark (2013), 20% to 30% of students in Costa Rica do not finish secondary school. Moreover, in
order to ensure a 100% literacy rate for all students, including those in rural and poor
communities, by 2017, principal and teacher leadership must ensure that all students have
equitable access to rigorous, project-based educational learning (PBL) in all schools (CINDE,
2013).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to examine the role of educational leaders in preparing and
implementing the PRONAFECYT in primary schools in Costa Rica. Furthermore, the study
examined leadership practices, instructional strategies, and professional development (PD)
practices at various school sites to identify key components of successful implementation of the
NSF initiative.
Four research questions guided the study:
1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 15
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practice?
Several conceptual frameworks were used in this study to observe and evaluate
educational leaders and teachers in Costa Rica. Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four frames of
leadership and Kotter’s (1996) eight-step model for change were used to evaluate the role of
educational leaders on the PRONAFECYT initiative. In addition, Capraro and Slough’s
conceptual framework for PBL-STEM education and Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century survival
skills were used to observe and evaluate teacher practices in Costa Rica.
Significance of the Study
Successful business firms have declared that all students must develop critical 21st-
century skills and understand the dynamics of globalization compete effectively in a KBE
(Wagner, 2008). Over the past decade, Costa Rica has made an effort to prepare its students with
21st-century skills by emphasizing STEM education and issuing a national decree that all
schools will participate in the PRONAFECYT (Valencia-Chacon, 2011). This study was
designed to examine the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT. In addition, the study was designed to identify teacher practices and preparation
in Costa Rican schools that participate successfully in the PRONAFECYT initiative.
The intent of the study is to help the Costa Rican MEP to identify key attributes of
schools that participate successfully in the PRONAFECYT initiative so they can help less
successful schools to improve. This study is significant because it provides evidence of school
leaders who have collaborated with teachers and the MEP to have their schools participate
successfully in the PRONAFECYT initiative. This study can also be useful for school leaders to
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 16
identify key attributes that were used to prepare and implement STEM practices in a school
setting.
Limitations and Delimitations
The limitations of this study include the geographical distance from California to Costa
Rica. This study took place in Costa Rican public schools, specifically at the elementary level.
Thus, access to these schools was contingent on the availability and generosity of the MEP.
A language barrier may have challenged both the researchers and the interviewees. Half
of the researchers do not communicate fluently in Spanish. The validity of the interviews and
surveys was limited to responses by the participants and reliability of the instruments. Also, the
time allotted for data collection was limited to 10 days.
The delimitations for this study include a collaborative effort by the researchers to design
the research questions, survey instruments, and an observation template. Conceptual frameworks
for leadership practices, organizational change, and STEM implementation in the classroom
were designed in a collaborative effort by the researchers.
Assumptions
The following assumptions were made when developing this study:
1. All primary schools in Costa Rica participate in the PRONAFECYT initiative.
2. All elementary schools implement STEM education in their instruction and
curriculum.
3. Participants will give truthful interview and survey responses.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 17
Definition of Terms
The following terms are defined as they are utilized throughout the dissertation.
Costa Rican Investment Promotion Agency (CINDE). A private, nonprofit, and apolitical
organization that promotes and establishes investment by companies in Costa Rica (CINDE,
2013).
Foreign direct investment (FDI). Physical investment by a business or corporation from
one country in building a factory in another country. Such physical investment includes
buildings, machinery, and equipment (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
Globalization. The interdependence of nations resulting from the increase in international
policy, economics, ideas, and people in a global marketplace (Misra, 2012).
Knowledge-based economy (KBE). An economy in which technological skills,
engineering, and knowledge are used to produce economic benefits and job creation in the global
market; both education and knowledge can be used in exchange for money (Wagner, 2008).
Ministry of Education [El Ministerio de Educacion Publica de la Republica de Costa
Rica] (MEP). Agency that oversees accessibility and quality of education to children in the K–12
system in Costa Rica. Its main objective is to close gaps in the quality of education received by
students in urban and rural areas, as well as to strengthen technical and scientific education to
prepare students for the 21st century (MEP, 2014).
Multinational corporation (MNC). A corporation that has facilities in one or more
countries other than its home country. MNCs have a centralized head office that coordinates
global management of factories overseas. These corporations play a pivotal role in improving the
host country’s economy and education system (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 18
Organization of the Dissertation
This dissertation consists of five chapters. Chapter 1 provides an overview of the study,
including an introduction, background of the problem, purpose of the study, significance of the
study, limitations and delimitations, assumptions, and definition of terms.
Chapter 2 provides a review of literature regarding the impact of globalization on the
economy and education. It also provides a review of Costa Rica’s history, economic
development, and education system. The chapter addresses the influence of MNCs in Costa Rica
on the education system, the PRONAFECYT, and MEP aims and objectives. Furthermore, the
chapter examines the leadership framework suggested by Bolman and Deal (2008), Wagner’s
(2008) conceptual framework of 21st-century skills, Kotter’s (1996) eight-step change model,
and as Capraro and Slough’s (2013) conceptual framework for PBL-STEM education in the
classroom.
Chapter 3 describes the research methodology that was used in this study, including the
research design, instrumentation, sampling, and processes for data collection and analysis.
Chapter 4 provides a description and analysis of the data collected for the study. Chapter
5 presents a summary of the study including a conclusion and recommendations for future
research opportunities related to the topic of this study.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 19
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Since the inception of the Industrial Revolution, the United States has dominated global
economics, politics, culture and education (Zakaria, 2011). However, in the past few decades,
countries all over the world have experienced economic growth that has matched that of the
United States (Friedman, 2007; Zakaria, 2011). In fact, the U.S. financial recession of 2008
accelerated the economic rise of many non-Western countries (Zakaria, 2011). As a result, the
United States is witnessing an international economic growth in which countries from all parts of
the world are not only participants but are also shaping globalization (Friedman, 2007; Wagner,
2008; Zakaria, 2011).
Globalization has been defined as the interdependence of nations resulting from the
increase in international policy, economics, ideas, and people in a global marketplace (Misra,
2012). Although the United States remains a global superior force from a politico-military level,
all other dimension, such as industrial, financial, and educational, are quickly moving away from
American dominance (Zakaria, 2011).
Globalization has improved education in many countries and has caused nations to
compare educational systems. Such comparative education has had a positive effect in the
perceived value of education and its effects on the economy (Spring, 2008). Such is the case in
Costa Rica.
Costa Rica once maintained its economy through agriculture and ecotourism. Yet, during
the 1980s this Central American nation suffered an economic crisis that would drastically change
the way it sustains its economy (Finance Maps of the World, 2013). Because of their economic
downfall, Costa Rica went from an agrarian economy to a high-technology KBE and began to
focus on its education system (Palmer & Molina, 2004; Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). The switch to a
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 20
KBE drastically improved not only the economy but also the education system (CINDE, 2013;
World Bank, 2012). As a result, the Costa Rican MEP focused efforts on development of 21st-
century skills and national initiatives. Programs such as the PRONAFECYT help to build human
capital in high-technology and knowledge-based sectors of the global economy (CINDE, 2013;
MEP, 2013).
Purpose of the Chapter
This literature review explores the effects of globalization and MNCs on education
leadership in schools in Costa Rica, specifically the development of and successful participation
in the PRONAFECYT. First, the history of globalization is examined, followed by an analysis of
the economic and educational effects of globalization. The literature review also examines the
history of Costa Rica and how globalization has played a role in changing the economy and
education.
The framework of Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century skills is examined in this review of
literature. Next, STEM-PBL instruction and curriculum are explored using the conceptual
framework by Capraro, Capraro, and Morgan (2013) to investigate how STEM-PBL is
implemented in Costa Rican primary schools. Effective PD will be examined using the
conceptual frameworks by Fullan (2010) and Hunzicker (2011). Leadership principles based on
the conceptual frameworks of Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four frames of leadership and Kotter’s
(1996) eight-step change of model of management will be explored and used to measure how
Costa Rican leaders deal with leadership and organizational challenges in their education system.
Globalization
Globalization is the ability of a nation or individuals to initiate voluntary economic,
political, and cultural transactions with residents of other countries (Chanda, 2008; Friedman,
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 21
2007). This section reviews the history of globalization and examines its role in the global
economy and education. These components are examined to understand the total impact of
globalization on Costa Rica’s education system.
The History of Globalization
According to Chanda (2008), globalization began during the beginning of human
migration. During the late Ice Age, a small indigenous group walked out of Africa in search for
better food and stability. As a result, agrarian communities were formed. Out of the spread of
agricultural communities emerged societies or states in which different languages and cultures
were established. Many of the agrarian societies began to grow food crops not only for their
people but also to trade with others. This agricultural and human dispersion led to trade routes in
Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. Teachers, preachers, soldiers, and adventurers also emerged
from pertinent civilizations of China, India, and the Levant, which ultimately connected,
initiating the development of globalization (Chanda, 2008).
The effects of the initial stage of globalization as the dispersal of humans around the
globe quickly gave way to intercontinental exchange of commerce and goods (Chanda, 2008).
The spread of globalization during this epoch, which was approximately 1400s to mid-1800s,
came primarily through commercial and private sea voyages and trade. The dynamic agent of
this particular epoch of globalization was the country itself. Countries sponsored expeditions
such as the voyages of Columbus and Zheng He. This resulted in opening trade, commerce, and
cultures at an unprecedented global level for that time period in history (Friedman, 2007;
Zakaria, 2011). In addition to trade and commerce, religion was a significant factor contributing
to globalization. The teachings of Buddha not only spread throughout India but also extended
into China. Christian missionaries from Western Europe proselytized in the vast continent of
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 22
Africa and even to the Americas to spread Christianity. With a combination of trade, commerce,
and religion, the spread of globalization was rapid and inevitable (Chanda, 2008; Spring, 2008).
The rapid growth of globalization led to colonization, imperialism, and slave trade.
Although slavery was not a new concept during this time period, slave trade was occurring
across vast oceans (Spring, 2008). Through the slave industry, gold, silver, and bronze were
found throughout Latin America by the Conquistadors and taken back to boost the European
economy. This provided a way to trade with Asia (Chanda, 2008). Consequently, global markets
grew and were in demand to expedite commerce and goods. This time period ushered in the
Industrial Revolution, which gave way to the second phase of globalization. From the 1800s to
2000s, the industrialization and machinery spread globalization across the world (Chanda, 2008;
Friedman, 2007; Spring, 2008). The development of steam engines, ships, and trains lowered
transport costs and reduced the time required to connect with other nations and continents.
Inventions such as the radio, telegraph, telephone, and television augmented the rate of
communication (Chanda, 2008). Rather than countries sponsoring trade, markets, and labor, as
was the norm before industrialization, companies were now endorsing these endeavors
(Friedman, 2007).
During the 20th century companies were endorsing and ushering new waves of
communication and economic growth (Chanda, 2008; Friedman, 2007; Spring, 2008). With the
end of the 20th century and the rapid advancement of technology, globalization was spearheaded
not by companies nor by countries but by individuals. The universal power of individualization
introduced an entirely new era of globalization (Friedman, 2007). Friedman (2007) observed that
this new era of globalization enabled and even required people to think of themselves as
potential collaborators and competitors with others across the globe. Globalization has now
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 23
caused countries to become KBEs while using technology as their tool (Friedman, 2007; Spring,
2008). The current phase of globalization has caused a remarkable power shift that has
fundamentally changed the distribution of power to reshaped global politics, economics, and
education (Zakaria, 2011). Globalization is now used as leverage to help countries such as Costa
Rica to become competitive in the global market.
Globalization and the Economy
American influence and dominance for the past 100 years have been unrivaled and have
set an unprecedented phenomenon in modern history (Friedman, 2007; Zakaria, 2011). However,
with the new age of globalization, U.S. dominance is quickly fading away and other nations,
particularly non-Western countries, are on the rise (Chanda, 2008; Friedman, 2007; Spring,
2008; Zakaria, 2011). Zakaria (2011) described this tectonic shift of economic power as the rise
of the rest. At one point only a handful of elitist Western countries entered and significantly
influenced world markets and trade. Yet, the new era of globalization helped to expand and drive
the movement of Western revenue and capital to Asia and across the globe. Consequently,
between 1990 and 2010, the global economy grew from $23 trillion to $62 trillion and global
trade increased by 267% (Zakaria, 2011). Hence, the economic force that has enabled and
empowered this new era of globalization has been the free movement of capital (Clifton, 2011;
Zakaria, 2011).
Countries all over the globe have experienced remarkable economic growth that was at
one time unthinkable. Even during the 2007-2008 economic recession, countries such as India
and China saw their economies accelerated (Zakaria, 2011). Indeed, Zakaria (2011) noted that,
while many of the world’s industrialized and wealthy nations struggled with slow growth, high
debt, and unemployment, countries that were considered “the rest” gained economic ground
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 24
quickly. In 2009-2010, China’s gross domestic product GDP growth never fell below 9%, while
India’s annual growth rate went from 5.7% to 9.7% (Zakaria, 2011). Now, China’s GDP is
growing at a rate of 10% or just over $6 trillion per year. In fact, China’s GDP is more than 4
times that of India’s and 3 times than of Brazil (Clifton, 2012). It is estimated that China’s GDP
will flourish to $200 trillion and bounce back down to approximately $70 trillion by 2040. In
fact, in the next 30 years, China’s GDP is scheduled to surpass that of the United States. By then,
China will hold 35% market share of the entire world’s economy (Clifton, 2011).
The global economic success of the new era of globalization, which seemed confined to
China, is no longer the case. In fact, in 2010 more than 85 countries grew at a rate of 4% or
more. Zakaria (2011) noted that many of these emerging countries have founded and funded
companies from Latin America to Africa. In terms of a competitive global market, the United
States now competes with countries that have surpassed them in many ways. For example, the
tallest building in the world is now in Dubai, the richest man in the world is Mexican, and the
largest publicly traded corporation is Chinese. Macao has surpassed Las Vegas not only in
having the number one casino in the world but also in annual gambling revenues. Even the
biggest movie industry, in terms of movies made and cinema tickets sold, is not in Hollywood
but in Bollywood. American shopping has been influenced as well. Of the top 10 malls in the
world, only one is in the United States (Zakaria, 2011). It is evident that globalization has helped
other nations to prosper while diminishing American influence across the globe (Friedman,
2007).
The economic status of poverty across the world has also changed because of the new era
of globalization. There are still millions of people who live in poverty, yet the share of people
who live on a dollar a day or less declined from 40% in 1981 to 12% in 2015 (Zakaria, 2011).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 25
China’s economic growth has lifted more than 400 million citizens out of poverty, whereas
India’s poverty rate is half what it was 20 years ago (Zakaria, 2011). The new era of
globalization has thus ushered in a global race to prosperity.
Many countries realized that, in order to take part of the global prosperity seriously, they
had to adopt sound policies regarding foreign investment, particularly in technology. Such
investment opened domestic job markets for many developing and non-Western countries
(Friedman, 2007; Zakaria, 2011). Through the use of innovative technology, the world became
deeply connected and, as Friedman (2007) phrased it, flat. Through the expansion of innovative
technology and communications, people were able to do jobs for one country in another country.
History teaches that, through sea voyages between the 14th and 18th century, goods
became mobile. With modern banking in the 18th century, capital became mobile. Also, in the
1990s labor became mobile as jobs could go where people were, such as programmers in India
and telephone operators in the Philippines (Chanda, 2008; Zakaria, 2011). Hence, with each
passing decade, the cost of transporting goods and services has plummeted. Even so, with the
invention of broadband, the cost of transporting goods and services for many countries has
dropped to zero (Zakaria, 2011). For example, Friedman (2007) observed that the dot-com
collapse resulted in jobs for Indians, who worked for less money than Americans and could
equally and simultaneously perform the task in India. As a result, the world shifted to a KBE
(Clifton, 2011).
Certainly, the economic rise of the developing countries together with Western nations
was not accomplished without the use and leverage of debt. The economic empowerment of non-
Western and developing nations was developed through swift fiscal growth, which allocated
massive savings, which in return was loaned to the United States and Europe (Clifton, 2011;
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 26
Zakaria, 2011). Together with loans came jobs outsourced with special tax subsidies that
benefited corporations and created more jobs for non-Western nations (Zakaria, 2011).
Globalization and outsourcing have accelerated dramatically over the past 10 years,
causing new jobs to be created in a local context for a global economy (Friedman, 2007).
Although some studies have indicated that job outsourcing from Western nations has not hurt
their economy, many have argued that it has drastically damaged the job market (Clifton, 2011).
Wagner (2012) noted that a healthy and fully recovered American economy that will be immune
to outsourcing will be dependent only on jobs of innovators and entrepreneurs. In fact, one of the
most powerful and resourceful predictors of GDP will lie in the paths of entrepreneurship and
innovation (Wagner, 2012). The fields of entrepreneurship and innovation will require people to
be good horizontal collaborators and mobilize and manage a multidimensional and multicultural
workforce while translating for the local market (Friedman, 2007; Wagner 2012). Such
demanding requirements from this new era of globalization have inevitably influenced
preparation and education worldwide (Clifton, 2011; Wagner, 2012).
Globalization and Education
The new era of globalization has caused a fundamental change in education (Spring,
2008; Wagner, 2008). Education systems must be reoriented what students are learning and how
educators are teaching it (Friedman, 2007; Wagner, 2008). Many nations, particularly countries
such as Costa Rica, are including academic policies and practices at both the federal and local
levels to cope with the demands and challenges of globalization (Spring, 2008). One simple
example is the use and practice of the English language. Globalization has triggered educational
institutions to teach English as the global working language (Chanda, 2008; Zakaria, 2011).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 27
English as a global language of business and tourism has influenced the curricular structure of
local school systems (Spring, 2008; Zakaria, 2011).
In 2003 a global survey was conducted by the Pew Research Center (Chanda, 2008). The
survey noted that globalization was viewed much more favorably in low-income nations than in
rich ones. It also affirmed that three quarters or more interviewed in almost every country agreed
that children needed to learn English in the world today. Today, more than one quarter of the
earth’s population, 1.5 billion people, can communicate in English (Zakaria, 2011). The pace at
which globalization is spread across the globe brings more contact and commerce that demand a
common standard of communication. For instance, nearly 80% of electronically stored
information in the world is in English. Also, nearly all European Union diplomats speak English
(Zakaria, 2011). Chanda (2008) asserted that English has become India’s principal source of
attraction for outsourcing of service jobs and foreign investment for the 21st century. English has
now become the language of globalization, particularly English that is Americanized (Zakaria,
2011).
Not only has globalization accelerated the use of the English language, but it has also
triggered the use of the English language for scientific and technological endeavors. Altbach
(2007) noted that the augmentation of information technology (IT) has created a genuine virtual
global community of science and scholarship. In fact, the increasing dominance of English as the
key language of communicating academic knowledge is enhanced by IT.
In addition to the increase use in the English language, globalization has led policy
makers and educators to reevaluate the skills needed to be successful in the 21st-century KBE.
Many countries understand that a nation’s economic growth will be dependent on the knowledge,
information, ideas, skills, and health not only of their workforce but also of their education
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 28
system (Friedman, 2007; Spring, 2008; Wagner, 2008). Skills that are more emphasized now are
those that are focused in STEM education. Friedman (2007) observed that, in order for the
United States to compete in a global economy, there must be unlimited funding for engineering
and science programs in the education system. In addition to a higher focus on STEM education,
education systems will need to teach skills that require analyzing and mobilizing problems from
a multidimensional and multicultural perspective. Indeed, there will be a need for more
entrepreneurship and innovation in curriculum (Wagner, 2008).
Governments are now cognizant of investing more in education because it enhances
national prosperity, both economically and socially. It is also a means to compete internationally
(Spring, 2008). Because education upgrades are often expensive or unfeasible in some developed
nations, MNCs such as The World Bank, World Trade Organization, and United Nations
Educational, Science and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) have invested highly in the
education policies and development. In fact, the World Bank is the world’s largest funder in
education (Spring, 2008). Certainly, governments working with such organizations bring along
the politics that coincide not only with the era of globalization but with the process and
organization of education in the country (Zakaria, 2011). Costa Rica has been a prime example
of how politics can take advantage of globalization to improve both the economy and education
(CINDE, 2013; World Bank Group, 2006). The impact of globalization on the economy and
education system is examined in the following sections.
Conclusion
History teaches that globalization has helped many nations to prosper (Chanda, 2008).
Globalization, which was once spread through agriculture, has now transformed to a corporate
and even individualized means of influencing the economy and education (Spring, 2008).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 29
Globalization has also affected policies in education worldwide. Indeed, many nations now are
reevaluating the skills and curriculum needed to compete successfully in a 21st-century KBE.
Such reevaluation has also led many countries to understand that strengthening their education
system will ultimately bring about a healthy economy (Friedman, 2007; Wagner, 2012).
Understanding these views of globalization and its correlation between education and the
economy was essential in this study. STEM education is also important to understand because it
is an essential part of the curriculum used in preparation for the PRONAFECYT. This
understanding provided insight into the practices and decisions that educational leaders in Costa
Rica complete to implement the PRONAFECYT initiative.
Costa Rica
To understand the development of the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT as a 21st-century
skills initiative, it is important to understand the economic, political, and educational history of
the country. This section examines not only the historical aspect of the country but also the role
of FDI and MNCs in development of their education system and the PRONAFECYT.
History of Costa Rica
The Central American country of Costa Rica is nestled between Panama and Nicaragua.
It is a small country, relatively the size of West Virginia. The people of Costa Rica refer
themselves as ticos (Biesanz et al., 1999; Palmer & Molina, 2004). For many years Costa Rica
has been called the Switzerland of Central America because of agrarian culture, isolated peaceful
society, and striking mountain ranges (Gudmundson, 1999). Costa Rica received its name from
Christopher Columbus, who sailed through the region in 1502 and declared the shoreline as a
“rich coast.” However, no Spanish colonization occurred until the 1560s, when Juan de Cavallon
established a colony (Biesanz et al., 1999).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 30
Spanish colonization in Costa Rica was no easy feat. Between 1560 and 1610 the Spanish
attempted to establish several settlements throughout the Meseta Central and central mountains.
However, most of the early settlements failed due to climate difficulties and indigenous hostility
(Biesanz et al., 1999). The surviving settlements gradually grew in population and spread
throughout the Meseta and into the Gulf of Nicoya.
During the 1600s and even early 1700s, colonization in Costa Rica and throughout
Central America proved to be arduous and uninviting. Biesanz et al. (1999) noted that, because
Costa Rica had very few precious metals and indigenous inhabitants, Spanish colonists were
forced to till the soil rather than becoming landlords and exploiting the natives. Nevertheless, the
ticos or natives of Costa Rica were not considered equal in wealth, power, or privilege (Biesanz
et al., 1999). Hence, Costa Rica’s poverty, isolation, and harsh terrain highly discouraged
immigration from Spain. In fact, Booth (2008) observed that a census in 1700 recorded only
2,000 Costa Rican-born children of Spaniards in Costa Rica.
By the early 1800s, Central America was gaining independence from Spain and Costa
Rica sought its own independence. Eventually, in 1821, Costa Rica gained its independence from
Spain (Palmer & Molina, 2004). Once Costa Rica was free from Spain, it joined El Salvador,
Honduras, Nicaragua, and Guatemala as the United Provinces of Central America in 1823, led by
Honduran liberal Francisco Morazan. However, the coalition quickly dissolved due to constant
internal discord and infighting. Despite the dispersal and setback, Costa Rica became a fully
independent country in 1838 (Palmer & Molina, 2004).
By the end of the 1800s, the cultivation and wholesale of coffee began to be a major
economic boost to Costa Rican society. Within a short period of time, coffee transformed Costa
Rica from an impoverished and taxing nation into a rich and prosperous land. Although coffee
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 31
farming began in the capital city of San José, it soon extended throughout the entire country,
making coffee the staple of Costa Rica’s economy. In fact, from 1850 to 1890, the sale of coffee
accounted for 90% of the country’s export (Palmer & Molina, 2004).
The financial successes of coffee exportation required a new system of government to
regulate businesses, reform taxes, and create a sense of national identity (Palmer & Molina,
2004). As a result, the first president of Costa Rica, José Maria Castro Madriz, was overthrown
by the cafetaleros (coffee barons) and replaced by Juan Rafael Mora. President Mora, a former
coffee baron, was president for 10 years. During his term in office he expanded coffee
agriculture, empowered peasants, and privatized land to benefit the elite and middle class.
During his final year as president, Mora was shot in a political coup. Today, Costa Ricans
consider President Mora to be a national symbolic hero. San José’s international airport is named
for President Mora (Palmer & Molina, 2004).
After the assassination of President Mora, General Tomas Guardia seized control of the
government. President Guardia initiated a progressive turn in Costa Rican education, taxation,
and agriculture. Into the 20th century, women and Afro-Costa Ricans were given rights to
education and voting (Palmer & Molina, 2004). As agriculture grew, so did taxation. With the
new political leadership in the early 1900s, many Costa Rican peasants demanded fairer wages
and taxation. Such uproar ultimately led the country into the Revolution of 1948, led by the
Partido Liberacion Nacional (Biesanz et al., 1999; Palmer & Molina, 2004). It was at this time
that the incumbent president, Dr. Rafael Angel Calderon, refused to relinquish power after losing
the presidential election. Within a month, José Figueres Ferrer managed to defeat Calderon and
regain civil order (Biesanz et al., 1999). With the new President Ferrer, women and Afro-Costa
Ricans regained rights to vote, the communist party was banned, banks were nationalized, and
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 32
presidential term limits were established. In addition, a new constitution was adopted, which
abolished the military (Biesanz et al., 1999).
Today, Costa Rica has more than 4.5 million people and boasts a high standard of living
that sets them apart from their Central American neighbors. One distinguishing factor is their
well-developed social benefits systems. Government-sustained social spending is 20% of the
annual GDP, making the country one of the premier nations in Latin America in achieving
universal health care and education for its citizens (Central Intelligence Agency [CIA], 2014).
Costa Rica and Education
Costa Rica places a great emphasis on education. The quality of their education system is
one of the highest in all of Latin America and is ranked 21st internationally (CINDE, 2013;
World Bank, 2012). In fact, Costa Rica has a 96% literacy rate (CINDE, 2013). Biesanz et al.
(1999) noted that, when Costa Rica had an army, they tended to tell visitors that they had more
teachers than soldiers. Since the abolition of the military, government policy has heavily
financed education. In 2009, government spending on education was more than 6% of GDP
(World Bank, 2012).
In 1949, the Costa Rican Constitution mandated education and required free access to
preschool through high school (CINDE, 2013). Article 78 of the Costa Rican Constitution
mandates the following:
The preschool, basic general and diversified education are obligatory and, in the public
system, [are] gratuitous and financed [costeada] by the Nation. For the State education,
superior [education] included, the public expenditure will not be inferior to the annual
eight percent (8%) of the gross domestic product, in accordance with the law, without
prejudice to that established in Articles 84 and 85 of this Constitution. The State will
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 33
facilitate the technological access to all the levels of education, as well as the pursuit of
superior studies to those without pecuniary resources. The conferral of the scholarships
and the aids [auxilios] will be in charge of the Ministry of the branch, through the organ
that the law determines. (Constitution of Costa Rica, VII, as cited in MEP, 2014, p. 18)
Costa Rica abolished its military in the same year. The funding and resources that had
been used for military purposes were shifted to health and education. This move has led Costa
Rica to achieve one of the highest health and education systems in Latin America. Costa Rica’s
education system has been an essential component of the modernization, globalization, and
sustainability of its economy (CINDE, 2013).
The education system in Costa Rica is nationally centralized. The President has the
responsibility to appoint a Minister of Education, who in turn selects a Vice Minister of
Education. Together, they create a cabinet with various departments that focus on national and
international areas, such as teacher preparation, fiscal services, curriculum, and public relations
(MEP, 2014). The current Minister of Education is Dr. Sonia Marta Mora Escalante. Dr.
Escalante was appointed during a national teacher strike over wages (World Bank, 2012).
Costa Rica has approximately 2,888 preschools and 4,054 elementary schools. The MEP
has authorized school districts to change curricula according to the demands of a changing
society. However, changes and implementation in all districts are monitored and evaluated to
ensure educational excellence (CINDE, 2013).
Costa Rica’s school year runs from February to December. With only 176 days of school,
Costa Rica has one of the shortest school years in the world (Biesanz et al., 1999). Although
preschool and kindergarten exist in the school system, they are not considered part of the actual
school cycle. The first 9 years of school are divided into three cycles, with primary children
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 34
entering school at age 6. The first cycle is Grades 1–3 and the second cycle is Grades 3–6.
Typically, children who live in rural or impoverished areas attend overcrowded schools that
require a variation of instructional time (CINDE, 2013). The third cycle is considered secondary,
consisting of Grades 7–11 (MEP, 2013). However, secondary education is divided between
academic and technical schools. Typically, secondary academic instruction is 5 years of study
(Grade 7–11), with students graduating at age 17, while technical instruction has 6 years (Grades
7–12). Students who attend technical schools graduate with a technical degree (CINDE, 2013).
There are approximately 200 technical high schools in Costa Rica. In 2014, more than 97,000
students enrolled in a technical high school, focusing on any of 56 specialties in three main areas
of expertise: services, agriculture, and industry (CINDE, 2013).
Despite having a high literacy rate and a comparatively efficient education system, many
Costa Ricans perceive a detachment between secondary graduation rates and college and career
readiness (Mitchell & Pentzer, 2008). In fact, 20%–30% of students do not finish secondary
school (Americas Society & Council of the Americas, 2011). Costa Rica is still struggling to
move from reliance on a largely uneducated agrarian labor force to a more high-technology
industrial society (Villalobos & Monge-González, 2011). The report entitled Estado de la
Educacion by the National Council of Rectors (Consejuo Nacional de Rectores [CONARE],
2015), which monitors the overall performance of the institutional systems of Costa Rica through
evaluation of social, political, and environmental development, identified several gaps and
challenges in the educational system. The report noted the lack of fidelity in GDP spending on
education and inefficient secondary infrastructure (Biblioteca Virtual Educación, 2013).
Schools in rural areas of the country experience poor school infrastructure and
overcrowding. Such schools tend to divide classes into two shifts of 5 hours each (Biesanz et al.,
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 35
1999). In 2012 the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) examination
recorded that Costa Rican students scored below the mean in mathematics, science, and reading
(Table 1). PISA examinations are considered the world’s global metric for quality, equity, and
efficiency in school education. The PISA examinations target 15-year-old students to assess
whether they have acquired adequate knowledge and skills t for the 21st century (OECD, 2012).
These examinations are internationally recognized as key indicators of the quality of a national
education system.
Table 1

Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) Scores for Costa Rica, 2012

Mean score source Science Mathematics Reading

OECD mean 501 494 496
Costa Rica mean 429 407 394

Note. OECD = Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. Source: Attracting
Knowledge-Intensive FDI to Costa Rica: Challenges and Policy Options, by Organisation for
Economic Cooperation and Development, 2012, retrieved from www.oecd.org/dev
Despite setbacks in the K–12 system, Costa Rican universities are considered among the
best in all of Latin America (Bamber et al., 2013). Many Costa Rican universities have teamed
with MNCs to prepare Costa Rican students in technology and engineering careers. FDI and
MNCs have played a vital role in increasing the number of laborers in the high-technology
workforce in Costa Rica (Gereffi et al., 2013; CINDE, 2013).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 36
FDI and MNC in Costa Rica
In the past several decades, Costa Rica has emerged as one of the leading countries,
politically and economically, in all of Latin America. This sudden emergence of prosperity is
largely due to the fact that the country inserted itself into high-technology and knowledge-based
corporations (Gereffi et al., 2013). Yet, this emergence has stemmed from its education system.
Costa Rican government officials agree that technical training, professional education,
innovation, and the transfer of technology are essential factors for achieving higher levels of
country productivity and competitive advantages in a global market (CINDE, 2013). Costa
Rica’s ability to leverage the new era of globalization has contributed to its genuine economic
development and workforce (Gereffi et al., 2013).
Since its birth as a nation, Costa Rica has depended on agriculture as a means to support
the economy. Costa Ricans relied heavily on coffee and banana farms as their staple of export
throughout the globe (Biesanz et al., 1999). As decades passed, Costa Rica’s economy struggled
and the nation was in high debt. Added to their slow economy was pressure from global entities
to diversify the economy, meaning not to rely mainly on their staple commerce of bananas and
coffee (Biesanz et al., 1999; Villalobos & Monge-González, 2011). In the mid-1980, Costa Rica
began to shift economic focus from agriculture to ecotourism, then to high-technology industries
(OECD, 2012).
CINDE
Since the 1980s, the country has progressively changed its exports from primarily
agricultural products to high-technology manufacturing goods and services (OECD, 2012). This
dramatic change is largely due to governmental strategies to attract FDI. One particular FDI that
helped to set the foundation for Costa Rica CINDE (2013).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 37
CINDE is a private, apolitical, nonprofit organization that was founded in 1982. With the
ability and opportunity to create strategic alliances with foreign and domestic companies,
CINDE identifies the right market opportunities for Costa Rica. CINDE works to cultivate Costa
Rica’s development by being a catalyst and facilitator for the investment process in the country
(CINDE, 2013). CINDE focuses in promoting Costa Rica as a competitive investment country in
three main sectors: medical devices, electronics and services. The supplemental fourth sector is
named Special Projects, which involves projects in textiles and tourism (CINDE, 2013).
Together, CINDE and the Costa Rican government have created opportunities and
incentives to promote FDI within the country, particularly within high-technology sectors. Some
of the incentives for FDI are a free trade zone (FTZ) with special tax exemptions, bilateral free
trade agreements (FTA) with Central America and the Caribbean, and active participation with
the World Trade Organization (WTO; Gereffi et al., 2013; CINDE, 2013). The establishment of
FTZs ultimately gave way to Intel, which was one of the largest MNCs to establish in the
country (Gereffi et al., 2013; CINDE, 2013; World Bank Group, 2006). Ciarli and Ciuliani
(2005) noted that the impact of Intel in Costa Rica not only increased FDI in the country but also
created a dramatic shift in export production.
Intel
In 1996, Intel officially decided to install their US$300 million semiconductor assembly
and test plant in Costa Rica. At that time, Intel had an annual revenue of US$20 billion, which
was more than twice the GDP of Costa Rica (World Bank Group, 2006). During the 1990s,
Costa Rican government officials made it a priority to attract more FDI in high-technology
sectors. Costa Rican officials forged strong links with Harvard Business School, Costa Rican
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 38
business schools, and CINDE to determine the best way to support Intel. The World Bank Group
(2006) affirmed the following:
CINDE’s promotional efforts in 1996-1998 primarily focused on the electronics sector:
establishing and consolidating Intel, developing the cluster by attracting more high-tech
companies and strengthening the support industry around them. In this process, Intel VP
Bob Perlman advised CINDE to pursue other “big fish” to the pond, following the
example of Ireland, and offered introductions to key contacts that led to further
investment. In 1998, CINDE focused on reinforcing the electronics cluster by bringing
suppliers for the support industry, not only for Intel, but also for all large investors
established in the country. (p. 10)
Having a local supplier base in Costa Rica was seen as a means not only to increase the
economic impact in the country but also to anchor foreign investors. In 2000, CINDE, the
Chamber of Industry, the Foreign Trade Corporation of Costa Rica (PROCOMER), and
Ministerio de Cienca, Tecnología y Telecommunicaciones (MICITT) Ministerio de Cienca,
Tecnología y Telecommunicaciones officially launched the Costa Rica PROVEE program to
develop local suppliers. Companies that funded more than 50% of the cost included Baxter and
Inter-American Development Bank. The Costa Rica PROVEE program has now accumulated
more than 40 vital associations between local suppliers and MNCs (OECD, 2012; World Bank
Group, 2006).
Once Intel and local suppliers were established, Costa Rica’s Minister of Foreign Trade,
CINDE, and President José Maria Figueres leveraged the message of having Intel invest highly
in their country. Intel to collaborated with CINDE to become a living testimonial and even met
with potential investors as they considered working with and in Costa Rica (World Bank Group,
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 39
2006). Within a short period of time, Costa Rica attracted other top high-technology corporations
that once were hesitate to invest with them (OECD, 2012; World Bank Group, 2006). In 2001,
Costa Rica registered a significant increase in companies operating in high-technology
knowledge sectors, business services, and medical devices. Today, business services, tourism,
and medical devices account for the highest number of job creations through FDI. In fact,
business, medical devices, and services account for 65% of the corporations in Costa Rica
(OECD, 2012).
Medical Devices Corporations
The medical devices and services sector in Costa Rica has experienced a significant
increase in the past 10 years. the medical devices sector in Costa Rica grew from USD 88 million
in 1998 to USD 252 million in 2011. Baxter, the first medical device company in Costa Rica, had
the most influential role in attracting other MNCs to the country. Baxter has 22 of the 44
companies invested in medical devices contracted with them as manufacturers, suppliers, and
service providers (OECD, 2012).
FDI and Economic Challenges in Costa Rica
Costa Rica has now created a reputation that has successfully inserted it into global trade
by increasing its FDI and its knowledge and high-technology sectors. However, Costa Rica now
deals with new challenges that come with the global economy of today. Costa Rica must now
identify and assimilate new trends that will affect their society (OECD, 2012). According to
OECD (2012), Costa Rica will need to face four changing global trends that will challenge their
economic progression: (a) emergence of new technological paradigms (biotechnology and
nanotechnology), which have created new opportunities for businesses to change their
organizational structure and increase the relevance of innovation; (b) competition with China,
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 40
which has become a major trade partner with Latin America; (c) the force of globalization in
creating new skills and production competencies that has created a new geography of production
in which new innovation hotspots are emerging; and (d) channeling more resources to increase
innovation and production development.
In order to meet these challenges, it is recommended that Costa Rica strengthen its
domestic research. By enhancing domestic research, the nation will enhance its ability to attract
major FDI (OECD, 2012). In return, Costa Rica could develop small research laboratories with
the various MNCs now investing in the country. Such collaboration could also to creating
innovators, which is a desperate need not only for the 21st century but especially in Costa Rica
(OECD, 2012; Wagner, 2012).
The Role of FDI and MNC in Costa Rican Education
Despite the disparities in the education system, Costa Rica government officials have
worked closely with MNCs, FDI, and public universities to improve not only their education
system but also preparation of those who are entering the workforce, particularly in STEM-based
careers (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). One aspect that has attracted MNCs to the country is the FTZ
policy. MNCs in Costa Rica such as Baxter, Intel, and Cisco can export and import duty free
(CINDE, 2013). Such companies also enjoy the privilege of 100% exemption from profit taxes
for 8 years, with the reinvestment option to extend the tax exemption 8 years if they stay in Costa
Rica (Gereffi et al., 2013). In 2012, only 20% of manufacturing firms under the FTZ policy paid
corporate income tax (Gereffi et al., 2013). With the influx of high-technology corporations and
industry in the nation, it was imperative to create an education system that would prepare people
to enter a knowledge-based workforce (Gereffi et al., 2013; Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 41
Costa Rica’s FDI in high-technology companies has resulted in knowledge and
technology transfer in training and education to locals. In 2001, 55% of exporters were reported
to have established a training system, compared to 16% of companies producing only for the
domestic market. Among the many exporters in Costa Rica, foreign companies had nearly 20%
more training systems established than did national companies (Paus & Gallagher, 2008).
Arroyo, Cordero, and Larudee (2001) affirmed that in 2000 Intel had increased the level of
skilled labor employment in the country. In fact, in metal manufacturing, where high-technology
needs are concentrated, the percentage of skilled labor was 19% without Intel and 30% with
Intel. Foreign corporations in Costa Rica have provided training and education in skill areas that
are not widely provided, such as computer numerical control (Paus & Gallagher, 2008).
Instructional and Curricular Influence of FDI and MNCs
High-technology-based foreign companies have had a strong influence on the technical
curriculum and instruction at Costa Rica’s universities. Intel has perhaps been the most
influential company to work with higher education institutions. The School of Engineering at the
University of Costa Rica (UCR) and the Technological Institute of Costa Rica have contracts
with Intel to collaborate on development of curricula for technical careers. The increase in
technical training in Costa Rica, particularly in computer technology, has led to a growing
national software industry (Gereffi et al., 2013). In addition, Intel has established PD
opportunities for secondary teachers to help them to integrate technology in their pedagogical
practices (McConnell, 2008).
Costa Rican universities have played an essential role in developing leadership talent and
STEM field workers, which has increased the number of laborers in the high-technology sector
of the country (Gereffi et al., 2013). There are five public universities, with an enrollment of
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 42
more than 65,000. Although private universities tend to graduate more students, public
universities have had a higher level of government investment, quality, and performance
(Cybermetrics Lab, 2012). The University of Costa Rica is ranked 11th in Latin America. Since
2001, Costa Rica has doubled the number of graduates entering engineering and tech
concentrations (Gereffi et al., 2013). In 2011, 6% of college graduates received a degree in a
high-technology concentration. In order to add to the growth of high-technology graduates, the
Costa Rican government and the World Bank launched a US$200 million project to improve
education in high-demanding technology concentrations in four leading public universities
(Gereffi et al., 2013).
Costa Rican Plight of Technological and Managerial Careers
Although Costa Rica universities have made significant progress in placing students in
high-technology careers, companies such as Intel and Baxter have had little success in the value
chain in their production processes. Many have expanded into the area of IT-enabled services.
While careers in IT-enabled services create valuable employment, they have not aided
advancement of technological and managerial careers in Costa Rica (Paus & Gallagher, 2008).
One possible reason for the lack of upward mobility in technological and managerial know-how
employment is the lack of domestic knowledge-based assets that would promote FDI
corporations to settle in the country. Another possible reason could be Costa Rica’s tax ratio with
FDI corporations. Paus and Gallagher (2008) observed:
When Intel-Costa Rica celebrated 10 years of operations in Costa Rica in March 2007,
Intel president Craig Barrett criticized the lack of technological advancements in the
country and the insufficient attention to progress in education (La República, 2007). It is
ironic that the tax exemptions granted to Intel and other TNCs under the rules of the Zona
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 43
Franca mean that these companies do not directly contribute to an increase in the tax
revenue needed for significant improvements in infrastructure and education. Costa
Rica’s tax ratio of 13% is too low to fund all the needed investments in infrastructure and
education (p. 70).
Costa Rican government officials are clearly aware of this dilemma. In a recent report,
(Biblioteca Virtual Educación, 2013), 11 obstacles were addressed pertaining to the progress of
education in the nation; 3 of the 11 dealt with strengthening the quality of higher education in
terms of career readiness, finances, and national impact on the nation’s workforce (Biblioteca
Virtual Educación, 2013). Costa Rican government officials understand that, in order to compete
in a global market and increase the employment rate in high-technology fields, they will need to
establish policies to fund the needed investments in infrastructure and human capital that will
advance this cause (Pause & Gallagher, 2008).
Just like many other countries, Costa Rica faces the daunting task of preparing its people
for a KBE (CINDE, 2013; Wagner, 2008). Even though there has been progress at both K–12
and higher education institutions to prepare Costa Ricans for the KBE, there are still national
concerns as to whether government officials can continue to open the nation’s doors to MNCs
that will demand a Costa Rican workforce that is qualified and ready (Gereffi et al., 2013; Paus
& Gallagher, 2008). In order to address this national concern, Costa Rican government officials
have created the Presidential Council for Competitiveness and Innovation (PCCI). PCCI was
established in 2010, primarily to create dialogue among government entities and education
leaders to enhance the policy framework that will foster innovative growth within the country. It
was also designed to target specific innovation-related FDI that can enhance policies that will
produce more knowledge-based workers (OECD, 2012).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 44
National Science and Technology Fairs in Costa Rica
Another way in which Costa Rica has prepared its people to acquire 21st-century skills
and innovation has been through school participation in the mandated PRONAFECYT (Chacon,
2011). Costa Rica has held annual science fairs throughout the country since the 1960s. It was
not until the 1980s that the University of Costa Rica officially organized a national science fair
with university students (Valencia-Chacon, 2011). As Costa Rica expanded its economy in FDI
and MNCs, the government recognized the need to prepare its people to compete in science fairs
to stimulate a creative and technological culture. The MICITT of Costa Rica declared:
The overall objective of this program is to stimulate creativity and to promote a scientific
and technological culture, starting with the development of scientific thinking and
knowledge, the development of student’s skills and abilities in science and technology, as
a stimulus to the new generations of Costa Ricans, through the demonstration and
discussion of research projects designed by students. (as cited in Valencia-Chacon, 2011,
p. 3)
As a result, in 1998, Law 7169 was passed mandating that all secondary and primary
schools in Costa Rica participate in the national science fair (Valencia-Chacon, 2011). By 1999,
the National Science Fair of Costa Rica became affiliated with the Intel International Science and
Engineer Fair (ISEF; Valencia-Chacon, 2011). ISEF is considered the largest K–12 scientific
research event in the world. More than 1,700 students from more than 70 countries compete in
the fair for scholarship money. As of 2012, seven ISEF alumni have gone on to win the Nobel
Prize (Intel, 2014).
In 2004, a national decree (Decree 31900 MEP-MICITT) mandated that all institutions in
Costa Rica have science and technology fairs and to incorporate them in the National School
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 45
Calendar (Valencia-Chacon, 2011). In addition to the decree, an official organizational structure
was established. Figure 1 shows the organizational structure of the science fair:

Figure 1. National Program of Science and Technology Fairs: The process. Adapted from
Successful K–12 National Program of Science Fairs, by N. A. Valencia-Chacon, 2011, retrieved
from https://engage.intel.com/docs/DOC-7579
The national decree not only provided the organizational structure of the science fair; it
also provided guidelines as to when the fairs would be processed throughout the country.
Schools in Costa Rica typically start in early February and end in late December (Valencia-
Chacon, 2011). Table 2 indicates the calendar process of the science and technology fairs in
Costa Rica:
The presentations at the science and technology fairs are projects with practical purposes
to satisfy specific research and a reflective systematic methodology that creates a solution to the
problem (Valencia-Chacon, 2011). Hence, the base of these presentations stems from PBL
curriculum in the classroom. PBL is now part of the national IT curriculum in Costa Rica (Intel
Education, 2006).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 46
Table 2

Implementation of the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs Process During the

School Year

Month Science and Technology Fair

June-July Institutional
August District
September County
November National

Intel and other MNCs have had a strong influence on development of PRONAFECYT in
Costa Rica. Intel in particular gave the strongest support by having more than 70% of their
employees volunteer to help elementary and secondary schools prepare for the PRONAFECYT
(McConnell, 2008). Intel has developed training programs for teachers to integrate technology in
their practices in preparation for the PRONAFECYT. However, only 60% of the students fully
participate in the PRONAFECYT (McConnell, 2008).
Project-Based Learning
The Costa Rican National Science Fair is perhaps the most significant indication of PBL
curriculum. In addition to government- and Intel-sponsored fairs, Intel has invested in an Intel
Teach Program that supports teachers to use PBL curriculum in their classrooms. Coincidently,
the Costa Rican MEP’s National Center of Pedagogy noted that many of the winners of the
National Science and Technology Fairs have been teachers who have participated in Intel’s
Teach Program (Intel Education, 2006). PBL also correlates with STEM (Capraro & Slough,
2013). Both PBL and STEM education are used as means to prepare students for 21st-century
skills and their use is examined in Costa Rica in relation to the PRONAFECYT initiative.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 47
PBL is an innovative approach to learning and instruction that entails a plethora of
strategies critical for success in the 21st century. PBL consists of a natural integrative approach
of all academic disciplines and is adaptable to fit the diverse needs of students through hands-on
experiences driven by inquiry (Bell, 2010; Capraro et al., 2013). The instructional methods of
PBL typically consist of (a) central theme, (b) driving question(s), (c) practical investigation and
research, (e) autonomy, and (e) practicality (Bell, 2010). PBL instruction is considered a
purposeful way of solving real-life problems (Bell, 2010; Capraro et al., 2013).
In addition to solving real-life problems, students are given the opportunity to develop
skills such as problem solving, collaboration, communication, creativity, innovation, and critical
thinking, which are all part of Wagner’s (2008) theoretical framework for 21st-century skills
(Bell, 2010; Capraro et al., 2013). The main approach to PBL is that it is student driven.
Teachers facilitate the learning but the students develop the driving question(s) that will pique
their curiosity (Bell, 2010). Once students develop the question(s), a major project is created to
find the answer or solution to the driving question(s). All projects require that students do
research and work collaboratively. All discoveries and main answers to the question are shared
with a selected audience (Bell, 2010).
STEM Education
During the early 1990s, the National Science Foundation (NSF) began to use the term
SMET as an acronym for science, mathematics, engineering, and technology. Many high
officials in the organization complained that the term SMET sounded too much like smut; thus,
the acronym STEM was used instead (Sanders, 2009). At its inception, STEM education was
practically unknown across the nation. But as Americans slowly recognized that countries such
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 48
as China and India were on course to bypass the U.S. economy by producing more STEM
students, funding flowed to all things STEM.
The acronym STEM has now become a buzzword among U.S. stakeholders who have felt
compelled to prepare high school and college graduates to compete in a knowledge- and
technology-based global economy (Breiner, Harkness, Johnson, & Koelher, 2012; Sanders,
2009). In fact, the STEM acronym is used for various national, state, and local programs not only
as an important focus for educational reform but also to rejuvenate global competitiveness for the
United States (Breiner et al., 2012). STEM education is now an instructional and curricular
approach to help students to understand how things work and to improve their use of technology.
It is also used to introduce more engineering, problem solving, and innovation in the classroom
so students are better prepared for college and the 21st-century economy (Bybee, 2010; Wagner,
2012).
The Need to Strengthen PBL-STEM Education
Despite the current popularity of STEM education, the need to strengthen science and
mathematics education in the United States has been recognized since the early 1980s. In 1985,
the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAS) created Project 2061 to help
all Americans to become literate in science, mathematics, and technology. In the 1990s reports
from the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA) and the National Council of Teachers
of Mathematics (NCTM) and many universities called for instructional improvement and
innovation in STEM (Breiner et al., 2012; Sanders, 2009). The long history of failed attempts to
implement STEM education could be a result of a lack of common focus, both politically and in
education. Minimal attention has been given to the infrastructure and pedagogy of STEM
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 49
education, which has undermined preparation of STEM educators. As a result, too many students
lose interest in STEM fields at an early age (Sanders, 2009).
Now, there is ample evidence regarding the achievement, interest, and economic benefits
associated with programs in STEM education (Johnson, 2013; Sanders, 2009). Reports have
indicated that the U.S. economy will depend on the STEM skills of its citizens to ensure the
prosperity of the country. The economy depend on improvement of STEM education for national
security, innovation, and competitiveness in the global market (Breiner et al., 2012; Wagner,
2012). Most of the highest-paying jobs in the future will require mastery in STEM skills. In fact,
current data reveal that, currently, one of every three jobs is STEM related (Breiner et al., 2012).
This is also the case for Costa Rica. STEM education has become not only a predictor of future
employment for students but also a field with high demands for skilled workers with minimal
applicants, especially in Costa Rica (CONARE, 2012; Paus & Gallagher, 2008). Costa Rica
degrees in STEM fields are underrepresented despite having a KBE (CONARE, 2015). It is
through STEM education that students learn the engineering design process (Bybee, 2010).
STEM education will prepare Costa Rica to compete in a global KBE by developing in students
the skills of adaptability, collaborative problem solving, critical thinking, and effective
communication, all of which pertain to needed 21st-century skills (Wagner, 2008).
The Conceptual PBL-STEM Framework by Capraro and Slough
Both PBL and STEM instruction play a vital role in preparing students for 21st-century
skills. Work by Capraro and Slough (2013) was used as a tool to examine STEM and PBL
education in Costa Rican schools. Capraro and Slough (2013) defined combined PBL STEM
instruction as an ill-defined task with a well-defined outcome, requiring students to solve several
problems that demonstrate mastery of several concepts of various STEM subjects. Research has
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 50
noted that PBL-STEM instruction can narrow the achievement gap between high- and low-
achieving students. Unlike traditional mathematics and science fields in educational settings,
PBL-STEM curriculum requires students to use 21st-century skills such as abstract thinking,
effective communication, and collaboration (Capraro & Slough, 2013). It is through PBL-STEM
rigor and curriculum that students will experience real-life tasks that STEM professionals face on
a daily basis (Capraro & Slough, 2013).
However, in order for STEM-PBL to reach its full potential, teachers must be empowered
with the skills necessary for designing real-life learning experiences (Capraro & Slough, 2013).
The main challenge for STEM-PBL teachers is to link secondary education with postsecondary
practices. Therefore, it is imperative that teachers participate in a continuum of high-quality PD
that includes curriculum content design and realism (Capraro & Slough, 2013).
Professional Development
Research has noted that student achievement results are linked to the PD of teachers
(Fullan, 2010; Hunzicker, 2011). Fullan (2010) noted that school improvement is an
improvement of human and social capital. However, PD alone is not a solution to current
pedagogical limitations that teachers face. It is more productive to consider teacher PD as a
continuum that ranges from initial preparation for the teacher profession to a systematic needs-
based development that allows constant collaboration and interaction with colleagues
(Hunzicker, 2011). Thus, to understand the link between PD of Costa Rican teachers and
successful participation in the PRONAFECYT, an analysis of effective PD approaches is
necessary.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 51
Effective PD
According to Hunzicker (2011), effective PD consist of four main targets: supportive, job
embedded, instructional focus, and ongoing. The four targets can be used as a checklist to guide
school leaders in creating meaningful PD for all teachers.
Hunzicker (2011) proposed that the key to all growth and professional learning is
intrinsic motivation. The key to intrinsic motivation is to create PD opportunities that will
support teacher motivation and commitment. Indeed, integrating teacher input regarding what,
how, and the pace of the learning engages teachers and meets their professional needs
(Hunzicker, 2011).
Having PD be job embedded means to make it both relevant and authentic for the
teachers. Teachers recognize PD to be relevant when it is directly related to their pedagogical
needs and addresses their school site experience. Job-embedded PD requires that teachers
consider new approaches, analyze the effectiveness of their actions, and observe their colleagues.
It increases teachers’ perceptions of relevance for PD (Hunzicker, 2011).
The ultimate goal of instructional-focus PD is to increase student achievement. Thus,
developing teacher pedagogy and content knowledge is essential for instructional-focus PD.
Although it is important that teachers master subject area content, there must be a balance of
instructional strategy mastery to maximize student achievement (Hunzicker, 2011).
In order for PD to be effective, it should be ongoing. When teachers are consistently
given time to engage in PD, they are more likely to improve their instructional skills. When PD
is ongoing, teachers are more likely to collaborate with each other and practice new instructional
skills. Furthermore, it takes teachers months, even years, to effectively implement new ideas and
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 52
skills into their pedagogical practices. Ongoing PD opportunities will allot the needed time for
teachers to make and master effective changes in their instructional practices (Hunzicker, 2011).
21st-Century Skills Framework in a KBE
Friedman (2007) affirmed that most blue- or white-collar jobs that can be broken down
into a habitual routine can now be transformed into bits and bytes and exported to other countries
where there is an increasing number of educated knowledge workers who will work for a small
fraction of the salary of a American worker. This assertion is evident in Costa Rica. The need to
develop 21st-century skills in Costa Rican schools is a national priority (MEP, 2014).
Technology and the global economic transformations have created a need for
employment that requires skilled use of data and other technological information that can now be
processed and received instantly anywhere in the world (Wagner, 2008). These drastic changes
of the global economy and workforce have brought about challenges for Costa Rica’s education
system. To support education in these new challenges in a global KBE, Wagner (2008)
developed a set of seven skills needed to survive in the 21st century. Wagner’s seven 21st-
century skills were used as a theoretical framework to explore school leadership practices for the
Costa Rica PRONAFECYT initiative. Table 3 illustrates Wagner’s seven survival skills for the
21st century.
In 2014, the MEP of Costa Rica published a report entitled Memoria Institucional 2006-
2014, which analyzed and reviewed the educational goals, challenges, and policies that had
occurred since 2006. In the report, strategies and goals were designed to prepare the Ticos for a
KBE. The aims and goals during the past 7 years were as follows:
1. The school quality: axis of the Costa Rican education;
2. Develop the needed skills and relevant information for today’s world;
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 53
Table 3

Wagner’s 21st-Century Skills

21st-century survival skills Description

Critical thinking and problem solving Asking the right questions to solve problems; work
is defined by problem solving, not by specialty

Collaboration across networks and Understanding and working with culturally diverse
leading by influence individuals through different media outlets

Agility and adaptability Working and operating in ambiguous and unpre-
dictable ways while taking in new information

Effective oral and written communication Writing clearly and concisely, speaking and pre-
senting with focus, energy, passion, and voice

Accessing and analyzing information Accessing and evaluating information and
synthesizing ideas

Curiosity and imagination Thinking out of the box in disciplined ways,
having a burning curiosity and lively imagination

Note. Adapted from Twenty-First Century Skills and the Global Achievement Gap, by T.
Wagner, 2014, retrieved from http://schoolbriefing.com/975/21st-century-skills-and-the-global-
achievement-gap/
3. Help students in the learning and working with each other
4. Develop productive and entrepreneurial capacity of populations, adolescents, youth
and young adults;
5. Promising sustainable development and a healthy lifestyle;
6. Equity access to quality education in all regions of the country;
7. Raise systemically the quality of human resources in our education system;
8. Ensure that the evaluation process is not an autopsy, but an instrument of change;
9. Ensure that the MEP offers contracts that are timely, adequate and efficient
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 54
10. Ensure that schools and administrative bodies of MEP have the proper, sufficient and
timely infrastructure;
11. Achieve 8% of GDP as the basis of educational investment. (MEP, 2014, para. 12-25)
Furthermore, the Memoria Institucional 2006-2014 (MEP, 2014) report identified the
following goals as the means by which these aims could be accomplished: (a) incorporating and
developing foreign language programs, (b) improving the quality of education at all schools, (c)
incorporating more technology in education, (d) improving infrastructure of all schools in rural
areas, (e) improving the infrastructure and education of all secondary schools, (f) developing
critical thinking skills, and (g) improving ecological education. The report stated the need for
students to learn how to think, investigate, argue, and solve diverse problems; develop effective
skills to use productively use technology; and work collaboratively on social and environmental
projects. These national objectives are closely aligned with Wagner’s (2008) theoretical
framework for 21st-century survival skills. Both the Memoria Institucional 2006-2014 (MEP,
2014) and Wagner (2008) stressed the need to develop the necessary skills to survive in the 21st
century and the need to create innovators. Costa Rican leadership will play an essential role in
sustaining an education system that will produce innovators and productive 21st-century skilled
workers.
Leadership Theoretical Framework
The rapid changes and demands of the new knowledge era and global knowledge
economy require leadership that has the capacity to create and support innovators for the 21st
century (Wagner, 2012). This study will investigate the practices of educational leaders in Costa
Rica to implement the PRONAFECYT initiative. To fully contextualize the investigation, the
theoretical leadership frameworks of Bolman and Deal (2008) and Kotter (1996) were used.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 55
Bolman and Deal
Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four-framework approach to reforming organizations was used
in this study as a theoretical framework to examine Costa Rican leadership moving the country
toward a KBE. Bolman and Deal’s (2008) organizational theory is a multifaceted model
comprised of four frames: (a) structural, (b) human resource, (c) political, and (d) symbolic. All
four frames are means to examine and analyze organizational leadership from a variety of
perspectives.
Structural Framework
The structural framework of Bolman and Deal (2008) argues the imperative to place
people in the right roles and relationships within an organization. The structural framework can
change depending on the situation. When a person is able to lead through the correct frame, the
organization is more successful. The structural frame is based on popular belief that
organizations exist primarily to accomplish established goals. It is based on the assumption that
organizations work most successfully when environmental turbulence and personal preferences
are sacrificed to the norms of rationality (Bolman & Deal, 2008). When problems occur within
the structural frame, they typically originate from inadequate systems and can be resolved
through restructuring new ones.
Human Resource Framework
The human resource frame focuses on the social aspects of organizations. This
framework highlights the importance of relationships among the organization, leadership, and
employees. According to Bolman and Deal (2008), the human resource frame relies on four key
assumptions: (a) organizations exist to serve human needs, (b) organizations and people need
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 56
each other, (c) when the organization is poor, both the individual and the organization will suffer,
and (d) a good fit benefits both.
Political Framework
The political framework views organizations as arenas. Within each organization, groups
and individuals compete to achieve their own interests in a world of conflicting viewpoints and
scarce resources. The political framework consists of five basic assumptions: (a) organizations
are coalitions of various individuals and interest groups; (b) enduring differences exist among
organization members in values, beliefs, interest, and perceptions of reality; (c) the most
important decisions involve the allocation of scarce resources; (d) scarce resources and enduring
differences give conflict a central role in organizational culture and make power the most
important resource; and (e) goals and decisions emerge from negotiation and bargaining for
position among stakeholders. Thus, all organizations are inherently political (Bolman & Deal,
2008).
Symbolic Framework
The symbolic frame forms the cultural tapestry or secular myths, rituals, ceremonies, and
stories that help people in the organization to find meaning, purpose and passion. It embodies
and expresses the organization’s culture, beliefs, values, practices, and artifacts that define for
members who they are and how they are to perform (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
Kotter’s Eight-Step Change Model of Management
Today’s organizations deal with the reality that there is a constant need for change. To
help organizations adapt to needed changes, they can follow Kotter’s (2012) eight-step change
model of management. The model consists of the following: (a) establishing a sense of urgency,
(b) creating the guiding coalition, (c) developing a vision and strategy, (d) communicating the
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 57
change vision, (e) empowering employees for broad-based action, (f) generating short-term wins,
(f) consolidating gains and producing more change, and (g) anchoring new approaches in the
culture. Figure 2 shows how Kotter’s change model can produce successful change in an
organization.
1. Establishing a sense of urgency Leadership compels need to organizational
change
2. Creating the guiding coalition Recruiting key sponsors to drive change
3. Developing a vision and strategy Establishing strategies for change
4. Communicating the change vision Creating a detailed communication plan
5. Empowering employees for broad-based
action
Addressing critical areas of concern and
establishing strong governance for action
6. Generating short-term wins Plan visible short-term wins
7. Consolidating gains and producing more
change
Use credibility to change policies and
procedures
8. Anchoring new approaches in the culture Articulate and incorporate the new ways of
working into the culture of the organization

Figure 2. Kotter’ eight-step change model of management. From Leading Change, by J. P.
Kotter, 1996, Boston, MA: Harvard Business Press.
Kotter’s model was used to analyze how primary school leadership in Costa Rica
promoted and produced schools that participated successfully in the PRONAFECYT.
Chapter Summary
Globalization has existed since the primitive era of the human species (Chanda, 2008).
With the need for exploration and the demands to trade, immigration and interaction across the
continents were inevitable. As a result, the world became increasingly interconnected and
flattened (Chanda, 2008; Friedman, 2007). Now, globalization has become a complex and
unavoidable fact that has affected culture, economies, politics, and education across the globe
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 58
(Zakaria, 2011). Many nations are attempting to take full advantage of the economic prosperity
that globalization now promises (Spring, 2008). Costa Rica has prospered and benefited from the
impact of globalization (World Bank, 2012).
The overall impact of globalization and FDI in Costa Rica has helped to improve its
economy and education. MNCs such as Intel, Baxter, and Cisco have not only boosted the Costa
Rican workforce but have also greatly influenced the education focus of the country (CINDE,
2013; Paus & Gallagher, 2008; World Bank, 2012). Both MNCs and FDI have challenged Costa
Rica to prepare its people to meet the demands of the new KBE (CINDE, 2013; Rodríguez-
Clare, 2001).
To help Costa Ricans acquire the skills and preparation for the 21st-century workforce, a
national decree mandated that all schools participate in the PRONAFECYT. Intel has provided
support and PD for schools to compete in the PRONAFECYT. With the support of Intel and the
PRONAFECYT initiatives, Costa Ricans prepare themselves to compete in the ISEF (Intel,
2014; Valencia-Chacon, 2011;). This study will examine how Costa Rican school leaders have
implemented the PRONAFECYT initiative. Furthermore, the study will investigate the role of
leadership in Costa Rican schools in instruction, curriculum, and participation in the
PRONAFECYT.
Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four frames of leadership and Kotter’s (2012) eight-step
model for change were used as a framework to measure the change and role that school leaders
play in implementing the Costa Rica PRONAFECYT initiative. Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century
survival skills will be used to analyze teachers’ practices in schools that participate successfully
in the national science fairs. Capraro and Slough’s (2013) PBL-STEM framework was used to
evaluate teacher practices.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 59
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
This chapter describes the research methodology to be used in this study. The chapter
reviews the purpose of the study and examines the research questions that guided this
investigation. It provides an overview of the design, sample and population, instrumentation,
data collection, and data analysis. Research design frameworks from Creswell (2013) and
Merriam (2009) are articulated as the base of the research design of this study.
Purpose of the Study
The spread of globalization has caused many nations to reexamine their education
systems (Spring, 2008). Many countries are now realizing that, to compete in the 21st century,
there must be an increase in skills and knowledge in technology, engineering, science, and
innovation (Wagner, 2008). Competition for jobs and dominance in the workforce are no longer
domestic issues; competing for jobs has now become global (Friedman, 2007).
To prepare citizens to compete in a 21st-century global economy, Costa Rican
government officials have provided means in their education system that promote the needed
21st-century skills. The main provision of preparation that is the focus of this study is the
implementation of the Costa Rica PRONAFECYT initiative (Valencia-Chacon, 2011). The Costa
Rican MEP mandated that all K–12 schools in the country participate in the PRONAFECYT
initiative. This decree gave the opportunity for all schools to prepare students through PBL and
STEM curriculum and instruction (MEP, 2014).
Despite mandating that all schools participate in the PRONAFECYT, there are disparities
regarding the level of success across Costa Rican schools in participation and quality of the
PRONAFECYT initiative within each school site. Thus, the purpose of this is study was to
examine the role of educational leaders in preparing and implementing the PRONAFECYT
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 60
initiative in primary schools in Costa Rica. This study identified the role of these educational
leaders in the development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. In addition, this
study examined how primary schools may have reformed their leadership and teacher training to
comply with the PRONAFECYT mandate.
Four research questions guided this study:
1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practice?
Research Design
The methodology employed for this study was a qualitative approach. Merriam (2009)
observed that qualitative research attempts not only to investigate what people are experiencing
but also to interpret these experiences. There are many types of qualitative research that enhance
the researcher’s ability to interpret the study effectively. Creswell (2013) listed narrative,
phenomenology, grounded theory, case study, and ethnography as means to complete qualitative
studies. This study was an attempt to understand the role of school leaders in preparing and
implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative within their school sites. This study also examined
teacher practices and PD in relation to the PRONAFECYT initiative. Thus, Merriam (2009)
defined this type of qualitative research as a case study.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 61
This type of case study is also described as applied research. Applied research attempts to
examine and improve the quality of practice of a specific discipline (Merriam, 2009). This study
will help educational leaders and teachers to improve their practices to participate in the
PRONAFECYT initiative. Creswell (2013) observed that one of the characteristics of a
qualitative study is that data collection is done at the site of the participants. In this study, the
research team went to Costa Rica to investigate educational leaders and teachers in their natural
settings. In this case, natural setting refers to the elementary schools and classrooms in which the
participants work. The researchers talked and interacted directly with the participants and
observed them teaching and acting in their own setting (Creswell, 2013).
Sample and Population
In research design there are two types of sampling: probability and nonprobability
sampling. Nonprobability sampling is the method of choice for qualitative studies (Merriam,
2009). Nonprobability sampling is also known as purposeful sampling. Purposeful sampling
refers to the assumption that the researcher wants to examine, discover, and gain insight and
therefore selects a sample from which the most can be learned (Merriam, 2009). Thus,
purposeful sampling was used to maximize learning about the role of educational leaders in
implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative, as well as teacher practices.
One of the main goals of purposeful selection in a qualitative study is to deliberately
select individuals who are critical for testing theories that correlate with a researcher’s
investigation. Deliberately selecting participants will provide information and data that are
particularly relevant to the questions and goals of a qualitative study (Maxwell, 2012). However,
for this particular study, the MEP and the MICITT of Costa Rica selected the participants.
Through communication with the research’s team principal investigator, Dr. Michael Escalante,
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 62
both the MEP and MICITT deemed that primary schools in Costa Rica were struggling the most
to complete the PRONAFECYT initiative. An official recruitment letter was sent to MEP from
our research team explaining the purpose of our research in Costa Rica (Appendix A). The MEP
and MICITT identified and selected 18 schools within a 2-hour radius of the capital, San José, to
participate in the study. Half of the 18 primary schools were considered to be less effective in
terms of completing the PRONAFECYT initiative, while the other half were considered more
effective. The MEP and MICITT sent to the research team a list of research sites for the study
(Appendix B). Overall, the sample for this study consisted of 18 primary schools, 7 government
officials, 18 primary school administrators, 4 business leaders, 1 Costa Rican PRONAFECYT
director, and 3 university administrators (Table 4). For this particular study, only one elementary
school’s data, namely Santa Barbara Elementary School (pseudonym) was closely examined and
analyzed. Also, for further analysis of data related to Research Question 2, another school, Colón
Elementary School (pseudonym) was used to compare to Santa Barbara School. Through data
analysis, Colón School was considered to have less successful participation in the
PRONAFECYT than Santa Barbara School.
Additional political leaders and education directors were accessed from previous doctoral
studies from the University of Southern California, specifically from Dr. Michael Escalante and
Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft. Both contacted key political leaders, regional directors, and schools that met
the criteria for this study. Contact through email and telephone calls to the MEP gave way to the
approval and the exact schools that were part of this study. Once the research team was in Costa
Rica, the national PRONAFECYT director gave each research team member the exact location
of each school, a scheduled time to visit, and instructions to follow during the visitation. After
the meeting with the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT Director, all research team members were
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 63
Table 4

Study Participants

Name Title Affiliation

Alicia Vargas Porras Vice Minister of Education MEP
Vanessa Gibson CINDE Director of Aftercare CINDE
Nathalie Valencia Director of PRONAFECYT MICITT
Dr. Alicia Vargas Director of Teacher Training Program UCR
Omar Dengo Founder Omar Dengo Foundation
Patricia Arias Regional Science Fair Director Occidente
Maria Santos Pasamontes Research Coordinator State of Science and Technology
Innovation for Costa Rica
Mary Helen Bialas Program Manager Council for Promotion of
Competitiveness of Costa Rica
Alejandra Mata-Segreda Dean of the School of Education UCR
Sonia Mara Mora Escalante Minister of Education MEP
Hugo Navarro Director, School of Technology Education CRIT
Jesus Hernandez Professor, School of Technology Education CRIT
Javier Cambronero Deputy (former educator) Legislative Assembly
Lander Perez Barrantes Legislative Counsel and West Regional
Science Advisor
Legislative Assembly
Carolina Vasquez Soto Vice Minister MICITT

Note. MEP = Ministerio de Educación Publica, CINDE = Costa Rica Investment Promotion Agency, MICITT =
Ministerio de Cienca, Tecnología y Telecommunicaciones, UCR = Universidad de Costa Rica, PRONAFECYT =
Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología (National Program of Science and Technology Fairs), CRIT =
Costa Rica Institute of Technology.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 64
were allowed access to survey, interview, and observe school personnel and classroom
instruction.
Participants
The sample population for this study consisted of elementary school students, teachers
and directors, coordinators for the PRONAFECYT, university personnel, government officials,
and business partners. Interviews and surveys were conducted with these participants. Names of
the teachers and directors are pseudonyms. The following elementary school teachers
participated in interviews: Sandra, first- and second-grade teacher; Eva, K to sixth-grade teacher;
Elier, preschool to sixth-grade teacher; Cynthia, first- and second-grade teacher; Marjeli, second-
and third-grade teacher; Vero, K to sixth-grade teacher; Maria, K to sixth-grade teacher; Lupe, K
to sixth-grade teacher; Giselle, K to sixth-grade teacher; and Cruz, sixth-grade teacher. Also
interviewed were Jaco Rivera, Director of Santa Barbara School, and Juan Rodriguez, Director
of Colón School. Twenty 20 teachers at Santa Barbara School and 20 teachers at Colón School
were surveyed, and 85 students at Santa Barbara School and 79 students at Colón School were
surveyed.
The following government officials were interviewed: Javier Cambronero, Deputy of the
Legislative Assembly of Costa Rica and former educator; Alicia Vargas Porras, Academic
Deputy Minister of MEP of Costa Rica; Lander Perez Barrantes, Legislative Counsel and West
Regional Science Advisor; Nathalie Valencia Chacon, National Coordinator of the
PRONAFECYT in the MICITT; and Carolina Vasquez Soto, Vice Minister of MICITT.
The following business leaders were interviewed: Vanessa Gibson, Director of Corporate
Development and Investment Climate for CINDE; Mary Helen Bialas, Senior Program Manager
for the Council for Promotion of Competitiveness of Costa Rica; Maria Santos Pasamontes,
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 65
research coordinator for the State of Science and Technology Innovation for Costa Rica; and
Omar Dengo, founder of the Omar Dengo Foundation.
The following higher education personnel were interviewed: Hugo Navarro, director of
the School of Technology Education at the Costa Rica Institute of Technology; Jesus Hernandez,
professor at the School of Technology Education at the Costa Rica Institute of Technology; and
Alejandrina Mata Segreda, Dean of the School of Education of the UCR.
Classroom observations were conducted. Students were not interviewed but they were
observed and surveyed. Eighteen schools from the MICITT were preselected as part of this
study. In this specific study, Santa Barbara School data were retrieved and analyzed. In addition,
another primary institution named Colón School was visited and data were retrieved and
analyzed. Colón School was used for a comparison to Santa Barbara School, specifically to
examine how teacher practices at Santa Barbara School differed from those at Colón School as
measured by the level of participation in the PRONAFECYT. The PRONAFECYT participation
at Santa Barbara School and Colón School are closely examined in Research Question 2. Santa
Barbara School was considered to have more successful participation in the PRONAFECYT than
Colón School, which is why the two schools were examined and compared.
Instruments
To gather the necessary data for this study, interviews and surveys were conducted with
the MEP of Costa Rica, business leaders, elementary school site directors, teachers, and students.
Qualitative interviews were unstructured, with open-ended questions to elicit views and opinions
from the participants (Creswell, 2013). In addition, observational data were collected at all
elementary schools visited in Costa Rica. Creswell (2013) noted that qualitative observation
occurs when the researcher takes notes in either a structured or semistructured way regarding
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 66
activities at the researched site. In this case, the research site was the classroom of the teachers
who participated in this study.
Interviews
The research group created semistructured interview questions that were based on
Merriam’s (2009) interview guideline continuum. The interview questions were designed
specifically for the teachers (Appendix C), school administration (Appendix D), government
officials and businessmen (Appendix D), parents (Appendix F), and students (Appendix G) who
will participate in the study. Although all participants received the same questions, some
grammatical changes were made for the questions to be linguistically appropriate for each group.
All interview responses were transcribed and evaluated using Patton’s (2002) qualitative
analytical framework.
The interview questions related to the research questions were developed collaboratively
by the research team. All questions stemmed from the theoretical frameworks of Bolman and
Deal (2008), Kotter (1996), Capraro and Slough (2013), and Wagner (2008).
Surveys
The research group created a self-administered survey for the teachers (Appendix H),
school administrators (Appendix I), government officials (Appendix J), businessmen (Appendix
K), parents (Appendix L), and students (Appendix M). A total of 23 questions are asked on the
survey. The survey includes specific questions aligned to the research questions and the
theoretical frameworks about practices, perspectives, and training. All participants were asked to
complete the survey in person. Responses to the survey were given using an ordinal scale of 1 to
4 (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = agree, 4 = strongly agree, 0 = not sure; Fink, 2013).
In order to develop a clear and valid survey, the research team made a conscious effort to avoid
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 67
jargon and long sentences and use standard syntax and grammar. In addition, careful
consideration was given to the wording and cultural context of the questions, since the survey
would be translated to Spanish (Fink, 2013). Research team members who are fluent in Spanish
did the translation from English to Spanish. To organize and triangulate the survey items, the
following pattern was created: survey Items 1 to 4 were related to Research Question 1, Items 5
to 7 were related to Research Question 2, Items 8 to 12 were related to Research Question 3, and
Items 13 to 23 were related to Research Question 4.
Observations
The research group developed a classroom observation protocol (Appendix N) that
focused primarily on Research Question 2, How do teacher practices at successful schools differ
from teacher practices at less successful schools as measured by the level of participation in the
Costa Rican PRONAFECYT? In order to address this question, it was imperative to gather
evidence based on Capraro and Slough’s (2013) conceptual framework of PBL-STEM education
and Wagner’s (2010) definition of 21st-century skills. Capraro and Slough’s (2013) framework
consists of instruction that is project based and curriculum that highly emphasizes in science,
technology, engineering, and mathematics. Wagner’s (2008) definition of 21st-century skills
consists of the following: collaboration, agility and adaptability, critical thinking and problem
solving, initiative and entrepreneurship, effective oral and written communication, accessing and
analyzing information, and curiosity and imagination.
Data Collection
Data collection involves selecting data, and the techniques of data collection will
ultimately decide what the data of the study will be (Merriam, 2009). However, before any data
were collected, the research team collectively participated in training provided by the
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 68
Institutional Review Board. Once all research team members had completed the training
satisfactorily, a consent form was given to approve of the research (Appendix O). The research
team traveled to Costa Rica in June 2015 and stayed for approximately 2 weeks. The research
team was arbitrarily assigned elementary schools across the country. Interviews and surveys
were completed by the participants. Interviews were audio recorded and transcribed.
Observations were also conducted. Observers were unobtrusive and used the observation
protocol designed for this study (Appendix N). All observational notes were based on the
theoretical frameworks of Wagner (2008) and Capraro and Slough (2013). Observations started
with a wide angle and then narrowed to the specifics of instruction, curriculum, and interaction
between the students and the teacher in the classroom (Merriam, 2009). Collecting data via the
surveys, interviews, and observations helped to create a triangulation in which the research team
analyzed the data from multiple sources (Merriam, 2009).
Data Analysis
Data analysis followed Creswell’s (2013) six-step approach to conceptualize and validate
the accuracy of the data: (a) prepare and organize data information of all members who
participated in the study, (b) thoroughly read through all the data information, (c) begin coding
the data, (d) generate a description of themes from the data, (e) articulate description of themes
in a qualitative narrative, and (f) draw conclusions and interpretations of the data.
For Step 1, all interview data were organized for transcription. All other supplemental
materials, such as survey responses and observational notes, were prepared for analysis.
Step 2 initiates a synthesis process of the data to identify overall meaning (Creswell,
2013). The data analysis synthesized general biases, ideas, and thoughts about how to interpret
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 69
the data. At this stage, all analysis is informal any idea or analysis of the data is subject to
change.
Step 3 is designed to discuss a plan to provide a descriptive analysis of data for all
variables of the study (Creswell, 2013). Coding was used through the research team’s database
software system, Dedoose. The research team analyzed and coded each component of the data.
Coding topics were based on the conceptual frameworks presented in this study (Chapter 2). Any
unexpected themes were coded.
In Step 4, coding was organized to articulate themes and patterns from the data. This
generated a description of the setting as well as the themes for analysis. Description is defined as
a detailed explanation of information about the people, places, and events in a setting. Thus,
codes were generated from the descriptions. This step identified statistical procedures that could
be used (Creswell, 2013).
In Step 5, the researchers provided a narrative or rationale for the assumptions associated
with the data (Creswell, 2013). This narrative gave a detailed account of the setting, people, and
data. Tables, graphs, and visuals were included for understanding.
Step 6 presents conclusions from the results and interpretation of the larger meaning of
the results (Creswell, 2013). The final interpretation includes how the results addressed the
research questions and the implications for future research on the topic (Creswell, 2013).
Ethical Considerations
Ethical problems may be presented when analyzing data. Collecting data and the
dissemination of findings are identified as the most common ethical problems when analyzing
data (Merriam, 2009). However, Creswell (2013) identified proper ethical practices, which were
used throughout the study: respect of site and participants, especially during interviews;
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 70
avoidance of collecting harmful information and exploitation of participants; and avoidance of
disclosing positive results.
The research team was trained and certified in the Collaborative Institutional Review
Board Training Initiative. This training helped the research team to learn about being student
researchers, ethical principles, and international research. In addition, the training gave the
research team understanding not only of how to interact with participants but how to collect and
analyze data.
Chapter Summary
The overall purpose of this study was to examine the effects of educational leadership on
participation in the PRONAFECYT initiative in primary schools in Costa Rica. This study also
analyzed the effects of educational leadership in the development and implementation of the
PRONAFECYT initiative. In addition, the study examined how 18 primary schools may have
reformed their leadership, teacher training, and teaching practices to comply with the
PRONAFECYT mandate.
A qualitative methodology was used. The MEP and MICITT of Costa Rica selected the
sample population for this study: 18 primary schools within a 2-hour radius of San José, the
capital city of Costa Rica. The following were selected as participants: 18 primary schools, 7
government officials, 18 primary school administrators, 4 business leaders, 1 National Costa
Rican PRONAFECYT director, and 3 university administrators.
Instruments used for this study were surveys, interviews, and observations. Survey
questions were designed to align with research questions and theoretical frameworks. All
participants were asked to complete the respective survey. Interview questions are aligned with
research questions and theoretical frameworks of this study. All interview responses were
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 71
transcribed and evaluated using Patton’s (2002) qualitative analytical framework. Observations
were conducted at all 18 primary school sites. Each observational tool is aligned with theoretical
frameworks of Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century skills and Capraro and Slough’s (2013) PBL-
STEM pedagogy.
Data collected via the surveys, interviews, and observations were transcribed to aid in
triangulation to analyze the data from multiple sources (Merriam, 2009). Data collection and
analysis were uploaded into the research’s team system software, Dedoose and the team followed
Creswell’s (2013) six-step approach for data analysis. A summary of the entire research proposal
is presented in Appendix P.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 72
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
The 21st century has ushered in a new era of globalization that is not spread through
countries but rather sponsored by individuals and corporations (Friedman, 2007). This new era of
globalization has in turn influenced the economies of many countries. As a result, many nations
have ameliorated their education system (Zakaria, 2011). The recognition of the effects of
globalization on education and the economy around the world has caused many nations to
closely examine and critique their education systems and to compare them with those of other
developing nations. Such comparison has had a positive stance in the value of education (Spring,
2008).
However, the challenge of most of these nations now is to know how to create and
maintain a healthy education system that will reinvigorate the economy and prepare residents to
acquire the skills and information needed to compete in a 21st-century knowledge-based
economy (Clifton, 2011). Such is the case with Costa Rica. Costa Rica’s culture places a
significant emphasis on education. Government policy practices since the 1940s have been to
abolish military funding and commit those funds to the nation’s education system (Biesanz et al.,
1999). Such a shift in distribution has prepared Costa Rica to funnel in the effects of
globalization (CINDE, 2013).
Under the effects of 21st-century globalization, Costa Rica has progressed and
blossomed. Through FTZ and FDI, Costa Rica’s economy has become comparatively stable and
the nation has become one of the leading nations in the world for transport and technological
production (Gereffi et al., 2013). As a result, this country has developed one of the leading
education systems in all of Latin America (CINDE, 2013). To sustain and prepare ticos for 21st-
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 73
century skills and development, the MEP mandated that all schools participate in the
PRONAFECYT.
The purpose of this chapter is to present findings and analysis of the data collected via
interviews, surveys, observations, and a review of literature. The study also examined the
leadership practices, instructional strategies, and successful implementation of the
PRONAFECYT specifically at Santa Barbara School. As stated in Chapter 2, the findings were
examined through the following four theoretical frameworks: Kotter’s (1996) eight-step change
framework, Capraro and Slough’s (2013) PBL-STEM education, Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century
skills, and Bolman and Deal’s (2008) reframing organizations four-frames model. These
theoretical frameworks were used to analyze and understand the collected data. The frameworks
shed light on the impact of educational leaders in Costa Rica on the PRONAFECYT. Thus, the
overall purpose of this study was to identify and examine the role of education leaders in Costa
Rica in implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative.
Overview of the Chapter
The purpose of this chapter is to provide a thematic and analytical response to the
findings of the four research questions of this study. The findings of data are connected with the
literature review and the four theoretical frameworks used to analyze the data. Thus, the chapter
begins with an overview of the theoretical frameworks used in the study. Research questions for
this study are also reviewed.
Following a review of the research questions, a brief description of the participants and
the school is provided. Then Research Questions 1 through 4 are presented and examined with a
brief discussion point at the end of each research question. The chapter ends with a summary.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 74
Theoretical Frameworks
Kotter
The work by Kotter (1996) served as the framework for understanding how educational
leaders create and adapt to changes relating to the PRONAFECYT. The key points that Kotter
(1996) emphasized were his eight-step change model of management: (a) establishing a sense of
urgency, (b) creating the guiding coalition, (c) developing a vision and strategy,
(d) communicating the change vision, (e) empowering employees for broad-based action,
(f) generating short-term wins, (g) consolidating gains and producing more change, and
(h) anchoring new approaches in the culture. The lenses of Kotter’s (1996) eight-step change
model of management helped to define the themes of the findings for this study.
Capraro and Slough
The conceptual work by Capraro and Slough (2013) served as the framework to analyze
PBL-STEM in the classroom, particularly as a means to prepare students in Costa Rica for the
PRONAFECYT. PBL-STEM education is defined as instruction with an ill-defined task with a
well-defined outcome that requires students to solve real-life problems while showing mastery in
STEM in the process of solving the problem. PBL-STEM education has been shown to be an
effective means to integrate 21st-century skills in curriculum and pedagogy (Capraro & Slough,
2013).
Wagner
With the new wave and demands of a KBE, Wagner (2008) outlined seven crucial skills
to develop to survive and maintain efficacy in the 21st century. Wagner (2008) identified seven
21st-century survival skills: (a) critical thinking and problem solving, (b) collaboration across
networks and leading by influence, (c) agility and adaptability, (d) effective oral and written
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 75
communication, (e) accessing and analyzing information, and (f) curiosity and imagination.
These skills were used as a theoretical framework to understand and analyze how these skills are
implemented throughout the PRONAFECYT initiative from educational leaders and teachers in
Costa Rica.
Bolman and Deal
Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four-frame methodology to leading organizations was used in
this study as a theoretical background to examine Costa Rican leadership moving the country’s
educational system toward a KBE. Furthermore, it was used to discover themes that identified
leadership practices at both the site and systematic levels in implementing the PRONAFECYT.
The four frames were (a) structural, (b) human resources, (c) political, and (d) symbolic.
Research Questions
In addition to the theoretical framework, this study was driven by four research questions:
1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practice?
The response to each of the research questions is analyzed and articulated through a
triangulation of the results from interviews, surveys, and classroom observations. This study
focused on Santa Barbara School, while using other data collected from similar schools and from
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 76
government officials. The chapter begins with a description and brief narrative of the individuals,
schools, and government officials who participated in the study. Following the description of the
participants, an analytic response of each research question is presented through themes from a
data analysis.
Santa Barbara School
Santa Barbara School is located in one of the most affluent parts of Costa Rica. Although
located in a very affluent area, the school’s infrastructure was not always top tier. It was not until
the recent school director, Jaco Rivera, arrived that things began to change. Rivera, the current
school director, has been at Santa Barbara for 3 years. Prior to his appointment as director, he
noted that Santa Barbara classrooms were deteriorated and electric cables hung on the walls of
the front office. Rivera noted in an interview that, to change the infrastructure of Santa Barbara
School, he needed to obtain financial resources from the community and the municipality. That
is exactly what he did. Details as to how he funded the new infrastructure for his school are
explained in a later part of the chapter.
Rivera used revenue from the municipality to rebuild the infrastructure of the school,
rather than using funds from the school budget. He acquired the finances to build ramps and an
elevator for the new school campus. Now, Santa Barbara School is a three-story building with
ramps and an elevator for the disabled. Also, the entire school has had a new paint job, both on
the outside of the school and in the classrooms.
As of now, the school serves approximately 600 students from kindergarten through sixth
grade. School hours are divided into two schedules. During the first half of the day the lower
elementary grades attend school, while in the evening the upper-grade students arrive. During
instructional hours, there are 21 teachers and the school director. In addition to the school
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 77
director and teachers, there is a coordinator who is called to implement and facilitate the
PRONAFECYT at the school. The coordinator is also a teacher from the same school.
Since the school schedule is divided into two time periods of the day, many teachers have
the option of working part time or finding employment at another school during the other half of
the day. However, Rivera made it very clear in an interview that he wanted all of the teachers
who are employed at Santa Barbara School to stay for the entire day. He noted that, if his
teachers were paid more, they would not leave his school to work at another school. By paying
the teachers an additional percentage, Rivera maintains a consistent number of teachers and gains
buy-in from the staff, especially during schoolwide efforts to implement the PRONAFECYT.
Results for Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, “What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the
Costa Rican PRONAFECYT initiative?” The new wave of globalization has created a new
culture of education in which modernity and Western values are imprinted. Indeed, the impact of
globalization has now helped to create a global uniformity that has allowed many countries to
enter the global enterprise arena (Spring, 2009). The country of Costa Rica has been exemplary
in terms of restructuring education systems based on the values and needs of the 21st century.
Indeed, the Tico nation has become very proactive in shifting the focus from an agrarian
economy to KBE with special interest in technological export (Rodriguez-Clare, 2001).
To prepare its citizens to compete in the new era of globalization and a global KBE,
Costa Rica sought to have all of its youth in school participate in science fairs, beginning in the
early 1990s (Valencia-Chacon, 2011). As a result, the MEP considered it necessary in 2004 to
establish a national decree requiring that all schools participate in the PRONAFECYT (Valencia-
Chacon, 2011). It is through the participation of the PRONAFECYT that schools prepare
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 78
students to engage in STEM curriculum and presentations of their projects (McConnell, 2009;
Valencia-Chacon, 2011). Although at one time many Costa Rican schools received help from
Intel to prepare for the PRONAFECYT, educational leaders carry the burden of executing the
PRONAFECYT initiative (McConnell, 2009).
According to Kotter (1996), organizational leaders must create a vision and a sense of
urgency to implement change effectively. Once a sense of urgency is created, then leaders should
genuinely seek a guiding coalition to create the change. In dealing with the change of
organizations and the dynamics of leadership, Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four-frame model
framework is an essential component in understanding the role of how educational leaders
implement the PRONAFECYT initiative. The frameworks by Kotter (1996) and Bolman and
Deal (2008) helped to identify the influence of school directors in organizing, motivating, and
implementing the PRONAFECYT at their respective school sites.
The data analysis for Research Question 1 revealed three common themes: (a) the school
director’s critical role in organization and direction in implementing of the PRONAFECYT, (b)
the need for school directors to support and motivate teachers, (c) essential feedback from
teachers for successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT.
Theme 1: School Director’s Role
All organizations are complex, deceptive, and ambiguous, which makes it difficult for
leaders to comprehend and manage. Such complexity demands that organizational leaders, in this
case educational leaders, play a critical role to move a school from its former 20th-century ways
of education to something that reflects the 21st century (Bolman & Deal, 2008). Such a dogma is
also true for implementation of the PRONAFECYT at Santa Barbara School.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 79
On a survey of teachers at Santa Barbara School, one item was “The school director plays
a critical role in assuring teachers implement the PRONAFECYT.” Approximately 70% of the
teachers at Santa Barbara School indicated that they strongly agreed, 25% agreed, and 5% were
not sure. None of the teachers disagreed or strongly disagreed (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Teachers’ responses to the survey item, “The director plays a critical role that teachers
implement the Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología.”
Figure 3 indicates the importance and vitality of the school director’s role in the
PRONAFECYT’s implementation. The staff at Santa Barbara School confirmed that it is through
the school director that teachers are implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative. The role of
leadership is to define what the future should look like, align people with that vision, and
motivate them to make it happen despite obstacles (Kotter, 1996). With 95% of the Santa
Barbara School in positive agreement about the critical role of the school director, it also is an
indication of the strong leadership at the school. According to the data, the staff seems to be
aware that the school leader will direct them to implement the PRONAFECYT at their school
site.
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Jaco Rivera, the school director, articulated in an interview his role and procedure in
assuring that the teachers implement the PRONAFECYT.
When there is previous information about how to prepare for the Science Fair, as
directors, we make a central committee, a council, which is integrated by various
coworkers of the institution. . . . We meet in this office, and we see all the details that the
organization has have before, during, and afterwards. Because the event has to be planned
before, we have to monitor it during, and then what comes after.
Teacher Giselle noted that Rivera organizes the school committees and then the staff
members run the committees.
It’s done by our colleagues from the general committee. You have the general committee,
the review committee, the calcification committee, the awards committee; there are
different committees for the science fair. And then there’s the general committee, and
they are basically the ones in charge.
Teacher Sandra also confirmed that Rivera helped to create committees that prepare the
staff for the PRONAFECYT. She affirmed that Santa Barbara School has a central committee
especially for the PRONAFECYT. In fact, Sandra was assigned to run the committee:
My role is that I have a team that works with me and we are in charge of making
subcommittees. So through these committees, we work. We inform our colleagues in
which committees they are in and what are their corresponding tasks.
Teacher Cynthia noted a “collaboration process among the teachers” to organize and
prepare for the PRONAFECYT. Teacher Marjeli observed that the director puts them in groups
and passes down information and motivates them. In fact, when “they [teachers] have meetings,
he is there.”
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It is evident from the script that the school director not only understands his critical role
in implementing the PRONAFECYT at his school site but also in doing it consistently and
effectively. His understanding of his role and execution correlates with the structural framework
presented in Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four frames of reframing organizations. Leadership
practices within the structural frame tend to look beyond individuals to closely examine the
social architecture of work, in this case organizing and directing committees for the
PRONAFECYT initiative (Bolman & Deal, 2008). Rivera noted in an interview the process by
which committees are formed at Santa Barbara School:
At the schools, we have a monthly meeting with all the teachers in February, March, all
of those days; each month we have a meeting. So in my first meeting with them,
sometimes there are new people, what I do is I say, “These are the committees for this
year: the committee of the science fair, the committee of festival of the arts;” all of that.
So once in that meeting, I say, “Who this year would like to voluntarily be part of the
committee?” so from there one or a few might come out. And the new ones are
encouraged to be new participants; so it’s very democratic because, it’s of no use to
obligate a person to be in the committee if they don’t want to.
Many organizations may misdirect energy and resources if structure is overlooked.
Overlooking the structural frame often causes organizations to misdirect energies and resources.
Overlooking the structural frame may also cause organizations to waste time and money on
professional development programs that try to solve problems that have much more to do with
the social structure than with people’s skills (Bolman & Deal, 2008). It was apparent through the
interviews that Director Jaco Rivera was very cognizant of building committees to support,
prepare, and direct the teachers for the PRONAFECYT. One teacher, Cynthia, noted that the
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 82
director created committees and “provided the space to have our meetings and materials if we
needed them.” Marjeli, another teacher, noted that the director not only sets up the
PRONAFECYT committees but also “when we have meetings, he is there.” Marjeli also noted
that Rivera “allocates the responsibility to her [lead site coordinator of the PRONAFECYT] to
pass us all the information.” According to Teacher Eva, the PRONAFECYT is big preparation
for months. Yet, the organization of it through committees is not new to teachers anymore.
Working in committees is something they’ve “worked with for several years.” In addition to
Director Rivera organizing committees and providing resources for the school, according to
Teacher Sandra, he also attends the meetings to “motivate the staff.”
The director’s role of implementing the PRONAFECYT with organized committees also
helps by giving teachers direction on how to employ the necessary preparation for their students.
In addition, having the director be directly involved in the committees creates a sense of support
and buy-in from the staff (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
Theme 2: The School Director’s Support to Motivate Teachers
It is a detrimental practice for leaders to attempt to implement change with a single
larger-than-life persona. Change in any organization is very difficult to accomplish. In order to
make change in an organization effectively, a powerful force is required to sustain the process
(Kotter, 1996). Building a strong coalition is always needed and is an essential part of the early
stages of any attempt to make change and restructure an organization. However, building a
strong coalition involves the right type of leadership that will motivate, support, and create a
vision toward which to aim (Bolman & Deal, 2008; Kotter, 1996). Support from the director of
the Santa Barbara School was an essential component of them successfully implementing the
PRONAFECYT initiative. Teachers at Santa Barbara School were presented the following
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statement in the survey: “Teachers need the support of the school Director to fully and
effectively implement the PRONAFECYT.” Approximately, 60% of the teachers strongly
agreed, 35% agreed, and only 5% disagreed (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Teachers’ responses to the survey item, “Teachers need the support of the school
director to fully and effectively implement the Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología.”
In his interview, Director Rivera noted that one of the best ways to prepare his school for
the PRONAFECYT initiative is to set up committees. In addition to having committees, Rivera
clearly observed the need to support the PRONAFECYT committees and to motivate them:
“What counts a lot here is personal motivation because there are coworkers that don’t like this,
but there are coworkers who do like it,. . . motivation gives me results.” Rivera seems to
understand that to motivate the staff there must be adequate support from leadership. Rivera
explained one of the ways in which the staff is supported is by helping them to avoid 20th-
century thinking and instruction and to make the transition to 21st-century pedagogy:
Through the research, inquiry, up-to-date information . . . you train the rest of the
teachers in the school. Now, do you do this on your own or do you get help from the
committee to help train? I understand . . . . We are multiplying elements, but I can’t pick
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 84
because of the school. So with the committee, we meet, download information so that
they can reproduce it in the classrooms. They give it to the teachers, and the teachers in
the classrooms, and you see the cascade effect. So I have to be conscious and master what
I want, so that I can inspire you with that motivation, and you pass it to the coworkers,
and the students, and finally, the community.
In return, the teachers at Santa Barbara School motivate parents to support their child for
the PRONAFECYT. Rivera commented,
The message that the administration gives them is that in the parent meeting, they, the
parents, need to know that the school is going to participate in a formative event because
it is formative. So the parent is motivated so that they from home can support the child.
Such type of leadership strongly suggests working through Bolman and Deal’s (2008)
structural frame, which entails self-direction. The director of the school gives support and tools
for the committees for them to train the rest of the school. Indeed, research has confirmed that
self-directed committees often produce better results and higher morale than committees
operating under traditional top-down control (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
Rivera’s statements also coincide with Kotter’s (1996) theoretical framework for
organizational change. Kotter taught that creating and guiding a coalition with good managers
will succeed but poor leaders will fail. The key to a successful coalition of staff members is not
to have a managerial mindset. Managerial mindsets develop plans, not visions. It will greatly
under-communicate the need for direction and it will control people rather than empower and
motivate them (Kotter, 1996). It is evident that, through Rivera’s direction, the PRONAFECYT
committees come together and are empowered by the support and resources given by him. Such
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 85
empowerment motivates the teachers to implement the PRONAFECYT at their site. One teacher,
Elier, noted,
[The lead coordinator] meets with us and the director . . . they come to the meetings
where they communicate how the progress has been with each of the ones who are in
charge of certain functions [in the committees], to see how the students have advanced in
their projects. So there, we find out how the progress is at that moment.
Teacher Cynthia, noted that the director of the school
provides us with complete support to have our meetings and get feedback. And that helps
us in the classrooms, to work with the students in this process. Like I said before, they
[director and lead PRONAFECYT coordinator] provide to their teachers with all the
support and they let other colleagues to work with us in case we have doubts so that help
us to keep a good communication because some teachers are more prepared in regard to
this process so we learn from each other, we learn from other teachers, too.
Teacher Marjeli added that both the lead PRONAFECYT coordinator and the director of
the school “push them [the teachers] forward.”
In summary, what Director Rivera has done for the Santa Barbara School is to set up
committees, create the expectations and vision as to what needs to be done in order for his school
to participate in the PRONAFECYT effectively. Rivera also gives the teachers adequate support
by providing time, space, and information needed to prepare the school and community for the
PRONAFECYT initiative. Furthermore, he has designated a lead coordinator who helps him
guide and motivate the staff to fulfill this initiative. Ultimately, the responsibility to implement
the PRONAFECYT initiative is placed on his shoulders. This systematic structure correlates well
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 86
with the expectations of the MEP. In an interview, Alicia Vargas Porras, the Vice Minister of
Academic Affairs of MEP in Costa Rica observed,
The main person that is responsible for the development of the school is of course the
principal. He or she is the person who should enable the process to be carried out. The
scientific fair and all type of activities that we have in the schools have norms and
regulations that are given at the national level, so they are very well regulated, and the
principal is the person who should establish how the activities are going to develop,
according to the norms and regulations that are, of course, provided.
Although the MEP expects the directors of all schools to carry out the PRONAFECYT
initiative, it is ultimately up to them to shape and design the manner in which it is to be done at
the site level. Conscious attention and effort given to the structure and roles of a group initiative
make a difference in the overall performance of any group within an organization (Bolman &
Deal, 2008). Not only was there a need for the director to support and motivate the staff to
implement the PRONAFECYT initiative; there was also a general sense of commitment to
improvement and feedback among the staff members.
Theme 3: Feedback From Teachers
Leaders of any organization are responsible to create an environment that promotes
authorship and autonomy. Individuals, in this case teachers, need to see their work as meaningful
to feel accountable for their efforts and to get feedback that lets them see their results (Bolman &
Deal, 2008). Director Rivera effectively and efficiently created committees, gave them the
adequate support and resources, and motivated the teachers to implement the PRONAFECYT
initiative. In addition to this systematic approach, the school had a high imperative to elicit
feedback on their progress to implement the PRONAFECYT initiative. In a survey given to the
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 87
Santa Barbara School staff, they were presented the following item: “The School Director elicits
teacher feedback to improve implementation of the PRONAFECYT.” Approximately 40%
strongly agreed, 45% agreed, 10% disagreed, and 5% strongly disagreed (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Teachers’ responses to the survey item, “The school director elicits feedback to
improvement implementation of the Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología.”
For Director Rivera, feedback is an essential part of improving the PRONAFECYT
initiative at his school. Rivera explained that he seeks feedback from his PRONAFECYT general
committee regarding the organizational structure and logistics for the event:
I get there on a certain day, the General Committee of the Science Fair, and I meet to see
how the preparation for tickets is going, registration, the projects, times; everything that
has to do with logistics that entails with the event development. We meet in this office,
and we see all the details that the organization has have before, during, and afterwards.
Because the event has to be planned before, we have to monitor it during, and then what
comes after.
It is evident that Rivera intends to receive feedback from staff members. Seeking
feedback to improve efforts, skills, and organizational structure is an essential part of the human
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 88
resource frame (Bolman & Deal, 2008). Obtaining feedback is part of the evaluation process and
is a means by which individuals and groups grow (Bolman & Deal, 2008). For Rivera, feedback
before, during, and after is essential, yet he affirmed that the end of PRONAFECYT process is
the most important component that he analyzes:
To me, the three are important (before, during, and after) but I’m mostly interested in the
after part to see if there were mistakes and find out how to correct them so that the
following year it doesn’t happen. I learned that from the Japanese, from Dr. Okinawa,
because he’s a professor. We have to follow-up with it, so I’m interested what happens
before, during, and afterwards.
It seems that seeking feedback is something that Director Rivera learned to apply through
perhaps his own professional development. It is also evident that Director Rivera holds specific
meetings dedicated to communicate direction and get feedback regarding the PRONAFECYT
process at Santa Barbara School. Having meetings dedicated to obtaining feedback is an essential
principle within the human resource frame (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
The teachers at Santa Barbara School seem to expect to receive feedback not only from
the school director but also among colleagues. Teacher Cynthia noted in an interview that the
administration of the school “provides us with their complete support to have our meetings and
get feedback.”
Teacher Giselle observed that feedback regarding the process of implementing the
PRONAFECYT was common:
The feedback; it’s done usually when we evaluate each fair. When we evaluate each fair
that’s when we give our feedback, because we make comments and we say or rather
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 89
evaluate say like this wasn’t right, this other came out good, that one has to be changed,
things like that.
Teacher Eva also noted in an interview that the administration team “is always aware of
the every step of the teachers and the committee coordinators. They’re always paying attention,
asking us what is happening, how is it. Sometimes they go with us to the trainings and to the
meetings.” Creating opportunities for and obtaining feedback within an organization correlates
with Kotter’s (1996) eight-step process for change, specifically in the first step of creating
urgency and the sixth step of creating short-term wins. Receiving collective feedback from staff
members is a critical part of obtaining the right data to create a sense of urgency in an
organization. Creating short-term wins also provides staff members with solid feedback about
the credibility of the organization’s vision (Kotter, 1996).
Discussion of Results for Research Question 1
Three main themes were identified from the data analysis related to Research Question 1,
“What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT
initiative?” Theme 1 reflected on the important role of the school director in organizing and
directing implementation of the PRONAFECYT. The role and overall involvement of the school
director in the PRONAFECYT initiative provided committees and other teachers with the needed
information and resources for this event. The second theme regarded the critical role of
motivation by the director to the staff in implementing the PRONAFECYT at Santa Barbara
School. The third theme identified how feedback from and to the director of the school positively
influenced successful participation in the PRONAFECYT at the school.
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Results for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, “How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from
teacher practices at less successful schools as measured by the level of participation in the
PRONAFECYT?” One of the biggest challenges that all nations face, in particular Costa Rica, is
the need to change pedagogical practices and curricula to reflect the needs of the 21st century.
How and what students are learning today are drastically different from 10 years ago (Wagner,
2008). Indeed, there is an educational culture of two centuries that seems to be pulling against
each other rather than letting go. Such conflict has caused many education systems to redefine
essential skills and information that should be implemented in school practices to be on par with
21st-century needs (Spring, 2009; Wagner, 2008). Hence, the PRONAFECYT is one example.
Evidently, Director Rivera also understood the dynamic and conflicting instructional and
curriculum pull that have developed even within his own school. He acknowledged,
We are now in a transition. The teachers who are from the past century who began
working from the ‘90s, like me, have seen how this has changed. Changes are necessary,
and especially the education. We can’t continue with traditional systems, we have to be
more active, more dynamic. So those projects make us investigate; in this region it’s done
through the Internet.
The PRONAFECYT initiative is not only tailored to help students discover and develop
STEM skills, which are closely aligned to Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century survival skills, but is
also intended to help the Costa Rica education system to become a more effective means to
prepare citizens for a 21st-century KBE (Valencia-Chacon, 2011).
In addition to preparing students for a KBE through the PRONAFECYT initiative,
Director Rivera was very ambitious in competing successfully in PRONAFECYT fairs. He
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stressed his urgency to prepare his teachers not only so they compete successfully but also so the
school becomes well recognized throughout the country:
To us, in the school, we want to get to the finals; we want to go to nationals. In fact, I’ve
had students that have gone on to represent us at a national level, and you think, “Good”
because, you met the objective. Our objective is to reach nationals, and when a student –
even if they don’t represent us, even if they don’t accomplish anything, it was a good
achievement because the school is getting recognition, the school excels, the school is
giving an academic offer.
In order to prepare and help students to attain the skills needed for the 21st century, there
needs to be a serious evaluation of teacher instructional practices. Such practices include teacher
preparation and interaction with colleagues, all of which are a precondition for transforming
public education (Wagner, 2008). Three themes were found in the data analysis for Research
Question 2. The analysis compared the data between Santa Barbara School and Colón School,
which was also visited, investigated, and observed.
In a survey, teachers from both Santa Barbara School and Colón School were presented
this item: “There is a high level of participation of the PRONAFECYT at my school.” Colón
School had 15% strongly agree, 30% agree, 45 disagree, 5 strongly disagree, and 5% not sure.
Conversely, Santa Barbara School had 45% strongly agree, 45% agree, 10% disagree, 0%
strongly disagree, and 0% unsure (Figure 6).
Santa Barbara School had a much higher percentage of participation in the
PRONAFECYT than Colón School. The themes in this section give insight into the instructional
practices that may have influenced Santa Barbara School to have a more successful level of
participation in the PRONAFECYT than Colón School.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 92

Figure 6. Comparison of teachers’ responses from Santa Barbara School (right) and Colón
School (left) to the item, “There is a high level of participation at my school in the Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología.”
Theme 1: Teachers Give Purpose
Kotter (1996) taught that creating a sense of urgency to change an organization falls on
the shoulders of leaders. In order to drive a sense of urgency, there must be a clear purpose for
people in the organization to change their practices. When the leader of the organization creates a
sense of urgency with a genuine purpose, the guiding coalition, in this case the teachers at Santa
Barbara School, will spread that urgency within the organization and ultimately to the students
(Kotter, 1996). As a result, the students will see and understand the need to prepare and
participate in the PRONAFECYT. This principle was reflected in an interview with Director
Rivera:
So the school has begun a transition process; it’s necessary. A school that doesn’t change
is a school that doesn’t grow, that loses its identity. It can’t rise; it can’t bring out good
criticism in the future. . . . That’s the only way we can be up to date with everything, and
that’s the principal’s responsibility, and the group of coworkers that work at the school. I
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have to give the example, I want to get up there, so I have to make sure I’m up to date: I
have to inquire, I have to read; I have to be up to date. And I have to transmit the
knowledge to them, motivating them, and overall, for the group to acquire it because, it’s
a cascade effect. Right?
Such a cascade effect should translate into teachers and students understanding the
urgency and purpose of participating in the PRONAFECYT initiative. In a survey given to
teachers at Santa Barbara School, they responded to the following item: “The School Director
communicates the purpose and urgency of the PRONAFECYT.” Responses are shown in
Figure 7.

Figure 7. Teachers’ responses to the survey item, “The school director communicates the
purpose and urgency of the Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología.”
Approximately 55% of the staff strongly agreed, while 40% agreed. Only 5% of the staff
disagreed. With such a strong percentage in the positive, it is evident that the majority of the
teachers have received clear direction from Director Rivera regarding the purpose of the
PRONAFECYT. Such indication also reflects the cascade effect that was mentioned early. The
director and the teachers mutually understand the importance of the PRONAFECYT.
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The data demonstrate that Director Rivera successfully cascaded the sense of urgency and
purpose of the PRONAFECYT to his teachers. However, do the students understand the purpose
behind the PRONAFECYT? In a survey given to the students, they were presented the following
item: “My teachers talk about why we are doing the PRONAFECYT projects.” Approximately
72% of the students strongly agreed and 17% agreed. Only 1% disagreed and 11% were unsure
(Figure 8).

Figure 8. Responses by students at the Santa Barbara School to the survey item, “My teachers
talk about why we are doing projects for the Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología.”
The data show that a strong majority of the students at Santa Barbara School understand
the purpose behind preparing for and participating in the PRONAFECYT. These data also
suggest that the entire school, including students, understand whether intentionally or not, that
the PRONAFECYT initiative is intended to prepare and students to acquire the 21st-century
skills needed to compete in a KBE. In fact, teacher Sandra noted that the school has 100%
participation in the PRONAFECYT.
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In contrast to positive and affirming results from Santa Barbara School, the other school,
Colón School, did not have similar results. For example, the same survey item, “The School
Director communicates the purpose and urgency of the PRONAFECYT,” was given to teachers
at Colón School. The results were the following: 20% of the teachers strongly agreed, 50%
agreed, 15% disagreed, 10% strongly disagreed, and 5% were unsure (Figure 9).

Figure 9. Teachers’ responses to the survey item, “The school director communicates the
purpose and urgency of the Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología.”
It seems that one of the main reasons Colón School did not have as positive an outcome
on the survey responses as Santa Barbara School was that Colón School saw the PRONAFECYT
as an obligation to fulfill rather than as a means to prepare students for a 21st-century KBE. At
Santa Barbara School, both the school director and teachers understood the conflict of two
pedagogical and educational centuries (20th and 21st) and the need to prepare students for 21st-
century skills. During an interview with Director Juan Rodriguez of Colón School regarding
instructional, philosophical, and organizational preparation for the PRONAFECYT, he noted,
We have to do it by law, do you understand? We have to push them. “Please teacher, talk
to your students, participate in the Science Fair,” they don’t want to participate anymore,
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 96
they are so lazy. “How can I participate?” “Looking for a scientific project.” So they find
a science project in Google, or they find it on a website; a famous one is
www.elvago.com (the lazy person). Have you heard of it?
From a leadership perspective, there is a philosophical difference between Director
Rivera and Director Rodriguez. Director Rodriguez sees the PRONAFECYT as an obligation,
whereas Director Rivera sees it as an opportunity to chip away from 20th-century education and
instruction and usher in new 21st-century educational practices. Director Rodriguez not only saw
the PRONAFECYT as an obligation but also as a burden that he must motivate his teachers and
students to fulfill. For Director Rodriguez, there is no purpose to motivate the staff intrinsically
for the PRONAFECYT initiative, only just to comply because it is a national decree within its
educational system.
The student survey administered at Colón School indicated a lack of purpose given to the
students from the teachers regarding why there is a PRONAFECYT. There is also a significant
contrast in the student survey results compared to Santa Barbara School. As shown in Table 5,
only 10% of the students at Santa Barbara School were unsure about the purpose behind the
PRONAFECYT and only 1% disagreed. In contrast, on the same survey item, “My teachers talk
about why we are doing the PRONAFECYT projects,” the Colón School results were as follows:
34% strongly agreed, 46% agreed, 4% disagreed, 3% strongly disagreed, and 13% were unsure
(Figure 10). When compared to Santa Barbara School, Colón School had a much lower
percentage of students who strongly agreed and agreed with the survey item. In addition, 7%
(4% strongly disagreed and 3% agreed) of the surveyed student population had a negative view
and 13% were unsure. In contrast, only 1% of the Santa Barbara School students had a negative
view and only 10% were unsure.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 97

Figure 10. Responses by students at Colón School to the survey item, “My teachers talk about
why we are doing projects for the Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología.”
Theme 2: Instruction Involves Students in STEM PBL
In terms of teacher practices, many of the teachers at Santa Barbara School implemented
instructional strategies that correlated with Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century survival skills.
Learning to do research and communicating effectively, both written and orally, were some of
the practices mentioned and observed. For example, Teacher Cynthia said,
So they [students] start to research about the topic and they have to write all the process
in a day book, all the specific dates and what are they doing each day so they bring the
material and we review the process and clear doubts and when all the process is finished
then all students have their presentation in the classroom. I encourage them to choose a
topic they want to talk about but they say, “Yes teacher I want to investigate about this”
and when they see other classmates making their own researches then they take the
decision of doing the same, their own research too so it is not like homework, but it’s a
learning process to show them they can go through all the process too. When things are
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imposed then they are going to put some kind of barrier to do it and say, “I don’t want to
do it.”
Another teacher described her instructional practices of helping students with writing
objectives and using the Internet properly for research:
I worked with children teaching them to write objectives, to select information, to utilize
the Internet to look for references, to organize the information and let’s say to bring, also
select the images or the reports. I guided the written work in the classroom.
Teaching students how to access and analyze information is a critical survival skill
needed in the 21st century. Teachers at Santa Barbara School were adamant in showing their
students the importance of learning how to access the right information and having the skills to
analyze it. The ability to analyze and discern information in order to meet the challenges of the
21st century is a critical skill (Wagner, 2008). Another teacher at Santa Barbara School
articulated some instructional practices that she used to help students to decipher reliable
research from the Internet for the PRONAFECYT initiative.
From my perspective, on the technology laboratory side, it gives us a series of activities
and resources which allows us to develop those practices with the students. . . . I
download information from the internet, to know what sites are academic, what sites give
us reliable information, what sites are not so reliable, which are sites in which the
information published doesn’t have bibliographical references which allows me to know
that it’s not information that will be updated constantly.
Having open and fast access to information also places a great need for critical thinking skills.
Along with critical thinking skills is the effective ability to articulate the thoughts, both written
and orally (Wagner, 2008).
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Much of the instructional practices at Santa Barbara School involved STEM PBL
frameworks. In fact, STEM PBL is a much-needed form of education that will expedite student
opportunities to acquire 21st-century skills (Capraro & Slough, 2013; Wagner, 2008). The
STEM PBL framework entails instruction as an ill-defined task with a well-defined outcome.
Such instruction requires students to solve several problems that demonstrate mastery of several
concepts of various STEM subjects (Capraro & Slough, 2013). It also includes a variety of
project formats such as speeches, presentations, and models. Much of STEM PBL involves
student-centered instruction and real-world issues. Teachers are often facilitators rather than
direct instructors (Capraro & Slough, 2013). When asked to describe how the instruction,
curriculum, and pedagogy and the culture of the school have adapted as a result of the
PRONAFECYT, Teacher Cynthia explained,
We work with the inquiring method in our classrooms in regard to science, where we
begin with the knowledge the child already has so I believe working in the inquiring
method in the science class, that encourages them to participate in the fair process
because it’s part of, it’s part of the scientific method, the inquiring process makes it easier
for them to do their research work.
Teacher Vero noted the excitement of allowing students to do live demonstrations in
class:
Let’s say we have changed. I can tell you, I have many years here so I’ve been able to see
the change. Before now, I feel like we’re going to go back to what it was like before
because there was a period in which the fairs, children did demonstrations if they let
permitted, the child could present whatever he wanted. The child brought all the materials
and did the presentation. So it was, that part, the child loved it.
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It was apparent through the interviews and observations that the STEM PBL frameworks
were evident at Santa Barbara School. Students responded to a survey item, “My teachers often
help me learn about the scientific method through science and technology activities.”
Approximately 82.4% of the students strongly agreed, 15.3% agreed, 0% disagreed, 1.2%
strongly disagreed, and 1.2% were unsure (Figure 11).

Figure 11. Students’ responses to the survey item, “My teachers often help me learn about the
scientific method through science and technology activities.”
Colón School did not share the same instructional practices as Santa Barbara School.
Director Juan Rodriguez not only felt obligated to comply with the PRONAFECYT initiative but
also mentioned that many students or teachers attempted to use the Internet to come up with
projects for the PRONAFECYT. Teacher Maria from Colón School noted how YouTube is used
by students for the PRONAFECYT:
On our behalf, in the computer classroom we have introduced the young kids with several
science projects. To try to motivate them so they get involved in the process of
discovering this world. So then it has been with the support of the computer lab, with the
different videos that appear in YouTube and other programs. The YouTube videos are
mostly for awakening the project, why did it blow up? Why does it move? Why do these
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things happen? And then if we gather another type of information then we look for new
information.
There is nothing inherently wrong using the Internet for ideas or resources for any school
project. However, when projects are plagiarized from the Internet, students not only cheat
themselves out of an education but also miss opportunities to develop skills for innovation
(Wagner, 2012). Using or plagiarizing projects from the Internet could also suggest that students
are neither willing nor motivated to research and create their own PRONAFECYT project. It
may also suggest that the instructional practices of the teachers at Colón School knowingly
permit students to copy projects from the Internet.
Teacher Lupe noted that one of the instructional practices used in the school is to reward
the students with prizes to participate. However, this teacher noted that giving tangible gifts has
not truly motivated the students at Colón School:
In general what you do, let’s say, is motivate them so that they participate . . . they don’t
like to participate. Why? Because they don’t want to do the research, or they don’t want
to study. They don’t want to think more in depth about it. However, some walk with it,
they explore it. We help those ones. But, also at home, there isn’t a lot of encouragement
for this. So, it’s a process between the students and the teacher and the home. . . . The
same thing; they try to give them things to motivate them and so that they can say, “The
teacher gave me a prize for participating.” So, possibly, others want to participate to at
least get a prize, points, or a little present, or take importance; a certificate for the winner
of the fair, or things like that.
Teacher Vero also suggested that giving extra credit on their academic grades was one
practice done to motivate the students. Giving the students tangible incentives is a contrast from
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what was done at Santa Barbara School. The data suggest that staff members at Colón School
allowed students to use the Internet to possibly plagiarize ideas for projects. Furthermore, Colón
School attempted to motivate students with tangible incentives. None of these approaches really
highlight the overall purpose of the PRONAFECYT initiative. Comparatively, teachers at Santa
Barbara School seemed to teach the purpose of the PRONAFECYT, while at the same time
teaching students 21st-century skills through appropriate and effective pedagogical practices. As
shown, Internet use at Santa Barbara School was done with supervision and guidance on how to
decipher the right research to support any PRONAFECYT ideas.
Learning how to work in groups effectively is an essential part of both 21st-century skills
and STEM PBL education (Capraro & Slough, 2013; Wagner, 2008). Group work directed to
solve real-life problems is a vital component of STEM PBL education. In correlation with STEM
PBL practices, the following survey item was given to students at both Santa Barbara School and
Colón School: “My teachers have us work on group projects where we solve problems and work
together.” The results were the following: At Santa Barbara School, 45.9% strongly agreed,
21.2% agreed, 29.4% disagreed, 1.2% strongly disagreed, and 2.4% were unsure. At Colón
School, 67% strongly agreed, 24% agreed, 4% disagreed, 4% strongly disagreed, and 1% were
unsure (Figure 12).
Colón School students had more positive results than Santa Barbara School when
questioned about group work. These data are significant because it is the only item on which
Colón School students had a more positive result than Santa Barbara School. Despite their
positive results in group collaboration, Colón School still lagged behind Santa Barbara School
students in terms on learning and acquiring soft skills.
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Figure 12. Comparison of students’ responses from Santa Barbara School (left) and Colón
School (right) to the survey item, “My teachers have us work on group projects where we solve
problems and work together.”
Students also responded to a survey item regarding their knowledge of 21st-century
skills, on the item “I know about soft skills (i.e., critical thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication, adaptability, analysis, curiosity and imagination).” Santa Barbara
School had the following results: 62% strongly agreed, 19% agreed, 5% disagreed, 2% strongly
disagreed, and 12% were unsure. Colón School had the following results: 42% strongly agreed,
37% agreed, 8% disagreed, 4% strongly disagreed, and 10% were unsure (Figure 13).
The student survey results revealed that Colón School students were far less familiar with
21st-century skills than Santa Barbara School students. Furthermore, Colón School had more
students who did not know what 21st-century skills were, compared to Santa Barbara School
students.
Students were surveyed to determine whether teachers talk to them about the importance
of developing soft skills. Students responded to the survey item “My teachers talk about the
importance of soft skills and how they will help me do well in school.” The results reveal that
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Figure 13. Comparison of students’ responses from Santa Barbara School (left) and Colón
School (right) to the survey item, “I know about soft skills (i.e., critical thinking and problem
solving, collaboration, communication, adaptability, analysis, curiosity and imagination).”
nearly 50% of the surveyed students at Colón School strongly agreed that their teachers talk to
them about the importance of soft skills. Santa Barbara School results indicated that 75% of the
surveyed students strongly agreed that their teachers talked to them about the importance of soft
skills and using them in school. At Colón School 6% of the students surveyed disagreed and
nearly 4% strongly disagreed, whereas, at Santa Barbara School only 2% disagreed and 0%
strongly disagreed (Figure 14).
The cumulative data from the student survey responses and the interviews suggest that
teacher instructional practices at Colón School do not give purpose or meaning to the
PRONAFECYT as much as at Santa Barbara School. Furthermore, teacher instructional
practices at Santa Barbara School indicate that 21st-century survival skills are more readily
taught when compared to Colón School. As a result, students from Santa Barbara School tend to
have more understanding of the PRONAFECYT and develop the skills necessary to compete in
the initiative than students from Colón School. It also appears that students and even teachers at
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Figure 14. Comparison of students’ responses from Santa Barbara School (left) and Colón
School (right) to the survey item, “My teachers talk about the importance of soft skills and how
they will help me do well in school.”
Santa Barbara School are more motivated to participate in the PRONAFECYT initiative as a
result of teacher instructional practices than those at Colón School. Thus, students at Santa
Barbara School have a higher participation rate than students at Colón School.
Theme 3: Teachers Reaching Out to Parents
Another theme that was identified was the amount of parent involvement at Santa
Barbara School and Colón School. Motivating and involving parents in the PRONAFECYT is a
challenge. Deputy Javier Cambronero confirmed, “The leaders of the education system have a
strong challenge. First, they have to motivate the families of the students to participate, but they
also have to convince politicians, those who make decisions, that it is worth doing.” It was
evident from the interview responses that teachers at Santa Barbara School not only reached out
to parents but also tried to involve them as much as possible in the PRONAFECYT initiative.
Reaching out to the parents stemmed from Director Rivera’s willingness and foresight to acquire
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parental support. Rivera noted that the school invited the parents to special meetings dedicated to
the PRONAFECYT initiative:
We give them the message that the administration gives them is that in the parent
meeting, that’s recess. The parents need to know that the school is going to participate in
a formative event because, it is formative. So the parent is motivated so that they from
home can support the child.
It is also through this formative meeting that the “teachers motivate the parents.” When asked
whether many parents show up, he responded “Of course, we invite them.”
There was also a correlation between what Director Rivera referenced and what the
teachers mentioned regarding parental involvement. Teacher Elier related that teachers
consistently work with parents to help with the PRONAFECYT initiative:
There is always a collaboration from the parents, also, so some have the possibility for
their parents to collaborate more, not in all cases because, not all the families are equal
because, some are more committed to it. But there are some parents who are very
responsible, they are very involved with their child’s school activities, so they collaborate
a lot, too; and that forms part of the process.
Teacher Eva explained that it was the duty of the teachers on campus not only to reach
out to the parents but also to help the parents understand the importance of the PRONAFECYT
initiative:
Each teacher is in charge of their students, for helping the parents in what they do in the
house. So the teacher always gives instructions to the students when they are going to an
exposition of what they have to do, what they should be reading. All that is what the
teacher practically teaches their students in their classroom.
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Teacher Marjeli also explained how she reached out to parents by teaching them how to
help their child with 21st-century skills and preparing for the PRONAFECYT initiative:
This year, what I did was send them to the parents, since it’s the first cycle, it’s not
strictly information about how they can do the written work with an index, objectives,
cover, information, what steps to follow and with bibliographic references. I taught them
a little pamphlet for the parents and this is what I have.
Apparently, Teacher Marjeli’s instructional practices included developing curriculum and
support not only for her students but also for the parents of her students. Indeed, Teacher Sandra
confirmed that at Santa Barbara School teachers see parents support their children and, as a
school, they “try to get the support from home.”
In contrast, Colón School teachers struggled to involve and reach out to the parents to the
same level as the teachers at Santa Barbara School. Teacher Tina explained the dilemma at
Colón School in student participation and parent involvement for the PRONAFECYT initiative:
We’re in a dilemma in that. We’re in a dilemma with the governor and with the children
and with the parents to not recognize, let’s say really in points, the parents, it’s a lot of
work because they’re pieces of work that aren’t just about research, but they also have to
develop a piece of work. . . . So they had to write an introduction, well, everything.
Develop conclusions, all the steps of the scientific method they had to do. So it was a lot
of work. So the parents couldn’t, if they don’t see points, they don’t like to participate a
lot, but it doesn’t motivate them.
Teacher Lupe explained that the curriculum made throughout the country caused low
student and parent involvement in the PRONAFECYT. “The participation was spontaneous and
it was in large numbers. With the reforms that the curriculum has had in our country, what
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developed was less participation because students as much as parents have focused their efforts
on academic performance.” Furthermore, when asked how the school ensures that all students
participate in the PRONAFECYT, Teacher Lupe explained that it was difficult because of
limited family support:
So, for all that we try to give them an interesting topic, or encourage them to study or
research, or that they grow a bit more than just writing in the notebook, in the home they
don’t have sufficient support. Because they’re single parents, or they’re extended
families, or the father or mother works out of the house, or they’re just in the day care.
So, they don’t have this help, this important aspect, this spark, so that they can advance a
bit more.
Teacher Cruz from Colón School also noted that the parents who are involved in the
PRONAFECYT are the ones that are inclined to know more about science.
The interview responses suggest that the parents from Colón School struggle to support
student participation in the PRONAFECYT initiative. Indeed, it appears that many of the parents
do not understand the purpose of the PRONAFECYT nor do they have adequate time and
resources to support it. In contrast to Santa Barbara School, where there was a heavy
involvement of parent support that highly influenced student participation, Colón School’s lack
of interest and participation by the students for the PRONAFECYT could be a reflection of the
parent support given at the school. However, it is important to note that Santa Barbara School is
located in one of the most affluent areas of all of Costa Rica, whereas Colón School is located in
a low socioeconomic vicinity. High student achievement and parent involvement in school are
more readily accomplished in a more affluent area (Marzano, 2005).
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Discussion of Results for Research Question 2
The emergent themes for Research Question 2 indicated that Santa Barbara School
teachers gave purpose behind the need to participate in the PRONAFECYT more than Colón
School teachers, which resulted in more participation. In addition, Santa Barbara School teachers
involved students more in STEM PBL instruction and reached out to parents more than Colón
School teachers, which resulted in Santa Barbara School having a more successful participation
of students and the community in the PRONAFECYT.
Results for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, “How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to
equip students with 21st-century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?” The overall objective of Research Question 3 was to identify how school site
and system leaders prepare and equip students with the necessary skills to participate
successfully in the PRONAFECYT. This question was also intended to give an analysis of local
school site and national practices. Two frameworks were used to guide data analysis of data for
Research Question 3: Bolman and Deal (2008) reframing organizations frameworks and Kotter’s
(1996) eight-step change process.
The data analyzed for this research question revealed two themes: (a) a lack of financial
and infrastructure resources from system leaders, and (b) a lack of teacher training to prepare and
implement the PRONAFECYT.
Theme 1: Lack of Financial and Infrastructure Resources
In order for any organization to change and achieve the vision that is set, individuals
within the organization must be empowered with adequate support and resources (Kotter, 1996).
In relation to the PRONAFECYT, empowering individuals include both school directors and
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teachers. Such empowerment must come from system leaders within the country. However, the
interview responses from system and site leaders suggest that there is neither a mutual agreement
nor a firm understanding of what and how much financial and infrastructure resources are needed
and distributed to public schools. This dilemma resembles a lack of the structure and political
framework presented by Bolman and Deal (2008). In order for Costa Rica to comply with the
PRONAFECYT initiative, performance by system and site leaders will depend heavily on
structure, which includes a systematic process of adequate resources (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
Bolman and Deal (2008) also taught that the lack of financial structure is often driven or caused
by issues of power and political prowess.
In an interview with Deputy of the Legislature Javier Cambronero, he was asked to
respond to the following item: “The government provides schools with the necessary resources
to participate in the PRONAFECYT. If that is the case, what types of resources are provided and
if not, what would those resources be?” Deputy Cambronero responded as follows:
No, in this case the Ministry of Public Education provides support and the injection of
resources is not very big. That is why there is a need for a law of the Republic which
forces the investment in this type of processes. Currently, most of the expenditure is
financed by the education center, by the teachers who use their own money to make
contributions, and from the parents of those children who are participating in the process.
The contribution is very small and it should be increased.
Deputy Cambronero acknowledged that the resources given to the PRONAFECYT are
minimal and are in need of an increase. It appears that the main resource for the PRONAFECYT
has been individual teachers and their school site.
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Legislative Council member Lander Perez Barrantes confirmed a lack of financial
resources for all public schools to comply with the PRONAFECYT initiative:
I think the government makes an effort but it will never meet the needs out there, we have
many limitations on the issue of laboratories and trained staff to do research, not all
schools have done laboratory, or schools, and not all teachers are prepared for the
research part.
It is interesting to note that, during the time the research team visited Costa Rican
schools, not one school had a science lab. Some instructors brought in some of type lab into the
classroom, but it was mainly a cart with science materials. Not only did the Costa Rican public
schools not have the infrastructure for science labs; they also appeared to have trained teachers
that would be able to use the labs. Lander Perez Barrantes confirmed:
As we are a poor country, it would be helpful to be able to use the resources provided by
other institutions for labs, for specialists, because not all the schools have trained
professionals or labs as part of their infrastructure. So, that would be a good way to
maximize the resources.
At the local level, Director Rivera of Santa Barbara School was asked how his school
obtained the necessary resources to participate in the PRONAFECYT. He explained, “The
parents help support materials so that their child can participate.” Director Rivera elaborated that
there is a budget dedicated to a variety of fairs, which includes the PRONAFECYT. He noted,
“We have an estimated budget for what’s called ‘school celebrations.’ So within that, I have to
plan the Science Fair, Festival of Arts, Sports Festival, and others that come out adjacently.”
However, Director Rivera commented that he personally seeks additional funding for the
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PRONAFECYT through the local municipality, yet obtaining funding for his school through the
local municipality seems to be an uncommon practice with school site leaders:
The municipality has the obligation to help us. It’s not that they want to, that’s why we
pay taxes, so we have to put our hands on it. Now, a principal who doesn’t get around –
at least I tell ask them, “Where’s the collection of properties? When are you going to
deposit to do the project?” You have to be on top of it. So you ask yourself, where does
the tax money go? But when you go to the city council meetings, and you find out,
there’s a tax on tobacco and alcohol; the municipality charges taxes because of the
patents, and everything. They are obligated to give us a percentage of that for the schools,
and nobody knows that because nobody goes to those meetings because they’re lazy. I’ve
gone to the meetings, and I say, “And how much of that is for my school?” “This much.”
“Okay, I need you to get it to me.”
Since there are apparently no substantial resources coming from federal government
agencies, Director Rivera relied on the local municipality to add the necessary resources for his
school. Obtaining funds from the local municipality is also how Director Rivera obtained the
funds to renovate Santa Barbara School; however, it is apparent through his interview response
that the school director needs “to be on top it” in order to obtain any type of funding. Between
outreaching to the local municipality and trying to manage all the fairs at the school with the
same budget used for the PRONAFECYT resembles the lack of structural and political
framework needed from government agencies. When there is a lack of structural framework
within an organization, there is a loss of direction and stability, which generally leads to
confusion and chaos (Bolman & Deal, 2008). In this case, there is no stable resource to support
the PRONAFECYT, which led Director Rivera to search for it through his own endeavor. The
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teachers recognized the lack of resources that they are provided. Teachers at Santa Barbara
School were surveyed with the following item: “My school has adequate resources to prepare
students for the PRONAFECYT.”
The survey results were as follows: 25% strongly agreed, 50% agreed, 10% disagreed,
15% strongly disagreed, and 0% were unsure. The lack of political framework is evident through
the fact that neither the federal government nor the local municipality has an agreement on what,
how, and when to distribute resources for the PRONAFECYT. Colón School teachers were also
given the same survey. Their results were far less affirmative than Santa Barbara School. Colón
School teacher survey results were the following: 25% strongly agreed, 35% agreed, 15%
disagreed, 20% strongly disagreed, and 5% were unsure (Figure 15). Both Santa Barbara and
Colón schools had significant gaps in successful participation in the PRONAFECYT. Yet,
teachers at both schools recognized that they lacked the funding to implement the
PRONAFECYT.

Figure 15. Teachers’ responses to the survey item, “My school has adequate resources to prepare
students for the Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología.”
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The MEP appears to not have a specific budget allocated for the PRONAFECYT. In an
interview with MEP Vice minister Alicia Vargas, she was asked, “Does the government provide
schools with resources necessary for participation in the science fair? If so, what kind of
resources are provided? If not, what would those resources be?” She responded:
We have some money assigned, some financial support assigned to the scientific fairs. I
don’t think it is very much because mainly they are supported by other, I mean, as far as
the ministry of education is concerned, but they have also the support of the ministry of
science and technology.
When Vice Minister Vargas was asked about the amount of financial support in the
budget specifically for the PRONAFECYT, she explained:
The answer about specific funding for the science fair, we don’t have a specific funding.
What we support is salaries, for example, wages for the people. Sometime they have to
work overtime, so this is consider. Also there is an amount of money who is assigned, but
it’s for the students’ art festival, the sporting events, scientific, environmental and
technical affairs. This is a common fund for all that. That’s mainly for different types of
fairs, especially for the arts fair. The student art fair is very expensive because there are a
lot of activities that are taking place in the schools and in the regions and also at the
national level. These funds that are assigned for different fairs are mainly for the arts,
students’ arts fair. I will let you know the amount. Actually, there is no amount
specifically assigned for science fairs and technological fairs.
Her response showed that the MEP has no budget specifically for the PRONAFECYT
initiative. In fact, the funding used to support the PRONAFECYT comes out of a general budget
that supports all student fairs in K–12 public schools in Costa Rica. Mary Bialas, Senior Program
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Manager for the Council for Promotion of Competitiveness of Costa Rica, noted that managing
funds from government agencies and in the private sector is not aligned:
Everyone seems to have their program and project. The problem is coordinating the
efforts. There seems to be money out there assigned to it by the government but it’s not
always coordinated to be most effective. I think that is one of our biggest challenges right
now is how do we get this coordination between the various agencies.
Apparently, much of the expenditures for finance fairs is dedicated to the arts, rather than fairs
focused on technology and science.
Having no specific budget dedicated to the PRONAFECYT could also suggest that there
is no sense of urgency to either change or fully support the resources needed for the
PRONAFEYCT. Both system and site leaders in Costa Rica expressed the need to create more
STEM PBL education to produce more productive citizens for a KBE. However, one of the
biggest mistakes organizations make when trying to change is to go forward without establishing
a high enough sense of urgency and purpose (Kotter, 1996). This seems to be the case for Costa
Rica and the PRONAFECYT initiative. This lack of urgency to prioritize a budget solely for the
PRONAFECYT could also stem from the fact that much of Costa Rica’s culture and education is
heavily based on the humanities. Deputy Javier Cambronero even pointed out that the
educational culture of Costa Rica is too embedded in the humanities, which ultimately has hurt
the country from progressing to a much more KBE:
We believe that the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs supported by
MICYTT and the Ministry of Education must be enacted to become a law of the
Republic, associated to the possibility that the chemistry, physics and biology Olympics
which are held in Costa Rica and which allow to discover talented people who in the
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fourth and fifth year of the high school show a strong inclination towards physics,
chemistry or biology, so that the government can concentrate more resources in these
students so that we can see the benefits in the short and medium term in the field of
science, technology and innovation. Why? Because Costa Rica is a country strongly
marked by social sciences. Here the Arts are very important. It is a good thing that we
have educators, lawyers, and company administrators, but it’s not enough. We want to be
a country that goes hand in hand with science, technology, and innovation to be able to
give a qualitative leap towards development. Costa Rica is not taking a leap in the dark.
Vanessa Gibson, Director of Corporate Development and Investment Climate of CINDE,
pointed out that Costa Rican culture is too passive and such passivity is a tremendous
impediment in improving the PRONAFECYT and creating innovators for the country:
From my perspective, our local entrepreneurship capabilities are still in the embryonic
state because we are not necessarily the most entrepreneurship-oriented culture. We still
lack in a lot of what, probably, in countries would have been a success story with the type
of linkages opportunities that are there. Our local companies, especially indigenous local,
you know, they are trying to export, or just trying to survive in market, they are very shy
in terms of business risk. . . . It’s a matter of, let’s say, cultural differences, one.
Structural foundations, two. Three, that we’re still lacking in terms of how fast our local
economy is pursuing the global market and so on.
Gibson also recognized that government of Costa Rica lacked the capability of bridging
the need to create more skilled STEM and entrepreneurial citizens through the PRONAFECYT
initiative and through domestic innovation. “By the way, the government also lacks its capability
of building those bridges right. Funding for these companies, the right training, the right
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emphasis, so on and so.” Gibson explained that there is not only a lack of funding for the
PRONAFECYT initiative, but also there is no set leadership nor training to help the Ticos to
accomplish their goal of creating more skilled STEM workers and innovators.
Mary Bialas added that neither of the two major universities in Costa Rica prepares its
citizens to educate and prepare students for an innovate workforce:
The university systems do not necessarily relate directly to what the private sector needs.
Actually, one of my challenges in the people I work with is to look at how appointed
universities be much more aligned with what the private sector needs so that they can
produce better candidates for the workforce. The best way we can do that is by getting
the private sector involved and not just letting the universities produce the type of scholar
that they have been producing over the years for the past economies but trying to get
them involved in understanding the new needs and where the country is going.
Alejandrina Mata Segreda, Dean of the School of Education of UCR, was asked about
their role in promoting PRONAFECYT initiative. When asked how the university provides
public schools with the resources to compete in the PRONAFECYT, she responded by saying
that the university provides material resources:
We invest a lot of money; we have a budget, right? We have a budget of how much? It’s
just that if we took into account what the university invests in a budget of how much . . .
infrastructure, teachers, and transportation. I have no idea; we can’t measure how much
the university puts in infrastructure in the human resources involved in the fair but we
invest a lot of money but, besides that, we don’t give more money. The ministry of
education gives some money in the human resources, in the facilities, the infrastructure,
etcetera. So, we don’t know how much money we invest in that.
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Apparently, neither the government agencies nor the higher education systems are
aligned as to funding, producing, and preparing its citizens to compete in a KBE. It also seems
that the most important participant in helping the PRONAFECYT to fulfill its purpose is the
private sector of the country.
At this juncture it is evident that system leaders do not have a budget specifically for the
PRONAFECYT. It is also evident that there is not any intention to create one nor is there a clear
consensus from system leaders regarding the direction and end product of the PRONAFECYT
initiative. Such discordance reflects conflicts within the political framework by Bolman and Deal
(2008). Constant conflict within systematic organizations requires creation of arenas where the
political map can be redrawn. However, when it constantly changes without any clear direction,
it causes more anxiety, confusion, and uncertainty (Bolman & Deal, 2008). All organizations are
tools for achieving the purposes of whoever controls them (Bolman & Deal, 2008). Yet it
appears that there is neither a person nor a system taking complete ownership or direction for the
PRONAFECYT initiative. When asked who were the key leaders in developing innovation in the
country, Vanessa Gibson replied,
I think we don’t have a leader yet. Because there are a lot of activity happening. You
mentioned you visited several organizations, you are interested in all of this Ferias
Cientificas, and all this, but have you identified anyone? Because if you did, I mean,
please share with me who’s the leaders? There are none. MICITT is trying to take some
leadership in this area, but again, limited by their resources. They are very timid in terms
of their approach. Although they are the entity that I would say is called up to that task,
they are very, I would say, how do you say that? Not that aggressive in terms of setting
up the right policies. Setting up the right ecosystem. They are still missing the cycle of
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the political environment. Every 4 years they change. There’s nothing in the long term
built.
Not only does it appear that Costa Rica does not have a leader to lead the
PRONAFECYT initiative; there is also no agenda outlined on how to accomplish what they want
out of it. Having an agenda that outlines goals is the first step to effective political leadership. It
is through the agenda that conveys direction while addressing the concerns of major stakeholders
such as the MICITT, MEP, school directors and teachers. Indeed, effective agenda for change
created by a leader generates a vision that balances the long-term interest of key parties (Bolman
& Deal, 2008). Costa Rica has the right idea of building a systematic program that will boost
STEM PBL education and skills through science and technology fairs. However, it is a common
mistake to assume that the right idea and legitimate authority ensure success (Bolman & Deal,
2008).
Theme 2: Lack of Teacher Training
Teacher training is an essential component in helping teachers to prepare students for
21st-century survival skills (Wagner, 2008). Schools that are effectively preparing students with
21st-century skills create innovative approaches in STEM PBL instruction and curriculum
(Wagner, 2012). STEM PBL instruction involves learning activities that are student centered
with curriculum based on real-life challenges (Capraro & Slough, 2013). Such education is
intended to help students to become innovative and develop skills to compete in a KBE (Wagner,
2012). The intention of the PRONAFECYT initiative is also to help Costa Rican students to
develop STEM skills in order to develop the country’s economy (Valencia-Chacon, 2011).
However, analysis of the data collected via surveys and interview responses indicated
that many of the teachers do not receive adequate training in preparing for and implementing the
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PRONAFECYT initiative. It is the role of system and site leaders to empower employees, in this
case teachers, with the skills necessary to implement the PRONAFECYT initiative (Bolman &
Deal, 2008; Kotter, 1996). Not receiving adequate training is an obstacle to change. In fact,
Kotter (1996) taught that the fifth step in the eight-step model of change is to remove obstacles
and empower people to move forward. Empowering people includes providing adequate time
and resources necessary to accomplish change.
Santa Barbara School teachers were surveyed about the following item: “My teachers
receive useful training that assists to prepare students for the PRONAFECYT.” The results were
the following: 40% strongly agreed, 40% agreed, 10% disagreed, 10% strongly disagreed, and
0% were unsure (Figure 16). It seems that the teachers at Santa Barbara School had received
some useful training. However, during teacher interviews, many of them revealed that the
training that they receive comes from colleagues and not necessarily from outside agencies such
as the MEP.
Teacher Eva noted that the school receives training:
Our coworker who is in charge, the one who coordinates the group, receives the training,
and he is in charge to transmit us through another training so that we are informed of
what the changes have been, of how the new processes have to be done, and in that way
we can be informed of the new changes to be able to transmit this to the students.
Teacher Cynthia explained that “just the coordinators receiving training . . . and then they
share the information with us.” She also noted that the coordinator of the school receives
PRONAFECYT training “more or less one time a year.”
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Figure 16. Responses by Santa Barbara School teachers to the survey item, “My teachers receive
useful training that assists to prepare students for the Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología.”
Teacher Elie noted that the training that they had received was merely experience from
doing the PRONAFECYT so many years, rather than any training. She explained that, “in
reality, experience is more than anything personal and academic.”
Teacher Sandra, who is also the coordinator of the PRONAFECYT at Santa Barbara
School, added,
Sincerely, we haven’t gone to training. More than anything, we have learned with time,
living, with teaching experience. Like when one says, no, this didn’t work in any form.
I’m going to do it this way. So I look for a method that facilitates their learning better. So
I feel like the experience helps one on the way because we say, yes, we have received
trainings, but many times it’s not sufficient because we can’t always be training. So
sometimes there are questions that we can’t be leaving the classrooms because we’re not
allowed, but they don’t train us.
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Teacher Cynthia explained that the little training that she received came from MEP and
not from any other agency. This statement is the complete opposite of what was said in an
interview with the Dean of the School of Education, Alejandrina Mata Segreda, of UCR:
We are the ones that sit and think about saving the world, right? But that is where many
of the ideas come from, ideas for providing training in universities. And mainly, here
where we have this office we coordinate the national fair and we provide training for
schools and colleges.
Conversely, when the teachers at Santa Barbara School were asked whether they received
any training from UCR for the PRONAFECYT, all answered in the negative.
At Santa Barbara School, teachers receive a digital copy of the PRONAFECYT guideline
manual after the coordinator returns from the PRONAFECYT training. However, the training for
the PRONAFECYT is very minimal. Teacher Cynthia explained that school trainers generally go
once at the beginning of the year. Teachers at Santa Barbara School were surveyed on the
following item: “I am provided yearly training on the PRONAFECYT guidelines.” The teachers
surveyed responded with the following: 40% strongly agreed, 15% agreed, 20% disagreed, 10%
strongly disagreed, and 15% were unsure. More than half of the teachers surveyed responded that
they were either unsure or did not receive annual training for the PRONAFECYT (Figure 17).
Since the data suggest that there is no adequate training for teachers to implement the
PRONAFECYT, it is also in an indication of the lack of principles that underlie the human
resource framework of investing in human capital. One of the key principles in the human
resource framework is the willingness of organizations to invest effectively in developing human
capital. Long-term and consistent training is needed to develop human capital (Bolman & Deal,
2008). A human resource-oriented organization also understands and recognizes that training
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Figure 17. Responses by teachers to survey item, “I am provided yearly training on the
PRONAFECYT guidelines.”
tmust occur on the job, in this case at the school sites, with consistent support and resources for
teachers to execute the PRONAFECYT initiative successfully (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
Organizations that empower their staff not only invest in their development but also keep
employees informed, encourage autonomy and participation, and instill work with meaning
(Bolman & Deal, 2008).
Apparently, teachers at Santa Barbara school tend to rely more on their own collaboration
and experience to implement the PRONAFECYT initiative rather than on the MEP and MICITT
for professional development. Santa Barbara School Director Rivera noted that, many times, the
school seeks training from outside sources because they do not receive adequate training. He
finds funding for outside training. “We have to ask for a voluntary donation . . . the municipality
helps us a lot.”
Admittedly, Valencia-Chacon, national coordinator of the PRONAFECYT, also
recognized the need to improve not only teacher training but the resources to implement the
PRONAFECYT:
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The Ministry of Science and Technology also provides the resources for the organization
of the National Science Fair together with the contribution provided by the University of
Costa Rica. Therefore, we can say that there are resources for the organization at regional
and national level but we still have a lot to do at school level, not only regarding financial
resources but also to strengthen the training processes. At the MICITT we consider that
we have to work harder regarding the training process of the teachers so that they get to
know and to understand what research implies so that they can enhance these processes
as a valuable tool for their students’ learning process.
Kotter (1996) taught that a powerful and collective force is required to eliminate
obstacles and sustain change. However, new initiatives for change commonly fail because
employees, in this case teachers, feel disempowered by the obstacles in their path. Giving
adequate and effective training will be key to removing obstacles that impede schools from
implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative. Valencia-Chacon confirmed that teacher training is
vital for successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT. “I believe we have to empower the
teachers more so that they understand what an investigation process implies because they can’t
teach something they don’t know.” Mary Bialas added that acquiring more resources for the
PRONAFECYT is meaningless if it is not supported by professional development. “Many
teachers will say, ‘Oh we need more funding.’ They do if they want to do things nicer but mostly
they need the training to do it.”
In addition to Kotter’s (1996) eight-step model for change, Bolman and Deal’s (2008)
structural and human resource frameworks play an important role in analyzing the lack of teacher
training received for successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT. One of the key
principles within the structural framework is the importance of organizations to remove or alter
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structures and procedures stand in the way of obstacles and to support the old ways of production
(Bolman & Deal, 2008). When the structure to support and train teachers is overlooked or
ignored, organizations will likely misdirect energy and resources. It may even waste time and
money on other training programs that do not address the needs of helping teachers implement
the PRONAFECYT initiative (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
Discussion of Results for Research Question 3
The emergent themes of Research Question 3 demonstrate that site leaders lacked
financial and infrastructure resources from system leaders. Indeed, many system leaders
recognized that the amount and distribution of funds were neither sufficient nor equitable. In
addition, many teachers and site leaders recognized a lack of cohesive teacher training to prepare
and implement the PRONAFECYT initiative.
Results for Research Question 4
Research Question 4 asked, “How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT
affected instructional practice?” The purpose of this question was to investigate how
participation in the PRONAFECYT has changed, if applicable, the instructional practices of the
teachers. It was also intended to determine whether Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century survival skills
were implemented in one way or another in the instructional practices of the teachers because of
the PRONAFECYT initiative. Hence, Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century survival skills were used as
the theoretical framework to analyze the data for Research Question 4.
Theme 1: PRONAFECYT Projects Are Done at the Classroom Level
One of the main changes made in instructional practices because of the PRONAFECYT
was having students present their PRONAFECYT projects, experiments, and demonstrations in
the classroom. Apparently, in times past, having students present their experiments and projects
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in class was not allowed. However, this year, teachers were able to prepare students to present
their PRONAFECYT projects and experiments to their classmates in the classroom. Teacher
Elier related that having the PRONAFECYT at the class level has been a positive change.
Because of the PRONAFECYT, the curriculum and instruction at Santa Barbara School also
changed. When asked whether and how the PRONAFECYT has changed the pedagogy of the
school, she responded,
It has this year. That process that was done before, the fairs were beautiful. They were
done in each classroom since they would have two to three projects in each group. So the
students used to build these amazing things. There were plants, everything was alive.
They had liquids; then there was a period, like I mentioned, when everything stopped.
Everything was done carefully and it got boring. But not now, now we’re excited because
that’s going to change . . . the way the curriculum, overall, the culture is going to change,
and the board is in a good position with respect to educate from a question generated,
from a student’s concern.
Teacher Sandra noted that there was a period in which the PRONAFECYT gave students
to experiment liberally and then it later limited the students to very minimal scientific and
technological demonstrations in class. However, the current PRONAFECYT has allowed
students of all grade levels to experiment freely. When asked how the pedagogy and curriculum
has changed because of the PRONAFECYT, she responded,
Let’s say we have changed I can tell you . . . I have many years here so I’ve been able to
see the change. Before now, I feel like we’re going to go back to what it was like before
because there was a period in which the fairs, children did demonstrations if they let
permitted, the child could present whatever he wanted. The child brought all the materials
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and did the presentation. So that part, the child loved it. There was a period in which we
didn’t permit this on the part of the demonstration because we had to get a series of
permits to be able to do all of that. So I feel like the fairs, the demonstration part passed.
So we began to limit the children a lot in this respect. Why? Because if he was going to
demonstrate something, so we had to capture everything by photograph and put the
pictures up. So the child couldn’t demonstrate to people how he did it. Now that I’ve
received this new training, there came the surprise that there was a new manual from
2015 and part of this manual is that they will permit us at the institutional level the
demonstration.
Teacher Eva, from Santa Barbara School, noted that the biggest instructional impact has
been in science. She explained that, because of the recent PRONAFECYT rule of
experimentation in the classroom, students do more “little experiments . . . they explore.”
Although more experiments are being done at the classroom level, she noted that sometimes,
“they [teachers] pass; we don’t have the resources, but some colleagues have a computer so they
show videos. More than anything, it’s the resources that each teacher chooses.”
Giving students at all grade levels access to demonstrate their PRONAFECYT projects at
the classroom level correlates well with Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century survival skills. Wagner
(2008) taught that, instead of students being only receivers of knowledge, they need to be
participants. Students need hands-on practice in real research and experiments. When students
are given opportunities to participate in hands-on experiments in the classroom with their
teacher, they are also developing skills to work as a team and to analyze information, all of
which fall under the umbrella of 21st-century survival skills (Wagner, 2008).
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Teacher Marjeli from Santa Barbara School explained that having permission to work on
projects and PRONAFECYT demonstrations at the classroom level has changed how science is
taught in class:
In our science program, we now are working and experimenting with them. So one works
a lot on the experimentation. Even though we’re a public school and we don’t have many
resources because we don’t have a laboratory or anything, but for example we have
materials, something so simple to see the function of the lungs, how a bottle, how
recycled material like a Coke bottle, with this, a glove, you put it on the part above.
Demonstrating mastery in reading, writing, and mathematics is not sufficient for students
to compete in a KBE. Demonstration through projects, particularly science and technology
projects, exposes students to mastery of the needed 21st-century survival skills (Wagner, 2008).
Theme 2: Survival Skills Prevalent in Instruction
Now that schools are permitted to have students give demonstrations at the classroom
level, there has also been an increase in use of Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century survival skills,
particularly in critical thinking, collaboration, and effective oral and written communication.
Santa Barbara School teachers were asked in the survey whether the PRONAFECYT
improved student collaboration at the classroom level. The results were the following: 50%
strongly agreed, 25% agreed, 5% disagreed, 5% strongly agreed, and 15% were unsure
(Figure 18).
The results from the survey indicate that a clear majority of the teachers at Santa Barbara
School positively see the PRONAFECYT as a means by which their students are able to
collaborate successfully. Teacher Marjeli of Santa Barbara School noted that the impact of the
PRONAFECYT had given students added measure to work collaboratively and independently:
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Figure 18. Teachers’ responses to the survey item, “The Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia
y Tecnología has improved student collaboration in my classroom.”
[PRONAFECYT] allows the student to have a personal independence, to feel important,
the ease to be able to express themselves at the institutional level with people. So I feel
that it benefits the student a lot because, it gives them the access to interact with people
who aren’t just their classmates. It gives them autonomy, it allows them to execute
leadership which the student needs so that he can see that all the results, all their efforts,
are always given recognition at the end of their studies.
Teacher Marjeli pointed out that students at Santa Barbara School not only collaborate
with each other but also with people who are not their classmates. Through collaborative efforts,
students are also given opportunities to develop leadership capabilities. Both collaboration and
leadership opportunities because of the PRONAFECYT confirm Wagner’s (2008) second 21st-
century survival skill of collaboration across networks and leading by influence. Learning how to
collaborate with others, especially those outside the classroom, is a prerequisite for a growing
number of MNCs. Indeed, acquiring the skills to collaborate across networks empowers students
not only to develop teamwork skills but also to use critical thinking and problem-solving skills
within a diverse range of interaction (Wagner, 2008).
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Teacher Eva explained that the PRONAFECYT has promoted more inquiring methods of
instruction and thinking in the classroom, particularly with science. She explained that, through
the inquiry method, students have begun “to learn how to do research.” She noted that the
PRONAFECYT had influenced instruction, which helped students “with the critical process, [be]
more creative and increase the desire to make research in case they have doubts.”
Teacher Vero added that the PRONAFECYT had changed the culture of instruction at the
school because students were now permitted to do experiments, which “gets them involved in
research.” Teacher Vero explained, “This year I noticed the students are very happy because kids
love to do experiments. And of course that’s going to benefit them little by little to apply the
scientific method.”
One key skill that has been imbedded in the instructional practices of the school because
of the PRONAFECYT is the emphasis on improving oral and written communication by
students. Article 4a of the PRONAFECYT insists that all formal PRONAFECYT projects be
exposed orally and presented in written format. Teacher Eva of Santa Barbara School explained
in an interview that the PRONAFECYT brought about more opportunities for her students to
practice oral communication, which was previously very minimal. She also explained that
students were able to improve their formal writing skills:
Before, sometimes, the children don’t know how to written work and with this, what’s an
introduction, what’s a conclusion. So this helps them a lot because sometimes one arrives
at university not knowing what’s a written work and that’s changing with this now. Now
the kids at least now know what an introduction is, what are objectives to create a work.
So that’s very important.
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Teacher Maria of Santa Barbara School acknowledged that the PRONAFECYT initiative
has affected her instructional strategies in teaching writing:
I worked with children teaching them to write objectives, to select information, to utilize
the Internet to look for references, to organize the information and let’s say to bring . . .
also select the images or the reports. I guided the written work in the classroom.
Teaching students the importance of and helping them to acquire effective oral and
written communication skills is Wagner’s (2008) fifth survival skill. One of the biggest skills
that is missing in 21st-century schools is the ability to communicate effectively in both written
and oral presentations. Wagner (2008) taught that acquiring effective oral and written skills is
much more than being college ready. Students must be prepared with oral and writing skills
across diverse cultures. Indeed, the effective ability to express oneself across cultures is an
essential citizenship skill that is needed in the 21st-century KBE (Wagner, 2008).
Discussion of Results for Research Question 4
The themes for Research Question 4 were that PRONAFECYT projects and
experimentations were done at the classroom level. Having access to do them at the classroom
level positively affected instruction and curriculum, especially in science. Students were able to
be participants in learning rather than receivers. Furthermore, the PRONAFECYT promoted
more abundantly Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century survival skills, particularly critical thinking,
effective oral, and written communication. Teachers are now able to help students to develop
skills to present their ideas and PRONAFECYT projects across diverse groups of pupils.
Chapter Summary
The impact of 21st-century globalization has helped Costa Rica to improve its economy
and education system. The influx of MNCs into the country has not only boosted Costa Rica’s
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workforce but has also reshaped the focus of education in the country (Paus & Gallagher, 2008).
One of Costa Rica’s main challenges now is to educate its citizens to compete in a KBE
(Rodriguez-Clare, 2012). Implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative throughout the entire
country’s education system is one way Costa Rica is preparing its citizens.
The director at Santa Barbara School played a vital role in implementing the
PRONAFECYT at the site level. The data indicated that the more involved the school director
was in implementing the PRONAFECYT, the more likely it would be executed successfully.
Feedback from both the teachers and the director was an essential component of implementing
the PRONAFECYT.
Another component that made Santa Barbara School have more successful participation
in the PRONAFECYT initiative than Colón School was the fact that teachers gave purpose as to
why they were having students participate in such an event. Teachers at Santa Barbara School
teach students more STEM PBL lessons than teachers at Colón School, which helps to motivate
students to want to participate. Furthermore, teachers at Santa Barbara School reach out to
parents for support more than teachers at Colón School, which also influenced successful
participation in the PRONAFECYT at the site level.
Despite the tactics used by Santa Barbara School staff to have successful participation in
the PRONAFECYT, they recognized that they lacked support from system leaders. One of the
main concerns for Santa Barbara School was the notion that Costa Rica’s education system
lacked the financial resources and infrastructure to support the school’s initiative to implement
the PRONAFECYT. Even some of the system leaders admitted to not garnering enough focus
and funds to support and promote the PRONAFECYT throughout the country. Not only is there
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a lack of financial and infrastructural support; there is a notion from the teachers that training on
how to implement the PRONAFECYT is minimal.
Notwithstanding, the current implementation of the PRONAFECYT allows students and
teachers to demonstrate projects and experiments in the classroom at all grade levels, which
apparently was not the norm in past years. With this new norm, teachers have augmented science
and technology learning. In addition, teachers have implemented instructional strategies that
have promoted Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century survival skills, particularly critical thinking,
analyzing information, and developing effective oral and written skills.
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CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND CONCLUSION
Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, the United States has dominated the
globe in politics, culture, economics, and education. However, in the past few decades many
countries have experienced economic growth that has matched that of the United States (Zakaria,
2011). As a result, the United States has witnessed an international economic growth in which
countries from all parts of the globe have become active participants in shaping globalization in
the 21st century (Friedman, 2007). Globalization is defined as the interdependence of nations
resulting from an increase in international policy, ideas, economics, and people in the global
market (Misra, 2012). Despite the dominance of the United States at a politico-military level,
many nations have caught up and even surpassed the United States in the fields industry, finance,
and education (Zakaria, 2011).
The spread of 21st-century globalization has had a major impact not only in the
economies of many nations but also in education (Friedman, 2007). The effects of 21st-century
globalization on education and the economy have caused many nations to reexamine and
compare their education systems to those of other developing nations. Such comparisons have
had a positive effect on the perceived overall value of education (Spring, 2008). The challenge
that many nations encounter now is to create and maintain an effective and robust education
system that will sustain an economy and prepare citizens to acquire the skills necessary to
compete in a KBE (Clifton, 2011). Such is the case with Costa Rica.
Costa Rica has flourished under the effects of globalization. It also has been an attractive
nation for many MNCs. One of the key features that promotes FDI in the Tico nation is its
geographic location, political stability, tax exemptions, and investment in education. Indeed,
since its independence and the abolishment of its military, Costa Rica has placed education as its
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primary focus (Palmer & Molina, 2004). As a result, hundreds of MNCs come to invest and
develop the workforce, which in return has improved the economy and education system
(CINDE, 2013). Consequently, Costa Rica has transformed from a mainly agrarian society to a
technology hub of production and creation in Latin America (Rodriguez-Clare, 2001).
Despite its exponential growth, Costa Rica faces serious challenges in maintaining its
attractiveness to sustain its growth. One of the key factors to sustain the economic growth and
attraction of FDI is dependent on the education system. Costa Rica is in need of schools that
produce knowledge-based workers with STEM skills and 21st-century competencies (Rodriguez-
Clare, 2001; Wagner, 2008). In order to counter this challenge, the MEP of Costa Rica
established a national decree that required all public schools to participate in the PRONAFECYT
(Valencia-Chacon, 2011). The MEP and MICITT are two major government agencies that have
developed and promoted the PRONAFECYT initiative throughout the country. However, not all
public schools in Costa Rica are participating successfully in the PRONAFECYT. Thus, this
study was designed to examine the role of leadership practices in implementing the
PRONAFECYT initiative.
The overall purpose of this study was to examine the role of educational leaders in
preparing and implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative in primary schools in Costa Rica.
This particular study focused on one of the elementary schools, Santa Barbara School. This study
identified the role of these educational leaders in the development and implementation of the
PRONAFECYT initiative. It also examined how primary schools may have reformed their
leadership and teacher training to comply with the PRONAFECYT initiative.
Four research questions were aligned with the purpose of this study:
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1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practice?
This study used a qualitative approach not only to investigate what educational leaders
were experiencing but also to interpret those experiences (Merriam, 2009). There are many ways
to complete a qualitative study, such as narrative, case study, and ethnography (Creswell, 2013).
This study was designed to understand the role of educational leaders in preparing and
implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative at their school sites. It also examined instructional
practices in relation to the PRONAFECYT initiative. Hence, such qualitative research is
considered a case study (Merriam, 2009).
To gather the necessary data to address the research questions, surveys, interviews, and
observations were designed and used with the MEP, MICITT, business leaders, higher education
personnel, elementary school principals, teachers, and students. All interviews consisted of open-
ended questions to solicit views from the participants. Although all participants received the
same questions, some grammatical changes were made so that the interview questions could be
linguistically relevant for each group. Interviews that were conducted in Spanish were translated
to English. All data from interviews were transcribed and evaluated using Patton’s (2002)
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qualitative analytical framework. Interview responses were carefully examined and coded to find
patterns and themes related to the research questions (Merriam, 2009).
Self-administered surveys were given to teachers, school principals, government officials,
business leaders, parents, students, and higher education personnel. All participants completed
the survey in person. The survey items entailed questions that were related to both the research
questions and the theoretical frameworks used for this study. In addition to collecting surveys,
observations were conducted during visits to the selected schools. Data collection of the
observations, surveys, and interviews created a triangulation by which to analyze the data from
multiple sources (Merriam, 2009).
Key Findings
Chapter 4 reported key findings from the collected data. The data were analyzed through
the theoretical frameworks of this study and themes were identified. The findings related to
Research Question 1 identified three common themes: (a) the director’s critical role in
organization and direction of the PRONAFECYT, (b) the need for school directors to support
and motivate teachers, and (c) essential feedback from teachers for successful implementation of
the PRONAFECYT. The findings related to Research Question 2 identified three themes:
(a) teachers give purpose for participating in the PRONAFECYT, (b) instruction for the
PRONAFECYT involves students in STEM PBL and, (c) teachers reach out to parents. The
findings related to Research Question 3 identified two common themes: (a) a lack of financial
and infrastructure resources and, (b) a lack of teacher training. The findings related to Research
Question 4 identified two themes: (a) PRONAFECYT projects done at the classroom level, and
(b) 21st-century survival skills prevalent in instruction.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 138
The first finding related to Research Question 1 identified that all organizations are
complex, deceptive, and ambiguous, which makes it extremely difficult for leaders to manage
(Bolman & Deal, 2008). In Costa Rica, many educational leaders struggle to create a school
environment that no longer reflects the pedagogy of the 20th century and resembles something
more related to the 21st century. Such is the task and complexity given to them in implementing
the PRONAFECYT initiative. Thus, the findings demonstrate the importance and vitality of the
school director’s role in the PRONAFECYT initiative. The role of the school director of Santa
Barbara School was to develop a structure for the school that promoted and executed the
PRONAFECYT. Such work was accomplished by creating several committees that oversaw
specific features of the PRONAFECYT. In addition to creating PRONAFECYT committees, the
school director’s support to motivate teachers was essential. The director supported and
motivated teachers at Santa Barbara School by allotting time and space for their PRONAFECYT
committees. He was also part of their professional development and encouraged the teachers to
press forward with their ideals and designs to implement the PRONAFECYT. At the same time,
he was open to feedback on how to improve the process of implementing the PRONAFECYT.
The findings related to Research Question 2 were a comparative analysis of teacher
practices at Santa Barbara School and Colón School regarding participation in the
PRONAFECYT initiative. The data clearly indicated that Santa Barbara School had more
successful participation in the PRONAFECYT than Colón School. One explanation was that the
teachers at Santa Barbara School gave purpose as to why the school was participating in the
PRONAFECYT. Creating a sense of urgency to change an organization is the responsibility of
the leader. In order to drive the sense of urgency, the director and teachers must create a sense of
purpose and direction to motivate students to participate successfully in the PRONAFECYT
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 139
initiative (Kotter, 1996). Students at Santa Barbara School received more instruction that
involved STEM PBL than those at Colón School. Also, students at Santa Barbara School had a
higher tendency to participate in STEM PBL lessons in preparation for the PRONAFECYT than
those at Colón School. Student survey responses indicated that teachers at Santa Barbara School
talked readily to their students about the purposes of the PRONAFECYT and the importance of
developing 21st-century survival skills. Data from interviews indicated that teachers at Santa
Barbara School reached out to parents more than did the teachers at Colón School.
Findings related to Research Question 3 indicated that individuals within a school system
must be empowered with adequate support and resources to implement the PRONAFECYT
(Kotter, 1996). The lack of financial and infrastructure resources from government agencies is an
indication of the lack of structural and political framework as presented by Bolman and Deal
(2008). The data analysis showed that the MEP does not have a specific budget dedicated to the
PRONAFECYT. Funding for the PRONAFECYT comes from a general fund for school fairs.
Furthermore, there seems to be a misalignment among the MEP, MICITT and the UCR
regarding to whom and how funding is given for the PRONAFECYT initiative. The data analysis
also indicated a lack of teacher training for the PRONAFECYT initiative. Teacher training is an
essential component in preparing students to develop 21st-century survival skills (Wagner,
2008). Teacher survey responses clearly indicated that the teachers did not receive adequate
yearly training. Teacher responses in interviews also indicated that most training came from
colleagues and not from the MEP or UCR.
The findings related to Research Question 4 indicated that the PRONAFECYT had a
positive effect on instructional practices of teachers at Santa Barbara School. The data from
teacher surveys and interviews indicated that much of the project work for the PRONAFECYT
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 140
was now done in the classroom rather than at home. Teachers help students with their
experiments and projects in class, whereas in the past students were allowed only to use poster
boards to explain their ideas and PRONAFECYT projects. The data from the interview responses
also indicated that 21st-century survival skills were more prevalent in instruction. Teachers now
guided students in research, working collaboratively in groups, and facilitating critical thinking.
Having the PRONAFECYT initiative done in the classroom encouraged teachers to help students
to develop effective oral and written skills, all of which are essential 21st-century skills (Wagner,
2008).
Overall, Santa Barbara School had a systematic process by which the teachers could
implement the PRONAFECYT initiative. The role of director Rivera was a vital influence in
implementation of the initiative at Santa Barbara School. Through the leadership of director
Rivera, Santa Barbara School teachers recognized the urgency to develop 21st-century skills in
their students, as well as to train their colleagues on how to execute the PRONAFECYT
initiative (Kotter, 1996). Despite not having adequate training or funding for the PRONAFECYT
from government officials, new regulations on how to implement the PRONAFECYT at the
school site level had a positive impact for Santa Barbara School. Indeed, teachers agreed that the
new regulations allowed STEM education to be prevalent at the classroom level.
Implications for Practice
The socioeconomic and education system of Costa Rica has improved significantly since
the country began to attract FDI (CINDE, 2013). Moving away from an agrarian society to a
technological nation has brought about many positive changes, as well as many challenges
(CINDE, 2013). The challenge of preparing and producing skilled knowledge-based workers will
take more than just a collaborative effort from all stakeholders, including government agencies,
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 141
the private sector, and the university system, to address this problem. Although the country is
making a concerted effort to help K–12 students to prepare for 21st-century skills through the
PRONAFECYT initiative, there are still major gaps as to the direction and support of such
initiative. In order to fill the gaps, two recommendations are presented: (a) Create a budget only
for the PRONAFECYT initiative, and (b) invest in more frequent teacher training focused on the
PRONAFECYT initiative.
The findings in this study revealed that there were neither financial nor infrastructure
resources to sustain the PRONAFECYT initiative effectively. Many of the teachers and school
leaders recognized a need of more financial support to execute the PRONAFECYT initiative.
The study revealed that the MEP has a categorical budget for all school fairs, which includes the
PRONAFECYT. The MEP does not have funding dedicated solely for the PRONAFECYT and
neither does the MICITT. Since there is no budget for the PRONAFECYT initiative, there is also
no one specifically in charge to give direction as to how the funding should be distributed and for
what purposes. It would be beneficial to have a budget only for the PRONAFECYT initiative. It
would also be beneficial for the MEP to create a department focused only on the PRONAFECYT
initiative, headed by a director of such initiative. Thus, it is recommended that the MEP create a
department and director of the PRONAFECYT initiative that can oversee the budget and the
needs of all schools. It is also recommended that, if possible, Santa Barbara School create a
reserve in the budget to be used solely for the PRONAFECYT initiative.
One of the major needs identified in the findings was the need for frequent teacher
training focused on the PRONAFECYT initiative. The findings revealed that there was not only
infrequent teacher training, but also there was no alignment as to who was given the training.
Personnel from the UCR proclaimed that they gave PRONAFECYT training to teachers;
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 142
however, none of the teachers at Santa Barbara School indicated in their interviews that they had
received training from UCR. The findings showed that only the school PRONAFECYT
coordinator received training from the MEP once a year. The coordinator was then expected to
explain to the rest of the school the content of that training. It is recommended that the MEP
create a systematic process in which teacher training is given frequently throughout the year to
all teachers. Since the burden of implementing the PRONAFECYT falls on the director of the
school, it would be highly beneficial to train all school directors on how to implement the
PRONAFECYT initiative. Training for both teachers and directors should be frequent, with
benchmarks to achieve throughout the year. Training should include effective STEM PBL
instructional practices, promotion of 21st-century skills, and preparing and executing the
PRONAFECYT at the school site. Having a reciprocal accountability system in which the MEP
guides schools through the process while the schools expect the training and direction on what to
do would be effective. Furthermore, it would be beneficial for the MEP align their training with
that from the MICITT and UCR. In the meantime, if Santa Barbara School cannot receive
frequent and adequate training from regional and government officials, it is recommended that
school official contract a consultant to facilitate PRONAFECYT teacher training throughout the
school.
Future Research
This case study focused on the role of educational leaders in the PRONAFECYT
initiative. Each research team visited a school for 1 day. It would be interesting to conduct a
longitudinal study of Santa Barbara School and all other schools investigated in this study
regarding implementation and practices of the PRONAFECYT initiative. A longitudinal study
would give an in-depth look at how the schools attempt to participate in the PRONAFECYT
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 143
initiative. It would also give a close look at the leadership practices of the directors of each
school site.
Another research focus would be a study on the political climate regarding the
PRONAFECYT. Since presidential parties in power are allotted only 4 years of service, it would
be interesting to study the political implications of the PRONAFECYT initiative. The study
could include policies that correlate with the purposes of the PRONAFECYT initiative, such as
allocation of funds, tax exemptions and business loans for native entrepreneurs, and Tico
innovation productivity. These findings would inform the public and especially educators
regarding political prioritization of the PRONAFECYT and political impediments that could
hinder progress of the initiative.
The third area for future research would be to investigate the type of PRONAFECYT
projects that are created by the students at both Santa Barbara School and Colón School. It would
be interesting to learn how projects are initiated, guided, and executed. The responses in the
interviews revealed that some of the projects for the PRONAFECYT were plagiarized from the
Internet. It would be interesting to learn whether there are any common themes or projects that
students identified across the country. By knowing the type of projects that are created for the
PRONAFECYT, school officials could redirect and guide STEM PBL instruction and
PRONAFECYT policies.
Conclusion
Costa Rica is a small nation that has taken advantage of 21st-century globalization. The
Tico nation has prioritized its education and attracted MNCs to establish business and industry
there. The initiative to prepare citizens for a KBE through the PRONAFECYT is praiseworthy.
Despite positive intentions, there are still misalignments in the political system that lead to
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 144
financial restrictions that inhibit schools, particularly school directors, from successful
implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative.
The potential and possibilities for a stellar education system in Costa Rica are clear. Yet,
one of the major obstacles that the country faces is not necessarily within the walls of the
classroom but within the walls of the legislative assembly hall. Politics in Costa Rica play a key
role in policy, support, and the future of the PRONAFECYT initiative. This study and any
replications of it would be beneficial for educators and parents to understand the implications of
politics in Costa Rica regarding the PRONAFECYT.
Costa Rican politics will enable the country to become innovative and create a spirit of
entrepreneurism. The fact that many students copy projects for the PRONAFECYT from the
Internet without designing original projects is analogous to Costa Rica’s entrepreneur dilemma.
Costa Rica manufactures technological and engineering goods but does not necessarily create
innovation. Costa Rican politics should align the focus to open doors equally for Ticos, as they
do for FDI, to enable innovation in the 21st century. Giving Ticos the same exemptions as FDI
and MNCs would give them an equal start to reconstruct a Costa Rican culture of STEM
workers, entrepreneurs, and innovation. If they can politically align their focus, citizens of this
beautiful country will transform Latin American economics and set a precedent across the globe.
Costa Rican politics will enable the country to become more innovative and create a spirit
of entrepreneurism. The fact that many students copy projects for the PRONAFECYT from the
Internet without designing original projects is analogous to Costa Rica’s entrepreneur dilemma.
Costa Rica manufactures technological and engineering goods but does not necessarily create
innovation. However, if Costa Rican politics can align with all stakeholders in supporting and
promoting the PRONAFECYT, then perhaps the Tico nation can begin to develop a culture of
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 145
STEM workers, entrepreneurs, and innovation. Aligning their focus will also help citizens of this
beautiful country to transform Latin American economics and set a precedent across the globe.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 146
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EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 152
APPENDIX A
Recruitment Letter
DATE

Dear XXX,

On June 15, 2015, a group of 18 doctoral students from the University of Southern California,
Rossier School of Education, will travel to Costa Rica as part of a study team led by Dr. Michael
Escalante. The purpose of our research is to understand the effects of educational leadership on
participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT) in
primary schools in Costa Rica. Specifically, we are interested in the roles of primary school
leaders in preparing and implementing this initiative. As part of our study, the following
questions will be addressed:

1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT
initiative?

2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?

3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?

4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional practice?

We would appreciate an opportunity to speak with you, members of the Ministry of Education,
and educational leaders at regional and school site levels. It is our goal to conduct surveys and
interviews to gather data to address these research questions. Your input will be invaluable to our
study.

Thank you for considering our request. We are available to meet with you any time between
from June 15 through June 19. Please feel free to contact any member of our study team if you
have any questions.

Sincerely,

USC Doctoral Students

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 153
APPENDIX B
List of Research Sites

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 154
APPENDIX C
Teacher Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Position:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. How have you been prepared for the PRONAFECYT?
2. In what ways do you elicit teacher feedback to improve implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
3. How do teachers ensure that all students participate in the PRONAFECYT?
4. How do you acquire resources necessary for participation in the PRONAFECYT?
5. How are teachers recognized for their efforts with regard to implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
6. Please describe how curriculum, pedagogy, or school culture has changed to
accommodate the PRONAFECYT.
7. How does the PRONAFECYT benefit students?
8. What instructional practices do teachers at your school use to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT?
9. How have your teachers been trained to help students to prepare for the PRONAFECYT?

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 155

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cómo se han preparado para el PRONAFECYT?

2. ¿De qué manera provocan los directores retroalimentación con respecto a la
aplicación de el PRONAFECYT?

3. ¿De qué manera aseguran que todos los estudiantes participen en el PRONAFECYT?

4. ¿Cómo obtienen los directores de escuelas los recursos necesarios para participar en
la PRONAFECYT?

5. ¿Cómo son reconocidos los maestros por sus esfuerzos en lo que respecta a la
aplicación de la PRONAFECYT?

6. Por favor describa cómo currículo, pedagogía, o la cultura de escuela ha cambiado
para adaptarse a la PRONAFECYT.

7. ¿De qué manera el PRONAFECYT beneficia a los estudiantes?

8. ¿Qué prácticas de enseñanza utiliza para preparar a los estudiantes para el
PRONAFECYT?

9. ¿Cómo ha sido entrenado para ayudar a los estudiantes prepararse para el
PRONAFECYT?

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 156
APPENDIX D
School Director Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Position:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. How have you been prepared for the PRONAFECYT?
2. In what ways do you elicit teacher feedback to improve implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
3. How do teachers ensure that all students participate in the PRONAFECYT?
4. How do you acquire resources necessary for participation in the PRONAFECYT?
5. How are teachers recognized for their efforts with regard to implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
6. Please describe how curriculum, pedagogy, or school culture has changed to
accommodate for the PRONAFECYT.
7. How does the PRONAFECYT benefit students?
8. What instructional practices do teachers at your school use to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT?
9. How have your teachers been trained to help students to prepare for the
PRONAFECYT?
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 157

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cómo se han preparado para el PRONAFECYT?
2. ¿De qué manera provoca retroalimentación con respecto a la aplicación de el
PRONAFECYT?

3. ¿De qué manera aseguran los maestros que todos los estudiantes participen en el
PRONAFECYT?

4. ¿Cómo obtiene los recursos necesarios para participar en la PRONAFECYT?
5. ¿Cómo son reconocidos los maestros por sus esfuerzos con respecto a la aplicación
de la PRONAFECYT?
6. Por favor describa cómo currículo, pedagogía, o la cultura de escuela ha cambiado
para adaptarse a la PRONAFECYT.
7. ¿De qué manera el PRONAFECYT beneficia a los estudiantes?
8. ¿Qué prácticas de enseñanza utilizan los maestros en su escuela para preparar a los
estudiantes para el PRONAFECYT?

9. ¿Cómo ha sido entrenado sus maestros para ayudar a los estudiantes prepararse para
el PRONAFECYT?

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 158
APPENDIX E
Government Official/Business Leaders Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Position:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. What are your country’s goals for economic growth and creating an innovation-based
society?
2. How are the goals coordinated among the various governmental agencies?
3. Based on your perception, who are the key leaders in developing an innovation-based
workforce?
4. How does the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT)
support the national goals of developing an innovation-based workforce?
5. What role(s) do educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT?
6. How does government policy encourage PRONAFECYT participation?
7. Does the government provide schools with resources necessary for participation in the
PRONAFECYT? If so, what kind of resources are provided? If no, what would those
resources be?
8. Does the government recognize schools and/or regions for successful participation in the
PRONAFECYT? If so, please describe.
9. What is the government’s vision for implementation of science, technology, engineering,
and mathematics (STEM) in Costa Rican Schools?
10. What skills should schools promote to prepare students for the PRONAFECYT?

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 159

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cuáles son las metas de su país para el crecimiento económico y la creación de una
sociedad basada en la innovación?
2. ¿Cómo son estas metas coordinadas entre las distintas agencias gubernamentales?
3. En base a su percepción, ¿quiénes son los líderes clave en el desarrollo de una fuerza
laboral que está basada en la innovación?
4. ¿Cómo apoya el Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología (PNFCT) a los
objetivos nacionales en el desarrollo de una fuerza laboral que está basada en la
innovación?
5. ¿Qué función(es) desempeña(n) los líderes del sistema educativo en la aplicación del
PNFCT?
6. ¿De qué manera la política del gobierno fomenta la participación en el PNFCT?
7. ¿El gobierno proporciona a las escuelas con los recursos necesarios para participar en el
PNFCT? Si es así, ¿qué tipo de recursos se proporcionan? Si no, ¿cuáles serían esos
recursos?
8. ¿El gobierno reconoce a las escuelas y/o regiones por su participación en el PNFCT? Si
es así, por favor describa como lo hace el gobierno.
9. ¿Cuál es la visión del gobierno para la integración de la ciencia, tecnología, ingeniería y
matemáticas en el plan de estudios de las escuelas en Costa Rica?
10. ¿Qué habilidades cree usted que las escuelas deben promover para preparar a los
estudiantes para el PNFCT?
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 160
APPENDIX F
Parent Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Position:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. How has your child been prepared for the PRONAFECYT?
2. In what ways do School Directors elicit parent feedback to improve implementation of
the PRONAFECYT?
3. How do teachers ensure that all students participate in the PRONAFECYT?
4. How do School Directors acquire resources necessary for participation in the
PRONAFECYT?
5. How are students recognized for their efforts with regard to implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
6. Please describe how curriculum, pedagogy, or school culture has changed to
accommodate the PRONAFECYT.
7. How does the PRONAFECYT benefit students?
8. What instructional practices does your child’s teacher use to prepare him/her for the
PRONAFECYT?
9. How have you been trained to help your student(s) to prepare for the PRONAFECYT?

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 161

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cómo se ha preparado su hijo/a para el PRONAFECYT?

2. ¿De qué manera provoca retroalimentación los directores de escuela con respecto a la
aplicación de el PRONAFECYT?
3. ¿De qué manera aseguran los maestros que todos los estudiantes participen en el
PRONAFECYT?
4. ¿Cómo obtiene los directores de escuelas recursos necesarios para participar en la
PRONAFECYT?
5. ¿Cómo son reconocidos los estudiantes por sus esfuerzos con respecto a la aplicación
de la PRONAFECYT?
6. Por favor describa cómo currículo, pedagogía, o la cultura de escuela ha cambiado
para adaptarse a la PRONAFECYT.
7. ¿De qué manera el PRONAFECYT beneficia a los estudiantes?
8. ¿Qué prácticas de enseñanza utilizan los maestros de su hijo/a en su escuela para
preparar a los estudiantes para el PRONAFECYT?
9. ¿Cómo ha sido entrenado usted para ayudar a su estudiante (s) prepararse para el
PRONAFECYT?

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 162
APPENDIX G
Student Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Grade:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. How did you get ready for the science fair project?
2. How does your teacher make sure everyone participates in the science fair?
3. How do you get all the things you need for your science fair project?
4. Are you rewarded for participating in the science fair? If so, how are your rewarded?
5. How does participation in the science fair help you?
6. How do your teachers get you ready for the science fair?

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 163

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cómo te preparas para el proyecto de feria de ciencias?

2. ¿Cómo se asegúra su maestro de que todos participen en la feria de ciencias?

3. ¿Cómo obtienes todo lo que necesitas para tu proyecto de ciencias?

4. ¿La escuela los recompense or celebra por su participación en la feria de ciencias? Si
es así, ¿Cómo celebra la escuela?

5. ¿Cómo te ayuda la participación en la feria de ciencia?

6. ¿Cómo te preparan los maestros para la feria de ciencias?

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 164
APPENDIX H
Teacher Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. The School Director plays a critical
role in ensuring that teachers imple-
ment the National Programs of
Science and Technology Fairs
(PRONAFECYT).
    
2. Teachers need support from the
school Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and
effectively.
    
3. The School Director elicits teacher
feedback to improve implementation
of the PRONAFECYT.
    
4. The School Director communicates
the purpose and urgency of the
PRONAFECYT.
    
5. I provide opportunities for students
to engage in scientific inquiry as
part of my regular instruction.
    
6. I utilize project-based learning
(PBL) in my teaching.
   
7. I am provided adequate training to
prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
8. My school has adequate resources
that allow me to prepare students for
the PRONAFECYT.
    
9. I am familiar with soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
    
10. My School Director talks about the
importance of soft skills and their
impact on student achievement.
    
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 165

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
11. Students develop soft skills through
participation in the PRONAFECYT.
    
12. I have received training on how to
integrate soft skills in the classroom.
    
13. Student participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized
throughout my school.
    
14. Teachers at my school work
together to plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration in my
classroom.
    
16. Teachers are given the leadership
capacity to make decisions about
projects for the PRONAFECYT.
    
17. There is a school-wide vision for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
18. There is a positive culture at my
school regarding the
PRONAFECYT.
    
19. The School Director communicates
the goals for participation in the
PRONAFECYT.
    
20. Teacher training was useful in
preparing students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
22. I am provided yearly training on the
PRONAFECYT guidelines.
    
23. There is a high level of participation
in the PRONAFECYT at my school.
    

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 166
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No
estoy

seguro

1. El director de la escuela tiene un papel
crítico en asegurar que los maestros
participen en el Programa Nacional de
Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología
(PNFCT).
    
2. Los maestros necesitan el apoyo del
director de la escuela para
implementar el PNFCT plena y
efectivamente.
    
3. El director de la escuela solicita
retroalimentación de los maestros para
mejorar la implementación del
PNFCT.
    
4. El director de la escuela comunica el
propósito y la urgencia del PNFCT.
    
5. Yo ofrezco oportunidades a mis
estudiantes para participar en
proyectos de investigación científica o
ingeniería como parte de mi
enseñanza regular.
    
6. Yo utilizo el aprendizaje basado en
proyectos (ABP) cuando doy clase.
    
7. Yo recibo formación y entrenamiento
adecuado para preparar a mis
estudiantes en la competencia de la
PNFCT.
    
8. Mi escuela tiene recursos suficientes
que me permiten preparar la
competencia estudiantil en la PNFCT.
    
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas,
colaboración, comunicación,
capacidad de adaptación, análisis,
curiosidad e imaginación).
    
10. El director de la escuela comunica la
importancia de las habilidades
sociales y su impacto en el
rendimiento estudiantil.
    
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 167

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No
estoy

seguro

11. Los estudiantes desarrollan
habilidades sociales a través de la
participación en el PNFCT.
    
12. He recibido capacitación de cómo
integrar habilidades sociales en el
aula.
    
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la
colaboración estudiantil en mi aula.
    
16. Maestros en mi escuela reciben la
capacidad de liderazgo para tomar
decisiones de proyectos relacionados
con el PNFCT.
    
17. Existe una visión en mi escuela sobre
el PNFCT.
    
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en mi escuela.
    
19. El director de la escuela comunica los
objetivos de participación en el
PNFCT.
    
20. La capacitación de maestros fue útil
para preparar a los estudiantes para el
PNFCT.
    
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la
escuela para preparar la competencia
estudiantil en el PNFCT.
    
22. Yo recibo capacitación anual sobre las
directrices del PNFCT.
    
23. Hay un alto nivel de participación en
el PNFCT en mi escuela.
    
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 168
APPENDIX I
School Director Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly

Agree
Agree
Disagree

Strongly

Disagree

Not

Sure

1. School Directors play a critical role in
assuring teachers implement the
National Science and Technology Fair
(PRONAFECYT).     
2. Teachers need the support of the school
Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and effectively.
    
3. I elicit student feedback to improve
implementation of the PRONAFECYT .
    
4. I communicate the purpose and urgency
of the PRONAFECYT.
    
5. My teachers provide opportunities for
their students to engage in scientific
inquiry as part of regular instruction.

    
6. My teachers utilize project-based
learning (PBL) in their teaching.
   
7. I am provided adequate training to
prepare teachers and students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
8. My school has adequate resources to
prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
9. I am familiar with soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
    
10. I communicate with teachers about the
importance of soft skills and their
impact on student achievement.
    
11. Students develop soft skills through
participation in PRONAFECYT.
    

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 169

Strongly

Agree
Agree
Disagree

Strongly

Disagree

Not

Sure

12. I have received training on how to
integrate soft skills in the classroom.
    
13. Student participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized
throughout my school.
    
14. Teachers at my school work together to
plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration at my school.
    
16. Teachers are given the leadership
capacity to make decisions about
projects for the PRONAFECYT.
    
17. There is a school-wide vision for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
18. There is a positive culture at my school
regarding the PRONAFECYT.
    
19. I communicate the goals for
participation in the PRONAFECYT.
    
20. My teachers receive useful training that
assists to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
22. I am provided yearly training on the
PRONAFECYT guidelines.
    
23. There is a high level of participation at
my school in the PRONAFECYT .
    

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 170
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

1. Los directores de las escuelas tienen un
papel crítico en asegurar que los
maestros participen en el Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología (PNFCT).
    
2. Los maestros necesitan el apoyo del
director de la escuela para implementar
el PNFCT plena y efectivamente.
    
3. Yo solicito retroalimentación de los
estudiantes para mejorar la
implementación del PNFCT.
    
4. Yo comunico el propósito y la urgencia
del PNFCT.
    
5. Mis maestros ofrecen oportunidades a sus
estudiantes para participar en proyectos
de investigación científica o ingeniería
como parte de enseñanza regular.
    
6. Mis maestros utilizan el aprendizaje
basado en proyectos (ABP) cuando dan
clase.
    
7. Yo recibo formación y entrenamiento
adecuado para preparar a los maestros y
estudiantes en la competencia del
PNFCT.
    
8. Mi escuela tiene recursos suficientes para
preparar la competencia estudiantil en el
PNFCT.
    
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas, colaboración,
comunicación, capacidad de adaptación,
análisis, curiosidad e imaginación).
    
10. Yo comunico la importancia de las
habilidades sociales y su impacto en el
rendimiento estudiantil con mis
maestros.
    
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 171

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

11. Los estudiantes desarrollan habilidades
sociales a través de la participación en
el PNFCT.
    
12. He proporcionado capacitación de cómo
integrar habilidades sociales en el aula.
    
13. La participación estudiantil en el
PNFCT se reconoce en mi escuela.
    
14. Los maestros en mi escuela trabajan
juntos para planificar y prepararse para
el PNFCT.
    
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la colaboración
estudiantil en mi escuela.
    
16. Mis maestros reciben la capacidad de
liderazgo para tomar decisiones de
proyectos relacionados con el PNFCT.
    
17. Existe una visión en mi escuela sobre el
PNFCT.
    
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en mi escuela.
    
19. Yo comunico los objetivos de
participación en el PNFCT.
    
20. Mis maestros reciben capacitación útil
que ayuda a preparar a los estudiantes
para el PNFCT.
    
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la escuela
para preparar la competencia estudiantil
en el PNFCT.
    
22. Yo recibo capacitación anual sobre las
directrices del PNFCT.
    
23. Hay un alto nivel de participación en el
PNFCT en mi escuela.
    

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 172
APPENDIX J
Government Official Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. School Directors play a critical role
in assuring teachers implement the
National Program of Science and
Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT).
    
2. Teachers need the support of the
school Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and
effectively.
    
3. School Directors elicit student feed-
back to improve implementation of
the PRONAFECYT.
    
4. Schools communicate the purpose
and urgency of the PRONAFECYT.
    
5. Schools provide opportunities for
students to engage in scientific
inquiry as part of my regular
instruction.
    
6. Teachers utilize project-based
learning (PBL) in their teaching.
   
7. Schools are provided adequate
training to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
8. Schools are provided adequate
resources to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
9. I am familiar with soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
    
10. We communicate the importance of
soft skills and their impact on
student achievement.
    

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 173

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
11. Students develop soft skills through
participation in PRONAFECYT.
    
12. We have provided training on how
to integrate soft skills in the
classroom.
    
13. Student participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized
throughout the schools.
    
14. Teachers in this region work
together to plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration at schools in
my region.
    
16. Teachers are given the leadership
capacity to make decisions about
projects for the PRONAFECYT.
    
17. There are school-wide visions for
the PRONAFECYT.
    
18. There is a positive culture at schools
regarding the PRONAFECYT.
    
19. The goals for participation in the
PRONAFECYT are communicated
by school site leaders.
    
20. Teachers receive useful training that
assists to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
22. Teachers and administrators are
provided yearly training on the
PRONAFECYT guidelines.
    
23. There is a high level of
PRONAFECYT participation at
schools in my region.
    

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 174
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente
en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

1. Los directores de las escuelas tienen
un papel crítico en asegurar que los
maestros participen en el Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología (PNFCT).
    
2. Los maestros necesitan el apoyo del
director de la escuela para
implementar el PNFCT plena y
efectivamente.
    
3. Los directores de las escuelas solicitan
retroalimentación de los estudiantes
para mejorar la implementación del
PNFCT.
    
4. Las escuelas comunican el propósito y
la urgencia del PNFCT.
    
5. Las escuelas ofrecen oportunidades
para participar en proyectos de
investigación científica o ingeniería.
    
6. Los maestros utilizan el aprendizaje
basado en proyectos (ABP) cuando
dan clase.
    
7. Las escuelas están provistas con
formación y entrenamiento adecuado
para preparar la competencia
estudiantil en el PNFCT.
    
8. Las escuelas tienen recursos
suficientes para preparar la
competencia estudiantil en el PNFCT.
    
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas, colabora-
ción, comunicación, capacidad de
adaptación, análisis, curiosidad e
imaginación).
    
10. Comunicamos la importancia de las
habilidades sociales y su impacto en el
rendimiento estudiantil.
    
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 175

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente
en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

11. Los estudiantes desarrollan habili-
dades sociales a través de la participa-
ción en el PNFCT.
    
12. Hemos proporcionado capacitación de
cómo integrar habilidades sociales en
el aula.
    
13. La participación estudiantil en el
PNFCT se reconoce en las escuelas.
    
14. Los maestros de mi región trabajan
juntos para planificar y prepararse
para el PNFCT.
    
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la
colaboración estudiantil en las
escuelas de mi región.
    
16. A los maestros se les da la capacidad
de liderazgo para tomar decisiones de
proyectos relacionados con el PNFCT.
    
17. Existe una visión en todas las escuelas
de esta región sobre el PNFCT.
    
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en las escuelas.
    
19. Los maestros y los directores de las
escuelas comunican los objetivos de
participación en el PNFCT.
    
20. Los maestros reciben capacitación útil
que ayuda a preparar a los estudiantes
para el PNFCT.
    
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la
escuela para preparar la competencia
estudiantil en el PNFCT.
    
22. Los maestros y administradores
reciben capacitación anual sobre las
directrices del PNFCT.
    
23. Hay un alto nivel de participación en
el PNFCT en las escuelas de mi
región.
    
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 176
APPENDIX K
Business Partner Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. School Directors play a critical role
in assuring teachers implement the
National Program of Science and
Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT).
    
2. Teachers need the support of the
school Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and
effectively.
    
3. School Directors elicit student
feedback to improve implementation
of the PRONAFECYT.
    
4. Schools communicate the purpose
and urgency of the PRONAFECYT.
    
5. Schools provide opportunities for
students to engage in scientific
inquiry as part of regular instruction.
    
6. Teachers utilize project-based
learning (PBL) in their teaching.
   
7. Schools are provided adequate
training to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
8. Schools are provided adequate
resources to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
9. I am familiar with soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
    
10. We communicate the importance of
soft skills and their impact on
student achievement.
    
11. Students develop soft skills through
participation in PRONAFECYT.
    

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 177

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
12. We have provided training on how
to integrate soft skills in the
classroom.
    
13. Student participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized
throughout the schools.
    
14. Teachers at my local schools work
together to plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration at the schools
with which I work with.
    
16. Teachers are given the leadership
capacity to make decisions about
projects for the PRONAFECYT.
    
17. There are school-wide visions for
the PRONAFECYT.
    
18. There is a positive culture at schools
regarding the PRONAFECYT.
    
19. The goals for participation in the
PRONAFECYT are communicated
by school site leaders.
    
20. Teachers receive useful training that
assists to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
22. Teachers and administrators are
provided yearly training on the
PRONAFECYT guidelines.
    
23. There is a high level of
PRONAFECYT participation at
schools I work with.
    

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 178
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

1. Los directores de las escuelas tienen un
papel crítico en asegurar que los maestros
participen en el Programa Nacional de
Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología (PNFCT).
    
2. Los maestros necesitan el apoyo del
director de la escuela para implementar el
PNFCT plena y efectivamente.
    
3. Los directores de las escuelas solicitan
retroalimentación de los estudiantes para
mejorar la implementación del PNFCT.
    
4. Las escuelas comunican el propósito y la
urgencia del PNFCT.
    
5. Las escuelas ofrecen oportunidades para
participar en proyectos de investigación
científica o ingeniería.
    
6. Los maestros utilizan el aprendizaje basado
en proyectos (ABP) cuando dan clase.
    
7. Las escuelas están provistas con formación
y entrenamiento adecuado para preparar la
competencia estudiantil en el PNFCT.
    
8. Las escuelas tienen recursos suficientes
para preparar la competencia estudiantil
en el PNFCT.
    
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas, colaboración,
comunicación, capacidad de adaptación,
análisis, curiosidad e imaginación).
    
10. Comunicamos la importancia de las
habilidades sociales y su impacto en el
rendimiento estudiantil.
    
11. Los estudiantes desarrollan habilidades
sociales a través de la participación en el
PNFCT.
    
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 179

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

12. Hemos proporcionado capacitación de
cómo integrar habilidades sociales en el
aula.
    
13. La participación estudiantil en el
PNFCT se reconoce en las escuelas.
    
14. Los maestros en las escuelas con las que
colaboro trabajan juntos para planificar
y prepararse para el PNFCT.
    
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la colaboración
estudiantil en las escuelas con las que
trabajo.
    
16. A los maestros se les da la capacidad de
liderazgo para tomar decisiones de
proyectos relacionados con el PNFCT.
    
17. Existe una visión en todas las escuelas
con las que trabajo sobre el PNFCT.
    
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en las escuelas.
    
19. Los maestros y los directores las
escuelas comunican los objetivos de
participación en el PNFCT.
    
20. Los maestros reciben capacitación útil
que ayuda a preparar a los estudiantes
para el PNFCT.
    
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la escuela
para preparar la competencia estudiantil
en el PNFCT.
    
22. Los maestros y administradores reciben
capacitación anual sobre las directrices
del PNFCT.
    
23. Hay un alto nivel de participación en las
escuelas con las que trabajo en el
PNFCT.
    

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 180
APPENDIX L
Parent Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly

Agree
Agree
Disagree

Strongly

Disagree

Not

Sure

1. My child’s school director plays a
critical role in assuring teachers
implement the National Program of
Science and Technology Fairs
(PRONAFECYT).
    
2. My child’s teachers need the support of
the School Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and effectively.
    
3. My child’s school director elicits
student feedback to improve
implementation of the PRONAFECYT.
    
4. My child’s teachers communicate the
purpose and urgency of the
PRONAFECYT.
    
5. My child’s teachers provide me oppor-
tunities to engage in scientific inquiry as
part of my child’s regular instruction.
    
6. My child’s teachers utilize project-based
learning (PBL) in their teaching.
   
7. My child’s school is provided with
adequate training to prepare students for
the PRONAFECYT.
    
8. My child’s school has adequate
resources to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
9. My child is familiar with soft skills (i.e.
critical thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
    
10. My child’s teachers communicate the
importance of soft skills and their
impact on my child’s achievement.
    

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 181

Strongly

Agree
Agree
Disagree

Strongly

Disagree

Not

Sure

11. My child developed soft skills through
participation in PRONAFECYT.
    
12. My child’s teachers have shared how
they have integrated soft skills in the
classroom.
    
13. My child’s participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized at my
school.
    
14. My child’s teachers work together to
plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration in my child’s
classroom.
    
16. My child’s teachers are given the
leadership capacity to make decisions
about projects for the PRONAFECYT.
    
17. There is a school-wide vision for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
18. There is a positive culture at my child’s
school regarding the PRONAFECYT.
    
19. Teachers and the Director at my child’s
school communicate the goals for
participation in the PRONAFECYT.
    
20. My child’s teachers receive useful
training that assist to prepare students
for the PRONAFECYT.
    
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare my child for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
22. My child’s teachers share
PRONAFECYT guidelines with me.
    
23. My child participated in the school’s
PRONAFECYT.
    

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 182
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

1. El director de la escuela de mi hijo/a
tiene un papel crítico en asegurar que
los maestros participen en el Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología (PNFCT).
    
2. Los maestros de mi hijo/a necesitan el
apoyo del director de la escuela para
implementar el PNFCT plena y
efectivamente.
    
3. El director de la escuela de mi hijo/a
solicita retroalimentación de los estudi-
antes para mejorar la implementación
del PNFCT.
    
4. Los maestros de mi hijo/a comunican el
propósito y la urgencia del PNFCT.
    
5. Los maestros de mi hijo/a ofrecen
oportunidades para participar en
proyectos de investigación científica o
ingeniería como parte de la enseñanza
regular.
    
6. Los maestros de mi hijo/a utilizan el
aprendizaje basado en proyectos (ABP)
cuando dan clase.
    
7. La escuela de mi hijo/a está provista con
formación y entrenamiento adecuado
para preparar la competencia estudiantil
en el PNFCT.
    
8. La escuela de mi hijo/a tiene recursos
suficientes para preparar la competencia
estudiantil en el PNFCT.
    
9. Mi hijo/a esta familiarizado/a con
habilidades sociales (e.g. pensamiento
crítico y resolución de problemas,
colaboración, comunicación, capacidad
de adaptación, análisis, curiosidad e
imaginación).
    
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 183

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

10. Los maestros de mi hijo/a comunican la
importancia de las habilidades sociales
y su impacto en su rendimiento
estudiantil.
    
11. Mi hijo/a desarrolla habilidades sociales
a través de la participación en el
PNFCT.
    
12. Los maestros de mi hijo/a platican de
cómo integran habilidades sociales en el
aula.
    
13. La participación de mi hijo/a en el
PNFCT se reconoce en su escuela.
    
14. Los maestros de mi hijo/a trabajan
juntos para planificar y prepararse para
el PNFCT.
    
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la colaboración
estudiantil en el aula de mi hijo/a.
    
16. Los maestros de mi hijo/a reciben
capacidad de liderazgo para tomar
decisiones de proyectos relacionados
con el PNFCT.
    
17. Existe una visión sobre el PNFCT en la
escuela de mi hijo/a.
    
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en la escuela de mi hijo/a.
    
19. Los maestros y los directores las
escuelas comunican los objetivos de
participación en el PNFCT.
    
20. El director de la escuela y los maestros
de mi hijo/a reciben capacitación útil
que ayuda a preparar a los estudiantes
para el PNFCT.
    
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la escuela
que prepara a mi hijo/a para el PNFCT.
    
22. Los maestros de mi hijo/a platican de
las directrices del PNFCT conmigo.
    
23. Mi hijo/a participo en el PNFCT de su
escuela.
    
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 184
APPENDIX M
Student Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. n/a     
2. n/a     
3. n/a     
4. My teachers talk about why we are
doing science fair projects.
    
5. My teachers often help me learn
about the scientific method through
science and technology activities.
    
6. My teachers have us work on group
projects where we solve problems
and work together.
    
7. My teachers help me get my science
fair project ready.
    
8. My school has all the things I need
to help me with my science fair
project.
    
9. I know about soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
    
10. My teachers talk about the import-
ance of soft skills and how they will
help me do well in school.
    
11. I can improve my soft skills when I
do projects for the science fair.
    

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 185
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
12. n/a     
13. My school rewards students who
participate in the science fair.
    
14. n/a     
15. n/a     
16. n/a     
17. People at my school enjoy getting
ready for the science fair.
    
18. n/a     
19. n/a     
20. n/a     
21. n/a     
22. n/a     
23. n/a     

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 186

Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo
En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

1.     
2.     
3.     
4. Mis maestros hablan del por qué
estamos haciendo proyectos para la feria
científica.
    
5. Mis maestros a menudo me ayudan a
aprender del método científico por
medio de actividades de ciencia y
tecnología.
    
6. Mis maestros nos asignan proyectos de
trabajo de equipo donde colaboramos
para resolver problemas.
    
7. Mis maestros me apoyan para que mi
proyecto esté listo para la feria
científica.
    
8. Mi escuela tiene todo lo que necesito
para mi proyecto de la feria científica.
    
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas, colaboración,
comunicación, capacidad de adaptación,
análisis, curiosidad e imaginación).
    
10. Mis maestros hablan de la importancia
de las habilidades sociales y de su
impacto en mi rendimiento como
estudiante.
    
11. Mejoro mis habilidades sociales cuando
participo en la feria científica.
    
12.     
13. Mi escuela recompensas a alumnos que
participan en la feria científica.
    
14.     
15.     

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 187

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente
en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

16.     
17. La gente de mi escuela disfrutan la
preparación para la feria científica.
    
18.     
19.     
20.     
21.     
22.     
23.     

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 188
APPENDIX N
Observation Protocol

School:

Grade Level: Total Students:
Teacher:

Observer(s):

Questions
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Evident
1. School Directors communicate with teachers.
2. School Directors are visible in the classrooms.
3. STEM/PBL activities related to NSTF are
apparent (process).

4. Evidence of student projects is related to the
implementation of the NSTF. (outcome)

5. The school has resources to prepare students
for the NSTF.

6. Teacher collaboration is evident.
7. Teachers are facilitating soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving, collaboration,
communication, adaptability, analysis, curiosity,
and imagination).

8. Training and professional development are
evident.

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 189

9. Other
Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Evident
1. School directors communicate with
teachers.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Evident
2. School Directors are visible in
classrooms.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 190
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Evident
3. STEM/PBL activities related to NSTF
are apparent (process).
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
4. Evidence of student projects is related to
the implementation of the NSTF (outcome).
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 191

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
5. The school has resources to prepare
students for NSTF.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
6. Teacher collaboration is evident. 4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 192

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
7. Teachers are facilitating soft skills
(critical thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication, adaptability,
analysis, curiosity, and imagination).
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
8. Training and professional development is
evident.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 193

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
9. Other 4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Observation Checklist
Capraro
(STEM PBL)
Wagner
(Soft Skills)
Observed
Student Group Work/Collaboration X X
Discourse and Questioning
(student-student, teacher-student)
X
Student Work
Student Engagement X X
Computers in the Classroom X
Student Centered X X
STEM Integration Across Content Areas X

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 194
APPENDIX O
Consent Form
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089

INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN PARTICIPATION IN THE NATIONAL
PROGRAM OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FAIRS IN COSTA RICA

You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should
ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to understand the effects of educational leadership on participation
in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs in primary schools in Costa Rica.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a 15-minute survey, a
30-minute audiotaped interview, and/or a 10-minute classroom observation. You do not have to
answer any questions that you don’t want to answer; if you don’t want to be taped, you can still
participate in this study.

CONFIDENTIALITY
There will be no identifiable information obtained in connection with this study. Your name,
address, or other identifiable information will not be collected.

The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 195
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION

Principal Investigator:
Dr. Michael Escalante, University of Southern California,
mescalan@usc.edumailto:mescalan@usc.edu; mailto:mescalan@usc.edu

Co-investigators:
Oryla Wiedoeft, Assistant to Dr. Escalante,
wiedoeft@usc.edumailto:wiedoeft@usc.edu
Patricia Brent-Sanco, Principal, Paramount Unified School District,
pbrent@usc.edumailto:pbrent@usc.edu
Cindy Chavez Swenson, MWP Lecturer, University of California, Merced,
ccswenso@usc.edumailto:ccswenso@usc.edu
Jesus Corral, Senior Director, Los Angeles County Probation Dept.,
jesuscorral1@gmail.commailto:jesuscorral1@gmail.com
Ricardo Esquivel, Principal, Partnership to Uplift Communities,
ricardoe@usc.edumailto:ricardoe@usc.edu
Carin Fractor, Teacher, Saugus Union School District,
fractor@usc.edumailto:fractor@usc.edu
Miguel Gonzales, Assistant Principal, Santa Barbara Unified School District
gonzalmm@usc.edumailto:gonzalmm@usc.edu
Denise Harshman, Coordinator, Orange County Department of Education
harshman@usc.edumailto:harshman@usc.edu
Mathew Kodama, Assistant Principal, Pasadena Unified School District
mathewwk@usc.edumailto:mathewwk@usc.edu
April Leon, Teacher, West Covina High School,
aprilleo@usc.edumailto:aprilleo@usc.edu
Jennifer Lashier, Assistant Principal, Arcadia Unified School District,
lashier@usc.edumailto:lashier@usc.edu
Omar Lopez, Clinical Associate Professor, Assistant Director of Field Education, USC School of Social
Work, omarl@usc.edumailto:omarl@usc.edu
Christin Molano, Principal, Glendale Unified School District, cwalley@gusd.netmailto:cwalley@gusd.net
Fernando Marquez, Teacher on Assignment, Oro Grande School District,
fmarquez@usc.edumailto:fmarquez@usc.edu
Maribel Martinez, Principal, Lynwood Unified School District
Mart632@usc.edumailto:Mart632@usc.edu
Wendy Poffenberger, Assistant Principal, Long Beach Unified School District,
wpoffenb@usc.edumailto:wpoffenb@usc.edu
Bea Spelker-Levi, Principal, Paramount Unified School District,
bspelker@paramount.k12.ca.usmailto:bspelker@paramount.k12.ca.us
Richard Storti, Vice President of Administrative Services, Fullerton College,
rstorti@usc.edumailto:rstorti@usc.edu
John Tung, Assistant Principal, Arcadia Unified School District,
johntung@usc.edumailto:johntung@usc.edu; mailto:johntung@usc.edu; mailto:johntung@usc.edu

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edumailto:upirb@usc.edu
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN COSTA RICA 196
APPENDIX P
Summary of the Research Proposal

USC Rossier
School of Education
March 1, 2015

Summary of the Research Proposal: Globalization has resulted in increased competition among countries
for economic growth. Costa Rica has initiated many actions designed to increase the nation’s
competitiveness. In the educational system, changes have been made to increase development of student
competencies in the STEM areas, one of those changes being mandated participation in the National
Program of Science and Technology Fairs (NPSTF). Unfortunately, there is currently a disparity in the
levels of success across the country in participation and quality of the NPSTF initiative at individual
school sites.

Goals of the Research: The purpose of this study is to understand the effects of educational leadership on
participation in the NPSTF in primary schools in Costa Rica. The study will identify the role of school
leaders in development and implementation of the NPSTF initiative. Also, the study will explore how
schools may have restructured their educational programs by focusing on sharing of leadership and
teacher training.

Brief Description of the Methodology: Interviews of leaders: School Director interviews will typically
last about 30 minutes. In the past, interviews were longer only when the director wanted to talk more
about the school—which is great!

Teacher surveys: There will be no teacher interviews, just a short survey. Last year we put it online so
teachers could complete it before our students arrive. For those with limited Internet access, we had paper
surveys for them when we arrived.

Classroom observations: Classroom observations are about 10 minutes per room unless the Director or
teacher wants our students to stay longer.

Most of our students are subdirectors or directors or hold higher positions, so they understand the pressure
on school directors and are very respectful of their time and the time of their teachers. We do not want to
be an interruption or imposition. We are very grateful for the time that people spend with us and are
humbled by the high quality of academics that we see in Costa Rican schools, particularly with respect to
the science fairs.

Thank you for your assistance.

Sincerely,
Dr. Michael Escalante and Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft
Michael Escalante, Ed.D. Oryla Wiedoeft, Ed.D.
Executive in Residence Adjunct Assistant Professor
USC Rossier School of Education USC Rossier School of Education

University of Southern California
3470 Trousdale Parkway, Suite 1004B, Los Angeles, California 90089-1234
 Tel: 213 740 3711 Fax: 213 740 3553

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The 21st century has ushered in an era of globalization that has significantly influenced economy and education in many nations. Recognizing the effects of globalization on education and the economy has caused many nations to reexamine their education system and resulted in a positive perceived value of education. Costa Rica has blossomed under the effects of globalization. To compete in a 21st-century knowledge-based economy, the Ministry of Public Education (MEP) requires all Costa Rican schools to participate in the National Program of Science and Technology Fair (Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología

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Asset Metadata

Creator Gonzales, Miguel M. (author)

Core Title The role of educational leadership on participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Santa Barbara School in the Nacional region of Costa Rica

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publication Date 04/15/2016

Defense Date 02/19/2016

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Fairs,Globalization,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,Science,Technology

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael (committee chair), Garcia, Pedro E. (committee member), Verdugo, David (committee member)

Creator Email gonzalmm@usc.edu,mgonzales1608@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-229209

Unique identifier UC11278474

Identifier etd-GonzalesMi-4259.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-229209 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-GonzalesMi-4259.pdf

Dmrecord 229209

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Gonzales, Miguel M.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA