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The impact of educational leadership on participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Pacific Elementary

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The impact of educational leadership on participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Pacific Elementary

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Content Running head: IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 1
THE IMPACT OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP ON PARTICIPATION IN THE
NATIONAL PROGRAM OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FAIRS
AT PACIFIC ELEMENTARY
by
Jesus Corral
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2016
Copyright 2016 Jesus Corral
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 2
Dedication
I dedicate this project to everyone who stood by my side and supported me during my
journey for the past 3 years. I especially need to thank my friends and family for their love and
support. To my children, Cristina, Clarissa, Samuel, and Daniel: I want you to always follow
your dreams and never let anything hold you back. Attending USC has been a lifelong dream of
mine. This dream has now become a reality. Fight on!
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 3
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
List of Tables 6
List of Figures 7
List of Abbreviations 8
Abstract 9
Chapter One: Introduction 11
The Impact of Leadership on the Costa Rican Science Fair 11
Background of the Study 12
Statement of the Problem 12
Purpose of the Study 14
Research Questions 14
Significance of the Study 15
Limitations and Delimitations 15
Assumptions 16
Definitions of Terms 17
Organization of the Study 18
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 19
Globalization 20
Brief History of Costa Rica 23
Modern History 24
Costa Rican Economy 25
Educational System 27
STEM Education and PBL 30
PRONAFECYT 31
Intel’s Commitment to Education 33
Leadership Frameworks 34
Bolman and Deal’s Four Frames 35
Wagner’s Seven 21st-Century Skills 38
Kotter’s Eight-Step Change Model 41
STEM Curriculum and PBL 45
Professional Development 46
Chapter Summary 48
Chapter Three: Methodology 49
Research Questions 49
Research Design 50
Research Team 51
Population and Sample 51
Participants 52
Interviewed Participants 52
Frameworks 55
Data Collection 57
Instrumentation 58
Surveys 59
Interviews 59
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 4
Observations 60
Data Analysis 60
Ethical Considerations 62
Chapter Summary 63
Chapter Four: Results 65
Findings for Research Question 1 66
Celebration-Recognition 67
Leader Seeking Outside Resources 69
Results Summary for Research Question 1 70
Findings for Research Question 2 71
Embedding PRONAFECYT in the School Culture 73
Student Buy-in 77
Results Summary for Research Question 2 79
Findings for Research Question 3 80
PRONAFECYT Embedded in School Culture 81
Students Learning 21st-century and Related Skills Through PRONAFECYT
Participation 83
Results Summary for Research Question 3 86
Findings for Research Question 4 87
STEM–PBL Instruction Used Extensively in Classrooms 87
Professional Development of Staff Key Component in Changing Classroom
Practices 89
Results Summary for Research Question 4 91
Chapter Summary 92
Chapter Five: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations 95
Discussion of Findings 96
Research Question 1 97
Research Question 2 99
Research Question 3 101
Research Question 4 102
Implications for Practice 103
Recommendations for Future Research 104
Conclusion 104
References 106
Appendices
Appendix A: Recruitment Letter 111
Appendix B: Summary of the Research Proposal 112
Appendix C: List of Research Sites 113
Appendix D: Teacher Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 114
Appendix E: School Director Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 116
Appendix F: Government Official/Business Leaders Interview Protocol: English
and Spanish Versions 118
Appendix G: Parent Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 120
Appendix H: Student Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 122
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 5
Appendix I: Teacher Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 124
Appendix J: School Director Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 128
Appendix K: Government Official Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 132
Appendix L: Business Partner Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 136
Appendix M: Parent Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 140
Appendix N: Student Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 144
Appendix O: Observation Protocol 148
Appendix P: Consent Form 154
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 6
List of Tables
Table 1: The Evolutionary Process in Project-Based Learning 32
Table 2: Overview of the Four-Frame Model of Leadership 38
Table 3: Summary of Study Participants Who Were Interviewed: Government
Officials, Business Leaders, and Higher Education Leaders (N = 13) 54
Table 4: Summary of School Site Study Participants Who Were Interviewed 55
Table 5: Data Collection Instruments and Participants 58
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 7
List of Figures
Figure 1: The eight-stage change process of creating major change 42
Figure 2: The engineering design process 46
Figure 3: Survey question results for Pacific Elementary School teachers (N = 5) 67
Figure 4: Survey question results for Pacific Elementary School students (N = 38) 78
Figure 5: Survey question results for Eastside Elementary School students (N = 41) 78
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 8
List of Abbreviations
CIA Central Intelligence Agency
CINDE Costa Rican Investment Promotion Agency
CITI Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative
FDI Foreign direct investment
FTZ Free Trade Zone
GNP gross national product
IDB Inter-American Development Bank
IRB Institutional Review Board
ISEF International Science and Engineering Fair (Intel)
ITCR Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica (Costa Rica Institute of Technology)
MEP Minister of Public Education
MICITT Minister of Science, Technology, and Telecommunications
MNC Multinational corporation
NPSTF National Program of Science and Technology Fairs
OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
PBL Project-based learning
PRONAFECYT Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología
RSOE Rossier School of Education
STEM Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
UCR University of Costa Rica
USC University of Southern California
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 9
Abstract
The goal of this qualitative case study was to gain a better understanding of the impact
that educational leaders have had on the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs
(NPSTF) in Costa Rica. In Costa Rica this program is known as the Programa Nacional de
Ferias de Ciencia y Technología (PRONAFECYT). The PRONAFECYT is an example of how
Costa Rica is investing in the preparation of its citizenry to develop the 21st-century skills
necessary to compete in a global economy.
The research team consisted of 18 doctoral students from the University of Southern
California’s Rossier School of Education. Dr. Michael Escalante led the research team with the
assistance of Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft, also from the Rossier School of Education. The cohort was
divided into smaller focus groups during the trip to Costa Rica. Each focus group was scheduled
to visit different schools. The 2 schools included 1 school that had been identified by Costa
Rican officials as highly active in the PRONAFECYT and one school whose participation was in
the emerging stage.
This study looked at the application of the PRONAFECYT and the integration of a
science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) curriculum at 18 Costa Rican
elementary schools. The research team worked closely with representatives from the Ministry of
Public Education (MEP) to gain access to schools, survey staff, conduct observations, and
analyze documents. Multiple data sources were used to provide an opportunity for triangulation
of data.
Analysis of the data collected through interviews, surveys, and personal observations
revealed that the PRONAFECYT has had a wide-ranging positive impact on the educational
system in Costa Rica. The use of a project-based curriculum in the science fair fosters the
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 10
development of 21st-century skills and prepares students for the global workforce. Data indi-
cated that educational leaders, at all levels, were key to the success of the program. Results from
the study will be made available to the Costa Rican MEP to improve practices and create policy
related to educational leaders’ roles and preparation for the PRONAFECYT.
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 11
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
The Impact of Leadership on the Costa Rican Science Fair
The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD; 2012) lists
Costa Rica as one of the most politically stable countries in Latin America. Costa Rica has been
making a transition from a primarily agrarian economy to one that has been able to attract a high
level of foreign direct investment (FDI; Costa Rican Investment Promotion Agency [CINDE],
2014). Costa Rica’s exports have evolved in the past few decades from coffee, bananas, and
sugar to the exportation of many high-tech products and services (OECD, 2012). The types of
companies that are investing in Costa Rica are becoming more diverse. Certain focus areas have
started to grow in the past few years, including business services, advanced manufacturing, and
medical devices. Product manufacturing still ranks as the top area in terms of the number of
jobs. Areas such as research and development, design, and testing are steadily growing (OECD,
2012). As Costa Rica’s FDI continues to grow and evolve, there is a need to ensure that the
education system is preparing the national workforce with the 21st-century skills necessary to
compete in the global economy.
This study examined the role of educational leaders in Costa Rica in the instructional
practices that are taking place at select schools in Costa Rica to prepare students with 21st -
century skills. One of the key initiatives that this study focused on is the Programa Nacional de
Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología (PRONAFECYT; National Program of Science and Technology
Fairs [NPSTF]) in Costa Rica. This study focused on the role that educational leaders play in this
initiative and what is being done to prepare students to compete is this program. Data collected
from those schools, along with interview and survey data, were used to draw conclusions.
Several theoretical frameworks from key theorists in the field of education are referenced in this
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 12
study. Their work was used to frame the study and assist in responding to the research questions
using the qualitative data that were collected during the study. The majority of the data for his
study was collected during a research trip to Costa Rica in June 2015. Data collection consisted
primarily of interviews, surveys, and observations.
Background of the Study
The PRONAFECYT is a national program which started in Costa Rica in 1990. In 2004
the Costa Rican Ministry of Science, Technology, and Telecommunications (MICITT) mandated
participation in this annual activity through Educational Decree #31900 Minister of Public Edu-
cation (MEP)-MICITT. This program calls for the participation of all students from preschool to
the 12th grade (MEP, 2014). This national program was designed to promote creativity in the
areas of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). This goal is being accom-
plished through project-based competitions that begin at the local level and progress to the
national and international levels. The top high school students are given an opportunity to
compete in the Intel International Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF). This national engineer-
ing fair was first established in 2008 and is also referred to as the national ExpoEngineering fair.
PRONAFECYT is an example of how the Costa Rican educational system is integrating STEM
principles starting in grade school to prepare its citizens with the skills that are required to
compete in new the global economy (MEP, 2014).
Statement of the Problem
Misra (2012) defined globalization as the “integration of economies and societies through
cross country flows of information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance and
people” (p. 69). These global changes have led to a highly competitive and rapidly changing
environment for countries throughout the world. World societies are now more interconnected
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 13
and interdependent than ever before (Friedman, 2007). For a nation to succeed in an ever-
increasingly interconnected global economy, changes to the local economy and education system
must occur (Biesanz, Biesanz, & Biesanz, 1999; Friedman, 2007). Globalization has necessi-
tated a change in the skills that students must develop to compete in an increasingly global
workforce (Friedman, 2007). As a result, educational systems are no longer competing with
other school systems in the same city, state, or even nation but rather are competing with schools
around the world (Wagner, 2008).
Costa Rica has endured many changes since gaining independence in 1859 (Biesanz et al.,
1999). Since its independence and the abolishment of its military, Costa Rica has placed its
primary focus on education (Palmer & Molina, 2004). During the past 30 years, Costa Rica has
adapted and reformed from a rural, agrarian society, to a high-tech hub of innovation in Latin
America (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). In addition, Costa Rica has initiated actions designed to
attract FDI, which has included tax incentives and investments in infrastructure as well as
changes to the educational system (OECD, 2012).
In order to continue attracting FDI, Costa Rica’s economic future is dependent on schools
that produce knowledge and conceptually based workers with skills in STEM in addition to
essential 21st-century competencies (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). However, according to the
Americas Society and Council of the Americas (2011), 20%–30% of students in Costa Rica do
not finish their secondary school experience. Moreover, to ensure a 100% literacy rate by 2017,
including those in rural and poor communities, principal and teacher leadership must ensure that
all students have equitable educational access to rigorous, project-based educational outcomes in
all schools (CINDE, 2014).
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 14
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to understand the effects of educational leadership on the
participation in the PRONAFECYT in primary schools in Costa Rica. The study identified the
role that school leaders have in the development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT
initiative. Additionally, the study explored how schools may have restructured their educational
programs by focusing on sharing of leadership and teacher training.
Research Questions
The following research questions were used to guide this study. They were developed
collaboratively by the members of the research team:
1. What is the role that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
Four frameworks were selected to guide the research: (a) Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four
frames; (b) Wagner’s (2008) seven 21st-century survival skills; (c) Kotter’s (2012) eight-step
model for organizational change; and (d) STEM project-based learning (PBL) by Capraro,
Capraro, and Morgan (2013).
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 15
Significance of the Study
The economic evolution that Costa Rica has been undergoing in the past 50 years has
prompted the MEP to implement measures to prepare its citizenry for the demands of the global
economy. This study focused specifically on PRONAFECYT and the impact that school admin-
istrations have had on its implementation. The importance of this initiative and its application
throughout the Costa Rican educational system justifies the need for this study. Results identi-
fied leadership and instructional practices and the impact that they are having on the
PRONAFECYT. The results of this study will be available for leaders from the Costa Rican
MEP and the MICITT to improve application of the PRONAFECYT initiative. The findings
should provide insight for leaders from other regions that are in the process of shifting from an
agrarian- to a knowledge-based economy.
Limitations and Delimitations
There are several limitations that might have impacted this study. One of the main
limitations is the fact that the study was limited in scope and focused primarily on the activities
related to elementary schools selected by the Costa Rican Ministry of Public Education (MEP).
Approximately half of the schools selected by the MEP had PRONAFECYT programs that were
identified as well structured, and half had programs that were still evolving.
Additional limitations to this study included the fact that all schools in the study are
located in Costa Rica. All of the study participants who were interviewed and completed surveys
did so voluntarily. The majority of the data collection took place during a research trip to Costa
Rica in June 2015. The survey instruments might have impacted the reliability of the study.
Another limitation that was not under the control of the research group was access to the indi-
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 16
viduals and sites that were included in the June 2015 research trip. While some visit and inter-
view arrangements were made in advance, adjustments had to be made during the trip.
Language may have been a factor for some members of the research team. While English
is widely spoken in Costa Rica, Spanish is still the official national language. This limitation
was addressed by partnering up native with non-native Spanish-speaking researchers during the
data collection visits. In addition, all of the interview data was translated at the conclusion of the
research trip.
There were several identified delimitations that might have impacted this study. The
relatively small sample size of 18 schools was a delimitation that impacted the study. The
scheduled length of the initial visit was another clear delimitation. Once initial contact was
made, additional data may have been obtained using technology such as email or via telephone.
In addition to the scheduled visit dates, time had been allocated during the June 2015 schedule
for follow-up visits if necessary. used for the purpose of collecting additional data and obtaining
clarification. Specific days during the June 2015 research trip were used for the purpose of col-
lecting additional data and obtaining clarification.
Assumptions
The following assumptions were made at the inception of this study:
1. That the Costa Rican MEP continued to support the PRONAFECYT initiative,
2. That educational school site leaders had a role in the implementation of the
PRONAFECYT in Costa Rica,
3. That all of the participant responses were truthful in their survey responses and during
interviews,
4. That the classroom observations were not staged for the visiting teams,
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 17
5. That the interview questions were valid,
6. That the interview protocols, observation guides, and other data collection instru-
ments were valid, and
7. That a qualitative approach to this study allowed the collection of the data necessary
to address the research questions.
Definitions of Terms
CINDE: A Costa Rican nonprofit, nonpolitical organization founded in 1982 to promote
foreign investment (CINDE, 2014).
FDI: An investment made by a company or entity based in one country into a company or
entity based in another country (CINDE, 2014).
Free Trade Zones (FTZs): Zones that are open to export manufacturing companies,
export trade companies (not producers), export service companies, organizations engaged in
scientific research, or manufacturing firms with no export requirements (CINDE, 2014).
Globalization of education: The worldwide networks, processes, and institutions that
impact local educational practices and policies.
MEP (El Ministerio de Educación Pública de la República de Costa Rica): The national
agency responsible for providing quality and accessible education to the students of Costa Rica.
Multinational corporation (MNC): An enterprise operating in several countries but
managed from one (home) country; generally, any company or group that derives at least one
quarter of its revenue from operations outside of its home country.
MICITT: An organization in Costa Rica developed to increase the nation’s capacity in
innovation and technology (MEP, 2014)
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 18
PRONAFECYT: A national program in Costa Rica sponsored by the Costa Rican
MICITT that allows students in preschool through 12th grade to participate in regional and
national competitions designed to increase student exposure to the STEM fields (MEP, 2014).
Twenty-first-century skills: The skills and abilities that an individual must have to be
successful in the 21st century. Wagner (2008) broke these skills down into seven specific
competencies that an individual must learn and be able to apply to be successful.
Organization of the Study
This dissertation is divided into five chapters. Chapter One provided an overview of the
study, a statement of the problem, the research questions, the purpose for the study, and a
definition of significant terms. Chapter Two includes a review of literature pertinent to this
study. This chapter provides an overview of the history of Costa Rica, with a focus on the
modern history of the country and the economic climate. It covers the frameworks that were used
in this study and concludes with an overview of professional development with a focus on school
administration. Chapter Three covers the methodologies for this study including the research
design and a description of the research team. Chapter Three includes a description of data
collection and analysis methodologies. Chapter Four includes the results based on the analysis of
all data. Chapter Five presents conclusions and suggestions for possible future study in the field.
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 19
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Costa Rica is one of the smallest countries in the Americas, with a total area of less than
20,000 square miles (Biesanz et al., 1999). It is bordered by Panama on the south and Nicaragua
on the north. Costa Rica has undergone many changes in the past century. It has evolved from
an agrarian country in Central America into an important international industrial and technologi-
cal hub (CINDE, 2014). Costa Rica is poised to prepare its citizenry for the challenges that its
new role requires. Costa Rica has made prime investments in its educational systems with the
goal of preparing its citizens with 21st-century skills (CINDE, 2014). While Costa Rica boasts
one of the highest literacy rates in the Americas at 96.1%, there are still challenges in providing
industry-ready employees in the country (Klugman, 2011). The purpose of this study was to
identify the role that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT. This chapter
provides context and a historical perspective in order to gain a better understanding of the role
that Costa Rica’s educational leaders play in the PRONAFECYT.
This literature review covers six distinct areas that had a part in shaping Costa Rica. The
first section is an overview of globalization, both in global terms and the direct impact that it has
had on Costa Rica. The second section covers the history of Costa Rica and how its rich history
and government structure have shaped the Costa Rica of today. The third section includes an
overview of the Costa Rican economy and the impact that MNCs have had on the once agrarian
country. The fourth section is an overview of the national education system and how this system
has evolved to prepare individuals with 21st-century skills. The fifth section contains a review of
STEM instruction and the steps that Costa Rica is taking to prepare its citizens. The sixth section
contains an overview of the frameworks that served as a guide for this study: Bolman and Deal’s
(2008) four frames, Wagner’s (2008) seven 21st-century survival skills, Kotter’s (2012) 8-step
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 20
model for organizational change, and STEM PBL developed by Capraro et al. (2013). The
chapter ends with a summary and clarification of how the sections work together to address the
purpose of the study.
Globalization
Costa Rica has strategically put itself in a position to become a player in the global
marketplace (CINDE, 2014). The history of globalization began long before Costa Rica started
working to attract MNCs to conduct business within its borders. Globalization is a term that is
often used in modern society. It is a result of the interdependence of the countries of the world
consequent to increased global trade, international finance, and the consecutiveness of the global
marketplace (Chanda, 2007). Harvard Professor Theodore Levitt (1983) is credited with devising
the term when he wrote an article on the globalization of markets. Chanda (2007) discussed the
evolution of the word globalization. He explained how the word has changed from describing a
cultural phenomenon to the most recent iterations that refer to the interconnectedness that
mankind is experiencing as a result of technology. Chanda described globalization as a phenom-
enon that stared over 50,000 years ago when man first left Africa to explore the world. Some of
the factors that have been a catalyst for free trade and globalization post-World War II include
the creation of the World Bank and the international monetary fund. According to Chanda, there
has been an acceleration of globalization since the mid 1980s that has been driven by technologi-
cal advances, accessibility to transportation, and advances in communication. Chanda pointed
out that several Asian countries, including China, Korea, and Singapore, have reaped the benefits
of globalization, while many third-world countries have not yet reaped the benefits to the same
extent.
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 21
Friedman (2007) described 10 forces that have spurred globalization and, in his words,
have “flattened the world” (p. 10). He discussed how these forces have impacted the modern
globalization movement, or as he put it, “Globalization 3.0" (p. 10). This new era of globaliza-
tion has, in effect, made the world a smaller place: a place of opportunity and a place where
individuals have the ability to collaborate and compete in a global market. The ten forces
described by Friedman are the following:
1. The fall of the Berlin Wall and development of the Windows-enabled PC.
2. The date Netscape went public and its impact on the expansion of the internet.
3. The onset of work-flow software that allowed computers to communicate without
human intervention.
4. Uploading allowed collaboration without borders using the internet.
5. Outsourcing allowed call centers and other functions to be located anywhere in the
world for a company.
6. Offshoring: MNCs have the ability to move their operations to lower costs.
7. Supply-chaining eliminated borders and allowed companies to collaborate and create
value chains.
8. Insourcing: using services such as Fed-Ex to perform services many companies could
not afford on their own.
9. In-forming: the internet and resources like Google allow individuals to search for
knowledge on their own time giving everyone the power to become their own re-
searcher.
10. “The Steriods,” personal devices such as internet connected mobile phones and
computers are described as the steroids that amplify all of the other flatteners. (p. 51)
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 22
The Asia Society (2009) released a report that focused on preparing students for an inter-
connected world. This report covers six key concepts on which educators must focus to prepare
students to compete in the global society. The key points included that schools must be able to
create a global vision, staff must be internationally oriented, the curriculum must have a global
dimension, there must be an emphasis on foreign languages, there must be encouragement of
international partnerships, and technology must be used to create international collaboration.
The Asia Society not only encourages change at the local and state levels but at the national level
as well. Federal participation and funding is an essential component in preparing students for the
certainty of globalization.
Spring (2008) discussed the globalization of education. He explained how worldwide
discussions, processes, and institutions impact local educational practices and the creation of
policies that impact education. This change occurs as a result of global influence and networks
that determine how information is interpreted and adapted or rejected by local educators.
Spring’s conceptual framework includes four distinct views of the globalization of education:
1. World culture view, in which through the lens of education the culture is evolving and
uniting;
2. World systems view, in which the globalization of education is stifled by the financial
resources of the haves and the have-nots;
3. Postcolonial view, in which western imperialism is complicating the globalization of
education; and
4. Culturist, in which the globalization of education is not standardized and local norms
and culture are responsible for shaping educational ideology. This view rejects the idea that there
is a global effort to promote an educational agenda.
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 23
Spring (2008) identified the United States, the European Union, and Japan as the core
countries that have an agenda to teach capitalism. According to Spring, the globalization of
education is part of a larger agenda with the goal of benefitting wealthy nations. One of the
major sources of power, according to Spring, is the World Bank. The World Bank is a United
Nations financial institution that was founded in 1944 and is the largest funder of education in
the world. According to Spring, the World Bank views many of the problems that nations face as
problems of education. One example is the lack of jobs for young adults. The World Bank
views this as a problem that is a result of students leaving school ill prepared to compete in the
global economy. While the World Bank acknowledges that no conclusive proof exists that
investment in educational opportunities throughout the world result in economic outcomes, a
correlation has been observed between the growth in student scores in math and literacy and the
growth of a nation’s gross domestic product (GDP; Spring, 2008).
Chanda (2007) pointed out that the same thread that connects people in this modern world
can quickly turn and entangle them. The events of September 11, 2001, are a perfect example of
how one event can have global implications for the world’s economy. Globalization has led to
greater interdependence between nations and economies. The current global threat from Islamic
extremists has the potential to send global markets into a tailspin. The United States is leading
the global charge against these Islamic extremist groups. Unfortunately, there is a perception that
this is not a war against extremist groups, but a war against Islam. Chanda wrote that calls to
eliminate globalization are pointless because “we are all connected” (p. 320).
Brief History of Costa Rica
Costa Rica is a country known for its rich and diverse history. There is evidence to
suggest that the original inhabitants of Costa Rica arrived more than 11,000 years ago. Spanish
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 24
explorer Christopher Columbus first arrived in Costa Rica during his fourth voyage to the
Americas in 1502. A lack of precious metals, such as gold and silver, made Costa Rica a less
than desirable colony for Spanish settlers. What Costa Rica lacked in precious metals it made up
for in rich farm lands (Biesanz et al., 1999).
Costa Rica, along with several other Central American countries, took advantage of
hostilities in Spain in 1821 to declare its independence. Spain responded to this event by creating
the Mexican Empire, which lasted 2 years. After a revolution in 1823, Mexico overthrew the
Spanish monarch. In 1823 the Mexican congress supported a decree that which allowed counties
in Central America to become independent (Palmer & Molina, 2004).
In 1824, elite coffee baron Juan Mora Fernandez became the first elected head of state of
Costa Rica (Palmer & Molina, 2004). During the period 1840–1890, wealthy coffee barons or
cafetaleros, as they were known, took advantage of the rich, fertile grounds of Costa Rica.
Coffee soon became the main export of Costa Rica and accounted for close to 90% of the coun-
try’s exports during this period. This relatively small group of individuals soon took control of
the economy by controlling the coffee markets, pricing, and processing. This situation had a
devastating effect on the indigenous coffee growers (Palmer & Molina, 2004).
Modern History
In 1949 Costa Rica became the first country in the Americas to eliminate its national
army. This move was designed to send a message to other countries that Costa Rica was a
peaceful country focused on education and not conflict (Biesanz et al., 1999).
The Costa Rican government is a democratic republic with an executive, legislative, and
judicial branch of government (Central Intelligence Agency [CIA], 2013). The President of
Costa Rica is President Luis Guillermo Solís Rivera. As of May 2014, national elections are held
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 25
every 4 years (CIA, 2013). In the 2014 Costa Rican elections, President Solís won with over
78% of the national vote (Sanchez, 2014). This election marked a decisive change for Costa
Rican politics. For the first time in almost 60 years, a member of a third party was elected
president. President Solís is a member of the left-leaning Citizen Action Party (El Partido
Acción Ciudadana [PAC]; Sanchez, 2014).
Costa Rican Economy
Any discussion about the Costa Rican economy must include a discussion about CINDE,
a Costa Rican nonprofit, nonpolitical organization founded in 1982 to promote foreign invest-
ment (CINDE, 2014). CINDE offers a variety of services including real estate selection support,
local government guidance, investor contacts, and expansion support. Many of these services are
provided at no cost to the companies that are interested in doing business in Costa Rica. In the
past 30 years, CINDE has been responsible for drawing more than 250 MNCs to start doing
business in Costa Rica (CINDE, 2014).
Costa Rica’s economic development efforts have paid off over the past 3 decades. Since
1990, poverty in Costa Rica has been reduced by 46% (CINDE, 2014). According to CINDE
(2014), Costa Rica is the top ranked exporter of high-tech goods and products in all of Latin
America. Costa Rica has made a transition from an agricultural economy to a high-tech economy
in a relatively short period of time. The largest area of growth of MNCs in Costa Rica has been
in the area of business services. According to CINDE, in 1940 the exportation of coffee repre-
sented 53% of all exports out of Costa Rica. During this same time period, bananas accounted
for 25% of all exports, and cocoa represented 8% of national exports (World Economic Forum,
2014). To provide some perspective, in 1982 coffee represented the largest export in Costa Rica
at 27.22% (CINDE, 2014). By 2012, coffee represented only 3.64% of Costa Rican exports, with
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 26
electronic components for microprocessors taking over the top export spot at 19.89%. The
United States is by far the largest trading partner with Costa Rica and accounted for 39.22% of all
exports in 2012. Exports of goods to the United States from Costa Rica increased from $387
million in 2005 to $1.6 billion by 2011 (CINDE, 2014).
One of the policies responsible for the economic growth in Costa Rica has been trade
liberalization. Trade liberalization started in Costa Rica in the middle of the 1980s. Trade liber-
alization has worked for Costa Rica because it has allowed for more diversification and for the
establishments of Preferred Trade Agreements with several other nations. This process has been
complemented by the efforts of CINDE to attract more FDIs. This is what has allowed Costa
Rica to expand its export capacity in many areas, including high-tech goods and services
(Monge-Ariño, 2011).
The World Economic Forum (2014) produces an annual report on the economic competi-
tiveness of 144 countries. These ratings consist of 12 unique market policies or pillars that
impact the productivity of a country. The World Economic Forum includes factors such as
health and education, infrastructure, innovation, and technological readiness among the 12
factors used to gauge the global competitiveness of a country. In the 2014–2015 report, Costa
Rica was rated 51st out of the 144 countries—moving up three places from its 54th-place ranking
in the 2013–2014 report. Costa Rica’s overall rating was higher than many larger Latin Ameri-
can countries such as Brazil (57th) and Mexico (61st). One area where Costa Rica excelled was
in the eighth pillar technological readiness, specifically in the impact of FDI and technology
transfer into the country. In this area Costa Rica was rated as the fifth country of the 144 in the
survey. The World Economic Forum’s report noted that some of the factors that are bringing
Costa Rica down in terms of global competitiveness include an insufficient transportation
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 27
infrastructure, where it was ranked 108th out of 144 countries. Other factors that are negatively
impacting Costa Rica included difficulty accessing finance via loans or equity, where it was
ranked 117th, and a high budget deficit where it was ranked 116th (World Economic Forum,
2014).
On April 8, 2014, Costa Rica’s economic system suffered a major setback when the Intel
Corporation announced that it would be closing its Costa Rican Microprocessor factory to move
it to Malaysia (“Business in Costa Rica,” 2014). According to The Economist, this move by Intel
represented the loss of over 1,500 of the 2,500 high-tech sector jobs it offers in Costa Rica. In
2014, Intel’s annual exports out of Costa Rica were valued at approximately $2 billion, or 20% of
the country’s exports. To add insult to injury, another MNC, the Bank of America, announced on
the same day that it would be closing its centers in Costa Rica as well (“Business in Costa Rica,”
2014). Both of these major closures were announced just before the new third-party president of
Costa Rica was sworn in during May 2014. Since Intel announced the layoff, it hired 250 new
employees for its research and development center in Costa Rica (“Business in Costa Rica,”
2014).
Educational System
Costa Rica has had a free and mandatory education system since 1890 (CINDE, 2014).
The MEP is responsible for overseeing the educational system in Costa Rica (CINDE, 2014).
The World Economic Forum (2014) gave Costa Rica the highest rating of all countries in Central
and South America: a 4.7 (out of 7) rating in the quality of its primary and secondary educational
system. The United States received a 4.7 rating in its primary educational system and a 4.6 in the
quality of its secondary educational system. The highest rated country on the survey was Finland,
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 28
with a primary educational system rating of 6.7. Overall, the World Economic Forum rated
Costa Rica’s educational system 21st out of 144 countries that it tracks.
Costa Rica’s 96.1% literacy rate is the highest in Central America (Klugman, 2011). One
reason for this high literacy rate is the fact that Costa Rica’s constitution mandates that a mini-
mum of 8% of the country’s GNP be allocated for the national education system (CINDE, 2014).
There are a total of 59 universities in Costa Rica with over 40,000 graduates in 2011 alone (MEP,
2014). Based on estimates from the MEP (2014), by the year 2017 Costa Rican universities will
graduate over 60,000 students a year. There are over 77,000 students enrolled at 113 technical
high schools in Costa Rica. These high schools offer 52 different educational pathways with
three areas of expertise: services, industrial, and agribusiness (CINDE, 2014). According to the
Costa Rican MEP, students begin taking technical courses during their 4th year in high school.
Technical high schools in Costa Rica provide students with 6 years of instruction. while regular
high schools only provide 5 years.
Costa Rican school children attend school in three cycles, divided as follows: Cycle 1
encompasses Grades 1–3; Cycle 2, Grades 4–6; and Cycle 3, Grades 7–9 (CINDE, 2014). With
176 instructional days, Costa Rica has a relatively short school compared to other industrialized
countries (Biesanz et al., 1999). Children in Costa Rica can begin preschool as young as age 3
(CINDE, 2014). By ages 5–6, approximately 70% of Costa Rican children attend kindergarten in
a public school. Until the end of the second cycle, all students in Costa Rica take similar courses
(Biesanz et al., 1999). Students enter secondary school during the third educational cycle.
The length of a student’s high school depends on whether a student enters an academic or
a technical school. Students at academic schools graduate at the end of the 11th grade; students
at technical schools, at the end of the 12th grade. Students who complete the required course of
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 29
study and pass a required high school exam are awarded a bachillerato as their secondary di-
ploma. A bachillerato is required for admission into a university (Biesanz et al., 1999).
The Costa Rican university system consists of 59 universities, including 54 private uni-
versities and five public ones. The University of Costa Rica (UCR) is the largest public univer-
sity in the country. Tuition at the UCR is base scaled for each student depending on the family
income. Approximately a quarter of the students attend the UCR without having to pay tuition
based on their income (CINDE, 2014).
In spite of all of the positives that can be reported about the Costa Rican educational
system, some educational deficiencies continue to plague the country. The Costa Rican educa-
tional system has faced some challenges in recent years (MEP, 2014). One of the most signifi-
cant challenges has been the national dropout rate. Approximately 20% to 30% of students in
Costa Rica do not complete secondary school (Americas Society & Council of the Americas,
2011). After climbing for several years, the high school dropout rate in Costa Rica declined in
2013 from 10.7% to 9.9%. In this same time period, the dropout rate for preschool and Cycle 1
students also declined from 3.8% to 2.4% (MEP, 2014).
The Inter-American Development Bank (IDB; 2014) has been one of the largest sources
of development financing for countries in Latin America. The IDB has been involved in several
campaigns aimed at curbing the dropout rate in Latin America countries (Inter-American Devel-
opment Bank, 2014). In a recent study, the IDB reported the reason why students drop out of
school in Latin America countries. This report included data for 13- to 15-year-old students with
a minimum of 6 years of formal education. The IDB noted that 44.31% of students in this age
range in Costa Rica dropped out due to a lack of interest. Only 6.33% of students in the survey
reported dropping out due to a need to work outside the home; 7.1% reported dropping out
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 30
because of a need to work as a result of pregnancy or childcare. One fact about the data that was
pointed out by the IDB was that 10 years prior, a lack of access was a primary reason for students
dropping out of school. In the most recent survey, only 4.51% of Costa Rican students who
dropped out listed school access as the primary reason.
STEM Education and PBL
STEM-PBL is the focus that many international educational systems have taken in
response to the call to prepare students to compete in the global economy of the 21st century
(Breiner, Harkness, Johnson, & Koehler, 2012). Breiner et al. discussed the evolution of the
STEM movement in the United States that started in the 1980s in response to the report from the
U.S. Department of Education entitled A Nation at Risk (National Commission on Excellence in
Education, 1983). This report emphasized the importance of providing students in the United
States with quality science and math instruction (Breiner et al., 2012). STEM principles help to
develop critical thinking skills that prepare students for success in college (Capraro et al., 2013).
PBL provides students with the classroom experiences that they need to apply to learn STEM
concepts (Capraro et al., 2013). STEM-PBL requires students to work collaboratively to solve
problems. PBL has been a part of America’s education system since the beginning of the 19th
century. This method of learning was designed to solve real-world problems. Many of the early
projects in the field involved the application of concepts from agriculture (Capraro et al., 2013).
Critiques of PBL point out that the development of projects appear to waste valuable
classroom time. There is also some debate as to the true definition of what constitutes a project.
Proponents of more traditional classroom instruction techniques also point out that teachers
appear to release their students to work on projects with loose guidelines that allow students to
define projects with a lack of proper direction. People who support PBL look at this self-
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 31
determination as a positive. Projects, when properly designed and implemented, allow students
to ask and answer questions, evaluate data, develop theories, and participate in active learning
(Capraro et al., 2013).
According to Slough and Milam (2013), students who are engaged in their learning are
able to gain a better understanding and to recognize when further research is needed (Capraro et
al., 2013). Slough and Milam described PBL learning along a five-step continuum (see Table 1),
which begins with the most basic verification of facts. As one travels up the continuum, one
reaches the level of Novice, where one attains factual knowledge. The next step is that of an
Informed Novice. At this level, one is able to better understand the concepts and ideas in the
context that they are being presented. The following step is that of Expert. As an Expert, one is
able to adapt concepts and transfer knowledge. The final step of the continuum is that of Re-
searcher. A Researcher has the ability to create new knowledge.
PRONAFECYT
Science fairs have a rich history in Costa Rica (Valencia, 2009). The first science fairs
were held in the 1960s. Starting in the 1970s, the UCR began organizing science fairs and
sponsored the first NPSTF in 1987. In an effort to integrate STEM education into the national
curriculum, the Costa Rican MICITT mandated participation in this annual activity through
Educational Decree #31900 MEP-MICITT (MEP, 2014).
The PRONAFECYT includes all Costa Rican students from preschool through the 12th
grade (Valencia, 2001). The goal of the program is to promote a STEM culture, creative think-
ing, and expression. PRONAFECYT events start with institutional competitions in June and July
of each year. These are followed by district competitions in August. Regional PRONAFECYT
competitions are held each year in September. The national PRONAFECYT competitions take
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 32
Table 1
The Evolutionary Process in Project-Based Learning
Traditional Informed
Item hands-on
a
Novice
b
Novice
c
Expert
d
Researcher
e
Standards-based State/teacher State/teacher State/teacher State/teacher State/teach-
assessment er
Task Teacher Teacher Teacher Student Student/
community
Topic Teacher Teacher Teacher Teacher Student/
researcher/
community
Resources Teacher Teacher Teacher Student/ Student/
community community
Procedures/ Teacher Teacher Teacher Student/ Student/
design community community
Artifacts/analysis Teacher Teacher/ Student/ Student/ Student/
student community community community
Outcomes Teacher/ Student Student/ Student/ Student/
student community community community
Note. Adapted from STEM Project-Based Learning: An Integrated Science, Technology, Engineering,
and Mathematics (STEM) Approach (2nd ed.)., by R. M. Capraro, M. M. Capraro, and J. R. Morgan,
2013, Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense, p. 23.
a
Verification of facts.
b
Factual knowledge.
c
Understand facts-ideas in context of conceptual framework.
d
Adapts conceptual frameworks through transfer.
e
Creation of new knowledge and/or conceptual
framework.
place each year in November. The top secondary school teams from the national
PRONAFECYT represent Costa Rica at Intel’s ISEF (Valencia, 2011). The PRONAFECYT has
five distinct categories where students may compete:
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 33
1. Experiences in Science for Preschool Education. This category is exclusively for
preschool-age students. This category allows children to search for answers by inter-
acting with their environment. (Preschool aged children do not participate in circuit,
regional, or national level competitions.)
2. Monographs. Students from 1st to 12th grade may compete in this category. Students
participating in this category prepare essays based on their research of a STEM topic.
3. Demonstrations of scientific or technological principles or processes. Students from
1st to 9th grade demonstrate their knowledge of a STEM principle by creating a
demonstration.
4. Scientific Research Projects. Students from 1st to 12th grade are able to draw conclu-
sions based on their interpretation of data by applying the scientific method.
5. Technological Research and Development Projects. Students from 1st to 12th grade
may compete in this category. This category involves the use of existing information,
techniques, and theories to create new material or processed to improve those that
currently exist. (Valencia, 2011, p. 8)
All of the projects in the PRONAFECYT come from one of the following STEM catego-
ries: biology, environmental science, computer science, earth and space science, social and
behavioral sciences, physics and mathematics, engineering and technology, chemistry, and health
and medicine.
Intel’s Commitment to Education
In collaboration with the Costa Rican MICITT, Intel Corporation (2014) has been spon-
soring the ISEF since 1997. This event is the largest precollege research event in the world.
Over 1,700 students from 70 countries participate annually in the event, and over $5 million
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 34
dollars in grants, scholarships, and prizes are awarded to the winners of the fairs (Intel Corpora-
tion, 2014).
Intel’s commitment to education goes beyond sponsorship of the ISEF. Through its inter-
national education initiative, Intel sponsors a program in Costa Rica called the “Intel Teach,”
program (Intel Corporation, 2014). A survey conducted in preparation for the program demon-
strated the need for this training. The survey reported that 74% of Costa Rican teachers had
access to computers. Of that 74%, 80% reported that they did not know how to use the technol-
ogy to help their students (Intel Corporation, 2014). Through this program, Intel is making
teachers more effective through the use of technology. This training has been so successful that
the Costa Rican MEP has made it required for all school teachers. While the training is required,
it is not integrated into their preservice curriculum. In this program, teachers are provided with
professional development on the use of technology and curriculum integration. The impact of
the program has been evident in students’ performance.
As a result of this program and other similar efforts, technology access has greatly
improved in Costa Rican schools. Participating teachers have reported higher promotion rates in
math. Over 30% of the teachers in Costa Rica have participated in this initiative so far. Intel is
working to expand the program by working with the MEP and creating teachers trainers. Intel’s
program is now available in over 50 countries. Intel reports an annual investment of over $100
million in this program (Intel Corporation, 2014).
Leadership Frameworks
This study utilized four frameworks to serve as guides and as well as standards in the
analysis of the study findings: Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four frames, Wagner’s (2008) seven
21st-century survival skills, Kotter’s (2012) eight-step model for organizational change, and
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 35
STEM PBL developed by Capraro et al. (2013). Theoretical frameworks serve to demonstrate
what is already known in the field and create boundaries for the research and assist in organizing
ideas (Maxwell, 2013). Maxwell (2013) uses the metaphor of a spotlight to demonstrate how a
theoretical framework helps a researcher bring attention to relationships that might not have
otherwise been observed or identified.
Bolman and Deal’s Four Frames
Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four frames (structural, human resources, political, and sym-
bolic) constituted one of the frameworks used in this study. Bolman and Deal’s framework
enables individuals to view problems from four perspectives. It is possible for effective leaders
to use multiple frameworks at the same time to solve problems. Bolman and Deal pointed out
that most leaders operate in only one or two frames; effective leaders have the ability to use all
four frames. This ability allows them to view problems from many different angles and find
results that are not visible to leaders who are limited in frames or perspectives.
Structural frame. The structural frame gives the individual an opportunity to design a
process that is appropriate for the problem at hand. This frame places a focus on the design and
architecture of organizations and how different units within the organization interact. How this
process is implemented is dependent on the specific circumstances surrounding the problem.
This frame allows the individual to create clear goals for the organization. The manager can
create a course of action with a clear structure that is applicable to the task. This frame also
serves to clearly define the chain of command and the authority. One of the most important
features of this frame is the fact that it allows the manager or the individual to focus on the task at
hand by removing emotion and personalities that are often involved in the decision-making
process. Bolman and Deal (2008) explained how this frame can be useful when the goals that
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 36
have been set are clear. This frame is especially helpful when little conflict exists among the
parties and there is a stable, legitimate point of authority.
Human resources frame. The human resources frame places people at the center of an
organization. Bolman and Deal (2008) pointed out that organizations are created and exist with
the purpose of serving the needs of humans. The human resources frame places an emphasis on
understanding people. A manager using this frame is making an attempt to be responsive to the
needs of an organization while seeking commitment from the parties involved. This frame places
an emphasis on the manager offering support while, at the same time, empowering the individu-
als involved. A manager using this frame should be able to listen well and communicate with
others in a warm and open fashion. As mentioned earlier, empowering others is one of the key
tenets of this frame. A manager using this frame would not necessarily object to confronting
someone but at the same time would provide support. Bolman and Deal noted that this frame is
best applied when morale within an organization is high. The organization should also have
appropriate resources and a low level of conflict to maximize outcomes.
Political frame. The political frame is used by leaders who understand that individuals
are naturally political and can have hidden agendas. Bolman and Deal (2008) pointed out that
leaders using this frame view the world as a competitive stage where individuals are competing
for scarce resources and for control of power. Some of the core assumptions of this framework
include the fact that organizations are comprised of a variety of interest groups. The individuals
who comprise these groups have a variety of differences, beliefs, and views. A leader who uses
this frame is aware of the different interest groups within an organization and the fact that each
group has its own self-serving agenda. A leader using this frame is well aware of the conflicts
that are at play and is able to work with limited organizational resources. To use this frame
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 37
effectively, a leader must be able to manage conflicts and build a power base that must not be
taken for granted and must be used with great care. A leader using this frame would also be able
to work with stakeholders and develop compromises.
Symbolic frame. The symbolic frame is one where a manager is able to inspire others
and create buy-in. One core belief of this frame is that events that take place have different
meaning and impact on different individuals. This frame interweaves the individual’s faith into
the equation by using items such as rituals, ceremony, and the culture at the center of the organi-
zation. This frame can involve the use of symbolism used by the manager to create a mission for
the organization. A leader in this frame is able to make people work harder by making them feel
like what they do, regardless of how insignificant it may appear at first glance, is important to the
mission of the organization. Bolman and Deal (2008) noted how a leader using this approach
should be visible and energetic. This frame may be applied when organizational goals have not
been clearly defined (see Table 2).
Bolman and Deal (2008) highlighted the importance of using multiframe thinking. By
using the four frames, leaders are able to find effective methods to guide an organization in a
productive fashion. Bolman and Deal pointed out that leaders who are unable to use multiple
frames effectively will view the world through a narrow lens and will not be able to deal with the
issues that leaders encounter. Bolman and Deal used the metaphor of a surfer to describe the way
that leaders must be ready to change and adjust as the waves of change approach. If not, they, like
the surfer, will be crushed by the very same waves that they are riding.
The concept of globalization is one that Bolman and Deal (2008) did not ignore. They
recognized that the planet is shrinking and that the rate of change is rapidly accelerating. This
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 38
Table 2
Overview of the Four-Frame Model of Leadership
Frame
Image of
reality Structural Human resource Political Symbolic
Metaphor for Factory or machine Family Jungle Carnival, temple,
organization theater
Central con- Rules, roles, goals, policies, Needs, skills, rela- Power, conflict, Culture, meaning,
cepts technology, environment tionships competition, metaphor, ritual,
organizational ceremony, stories,
politics heroes
Image of Social architecture Empowerment Advocacy and Inspiration
leadership political savvy
Basic lead- Attune structure to task, Align organization- Develop agenda Create faith,
ership chal- technology, environment al and human needs and power base beauty, meaning
lenge
Note. Adapted from Reframing Organizations: Artistry, Choice, and Leadership, by L. G. Bolman and
T. E. Deal, 2008, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, p. 18.
shrinking world requires leaders who are able to effectively allocate resources, reduce waste, and
be true catalysts for change and hope.
Wagner’s Seven 21st-Century Skills
Wagner (2008) identified seven skills which he describes as the essential skills that indi-
viduals will need to survive in the 21st century and to compete in the new knowledge economy.
He discussed how most of the children who are in school today face two achievement gaps. One
is more commonly referred as a gap in the quality of education faced by those who come from
lower socioeconomic areas; the other is the global achievement gap. Wagner noted how
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 39
improvements have been made in closing the first gap, but he is not as optimistic about the
trajectory that many schools are on in closing the global achievement gap. If a country is to
remain competitive in the 21st century, its citizens must have the following seven skills:
1. Critical thinking and problem solving. Wagner (2008) emphasizes that students must
have the ability to ask good questions in order to be able think critically and solve problems.
This is a skill that many employers look for in potential employees and is an essential skill
required in the new knowledge-based global economy.
2. Collaboration across networks and leading by influence. The ability to work together
with a network of people is another essential 21st-century skill. Friedman (2007) discussed how
the world is becoming a smaller place through the use of technology. Technological advance-
ments that have made the world a smaller place allow individuals to collaborate from every
corner of the world (Friedman, 2007). Not only must individuals be prepared to use this technol-
ogy, but also they must have the skills to use this technology to their advantage and understand
how to leverage influence to gain a competitive advantage for themselves or for the companies
where they work (Wagner, 2008).
3. Agility and adaptability. In the new, knowledge-based global economy, individuals
must be agile and prepared for change. Wagner (2008) described how companies often hire an
individual for a specific job only to find that the job changes or evolves. Individuals must be
prepared for this inevitable scenario. In this regard, Wagner emphasized why it is more impor-
tant to be able to adapt and learn new skills instead of simply relying on specific technical skills
that an individual may have.
4. Initiative and entrepreneurship. Wagner (2008) emphasized the fact that 21st-century
employers seek out employees who have the drive and initiative to see the opportunities for their
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 40
companies. The ability to create an entrepreneurial culture can be a challenge in a large organiza-
tion.
5. Effective oral and written communication. Grade schools play a crucial role in pre-
paring students for college. Unfortunately, a large number of students leave high school not
ready for college (Timar, & Maxwell-Jolly, 2012). Wagner (2008) pointed out that young people
in the United States have difficulties communicating orally and through written communication.
Business leaders need individuals who have the ability to be effective communicators. Further-
more, Wagner emphasized the importance of individuals being able to create focus, energy, and
passion when they communicate.
6. Accessing and analyzing information. According to Google Search Statistics (Inter-
net Live Stats, 2015), Google receives 40,000 search queries every second. This number
amounts to over 3.5 billion search queries per day and over 1.2 trillion searches per year. This
number is only for Google and does not include other popular search engines such as Bing or
Yahoo. The industrialized world has access to information; the ability to access and analyze this
information is a skill that Wagner (2008) pointed out as essential for survival in the 21st century.
7. Curiosity and imagination. The seventh survival skill that Wagner (2008) noted,
based on his interactions with business leaders, is the ability to have curiosity and be inquisitive.
This ability is important to business leaders because individuals who have these qualities are able
to develop or improve products and services. Additionally, Wagner noted that companies require
individuals who not only are smart but also have the ability to think and create.
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 41
Kotter’s Eight-Step Change Model
Kotter’s (2012) eight-step change model is another framework that is used in this study.
According to Kotter 70% of all change leaders fail. Kotter describes eight contributing factors
which significantly contribute to the failure of organizations:
Eight common errors to organizational change:
• Allowing too much complacency
• Failing to create a sufficiently powerful guiding coalition
• Underestimating the power of vision
• Under communicating the vision
• Permitting obstacles to block the new vision
• Failing to create short-term wins
• Declaring victory too soon
• Neglecting to anchor changes firmly in the corporate culture (p. 16)
Kotter (2012) was not implying that it is inevitable that these errors will be committed.
He indicated that with skill and awareness, these errors can actually be avoided by leaders. In the
highly competitive global market that exists today, leaders are under more pressure than ever to
avoid these mistakes. Kotter described the magnitude and speed of change that is possible today
as something that could not even be imagined 50 years ago. He described how people live in a
global society where technological changes, international market changes, and the advancement
of the evolution of the domestic market are the driving forces in this change. School systems
have had to evolve to prepare for these changes.
Kotter’s (2012) description of the fast-paced new global environment are prefaced with
the need to have a process of change to address the challenges and barriers that are inevitable.
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 42
1. Establishing a sense of urgency
• Examining the market and competitive realities
• Identifying and discussing crises, potential crises, or major opportunities
9
2. Creating the guiding coalition
• Putting together a group with enough power to lead the change
• Getting the group to work together like a team
9
3. Developing a vision and strategy
• Creating a vision to help direct the change effort
• Identifying and discussing crises, potential crises, or major opportunities
9
4. Communicating the change vision
• Using every vehicle possible to constantly communicate the new vision and strategies
• Having the guiding coalition role model the behavior expected of employees
9
5. Empowering broad-based action
• Getting rid of obstacles
• Changing systems or structures that undermine the change vision
• Encouraging risk taking and nontraditional ideas, activities, and actions
9
6. Generating short-term wins
• Planning for visible improvements in performance, or “wins”
• Creating those wins by visibly recognizing and rewarding people who made the wins possible
9
7. Consolidating gains and producing more change
• Using increased credibility to change all systems, structures, and policies that don’t fit together
and don’t fit the transformation vision
• Hiring, promoting, and developing people who can implement the change vision
• Reinvigorating the process with new projects, themes, and change agents
9
8. Anchoring new approaches in the culture
• Creating better performance through customer- and productivity-oriented behavior, more and
better leadership, and more effective management
• Articulating the connections between new behaviors and organizational success
• Developing means to ensure leadership development and succession
Kotter designed his eight-step model to summarize the changes that organizations must undergo
to ensure successful change (see Figure 1).
Figure 1. The eight-stage change process of creating major change. Adapted from Leading
Change, With a New Preface by the Author, by J. P. Kotter, 2012, Boston, MA: Harvard Busi-
ness Review Press, p. 23.
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 43
Step 1. Establish a sense of urgency. In this step, Kotter (2012) emphasized the fact that
leaders must express the need for change to their employees. Good communication is an essen-
tial factor in this step. Leaders must be able to discuss the planned changes with employees and
start the conversations among stakeholders. Kotter (2008) pointed out that a third party or
outside perspective can be helpful in this step of the change process.
Step 2. Create the guiding coalition. This step requires the creation of a coalition of
respected leaders from within the organization (Kotter, 2012). This group of individuals must be
willing to work together and trust one another. It is helpful if members of this coalition are rep-
resentatives from different areas within the organization.
Step 3. Develop a vision and strategy. This step could involve the creation of a vision
statement for the organization. The leader will share with the organization how the change will
be accomplished (Kotter, 2012). The leader will be responsible for creating guidance during this
phase of the change process.
Step 4. Communicate the change vision. Kotter (2012) emphasized that the leader
should lead by example. The idea of “Do as I say, not as I do,” is counterproductive at this stage
of the process. The vision is shared with the organization in an honest and open fashion. Lead-
ers should live by the vision to gain the respect and loyalty of their employees. The vision should
apply to all aspects of the way that the organization operates.
Step 5. Empower employees for broad-based action. During this step, key employees
who will be the leaders of change should be empowered to act and begin to move the vision
forward. Leaders should work to remove obstacles to change. This task might include looking at
the role of all employees within the organization and being willing to make changes. Loyalty
among employee leaders should be recognized and rewarded (Kotter, 2012).
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 44
Step 6. Generate short-term wins. The change process is a long process that can be
broken up into manageable sections and steps. This step is the opportunity to celebrate short-
term wins and act on low-hanging fruit. Celebrating these wins will help to inspire naysayers
within the organization to adopt the change vision. Short-term targets which are selected should
be realistic and attainable (Kotter, 2012).
Step 7. Consolidate gains and produce more change. Kotter (2012) emphasized the
importance of continuously reviewing the process after every win. This task includes a review of
what is working and what needs improvement. Leaders who have the ability to monitor and
adjust to this change will be in a position to keep the organization moving forward to the end.
Leaders should be constantly recruiting new agents of change within the organization.
Step 8. Anchor new approaches in the culture. Leaders should be prepared to always
share the successes that have been reached. Key change agents should be recognized publicly. A
succession plan should be in place to ensure that the vision of change is not lost in the event that
leaders within the organization change. Leadership should set a tone that embraces change and
rewards employee innovation (Kotter, 2012).
Kotter (2012) pointed out that an organization undergo all eight steps to achieve success-
ful change. The eight-step change model creates a holistic approach to the process. At times,
some of the steps can be combined, but none of the steps should be bypassed because doing so
creates an organization without a strong foundation. Kotter pointed out that the eight-step
change model is not a comprehensive guide for change. This model serves as a guide to avoid
some common problems that keep organizations from succeeding.
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 45
STEM Curriculum and PBL
Capraro et al. (2013) and their work on STEM-PBL is the fourth body of work that was
used as a framework for this study. STEM-PBL is interwoven in the study by the mere fact that it
plays a crucial role in the preparation that Costa Rica must make so that citizens have the 21st-
century skills necessary to complete in a global society (Breiner et al., 2012). STEM-PBL is a
process that develops critical thinkers. Capraro et al. described how the challenges of the 21st
century are different from the challenges of the 20th century, with one of the greatest being
preparing students for jobs that do not exist today. STEM-PBL facilitates the integration of
various disciplines. These inherent qualities make STEM-PBL well suited for students who are
developing knowledge in a subject area. The project component of PBL makes the curriculum
more interesting and accessible for students. Programs such as the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT
are good examples of how STEM principles are brought to life for students through the creation
of projects (MEP, 2014).
The engineering design process. Capraro et al. (2013) described how well-defined
outcomes are a result of implementation of the engineering design process with accountability
and standards. The engineering design process is highly dependent on starting with the end
product in mind. The STEM-PBL design process requires that students have a measurable
objective when they begin a project. Capraro et al. noted that this process is different from
teaching for a specific test. It requires an individual to design a plan with the objective in mind.
Engineering is the process of applying the concepts from math, science, and technology to
solve problems (Capraro et al., 2013). Engineering requires a process to address problems.
Figure 2 is a visual illustration of the systematic process required to use engineering to address a
problem. It requires collaboration and teamwork with the use of technology, the use of 21st-
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 46
Figure 2. The engineering design process. From STEM Project-Based Learn-
ing: An Integrated Science, Technology, and Mathematics (STEM) Approach
(2nd ed.), by R. M. Capraro, M. M. Capraro, and J. R. Morgan, Rotterdam, The
Netherlands: Sense, p. 33.
century skills, and helping the participant to build a stronger interest in science and technology
concepts. These are all skills that were examined during the course of this study.
Professional Development
One of the goals of this study was to examine how school site leaders have prepared their
schools to equip students with the skills required to participate in the PRONAFECYT. School
leaders have a responsibility to prepare their staff with materials and professional developments
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 47
required to provide students a quality learning experience (Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005).
Capraro et al. (2013) described how one of the goals of STEM-PBL is teacher development.
They discussed how teachers should be prepared to deliver the curriculum. Technology is often
interwoven in STEM-PBL projects. This same technology can also be used to deliver quality
teacher development (Capraro et al., 2013). Professional development for teachers can be
embedded in their daily tasks; teachers respond best to professional development when they see
that what they are learning can be applied their classrooms (Tate, 2009).
School leaders have a responsibility to provide professional development for instructional
staff. An additional responsibility for school leaders includes verifying that strategies that are
covered in professional development are being used in the classroom (Marzano et al., 2005).
Activities such as classroom walkthroughs with the use of an observation instrument gives
school leaders the ability to provide teachers with feedback on the implementation of strategies
that are covered during professional developments (Capraro et al., 2013).
Teachers primarily fall into the category of adult learners. Adult learners have specific
learning needs when it comes to professional development. Adult learners tend to be more
self-directed, task centered, and intrinsically motivated than other types of learners (Knowles,
1983). Unlike younger learners, adult learners are able to apply their life’s experiences as they
analyze and understand information that is shared with them (Knowles, 1983). Having an under-
standing of the characteristics of adult learners when designing professional developments
increases the likelihood of success in the training. Research points to the fact that quality profes-
sional development improves teacher motivation and improves teacher commitment to the
learning process (Quick, Holtzman, & Chaney, 2009).
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 48
Chapter Summary
As a result of globalization, Costa Rica has evolved from a sleepy agrarian country in
Latin America into an international technology hub in a relatively short period of time. Costa
Rica’s rich history, commitment to education, and economic policies have contributed to this
rapid evolution. While Costa Rica’s placement at the world’s economic table is not without
risks, the risks have paid off thus far. The decision to openly court MNCs to come into the
country has improved the standard living for a large number of Costa Ricans. As a result, Costa
Rica has reduced poverty significantly and is able to boast one of the highest literacy rates in the
world. The recent significant changes that occurred with the change in leadership and the
departure of several MNCs from the country is a test of the principles that have helped Costa
Rica establish itself. The world is continuously evolving and changing. Only time will tell if
Costa Rica will continue to claim its spot at the global table.
The four frameworks discussed in this chapter were used as a lens to gauge the level at
which school leaders in Costa Rica are integrating the practices required to prepare students for
the challenges of the new, knowledge-based global economy. In addition, this qualitative study
helps to identify the role that educational leaders play in the PRONAFECYT. By studying the
process by which these leaders prepare their students for the challenges of the science fair, the
dissertation cohort could have a glimpse into the future of Costa Rica. The youth leaders in the
science fairs today may be the Costa Rican leaders of tomorrow.
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 49
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Costa Rica has reaped the benefits of converting from a primarily agrarian economy to a
highly technological economy that attracts FDI. Costa Rica has had to prepare its citizens to
work in the new economy. The demand for a workforce with 21st-century skills has increased
with the increase in FDI in Costa Rica. Many challenges still exist for the Costa Rican citizenry
for the next wave of investments.
This study focused on the leadership of the schools in Costa Rica and the role that this
leadership plays in Costa Rica’s preparation for the demands of the new economy. One of the
major STEM initiatives in Costa Rica is the PRONAFECYT. This study highlights the impor-
tance that school leaders play in the preparation for the PRONAFECYT and the impact on
classroom instructional practices, specifically the impact on students as they are prepared with
the 21st-century skills that the new, knowledge-based global economy demands.
Research Questions
The four research questions used to guide this study were the following:
1. What is the role that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 50
Research Design
Merriam (2009) stated that individuals who have an interest in improving their practice
will ask questions that are researchable. According to Merriam, these questions are best an-
swered using a qualitative research approach. Qualitative research allows the investigation of
how individuals interpret individual or group experiences and from this how the world around
them is constructed through these experiences (Merriam, 2009). Creswell (2008) described qual-
itative research as a means for understanding the meaning that individuals or groups attribute to
problems. Creswell further noted how through the process of data interpretation, themes emerge.
It is then the task of the researcher or research team to interpret the meaning of the data collected.
This study can be best defined as a case study that used qualitative research methods to answer
the research methods. Creswell described a case study as a strategy used by a researcher or
research team to explore a program, event, activity, or process. A case study may involve
multiple individuals (Creswell, 2008). Another important feature of qualitative research that
Merriam (2009) pointed out is the fact that the process is inductive and the final product of this
research is typically highly descriptive of the phenomenon hat will be observed.
This chapter is divided into seven sections. The first section is a detailed description of
the research team members, including some logistical information on how the team was sepa-
rated during the research trip. The second section describes how the participants of the study and
the schools were selected and observed. The third section presents the frameworks. The fourth
section discusses the data collection. The fifth section provides a detailed description of the
instrumentation that was used during the study. The sixth section describes the process of data
analysis that was used in this study. The seventh section describes pertinent ethical considera-
tions for this study and what steps were taken to protect the study participants.
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 51
Research Team
Dr. Michael Escalante from the University of Southern California’s (USC) Rossier
School of Education (RSOE) led the research team, assisted by Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft from the
RSOE. Together, they led a cohort of 18 doctoral students from USC. All of the students in this
cohort were in the K–12 Leadership in Urban School Settings concentration. The cohort began
meeting in the fall of 2014. While the overall theme of the study for the cohort was the same for
everyone in the class, each graduate student was on an individual journey of discovery and had an
opportunity to provide his or her own perspective on the area of study.
The cohort was divided into smaller focus groups during the trip to Costa Rica in June of
2015. Each focus group was scheduled to visit different schools. The two schools consisted of
one school that had been identified by Costa Rican officials as highly active in the
PRONAFECYT and one school whose participation was in the emerging stage. Each group had
at least one native Spanish speaker and one limited or non-native Spanish speaker. The teams
pooled the data that were collected for analysis. Data were collected using standard qualitative
methods including notetaking, audio recording, and document analysis. Much of the data was
collected during observations and interviews that were conducted during the trip to Costa Rica.
The 10-day trip was the primary opportunity for the team to collect location data firsthand. Data
analysis began once the team returned to the United States after the research trip. The findings,
based on the analysis of the data, are reported in Chapter Four of each student’s dissertation.
Population and Sample
In June 2015, members of the cohort from the USC had the opportunity to participate in a
research trip to Costa Rica. The primary purpose of this trip was the collection of data from
primary sources. The data were then analyzed to gain insight and answer the research questions
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 52
of the study. This case study examined the role and impact that school educational leaders have
in the PRONAFECYT in Costa Rica. In order to complete this study, the research team con-
ducted interviews, surveys, and observed locations and individuals who had a direct and indirect
role in the PRONAFECYT. Dr. Wiedoeft was the primary contact with representatives from the
Costa Rican MEP. A copy of the correspondence sent to the MEP, dated March 1, 2015, is
contained in Appendices A and B). The MEP granted the research group access to 18 elementary
school in San José and some of the surrounding areas.
The 18 schools in the study were selected by the MEP because of their level of participa-
tion in the PRONAFECYT (see Appendix C). Based on information shared by the MEP, approx-
imately half of the schools selected had well structured PRONAFECYT programs, while the
other half had programs that were still evolving (the fact that the research team did not select the
schools for the study is listed as a limitation in Chapter One).
Participants
Interviewed Participants
During the June 2015 trip, the research team requested permission from the MEP to
interview school directors, to conduct teacher surveys, and to observe classrooms. Teacher and
student interviews were not scheduled in advance. The research team prepared interview proto-
cols and surveys in both English and Spanish for a variety of individuals (e.g., business leaders,
government leaders, district administrators). Prior to leaving for the trip, the list of individuals
who were scheduled for interviews also included the Minister of Public Education, high-ranking
officials from the MEP, and Directors of the PRONAFECYT. All interviews were conducted in
Costa Rica. Government officials, representatives from the MEP, university representatives, and
business leaders were interviewed for this study, with all interviews scheduled in advance by the
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 53
research team in advance. Table 3 contains a list of the names of the government, MEP,
MICITT, and university representatives who were interviewed by the research team during the
June 2015 research trip.
This study focused primarily on one of 18 school sites that were a focus of the research
team. To maintain confidentiality, the school sites in this study and staff members connected
with these sites will be referred to with pseudonyms. Pacific Elementary is located in a moun-
tainous area in the Alajuela Region of Costa Rica. Alajuela is the third largest city in Costa Rica.
The region is well known for its agricultural products, including coffee, sugar cane, and fruits.
Pacific Elementary is a small school with approximately 140 students and five teachers. Ms.
Maria Diaz is the principal of Pacific Elementary School, which was built in 2004. The school’s
small size makes it difficult to locate on a map. When the research team visited the school, the
location was given in relation to a fuel station instead of an address. This school is nestled in a
residential neighborhood overlooking a beautiful mountainous region.
A second school in the region, Eastside Elementary, was used for comparison. Mr. John
Smith is the school principal. Eastside Elementary is situated in the same region as Pacific Ele-
mentary. Eastside Elementary is smaller than Pacific Elementary with only 104 students.
In addition to the interviewed participants listed in Table 3, school directors, teachers,
parents, community leaders, and students were interviewed at the 18 school sites visited by the
research team. With the exception of the school director interviews, which were scheduled in
advance, all of the individuals were interviewed based on their availability on the day of the
school site visits. To protect the confidentiality of the participants at the school sites, the names
of the school site and participants are not used in the study. Table 4 outlines the school site-
based participants at the schools that were the focus on this study.
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 54
Table 3
Summary of Study Participants Who Were Interviewed: Government Officials, Business Lead-
ers, and Higher Education Leaders (N = 13)
Affiliation Name Title
Interview
Date
Government official Javier Cambronero Assemblyman 6/15/15
MEP Alicia Porras Vargas Vice Minister of Academic
Education
6/17/15
MICITT Carolina Vasquez Soto Vice Minister 6/15/15
MICITT Natalie Valencia Science Fair Coordinator 6/18/15
MICITT Patricia Arias Regional Science Advisor,
Occidente Region
6/15/15
Government official Sylvia Ugaide Fernandez Consulate General 6/22/15
Consejo de Promocion de la
Competividad
Mary Helen Bialas Business leader 6/15/15
Omar Dengo Foundation Ana Lourdes Acuña Science Coordinator 6/22/15
Omar Dengo Foundation Eduardo Monge Project Development and In-
ternational Relations
6/22/15
Omar Dengo Foundation Ana Hernandez Program Evaluation 6/22/15
UCR Maria Santos Passamontes Director 6/16/15
UCR Alejandrina Segreda-Mata Dean, Primary Teacher Educa-
tion
6/16/15
ITCR Hugo Navarro Dean, School of Technical
Education
6/16/15
Note. MEP = Ministry of Public Education; MICITT = Ministry of Science, Technology, and Telecommunica-
tions; CINDE = Coalicion Costarricense de Iniciativas para el Desarrollo (Costa Rica Investment Promotion
Agency); UCR = University of Costa Rica; ITCR = Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica (Costa Rica Institute of
Technology).
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 55
Table 4
Summary of School Site Study Participants Who Were Interviewed

School Total
Pacific Elementary
Director 1
Teachers 2
Parents 2
Students 6
Eastside Elementary
Director 1
School board members 2
Teachers 3
Parents 2
Students 2
In addition to the interviews, surveys were distributed at the participating schools, with
response results reported in Chapter Four. Figures 1, 2, and 3 include survey data results and
information and the total number of survey participants per site. In addition to the surveys and
interviews, members of the research team had the opportunity to observe classrooms during the
school visits. Classroom observation data is integrated into the identified themes.
Frameworks
Four frameworks were selected to guide the research: Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four
frames, Wagner’s (2008) seven 21st-century survival skills, Kotter’s (2012) eight-step model for
organizational change, and STEM PBL developed by Capraro et al. (2013).
Bolman and Deal’s framework provide lenses through which leaders view their world;
the four frames are symbolic, human resources, political, and structural. The symbolic frame
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 56
allows leaders to be interpretive and inspirational. A leader using this frame gives credit for an
organization’s success to the team. The symbolic frame makes culture, rituals, heroes, and
stories as central concepts. Under the human resources frame, the leader puts an emphasis on the
relationships in the organization. A leader using this frame is seen as one who empowers em-
ployees by aligning the human needs and the needs of the organization. A leader using the
political frame relishes the conflict and competition caused by organizational politics. A leader
using this frame would be seen as one who is well versed in the conflicts of politics, networking,
and creating partnerships for political gain. The fourth frame is the structural frame. While
using this frame, leaders place an emphasis on rules, roles, and policies. A leader using this
frame may be viewed as a social architect who sets clear expectations for individuals and is able
to hold people accountable for results. Bolman and Deal emphasized that leaders must be able to
use multiple frames in order to effectively manage organizations.
Costa Rica has evolved from an agrarian to a knowledge-based economy (CINDE, 2014).
This change has led to an increase in FDI and an increase of high-technology firms throughout he
country (CINDE, 2014). A knowledge-based economy requires a skilled workforce with the
correct skillset to compete in a global market (Wagner, 2008). Wagner outlined the seven sur-
vival skills for the 21st century. Looking for the application and training of the following skills
was an area of focus for the research team: (a) critical thinking and problem solving, (b) collabo-
ration across networks and leading by influence, (c) agility and adaptability, (d) initiative and
entrepreneurialism, (e) effective oral and written communication, (f) ability to access and analyze
information, and (g) curiosity and imagination.
Kotter’s (2012) eight-step change model for creating major change was the third frame-
work that is used in this study: (a) establishing a sense of urgency, (b) creating the guiding
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 57
coalition, (c) developing a vision and a strategy, (d) communicating the change vision, (e)
empowering broad-based action, (f) generating short-term wins, (g) consolidating gains and
producing more change, and (h) anchoring new approaches in the culture.
Kotter (2012) explained that the first four steps in the process are designed to change a
long-established culture within an organization. Steps 5–7 represent the times when a leader or a
leadership team introduces new practices to an organization. Step 8 is where change is solidified
and becomes part of the culture of the organization.
STEM PBL (Capraro et al., 2013) was the fourth framework utilized in this study. This
framework provides a description of best practices with respect to effectively using PBL to make
content more interesting, accessible, and understandable for students. STEM PBL facilitates the
blending of interdisciplinary curriculum by allowing students to learn while they create projects
to demonstrate mastery. Several of the 21st-century survival skills described by Wagner (2008)
are significant components in STEM PBL: collaboration, problem solving, critical thinking, and
accessing and analyzing information.
All four of the above-mentioned frameworks were used along with the problem state-
ment, the purpose statement, and the questions of the study to guide the researchers (Merriam,
2009). The theoretical frameworks were used by the research team to frame and provide struc-
ture to the study (Maxwell, 2013). Merriam (2009) described the framework as the item that
surrounds the problem statement with the purpose of the study at the center of a qualitative
research study.
Data Collection
Creswell (2008) described case studies as a strategy of inquiry where researchers col-
lected and analyzed data over a finite period of time to perform an in-depth exploration of an
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 58
event or process. Creswell also described the importance for the system under study to have
clearly established boundaries. A case study must also give the researcher the ability to collect
data from a variety of sources. This study was appropriate for this research model because it fit
well under the descriptors outlined by Creswell.
Data were collected through the use of surveys, interviews, and observations. Table 5
summarizes the individuals or groups who participated in the study and the data collection
process that was implemented.
Table 5
Data Collection Instruments and Participants
Surveys Interviews Observations
Principal Principal Classroom
District administrators District administrators School (culture)
Teachers Teachers
Students Students
Business leaders Business leaders
Government officials Government officials
Parents Parents
Instrumentation
The instruments that were used to collect data for this study consisted of interviews,
surveys, and observations (see Appendices D-O). The interview protocols and surveys were
translated into Spanish prior to departing on the research trip to ensure that potential interview
candidates would be able to understand them in the event that the study participant was more
comfortable participating speaking Spanish. All of the protocols were created collaboratively by
the research team.
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 59
Surveys
Surveys for this study were created collaboratively by the research group. Merriam
(2009) described how surveys can be used to systematically describe the characteristics of a
phenomenon. Fink (2013) stated that surveys are a method for collecting information that can be
used to describe, compare, or explain the knowledge of a particular individual. The surveys that
were created for this study were used to collect data related to the role of leadership and the
PRONAFECYT.
Surveys have been created for a variety of individuals whom the group may encounter
during the research trip. Surveys were available in both English and Spanish. All of the survey
questions were aligned with the frameworks as well as the research questions. Survey responses
were recorded by participants on a 5-point Likert scale designed to measure the individual’s level
of agreement with each statement. Surveys questions were aligned with one another to simplify
data analysis. All participants within the same survey class or category received the same survey.
Many of the actual survey participants were not confirmed until the research trip was underway.
Factors including the availability of participants, government protocols, and/or time constraints
impacted the number of surveys that were ultimately distributed to participants and collected for
analysis.
Interviews
Merriam (2009) described how interviews are a common research technique used in
qualitative research. Interviews can be conducted with a single individual or with a group.
Interviews can be one of the most effective methods of data collection in cases where behaviors,
feelings, or an individual’s interpretation of a phenomenon is important to a study (Merriam,
2009). Interviews can be useful when data are necessary for events that cannot be replicated.
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 60
Merriam explained the different types of interview structures: highly structured-standardized,
semistructured, and unstructured-informal structures. The interviews conducted during the June
2015 research trip were semistructured by design. Semistructured interviews provided the
research team with the flexibility to collect the required data. All interviews were recorded and
transcribed. Interview transcriptions were coded by the group using Dedoose. Interviews that
were conducted in Spanish were transcribed and professionally translated into English prior to
coding.
Observations
Observations were conducted at 18 school sites that were selected by the MEP. Observa-
tion protocols (see Appendix O) were developed by the research team to guide and focus the
observations. Maxwell (2013) explained how effective observations can be in allowing research-
ers to understand a person’s perspective. Data collected via observations allow a researcher the
opportunity to create inferences that would not be possible by relying on interview data alone
(Maxwell, 2013). Observations allow researchers to be able to describe the specific settings
where phenomenon is occurring. In addition to the observation protocols, the research teams
created field notes. Maxwell noted the importance of field notes for discussions, during coding,
and when creating categories for the collected data.
Data Analysis
Analysis of data that were collected via observations and interviews was completed by the
use of coding (Corbin, Strauss, & Strauss, 2008). Corbin et al. (2008) described the analysis of
coded data as “mining” (p. 66). This is a process that involves the comparison of data and the
development of concepts based on the comparison. Corbin et al. described many strategies that
could be beneficial in the analysis of data. One strategy that was particularly useful in this study
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 61
involves the use of drawing upon personal experience. Corbin et al. mentioned that some might
confuse this experience as a bias when, in fact, it allows the researcher to bring up other possible
meanings for the data in the setting.
Another analytical strategy that was useful in this study was “looking at language”
(Corbin et al., 2008, p. 82). In this strategy one looks at subtle hints that are picked out when
individuals are speaking. Corbin et al. (2008) pointed out that paying attention to the language
can provide researchers with insight into the individuals being interviewing and where their
thoughts are originating.
Ensuring credibility can be a challenge in any study (Maxwell, 2013). In an attempt to
improve credibility and dependability, this study included the collection of data from multiple
sources. Merriam (2009) provided several strategies that a researcher can use to enhance the
reliability of a qualitative study. Merriam discussed triangulation as one of the most well-known
strategies that qualitative researchers utilize to increase the validity of their findings. Triangula-
tion was used in the present study to increase the credibility and trustworthiness of the findings.
This goal was accomplished by the use of multiple methods of data collection and multiple
sources of data to confirm the outcomes of the study.
Creswell’s (2008) six-step approach for qualitative data analysis was used by the research
team:
• Step 1: “Organize and prepare the data for analysis” (p. 197). This step involved col-
lecting all of the raw data from the research teams who participated in this study. All
of the data was sorted and made available in digital format to everyone.
• Step 2: Become familiar with the data. Everyone read all of the collected data and
wrote notes on the data. While some members of the research team were able to
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 62
translate items, all of the items that required translation were sent to a professional
service for consistency and accuracy.
• Step 3: Begin a detailed analysis with a coding process. At this point, the team began
to use Dedoose . Early in the formation of the cohort, the entire team decided to adopt
Dedoose for the purpose of coding. This secure, web-based program is specially
designed for the purpose of collaborative coding. It allows teams to view one an-
other’s coding for the purpose of analysis. Dedoose is capable of handling multiple
data types including text, photos, audio, videos, and spreadsheet data.
• Step 4: Generate descriptions of the settings or individuals. This step allowed for the
creation of additional coding that was shared via Dedoose.
• Step 5: Create a narrative based on an analysis of the data. This step may involve the
use of visuals, such as a process model.
• Step 6: Interpret the meaning of the data. This step also allowed the researchers to
apply the four frameworks identified in this study and apply them to the findings to
draw conclusions.
Ethical Considerations
As required by the USC, all members of the research team were required to complete four
on-line modules mandated by the Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative (CITI) as part of
the Institutional Review Board (IRB) process. The IRB’s approval is a required all research
projects focused on human subjects. In addition to university policies, researchers were required
to abide by all applicable federal and state regulations related to research involving human
subjects.
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 63
Ethical issues related to protecting the identity of the subjects in a qualitative study must
be addressed by the researcher (Merriam, 2009). Merriam (2009) discussed four ethical issues
related to qualitative research: obtaining consent (see Appendix P), ensuring confidentiality,
determining what is public and what is private, and developing debriefing procedures to ensure
that no participant has been harmed. In this study, none of the students’ names were used to
describe individual students during the classroom observations. The teachers who were inter-
viewed were given pseudonyms and are not described by name in the research study. During
interviews, teachers were informed that the information that they shared would be kept in confi-
dence and that the interview transcripts would not be shared with individuals outside of the
study. The only exception to this procedure would have been any information that the research-
ers were mandated to report to authorities by law.
Debriefing procedures were followed with all of the interview participants. They were
informed at the start of the interview that they had the ability to end the interview at any time for
any reason. Ensuring that none of the participants or students being observed was harmed was a
priority for the research team.
Chapter Summary
This chapter serves as an overview of the study and included information on the design
and methodology. This study implemented the principles of qualitative research as described by
Creswell (2008), Maxwell (2013), and Merriam (2009). The research team, led by Dr. Michael
Escalante and Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft, visited 18 schools selected by the MEP to collect data through
the use of observation, interviews, and surveys. The frameworks which were selected to guide
the research were Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four frames, Wagner’s (2008) seven 21st-century
survival skills, Kotter’s (2012) eight-step model for organizational change, and STEM PBL
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 64
developed by Capraro et al. (2013). All of the research surveys, observation protocols, and
interview protocols were created in collaboration by the research team for this study. The
research team shared all of the data collected during the interviews, surveys, and observations. In
order to facilitate data coding and sharing, the research team used Dedoose, a web-based research
tool that allows a research team to share and code text-based data, photos, audio clips, spread-
sheets, and video clips. Data analysis was conducted by implementing Creswell’s (2008) six-
step approach. The research team worked collaboratively to complete the IRB process, which is
required by the USC for all studies that involve human subjects.
By using multiple sources of data, the research team had the ability to triangulate findings
to improve the validity of the study (Merriam, 2009). While the research team was working on a
common theme and the data collected during the research trip, the actual dissertation writing was
the work of the individual students. At the completion of this study, a goal of the research team
was to provide Costa Rican educational leaders with information on how they can improve
student outcomes by providing insight on the role of education leadership on the
PRONAFECYT.
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 65
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
This chapter presents the findings based on an analysis of the data that were collected
during a June 2015 research trip to Costa Rica. The primary source data included surveys,
interviews, and observations. The frameworks used to analyze the data included were Bolman
and Deal’s (2008) four frames, Wagner’s (2008) seven 21st-century survival skills, Kotter’s
(2012) eight-step model for organizational change, and STEM PBL developed by Capraro et al.
(2013).
This study’s focus was to identify the role and impact that educational leaders in Costa
Rica have on the PRONAFECYT. The research team reviewed the instructional practices in the
participating schools and how participation in the PRONAFECYT has influenced instructional
practices. At its core, the PRONAFECYT is designed to prepare students with a STEM curricu-
lum. Costa Rican educational leaders understand that they play an important role in preparing a
21st-century workforce with the skills required to compete in a global market (Rodríguez-Clare,
2012).
In qualitative research, questions are used to point the researcher to the information and
understanding necessary to reach the goals of the study (Maxwell, 2013). Four research ques-
tions were developed by the research team to serve as a guide for this study:
1. What is the role that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 66
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
Findings for Research Question 1
Research question 1 asked, “What is the role that educational leaders play in implement-
ing the PRONAFECYT initiative?”
Kotter (2012) made an important distinction where he discussed the duties of a leader
compared to a manager. A manager is an individual who has the capacity to make a system
work, while a leader is able to build a new system or transform an existing one. Kotter explained
that in order for change to endure over time, a specific series of steps must take place that he
described as an eight-step change model. The specific steps in Kotter’s model were outlined in
Figure 1. Additionally, Kotter (2012) emphasized that major change takes place over a period of
time in organizations and that acknowledgment of short-term wins is essential to keep the
momentum of change going forward.
Bolman and Deal (2008) delineated four frames that leaders use to view the world:
structural, human resources, political, and symbolic. They pointed out that most leaders operate
in only one or two frames but that effective leaders have the ability to use all four frames. This
process gives them the ability to view problems from many different angles and find results that
are not visible to leaders who are limited in applying frames or perspectives. Leadership in Costa
Rica’s educational system is not different. An analysis of the data that were collected indicated
two themes: (a) that the use of celebration and recognition impacts participation in the
PRONAFECYT and (b) that the establishment of partnerships and outside resources supports the
success of PRONAFECYT.
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 67
Figure 3. Survey question results for Pacific Elementary School teachers (N = 5).
Celebration-Recognition
Bolman and Deal (2008) described how cultures have used celebration as a way to mark
special occasions. It is a method to convey a message to constituents about an accomplishment
Under the symbolic frame, celebration or recognition is identified as a method to motivate.
Bolman and Deal described how leaders can use this frame to give credit to an organization or an
individual for an accomplishment. When Mary Helen Bialas from the Costa Rican Council to
Promote Competitiveness (Consejo para la Promoción de la Competitividad) was asked whether
the government recognized schools for their participation in the PRONAFECYT, she responded
that she did not believe that this took place at the government level (interview, June 16, 2015).
This sentiment was echoed by the Pacific Elementary School Director, Maria Diaz. When Diaz
was asked how teachers were recognized for their efforts in the PRONAFECYT, she indicated
that recognition consists of a ceremony where the participating staff is congratulated in front of
the entire school and participating parents. She also mentioned that no award or recognition
came from the MEP for site participation (interview, June 17, 2015).
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 68
Upon reviewing research data, including the interview transcripts, it became clear that
school site directors are the front line staff that is directly responsible for the success of the
program. Motivation of the teachers and celebrating and acknowledging their success is one of
the tasks of a leader. Their level of buy-in determines the success of the program implementation
at the school site level, as affirmed by a teacher who was interviewed at Pacific Elementary:
Our school director thanks us for participating in the science fair. She helps us under-
stand the importance of this event and the impact that it has on our students. She ac-
knowledges us in front of our peers and the parents of our students. (June 17, 2015)
The teachers at Pacific Elementary were surveyed and asked to comment on the recogni-
tion of students for participation in the PRONAFECYT. In response to teacher survey Item 13
(“Student participation in the PRONAFECYT is recognized throughout my school”), 40% of the
teachers agreed and 60% strongly agreed (see Figure 3 for summary of teachers’ survey re-
sponses). The survey results combined with the interviews made it clear that celebrations are
occurring at the school site level. Based on the data, it appears that only the individuals and
schools that reach the national competition are recognized. According to Alicia Vargas, Vice
Minister of Academic Education for the MEP, while the competition begins at the local school
level, the MEP recognizes schools at the national level (interview, June 17, 2015). While the
national science fair was developed many years ago, Costa Rica has been going through the
process of establishing and refining the fair to prepare student with the essential 21st-century
skills required for the new knowledge economy (Wagner, 2008). Kotter’‘s (2012) change
process describes the importance of generating short-term wins. Generating short- term wins in
relation to the PRONAFECYT is an important step in creating and anchoring the process. While
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 69
it was clear that this recognition occurred at the site level, there was little evidence that it oc-
curred outside of the school in relation to the PRONAFECYT.
Leader Seeking Outside Resources
A review of the data reflected evidence regarding the importance of seeking outside
resources for the success of the PRONAFECYT. Item #8 in the school director survey stated,
“My school has adequate resources to prepare students for the PRONAFECYT.” The Pacific
Elementary School Director’s response was that she disagreed with this statement. When
teachers at the school were asked to respond to the same statement, 60% strongly agreed. While
all of the teachers surveyed indicated that they agreed or strongly agreed with this statement, this
was one of the areas with the lowest area of strong agreement in the entire survey. Diaz empha-
sized the important role that the Parent Teacher Association (PTA) had in the school. She indi-
cated that a good portion of the improvements that have been made at the school were a direct
result of the parents and their involvement both individually and through the PTA. She also
mentioned the importance of the school board in securing resources for the school (interview,
June 17, 2015).
During an interview with Mary Helen Bialas from the Costa Rican Council to Promote
Competitiveness, she commented:
The leaders at the local level are extremely important. Two ways, in Costa Rica also at
the local level, at the institutional level and at the circuit fairs, the district fairs and then
the regional fairs—most of that comes from local funding that the schools themselves or
the coordinators. The science advisors have to get out there and search and look. They
don’t get that much funding from the government to do that. (June, 15, 2015)
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 70
A member of the Pacific Elementary school board from Pacific elementary was asked in
an interview (June 17, 2015) whether the government provides school with the necessary materi-
als for success in the science fair initiative. This individual responded by indicating that the
government was not fulfilling its responsibility to the students in that area. The school board
member indicated that this gap is filled by the parents and by the teachers. One of the parents
from Pacific Elementary who was interviewed (June 17, 2015) supported the school board
member’s statement by indicating that parents provided support to the school. Some parents
donate time; others donate materials; and those who could afford it give money to help improve
the school.
Bolman and Deal’s (2008) framework provides leaders with several lenses through which
they can view the world. In this particular case, both leaders demonstrated their ability to use the
political frame. Bolman and Deal indicated that a leader using this frame is able to understand
that different interest groups function within an organization. A leader using this frame can work
with different groups and leverage limited resources for the benefit of the organization. A leader
using this frame would be able to negotiate with the various stakeholders and know how to
manage political challenges. Knowing how to manage this frame also complements Kotter’s
(2012) definition of leadership. Kotter pointed out that a leader has the ability to motivate and
inspire people to overcome political barriers.
Results Summary for Research Question 1
Data collected during this study indicated that educational leaders in Costa Rica play a
defining role in the implementation and success of the PRONAFECYT. School site leaders
appeared to have a significant impact on the success of this program. School site leaders must
have the ability to navigate the complex political landscape to access resources for staff, students,
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 71
and facilities. School leaders must also remember that they are responsible for recognizing the
success of their staff and students who participate in the PRONAFECYT. The combined efforts
of district leadership, site leadership, staff, and parents will increase the success of the
PRONAFECYT and continue to prepare Costa Rica’s youth with the 21st-century skills required
to compete in the global economy.
Findings for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, “How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from
teacher practices at less successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?” In response to this research question, data collected at Pacific Elementary
were compared with data collected from Eastside Elementary. Both of these schools are situated
in the Alajuela Region of Costa Rica. The schools in the study were selected by the MEP due to
their level of participation in the PRONAFECYT. Based on information shared by the MEP,
approximately half of the schools selected has well-structured PRONAFECYT programs, while
the other half had programs that were still evolving. The MEP did not clearly identify which
schools were better performing schools and which ones had programs that were still evolving;
this issue was left for the research team to interpret.
Kotter’s (2012) change process involves an eight-step process in a framework that
outlines how an organization can increase its likelihood of success in the implementation of an
initiative. According to Kotter, all of these steps must be followed. Individuals who skip steps
often find resistance or pitfalls during the implementation of the initiative. Implementation of the
eight steps requires the collaboration of many stakeholders. A school director will not be suc-
cessful in implementing a significant change without the support of stakeholders from many
levels of the organization, especially the classroom teachers, who have the single greatest impact
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 72
on the performance of students. Bolman and Deal (2008) pointed out how teachers’ expectations
are assimilated by students. In cases where teachers have low expectations, students typically
live up to those expectations and perform poorly. This factor emphasizes that importance of
having teachers who not only are qualified but also are able to set high expectations for students
and truly believe that the students can meet those expectations.
Bolman and Deal (2008) noted that success requires a substantial amount of effort in
order to realign the political forces that impact an organization. Kotter (2012) contended that in
order to have success, many individuals have to cooperate in a particular campaign. Success in a
political sense can be a challenge for a school site administrator. When the school sites were
selected for this study, representatives from the MEP indicated that schools were selected based
on their level of success with the PRONAFECYT initiative. The data indicated a strong correla-
tion between level of interaction between (a) educational leaders and site directors and (b) how
the success in the implementation of the PRONAFECYT was measured. As previously men-
tioned, the research team was not told in advance which schools were in the successful category
and which ones were in the emerging category; however, as the data were coded, a pattern began
to emerge. It appeared that the participation level of principals in the program as well as their
collaboration with central office administrators were often used as an indicator of the success of
the PRONAFECYT implantation at a school site. The problem with using the level of collabora-
tion with the central office as an indicator of success was that it was not supported by the data
collected. This factor appeared to have impacted the perceptions that were created by district
staff. While the schools were never clearly identified or categorized as successful or emerging by
district staff, clues were given during conversations as to which schools belonged to which
categories. An example in point is that after the team completed the data collection for Pacific
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 73
Elementary, a district representative asked how the visit went. The district representative ap-
peared surprised when she discovered that the visit went well and that the school was cooperative
and open to the research team. A lack of communication or collaboration between central office
staff and school site administration might be a factor when central office staff determines the
success of a site’s PRONAFECYT implementation. This is not to say that there were no differ-
ences between the schools and that teachers’ practices did not have an impact on the success of a
school. The data indicated that the actual success of a school’s PRONAFECYT program, there
were other factors that impacted how the school was perceived and how the school’s success in
the PRONAFECYT was measured. In analyzing the data that were collected, two themes
emerged: (a) embedding the PRONAFECYT into the school culture and (b) student buy-in.
Embedding PRONAFECYT in the School Culture
According to Kotter (2012), organizational excellence requires a certain type of leader—
one who has the social skill to mobilize people in spite of the forces that pull organizations apart.
This type of leader is able to shape the culture of an organization. Kotter also described culture
as the norms of behavior that are shared by a group of people. Norms of behavior are ways of
acting that a group has and shares with new members as they join the group (Kotter, 2010). The
PRONAFECYT includes all Costa Rican students from preschool to the 12th grade (Valencia,
2009). The goal of the program is to promote a STEM culture, creative thinking, and expression.
Survey results and interviews indicated that study participants believed that the science fair cur-
riculum is embedded in the school’s culture.
One area of concern that was mentioned at both schools came from parents. At both
schools parents reported having to spend long hours working on the projects outside of the school
day. Dedicating more time during the school day may increase opportunities for student–teacher
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 74
interaction. The teachers have more expertise in the subject area and are able to provide a greater
level of support. When teachers were asked if a positive school culture existed toward the
PRONAFECYT, 80% of Pacific Elementary teachers responded that they agreed or strongly
agreed with this statement, and 85% of Eastside Elementary teachers agreed. When teachers
were asked if they had received training on how to integrate soft skills into the classroom, 60% of
Pacific teachers either disagreed or were not sure; similarly, 50% of Eastside teachers disagreed
with this statement. When the school directors were presented with the same survey question,
their responses varied from those of the teachers. Both directors indicated strong agreement with
the statement, in stark contrast with the teachers’ responses.
With all of the similarities between the schools, it was interesting to find out that one
school was indeed a higher performing school. Eastside elementary had more success in the
PRONAFECYT in terms of having students compete at the national level. Eastside Elementary
School Director, John Smith, noted: “We are fortunate that my school made it to the regional
competition on several occasions. We were the winners of the regional science fair on one
occasion as well” (interview, June 17, 2015).
During the visit to Pacific Elementary, School Director Maria Diaz corroborated what
Smith stated. Diaz mentioned that her colleague at Eastside Elementary had successfully made it
to the regional PRONAFECYT competition. Although both schools were very similar in terms
of size, the socioeconomic status of the students, and the location, the factor that differentiated
these and impacted their performance was the leadership. While both directors were clearly
knowledgeable about the PRONAFECYT, Director Smith was clearly more passionate about his
school’s participation. This passion was clear was during the interview and in the school itself.
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 75
Both directors were asked how teachers made sure that all students participate in the
PRONAFECYT. Diaz responded:
We organize them like homework, so they bring them to their house and involve the
people they live with. So if we give them a little homework, the person in the house has
to know a little before. They have to help the student with what they’re going to present
because we leave them in an open form—who wants to participate? Half of them don’t
participate, but we give them little pieces of work—they don’t bring notes. They’re not
going to write it down, except the ones that are extracurricular. (Interview, June 17,
2015)
Director Smith’s response to this same question was the following:
How do we do to motivate the children? For example, we have the videos from the first
science fair, the second science fair for them to experiment. The first step—that was on a
local level, the regional level, and then the finals. In the finals there is an auditorium or
gym full of people and they start to call them. When they call the schools and the chil-
dren stand up, it is very emotional and the children, through those images—“I want it”—
they are kids they can see, “I can do it, I can make it”—all of them have a chance.
(Interview, June 17, 2015)
Based on this response, Smith set a high bar for his students and teachers. Two of Kotter’s
(2012) common errors to organizational change were undercommunicating a vision and allowing
too much complacency. Based on the interview, it appears that Diaz may be responsible for com-
mitting both of these errors. These are errors that could possibly keep the PRONAFECYT from
becoming embedded in the school culture and, as a result, are keeping Pacific Elementary from
reaching the level of success that Eastside has reached.
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 76
Teacher practices at both schools differed as well. When teachers at both schools were
asked if the school culture had changed to accommodate the PRONAFECYT, a teacher from
Pacific Elementary stated: “I believe that the school culture has not changed much. We teach the
students the best way to look for the answers to their questions. I think that the programs makes
them grow” (interview, June 17, 2015). A teacher at Eastside Elementary responded to the same
question:
The education, too? I think it changes a great deal because the students become interested
in various topics, especially while doing research. Say, for example, we do a lot of work
on what is the environment, the environmental area, resources, maintaining resources,
conserving resources, many topics that can help them develop—we work a lot of water
conservation or natural resources, which we do a lot of work on. So I think it creates a
culture of respect for every species. (interview, June 17, 2015)
The teachers’ responses supported the idea that the role of the leader is crucial in setting
the culture at a school. This leadership will not only support the PRONAFECYT but also will
support Costa Rica’s goal of preparing its citizenry with the 21st-century skills required in the
global economy and the national goal of having a 100% literacy rate by 2017, including those in
rural and poor communities. The school directors and teacher leadership must ensure that all
students have equitable educational access to rigorous, project-based educational outcomes in all
schools (CINDE, 2014).
The science fair program is mandated at all schools by a national decree (MEP, 2014). In
visiting different schools, the research team noticed obvious program differences. In an inter-
view with Natalie Valencia Chacón, Science Fair Coordinator at the MICITT, she commented:
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 77
I must accept that we have a lot of work to do as a country so that all the institutions
involved in the process of science and technology fairs are aligned in a country process so
that we can catapult the impact we have already seen in some students and monitor them
more closely. (interview, June 15, 2015)
Student Buy-in
Wagner (2008) emphasized the importance of teaching students how to think. He out-
lined the seven survival skills that students must acquire to be successful in the 21st century
While Wagner placed an emphasis on high school age students and this study focused on grade
school students, there was clear evidence of the development of Wagner’s 21st-century skills in
the classrooms that were observed. The depth to which these skills were exhibited was at the
evolving phase based on the fact that all of the participants were primary school students.
Results for the student surveys are illustrated in Figures 4 and 5. In total, 79 students were sur-
veyed, and the results were overwhelmingly positive and supported the notion that youth actively
engaged in the PRONAFECYT curriculum. The responses for Items #6 (“I know about soft
skills [critical thinking and problem solving, collaboration, communication, adaptability, analy-
sis, curiosity, and imagination])” and Item #7 (“My teachers talk about the importance of soft
skills and how they will help me do well in school”) were not in concert with the rest of the
student responses. This finding probably had to do with the fact that the students were unfamiliar
with the term soft skills. There was a discussion between the research team members during the
development of the protocols as to which term would be used to describe 21st-century skills in
the protocols, and it was decided that the most familiar term for this would be soft skills. This
term presented some challenges during some of the interviews and surveys, as it was an unfamil-
iar term to some of the participants. The group that had the most difficulty with this term were
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 78
Figure 4. Survey question results for Pacific Elementary School students (N = 38).
Figure 5. Survey question results for Eastside Elementary School students (N = 41).
the students. At Pacific Elementary, 35% of the students surveyed indicated that they agreed or
were not sure if they know about soft skills in the survey. At Eastside Elementary 45% dis-
agreed, strongly disagreed, or were not sure about this statement. In the case of Eastside Elemen-
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 79
tary, this category had the largest number of students who disagreed or were not sure of all of the
questions there were presented in the survey at the two schools that were the focus of this study.
Participation in the science fair was voluntary for the students at both schools. Based on
the observations, surveys, and interviews, it was clear that students were highly motivated to
participate in the PRONAFECYT. It was also clear that students felt motivated and supported by
their teachers and the school director. When students at Pacific Elementary were asked if their
teachers talked to them about why there were participating in the science fair, 84% strongly
agreed with this statement. At Eastside Elementary 87% of the students agreed or strongly
agreed with this statement. It was clear that student buy-in was strong at both schools as a result
of the leadership and the teachers. Part of the reason for the high degree of student buy-in for the
PRONAFECYT was the fact that the students enjoyed the process. When asked if they enjoyed
preparing for the science fair, 91% of Eastside students and 100% of Pacific students reported
that they agreed or strongly agreed with the statement.
Results Summary for Research Question 2
Data indicated that there was a disconnect between school site staff and central office
administration in the area of communication. There is an opportunity to use existing technology
to close this gap and improve the success of the PRONAFECYT. Eastside Elementary had a
better track record of success with the science fair. Both Pacific Elementary and Eastside Ele-
mentary appeared to have similar student populations in terms of the number of students and
their socioeconomic level. Both schools were similar in terms of student buy-in and participa-
tion; therefore, it appeared that the differentiating factor between the two schools was the school
director. Following Kotter’s (2012) change model, leaders must be able to follow all eight steps
while at the same time avoiding the common errors that most leaders make. In the case of Pacific
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 80
Elementary, it was clear that the school director undercommunicated the vision and allowed too
much complacency, and these factors were having a negative impact on her school’s success in
the PRONAFECYT .
Findings for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, “How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to
equip students with 21stcentury skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?” World societies are now more interconnected and interdependent than ever
before (Friedman, 2007). For a nation to succeed in an ever increasingly interconnected global
economy, changes to the local economy and education system must occur (Biesanz et al., 1999;
Friedman, 2007). Globalization has necessitated a change in the skills that students must develop
to compete in an increasingly global workforce (Friedman, 2007). While visiting schools in
Costa Rica, it was clear to the research team that school and district leadership personnel were
actively working to prepare students with 21st-century skills through the science fair initiative.
Science Fair Coordinator Natalie Valencia Chacón at the MICITT noted that she believes
that
the PRONAFECYT is a key component to accomplish the workforce but, most impor-
tantly, to be able to have a citizenship that is more committed with the country—that is
more critical, more creative, and eventually to have more students who can develop more
skills that enable them to be competent citizens but also professionals in this field with a
vocation for the scientific-technological or engineering field. (interview, June 15, 2015)
During this same interview, she stated that leadership is not something that is reserved for site
principals but that site principals must be able to find teacher leaders who will be subsequently be
able to motivate students and prepare them with 21st-century skills.
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 81
Wagner and Compton (2012) pointed out that many innovators share the common thread
of being able to identify a teacher as one of the most important individuals during their develop-
ment. Wagner and Compton mentioned that the fact that when one looks at very young children,
one will see that at a very early age, many teachers value only correct answers in the classroom.
As a result of this situation, young students adjust and often hold back from asking provocative
questions. Wagner and Compton further noted that by the time children reach high school, they
rarely show inquisitiveness as a result of the conditioning that they received in early grade
school. Wagner’s (2008) seven survival skills list curiosity and imagination as the seventh skill
that individuals must have to survive and thrive in the 21st century. Teachers who do not only
allow but also encourage students to be curious and ask the provocative, thought-provoking
questions that lead to further discussion are allowing them to foster this essential skill. Ac-
cording to Wagner, this is a skill that employers look for in employees.
Two themes that emerged from the data collected for this question: (a) that the
PRONAFECYT is embedded in school culture and (b) that students are learning 21st-century
skills as well as other related skills by participating in the PRONAFECYT.
PRONAFECYT Embedded in School Culture
Lasting institutional change is something that is difficult to achieve. Kotter’s (2012)
eight-stage change model requires that all eight steps be followed to ensure that the change is
implemented successfully. Evidence of this process was obvious in the data collected in the
study. The PRONAFECYT is not at all a new initiative. As mentioned earlier, this program
started in Costa Rica in 1990. Kotter’s eighth step in his change model is anchoring new ap-
proaches in the culture. One of the themes that emerged was that the PRONAFECYT was more
than just an initiative. It was something had been imbedded into the culture of the schools.
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 82
Pacific Elementary School Director Diaz pointed out the fact that when she started working in
education in the 1980s, there were no science fairs but that today science fairs are a regular part
of the school’s curriculum (interview, June 16, 2015). She also maintained not only that had the
culture changed but also that as a result of the science fair initiative, the curriculum had changed
and these changes were encouraging students to learn and apply the scientific method (interview,
June 16, 2015). She said that as a result, students were becoming better observers and had started
to ask critical questions and think more critically (interview, June 16, 2015).
Participation in the PRONAFECYT, while technically voluntary, is highly encouraged by
integrating the event into other activities that take place during the school day. According to
Diaz, assignments for the PRONAFECYT are given to students in the form of homework. It is
also interwoven into other subjects in the form of extracurricular activities. Minimizing the cost
of the project for the parents was another factor that the school director was conscious of; she
made sure that parents were aware that they could use recycled materials or other items that they
had around the house for projects with the idea of minimizing their costs. One potential issue
that came up and might have stifled creativity was the use of Internet projects by students. Diaz
noted that many of the projects that students created had originated from the Internet. In one
instance, she realized that she had downloaded approximately 200 sample projects from the
Internet and distributed the ideas to students so that they could select a project. However, there
was little indication that the projects that the students created varied from the samples that were
provided for them by the school director. During a parent interview at Pacific Elementary, a
parent confirmed that students used the Internet to develop their PRONAFECYT projects. This
parent did not have a problem with students looking for projects on the Internet and, in fact,
noted that this practice helped her child develop his abilities (interview, June 16, 2015).
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 83
Students are capable of incredible work when they are allowed to use their creativity and
personal experiences to develop their science projects. In one classroom there was an example of
a project that a student developed based on her experience of having a parent battle cancer. The
student’s use of her personal experience combined with her research on the topic made for a rich
and informative project. While some may argue that imitation is the sincerest form of flattery, in
order to reach the goal of the PRONAFECYT of creating critical thinkers and problem solvers,
students are going to have to think for themselves and use their curiosity and imagination to
create projects that challenge the boundaries of what is already known.
Students Learning 21st-century and Related Skills Through PRONAFECYT Participation
According to Wagner (2008), when employers were asked what skills they wanted indi-
viduals to have in partnership with 21st-century skills, more than half of the employers men-
tioned written communication. These same employers noted that the vast majority of high school
graduates are deficient in this area. Wagner pointed out that to be successful, students must be
able to communicate in writing and orally. Having effective oral and written communication
skills is one of Wagner’s seven survival skills.
Spring (2008) noted that communication and information technology make global
networks possible. Students who unable to communicate effectively will not be able to partici-
pate in the global marketplace. Spring also pointed out that information and communication
technology makes it possible for global information to be made available for students in class-
rooms. It is, in fact, the availability of this information and communication technology that
creates a better learning environment in classrooms by allowing students to communicate with
teachers, exchange information, and speak their minds. In this exchange of information, students
are learning the additional skills that they will need to excel in the classroom and to compete in
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 84
the global marketplace. Curiosity was nurtured, and the entire classroom space at Pacific Ele-
mentary was used as part of the learning environment.
Data from the surveys, interviews, and observations provided some insight as to the steps
that Costa Rican system leaders have taken to prepare their schools to provide students with
needed skills to excel in the global marketplace. Evidence of these practices was present
throughout the classrooms at Pacific Elementary; technology was clearly available in the class-
rooms as well as examples of student work. There was evidence that students felt safe to partici-
pate in classroom activities and that they were encouraged to communicate academically. While
the school was an elementary school, students were given many opportunities to participate in
activities such as public speaking and the sharing of information in the form of classroom report
presentations. All activities are preparing students, starting at a young age, with the additional
skills required in the marketplace. To find out the students’ perspective, several students at
Pacific Elementary were asked, “How does the science fair help you?” The responses were as
follows:
The science fair helps me learn about using the Internet and learning about science.
(interview, June 17, 2015)
The science fair helps me understand science better and prepare me for secondary school.
(interview, June 17, 2015)
It has helped me learn about livestock. Most of my family are farmers, and I want to learn
more about caring for animals. There are animals in danger of extinction. This is very
interesting to me, and I like doing research to help me in my future job. (interview,
June 17, 2015)
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 85
The students who were interviewed were randomly selected to participate. All of them clearly
understood that their participation in the science fair was in preparation for future employment.
On Item #8 of the survey (“I can improve my soft skills when I do projects for the science
fair”), students were asked if their 21st-century skills improved by participating in the science
fair. Ninety-five percent of Pacific Elementary students agreed with this statement. Students
clearly understood that participation in the science fair was preparing them with the 21st-century
skills needed for future employment.
Site and system leaders play a crucial role in creating and nurturing a positive classroom
environment. This plan begins at the national level, as Science Fair Coordinator Natalie Valen-
cia Chacón from the MICITT pointed out. She mentioned the fact that Costa Rica has a national
plan of technology and telecommunications that is deliberately focused on the task of creating
and preparing the human resources in the fields of science and technology (interview, June 15,
2015). Valencia went on to state:
I think that is one of the key components for the development of the PRONAFECYT.
Leadership can be exercised by the different persons involved in the education commu-
nity. A principal who is committed—a principal who empowers his teachers makes a
difference, and we have been able to notice that in the visits we made to the different
schools. Teachers who are leaders, who are committed, empowered, who are acquainted
with the process, and who motivate their students since early stages is something critical.
(June 15, 2015)
This comment falls in line with Costa Rica’s transition from a primarily agrarian economy to one
that has been able to attract a high level of FDI (CINDE, 2014).
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 86
Maria Diaz, the School Director at Pacific Elementary, pointed out that students have the
opportunity to take a variety of classes including classes in English. She explained that English
is the language of global trade and that it was important for student to learn to communicate in
this language. Zakaria (2011) pointed out the important role that the English language plays in
the global economy. According to Zakaria, no language has spread as broadly across borders and
around the world the way English has. The closest comparison to this phenomenon would be the
way that Latin spread during the middle ages. Today over a fourth of the population of the earth
speaks English—a number that equates to over 1.5 billion people worldwide (Zakaria, 2011).
This proliferation of the language makes it imperative that individuals participating in the global
economy understand and be able to communicate in the language. While Spanish is still the offi-
cial language of Costa Rica, English is widely spoken and taught in most schools in the country.
The teaching of English occurs in support of and in conjunction with the science fair initiative.
Results Summary for Research Question 3
Educational leaders in Costa Rica have implemented several strategies equip their schools
to prepare students with 21st-century skills in preparation for the PRONAFECYT. The skills
that the students are acquiring through the process are, in turn, preparing them for the national
agenda of having citizens that are ready to participate in the global marketplace. Students are
taught to think critically and to develop projects that demonstrate their understanding of complex
scientific principles. One deficiency that was noted in this preparation was the overdependence
on Internet projects. By allowing students to duplicate projects from the Internet, teachers were
not encouraging students to think independently. This is not to say that all of the projects were
directly inspired from the Internet, but a good portion of them used this strategy. Students should
be encouraged to use the Internet for inspiration and for information, while the majority of the
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 87
project is student developed and unique. School leaders in Costa Rica have ensured that class-
rooms have the resources, equipment, and staff to participate in the PRONAFECYT.
Findings for Research Question 4
Research Question 4 asked, “How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT
affected instructional practices?” Costa Rica’s economic future is dependent on schools that
produce knowledge- and conceptual-based workers with skills in STEM in addition to essential
21st-century competencies (Rodríguez-Clare, 2012). Costa Rica has made prime investments in
its educational systems with the goal of preparing its citizens with 21st-century skills (CINDE,
2014). Costa Rica’s commitment to the implementation of PRONAFECYT is evident from the
National Decree #31900, which calls for the participation of all students from preschool to the
12th grade (MEP, 2014). The PRONAFECYT was designed to promote creativity in the STEM
areas. These changes do not occur without changes in the educational curriculum at a school.
Capraro et al. (2013) provided a model for classroom instruction that encompasses strategies for
educators to assist students in developing 21st-century skills through classroom instruction. This
model of instruction culminates with students completing projects. When properly designed and
implemented, these projects allow students to ask and answer questions, evaluate data, develop
theories, and participate in active learning (Capraro et al., 2013). In reviewing the research data,
two themes emerged: (a) that STEM–PBL instruction is used in classrooms in connection to the
PRONAFECYT and (b) that professional development of staff is a key component in changing
classroom practices.
STEM–PBL Instruction Used Extensively in Classrooms
PBL provides students with the classroom experiences that they need to apply and learn
STEM concepts (Capraro et al., 2013). STEM PBL requires students to work collaboratively to
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 88
solve problems. Slough and Milam (2013) described PBL learning along a five-step continuum.
This continuum starts with the most basic verification of facts. As students grow and develop,
they progress along the continuum from the most basic level of fact finding to the expert level.
An expert is an individual who is able to adapt concepts and transfer knowledge to others. The
PRONAFECYT process ,by design, is a clear example of STEM PBL. STEM PBL is the focus
that Costa Rican educational leaders have adopted in response to the call to prepare students to be
prepared to compete in the global economy of the 21st century. PBL provides students with the
classroom experiences and opportunities that they need to apply and learn STEM concepts
through real-world experiences and application (Capraro et al., 2013).
During classroom observations at Pacific Elementary, the research noted that evidence of
STEM PBL was present in many of the classrooms. This evidence included photographs of
student projects from previous science fairs, current science fair projects that were in develop-
ment, and PBL lessons that were taking place during the visitations. While the PRONAFECYT
was identified as an annual event, it was clear that students prepared for this event throughout the
school year. When the students at Pacific Elementary were asked if their teachers often helped
them learn about the scientific method through science and technology activities, 97.4% of the
surveyed participants agreed or strongly agreed with this statement; only 2.6% disagreed.
This student response was supported by parents’ response to the same question, with
100% of surveyed parents at Pacific agreeing that engagement in scientific inquiry was a regular
part of their child’s instruction. In order to accommodate the newfound focus as a result of par-
ticipation in the PRONAFECYT, the school has adapted and changed. To triangulate the data
and verify that STEM PBL was being used in the classrooms parents were interviewed. Pacific
Elementary parents were asked how the school’s curriculum, pedagogy, or school culture has
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 89
changed to accommodate the PRONAFECYT, including identifying instructional practices were
being used by their child’s teacher. One parent responded that the school has become more
analytical by promoting student research in preparation for their projects and in general (inter-
view, June 17, 2015). Another parent during this same interview mentioned that the school’s
classroom instruction in STEM was preparing their children for the challenges they will face at
the university level. All of the parents who were interviewed at Pacific Elementary commented
that the use of the Internet for research was a skill that their children were learning by participat-
ing in the PRONAFECYT.
Wagner (2008) pointed out that 21st-century learners must have the ability to access and
analyze information. Living in the age where information is available at one’s fingertips, stu-
dents must be able to sort through the information and be able to interpret it (Wagner, 2008).
The ability to perform research is an essential skill that students in Costa Rica are learning by
participating in the PRONAFECYT.
One of the greatest challenges that the Costa Rican educational system faces is preparing
students for jobs that will be created as a result of globalization. STEM PBL facilitates the inte-
gration of different disciplines (Capraro et al., 2013). These inherent qualities make STEM PBL
well suited for students who are developing knowledge in a subject area. The ability to demon-
strate knowledge through a project makes the curriculum more interesting and accessible for
students.
Professional Development of Staff Key Component in Changing Classroom Practices
Professional development is an essential component in any large-scale change in educa-
tion. The Costa Rican government in collaboration with private enterprise has invested heavily
in professional development programs to make the PRONAFECYT possible. Intel sponsors a
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 90
program in Costa Rica called the Intel Teach (Intel Corporation, 2014). Research shows that
teachers respond best to professional development when they believe that what they are learning
can be applied in their classrooms (Tate, 2009). The partnership between Intel and the Costa
Rican government is an example of how instructional practices in the classroom can be impacted
through private-public partnerships at the national level with a focus on the professional devel-
opment of teachers. In an interview with Omar Dengo Foundation officials, Ana Lourdes Acuna,
Coordinator of Science, and with Eduardo Monge, Project Development and International Rela-
tions for the Omar Dengo Foundation, Ms. Lourdes stated:
One of the things that the schools have to promote is that the teachers that are in charge of
the science fair have to be more prepared—they have to be more familiar with the rules,
that they are more familiar with the fair process. (June 22, 2015)
Science Fair Coordinator Natalie Valencia Chacón from the MICITT noted that
promoting students’ investigation and their participation in the science and technology
fairs ensures a comprehensive development of the student and it’s an opportunity for a
personal and professional development for the teachers because we learn a lot from the
different subjects the children focus on. (interview, June 18, 2015)
During the site visit to Pacific Elementary, it was apparent to the research team that pro-
fessional development opportunities were available for the education staff. These opportunities
encompassed a variety of disciplines. Some of the trainings were specifically targeted for the
PRONAFECYT. The teacher survey data painted a different picture of professional development
and the impact that it has on instructional staff. For example, for survey Item #7 (“I am provided
adequate training to prepare students for the PRONAFECYT”), 60% of the teachers responded
that they disagreed with the statement. In response to survey Item #20 (“Teacher training was
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 91
useful in preparing students for the PRONAFECYT”), 40% of Pacific teachers disagreed with
this statement and an additional 20% strongly disagreed. The results were similar for teacher
survey Item #22 (“I am provided yearly training on the PRONAFECYT guidelines”), where 80%
of the teachers disagreed or totally disagreed with this statement. When the Pacific Elementary
School Director was asked how teacher training for the PRONAFECYT takes place (interview,
June 16, 2015), she stated that a collaborative method was used where staff members shared their
experiences from previous years with one another. Diaz felt that this method worked at Pacific
Elementary due to the fact that there were only five classroom teachers at the school. She also
indicated that the MEP mandated that teachers be trained in the scientific method. She indicated
that in cases where the information was beyond her scope, she had resources at the MEP to
whom she could turn for support. It was clear from the observations and interviews of teachers
that the staff also had one another as a resource for the PRONAFECYT.
Results Summary for Research Question 4
The data analysis revealed that the PRONAFECYT was a common bond that was used to
synchronize these practices through a STEM curriculum. Natalie Valencia Chacón, Science Fair
Coordinator at the MICITT, noted:
I think that the decree that regulates the process of fairs has been fundamental, because it
does not only allow that all the education centers around the country, which are more than
5,000, to motivate or open a space for students in early stages, from preschool through
high school, but it familiarizes them with science and technology through the inquiry-
based process. I think that it’s very important at political level. (interview, June 18,
2015)
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 92
The science fair created a culture where 21st-century skills such as critical thinking,
problem solving, collaboration, and curiosity could flourish. Patricia Arias, Regional Science
Advisor for the Occidente Region, stated that
we need more creativity, more innovation in our education system focused on the type of
jobs we want. There was a survey 15 days ago which indicates that if we want our teen-
agers to have an employment in 10 years’ time, they should not only study physics as
such, but they should study physics applied to innovation. (interview, June 15, 2015)
Professional development of instructional staff is essential in the success of the
PRONAFECYT. The commitment of both the national government and school sites to profes-
sional development must make its way down to the classrooms. The survey data indicated that
there is room for improvement in the training that takes place for the PRONAFECYT. This
focus on STEM through the science fair initiative was another common theme that came out of
the research. Costa Rican Assemblyman Javier Cambronero noted during an interview that “in
the case of the technological and science fairs, we don’t want it to be seen as an extracurricular
activity but as a binding, strong force” (June 18, 2015). The focus on STEM has had a profound
impact on the instructional practices in Costa Rica. The science fairs are an example of PBL in
that they allow students to conceptualize and create meaning to STEM concepts. STEM PBL
requires students to work collaboratively in solving problems and at the same time incorporates
rigor into the curriculum (Capraro et al., 2013).
Chapter Summary
The data analysis process included a review of literature pertinent to this study, inter-
views, surveys, and personal observations. Several theoretical frameworks from key theorists in
the field of education are referenced in this study. Their work was used to frame the study and
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 93
assist in responding to the research questions, using the qualitative data that were collected
during the study. These frameworks were Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four frames, Wagner’s
(2008) seven 21st-century survival skills, Kotter’s (2012) eight-step model for organizational
change, and the STEM–PBL concepts of Capraro et al. (2013).
Analysis of the data related to Research Question 1 revealed the following two major
themes:
1. The use of celebration and recognition of staff impacted participation in the
PRONAFECYT.
2. There was an establishment of partnerships and outside resources to support the
success of PRONAFECYT.
These themes connected to Bolman and Deal’s (2008) leadership frameworks and Kotter’s
(2012) eight-step change process. Bolman and Deal’s leadership frameworks were used to
analyze the role that educational leaders have played in the implementation of the
PRONAFECYT initiative in Costa Rica. Kotter’s (2012) eight-step change process was used to
evaluate the process that educational leaders are utilizing to solidify the desired changes.
Two major themes emerged from the analysis of the data for Research Question 2: (a)
embedding the PRONAFECYT into the school culture and (b) student buy-in. These themes
connected to the framework of Kotter’s (2012) eight-step change process and Wagner’s (2008)
21st-century survival skills.
Analysis of the data related to Research Question 3 revealed the two following major
themes:
1. The PRONAFECYT is embedded in the school culture.
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 94
2. Students are learning 21st-century skills as well as other related skills by participating
in the PRONAFECYT.
Once again, Kotter’s (2012) eight-step change process Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century survival
skills were used as the lenses to gauge the level at which school leaders in Costa Rica were
integrating the practices required to prepare student for the challenges of the new knowledge-
based global economy.
Analysis of the data for Research Question 4 yielded two major themes:
1. STEM–PBL instruction is used in classrooms in connection with the PRONAFECYT.
2. Professional development of staff is a key component in changing classroom prac-
tices.
These themes connected to Wagner’s (2008) seven 21st-century survival skills and the frame-
work of Capraro et al. (2013) for STEM PBL.
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 95
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter provides a summary for this study, including how Costa Rica is preparing its
citizenry with the 21st-century skills required to compete in a global economy (Rodríguez-Clare,
2012). Costa Rica’s support of programs such as the PRONAFECYT, along with its commit-
ment to literacy and education, has made it an attractive destination for FDI. Costa Rica has been
making a transition from a primarily agrarian economy to one that has been able to attract a high
level of FDI (CINDE, 2014). Costa Rica’s future is dependent on its ability to produce
knowledge- and conceptual-based workers with the skills required to compete in a 21st-century
economy (Rodríguez-Clare, 2012).
Chapter One presented an overview of the study, a statement of the problem, the research
questions, the purpose for the study, and a definition of significant terms. This chapter also
included an overview of the significance of this study as well as a discussion of limitations and
delimitations.
Chapter Two was a review of literature pertinent to this study. This chapter provided an
overview of the history of Costa Rica, with a focus on the modern history of the country and the
economic climate. This chapter contained a detailed description of the frameworks that were
used in this study and concluded with an overview of professional development, with a focus on
school administration.
Chapter Three covered the methodologies for this study, including the research design
and a description the research team. Also covered were a description of the data collection and
analysis, along with the instruments utilized in the study.
Chapter Four presented the results based on the analysis of all data collected. The results
were divided by research question and viewed through the themes that emerged from the
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 96
frameworks utilized. Chapter Five presents conclusions and suggestions for possible future
studies in the same or related fields.
The purpose of this qualitative case study was to understand the effects of educational
leadership on participation by Costa Rican primary schools in the PRONAFECYT. The four
frameworks used in this study were Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four frames, Wagner’s (2008)
seven 21st-century survival skills, Kotter’s (2012) eight-step model for organizational change,
and the STEM PBL of Capraro et al. (2013). These frameworks were used to answer the follow-
ing four questions:
1. What is the role that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
Discussion of Findings
The analysis of the data resulted in the following seven major themes:
1. Educational leadership, through the use of celebration and recognition of staff, can
positively impact participation in the PRONAFECYT
2. The establishment of partnerships and outside resources is essential in supporting the
success of PRONAFECYT.
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 97
3. School leaders must ensure that the PRONAFECYT is embedded in the schools’
culture for the success of the initiative.
4. Administration at the district and local level as well as teachers must ensure that
students buy in to the PRONAFECYT.
5. Students are learning 21st-century skills as well as other related skills by participating
in the PRONAFECYT.
6. STEM PBL instruction is being used effectively in classrooms in connection with the
PRONAFECYT.
7. Professional development of staff is a key component in changing classroom prac-
tices.
Research Question 1
“What is the role that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative?” Upon analysis of the data, it became clear that educational leaders in Costa Rica
understand that they play a pivotal role in the implementation of the PRONAFECYT. Alicia
Vargas, Vice Minister of Education, stated:
It is a matter of leading together, not only one ministry and the other—both of us have to
lead towards a common goal, which is the science fairs or technological fairs, but we
have to do it in a partnership. (interview, June 17, 2015)
Upon reviewing research data, including interview transcripts, it became clear that school
site directors are the front line staff directly responsible for the success of the program. Their
level of buy-in determines the success of the program implementation at the school site level.
School site leadership through the use of celebration and the recognition of staff can positively
impact participation in the PRONAFECYT. Seemingly simple gestures such as a public
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 98
acknowledgment or the use of a newsletter announcement can raise staff and student morale and
have a positive impact on participation in the PRONAFECYT. Vice Minister Vargas went on to
support this by stating that “the school director is the person who should establish how the
activities are going to develop, according to the norms and regulations that are, of course, pro-
vided” (interview, June 17, 2015). Maria Diaz, the Pacific Elementary School Director, reiter-
ated the importance of the role of the director in the PRONAFECYT: “Because the program
itself, it doesn’t tell us how to work. They don’t give us a blueprint for the fair, but with the
coworkers’ experience, we make it happen” (interview, June 17, 2015).
Success in the PRONAFECYT is positively impacted by bringing in outside resources.
The PRONAFECYT is an example of how Costa Rica is investing in the preparation of its
citizenry to develop the 21st-century skills necessary to compete in a global economy. Costa
Rica’s 96.1% literacy rate is the highest in Central America (Klugman, 2011). One reason for
this high rate is the fact that Costa Rica invests heavily in its national education system. The
Costa Rican constitution mandates that a minimum of 8% of the country’s GDP be allocated for
the national education system (CINDE, 2014). This level of investment in the education system
does not except local educational leaders from having to actively look for resources outside of
those provided by the MEP to support the PRONAFECYT. Effective school leaders must have
the ability to work with parent groups and the public and private sectors to support the
PRONAFECYT. Having the ability to motivate and inspire people to overcome barriers is one of
the traits of a leader (Kotter, 2012). School leadership is ultimately responsible for ensuring that
students have the resources that they need to participate in the PRONAFECYT.
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 99
Research Question 2
“How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?” Inter-
views with school directors confirmed that the science fair initiative was embedded into the
school curriculum. There is, however, room for improvement because a high number of teachers
responded that they disagreed when asked if they received training on how to integrate soft skills
into their curriculum. Parents reported having to spend long hours working on the projects
outside of the school day. Dedicating more time during the school day may increase the opportu-
nity for student–teacher interaction. The teachers have more expertise in the subject area and are
able to provide a greater level of support.
Ms. Diaz, the Director at Pacific Elementary, indicated that the development of projects
takes place both in and outside of the school day. She also pointed out that while participation in
the science fair is voluntary, it was clear that the school director is responsible for creating the
culture of expectation that results in a successful program (interview, June 17, 2015). Eastside
Elementary had a better track record of success with the science fair. Both Pacific Elementary
and Eastside Elementary appeared to have a similar student population in terms of the number of
students and the socioeconomic level. Both schools were similar in terms of student buy-in and
participation. It appeared that the differentiating factor between the two schools was the school
director. Success in the PRONAFECYT requires a school director who is able to embed the
program into the culture of the school while ensuring that the student body buys in to the
program as well.
Kotter (2012) emphasized this fact in his eight common errors to organizational change.
He stated that one common error occurred when leaders neglected to anchor changes firmly into
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 100
the culture of an organization. In the case of PRONAFECYT, data pointed to fact that success
of the program and teacher practices were heavily influenced by the school administration and
their buy-in of the program. When the schools for the research trip were identified by the MEP,
the ministry indicated that schools were selected based on their level of success with the science
fair initiative. While the exact categories that each of the schools was in were not clearly identi-
fied, the schools’ status as a successful or emerging school became clear based on conversations
with central office staff. Once the school visits started, these lines of differentiation began to
blur. One factor that became evident based on the data was that term successful was open to
interpretation in the case of the PRONAFECYT. It appears that one factor in the success of a
school’s science program was at times directly linked with the level of collaboration and relation-
ship that a school director had with central office staff. This is an important political opportunity
for school leaders, who must know how to manage the political frame and “determine the chan-
nels of informal communication” (Bolman & Deal, 2008, p. 216). Bolman and Deal (2008)
pointed out that this is especially important for managers who are launching new initiatives.
While the science fair is not a new initiative, managers must know how to manage the political
terrain and identify issues as they arise. The role of the school director is key to the success of
the initiative.
Wagner (2008) emphasized that the role of the school director is key and has the greatest
impact on the students’ academic program. Wagner’s (2008) collaboration across networks and
leading by influence constituted his second survival skill. There is room for improvement in the
area of collaboration with central office administration with respect to the PRONAFECYT.
Wagner described the importance of using technology to allow individuals across different
boundaries to communicate with one another. While Costa Rica is relatively small in size, its
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 101
road system has not been updated to efficiently accommodate the growth in industry and popula-
tion. As a result, school site-based leadership might benefit from the use of technology to
improve communication with district staff.
Research Question 3
“How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?” This
question was included for the purpose of looking for specific strategies that educational leaders
have implemented at school sites that prepare their students with 21st-century skills through the
science fair initiative. In an interview with Natalie Valencia Chacón, coordinator at the MICITT,
noted that she believes that
the PRONAFECYT is a key component to accomplish the workforce but most impor-
tantly to be able to have a citizenship that is more committed with the country, that is
more critical, more creative and eventually to have more students who can develop more
skills that enable them to be competent citizens but also professionals in this field with a
vocation for the scientific-technological or engineering field. (interview, June 15, 2015)
The focus of preparing students with 21st-century skills through the science fair initiative
extends all the way to the federal level. Carolina Vasquez, Vice Minister of the MICITT, sup-
ported this concept and added that Costa Rica has a national development plan at the government
level with a focus on STEM (interview, June 15, 2015).
This focus on preparing students with the 21st-century skills necessary for their transition
into the workforce is carried into the classrooms. A fairly high level of instructional technologi-
cal integration was evident at the schools that were visited during the research trip. Nonprofit
organizations such as the Omar Dengo Foundation have also supported Costa Rican schools with
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 102
training and technology for use in classrooms. It is the direct support of such organizations that
is helping to equip students with the equipment they need to acquire 21st-century skills. Another
valuable resource that school leaders turn to are the parents. The director at Pacific Elementary
emphasized that the school’s resources would not be at the level where they are today without the
support and the parents (interview, June 17, 2015).
There was an opportunity to interview several parents at Pacific Elementary, and all
corroborated what the school director had said. The use of the Internet as a source of possible
themes or projects is a potential problem because in order to reach the PRONAFECYT’s goal of
creating critical thinkers and problem solvers, students will have to think for themselves and use
their curiosity and imagination to create projects that challenge the boundaries of what is already
known. Teachers who choose to allow students to duplicate projects found online may be selling
their students short by not allowing them to grow to their full potential.
Research Question 4
“How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional prac-
tices?” Participation in the PRONAFECYT has had a positive impact on the instructional
practices in the classrooms in Costa Rica. Costa Rica’s economic future is dependent on schools
that produce knowledge- and conceptual-based workforce with the level of preparation in STEM
to be competitive in the global marketplace. During classroom observations at Pacific Elemen-
tary, evidence of STEM PBL was present in classrooms. While the science fair is an annual
event, preparation for the event occurs throughout the school year through the integration of
curriculum in the areas of STEM. The clear use of STEM PBL through the PRONAFECYT
allows students to acquire the skills required to solve real-world challenges.
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 103
Educational leaders in Costa Rica understand that professional development of staff is a
key component in changing classroom practices. Professional development specifically related
to the PRONAFECYT is an area where additional attention is required, as demonstrated by the
disconnect between what is offered and the perception of teachers. The focus on STEM has had
a profound impact on the instructional practices in Costa Rica. Participation in the
PRONAFECYT creates a culture where 21st-century skills such as critical thinking, problem
solving, collaboration, and curiosity flourish.
Implications for Practice
Costa Rica’s commitment to providing a knowledge-ready workforce has had a positive
impact on its educational system. The PRONAFECYT is a prime example of how Costa Rica is
preparing it citizenry with the 21st-century skills that will be required to continue to be competi-
tive in a global economy. Educational leaders in Costa Rica at all levels play a crucial role in the
delivery of the PRONAFECYT. This study demonstrated the importance of communication in
the execution of a program such as the PRONAFECYT. Lack of communication can lead to
misconceptions and misevaluation of program performance at the school sites. This study also
highlighted the importance of professional development. While the PRONAFECYT has been in
existence since 1990, there is still much room for improvement, especially in the area of profes-
sional development, as indicated by the research data.
Costa Rica’s underdeveloped and overburdened highway system further supports the
suggestion that technology such as video and phone conferencing could provide realistic avenues
to align professional development throughout Costa Rican schools. The educational leaders at all
levels who participated in this study were passionate about their profession. They demonstrated a
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 104
willingness to learn and make changes when necessary to provide their students with the best
educational opportunities possible.
Recommendations for Future Research
The research team had the opportunity to visit elementary schools and interact with edu-
cational leaders in Costa Rica. High-ranking educational leaders and politicians participated in
the study as well. Costa Rica’s warm openness and willingness to share were key factors that
supported this research study and led to its successful execution. A logical choice for further
research would be to conduct the same study at the secondary level. The present study focused
on primary schools in Costa Rica. Secondary school administrators could provide a different
point of view because of the fact that they are interacting with students who are on the verge of
transitioning to a university or to careers. The purpose of the study could remain the same but
focus on secondary students who are facing different challenges and have educational needs that
vary from those of primary school students. Another area for further research that this researcher
suggests would be a study on the factors that school district administrators use to determine what
a successful and an unsuccessful school is in relation to the PRONAFECYT. The present study
highlighted the fact that administrative perceptions are impacted by many factors. A study that
focused on those factors might shed some light on how perceptions are formed and the impact
that those factors have on the relationship between central office administration and school site-
based staff.
Conclusion
The PRONAFECYT is an initiative that has had a wide-ranging and positive impact on
the education system in Costa Rica. This study has demonstrated that school administrators play
a pivotal role and have a direct impact on the success of the national initiative. As the
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 105
PRONAFECYT continues to evolve, Costa Rican educational leaders would benefit from fol-
lowing Kotter’s (2012) eight-step model for change to continue on a progressive course. Costa
Rica has certainly reaped the benefits of converting from a primarily agrarian economy to a
highly technological economy that has been able to attract high levels of foreign investment as a
direct result of its commitment to the education of its citizenry.
What Costa Rica lacks in natural resources is more than make up for in human capital.
Costa Rica is a beautiful, peaceful country that is rich in culture and tradition. This inviting
tranquility combined with the focus on education and openness to the global marketplace puts
Costa Rica in an enviable position not only in Latin America but also in the entire world.
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 106
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Appendix A
Recruitment Letter
DATE
Dear XXX,
On June 15, 2015, a group of 18 doctoral students from the University of Southern California,
Rossier School of Education, will travel to Costa Rica as part of a study team led by Dr. Michael
Escalante. The purpose of our research is to understand the effects of educational leadership on
participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT) in
primary schools in Costa Rica. Specifically, we are interested in the roles of primary school
leaders in preparing and implementing this initiative. As part of our study, the following ques-
tions will be addressed:
1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with
21st-century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practice?
We would appreciate an opportunity to speak with you, members of the Ministry of Education,
and educational leaders at regional and school site levels. It is our goal to conduct surveys and
interviews to gather data to address these research questions. Your input will be invaluable to
our study.
Thank you for considering our request. We are available to meet with you any time between
from June 15 and June 19. Please feel free to contact any member of our study team if you have
any questions.
Sincerely,
USC Doctoral Students
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 112
Appendix B
Summary of the Research Proposal
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 113
Appendix C
List of Research Sites
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 114
Appendix D
Teacher Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 115
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 116
Appendix E
School Director Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 117
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 118
Appendix F
Government Official/Business Leaders Interview Protocol: English and
Spanish Versions
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 119
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 120
Appendix G
Parent Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 121
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 122
Appendix H
Student Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 123
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 124
Appendix I
Teacher Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 125
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 126
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 127
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 128
Appendix J
School Director Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 129
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 130
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 131
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 132
Appendix K
Government Official Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 133
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 134
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 135
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 136
Appendix L
Business Partner Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 137
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 138
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 139
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 140
Appendix M
Parent Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 141
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 142
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 143
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 144
Appendix N
Student Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 145
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 146
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 147
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 148
Appendix O
Observation Protocol
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 149
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 150
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 151
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 152
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 153
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 154
Appendix P
Consent Form
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089
INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NONMEDICAL RESEARCH
THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN PARTICIPATION IN THE NATIONAL
PROGRAM OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FAIRS IN COSTA RICA
You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You
should ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to understand the effects of educational leadership on participation in
the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs in primary schools in Costa Rica.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a 15-minute survey, a
30-minute audiotaped interview, and/or a 10-minute classroom observation. You do not have to
answer any questions that you don’t want to answer; if you don’t want to be taped, you can still
participate in this study.
CONFIDENTIALITY
There will be no identifiable information obtained in connection with this study. Your name,
address, or other identifiable information will not be collected.
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.
IMPACT OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIRS 155
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Principal Investigator:
Dr. Michael Escalante, University of Southern California,
mescalan@usc.edumailto:mescalan@usc.edu; mailto:mescalan@usc.edu
Co-investigators:
Oryla Wiedoeft, Assistant to Dr. Escalante,
wiedoeft@usc.edumailto:wiedoeft@usc.edu
Patricia Brent-Sanco, Principal, Paramount Unified School District, pbrent@usc.edumailto:pbrent@usc.edu
Cindy Chavez Swenson, MWP Lecturer, University of California, Merced,
ccswenso@usc.edumailto:ccswenso@usc.edu
Jesus Corral, Senior Director, Los Angeles County Probation Dept.,
jesuscorral1@gmail.commailto:jesuscorral1@gmail.com
Ricardo Esquivel, Principal, Partnership to Uplift Communities, ricardoe@usc.edumailto:ricardoe@usc.edu
Carin Fractor, Teacher, Saugus Union School District,
fractor@usc.edumailto:fractor@usc.edu
Miguel Gonzales, Assistant Principal, Santa Barbara Unified School District
gonzalmm@usc.edumailto:gonzalmm@usc.edu
Denise Harshman, Coordinator, Orange County Department of Education
harshman@usc.edumailto:harshman@usc.edu
Mathew Kodama, Assistant Principal, Pasadena Unified School District
mathewwk@usc.edumailto:mathewwk@usc.edu
Jennifer Lashier, Assistant Principal, Arcadia Unified School District, lashier@usc.edumailto:lashier@usc.edu
April Leon, Teacher, West Covina High School,
aprilleo@usc.edumailto:aprilleo@usc.edu
Omar Lopez, Clinical Associate Professor, Assistant Director of Field Education, USC School of Social Work,
omarl@usc.edumailto:omarl@usc.edu
Christin Molano, Principal, Glendale Unified School District, cwalley@gusd.netmailto:cwalley@gusd.net
Fernando Marquez, Teacher on Assignment, Oro Grande School District,
fmarquez@usc.edumailto:fmarquez@usc.edu
Maribel Martinez, Principal, Lynwood Unified School District Mart632@usc.edumailto:Mart632@usc.edu
Wendy Poffenberger, Assistant Principal, Long Beach Unified School District,
wpoffenb@usc.edumailto:wpoffenb@usc.edu
Bea Spelker-Levi, Principal, Paramount Unified School District,
bspelker@paramount.k12.ca.usmailto:bspelker@paramount.k12.ca.us
Richard Storti, Vice President of Administrative Services, Fullerton College, rstorti@usc.edumailto:rstorti@usc.edu
John Tung, Assistant Principal, Arcadia Unified School District, johntung@usc.edumailto:johntung@usc.edu;
mailto:johntung@usc.edu; mailto:johntung@usc.edu
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-
0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edumailto:upirb@usc.edu

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The goal of this qualitative case study was to gain a better understanding of the impact that educational leaders have had on the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (NPSTF) in Costa Rica. In Costa Rica this program is known as the Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Technología (PRONAFECYT). The PRONAFECYT is an example of how Costa Rica is investing in the preparation of its citizenry to develop the 21st-century skills necessary to compete in a global economy. ❧ The research team consisted of 18 doctoral students from the University of Southern California’s Rossier School of Education. Dr. Michael Escalante led the research team with the assistance of Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft, also from the Rossier School of Education. The cohort was divided into smaller focus groups during the trip to Costa Rica. Each focus group was scheduled to visit different schools. The 2 schools included 1 school that had been identified by Costa Rican officials as highly active in the PRONAFECYT and one school whose participation was in the emerging stage. ❧ This study looked at the application of the PRONAFECYT and the integration of a science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) curriculum at 18 Costa Rican elementary schools. The research team worked closely with representatives from the Ministry of Public Education (MEP) to gain access to schools, survey staff, conduct observations, and analyze documents. Multiple data sources were used to provide an opportunity for triangulation of data. ❧ Analysis of the data collected through interviews, surveys, and personal observations revealed that the PRONAFECYT has had a wide-ranging positive impact on the educational system in Costa Rica. The use of a project-based curriculum in the science fair fosters the development of 21st-century skills and prepares students for the global workforce. Data indicated that educational leaders, at all levels, were key to the success of the program. Results from the study will be made available to the Costa Rican MEP to improve practices and create policy related to educational leaders’ roles and preparation for the PRONAFECYT.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Corral, Jesus (author)

Core Title The impact of educational leadership on participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Pacific Elementary

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/12/2016

Defense Date 02/19/2016

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael (committee chair), Garcia, Pedro E. (committee member), Hinman, Charles (committee member)

Creator Email jesuscor@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-226195

Unique identifier UC11278856

Identifier etd-CorralJesu-4241.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-226195 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-CorralJesu-4241.pdf

Dmrecord 226195

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Corral, Jesus

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA