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The role of educational leadership on participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Highland Primary School in the Valley Region of Costa Rica
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The role of educational leadership on participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Highland Primary School in the Valley Region of Costa Rica
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Content
Running head: EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 1
THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP ON PARTICIPATION IN THE
NATIONAL PROGRAM OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FAIRS AT
HIGHLAND PRIMARY SCHOOL IN THE VALLEY REGION OF
COSTA RICA
by
Jennifer Lashier
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2016
Copyright 2016 Jennifer Lashier
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 2
Dedication
I dedicate this dissertation to all who have supported my commitment to lifelong learning:
to my parents, who have taught me that learning never stops; to my brother, who was my first
student; and to my students (former, current and future), for whom I advocate.
I thank my husband Robert for being my rock throughout this process. He never once
complained about taking the kids when I needed to read and write or when I had to miss an event
because I needed to work on an assignment. I love him more than words can say. The passion of
my children, Peyton and Olivia, for learning and education grew every day as they watched their
mom read an article or write a paper, especially this dissertation. I thank them for sharing my
love of learning.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 3
Acknowledgments
My work on this dissertation could not have been possible without the support and
guidance of many individuals. I am grateful to my work family for their friendships and support
during these past 3 years. I thank David Vannasdall, Dr. Joel Shawn, and Dr. Brent Forsee for
giving me the opportunities to grow professionally and challenging me to be a better advocate for
all students. I thank my administrative colleagues, John Finn, Catherine Merel, Keith Kerney,
and Marianne von Kriegenbergh, for supporting me in my constant preoccupation with my latest
assignment—especially my obsession with Costa Rica. A special thank you to my partner in
crime, John Tung, for allowing me to coerce him to go through this program together. The last 3
years were as good as it could be with his partnership.
I would like to thank my professor and dissertation chair, Dr. Michael Escalante. I am
honored and deeply appreciative of his mentoring during this process. The experience has been
phenomenal, and I humbly acknowledge his dedication to my study and future direction. I am
grateful to Dr. Pedro Garcia, Dr. Richard Sheehan, Dr. David Verdugo, and (once again) Dr.
Escalante, for serving as my dissertation committee members and for making the completion of
my dissertation possible. I also want to thank all of the wonderful professors under whom I had a
chance to study while at USC. Finally, special thanks go to my dissertation group members, who
motivated me and shared their knowledge and resources throughout the process. I treasure our
time spent working together and know that my own contribution to the general body of knowl-
edge comes as a result of these relationships. Together we have shared a special once-in-a-
lifetime event, and I consider them not only my colleagues but also my friends.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 4
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
List of Tables 7
Abstract 8
Chapter One: Introduction 10
Background of the Study 11
Globalization 11
Multinational Corporations 12
Costa Rica Education System 12
PRONAFECYT 13
STEM PBL 13
Leadership 14
Statement of the Problem 15
Purpose of the Study 16
Research Questions 16
Significance of the Study 17
Limitations and Delimitations 17
Assumptions 18
Definitions of Related Terms 19
Organization of the Study 19
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 21
Globalization 22
Globalization Described 22
Globalization in Costa Rica 26
Brief History of Costa Rica 27
Government 29
Economy 31
Education 36
Description of Education System 37
MEP 39
Impact of MNCs on Education 42
Discussion: Education 48
Science and Technology 49
National Science Fair 50
STEM 53
PBL 54
STEM PBL 55
Twenty-First-Century Skills 57
Leadership 60
Bolman and Deal 60
Principal Leadership 61
Teacher Leadership 63
Professional Development 66
Model for Change 68
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 5
Chapter Summary 69
Chapter Three: Research Methodology 71
Research Design 72
Research Team 73
Sample and Population 74
Instruments 74
Data Collection 76
Data Analysis 80
Reliability and Validity 81
Ethical Considerations 82
Chapter Summary 83
Chapter Four: Results 84
Participants 85
Results for Research Question 1 90
School Leadership Responsible for Empowering Others 92
School Leadership Responsible for Sustaining Positive Culture 99
Results Summary for Research Question 1 104
Results for Research Question 2 105
Teacher Collaboration 108
The Use of STEM PBL 117
Results Summary for Research Question 2 122
Results for Research Question 3 123
Training and Ongoing Professional Development 124
Prioritizing Instructional Efforts 130
Results Summary for Research Question 3 134
Results for Research Question 4 134
Increased Elements of STEM PBL 135
Application of Inquiry in the Classroom 139
Results Summary for Research Question 4 143
Chapter Summary 144
Chapter Five: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations 146
Summary of Findings 149
Research Question 1 150
Research Question 2 151
Research Question 3 152
Research Question 4 153
Implications for Practice 154
Recommendations for Future Research 155
Conclusion 156
References 158
Appendices
Appendix A: Recruitment Letter 170
Appendix B: List of Research Sites 171
Appendix C: Teacher Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 172
Appendix D: School Director Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 176
Appendix E: Government Official Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 180
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 6
Appendix F: Business Partner Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 184
Appendix G: Parent Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 188
Appendix H: Student Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 192
Appendix I: Teacher Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 196
Appendix J: School Director Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 200
Appendix K: Government Official/Business Leaders Interview Protocol: English
and Spanish Versions 204
Appendix L: Parent Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 206
Appendix M: Student Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 208
Appendix N: Observation Protocol 210
Appendix O: Consent Form 216
Appendix P: Summary of Research Proposal 218
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 7
List of Tables
Table 1: Summary of Interviewed Government and Business Participants 87
Table 2: Summary of School Site Participation: Highland Primary School 89
Table 3: Summary of School Site Participation: Foothill Primary School 106
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 8
Abstract
Globalization and technological advances have enabled emerging countries to compete
with traditionally economically dominant countries. Emerging countries can advance their
economy through the attraction of foreign direct investment (FDI) from multinational corpora-
tions. A key element in the attraction of FDI is the development of human capital.
Costa Rica has transitioned from an economy primarily based on agriculture to a
knowledge-based economy with the attraction of FDI from companies such as Intel, Microsoft,
Cisco, and Hewlett Packard. The need to create the necessary human capital to support this
process placed challenges on the educational system to develop students with 21st-century skills.
In response, the government issued National Executive Decree #31900, mandating the participa-
tion of all Costa Rican students to participate in the National Program for Science and Technol-
ogy Fairs (Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología [PRONAFECYT]).
This qualitative research case study examined the role that educational leaders have
played in implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative. The study examined leadership practices,
instructional strategies, and professional development practices. The research team was com-
prised of 18 doctoral students from the University of Southern California. The data collection
instruments consisted of interviews, surveys, and observation protocols.
To evaluate leadership strategies, John Kotter’s 8-step change model and the 4 frames
model developed by Lee Bolman and Terrence Deal were utilized. To connect the trans-
missibility of leadership to instruction, instructional practices were also examined and evaluated.
Specifically, the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) project-based
learning approach developed by Robert Capraro and colleagues was used to further understand
learner engagement and the transferability of Tony Wagner’s 21st-century skills.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 9
The investigation should benefit Costa Rican government officials, policymakers, school
leaders, and business leaders. As noted through the data analysis of surveys; observations; and
interviews with government, business, and education leaders, as well as teachers, parents, and
students, there was a positive relationship between educational leadership and participation in the
PRONAFECYT. Actions by leadership were key to empowering teachers, garnering support,
encouraging participation, integrating curriculum, and guiding instructional practice to target
student development.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 10
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
The gross domestic product (GDP) is a key indicator in determining the economic health
of a nation. The GDP represents the market value of all goods and services produced by the
economy and is manifested in a nation’s employment rate. Globalization has directly impacted
the GDP of many nations around the world, with Costa Rica being one of them. In the last 30 2
years, Costa Rica has shifted from an agricultural economy to a knowledge-based economy with
the support of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) such as the Costa Rican Investment
Promotion Agency (CINDE). Organizations like CINDE (2013) have successfully increased the
foreign direct investment (FDI) of multinational corporations (MNCs), thus ultimately contribut-
ing to the job market of Costa Rica. The continued recruitment of FDI has been a national focus;
Clifton (2011) predicted intense competition among countries to attract the FDI of MNCs.
MNCs are expected to contribute significantly to the job market throughout Costa Rica based on
Gallup’s estimate of a $1.8 billion global employment shortfall (as cited in Clifton, 2011).
CINDE (2013) has been successful in increasing FDI from high-tech companies such as
Intel, Microsoft, Cisco, and Hewlett Packard. Even with the introduction of FDI of MNCs, there
remains fluidity in the labor market. Intel has eliminated jobs and sold off plants throughout
Costa Rica (“Intel Outside,” 2014). The relative gains and losses within technology industries
require the entire labor market to be agile enough to keep pace with the changes (Spring, 2008;
Wagner, 2010, 2012).
The development of human capital falls to the education system, specifically Costa Rica’s
Ministry of Public Education (Ministerio de Educacion Publica [MEP]). The MEP feels that the
country will benefit from increased participation in the fields of science, technology, engineering,
and mathematics (STEM). As a result, the government issued National Executive Decree
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 11
#31900 mandating the participation of all Costa Rican students in the participation in the
National Program for Science and Technology Fairs (Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología [PRONAFECYT]); Ministry of Science, Technology, and Telecommunications
[MICITT], 2014). As the Costa Rican government disseminates its vision for the future, it will
only be as effective as the leaders responsible for carrying it out believe in the outcomes.
The purpose of this study is to specifically examine and evaluate methodologies imple-
mented by leaders focused on participating successfully in the PRONAFECYT. To evaluate
leadership strategies, Kotter’s (1996) eight-step change model and Bolman and Deal’s (2011)
four frames of leadership were utilized to evaluate leadership strategies. To connect the trans-
missibility of leadership to instruction, instructional practices were also examined and evaluated.
Specifically, Capraro, Capraro, and Morgan’s (2013) STEM project-based learning (PBL) was
used to further understand learner engagement and the transferability of Wagner’s (2008) 21st-
century skills.
Background of the Study
Globalization
Globalization was defined by Spring (2008) as the interconnection of the world economy
marked by the flows of ideas, people, capital, trade, and social customs across borders. The
flows are connected by the “flat-world platform” (Friedman, 2007, p. 10) that includes advances
in technology and personal computing. These advanced allow for the creation of content devel-
opment in digital form, affordable access to digital content from anywhere in the world, and the
availability of software that allows people to collaborate virtually on digital content. Technol-
ogy, collaboration, and flexible access are now a part of the global economy. Specific skills are
required to participate in the flat-world platform—skills that typically are gained through the
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 12
educational system (Friedman, 2007). The knowledge economy is driving the globalization of
education and the need for large numbers of educated workers (Spring, 2008).
Multinational Corporations
Through the efforts of CINDE (2013), FDI has drastically increased in the last 10 years.
With MNCs such as Intel, Hewlett Packard, Procter & Gamble, IBM, and Walmart, Costa Rica’s
labor force has transformed over the last century. MNCs in Costa Rica represent over 6,000 of
the current jobs that are offered to Costa Ricans (CINDE, 2013). With these jobs come new
skills that are required to fulfill the work demands that MNCs require. It is crucial that students
graduate secondary school prepared to meet the demands of MNCs for the benefit of the student,
the corporation, and the Costa Rican economy.
Costa Rica Education System
Costa Rica has demonstrated a commitment to education by mandating a compulsory
education and providing a free public education to all. With the abolishment of the armed forces,
Costa Rica has been able to dedicate a portion of the GDP to education, thereby enabling a 96%
literacy rate. The mission of the MEP is to serve students and their families, teachers, principals,
and the general community so as to develop human capacity to live and integrate in a global
society based on ingenuity, knowledge, and skills. The MEP leads and supports implementation
of educational decisions made for the Costa Rican school system from pre-K through higher
education (MEP, 2014). One such decision is the government-issued National Executive Decree
#31900, mandating the participation of all Costa Rican students in the PRONAFECYT (MICITT,
2014).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 13
PRONAFECYT
In 2004 Costa Rica issued its National Executive Decree #31900 (MICITT, 2014). The
decree mandates all students to participate in the PRONAFECYT to increase interest in STEM
fields in order to develop human capital to fill the jobs created in the high-tech industries devel-
oped from the FDI of MNCs. The MEP (2014) feels that participation in the PRONAFECYT
should stimulate creativity and promote a science and technology culture. The structure of the
PRONAFECYT gives every student an equal opportunity to participate in the program. The
differing levels of participation among various school sites in Costa Rica highlights the impor-
tance of site leadership to ensure that the decree is implemented with fidelity. Additionally, the
PRONAFECYT has the potential to utilize STEM–PBL strategies and to develop 21st century
skills.
STEM PBL
STEM-embedded with PBL integrates design principles for real life application (Capraro
& Slough, 2009). Preparing students for real-world expectations in the growing fields of STEM
will develop students to think critically and analytically while using higher order thinking skills.
PBL requires collaboration, peer communication, problem solving and self-directed learning
(Capraro & Slough, 2009). Capraro et al. (2013) identified five characteristics for an inquiry-
based curriculum to effectively promote STEM faculties. First, students get a variety and choice
of learning tasks to involve them in the learning process and increase their motivation to com-
plete the project. Second, they receive explicit communications and explanations to curtail any
ambiguity caused by a problem’s open endedness. Third, they have opportunities to model
solutions, to practice solving problems, and to receive constructive feedback on high-level tasks
from peers and coaches. Fourth, they engage in a student-centered instructional environment that
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 14
focuses on the interests and needs of the individual learners. Fifth, each learner receives support
for his or her individual learning needs and levels of development, from the high achievers to the
struggling learners.
Although the intent of STEM PBL is to foster STEM education in the classroom and
ultimately facilitate the objective of the PRONAFECYT, STEM PBL more importantly develops
the skills necessary for 21st-century jobs.
Leadership
The impact of globalization and MNCs in Costa Rica has challenged administrators to
take on new leadership roles in schools and universities. The definition of educational leader-
ship, as interpreted by Northouse (2013), is the ability of an individual or individuals to influence
groups of educators to achieve a common goal. Effective leaders must incorporate new leader-
ship roles to meet the needs of the knowledge-based economy. According to Bolman and Deal
(2011), an effective leader is well rounded and exhibits many characteristics. The four frames of
the leadership model—structural, political, symbolic, and human resources—elaborate on exact
areas in which leadership occurs. While many leaders do not demonstrate all of these character-
istics equally, each of the four frames should be utilized by the effective leader (Bolman & Deal,
2011).
Bolman and Deal (2011) correlated their four frames with Kotter’s (1996, p. 23) eight-
step change model. According to Kotter’s eight-step process, leaders can transform organiza-
tions to successful institutions by following these steps: (a) “establish a sense of urgency,” (b)
“create the guiding coalition,” (c) “develop a vision and strategy,” (d) “communicate the change
vision,” (e) “empower broad-based action,” (f) “generate short-term wins,” (g) “consolidate gains
and produce more change,” and (h) “anchor new approaches in the organization’s culture.” Each
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 15
of the steps of change can be associated to at least two or more frames of leadership. A
multiframed leader will establish a sense of urgency by soliciting input from stakeholders when
utilizing the human resource frame, use the political frame to build a power base by networking
with people of influence, and tell a compelling story to reframe the issue from the symbolic
frame.
Statement of the Problem
Misra (2012) defined globalization as the “integration of economies and societies through
cross country flows of information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance and
people” (p. 69). These global changes have led to a highly competitive and rapidly changing
environment for countries throughout the world. World societies are now more interconnected
and interdependent than ever before (Armstrong, 2007; Friedman, 2007). For a nation to succeed
in an ever increasingly interconnected global economy, changes to the local economy and educa-
tion system must occur (Biesanz, Biesanz, & Biesanz, 1999; Friedman, 2007). Globalization has
necessitated a change in the skills that students must develop to compete in an increasingly
global workforce (Friedman, 2007; Spring, 2008). As a result, educational systems are no longer
competing with other school systems in the same city, state, or even nation but rather are compet-
ing with schools around the world (Wagner, 2008, 2012).
Costa Rica has endured many changes since gaining independence in 1859 (Biesanz et al.,
1999). Since its independence and the abolishment of its military, Costa Rica has placed its
primary focus on education (Palmer & Molina, 2004). During the past 30 years, Costa Rica has
adapted and reformed from a rural, agrarian society, to a high-tech hub of innovation in Latin
America (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). In addition, Costa Rica has initiated actions designed to
attract FDI, which have included tax incentives and investments in infrastructure as well as
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 16
changes to the educational system (Organisation for Economic and Co-operative Development
[OECD], Development Centre, 2012).
To continue attracting FDI, Costa Rica’s economic future is dependent on schools that
produce knowledge and conceptual-based workers with skills in STEM in addition to essential
21st-century competencies (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). However, according to Americas Society/
Council of the Americas (2011), 20% to 30% of students in Costa Rica do not finish their
secondary school experience. To ensure a 100% literacy rate by 2017 and to ensure that all
students, including those in rural and poor communities, principal and teacher leadership must
guarantee that all students have equitable educational access to rigorous, project-based educa-
tional outcomes in all schools (CINDE, 2013).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to identify the role that educational leaders play in imple-
menting the PRONAFECYT initiative. The study will examine leadership practices, instructional
strategies, and professional development practices at various school sites to identify key compo-
nents of successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative.
Research Questions
The following research questions are being investigated in this study:
1. What is the role that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 17
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
Significance of the Study
The existing research (e.g., Rodriguez-Clare, 2001; Spring, 2008; Stromquist &
Monkman, 2000) regarding the impact of globalization on cultural, geopolitical, and social
changes, including schooling, has provided a foundation for this research study. This research
has highlighted the competition among nations for jobs as a result of globalization and its impact
on various countries’ educational policies to instill the prerequisite skills and knowledge to
compete for these globalized jobs. According to existing research, human capital developed
through education is vital to a country’s economy. Costa Rica has responded to this challenge by
requiring all students to participate in the PRONAFECYT. The MEP’s (2014) goal is to increase
interest in the STEM fields and foster innovation and creativity to help grow an innovation-based
economy.
To accomplish its goals, the MEP relies on site leaders. The MEP recognizes that dispari-
ties exist in schools in regard to the level of participation in the PRONAFECYT. This study shed
light on the variances in leadership and curriculum design that differentiate high-participation
schools from low-participation schools. The findings of this study should provide educational
leaders and educational policymakers with the information needed to improve the implementa-
tion of science fair programs nationwide.
Limitations and Delimitations
Distance and time posed limitations to conducting this study. The researcher were in
Costa Rica for a total of 10 days, and the time constraint limited the number of interviews and
classroom observations that could take place. A second limitation of this study was the language
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 18
barrier. This researcher is not a Spanish speaker, and not all participants spoke English. This
language barrier impacted the researcher’s ability to interpret the collected data. Finally, the
researcher needed to be aware of any bias that might exist during the data-gathering process.
For this research study, the delimitations that existed included the investigation of nine
schools that had been successful in the implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative and nine
schools that had been not as successful in implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative, as
identified by the MEP.
Assumptions
The following assumptions were made for this research study:
1. That participation in the PRONAFECYT would lead to increased development of
21st-century skills;
2. That participation in the PRONAFECYT would lead to increased interest in STEM-
related fields;
3. That success in the PRONAFECYT was a direct result of classroom instruction;
4. That all participants would provide accurate feedback in their surveys and truthful
answers in their interviews;
5. That classroom observations would be representative of typical instruction at that site;
6. That during the classroom observations, the classroom teachers would not perform
STEM–PBL implementations that were not part of their normal routine; and
7. That leadership played a crucial role in the successful implementation of the
PRONAFECYT initiative.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 19
Definitions of Related Terms
For the purpose of this study, the following terms are defined:
FDI: An investment made by a company or entity based in one country into a company or
entity based in another country.
Globalization: The growing interdependence of countries resulting from increasing inte-
gration of trade, finance, people, and ideas in one global marketplace (World Bank, 2012).
Knowledge economy: A system of consumption and production that is based on intellec-
tual capital.
MNC: A corporation that has its facilities and other assets in at least one country other
than its home country.
PBL: A teaching method in which students gain knowledge and skills by working for an
extended period of time to investigate and respond to a complex question, problem, or challenge.
STEM curriculum: A curriculum based on the idea of educating students in four specific
disciplines—science, technology, engineering and mathematics—in an interdisciplinary and
applied approach.
Twenty-first-century skills: A broad set of knowledge, skills, work habits, and character
traits that are believed by educators, school reformers, college professors, employers, and others
to be critically important to success in today’s world, particularly in collegiate programs and
contemporary careers and workplaces.
Organization of the Study
This dissertation is divided into five chapters. Chapter One has provided an introduction
to the study by overviewing the background of the problem, the problem statement that the
research addressed, the purpose of the study, the research questions that drove the study, the
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 20
significance of the study, the limitations and delimitations, the assumptions, and a definition of
key terms used in the study.
Chapter Two is a detailed review of the existing literature that pertains to areas of the
study. The chapter begins by setting the context with a review of specific theories of globaliza-
tion. This context is further supported followed by an investigation of key events in Costa Rica’s
history that have led to the present-day status as a high-tech hub in Central America. A descrip-
tion of the Costa Rican educational structure is provided to give insight into how the government
influences the implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. After establishing a context, the
literature review continues by developing the frameworks of the study beginning with Bolman
and Deal’s (2011) four frames of leadership and followed by Kotter’s (1996) eight-step change
process. The chapter concludes by investigating STEM–PBL design and its impact on instilling
21st-century skills in students. All of these frameworks are investigated through the lens of
student participation in the PRONAFECYT.
Chapter Three presents the methodology used in this study and explains the appropriate-
ness of the qualitative approach for this study. The methodology section includes the validation
for the instrumentation as well as the population used in this study.
Chapter Four illuminates the findings of the study as they relate to each research question.
Chapter Five summarizes the study and provide recommendations for practice. Additionally, the
final chapter suggests future research opportunities related to the same problems of practice.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 21
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
The more complex a society gets, the more sophisticated leadership must become (Fullan,
2010). School leaders are now faced with a rapidly changing focus of the learning environment
to a technology-driven, highly evolving environment that extends well beyond national borders.
National borders merely outline the geography from which businesses create new connections,
maintain existing networks, and further bifurcate to create increasing numbers of global partners.
As a result of the ever-changing demands of some of the most innovative and competitively
marketable careers and professions, education systems must address these needs through more
innovative, inquiry-based approaches to learning.
Costa Rica has experienced a number of changes, especially over the last 30 years, as it
transitioned from a predominantly agrarian country to a high-tech manufacturing hub. Economic
globalization has necessitated the adaptation of the Costa Rican education system by focusing
efforts on developing students with 21st-century skills and fostering an interest in the STEM
fields by way of mandatory participation in the PRONAFECYT (CINDE, 2013; MICITT, 2014).
This literature review examines globalization’s impacts on the Costa Rican educational
system. Specifically, emphasis is placed on instruction and leadership as they pertain to success-
ful participation in the PRONAFECYT. The literature review is composed of five sections:
Globalization, Costa Rica, Education, Science and Technology, and Leadership. The first section
provides the definition of globalization and details the three major elements of globalization.
This section ends with how globalization has impacted Costa Rica. Next, the history of Costa
Rica is discussed, including subsections on government and economy. The Costa Rican educa-
tional system is explored, including subsections on educational reform and the impact of MNCs
on education. This section draws attention to the requirement placed on the education system to
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 22
prepare students with 21st-century skills, thereby enabling them to be knowledge-based workers.
The next section, Science and Technology, details the establishment of government agencies as
well as the laws and decrees put into place to increase interest in STEM fields—putting a focus
on the national decree mandating participation in the PRONAFECYT. The section concludes
with a discussion of how these initiatives are most suited for the STEM–PBL learning environ-
ment that, in turn, develops students with 21st-century skills. Finally, issues of leadership will be
discussed with a focus on Bolman and Deal’s (2011) four frames of leadership, effective profes-
sional development, and Kotter’s (1996) conceptual framework of leading change.
Globalization
This section provides the definition of globalization and the three major elements of
globalization. Globalization has various meanings; therefore, a clear definition is required to
guide this literature review. For the purposes of this literature review, globalization contains
primarily three elements: economic, political, and educational. Once these three elements of
globalization are described in greater detail, the literature review will more closely detail how
globalization has positively and negatively impacted Costa Rica.
Globalization Described
According to Spring (2008), globalization broadly refers to the expansion of global con-
nections, the organization of social life on a global scale, and the growth of a global conscious-
ness, all of which lead to the consolidation of a world society. Economist Theodore Levitt
coined the term globalization as changes in economics affecting production, consumption, and
investment (Stromquist & Monkman, 2000). Economic globalization refers to the increasing
interdependence of world economies as a result of the growing scale of cross-border trade of
commodities and services, flow of international capital and the wide and rapid spread of
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 23
technologies (Ritzer, 2011). The rapidly growing significance of information technology and
marketization are the two major driving forces for economic globalization (Ritzer, 2011).
Another force driving globalization is the consumer, whose demand for improved goods and
services at a lower price point is fueling the engine of global commerce (Chanda, 2008). As
emerging and established economies’ borders rapidly expand, ties with multivariate cultures and
diverse populations simultaneously evolve. The transition from national to transnational borders
started centuries ago. Trade routes have evolved from being journeys that took days, weeks, to
even months to a communication that takes only milliseconds. Instant accessibility to a global
economy demands increase the need for individuals with skills, behavioral attributes, and a
transmissible understanding of varied backgrounds.
Chanda (2008) tied the beginning of economic globalization to agrarian societies and
their need to set roots. Individuals aggregate with a similar purpose and seed the need for even
more formal group structures. These groups are the impetus for communities that transformed to
create even more organized principalities and kingdoms. The centralization of individuals pos-
sessing varied yet marketable skills along with the exchange of goods, skills, and labor with other
cultures initiated globalization. The world’s first multinationals built colonial empires that
caused oppression and suffering but also integrated the world economy (Chanda, 2008). The first
agents of globalization were the traders—people who produced or carried products and services
to consumers in distant parts of the planet and who, in turn, created an interconnected world. The
period spanning the 18th and 19th centuries was the first time that the process of globalization
changed the distance and geographic borders that once separated goods and cultures. The
invention of new modes of transportation and subsequently increased locomotion meant that the
ability to exchange goods would forever be changed. In England, the first steam-powered engine
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 24
was invented in 1698. The Americans invented the steamboat in 1787 and the airplane in 1903.
Chanda described how such revolutions in transportation linked continents, creating the condi-
tions for the emergence of the first multinational trading company, the Dutch East India Com-
pany.
As globalization continued to reach countless markets and strengthen these economies, it
has also created transnational difficulties and problems. These problems now mandate regulatory
structures throughout the world to combat or eliminate emerging, existing, and the proliferation
of issues that may destabilize the environment or the specific economy. Under globalization,
politics can take place above the state through political integration schemes such as the European
Union and through intergovernmental organizations such as the International Monetary Fund, the
World Bank and the World Trade Organization (Baylis, Smith, & Owens, 2013). Political activ-
ity can also transcend national borders through global movements and NGOs. The expansion of
international trade and foreign investment was sparked by two major sociopolitical developments
of the 1980s, the first being the collapse of global Communism with the fall of the Berlin Wall
and the subsequent dissolution of the Soviet empire. The second development was the demise of
the Third World’s reliance upon import substitution—a trade and economic policy founded on
the idea that a developing country can increase its wealth by importing as few goods as possible
and relying instead on locally produced substitutes (Chanda, 2008).
The rise of global capitalism developed at approximately the same time as the rapid intro-
duction of new information and communication technologies, personal computers, the Internet,
the World Wide Web, and associated technologies such as satellite communications networks
(Narula, 2014). As more and more economies become increasingly connected and intercon-
nected, opportunities for growth and decline exist through all world economies (Friedman,
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 25
2007). Friedman (2007) asserted that this form of connectedness has created a global network
with increasingly expansive connections but simultaneous interdependence on individuals with
the skills and subsets of skills necessary to maintain the virtual as well as the very real network.
This interdependence begins well before these individuals enter the workforce within the brick-
and-mortar systems of education. Global economies that rely heavily on technology and the dis-
semination of disparate forms of information must then articulate various forms through which
students may consume, produce, and share information. Educators and policymakers who rely on
traditionalist forms of transmitting information will be unable to articulate pathways consistent
with global needs. Given this information, the interconnectedness between globalization and
education must be investigated further.
The relationship between globalization and education is defined as the changed relation-
ship between education and state (Spring, 2008). While the public education system in the old
capitalist order is mostly oriented toward the production of a disciplined and reliable workforce,
the new global economy requires workers with the capacity to learn quickly and to work in teams
(Spring, 2008). A skilled workforce that not only values but also embraces collaboration as key
to individual, organizational, as well societal and global success has fostered these behavioral
traits early during their academic employment.
Globalization is the meta-context for schooling in the 21st century (Spring, 2008).
Behavioral outcomes that prepare students to be active, contributing participants in a global
economy are key to framing an economically competitive society that generates even more global
connections. Education systems throughout the world are impacted by growing numbers of
immigrant students. Cities large and small—from New York to Beijing, from Barcelona to
Toronto, from Sydney to Reggio Emilia—are being transformed by immigrant students. Just as
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 26
schools face the challenge of educating more linguistically, culturally, and racially diverse
students, globalization imposes yet another challenge to education: requiring ever more complex
skills of students to equip them to be competitive in a globally interlinked economy (Suarez-
Orozco & Sattin, 2007; U.S. 21st Century Workforce Commission, 2000) while nurturing them
to be globally conscious and engaged citizens of the 21st century (Banks, 2004).
Among the many multivariate positive attributes of globalization is the ability to intro-
duce the kaleidoscope of benefits of becoming a positive, contributing member of a multicultural
and intercultural community. The products of science and technology increase the opportunities
for personal as well as social development (Stromquist & Monkman, 2014). A society that par-
ticipates in a global market will carry negative consequences. Three consequences will be dis-
cussed here; each is far reaching with its own subset of more specific issues. There is increasing
poverty in societies—a growing gap between developed and developing countries and between
privileged and excluded people, low standards of living, disease, forced migration and human
rights violations, exploitation of weak social groups, racism and xenophobia, conflicts, insecu-
rity, and growing individualism. There are many environmental repercussions, such as the green-
house effect, climate change, pollution, and the exhaustion of natural resources. Resistance to
globalization from various ideological perspectives has grown as people have come to recognize
the effects on their lives and on the world (Stromquist & Monkman, 2014). Antiglobalization
forces are critical of the inequities of global trade, environmental problems, loss of national sov-
ereignty, and cultural imperialism (Rodrik, 1998; Rogoff, Wei, & Kose, 2003).
Globalization in Costa Rica
In Costa Rica, globalization has moved from materials extraction into manufacturing and
the export of technology and services. Examples include Intel’s microchip plant in Heredia, the
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 27
popularity of medical device manufacturing, and companies such as Kimberly-Clark and Procter
& Gamble. Most of these larger companies also set up service centers so that worldwide admin-
istration and support is done from Costa Rica (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
Costa Rica has put much focus on education and developing the knowledge base of the
country for the purpose of preparing its citizens for a competitive world. Due to its commitment
to peace, human rights, and the environment, Costa Rica maintains a positive global reputation
(World Bank Group, Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency [MIGA], 2006). Some of the
citizens of Costa Rica do fear a change of lifestyle for their country as a result of the impact of
globalization. Tourist trade has increased due to he rapid growth of beach resorts, importation of
technology, and the possibilities of privatization pursuant to trade agreements. This change has
Costa Ricans worried about losing their once peaceful, traditional lifestyle. Costa Rica’s high
literacy rate has attracted this progressive focus—taking a once agrarian society and shifting the
focus toward technological development (World Bank Group [MIGA], 2006).
Regardless of the concerns about change, many, including the Costa Rican MEP (2014),
see the world today as immersed in globalized tendencies that must be embraced to be successful
in today’s world (State of Nation Program, 2012). Before going further into the advancements
Costa Rica’s education and the role of FDI in Costa Rica due to globalization, the following
portion of the literature review establishes an understanding of the history of Costa Rica up to
current times.
Brief History of Costa Rica
Understanding key influences in Costa Rica is necessary to establish a framework as it
pertains to the country’s focus on education, stemming from early history, government, and the
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 28
economy. Once a largely agrarian society, Costa Rica’s history is rich with examples of increas-
ing transition toward a more technical and skills-based economy.
Costa Rica’s history is shaped by five major events. Costa Rica gained its name “rich
coast” when Columbus made his fourth voyage to the New World in 1502 (Rankin, 2012; Yana-
gihara, Clark, & Vorhees, 2014). Its namesake went only about as far as an inaccurate represen-
tation of one of the Spanish Empire’s poorest outposts. Although explored by the Spanish early
in the 16th century, initial attempts at colonizing Costa Rica proved unsuccessful due to a com-
bination of factors, including disease from mosquito-infested swamps, brutal heat, resistance by
natives, and pirate raids (Rankin, 2012; Yanagihara et al., 2014). Not until 1563 were Spanish
colonists successful at establishing a permanent trade settlement called Cartago. The city was
developed in a much milder, cooler region of the country that also accommodated a fertile
landscape to establish various forms of agricultural commerce. Once the Spanish had established
a foothold in Cartago, the city remained economically viable for more than 2½ centuries. In
1821, Costa Rica became one of several Central American provinces that jointly declared their
independence from Spain. Two years later, it joined the United Provinces of Central America;
however, this federation disintegrated in 1838, at which time Costa Rica proclaimed its sover-
eignty and independence (Rankin, 2012; Yanagihara et al., 2014). In 1949, after a 2-month-long
civil war, a new constitution was developed under President Figueres Ferrer. In an attempt to
prevent civil war from breaking out again, the constitution dissolved Costa Rica’s armed forces
(Rankin, 2012; Spring, 2008). These five events have shaped Costa Rica into the country it is
today.
According to the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA; 2014), Costa Rica is an extremely
homogenous country, with the 2011 census showing the ethnic composition as 83.6% White,
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 29
6.7% Mulato, 2.4% indigenous, 1.1% Black or African, 0.2% Chinese, and 6% other ethnicities.
While Whites make up the vast majority of the population, there has been a significant influx of
immigrants to Costa Rica within the last decade. Individuals and familial units from Nicaragua,
Colombia, and Taiwan constitute the greatest influence to the changing ethnic makeup. Costa
Rica is a middle-income, developing country in Central America with about 5 million inhabit-
ants. Overall, Costa Rica takes pride in its high levels of education and health care, renowned
national parks, and a history of democracy and political stability. Although a peaceful nation, the
country does face social, economic, and environmental problems with its neighbors as well as the
need to remain competitive with the demands of the global society (CIA, 2014).
Government
Events such as the declaration of Independence, the women’s suffrage movement, and the
dissolution of the armed forces have shaped the government of Costa Rica. Such events have led
to a democratic country with a free public education and a high literacy rate. As previously
delineated, Costa Rica gained its independence from Spain in 1821 (Rankin, 2012; Yanagihara et
al., 2014). Early Costa Rican politics followed the Central American pattern of violence and
dictatorship. In the 19th century, a few favored aristocrats competed to control patronage in the
new state. The military, the Catholic Church, and, most of all, the coffee barons were the main
sources of influence. Presidents were more often removed at gunpoint than by the ballot box
(Rankin, 2012). By the early 20th century, Costa Rica had free public education, a guaranteed
minimum wage, and child protection laws. During the early 20th century, economic change and
hardships drove political transformations (Spring, 2008). The political turmoil caused by World
War I led to moments of challenges that the Democratic Party in Costa Rica was able to survive.
In the mid to late 20th century, the National Liberation Party led by President Figueres Ferrer
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 30
moved Costa Rica in a direction that ended the aristocracy’s lengthy reign (Spring, 2008). Under
the presidency of Figueres Ferrer, the abolition of the national army was written into the constitu-
tion in 1949, thus allowing the funds to be redirected toward education and culture. This act
became hugely significant in the years to come by nearly abolishing its illiteracy rate (96% of its
population is literate) and allowing the country to focus less on security and more on humanitar-
ian and environmental efforts, on both domestic and global levels (Rankin, 2012). Also by 1949,
the eligible electorate expanded from 2% to 10% of the adult population with the addition of
women and minority voters (CIA, 2014). Due to Costa Rica’s democratic outlook, the politics of
Costa Rica were driven by very thoughtful, stimulated conversation that had no interest in Com-
munism but instead examined the country by creating the Center for Study of National Problems
(Kantor, 1954).
The structure of the government is similar to that of the United States with functioning
executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government. The constitution established the
separation of powers among these three branches similarly to the U.S. concept of checks and
balances. Administrative divisions in Costa Rica consist of seven provinces: San José, Alajuela,
Heredia, Cartago, Guanacaste, Puntarenas, and Limón. These provinces (similar to U.S. states)
are further divided into cantones (similar to U.S. counties). San José is the largest with 20
cantons; Alajuela has 15; Heredia, 10; Cartago, 8; Guanacaste, 11; Puntarenas, 11; and Limón, 6
(CIA, 2014). The cantons, in turn, are divided into territories headed by a municipal government.
There are 81 municipal governments in Costa Rica. The municipalities are run by a mayor
(alcalde) who is elected by popular vote and appointed by the Municipal Council (Consejo
Municipal). Main control of the country, however, lies in the hands of the central government.
There is what is considered a fourth branch of government called the Supreme Tribunal of
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 31
Elections. This sector controls all aspects of the elections and is even given power to control
security forces for periods around election time (CIA, 2014).
Currently, Luis Guillermo Solís is the president of Costa Rica. Before becoming presi-
dent of Costa Rica in April 2014, he served as a professor, politician, and diplomat (Jiménez,
2014). His campaign platform pledged to take swift action against corruption and to attempt to
cut the deficit and reduce poverty and social inequality, thus refocusing Costa Rica’s foreign
policy to court foreign investors (Frajman, 2014). Much of President Guillermo Solís’s focus is
directly tied to the economic health of Costa Rica.
The evolution of Costa Rica’s government has been influenced by economic stressors
ranging from the coffee barons to President Solís’s focus on foreign investors. Such evolution
has led to governmental decisions such as the dissolution of the armed forces and, in turn,
increase focus on education (Jiménez, 2014; Rankin, 2012).
Economy
The agricultural products that drive Costa Rica’s GDP are coffee and bananas. Economic
factors have influenced Costa Rica to incorporate high-tech MNCs as additional drivers of the
national GDP. The incorporation of high-tech MNCs has necessitated a change to Costa Rica’s
human capital—an employee’s skill set measured as an economic value (Ferreira & Harrison,
2012).
Costa Rica is a small country with topography that has consistently promoted the devel-
opment of a wide range of agricultural commodities that have continued to prosper with various
trade networks extending to far-reaching destinations around the world. Costa Ricans have also
been world leaders in environmental resource management as stewards of their lands. The
greatest trade commodities include bananas, coffee, sugar, root vegetables, and raising beef. The
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 32
country is approximately 19,000 square miles in area with coastal plains separated by rugged
mountains, including over 100 volcanic cones, some of which are major volcanoes. These many
volcanic features have contributed greatly to the agricultural sustainability of the region by con-
tinuously adding to the soil’s fertility and unique biodiversity. The natural environment in Costa
Rica comprises 5% of the world’s biodiversity and 25% of the country is protected national park
land (CIA, 2014).
According to Ferreira and Harrison (2012), the Costa Rican economy has experienced
transformations as a result of political changes and globalization. Although the agricultural
sector in Costa Rica has been declining in importance since the 1950s, the economy has been a
model for developing nations. Coffee has been the country’s oldest agricultural product and has
been exported since the 1790s. In the 1820s, the Costa Rican government stimulated its produc-
tion by distributing free coffee plants and offering tax exemptions to interested families. Al-
though for many years coffee was the country’s main source of foreign exchange, low interna-
tional prices eroded its importance. Bananas have also been a staple in Costa Rica’s agricultural
economy. Local farmers have cultivated it for over a century on the country’s coasts, although
MNCs primarily handle its export and sale. Costa Rica is the second largest producer in the
world with an annual crop of approximately 115 million boxes sold in the United States and
Europe. Production grew constantly during the 1990s, and prices remained steady. By 1992,
banana production surpassed coffee as the main agricultural product. Costa Rica is also an
important producer of sugar; however, unlike coffee or bananas, sugar production is largely for
local consumption that exceeds 2.6 million metric tons (Ferreira & Harrison, 2012).
Despite the overwhelming popularity of coffee throughout the world, Costa Rica was not
immune to the global economy and the plummeting price of the coffee bean. Costa Rica’s
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 33
economy took its greatest hit in 1978 when world coffee prices were slashed, resulting in the
disastrous decline in the country’s chief export. Contributing to the significant decline in the
country’s economy was the rise in world crude oil prices. At that time, Costa Rica spent the
equivalent of its total coffee income for foreign oil every year (Rosenberg, 1979). With the
support of international financial and developmental organizations, Costa Rica adopted new
policies of development that would include export promotion and export diversification. This
new economic outward orientation secured a wide consensus among Costa Rican policymakers,
and important structural reforms were implemented throughout the 1980s. As part of this new
export-led model, Costa Rican authorities established free trade zone (FTZ) regimes where fiscal
and economic incentives were granted to those firms locating there. This policy was an impor-
tant step toward the promotion of new exports and attraction of foreign firms (Ferreira & Harri-
son, 2012). Thanks to these and other incentives, in 1997 Intel chose Costa Rica as the site for
one of its microchip plants. Soon after, semiconductors and computer accessories would replace
bananas and coffee as the country’s top exports. In the early 2000s, other technological, pharma-
ceutical, and service companies followed suit by investing in Costa Rica’s FTZs (Rodríguez-
Clare, 2001).
In terms of industrial development, during the 1980s and 1990s Costa Rica concentrated
on the reduction of import tariffs, the expansion of export subsidies and the promotion of nontra-
ditional exports, also through the expansion of FTZs. At first, in order to diversify exports in
nontraditional products, the country invested in the development of the apparel industry (Ferreira
& Harrison, 2012). By 1994, this sector represented 36% of the total exports (Sanchez-
Ancochea, 2006); however, the low value added generated by this industry led to a decline of the
sector through the 1990s. The new administration under President Figueres Olsen recognized
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 34
that Costa Rica could gain more by focusing on attracting high-tech FDI (Mortimore, 2000).
High-tech industries have a higher value added than either the apparel or the natural resource
sectors and are less subject to international price fluctuations. Thanks to the country’s long
tradition of investing in public education and expanding high education, Costa Rica was ready to
offer a highly skilled labor force at wages that were lower than any other industrialized country
(Giuliani, 2008).
The government’s aggressive campaign to attract high-tech MNCs was strongly sup-
ported by CINDE, a private, nonprofit organization founded in1982 with the objective of advanc-
ing the country’s social and economic development by attracting FDI. CINDE played a crucial
role in attracting Intel and its world-wide suppliers to Costa Rica in 1996 (Rodríguez-Clare,
2001). By 2005, Costa Rica had managed to attract more than 50 foreign companies in the
electronics industry, employing over 11,000 people (Giuliani, 2008). Biomedical companies
have also found the Costa Rican economy, regulatory structures, and workforce to be ideal for
organizational growth and commerce. In 1987, Baxter Healthcare established a manufacturing
operation in Costa Rica; after 20 years of steady growth in the sector, there are now 18 compa-
nies manufacturing medical devices in Costa Rica, including world leaders such as Hospira,
Boston Scientific, Arthrocare, Inamed and Coloplast (CINDE, 2013).
Costa Rica has consistently managed to successfully market itself as a leader for support-
ing FDI. Within the past 3 decades, it has demonstrated a pattern of infusing global trade with its
valued economic partners by increasing its participation in knowledge- and technology-intensive
sectors and activities. However, the global competitive scenario has changed in the past decade,
and the global knowledge economy today differs from the setting in which Costa Rica started to
promote its integration in the global economy (OECD, Development Centre, 2012). In the 1st
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 35
generation of FDI, delocalization was mainly driven by the search for lower labor costs and the
proximity to the U.S. market. Since then, the emergence of new technological paradigms has
increased the relevance of innovation and competitive networks. Second, new influences for the
technology sector, such as China, have appeared and have demonstrated longevity and competi-
tiveness within this highly technical, skills-necessary workforce. China has overtaken the United
States in manufacturing, accounting for 19.8% of world production in 2001 compared with
19.4% for the United States. Third, globalization has allowed companies to delocalize corporate
activities, thus strategically creating a new geography of production in relation to innovation
hotspots (OECD, Development Centre, 2012).
In the 2nd generation of FDI, Costa Rica is striving to attract companies in knowledge-
intensive sectors such as research and development. Companies already established in Costa
Rica are also engaged in moving up the value chain by increasing the intangible component of
the value added generated in the country, such as several companies in the life sciences and
biomedical clusters. In this phase, strengthening the national innovation system becomes a key
objective to achieve national development, while enhancing the competitiveness of foreign and
domestic entrepreneurs (OECD, Development Centre, 2012). The choice of targeting
innovation-related FDI in specific technology and knowledge-intensive sectors, together with the
MNCs’ trend of upgrading the types of operations that they carry out in the country, requires
Costa Rica to increase the quality and supply of a labor force with 21st-century skills, especially
in science and engineering (OECD, Development Centre, 2012). The development of such a
labor force is dependent on the education system.
The economic emphasis on agricultural exports has been enabled by Costa Rica’s geo-
graphical location and topography. As global stressors impacted Costa Rica’s economy,
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 36
companies such as CINDE facilitated the transition to include FDI as part of the economic
development. Continued success in recruiting FDIs is dependent on the education system as it is
developing the future labor force.
Education
Costa Rica has demonstrated a commitment to education by mandating compulsory
education and providing a free public education to all. With the abolishment of the armed forces,
Costa Rica has been able to dedicate a portion of the GDP to education. Due to economic
stressors, Costa Rica has incorporated FDI in the economic plan—in turn, changing the labor
force to a knowledge-based workforce. To continue recruitment of FDI and retention of those
companies already in Costa Rica, the education system must be examined as it pertains to the
development of the labor force.
Although the education system of Costa Rica is similar to systems in other parts of Latin
America, Costa Rica has been distinguished from other Central American countries because the
quality of its education has driven its development through the last decade. Costa Ricans are a
highly literate people. The country boasts of 96% literacy in citizens 15 years or older—the most
literate population in Central America (CINDE, 2013). Many of the country’s early leaders (e.g.,
the first president, José Maria Castro) were former teachers who were concerned about education
in Costa Rica (CIA, 2014). In 1869, the country became one of the first in the world to make the
education both free and obligatory, funded by the state’s share of the great coffee wealth (Spring,
2008). Understanding the education system and how it is governed by the Ministry of Education
sets the frame for who is involved in the development and implementation of national policy.
Understanding the impact of MNCs on education in Costa Rica is necessary to understand the
economic motivation behind MEP policies.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 37
Description of Education System
Based on Spring’s (2008) economic education world model, education is the driving force
of the economy. Therefore, to understand how education will influence the economy, one has to
examine the structure of the current education system.
In Costa Rica, the school system is broken up into four cycles of general education
(Mitchell & Pentzer, 2008). Students enter preprimary school at age 3 and remain there for about
3 years before moving on to primary school (Cycles I and II) for another 6 years (Mitchell &
Pentzer, 2008; World Bank, 2009). The secondary school system (including middle school,
Cycle III; and high school, Cycle IV) takes 5 or 6 years depending on whether the student
chooses an academic or technical pathway (Mitchell & Pentzer, 2008; World Bank, 2009). In
academic instruction, there are 5 years of study (Grades 7–11), and students usually graduate at
age 17 (CINDE, 2013). In technical instruction there are 6 years (Grades 7–12), and students
usually graduate at age 18 with a technical degree. In the last year of study, students are required
to pass comprehensive exams (Bachelor’s Tests) in order to receive a high school diploma, which
is required for admission to universities. Technical High School begins in the 4th year of high
school, and students take technical training in addition to their regular academic program.
Costa Rica’s first university, the University of St. Thomas, formerly a private K–12
school, was established in 1843 by executive decree to educate future leaders (Biesanz et al.,
1999). However, due to its close ties with the Catholic Church, the university was closed in 1888
by a progressive and anticlerical government during a campaign to modernize public education
(Biesanz et al., 1999). Dr. Angel Calderon Guardia, an education reformer, was president of
Costa Rica in 1940 when the University of Costa Rica (UCR) was created under Law No. 362.
Higher education in Costa Rica is composed of two main subsystems: para-university and
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 38
university. Para-university higher education focuses on years to complete of only 2 or 3, while
university higher education takes up to 4 or more years. The university system holds most of the
population who are seeking a graduate degree. The Consejo Nacional de Enseñanza Superior
Universitaria Privada (CONESUP) regulates private higher education. According to CONESUP
(MEP, 2013), there are 50 private universities in Costa Rica. The Consejo Nacional de Rectores
(CONARE) is the entity that regulates public universities. According to CONARE (2012), there
are five state universities.
Students in Costa Rica go directly from their undergraduate degree to a professional
career. Students can enroll in law school, medical school, and courses for every other career as
undergraduates. Depending upon the field of study, generally students may take from 4 to 7
years to complete their studies. After 4 years of study, they are awarded the Grado de Bachiller,
which is equivalent to a bachelor’s degree in the United States. Students can complete 1 more
year of study and write a formal thesis to be awarded the Licenciatura. Studying 2 more years
will earn them a master’s degree (Grado Académico de Maestría). Finally, students may study up
to 3½ more years (after the Bachiller or Licenciatura) to obtain a doctorate degree (Doctorado
Académico; Klugman, 2011). The Costa Rican university system is similar to that of the United
States with varied options for degrees.
Costa Rica has a multitiered education system that spans from preprimary to post univer-
sity. From secondary school on, students can chose an academic or technical pathway. Even if a
student selects the technical pathway, he or she can pursue higher education (MEP, 2014).
Higher education is similar to the U.S. system in that there are the 4-year university and the 2-
year para-university, comparable to the community college. Regardless of pathway, the multi-
tiered system enables all students to be college or career ready.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 39
MEP
To understand the valuable role that the MEP plays in the education system of Costa
Rica, one has to understand the value Costa Rica places on education. To understand how school
systems are governed, one has to examine the structure of the governing bodies and the areas of
priority with which they have been charged.
The education system has continuously evolved since the 1800s to meet the needs of a
changing society. Many of the country’s early leaders (e.g., the first president, José Maria
Castro) were former teachers who were concerned about the education in Costa Rica (CIA,
2014). The value of education was first affirmed with the drafting of the Constitution of Costa
Rica in 1821. Two years later, the Declaration of the Supreme Junta claimed that education was
the required foundation of personal happiness and prosperity for all (Biesanz et al., 1999). Legis-
lation passed in 1841 that centralized the control of schools under the state and added constitu-
tional revisions to provide more direction for the development of a unified education system and
ensuring free compulsory education (Biesanz et al., 1999). At the same time, the government
was given the obligation to spend at least an 8% of the GDP on public education, both primary
and secondary (CINDE, 2013). Significant hiring of teachers was mandated, along with a legal
definition of the teacher’s role in Costa Rica (Biesanz et al., 1999). The constitution of 1949 had
13 sections pertaining to education, including that a primary education of 6 years is mandatory,
that both primary and secondary education is free and funded by the government, and that
university education is supported by scholarships for needy students. The constitution also man-
dated that the government is responsible for providing needy students at all levels in the educa-
tion system with food and clothing. The number of students enrolled in elementary schooling
increased dramatically within the 2 decades after the 1948 Revolution. In 1950, 66.5% of
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 40
school-age children were enrolled in primary education; that number rose to 92.6% by 1960 and
100% by 1970. The government is also mandated to provide adult education to eliminate illiter-
acy. The 1970s saw reform movements in education that transformed the UCR from an aristo-
cratic school to one that offered all people equal opportunity to gain access to higher education
(Biesanz et al., 1999).
The MEP (2014) provides centralized executive and management oversight for all public
education in Costa Rica including the preprimary, primary, and secondary education levels,
consisting of 90% of students in the education system and about 50% of the students in higher
education (World Bank, 2009). Not only does the MEP provide free public education through
secondary education, but it also transfers funds for higher education—mainly for public universi-
ties (World Bank, 2009). The MEP is comprised of many levels to support various aspects of
education including planning and development, curriculum, technology, and so on. All levels are
overseen by the Minister of Public Education, who currently is Dr. Sonia Marta Mora Escalante.
Under the Minister of Public Education are the two Vice Ministers, along with the cabinet and
other advisors. There are 20 education regional headships, each of which is in charge of a
regional director of education. The regional director oversees two technical departments: Educa-
tional Development and Administrative Development. These technical departments act as the
school’s circuit units that are in charge of the advisory supervisor and contain educational centers
at all levels and modalities of a school (MEP, 2014).
In addition to managing the school system, the MEP (2014) is responsible for administer-
ing educational policy, which is part of the constitution of Costa Rica. Priority goals of the MEP
in Costa Rica include (a) revising the analysis of procedures to select beneficiaries so as to ensure
that students and schools in impoverished rural areas still have access to the benefits of
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 41
educational programs; (b) providing students with more assistance in school dining rooms,
student transportation, and scholarships; (c) strengthening the offices within the MEP; and (d)
fulfilling goals implemented in the computer science strategic plan.
In 1994, as part of the Constitution, the MEP (2014) established objectives and provided
a framework for the implementation of 21st-century skills. According to the MEP, the policy
specifically states that its goals are to strengthen its (a) Languages Development Program, (b)
Improvement of Education Quality and Life Care Communities Priority Program (c) Computer
Education Program, (d) Program Teacher Schools in Dispersed Rural Areas, (e) Program Im-
provement of Secondary Education, (f) Thinking Development Program, and (g) Program Envi-
ronmental Education and Sustainable Development. The MEP indicates that educational policy
is based on three philosophical points of view: (a) humanist, to allow for human beings to
develop to their full potential; (b) rationalist, to allow human beings to build and continually
improve their knowledge; and (c) constructivist, to allow human beings to build on prior knowl-
edge through the lens of their experience and culture. In 2003 the plan was renamed the Plan of
Action on Education for All and was refined to improve quality of and access to K–12 education,
with an emphasis on technology.
The MEP has several priority goals to meet the needs of a changing society. As early as
1994, the MEP has been focused on developing students with 21st-century skills. Key events
such as the centralizing of control and the dissolution of the armed forces have allowed the edu-
cation system to focus on providing a free and compulsory education for all. To support these
objectives, Costa Rica has committed a large portion of the country’s GDP and has sought out
indirect funding opportunities from MNCs (CINDE, 2013). These goals have been the impetus
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 42
for significant reform in educational requirements for career pathways, curricular development,
and instruction.
Impact of MNCs on Education
Costa Rica has made a concerted effort to attract FDI. MNCs have a considerable influ-
ence on educational policies within countries that are trying to attract and retain FDI (Monge-
González, & González-Alvarado, 2007). Companies such as Intel, Microsoft, and Cisco have
impacted education in Costa Rica and have provided the workforce with programs and profes-
sional development. An understanding of what MNCs are seeking in a labor force is necessary to
influence educational policies.
MNCs are defined as business organizations that have activities running in more than two
countries (Monge-González, & González-Alvarado, 2007). The history of MNCs can be traced
to the major colonizing and imperialist ventures from Western Europe, notably England and
Holland, which started in the 16th century and proceeded for the next 400 years. During the 19th
and 20th centuries, the rising wealth in Western countries increased foreign trade (Gupta &
Govindarajan, 2000). MNCs today are portals for diffusion and transfer of knowledge (Gupta &
Govindarajan, 2000).
MNCs have served a critical role in the development of Costa Rica’s economy (Hanson,
2001; Jensen, 2003; Paus & Gallagher, 2008). The development in the economy has necessitated
a different type of labor force than what was needed when Costa Rica’s economy was primarily
dependent on agriculture. The Costa Rican education system has continuously and effectively
adapted to the changing economic landscape as it prepares the current and future work force to be
contributing members of the global market. The impact of globalization is felt worldwide as
technology continues to reshape the world economy. These changes have fostered technology-
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 43
ready countries to communicate and conduct business worldwide. According to Solís (2011),
one of the ways that globalization has impacted developing countries is through FDI. FDIs
stimulate economic growth and create employment possibilities that might not otherwise be
available. In addition, FDI allows for the transfer of technology that cannot be achieved through
financial investments or trade in goods and services (Jensen, 2003). Due to the variety of bene-
fits created by FDI, attracting FDI has become an economic development strategy used by many
countries.
Costa Rica has attracted FDI by establishing a FTZ regime that provides tax incentives to
MNCs to begin startup operations. Various companies qualify for this FTZ agreement, such as
export manufacturing companies, export trade companies, export service companies, companies
or organizations engaged in scientific research, and manufacturing firms that can potentially
export (CINDE, 2013; OECD, Development Centre, 2012) FTZs, along with Costa Rica’s
political stability and high educational level, have attracted investors to the country (CINDE,
2013; OECD, Development Centre, 2012). FDI has been a valuable asset for Costa Rica to
develop and advance technologically, thereby allowing domestic firms to compete and even
export technologically intensive manufactured goods and services (Burstein & Monge-Naranjo,
2007). Rodríguez-Clare (2001) asserted that Costa Rica’s tremendous leap forward was due to
the increase in technical capacity and a knowledge-driven economy motivated by the demands of
a powerful global society.
Intel has been a significant catalyst to the rapid changes in Costa Rica’s economy and
education system. In 1996, Intel, the world’s leader in the semiconductor industry, announced its
plan to invest approximately $300 million in Costa Rica to build a semiconductor and test plant.
This investment directly impacted the economy, FDIs, and trade growth (OECD, Development
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 44
Centre, 2012; World Bank Group, MIGA, 2006). Intel’s decision to invest in Costa Rica was
surprising to many but not to the Costa Ricans, who had put in a great effort in researching,
marketing, and promoting corporate investment explicitly targeting the technology sector as an
area of potential growth (Spar, 1998). CINDE played a significant role in the marketing and
promotion process to convince Intel executives to invest. Overall, many factors (e.g., stability in
the country’s economic and political conditions, potential human capital, structural cost, a
pro-business environment, logistics on manufacturing time and other aspects of business) influ-
enced Intel’s decision to invest in Costa Rica (Monge-González, & González-Alvarado, 2007;
Rodríguez-Clare, 2001; Spar, 1998).
After the initial $300 million in 1996, Intel continued to invest an additional $470 million
over the next 7 years. These investments have resulted in the opening of three plants that directly
employ over 2,900 workers (World Bank Group, MIGA, 2006). Intel sought to influence five
key areas: (a) increasing the number of higher education technical graduates, (b) creation of
technical certification programs, (c) a higher quality technical curriculum, (d) development of
language programs, and (e) increasing the number of workers with high-level skills in construc-
tion and project management. The resulting flurry of enhancements set the tone and framework
for Intel’s continuing close cooperation with Costa Rica’s universities and technical schools.
Eduardo Sibaja, Minister of Science, Technology, and Telecommunications (as cited in World
Bank Group, MIGA 2006, commented that Intel had given Costa Rica the much needed push and
that the results were reflected in the new programs and the number of graduates from these
programs to technical education in Costa Rica, thus helping to strengthen the country’s overall
foundation in this area. These programs included changes in the educational system so as to be
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 45
more effective and capable of producing graduates ready with the 21st-century skills required to
develop technologies and software (Travica, 2002).
Intel employees were often better paid than those working in traditional agricultural jobs.
In many cases, the difference was approximately 50% better pay than traditional Costa Rican jobs
(World Bank, MIGA, 2006). To secure a technical career in this increasingly competitive
market, the projected labor force had to be trained accordingly. Prior to Intel’s investment, the
shortfall of qualified labor was a problem that had to be addressed (Monge-González, &
González-Alvarado, 2007). A significant reform to the education system was the development of
the 1-year technical certification program and 1-year Associate of Arts degree career pathways.
Both programs focused specifically on the semiconductor manufacturing sector. With the help of
the Intel Corporation, a curriculum was developed that was relevant to the needs of industry
(World Bank Group, MIGA, 2006). As of 2006, Costa Rica had a goal to train over 9,000
primary and middle school teachers in the technical area and to train 2,000 high school teachers
to promote an interest in math and sciences.
Intel was not the only MNC investing in Costa Rica and impacting education. Microsoft,
also a world leader in software innovation, invested heavily in the Costa Rican economy. Micro-
soft Costa Rica started operations in 1995 and had approximately 50 employees as of 2007
(Monge-González, & González-Alvarado, 2007). This may have the appearance of being a small
direct investment; however, the indirect influence on education policy has been significant.
Microsoft initiated a global initiative called Partners in Learning, through which it collaborates
with government agencies to help students and teachers to reach their maximum potential. This
program allows for schools and teachers to apply for grants, receive donated technologies, and
purchase products at discounted rates. The arrangement made with the Costa Rican MEP to
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 46
combat the 48% secondary school dropout rate was to train 1,200 teachers and 75,000 students
on how to use Microsoft Office
®
. With a new market demand and training programs designed to
teach the skills required to be successful, students now have a purpose to go to school beyond the
ninth grade. As of 2006, 765,000 students, 10,500 teachers, and 1,200 school leaders have
benefitted from the various programs that Microsoft created (Monge-González & González-
Alvarado, 2007).
Like most corporations, a driving force for Cisco to invest in Costa Rica was the already
established, relatively high level of education of Costa Rican citizens compared to other develop-
ing countries. Cisco, a world leader in Internet network devices, began operations in Costa Rica
in 1996 with two employees, later expanding to 20 employees who man the Central American
headquarters in Costa Rica. Cisco’s vision is to change the way people work, live, play, and
learn (Monge-González, & González, 2007).
Cisco developed the Networking Academy Program to help provide skills in information
and communications technologies in an innovative, dynamic, and hands-on manner. Students
reached by the Networking Academy Program are equipped with skills to design, create, and
maintain computer networks, thus allowing them to be prepared to attain other relevant informa-
tion technology (IT)-related jobs with skills that meet market requirements (Monge- González, &
González-Alvarado, 2007). Since it’s inception in 1999, the Cisco Networking Academy has
been the main contributor to students entering higher education with a focus in information
technologies (Monge-González, & González, 2007). In 2008, the MEP established the Youth
Network Administrators Program, which expanding the Cisco program to 59 vocational high
schools. Cisco’s support of educating Costa Ricans with 21st-century skills has had a positive
impact in developing qualified human capital prepared for the workforce (Monge-González, &
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 47
González-Alvarado, 2007). MNCs such as Intel, Microsoft, and Cisco have maintained commu-
nity partnerships. These partnerships demonstrate long-term global investment into local,
regional, and the state economy. The benefits are collateral, increase employees’ skill levels, and
simultaneously redefine and create educational pathways to meet the ever-changing responsibility
of this highly technical workforce.
Costa Rica has faced challenges in skill development and training for the knowledge-
based economy. There is a need for graduates in higher academic degrees to support Costa
Rica’s knowledge-based economy (OECD, Development Centre, 2012). In 2012, the OECD
Development Centre reported that Costa Rica’s PhD graduates stood out in their preference for
the social sciences compared to other countries of the region. In addition, Costa Rican students
have not been graduating with advanced degrees in the areas most sought after by MNCs, even
with more than 40% of its students currently enrolled in tertiary education (Monge-Gonzalez &
Torres, 2014). CONARE (2012) reported that 70% of all tertiary degrees awarded in 2012 were
in the social sciences and education and that only 13% of graduates possessed technology- or
science-based degrees. The limited capacity, infrastructure, and faculty in STEM disciplines at
the university level contribute to the fact that only 1.1% of Costa Rican citizens in the science
and technology fields possess a graduate degree (Monge-Gonzalez & Torres, 2014). These
statistics indicate a need for primary and secondary education to focus on STEM and the emerg-
ing and forecast 21st-century skills.
With policy reforms driven by the economic studies done by CINDE and the OECD, this
trend recently began to reverse (OECD, Development Centre, 2012; Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). By
2007–2009, Costa Rica had more than doubled the number of granted PhDs, including more in
technology-related disciplines. The OECD, Development Centre (2012), reported over 18% in
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 48
medical sciences, 3% in agricultural sciences, and less than 2% in natural sciences but none in
engineering and computer sciences. Since 2009, according to CINDE (2014), the number of
university graduates in engineering programs has been growing at a rate of 5.3%, with just under
3,000 graduates in 2013. This increase will facilitate the marketing of Costa Rica as the country
continues efforts to attract MNCs.
MNCs have been looking specifically for countries with a large concentration of people
who are working to attain or who possess graduate degrees in the fields of engineering and
computer science. MNCs are also looking for employees who have scientific and mathematical
skills, problem-solving skills, business administration skills, and the bilingual skills necessary to
support the transition to a knowledge-based economy. These fields and skills are commonly
referred to as the STEM fields of study. As a means of retaining MNCs and attracting others,
Costa Rica’s education system has had to increase human capital in the STEM fields. Costa
Rica’s universities have only recently granted an increasing number of graduate degrees in the
STEM fields (Monge-Gonzalez & Gonzalez-Alvarado, 2007).
Discussion: Education
Education has served as a foundation to Costa Rica’s history, stemming from the influ-
ence of the Catholic Church and supported by many government leaders with education back-
grounds, including José Castro Madriz, Costa Rica’s first president (CIA, 2014). As economic
globalization shifted the country’s focus from an agricultural to knowledge-based labor force, the
education system has had to adapt by increasing the number of graduates in the STEM fields.
Although MNCs such as Intel, Microsoft, and Cisco have provided professional development for
employees and collaborated with local schools, there is still a need to increase interest in the
STEM fields to increase the knowledge-based workforce.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 49
Science and Technology
Although the existence of higher education institutions in Costa Rica date back to the late
19th century, these areas of higher learning were more focused in preparing professionals with
liberal arts backgrounds than in the development and concentration of scientific research. With
the founding of the UCR, the government began to consolidate an academic system to support
the various areas of science and technology. At the beginning of the 1990s, the relevance af-
forded to these research and development activities was consolidated with the creation of the
Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología y Telecomunicaciones [MICITT]). The Ministry’s functions
are outlined by the Promotion of Scientific and Technological Development Law #7169 ratified
in 1990 (MICITT, 2014). For the purposes of the scientific and technological development, this
law’s intent is to facilitate scientific research and technological innovation, thereby leading to
greater economic and social progress within the framework of a strategy of comprehensive,
sustained development to preserve the country’s natural resources for future generations. The
aim is to guarantee that Costa Ricans enjoy a better quality of life and well-being and enhance
their knowledge of themselves and of society. Section 3 of the law allows for the support and
establishment of incentives for all sectors, including education, with the purpose of increasing the
capacity of the science, technology and engineering fields. This law established mechanisms for
the functioning and coordination of the National Science and Technology System that is respon-
sible for facilitating scientific and technological research leading to economic and social ad-
vances through sustainable development (MICITT, 2014).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 50
The strategic objectives of the MICITT (2014) are the following:
1. Strengthen national capacities in science, technology, and innovation through in-
creased investment in research and development, thus integrating the academic, private and
government sectors to the transition to a knowledge- based economy.
2. Encourage the formation of high-level human resources in the areas of scientific
technologies to meet the supply and demand of professionals, scholarships, and programs for
early vocational guidance to meet the needs of the productive sectors.
3. Promote the recognition of science, technology, and innovation through various
outreach strategies for greater ownership by citizens.
4. Make telecommunications a driving force for human development of all Costa
Ricans, universal and globally, through the development, implementation, and monitoring of
public policies in telecommunications.
Among the many human capital development programs coordinated by the MICITT is the
PRONAFECYT.
National Science Fair
In order to understand the impact of Executive Decree #31900 mandating participation in
the PRONAFECYT, one needs to understand the intent of the decree and the structure of the
PRONAFECYT.
In 2004, National Executive Decree #31900 made participation in the PRONAFECYT
mandatory for all students in Costa Rica (Chacón, 2011). In Costa Rica, the National Science
and Technology Fair (NSTF) processes are governed by the guidelines of the PRONAFECYT.
The overall objective of this program is to promote a culture of science and technology, begin-
ning with the development of scientific knowledge as a stimulus to new generations of Costa
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 51
Ricans through the demonstration and discussion of research projects designed by students.
Participation occurs at different levels of education and in different research categories. Accord-
ing to MICITT (2014), all projects must fall within one of the following broad categories:
biology, environmental science, computer science, earth science and space, behavioral and social
sciences, physics and mathematics, engineering and technology, health and medicine, or chemis-
try.
Students may present their projects as monographs, demonstrations, research projects, or
technological research and development projects. Monographs are composed of a literature
review, interviews, and observations on a topic of scientific interest and are open to students at
all grade levels. Demonstrations can be conducted by students up to ninth grade and are designed
to solidify and assimilate existing scientific knowledge within a concrete experience. Research
projects consist of academic research to draw conclusions and recommendations from the col-
lection, organization, and interpretation of existing knowledge. Technological research projects
are activities that utilize existing knowledge and techniques to create new products, materials,
devices, processes, systems, services, or to improve preexisting ones. The projects should solve
a real-world problem and differ from research projects in that they not only increase scientific or
technical knowledge by also have real-world applications. (Chacón, 2011).
This program includes all students from preschool, primary school (first grade to sixth
grade) and high school (seventh grade to 11th or 12th grade). The PRONAFECYT occurs once a
year beginning at the school site and progresses to the national level. At the school level, usually
taking place in June and July, student projects and presentations are judged by the school’s
principal, the school’s science coordinator, site teachers, and community members who serve in
an advisory capacity to the Institutional Science Review Committee. In August successful
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 52
students will progress to the Circuit Level, where they compete with winners from multiple
schools and judges. Winners of the Circuit Level go on to compete at the Regional Level in
September and the National Level in November which has participation from university faculty
and judges assigned through the MEP. Winners from national competition can advance to inter-
national competitions to compete globally with young innovators worldwide (Chacón, 2011).
The 2004 decree also established the PRONAFECYT Coordination Committee. An
organizational structure was started to execute the program, taking into account the administra-
tive organization of the MEP with Regional Offices (23) and Education Circuits. The
PRONAFECYT has a variety of workshops, such as the Intel Students as Scientists (SAS), and
professional development, such as the self-training module for elementary educators coordinated
at the institutional, circuit, regional, and national levels. The Intel SAS is a 40 hour teacher
training curriculum first developed in the United States and localized by Costa Rican education
experts (Intel, 2014). This training focuses on integrating science research in the classroom and
understanding science fair processes. The SAS program also involves a training process for
master teachers that include two modules of 40 hours each. The self-training module is a teach-
ing resource that provides literature on basics for science fair and project development (Intel,
2014). Nonprofit foundations such as the Omar Dengo Foundation have also supported the
introduction, implementation, and evaluation of technology use in education (OECD, 2012). In
addition to the supplemental training opportunities, STEM education must be fostered in the
classroom to successfully meet the objective of the PRONAFECYT initiative, which is to
promote a culture of science and technology.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 53
The MICITT (2014) was developed to facilitate scientific research and technological
innovation. To foster scientific research and technological innovation, Executive Decree #31900
mandates participation in the PRONAFECYT program for all students.
STEM
To develop interest in the STEM fields, one has to understand the STEM focus. A STEM
education is a pathway to prosperity not just for the individual but for the nation (Duncan, 2010).
Friedman (2007) recommended educators to think horizontally by nurturing students to handle
science, literalness, and analysis as well as context, emotional expression, and synthesis. The
acronym STEM has been adopted by numerous programs as an important focus for renewed
global competitiveness, but conceptions of what STEM entails often vary among stakeholders.
STEM is a curricular framework based on the idea of educating students in four specific disci-
plines (i.e., science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) in an interdisciplinary and
applied approach. Integrated instruction is any program in which there is an explicit assimilation
of concepts from more than one discipline (Nathan et al., 2013; Satchwell & Loepp, 2002).
Integrating STEM helps students to connect relevant skills to the use of the skills in real-world
applications by providing valuable learning contexts (Brophy, Klein, Portsmore, & Rogers,
2008). The STEM subjects are closely related to one another; and the integration of these
subjects can help students to develop relevant knowledge, concepts, and skills (Berry, Chalmers,
& Chandra, 2012). However, the continued separation of the STEM disciplines in terms of how,
when, and where they are taught continues to occur in schools and universities for a number of
administrative and organizational reasons (Herschbach, 2011).
STEM education is often distilled down to one or two disciplines. A school with a
robotics program may identify as a STEM school, or another STEM curriculum may focus on
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 54
science and mathematics education and omit technology and engineering education entirely. It is
most common for the T and the E of STEM to be overlooked and missing (Miaoulis, 2010). This
lack of integration regrettably shortchanges students who need experience in applying mathe-
matics and science to problem-solving fields such as engineering in order to flourish in today’s
workplace.
A STEM curriculum integrates science, technology, engineering and math in an interdis-
ciplinary and applied approach. Integrating a STEM curriculum could foster an increased interest
in the STEM fields.
PBL
A teaching methodology that facilitates integration of all STEM disciplines is PBL. PBL
is a dynamic approach to teaching in which students explore real-world problems and challenges.
With this type of active and engaged learning, students are inspired to obtain a deeper knowledge
of the subjects that they are studying. PBL strategies have been utilized in schools since the 19th
century (Capraro et al., 2013). In the late 1940s, PBL was rejected by educators for failing to
meet the needs of students, teachers, and society. Detractors of PBL viewed some projects as
inferior education activities, lacking direction for students and lacking the purpose of the method
(Capraro et al., 2013). Today, PBL is gaining momentum as a strategy because of the changing
needs of education and the increased clarity on the outcomes of the projects with the improved
design of STEM PBL.
Markham, Larmer, and Ravitz (2003) of the Buck Institute of Education identified eight
essential elements of meaningful projects. A solid PBL experience places equal emphasis on
significant content and 21st-century skills. Focus on the significance of content ensures that at its
core, the project is focused on teaching students important knowledge and skills derived from
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 55
standards and key concepts at the heart of academic subjects. Focus on 21st-century competen-
cies ensures that students build competencies valuable for today’s world, such as problem
solving, critical thinking, collaboration, communication, and creativity, which are explicitly
taught and assessed. The driving question of a project must be open ended, engaging, and crafted
so that the inquiry process is initiated. Rather than starting a project at the end of a unit, PBL
creates a need to know for students whereby they are engaged from the onset of the project. This
process starts with an entry event that is designed to spark student interest in the project and
promote the inquiry process. In-depth inquiry is launched from the start of the project and
connects the need to know to the driving question. Students create a list of questions that they
must investigate and on which they will focus over the course of the project. From the list,
students will search for answers; ask additional questions; and eventually create a new solution,
product, or idea for implementation. Allowing a level of student voice and choice in a project is
important for creating ownership of a project. The level of voice and choice may vary, depend-
ing on the grade level of students and the project itself. The inquiry process prompts the need to
answer additional questions, and students must actively engage in reflection and revision in order
to fully answer these questions. A public audience is the final element of PBL. It can enhance
the final product, taking it to a higher standard of professionalism (Markham et al., 2003). Par-
ticipating in the PRONAFECYT is a demonstration of a PBL project.
STEM PBL
The integration of all STEM disciplines taught with the PBL methodology is commonly
referred to as STEM PBL. Approach to problem solving by scientists and engineers is often
initiated by establishing a goal of optimizing a solution to a specific or set of problems. This is
different than simply proving that a problem has been successfully solved. Science curricula
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 56
receive criticism because they do not provide student with experience in real-world problems or
include scenarios in which decisions are not clear cut and where requirements conflict. These
math and science curricula focus on well-defined problems in which the answer is known, there
is only one solution, and the focus is on teaching students to get to the right answer (Fortus,
Krajcikb, Dershimer, Marx, & Mamlok-Naamand, 2005). In contrast, real-world problems are ill
defined and without one right answer. PBL as an instructional strategy in the STEM fields
provides contextualized experiences for students to scaffold their learning (Capraro et al., 2013).
Through an integrated approach to STEM education, focused on real-world, authentic problems,
students learn to reflect on the process that they take in problem solving and subsequently retain
the knowledge and skills that they gain. Through explanation of hypotheses and ideas, they make
connections between problem-solving goals and the processes to achieve those goals (Kolodner,
et al., 2003). The most effective programs contain theses with a high potential for student
interest; authentic problem solving; and rich, standards-based content in STEM (Nathan et al.,
2013; Satchwell & Loepp, 2002).
Human beings naturally engage in various forms of problem solving at all stages of
development. People all use the tools and materials available to them to adapt to the environ-
ment to meet their needs. The PBL approach to STEM is grounded in constructivist theory
(Fortus et al., 2005) that is shown to improve student achievement in higher level cognitive tasks,
such as scientific processes and mathematical problem solving (Nathan et al., 2013; Satchwell &
Loepp, 2002).
Capraro et al. (2013) identified five characteristics for an inquiry-based curriculum to
effectively promote STEM faculties. First, students get a variety and choice of learning tasks to
involve them in the learning process and increase their motivation to complete the project.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 57
Second, they receive explicit communications and explanations to curtail any ambiguity caused
by a problem’s open endedness. Third, they have opportunities to model solutions, practice
solving problems, and receive constructive feedback on high-level tasks from peers and coaches.
Fourth, they engage in a student-centered instructional environment that focuses on the interests
and needs of the individual learners. Fifth, each learner receives support for his or her individual
learning needs and levels of development, from the high achievers to the struggling learners.
Although the intent of STEM PBL is to foster STEM education in the classroom and
ultimately facilitate the objective of the NSTF, STEM PBL more importantly develops the skills
necessary for 21st-century jobs. The next section details 21st-century skills through Wagner’s
(2008) framework.
Twenty-First-Century Skills
The economies of the world demand a very different set of skills than it has ever had.
Economies are no longer isolated within the borders of a specific country or region; and as inter-
connectedness continues to grow through various forms of networks, students must meet or
exceed the challenges of communicating, collaborating, and solving or resolving increasingly
complex problems. Employers demand few people with basic skill sets and more people with
complex thinking and communication skills (Levy & Murnane, 2005). Wagner (2012) asserted
that education today fails to produce citizens ready for the workplace or ready to compete in the
global economy. Based on several hundred interviews with business, nonprofit, and education
leaders, Wagner (2008) proposed that students need seven survival skills: (a) critical thinking and
problem solving, (b) collaboration across networks and leading influence, (c) agility and adapt-
ability, (d) initiative and entrepreneurship, (e) effective oral and written communication, (f)
accessing and analyzing information, and (g) curiosity and imagination.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 58
The survival skill of critical thinking and problem solving is grounded on the ability to
ask the right questions (Wagner, 2008). To compete in the new global economy, companies need
workers who are capable of continuously improving individual, group, and organizational
dynamics. Employees can no longer expect to follow a manual; rather, they need to be able to
identify the unknown and develop a solution. Employees cannot expect their leaders to provide
all the answers and therefore the ability to think critically and problem solve is essential to
surviving the 21st century.
The survival skill of collaboration across networks and leading by influence is grounded
on teamwork (Wagner, 2008). Globalization and technology have enabled teamwork and col-
laboration to span the globe, thus nullifying the constraints of having to be in the same place at
the same time. The elimination of such barriers has necessitated a workforce that is culturally
knowledgeable and bilingual. Employees who are able to function collaboratively toward global
outcomes are more likely to create impactful outcomes that influence an even larger audience.
The survival skill of agility and adaptability is grounded on knowledge where the only
constant is change (Wagner, 2008). Jobs are constantly evolving, and employees must evolve
with them or face extinction in the organization. Employees need to be lifelong learners who are
able to acquire new skills. Individuals with adaptability and learning skills are more beneficial
than those who are dependent on what is already known.
The survival skill of initiative and entrepreneurship is centered on the need for proactive
leadership (Wagner, 2008). Risk aversion disables many from discovery and progress. Compa-
nies are seeking employees who are willing to try something new and risk failure for the purpose
of development. Individuals with the entrepreneurial spirit can be developed if education fosters
a culture that rewards students for trying, regardless of success or failure of outcomes.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 59
The survival skill of effective oral and written communication is grounded on the need to
collaborate in teams in global and virtual settings (Wagner, 2008). Inadequate communication
skills will negate the previous four skills. Oral, written, and presentation skills not only are
dependent on grammar, punctuation or spelling but are also dependent on focus, energy, passion,
and voice. Education’s focus on formulaic writing and standardized testing may have contrib-
uted to communication deficiencies. Individuals able to express themselves clearly and effec-
tively across cultures dominate the 21st century.
The survival skill of accessing and analyzing information is grounded on the amount of
information available and the rapid rate of change of the information (Wagner, 2008). Employ-
ees must be able to contextualize astronomical amounts of information and then synthesize it. It
is not just the sheer quantity of information; rather, the speed at which information is changing is
the challenge. Accessing knowledge is no longer sufficient; rather, evaluating the knowledge is
essential for the 21st century.
The survival skill of curiosity and imagination is grounded on the need for new or im-
proved products and services (Wagner, 2008). In order to compete globally, companies employ
knowledge workers who can think in disciplined ways and have curiosity and imagination that
engages others. Developing young people’s capacities for imagination, creativity, and empathy
will also be key to interpersonal and organizational success.
Costa Rica has made concerted efforts to increase interest in the STEM fields. Impacting
education is the National Executive Decree #31900, mandating that all students participate in the
NSTF. In order to support all student participants, STEM education must take place in the
classroom. Not only is STEM PBL an effective methodology for STEM curriculum, but it also
develops the skills necessary for the 21st century. Therefore, the fidelity of implementation and
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 60
participation in the NSTF is critical for Costa Rican education if the country wants its citizens to
be competitive globally in the 21st century and maintain its national priority. The next section
discusses the leadership and staff required to facilitate these efforts in schools.
Leadership
This section details leadership through Bolman and Deal’s (2011) four frames of leader-
ship framework and the necessity of both principal leadership and teacher leadership. Once these
elements are defined, the literature review details the importance of professional development
and the Kotter (1996) change framework to facilitate transformational leadership.
Bolman and Deal
The impact of globalization and MNCs in Costa Rica has challenged leaders to take on
new leadership roles in schools and universities. Effective leaders must incorporate new leader-
ship roles to meet the needs of the knowledge-based economy. According to Bolman and Deal
(2011), an effective leader is well rounded and exhibits many characteristics. The four frames of
the leadership model are structural, political, symbolic, and human resources, which elaborate on
exact areas in which leadership occurs. While many leaders do not demonstrate all of these
characteristics equally, each of the four frames should be utilized by an effective leader.
The structural frame is defined by the structure of the organization. Bolman and Deal
(2011) explained that for an organization to perform well, clear goals, strong relationships among
the staff, and sufficient direction must be established. The authors stressed the importance of
allocating responsibilities across levels and job roles in an organization.
Restructuring an organization alone cannot ensure a stable work environment, as relation-
ships are a key element of the success of an organization. Political leaders are important to build
networks and bring people together; therefore, creating a large network is the primary goal of the
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 61
political leader. According to Bolman and Deal (2011), the political leader emphasizes the
importance of building relationships to gain power and to bring people together to accomplish
common goals. The focus of the political frame is not resolution of conflict but rather strategy
and tactics.
The symbolic frame is based on organizational culture. Culture is built over time and
refers to the beliefs, values, and customs of an organization (Bolman & Deal, 2011). Inspira-
tional and motivational leaders fall within this frame. Great school leaders are needed to deal
with the challenges of a changing global knowledge economy.
Human resource leaders have a clear understanding of the needs of the people whom they
are leading (Bolman & Deal, 2011). The leader views people as an important investment and
retains those human resources over time. Within the human resource frame, Bolman and Deal
(2011) stressed the importance of empowering others by fostering self-managed teams. Other
key elements within the human resource frame are hiring the right people, rewarding employees
well, promoting from within, protecting jobs, and sharing success. Bolman and Deal also highly
recommended encouraging autonomy to empower employees to self-manage. All of these
frames together provide a significant perspective on what leaders need to be aware of as they
make decisions for their organization. Effective school leadership is dependent on both principal
and teacher leadership. The next sections details effective principal leadership and effective
teacher leadership.
Principal Leadership
Although researchers say it in different ways, researchers who have examined education
leadership agree that effective principals are responsible for establishing a schoolwide vision of
commitment to high standards and the success of all students (Wallace Foundation, 2012).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 62
Historically, public school principals were seen as school managers; and as recently as 2 decades
ago, high standards were thought to be reserved for only the college bound (Leithwood & Lewis,
1998). Success could be defined as entry-level manufacturing work for students who have
followed a general track as well as low-skilled employment for dropouts. Only in the last few
decades has the emphasis shifted to academic expectations for all. This change comes about in
part as a response to twin realizations: Career success in a global economy depends on a strong
education; and for all segments of society to be able to compete fairly, the gap in academic
achievement between disadvantaged and advantaged students’ needs to narrow (Wallace Founda-
tion, 2012).
Effective principals ensure that their schools allow both adults and children to put learn-
ing at the center of their daily activities. It is characterized by basics such as safety and orderli-
ness as well as less tangible qualities such as a supportive, responsive attitude toward the chil-
dren and a sense by teachers that they are part of a community of professionals focused on good
instruction (Goldring et al., 2009). To change this kind of climate and begin to combat teacher
isolation, closed doors, negativism and defeatism, and teacher resistance, the most effective
principals focus on building a sense of school community with the attendant characteristics.
These include respect for every member of the school community; an upbeat, welcoming,
solution-oriented, no-blame, professional environment and efforts to involve staff and students in
a variety of activities, many of them schoolwide (Portin et al., 2009).
Principals who get high marks from teachers for creating a strong climate for instruction
in their schools also receive higher marks than other principals for spurring leadership in the
faculty, according to the research from the Universities of Minnesota and Toronto (Leithwood &
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 63
Louis, 1998). More specifically, studies suggest that principals play a major role in developing a
professional community of teachers who guide one another in improving instruction.
Effective principals work relentlessly to improve achievement by focusing on the quality of
instruction. They help define and promote high expectations; they attack teacher isolation and
fragmented effort; and they connect directly with teachers in the classroom (Portin et al., 2009).
Finally, to get the job done, effective leaders need to make good use of the resources at hand.
Without effective leaders, most of the goals of educational improvement will be very difficult to
achieve (Wallace Foundation, 2012).
Principals play a vital and multifaceted role in setting the direction for schools that are
positive and productive workplaces for teachers and vibrant learning environments for children
(Davis, Darling-Hammond, LaPointe, & Meyerson, 2005). A growing consensus on the attrib-
utes of effective school principals indicates that successful school leaders influence student
achievement through two important pathways: the support and development of effective teachers
and the implementation of effective organizational processes. The principal of the future has to
be much more attuned to the big picture and much more sophisticated at conceptual thinking and
transforming the organization through people and teams (Fullan, 2001). If the goal is sustainable
change in the knowledge society, business and education leaders have increasingly more in
common.
Teacher Leadership
The notion of teacher leadership is not new but has been recently transforming. In the
past, teacher leadership roles have been limited in scope and established at the prerogative of
school administrators. Teachers have long served as team leaders, department chairs, association
leaders, and curriculum developers. In these roles teachers have often served as representatives
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 64
rather than leaders who enact change (Lieberman & Miller, 2011; Smylie, Conley & Marks,
2011). In addition, leadership roles for teachers have traditionally lacked flexibility and required
a lengthy, ongoing commitment of time and energy. Often the decision to take on leadership
tasks has been accompanied by a decision to get out of teaching and into administration (Lieber-
man, & Miller, 2011).
Advocacy for teacher professionalism and expanded leadership roles is based on the
understanding that teachers, because they have daily contacts with learners, are in the best posi-
tion to make critical decisions about curriculum and instruction. Moreover, they are better able
to implement changes in a comprehensive and continuous manner (Bond, 2014; Harris et al.,
2013). The movement to expand teacher roles is also motivated by an ongoing need to attract
and retain qualified teachers (Harris et al., 2013; Smylie et al., 2011)
Teachers typically define career satisfaction in terms of their ability to be of service to
others and make a difference in the lives of their students (Bond, 2014; Harris et al., 2013). Sim-
ilarly, the leadership considerations of teachers are grounded in their desire to improve the
quality of teaching and learning for all students. Studies have shown that teachers do not sub-
scribe to traditional definitions of leadership as higher or superior positions within the organiza-
tional hierarchy (Bond, 2014; Fairman & Mackenzie, 2012). Instead, teachers view leadership as
a collaborative effort, a “banding together” with other teachers to promote professional develop-
ment, growth. and the improvement of educational services (Fairman & Mackenzie, 2012).
Today, leadership roles have begun to emerge and promise real opportunities for teachers
to impact educational change without necessarily leaving the classroom. Teachers are now
serving as research colleagues, working as advisor-mentors to new teachers, and facilitating
professional development activities as master teachers. Teachers also act as members of school-
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 65
based leadership teams, instructional support teams, and leaders of change efforts (Levenson,
2014). In addition, teachers are forging a number of new and unique leadership roles through
their own initiative by developing and implementing programs that they personally believe will
result in positive change (Fairman & Mackenzie, 2012).
Levenson (2014) focused on what teachers actually did when they assumed leadership
positions designed to provide assistance to other teachers. The authors found that the work of
lead teachers was varied and largely specific to the individual context of the school. In order to
be effective with their colleagues, lead teachers found it necessary to learn a variety of leadership
skills while on the job, including (a) building trust and developing rapport, (b) diagnosing
organizational conditions, (c) dealing with processes, (d) managing the work, and (e) building
skills and confidence in others.
Fairman and Mackenzie (2012) concluded that restructuring school communities to
incorporate leadership positions for teachers will require teacher leaders to take certain actions.
These include (a) placing a nonjudgmental value on providing assistance, (b) modeling collegial-
ity as a mode of work, (c) enhancing teachers’ self-esteem, (d) using different approaches to
assistance, (e) making provisions for continuous learning and support for teachers at the school
site, and (f) encouraging others to provide leadership to their peers.
Teacher expertise is at the foundation of increasing teacher quality and advancements in
teaching and learning. As Costa Rica implements the NSTF degree, it is imperative to focus on
teacher leadership because greater employee participation leads to greater ownership and com-
mitment to organizational goals (Brondyk & Stanulis, 2014). For teachers and school and district
leaders to be as effective as possible, they should continually expand their knowledge and skills
through professional development to implement the best educational practices. For students to
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 66
be adequately educated and prepared for the NSTF, it is also imperative to focus on the
professional development of teachers to implement a STEM–PBL curriculum. The next section
details effective professional development.
Professional Development
Regardless of discipline, effective professional development should focus on developing
teachers’ capabilities and knowledge to teach content and subject matter, address teachers’
classroom work and the problems they encounter in their school settings, and provide multiple
and sustained opportunities for teacher learning over a substantial time (Calderhead, 2012). To
use professional development as a vehicle for improvement, districts must know how teachers
learn new skills. The Center for Public Education (Gulamhussein, 2013) has distilled five prin-
ciples of effective professional development. The first principle indicates that the duration of
professional development must be significant and ongoing to allow time for teachers to learn a
new strategy and grapple with implementation problems. Teachers may need as many as 50
hours of practice before mastering a new teaching strategy. The second principle asserts that a
teacher must receive support during implementation. When professional development describes
a skill to teachers, only 10% can transfer it to their practice; however, when teachers are coached
through the awkward phase of implementation, 95% can transfer the skill. The third principle
prescribes that teachers’ initial exposure to a concept should not be passive but rather should
engage teachers through such varied approaches as role playing, live modeling, and classroom
observations so that they can actively make sense of the new proactive. The fourth principle
indicates that modeling is highly effective. Teachers can best understand how and why to
implement a new practice when they see an expert demonstrate it. Finally, the fifth principle
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 67
indicates that professional development is best delivered in the context of the teacher’s subject
area or grade level; training on generic topics is unhelpful.
Schools require teachers not to just be implementers of effective teaching strategies but
also innovators of strategies that foster critical thinking. Many schools have accomplished this
task through professional learning communities (PLCs)—communities of teachers in the same
content area who create instructional innovations, support one another during the implementation
stage, and reflect on the results. In essence, the community of teachers serves as coaches for one
another (DuFour & Fullan, 2013; Huffman, Hipp, Pankake, & Moller, 2014; Saavedra & Opfer,
2012). As the Costa Rican education system continues to prepare all students for participation in
the NSTF, Capraro et al. (2013) asserted that to successfully implement interdisciplinary STEM
PBL, teachers should have the opportunity to participate in PLCs. Research shows that effective
PLCs can change teacher practice and increase student achievement (Akerson, Cullen, & Hanson,
2009; DuFour & Fullan, 2013; Fazio, 2009; Liu, Lee, & Lin, 2010).
Participants in PLCs must collaborate effectively, working as a team and taking collective
responsibility for the group’s outcomes. PLCs require a shared mission and vision, as well as
shared norms and values to guide the work and inform the goals to be achieved. They must
engage in reflective dialogue and ongoing critical inquiry, maintain a sharp focus on student
learning and results, and be open about their work and willing to present it in a public fashion
(DuFour & Fullan, 2013; Eaker, DuFour & Burnette, 2002; Huffman et al., 2014; Richmond &
Manokore, 2011).
Implementing effective professional development requires visionary leadership. In order
for schools to break away from the traditional, ineffective professional development, leadership
is dependent upon instituting change. The next section discusses Kotter’s (1996) change model.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 68
Model for Change
Schools around the world have accepted the challenge of updating and upgrading their
services. Costa Rica’s MEP has challenged all schools to prepare students for the NSTF.
However, as administrators and faculties forge ahead to rethink their educational mission,
organizational structure, academic program, teaching methods, personnel roles, and/or commu-
nity relationships, their renewal efforts often falter because schools lack effective action plans.
Many involved in efforts to change are unaware of guidelines for the successful initiation and
implementation of an innovation. By working with a change model, schools can avoid unneces-
sary wheel spinning and prevent excessive time loss to process issues. Kotter’s (1996) eight-step
change model is comprised of eight overlapping steps. The first three are all about creating a
climate for change; the next four, on engaging and enabling the organization; and the last, on
implementing and sustaining change.
The first step in Kotter’s (1996) change model is to establish a sense of urgency. Compa-
nies have a lot on their plates and are wedded to what they already do; therefore, motivating
change is a critical first step. According to Kotter, one has to create a sense of urgency around
the need for change. Kotter suggested that for change to be successful, 75% of a company’s
management must buy into the change. This buy-in requires a major effort and explains why so
few change efforts are effective. The second step is to create a guiding coalition. Kotter sug-
gested that an effective change effort requires the change agent to bring together a coalition of
influential people with a diverse power base within the organization. The leader of change must
identify the true leaders in the organization and instill an enduring and serious emotional com-
mitment to the end goal of the change effort. The third step is to develop a vision and strategy,
starting with the end in mind (Covey, 1992). An effective change leader must be able to convey
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 69
a clear and compelling image of what things will look like if the change occurs. To motivate
decision makers to change, one must connect the outcome with established and accepted values.
The fourth step is to communicate the change vision. The change leader must communicate
clearly, powerfully, and frequently the vision, including the benefits that the desired change will
bring. The fifth step is to empower broad-based action. An effective change leader identifies
and removes, as much as possible, obstacles that could prevent or impede the change. The
obstacles may be certain individuals who need to be persuaded or at least neutralized with respect
to traditions, processes, or procedures that must be modified or eliminated. The sixth step is to
generate short-term wins. Prove the vision is attainable by identifying and celebrating incremen-
tal changes. To do this, create short-term moderate objectives as well as long-term ones. Look
for the easy victories, publicize accomplishments, and praise those who made it happen. The
sixth step is to consolidate gains and produce more change. Build on the results and pride in
successful incremental changes; analyze what went right and replicate it. Determine what should
be improved, and improve it. The eighth step is to anchor the new approaches into the culture.
Sustaining the progress is often more difficult than achieving it in the first place. To make the
change sustainable, the new reality must become a part of the organization’s culture (Kotter,
1996).
Chapter Summary
The review of the literature has established an understanding of globalization’s impact on
education, MNCs’ impact on education, the policy changes as a result of globalization and the
presence of MNCs, as well as the current endeavors undertaken by the Costa Rican education
system. Understanding the history of Costa Rica facilitates the efforts of educational leaders and
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 70
education policy researchers to gain greater insight and understanding regarding the impetus of
decisions made by some of the most influential change agents of the country.
A highlighted area is the need to increase a knowledge-based labor force that can meet the
demands for careers in a thriving global market. Meeting that need and increasing interest in the
STEM fields were the impetus for National Executive Decree #31900 that mandated participa-
tion in the PRONAFECYT for all students in Costa Rica (Chacón, 2011). To support these
endeavors, certain frameworks such as Bolman and Deal’s (2011) frames for educational leader-
ship, STEM PBL (Capraro et al., 2013), and Kotter’s (1996) model for change were determined
as the ones to be utilized as the conceptual blueprints when analyzing the data collected during
the actual study in Costa Rica.
The ultimate goal of the study is to provide implications and suggestions for Costa Rican
educational leaders to help their teachers and students prepare for the NSTF and ultimately meet
the objective of increasing interest in the STEM fields. The following chapter describes the
research team, the design of the study, and the plan of action for this case study.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 71
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Costa Rica has experienced a number of changes, especially over the last 30 years, as it
transitioned from a predominantly agrarian country to a high-tech manufacturing hub. Economic
globalization has necessitated the adaptation of the Costa Rican education system and focused
efforts on developing students with 21st-century skills and fostering an interest in the STEM
field by way of mandatory participation in the PRONAFECYT (CINDE, 2013; MICITT, 2014).
The purpose of this study is to understand the effects of educational leadership on the
participation of Costa Rican primary schools in the PRONAFECYT. The study will identify the
role that school leaders have in the development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT
initiative. Additionally, the study will explore how schools may have restructured their educa-
tional programs by focusing on sharing of leadership and teacher training. The purpose of this
study will be addressed through the following research questions:
1. What is the role that educational leaders/teachers play in implementing the Costa
Rican PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with the
21st-century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
Chapter Two presented an overview and analysis of the existing literature pertaining to
the role that globalization and MNCs have had on restructuring the education of human capital to
produce workers ready for a knowledge-based economy. This chapter focuses on the
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 72
components of the study: the research design, the research team, the sample and population,
instruments, data collection, data analysis, and ethical considerations.
Research Design
This study used a qualitative research approach to answer the research questions. A
qualitative researcher is one who attempts not only to study what people are experiencing but
also how they interpret the experiences (Merriam, 2014). Qualitative data are generally difficult
to measure and quantify, yet reveal valuable attitudes and perspectives that cannot be accessed
through a traditional quantitative approach (Merriam, 2014). Because fieldwork is done without
predetermined categories of analysis, qualitative studies provide depth and detail (Maxwell,
2012).
There are various types of qualitative research. Each approach is unique to the research
question and should fit the views and comfort of the researcher (Merriam, 2014). Creswell
(2013) presented five types: narrative, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, and case
study. The objective of case study research is to examine a phenomenon in its natural context
(Patton, 2005)—in this case, the role that educational leaders play in implementing the
PRONAFECYT initiative in Costa Rican primary schools in Costa Rica. Both Creswell (2013)
and Merriam emphasized that a case study is an in-depth analysis of a system with boundaries,
where the researcher is the primary instrument for data collection and data analysis. Case studies
can consist of a focus on a single phenomenon or a group phenomenon that is similar in context
(Merriam, 2014), such as a school that is successfully implementing the PRONAFECYT initia-
tive as opposed to one that is not. Maxwell (2012) supported that case studies are helpful when
investigating real-life situations in their natural state while utilizing the ability to obtain very
detailed, in-depth descriptions on the topic.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 73
Merriam (2014) defined three types of qualitative case studies: historical and observa-
tional, intrinsic and instrumental, and multisite case studies. This study approached the research
from a multisite case study perspective. Merriam further described this type of study as the
gathering and analyzing of data from multiple sites or cases. This case study involved gathering
data from multiple primary schools in Costa Rica and attempting to define common characteris-
tics. The research team approached the purpose of the study using four frameworks: Bolman and
Deal’s (2008) four-frame model, Kotter’s (1996) eight steps of leading change, Wagner’s (2008)
seven survival skills for the 21st century, and the STEM–PBL framework of Capraro et al.
(2013).
Research Team
The research team was led by Dr. Michael Escalante and Dr. Oryla Weidoeft of the
University of Southern California’s (USC) Rossier School of Education. The dissertation group
was comprised of 18 USC doctoral candidates. The team began meeting during the summer of
2014 to develop the study. Initial research regarding the literature review was presented by
members of the team throughout the fall of 2014. Meetings for this collaborative group took
place approximately 2–3 times per month starting in July of 2014. Collaborative group work
consisted of a literature review; presentations of independent research; development of survey,
interview, and observation protocols as well as other shared projects with respect to the design of
the present study. As the third group led by Dr. Escalante researching schools in Costa Rica,
literature and instruments from previous projects were reviewed and used as references in the
current study. Due to the collaborative nature of this thematic group process, there may be
similarities in the dissertations.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 74
Sample and Population
Purposeful sampling was used to conduct the present study regarding leadership and
instructional practices in implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative. The present case study
was limited to schools within a 2-hour drive from the vicinity of San José, Costa Rica. The
initial communications with Alicia Porras and Nathalie Valencia via email (Appendix A) led to
the compilation of 18 primary schools (Appendix B). Nine schools were identified with a robust
PRONAFECYT program and nine with developing programs.
Instruments
The instruments for this study consist of written surveys, semistructured interviews, and
semistructured observations. Patton (2005) noted that multiple sources of information bring
together multiple perspectives. Triangulation was essential for the validity of the study and was
used to gauge the extent to which the data are typical and aligned with the conceptual frame-
works. All protocols were designed collaboratively during the spring of 2015.
Surveys allow for a quick collection of data and are useful for gaining insights into what
respondents believe, know, and think regarding a topic (Fink, 2013; Maxwell, 2012; Merriam,
2014). For the proposed study, survey protocols were designed collaboratively and organized by
research question and theoretical framework. Survey protocols were modified for the targeted
respondents: teachers, district and school administrators, government officials, business repre-
sentatives, and parents (Appendices C-H). Responses were close-ended, forced-choice scales
with the following response options: strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree, and not
sure so as to easily analyze and interpret the data (Fink, 2013; Maxwell, 2012; Merriam, 2014).
According to Weiss (1995), interviewing gives the researcher access to the observations
of others. To create the interview questions, the research team developed semistructured
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 75
interview questions in accordance with Maxwell’s (2012) three types of questions: (a) questions
about meaning or how people make sense of the world, (b) questions that illuminate context, and
(c) questions that investigate processes. A semistructured interview allows for a level of flexibil-
ity for follow-up and probing questions to be used. Five sets of interview protocols have been
developed for the targeted respondents: teachers, district and school administrators, government
officials, business representatives, and parents (Appendices I-M).
Maxwell (2012) described observations as a way to access direct and powerful learning
about people’s behaviors and the environment in which this behavior occurred. Observations
enable the researcher to draw inferences that cannot be made when relying solely on interviews.
An observation protocol (Appendix N) was developed to collect data regarding the role of
educational leaders in the implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. Additionally, the
protocol was designed to collect data regarding classroom practices and the presence of instruc-
tional practices and artifacts related to the PRONAFECYT. Overall, the partnering of interviews
and observations provide a powerful source of data that naturally implements a check and
balance on the information collected (Maxwell, 2012).
The survey, interview, and observation protocols were submitted to the USC’s Institu-
tional Review Board (IRB) for approval in the spring of 2015. All survey and interview ques-
tions were developed to elicit responses that can be connected to one of the four research
questions. Each participant in this study received an information letter and a consent form
(Appendix O) that was signed and returned prior to participation. The next section goes into the
data collection process that the research team used to meet the needs of this study.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 76
Data Collection
The research team traveled to Costa Rica in June of 2015 to collect data through surveys,
interviews, and observations. Survey data were collected from teachers, students, district and
school administrators, government officials, business representatives, and parents. In addition,
teachers, parents, district and school administrators, government officials, and business represen-
tatives were interviewed. To triangulate the data collected, direct observations at school sites
were conducted.
For this study, the participants were comprised of government officials, educational
leaders, business leaders, school site directors, school site leaders, teachers, students and parents.
Interviews and surveys were conducted with government officials, business leaders, school site
directors, school site leaders, teachers, and parents. Classroom observations were conducted, and
student surveys were administered. The government and business officials were selected pur-
posefully for their unique abilities to provide perspective to the study. All of these individuals
was chosen due to their familiarity with the topics being studied and for their knowledge and skill
sets related to the study. All participants were selected for this research study because of the
current positions they held that played a strong role in the implementation and policymaking
decisions of the PRONAFECYT. These individuals were selected and contacted in advance in
preparation for the June 2015 visit. All interviews were conducted as a team but facilitated by a
lead interviewer.
Seven government officials were interviewed: Javier Cambronero, Deputy with the Costa
Rican Legislative Assembly; Carolina Vasquez Soto, Deputy Minister of Science and Technol-
ogy for MICITT; Alicia Eugenia Vargas Porras, Academic Deputy Minister with MEP; Lander
Perez, Legislative Counsel with the Costa Rican Legislative Assembly, former Regional Director
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 77
(Oueste) with the MEP; Nathalie Valencia Chacón, Director of the Costa Rican Science Fairs as
part of the MICITT; Sylvia Elena Ugalde Fernández, Consulate General of Costa Rica based in
Los Angeles, California; and Patricia Arias, Regional Director for MEP. Mrs. Ugalde’s inter-
view was conducted in Los Angeles; all other interviews were held in Costa Rica. These individ-
uals were chosen for their knowledge of the subject under study and their ability to provide
insight into the intentions and motivations behind policy decisions.
A total of five business leaders were interviewed for this study: Mary Helen Bialas,
Senior Officer of Projects and Programs for the Council for the Promotion of Competitiveness;
Vanessa Gibson, Service Sector Manager for CINDE; Ana Lourdes Acuña, Coordinator of
Logical Scientific Learning and Robotics for the Omar Dengo Foundation; Eduardo Monge,
Project Development and International Relations Officer for the Omar Dengo Foundation; Maria
Santos Pasamontes, Research Coordinator of Science, Technology and Innovation for the State
Report. People from the business sector were interviewed to understand their roles and experi-
ences as corporate leaders in Costa Rica. All interviews occurred in Costa Rica.
Three educational leaders were interviewed: Alejandro Vega Vargas, Science Coordina-
tor with Center for Silesian Education (CEDES)-Don Bosco; Hugo Navarro, Dean of the School
of Technical Education with Costa Rican Institute of Technology; and Dr. Alejandrina Mata
Segreda, Dean of Primary Teacher Education with the University of Costa Rica. All three inter-
views were conducted in Costa Rica. These people were chosen for their personal experience in
preparing students to participate in the PRONAFECYT and in developing curriculum and
instruction to foster 21st- century skills and STEM education.
This case study focused on one of the six school sites visited by the regional research
team. For purposes of confidentiality, all information pertaining to the school site is represented
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 78
by a pseudonym. The Highland Center for Education (HCE), established in 1996, is a K–12
school situated in one of the poorest neighborhoods in San José. According to the school’s
mission, HCE is an educational and pastoral community committed to a comprehensive, inclu-
sive, and innovative education for children and youth, preferably those with fewer opportunities.
The school follows the teachings of Saint Smith in the belief that through job training, students
can become contributing agents of change in society.
A total of 1,800 students attend HCE. Students in this school live below the national
poverty level. The school is supported by the Catholic Church and the government and has
partnerships with local businesses. Enrollment requirements are based on socioeconomic status,
entrance exams, and parent interviews. To remain in the school, students are expected to main-
tain academic progress through tests and class grades. HCE students in Cycles III and IV (Grades
7–12) attend Highland Secondary School (HSS), which has an enrollment of 1,300 students. HSS
is a specialized technical high school that has been noted for many of its PRONAFECYT win-
ners, both nationally and internationally.
HCE holds an annual science fair called the Expotec. The Expotec was established in
1994 as an annual event that provides an opportunity for students to showcase their learning in
science, technology, and art. The focus is for students to develop their problem-solving skills
through inquiry-based projects that solve problems of everyday life in the community. Although
originally for students in the fourth cycle, the Expotec has expanded throughout the years to
showcase students from all four cycles. Not all 1,800 HCE students participate in the culminat-
ing Expotec; however, all students Cycles I–IV (Grades 1–12) participate in the process leading
up to the annual event. The preparation for the Expotec is imbedded in the school’s curriculum
that includes performance benchmarks throughout the year.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 79
Although HCE is a K–12 school, the focus of this case study was on the primary school.
Highland Primary School (HPS) functions as the primary school of HCE. Four hundred students
attend HPS for Cycles I and II (Grades 1–6). The school has a school director and a total of 16
teachers, including an Expotec coordinator.
Each regional research team worked with their respective regional science advisor to
schedule and coordinate the school site visits. The regional science advisors communicated with
each school director to coordinate the dates and times of the school site visits. The regional
science advisors also communicated with each school director to ensure that two teachers were
made available for the research team to interview, in addition to the school director. The school
site interviews were conducted by the regional research team. The questions were facilitated by a
lead interviewer who was fluent in Spanish. The researcher assigned to HPS was not a Spanish
speaker and therefore did not facilitate the interviews. The teachers interviewed were current
teachers who taught at the school. In addition to interviews, surveys and observations were
conducted at the school site. All 16 teachers and 63 sixth-grade students completed the surveys.
Twelve classroom observations were conducted by the regional research team. Following are
brief introductions of some of the participants.
HPS’s school director is Catherine Merel, who has been with the school since it reopened
in 2000. Marianne Ryker is HPS’s Expotec coordinator; in this position she is responsible for
providing training and support to parents in relation to the implementation of the
PRONAFECYT. Marianne Ryker has been the Expotec coordinator since she joined the staff in
2006. Peyton Smith is both a second-grade teacher and a parent of a third-grade student and has
been teaching for 11 years—the last 5 at HPS. Olivia Jones is a first-grade teacher who has been
teaching at HPS for 14 years.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 80
According to Maxwell (2012), the process of triangulation, or use of various data sources,
is vital in providing checks and balances on results that may support a single conclusion. By
triangulating data, the research team increased the validity of the findings by reducing the risk of
any bias based on the use of only one method (Maxwell, 2012). In addition, investigator triangu-
lation (Merriam, 2014), a technique that involves the comparison of data collected by different
researchers based on the same inquiry, was used as a component of the team approach.
The following points have been identified as good ethical practices by Creswell (2013)
and were followed during the data collection, analysis, and interpretation process:
1. The anonymity of individuals, roles and incidents in the case study was protected.
2. Data were kept in a safe location.
3. Issues of data ownership were resolved prior to data collection.
4. In order to provide an accurate account, the researchers and participants debriefed to
check for accuracy of the data.
5. The repercussions of conducting the research on certain audiences were anticipated,
and results were not misused to the advantage of any one group.
Due to the collaborative nature of the study, data were shared among research team members to
establish more depth to the data analysis and findings.
Data Analysis
The purpose of data analysis is to find patterns and themes from the data collected. The
process of data analysis begins simultaneously during the data collection process (Creswell,
2013). Data analysis was completed individually and collaboratively by the research team.
Creswell (2013) provided a methodical layout for data analysis that will be utilized by the
research team and consists of the following six-step strategy:
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 81
1. Organize and prepare data.
2. Read through all the data.
3. Begin detailed analysis within a coding process.
4. Use the coding process to generate a description of the setting or people as well as
categories or themes for analysis
5. Advance how the description and themes will be represented in the qualitative nar-
rative.
6. Make an interpretation or meaning of the data. (p. 185)
These tasks were facilitated through the use of Dedoose, an online tool for data analysis
and coding. All data gathered during the interviews were recorded and transcribed in the lan-
guage of origin. Transcriptions were translated from Spanish to English to facilitate consistent
coding. All data were uploaded to Dedoose and coded according to theme, framework, and
research question.
Reliability and Validity
Examining the data for reliability and validity assesses both the objectivity and credibility
of the research. Validity relates to the honesty and genuineness of the research data; reliability
relates to the reproducibility and stability of the data (Creswell, 2013; Maxwell, 2012; Merriam,
2014). To ensure reliability, the dissertation team will utilize the following strategies as de-
scribed by Creswell (2013) and Gibbs (2008): (a) checking transcripts for accuracy, (b) consistent
and uniform application of codes, (c) coordinated and regular communication by the research
team, and (d) cross-checking codes developed by the individual researchers.
To promote validity, the dissertation team used the following strategies as recommended
by Creswell (2013):
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 82
1. Triangulating of data;
2. Member checking to determine accuracy of findings;
3. Utilizing rich, thick descriptions to convey findings;
4. Clarifying researcher bias through self-reflection and self-disclosure in findings;
5. Including negative or discrepant information;
6. Spending prolonged time in the field;
7. Using peer debriefing to enhance the accuracy of the account; and
8. Using an external auditor to review the entire project.
Due to time constraints posed by international travel, the strategy of spending prolonged time in
the field was not applicable to this study.
Ethical Considerations
All 18 members of the dissertation team, as well as research leaders, Dr. Escalante and
Dr. Wiedoeft, completed the IRB application process. The process entailed completion of the
Collaborative Institutional Review Board Training Institute (CITI), which is an online training
program that offers various modules to help build understanding of the necessary ethical consid-
erations when doing research. Upon review of the module, each member took and assessment
and had to score a minimum of 80% to become CITI certified. The IRB process ensured that the
study would be completed in its entirety with great fidelity and without harming any participants
in the process of the study. Before the data collection, to obtain permission for data collection in
Costa Rica, Dr. Michael Escalante and Dr. Oryla Weidoeft presented a summary of the research
proposal to the MEP (see Appendix P).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 83
Chapter Summary
This chapter presented the proposed methodology to address the research questions so as
to understand the role of leadership on instructional practice, implementation, and participation
of primary schools in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT. The proposed research design, sampling
method, instrumentation, and data collection process and data analysis were discussed.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 84
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
In Chapter Four the results from an analysis of the data collected in the current study are
presented. The data examines and evaluates the practices implemented by leaders focused on
participating successfully in the PRONAFECYT.
Since the second half of the 20th century, Costa Rica has advanced and grown dramati-
cally as it transformed its economy from an agrarian society to one focused on information and
technology. Organizations such as CINDE have successfully increased the FDI of MNCs, thus
ultimately contributing to the job market of Costa Rica. The challenge schools now face is
creating and sustaining educational programs that foster 21st-century skills. These skills have
been determined necessary for students to be successful in an evolving global, knowledge-based
economy. The development of human capital falls to the education system, specifically Costa
Rica’s MEP. The MEP has established that the country will benefit from increased participation
in the STEM fields. As a result, in 2004 the government issued National Executive Decree
#31900, mandating the participation of all Costa Rican students in the participation in the
PRONAFECYT (MICITT, 2014). As the Costa Rican government develops its vision for the
future, the initiatives will be only as effective as the leaders responsible for carrying out the
initiatives
The data obtained to address each of the research questions were triangulated through the
use of surveys, interviews, and observations. In addition, the data were triangulated through the
use of six pertinent sources: school site leaders, teachers, students, parents, government officials,
and business leaders. Data were analyzed using four conceptual frameworks to address each of
the research questions. The works of Bolman and Deal’s (2011) four frames model and Kotter’s
(1996) eight-step change model were used as the framework to evaluate leadership strategies; the
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 85
work of Wagner’s (2008, 2012) 21st-century skills was used as the framework for understanding
the promotion of 21st-century skills in Costa Rican schools, and the work of Capraro et al. (2013)
was used as the framework for understanding STEM PBL.
The purpose of this study was to identify the role that educational leaders play in imple-
menting the PRONAFECYT initiative. Leadership practices, instructional strategies, and profes-
sional development practices at various school sites were examined to identify key components
of successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. The study was guided by the
following four research questions:
1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
This chapter presents the participants of the study, followed by each research question
and a brief discussion and presentation of the results. The themes that surfaced after the analysis
of the data are presented after each research question. A summary of the chapter is presented at
the end.
Participants
The regional research team consisted of 18 doctoral students from the USC Rossier
School of Education, led by Dr. Michael Escalante. Each doctoral student was assigned one of
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 86
the 18 schools selected by MICITT and MEP (Appendix B). The schools were selected based on
their proximity to San José and were from three regions: Valley, Mountain, and River (pseudo-
nyms). Six schools per region were selected, with the doctoral students grouped into three
regional research teams. Each regional research team collaboratively collected data from all six
schools in the region, providing the opportunity to cross-reference information with a substantial
depth of understanding.
For this study, the participants included government officials, educational leaders, busi-
ness leaders, school site directors, school site leaders, teachers, students and parents. Interviews
and surveys were conducted with government officials, business leaders, school site directors,
school site leaders, teachers and parents. Classroom observations were conducted and student
surveys were administered. The government and business officials were selected purposefully
for their unique abilities to provide perspective to the study. These individuals were chosen
because of their familiarity with the topics being studied and for their knowledge and skill sets
related to the study. The participants were selected for this research study because of the current
positions they held that played a strong role in the implementation and policymaking decisions
for the PRONAFECYT (see Table 1). Participants were selected and contacted in advance in
preparation for the June 2015 visit. All interviews were conducted as a team, but facilitated by a
lead interviewer.
This case study focused on one of the six school sites visited by the regional research
team. For purposes of confidentiality, all information pertaining to the school site is represented
by a pseudonym. The Highland Center for Education (HCE), established in 1996, is a K–12
school situated in one of the poorest neighborhoods in San José. According to the school’s
mission, HCE is an educational and pastoral community committed to a comprehensive,
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 87
Table 1
Summary of Interviewed Government and Business Participants
Group
Name Position affiliation
Javier Cambronero Assemblyman Government
Carolina Vasquez Soto Vice Minister of MICITT Government
Alicia Porras Vargas Vice Minister of Academic Education Government
Lander Perez Former Science Advisor, Mountain Region Government
Patricia Arias Science Advisor, Mountain Region Government
Natalie Valencia Chacón PRONAFECYT Coordinator Government
Sylvia Ugalde Fernandez Consulate General Government
Mary Helen Bialas Senior Program Manager, Council for Promotion Business
of Competitiveness
Vanessa Gibson Director, Corporate Development and Business
Investment Climate, CINDE
Ana Lourdes Acuña Coordinator, Logical Scientific Learning and Business
Robotics, Omar Dengo Foundation
Maria Santos Passamontes Director, Estado de la Nacion, Unidad Nacionales Business
Alejandro Vega Vargas Science Coordinator, CEDES Don Bosco Education
Hugh Navarro Dean, School of Technical Education, Costa Education
Rican Institute of Technology
Dr. Alejandrina Mata Dean, Primary Teacher Education, University Education
Segreda of Costa Rica
Note. MICITT = Ministry of Science, Technology, and Telecommunications; PRONAFECYT =
Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología; CINDE = Costa Rican Investment Promo-
tion Agency; CEDES = Center for Silesian Education.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 88
inclusive and innovative education for children and youth, preferably those with fewer opportuni-
ties. The school follows the teachings of Saint Smith, believing that through job training,
students become contributing agents of change in society.
There are a total of 1,800 students attending HCE. HCE students in Cycles III and IV
(Grades 7–12) attend Highland Secondary School (HSS). There are 1,300 students enrolled in
HSS, a specialized technical high school that has been noted for many of its PRONAFECYT
winners both nationally and internationally.
HCE holds an annual science fair called the Expotec. Not all 1,800 HCE students partici-
pate in the culminating Expotec; however, all students in Cycles I–IV (Grades 1–12) participate
in the process leading up to the annual event. The preparation for the Expotec is imbedded in the
school’s curriculum, which includes performance benchmarks throughout the year.
Although HCE is a K–12 school, the focus of this case study is on the primary school.
Highland Primary School (HPS) functions as the primary school of HCE. There are 400 students
attending HPS for Cycles I and II (Grades 1–6). The school has a school director and a total of
16 teachers, including an Expotec coordinator.
Each regional research team worked with their respective regional science advisor to
schedule and coordinate the school site visits. The regional science advisors communicated with
each school director to coordinate the dates and times of the school site visits. The regional
science advisors also communicated with each school director to ensure that two teachers were
made available for the regional research team to interview, in addition to the school director. The
school site interviews were conducted by the regional research team. The questions were facili-
tated by a lead interviewer who was fluent in Spanish. The researcher assigned to HPS is not a
Spanish speaker and therefore did not facilitate the interviews. The teachers interviewed were
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 89
current teachers who taught at the school. In addition to interviews, surveys and observations
were conducted at the school site. All 16 teachers and 63 sixth-grade students completed the
surveys (Table 2). There were 12 classroom observations conducted by the regional research
team.
Table 2
Summary of School Site Participation: Highland Primary School
Position Number
School directors
Survey 2
Interview 2
Teachers
Survey 16
Interview 2
Parents
Survey 4
Interview 3
Students
Survey 63
Interview 0
On the day of the school site visit, School Director Catherine Merel and Expotec coordi-
nator Marianne Ryker were meeting with the parents of a team of third-grade students who had
been selected to move onto the regional level of the PRONAFECYT. Although not previously
arranged, the regional research team had the opportunity to interview the three parents and have
them complete surveys.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 90
Results for Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, “What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the
Costa Rican PRONAFECYT initiative?” The purpose of this question was to determine the
impact and perception that leadership have on educational initiatives.
Over the past 3 decades, the country’s economy has been built on exports and on provid-
ing knowledge-ready workers for the service industry. This process has influenced government
policy, the attraction of FDI, and the presence of MNCs, as well as changes to what and how
schools teach. An educated population makes the country more attractive to FDI and the pres-
ence of MNCs will follow (OECD, Development Centre, 2012). The nation’s long-standing
commitment to education was reflected with National Executive Decree #31900, mandating
participation of all students in the PRONAFECYT initiative (Chacón, 2011).
While the number of schools participating in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT has
increased significantly since the National Executive Decree #31900, there is insufficient evidence
explaining why some school sites have implemented the PRONAFECYT initiative successfully,
while others have been less successful. Evidence is still needed regarding the role of educational
leaders in implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative in Costa Rican Schools. Such evidence
should provide educational leaders with information needed to improve the implementation of
the PRONAFECYT initiative. The goal of Research Question 1 was to explore the role that
educational leaders play in the implementation of the PRONAFECYT.
According to Bolman and Deal (2011), an effective leader is well rounded and exhibits
many characteristics. The four frames of the leadership model (i.e., structural, political, sym-
bolic, and human resources) elaborate on exact areas in which leadership occurs. While many
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 91
leaders do not demonstrate all of these characteristics equally, each of the four frames should be
utilized by the effective leader.
According to Kotter’s (1996) eight-step process, leaders can transform organizations to
successful institutions by following these steps: (a) establishing a sense of urgency by identifying
the need for change, (b) forming a group with enough power and energy to lead the change effort,
(c) creating a vision to help direct the change effort and a strategy for achieving the vision, (d)
communicating the vision effectively, (e) removing obstacles and empowering others to act con-
sistently with the vision, (f) planning for and creating short-term success opportunities, (g) using
short-term success to build confidence and support to address larger-scale change initiatives, and
(h) institutionalizing new processes and behaviors that have resulted from the change process.
Kotter’s stages depict a dynamic process moving through time, though not necessarily in a linear
sequence. In the real world, stages overlap and change agents sometimes need to cycle back to
earlier phases (Bolman & Deal, 2011).
Combining Kotter’s (1996) stages with the four frames generates actions that change
agents might take. Not every frame is essential to each stage, but all are critical to overall
success. Leaders must strategically use their own skillset and knowledge of the people with
whom they work to be effective in implementing new change through this process (Bolman &
Deal, 2011). For example, a multiframed leader will establish a sense of urgency by soliciting
input from stakeholders when utilizing the human resource frame, use the political frame to build
a power base by networking with people of influence and tell a compelling story to reframe the
issue from the symbolic frame.
While educational leaders at various levels of the Costa Rican educational system share in
the responsibility of implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative, the focus of this study was to
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 92
examine the leadership at the school site level. School directors at the individual schools are
responsible for leading the change process. The change process requires symbolic leadership
whereby a leader can develop a shared belief system with the entire school community guided by
a clear, collective purpose (Bolman & Deal, 2011; Kotter, 1996). Two of Kotter’s (1996) stages
presented themselves as distinct themes that emerged from the analysis of data related to Re-
search Question 1: (a) that school leadership is responsible for empowering others to act consis-
tently with the vision and (b) that celebration and recognition are necessary for sustaining a
positive culture.
School Leadership Responsible for Empowering Others
The impact of globalization and MNCs in Costa Rica has challenged school leaders to
take on new leadership roles in schools and universities. The definition of educational leader-
ship, as interpreted by Northouse (2013), is the ability of an individual or individuals to influence
groups of educators to achieve a common goal. Effective leaders must incorporate new leader-
ship roles to meet the needs of a knowledge-based economy. To effectively implement change,
Bolman and Deal (2011) suggested that educational leaders must create a sense of purpose for
change through a shared vision. Leaders who seek to disrupt the status quo must first inherently
believe that there is a dire need for change and, in turn, passionately communicate that belief to
others within the organization through symbolic leadership (Bolman & Deal, 2011). A symbolic
leader must know how to shape the culture of the organization and provide purpose and meaning
to their work through a shared mission and identity (Bolman & Deal, 2011; Fullan, 2010). As
Costa Rica’s educational leaders across all levels collectively work to implement the
PRONAFECYT at each school site, they must operate under the symbolic frame and work to
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 93
inspire all those around them to share in their vision for change and to create a sense of urgency
and purpose for the PRONAFECYT (Bolman & Deal, 2011).
Educational leaders must create a shared vision within their organization in order to
implement the PRONAFECYT initiative by communicating a genuine belief that participation is
good for students and good for the country. The data collected from the government officials,
business leaders, teachers, students and parents suggested that the school site leader needs to
empower others to act consistently with the vision.
With the Expotec implemented schoolwide (Cycles I–IV) before the issuing of the
National Executive Decree #31900, HCE has demonstrated a long-standing vision committed to
STEM education. The survey data gathered from the school site affirmed this commitment.
Participants were asked whether there is a positive culture toward the PRONAFECYT; in
response, 80% of teachers and 100% of parents strongly agreed or agreed. Participants were also
asked if there is a schoolwide vision for the PRONAFECYT; in response, the school director
strongly agreed, 86% of teachers strongly agreed or agreed, 90% of students strongly agreed or
agreed, and 100% of parents strongly agreed or agreed.
When HPS School Director Catherine Merel was interviewed, she explained the estab-
lishment of the Expotec and affirmed that it was established prior to the National Executive
Decree #31900. According to Merel, “When we started our fair as an institution around 1995,
there still wasn’t an initiative from the MEP” (interview, June 15, 2015). Merel affirmed the
school’s vision committed to STEM education. She also highlighted that the school’s commit-
ment to showcasing student learning is founded on the Silesian philosophy. According to Merel,
“since we are a technical school, there is a need to share the work with the kids, with their family
members, and with members of the community” (interview, June 15, 2015).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 94
Interviews with other site leadership, teachers, and parents affirmed the established
culture with respect to the PRONAFECYT. According to Joel Shawn, the Expotec coordinator
for HCE, “just by preparing for the Expotec, students are preparing for the PRONAFECYT. The
Expotec is an institutional fair; it involves all the students from the beginning of the year”
(interview, June 13, 2015). Joel Shawn described how the process of preparing for the Expotec
is imbedded into the school’s curriculum. He explained that preparing for the Expotec is a
requirement of attending HCE; there is no choice for students to opt out. Students identify a
topic of investigation at the beginning of the year. As the school year progresses, they have to
present their research and they have to defend their project. Students are graded on their research
methods and their defense. Even if students are unable to pass their defense and therefore will
not showcase their project at the Expotec, they continue to collaborate with their peers in the
logistical process of preparing for the Expotec.
Although the data supported there being an established vision and culture regarding the
implementation of the PRONAFECYT, there were data that suggested a need for the school site
leader to empower others to act consistently with the vision. According to Kotter (1996), in
order for a change effort to succeed, individuals responsible for the activities of an initiative need
to be empowered to act in a manner consistent with the vision of the initiative. As it relates to
the PRONAFECYT viewed through the symbolic frame, empowering teachers can include
removing obstacles that can hinder or threaten the successful implementation of the initiative.
Obstacles could be lack of training, lack of resources, and lack of decision making capacity
(Bolman & Deal, 2011). To overcome these barriers, the role of the school director can be to
ensure that resources are available to support the initiative, that teachers have decision-making
capacity, and that teachers receive training.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 95
The finding that the role of educational leaders is to empower teachers was substantiated
by interviews with key persons in government and the school site. When Nathalie Valencia
Chacón, MICITT Director of the PRONAFECYT, was asked what role leaders of the education
system have in the implementation of science fairs, she emphasized that empowering teachers is
a key component. Chacón explained that educational leadership is key for the success of the
PRONAFECYT and the development of the country and that principals who empower teachers
make a difference (interview, June 17, 2015). According to Chacón, a site director who empow-
ers his or her teachers makes the difference between successful implementation and less success-
ful implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. Teachers who are empowered to make
decisions are committed to the process; they are motivated and, in turn, motivate their students
from the early stages of the process (interview, June 17, 2015).
The data suggested that one of the ways that the school director can empower teachers is
by removing obstacles that can hinder or prevent implementation of the PRONAFECYT and also
to provide them with the capacity to make decisions. One barrier can be the lack of resources.
When Javier Cambronero, Deputy in the Costa Rican Legislative Assembly, was asked what role
leaders of the education system have in the implementation of science fairs, it was clear that one
of the roles of educational leaders is to empower teachers. Advocating for what is needed
ensures that the initiative is successful. Cambronero noted that “they [educational leaders] have
to convince politicians, those who make decisions, that it is worth supporting” (interview, June
13, 2015). Empowering teachers by removing barriers can include the provision of resources
necessary for the initiative. Cambronero was asked if the government provides schools with the
necessary resources to participate in PRONAFECYT. He responded:
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 96
No, in this case the Ministry of Education provides support; however, the injection of
resources is not very big. That is why there is a need for a law of the Republic that forces
investment in this type of process. Currently, most of the expenditure is financed by the
education center, by the teachers who use their own money to make contributions, and
from the parents of those children who are participating in the process. The contribution
is very small and it should be increased. (interview, June 13, 2015)
When asked how resources needed for the fair are obtained, teacher Peyton Smith ex-
plained that the school does not receive financial support. Anything outside of the regular
classroom supplies provided by the school has to be obtained by the teacher: “Many times, the
teacher pays for the extra materials out of their own pocket” (interview, June 15, 2015). When
asked how necessary resources are obtained to participate in PRONAFECYT, School Director
Catherine Merel explained that
most of the resources are provided by the parents. . . . The parents in this school are very
active in the fair. We coordinate everything to make sure that all the parents are involved
in the process, and in turn, they spend much of their own time committed to the process.
(interview, June 15, 2015)
Consumable materials and supplies are one form of necessary resources. Another form could be
the facility. During the visit of the school site by the regional research team, observations were
made to substantiate the need for structural support. It was observed that school facilities condu-
cive to carrying out scientific projects were not sufficient. There was no assigned laboratory for
experiments and materials, and/or equipment required to conduct experiments was not available.
Not only are materials and supplies necessary resources, but so is teacher training. When Cath-
erine Merel, the Director of HPS was interviewed, she explained the importance of removing
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 97
barriers to the implementation of PRONAFECYT involved empowering teachers with proper
training. Director Merel articulated that training was important to the school and science fair
effort and that it was arranged months in advance (interview, June 15, 2015). She described the
curricular gap that she is trying to bridge in preparing primary students for the rigorous instruc-
tion and Expotec process of the secondary school. To bridge this gap, Merel believes that the
level of inquiry must be increased in the classroom across the curriculum, including the work
related to the Expotec projects. Therefore, not only is Merel continuously providing her teachers
with professional development regarding the Expotec process, but also she is seeking curriculum
that addresses inquiry and the scientific method across content. Merel is hoping that with this
curriculum and the supporting professional development, more of the activities and practices
related to the projects can be reinforced in the classroom (interview, June 15, 2015).
When asked if there is a school curriculum plan to help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT, of the 16 teachers surveyed , 67% strongly agreed or agreed and 33% strongly
disagreed or disagreed. Of the four parents surveyed at HPS, 50% agreed and 50% were unsure.
Of the six government officials surveyed, 100% strongly agreed or agreed. Of the three business
leaders surveyed, 67% disagreed and 33% were unsure. Although survey results indicated the
presence of a standardized curriculum, the results also indicated that not all respondents were in
agreement, thus suggesting room for potential improvement.
The data gathered from interviews and observations suggested that while HPS has an
embedded process to facilitate the Expotec, including training sessions for the parents and
teachers, there fails to be a curriculum that supports the scientific method across the curriculum.
Without the practice of inquiry and the necessary supplies in the classroom, students are expected
to prepare the greater part of their project at home.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 98
Marianne Ryker, HPS’s science coordinator, explained that although the classroom
teachers are involved with the students throughout the entire process, such as working with them
to select a theme, evaluating the lab manuals, and evaluating the defense process, much, if not all
of the work related to the project is done at home. That is why most of Ryker’s training sessions
are guided toward the parents. Ryker provides multiple sessions to train parents to support their
student through the scientific method and proper documentation as they complete the various
experiments (interview, June 15, 2015).
When the three parents, Ellyn Taub, Kristine Andrew, and Dak Forbes, were asked what
teaching methods teachers use to prepare the students for the Expotec, they explained that there
was not much of this type of instruction. The teacher offers a process of guidance, but the col-
laborating and learning process is entirely outside of the classroom. There are institutional
mechanisms that allow for support—for example, the parents who do not know how to write an
objective have training workshops so that they can learn to write one. There are training sessions
for parents to learn how to use the basic tools, but the process of inquiry and examination is done
by the children and parents; it does not happen at school. The teachers check their progress, the
teacher will tell them if they wrote their objectives incorrectly have the student make the correc-
tions, or the teacher will tell the student if there is information missing from the background
information (interview, June 15, 2015).
When teacher Peyton Smith was asked how she prepares for PRONAFECYT, she ex-
plained that teachers receive a great deal of training about the Expotec process. Smith also
explained that the director empowers teachers by providing training and delegated different
aspects of the science fair to teachers (interview, June 15, 2015).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 99
The data gathered from the surveys, interviews, and observations suggested that the
school site leader has to empower others to act consistently with the vision. The data suggested
that one of the ways that the school director can empower teachers is by removing obstacles that
can hinder or prevent implementation of the PRONAFECYT and by providing them with the
capacity to make decisions. One barrier can be the lack of resources. Resources can take many
forms, from consumable materials and supplies to structural facilities, such as dedicated lab
space to teacher training and curriculum.
School Leadership Responsible for Sustaining Positive Culture
According to Bolman and Deal’s (2011) four frames of leadership model, school
directors must establish a vision of learning for their organizations. In a similar fashion, Kotter
(1996) agreed that leaders of change must overcommunicate their goals and vision in order to
cement positive change in organizations. According to Bolman and Deal, one powerful method
of communicating a vision is through the symbolic frame by recognition of success within
organizations. Likewise, Kotter suggested celebrating short-term successes as a method of
solidifying change and establishing productive organizational cultures. As it relates to the
PRONAFECYT initiative, such actions could include recognition of students and teachers for
progress aligned with the initiative.
The data suggested that many of Costa Rica’s educational leaders, from the MEP and
MICITT to the school sites, saw the importance of celebration and recognition and recognized
that some student recognition was taking place at the school site level. If celebration and recog-
nition were fully in effect, one would expect to see not only students recognized for their
PRONAFECYT participation at the school site, regional, and national levels but also the
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 100
celebration of the entire school communities that support the process of PRONAFECYT imple-
mentation.
Survey data gathered from all participants suggested that recognition and celebration of
the PRONAFECYT participants was present. When asked if student participation in the
PRONAFECYT was recognized through the schools, 67% of government and business officials
agreed or strongly agreed. When asked the same question at the school site, the site director
agreed, 86% of teachers strongly agreed or agreed, 82% of students strongly agreed or agreed,
and 100% of parents strongly agreed.
Interviews with school site directors, teachers, and government and business officials
affirmed that celebration and recognition are an important component for implementing and
sustaining the PRONAFECYT initiative. When key persons in government and industry were
asked whether the government recognizes the schools or regions for their participation in the
PRONAFECYT, responses indicated that although there is awareness of the importance of
celebration and recognition, more could be done.
When Javier Cambronero, Deputy in the Costa Rican Legislative Assembly, was asked
how teachers were recognized for their efforts in regard to the PRONAFECYT, he indicated that
this was an area of great weakness. Although there is significant recognition once a student
reaches the national level, nothing is in place systematically until the national level. Individual
schools may have something in place to recognize the work done by teachers; however, most
schools recognize the students. Mr. Cambronero went on to say that “we need to have a frame-
work that enables the encouragement and reward of the good things that are being done. At the
end of the way there is recognition, but we don’t think it’s enough” (interview, June 15, 2015).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 101
When Nathalie Valencia Chacón, Director of the PRONAFECYT, was asked about
celebration and recognition, she confirmed that celebration and recognition were an area of
growth for the MEP and MICITT. She discussed the need for the government to reevaluate the
current system of celebration and recognition for all involved in the PRONAFECYT initiative
(interview, June 17, 2015). The government also has to find ways to publicly value the efforts as
a means of increasing motivation for strengthening the school site’s implementation of the
PRONAFECYT:
The Ministry of Science and Technology provides the trophies and certificates for all the
participants in the regional science fairs, but I think we can work harder in the teachers’
recognition and especially from the Ministry of Public Education. I think it would be
very important to work on that aspect, in order to reward the teachers and the principals,
the supervisors and the science consultants, through a public recognition. Not only the
material awards are important but also a public recognition is important. That is some-
thing all the institutions that participate in the program can strengthen. We recognize the
students, but I think we could do something more to motivate the teachers since they are
the ones who have this valuable and important task. (interview, June 17, 2015)
When Mary-Helen Bialas, Senior Officer of Projects and Programs for Consejo de
Promocion de la Competividad, was asked about recognition, she affirmed that there is a varied
amount of student recognition and school celebration, depending on the school (interview,
June 13, 2015). There is little to no teacher recognition across most schools; there is a greater
amount of student recognition as students reach the national level. Mary-Helen Bialas added:
The ministers go to the national fair, and they hand out awards to the kids. I believe that
having a recognition program for schools that are science based or that are oriented
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 102
towards science or general, is just as impactful. It would be great if they could create
more incentives for teachers or recognize the teacher’s efforts. That would also be very,
very important. (interview, June 13, 2015)
When teachers were asked how they are recognized for their efforts with respect to the
implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative, responses indicated that participation in the
PRONAFECYT is an institutional expectation. Teacher Peyton Smith explained that teachers
are not recognized as this part of their job; implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative is the
expectation of the school and, on a larger scale, the MEP (interview, June 15, 2015). Olivia
Jones, another teacher, added that HPS sends many student groups to the circuit level and then
the national level: “Our students always place well” (interview, June 15, 2015). Jones added:
This is prestige for the school. This prestige is good for the school. Parents want to have
their student attend because they know that our students perform well at all levels of the
PRONAFECYT. As a teacher at HPS, I am proud to be teaching at a school that does so
well in the PRONAFECYT. My recognition is when my students do well” (interview,
June 15, 2015).
Marianne Ryker HPS’s science coordinator, explained how the Expotec is facilitated at
HCE. The Expotec takes 15 days from start to finish. All student groups from all cycles (Grades
1–12) that successfully defend their project in their class will showcase their project in the
Expotec. There is great fanfare as families, community members, and members of the press are
invited to attend. Everyone is invited to awards ceremony, where the top three projects in each
level are recognized and the students awarded a certificate (interview, June 15, 2015). In regard
to teacher recognition, she added:
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 103
The national level recognizes the teacher with an award. It isn’t a monetary prize, but it is
an award to recognize the support and knowledge provided. Usually they [the teachers]
are encouraged to continue participating in other events because the ultimate purpose is to
accompany students in the national processes by participating in the experience of the fair
with young people. Winning isn’t about a prize to be gained—it’s a journey. For the
teacher, it is national recognition. (interview, June 15, 2015)
Classroom observations made by the regional research team failed to indicate the level of
teacher recognition. During the observation of 12 classrooms, only one photograph was noted of
a student group receiving an award. Otherwise, there was no evidence of recognition or celebra-
tion of student participation in PRONAFECYT. However, on the day of the site visit, the
director and coordinator had a meeting with the parents of a third-grade team. The three-member
team had not only been selected by the site to move on to the next level of competition but also
had been selected at the circuit level to move on to the regional level. As a result of awareness
created by their project (i.e., pollution in a local river), the mayor had asked that HPS support the
project at the community level and help coordinate a river cleanup. Therefore, the purpose of
the meeting was not only to discuss the next level of competition but to coordinate a river
cleanup as well. The coordinator further explained that with this project the students received
recognition and also the opportunity for the school to do good work in the community.
The data analysis derived from the surveys, interviews, and observations suggested that
educational leaders at the site level are recognizing only student participation in the
PRONAFECYT. The data also suggested that government and business officials must make
greater efforts to publicly celebrate and recognize both teachers and students in order to increase
the success of the PRONAFECYT implementation.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 104
Results Summary for Research Question 1
The goal of Research Question 1 was to determine the impact and perception that site
leadership has on educational initiatives. The data analysis revealed two themes related to
Research Question 1: (a) that school site leadership is responsible for empowering others to act
consistently with the vision and (b) that celebration and recognition are necessary for sustaining a
positive culture.
The data suggested that one of the ways that the school director can empower teachers is
by removing obstacles that can hinder or prevent implementation of the PRONAFECYT and by
providing them with the capacity to make decisions. One barrier can be the lack of resources,
which can take many forms—from consumable materials and supplies to structural facilities such
as lab space dedicated to teacher training and curriculum.
In terms of sustaining a positive culture, one powerful method of communicating a vision
is through the symbolic frame by recognition of success within organizations (Bolman & Deal,
2011). Likewise, Kotter (1996) suggested celebrating short-term successes as a method of
solidifying change and establishing productive organizational cultures. The data analysis derived
from the surveys, interviews, and observations suggested that educational leaders at the site level
are recognizing only student participation in the PRONAFECYT. The data also suggested that
government and business officials must make greater efforts to publicly celebrate and recognize
both teachers and students in order to increase the success of the PRONAFECYT implementa-
tion.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 105
Results for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, “How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from
teacher practices at less successful schools, as measured by the level of participation in the Costa
Rican PRONAFECYT?”
The purpose of Research Question 2 was to identify teacher practices that contribute to
the level of participation in the PRONAFECYT. This was an important area of inquiry because
understanding practices that can increase participation can inform educational leaders about
potential improvement opportunities leading to increased participation. For purposes of inform-
ing Research Question 2, two school sites with differing levels of participation were identified by
the MEP and MICITT. For the purpose of this case study, HPS was compared to Foothill
Primary School (FPS), another school visited by the regional research team. A comparison of
school sites helped to identify effective elements of leadership and instruction as they pertained
to participation in the PRONAFECYT.
FPS is the largest school in the River Region with over 1,800 students. The school has
two cycles of students to accommodate all 1,800 students. The first cycle of students attend
school from 7:00 a.m. to 1:00 p.m; the second cycle, 11:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m.
A total of 66 student surveys, 26 parent surveys, 17 teacher surveys, and one director
survey were collected from FPS. The school site interviews were conducted by the regional
research team with questions facilitated by a lead interviewer who was fluent in Spanish. The
teachers interviewed were current teachers who taught at the school. Students surveyed were
sixth-grade students (see Table 3). Following are brief introductions of some of the participants.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 106
Table 3
Summary of School Site Participation: Foothill Primary School
Position Number
School director
Survey 1
Interview 1
Teachers
Survey 17
Interview 2
Parents
Survey 26
Interview 0
Students
Survey 66
Interview 0
The primary school official interviewed for this study was Ken Roberts, FPS School
Director. Mr. Roberts has been at the school for nearly 10 years as the lead administrator. Two
sixth-grade teachers, Brent Forsee and John David from FPS, were interviewed to support the
survey findings. Brent Forsee is a sixth-grade math and science teacher at FPS and has been at
FPS for 16 years. John David has been a sixth-grade Spanish and social studies teacher at FPS
for 2 years but has been a teacher for over 5 years.
On the day of the scheduled visit, it was the end of the grading period and subsequently a
pupil-free day. Although students were not on campus, the regional research team was able to
observe Back to School Night. Each grade-level teacher team presented key informational pieces
to the parents who were in attendance. This situation allowed the regional research team to
solicit parent participation for the surveys; all participants were parents of sixth-grade students.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 107
Because it was a pupil-free day, part of the regional research team returned to the school
site on a different day to administer the teacher and student surveys as well as to visit classrooms.
To affirm the participation gap between schools, teachers were asked if there is a high level of
participation in the PRONAFECYT at the school. In response, 67% of the 16 teachers surveyed
at HPS strongly agreed, compared to 15% of the 26 teachers surveyed at FPS.
To compare how teacher practices at successful schools differed from teacher practices at
less successful schools, it is important to understand how school leaders communicated the
vision and how teachers believed in what was communicated. Viewed through the symbolic
frame, leadership could communicate the school’s goals and aspirations by embedding them
within the culture of the school. This process would, in turn, affect teacher practices that sup-
ported the vision (Bolman & Deal, 2011; Kotter, 1996). The leader must also be able to share the
stories of the process and the journey that the school community has undergone since the changes
were initiated to cause the schoolwide vision to be embedded in every aspect of the school’s
culture (Bolman & Deal, 2011; Kotter, 1996). One way to embed a cultural shift through the
school’s culture is to incorporate specific teaching practices across the curriculum. Capraro et al.
(2013) felt that students must encounter a variety of opportunities to define and develop specific
21st-century skills, such as inquiry. For students to be successful, teachers must incorporate
inquiry-based skills across the core content areas so that their students can engage in inquiry in a
variety of situations and settings. Through the review of literature and data analysis related to
Research Question 2, two distinct themes emerged: (a) elements of PLCs are more prevalent at
the school site with a higher level of student participation in the PRONAFECYT, and (b) STEM–
PBL practices are utilized to a greater extent at the school with a higher level of student participa-
tion in the PRONAFECYT.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 108
Two theoretical frameworks provided guidance for Research Question 2 in the areas of
STEM PBL and PLCs. These frameworks were utilized to assess the development and imple-
mentation of the PRONAFECYT initiative in Costa Rican schools. The first framework
provides a basis for understanding STEM PBL and is based on the work of Capraro et al. (2013).
The second addresses components of PLCs and is based on work by DuFour and Fullan (2013).
The work of Capraro et al. (2013) provides a framework used to inform this study as it
relates to understanding STEM–PBL education. Projects assigned to students that give students
the opportunity to utilize knowledge from interdisciplinary subjects while employing creativity,
collaboration, and imagination provided the STEM–PBL results and subsequent learning out-
comes. Project outcomes may include a variety of formats including speeches, presentations,
products, or models. There are three components of well-defined outcomes: (a) clearly stated
deliverables informing students what they are required to produce, (b) project constraints or
limitations to keep the project within boundaries, and (c) learning that takes place while projects
are completed.
The second framework addresses the PLCs. The primary goals of PLCs are to provide
teachers with time to reflect and plan and to fully engage in a professional task (Huffman et al.,
2014). The research of Huffman et al. (2014) also demonstrated that PLCs create a positive
community of collaboration with common goals advancing STEM. PLCs represent an ongoing
process in which educators work collaboratively using inquiry and action research to improve
results for students (DuFour & Fullan, 2013).
Teacher Collaboration
A component of a sustainable positive culture can be the ability to foster PLCs. Schools
need teachers to be not only implementers of effective teaching strategies but also innovators of
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 109
strategies that foster critical thinking. Many schools have accomplished this step by establishing
PLCs. PLCs are communities of teachers in the same content area who create instructional
innovations, support one another during the implementation stage, and reflect on the results. In
essence, the community of teachers serves as coaches for each other (Huffman et al., 2014).
Research shows that effective professional learning communities can change teacher practice and
increase student achievement (Akerson et al., 2009; Fazio, 2009; Liu et al., 2010). PLC partici-
pants must collaborate effectively, working as a team and taking collective responsibility for the
group’s outcomes. PLCs require a shared mission and vision as well as shared norms and values
to guide the work and inform the goals to be achieved. They must engage in reflective dialogue
and ongoing critical inquiry, maintain a sharp focus on student learning and results, and be open
about their work and willing to present it in a public fashion (DuFour & Fullan, 2013; Eaker et
al., 2002; Huffman et al., 2014; Richmond & Manokore, 2011).
PLCs can support STEM education by enhancing curriculum and improving the STEM–
PBL implementation schoolwide (Richmond & Manokore, 2011; Saavedra, & Opfer, 2012). The
primary goals of PLCs are to provide teachers with time to reflect and plan and to fully engage in
a professional task (Huffman et al., 2014).
To aid in the analysis of the data, the work of DuFour and Fullan (2013) was used as a
framework to compare with real activities identified during this study. This framework has seven
components or processes identified as maintaining an effective PLC: (a) organizing staff into
meaningful teams, (b) providing teams with time to collaborate, (c) providing supportive struc-
tures that help groups become teams, (d) clarifying the work that the team must accomplish, (e)
monitoring the work of teams and providing direction and support as needed, (f) avoiding short-
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 110
cuts in the collaboration team process, and (g) celebrating short-term wins and confronting those
who do not contribute to their teams.
The data from surveys, interviews, and observations suggested that HPS, a school that is
considered successful with the implementation of the PRONAFECYT, has teachers and leaders
whose practices demonstrate that they make the PRONAFECYT initiative an important part of
the school’s culture rather than an isolated program in which students simply participate, as was
found at FPS.
Teachers and school directors at HPS and FPS believed that the PRONAFECYT initia-
tive was an important part of their school culture. School directors and teachers at both sites
were asked if there was a positive school culture toward the PRONAFECYT initiative; in
response, both the HPS and FPS school directors agreed. Of the teachers, 80% of the HPS teach-
ers and 50% of FPS teachers strongly agreed or agreed. Participants were also asked if there was
a schoolwide vision for the PRONAFECYT initiative; in response, both the HPS and the FPS
school directors strongly agreed. Of the teachers surveyed, 87% of HPS teachers and 50% of the
FPS teachers strongly agreed or agreed. Of the students surveyed, 90% of HPS students and 82%
of FPS students strongly agreed or agreed. Of the parents surveyed, 100% of HPS parents
strongly agreed or agreed, and 50% of the FPS parents strongly agreed or agreed. Finally, partici-
pants were asked if there was a school curriculum plan to help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT at the school sites; in response, both school directors at HPS and FPS strongly
agreed. Of the teachers surveyed, 67% of the HPS teachers strongly agreed or agreed, but only
25% of the FPS teachers strongly agreed or agreed. Based on the survey results, participants at
HPS felt strongly that there was a school culture focused on the PRONAFECYT, whereas the
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 111
participants at FPS indicated that there was a general belief system that supported the
PRONAFECYT culture.
The school directors and teachers at both HPS and FPS were interviewed to gain a
broader understanding of their responses to the survey questions regarding the PRONAFECYT
initiative and its place within the school culture. When the school directors were asked how
teachers ensured that all students participated in the PRONAFECYT initiative, FPS Director Ken
Roberts explained that it depended on the teacher. Some teachers made the project an assign-
ment that earned the student a grade; other teachers allowed students elect to participate. Roberts
added that as a school, only send a small number of student teams could be sent to the circuit
level, therefore preventing many of his students from moving on. He felt that some of his
teachers were less assertive in requiring student participation because most projects would end at
the site level (interview, June 16, 2015).
When HPS Director Catherine Merel was interviewed, she explained the establishment of
the Expotec and affirmed that it was established prior to the National Executive Decree #31900.
According to Merel, “when we started our fair as an institution around 1995, there still wasn’t an
initiative from the MEP” (interview, June 15, 2015). Merel affirmed that the school’s vision is
committed to STEM education. She also highlighted that the school’s commitment to show-
casing student learning is founded on the Silesian philosophy. According to Merel, “since we are
a technical school, there is a need to share the work with the kids, with their family members, and
with members of the community” (interview, June 15, 2015).
When the teachers were asked how teachers ensured that all students participate in the
PRONAFECYT initiative, Brent Forsee and John David at FPS explained that it was very dif-
ficult to motivate the students to participate. Many students lacked the interest. Both teachers
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 112
explained that they did not feel it appropriate to make the projects mandatory as it required
significant time outside of the classroom. They also explained that much of the instructional
time was dedicated to meeting content standards that were assessed by the tests (interviews,
June 16, 2015).
When HPS teachers Peyton Smith and Olivia Jones were interviewed, they explained that
all students were required to participate in the preparation leading up to the Expotec. The
process was embedded in the school’s curriculum, starting at the beginning of the school year.
Students were evaluated on their ability to conduct an experiment and to defend their process at
various points throughout the year (interviews, June 15, 2015).
PLCs share collective responsibility for the learning of all students within the school or
school system. Collective responsibility brings together the entire education community, includ-
ing members of the education workforce—teachers, support staff, and administrators—as well as
families, policymakers, and other stakeholders. The collective effort is to increase effective
teaching in every classroom. Within PLCs, peer accountability rather than formal or administra-
tive accountability ignites commitment to professional learning. Every student benefits from the
strengths and expertise of every educator when communities of educators learn together and are
supported by local communities whose members value education for all students. Collective
participation advances the goals of a whole school or team as well as those of individuals. Com-
munities of caring, analytic, reflective, and inquiring educators collaborate to learn what is
necessary to increase student learning. Within PLCs, members exchange feedback about their
practice with one another, visit each other’s classrooms or work settings, and share resources
(DuFour & Fullan, 2013).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 113
The survey results from teachers and parents revealed that there is a strong opinion that
teachers at the HPS utilize elements of PLCs to a greater extent relative to the teachers at FPS.
Of the 16 teachers surveyed from HPS, 73% strongly agreed that teachers work together to plan
and prepare for the PRONAFECYT. Of the four parents surveyed at HPS, 75% strongly agreed
that teachers work together to plan and prepare for the PRONAFECYT. Indicators from FPS
revealed a lower percentage of teachers and parents perceiving that teachers work together to
plan and prepare for the PRONAFECYT. Of those surveyed at FPS, 15% of the 17 teachers
surveyed and 18% of the 26 parents surveyed strongly agreed that teachers work together to plan
and prepare for the PRONAFECYT.
The finding that PLCs are used more extensively at HPS relative to FPS was supported by
interviews with key individuals from the school sites. Interviews conducted at both school sites
revealed evidence that there was a greater presence of the seven elements of PLCs found in the
framework of DuFour and Fullan (2013) compared to FPS. When HPS Director, Catherine
Merel, was interviewed on June 15, 2015, she explained practices that suggested the presence of
the seven components or processes included in effective PLCs that are identified in DuFour and
Fullan’s (2013) framework.
Merel shared that this learning community includes more than a partnership between the
student and teacher. It includes a partnership with the parents as well. Merel explained that not
all of the work is done in class as there is not enough time; therefore, much of the work is done at
home with the support of parents. The parents are invested in this role. The school has to
support the parents, who then add their support for the students: “That is why we have so many
mandatory meetings for the parents, to train them, to support them” (interview, June 15, 2015).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 114
Throughout the year, the teachers support the students by supervising the progress of the student
log books and evaluating the written papers and various presentations.
Olivia Jones, teacher at HPS, shared that teachers work together by grade level to plan
activities for all subject areas, including those related to science projects and activities (interview,
June 17, 2015). Peyton Smith, HPS teacher, shared that teachers are provided with both time for
training and time to plan and research activities for students: “We had a 3-day training with
MICITT a couple of years ago. Since then, we have our own training, building on that training,
but in our way” (interview, June 15, 2015).
Interviews at FPS indicated that elements of PLCs were either absent or used less fre-
quently. Brent Forsee and John David explained that teachers taught in teams. In their case, they
team taught two classes of sixth-grade students. Forsee taught math and science; David, Spanish
and social studies. Although they worked together regularly, because they shared over 60
students, they rarely teamed up with the other sixth=grade teachers. The teachers indicated that
training and support were in need of improvement. Forsee indicated that although he taught the
science curriculum for the team, he was not a content master and felt that a teacher dedicated to
teaching science would be better suited for moving the students forward. In addition, both the
director and teachers at FPS indicated that collaboration among teachers was rare (interviews,
June 16, 2015).
Observations performed by the regional research team further supported the survey and
interview data. At HPS, similar work was being done and showcased by parallel grade levels.
Cross-grade level collaboration was observed. On the day of the school site visit, fifth-grade
students were working with third-grade students on their presentations. In addition, the school
director, parents, and students were observed collaborating on specific projects. While
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 115
collaboration was noted at FPS, it was not at the same level as at Highland PS. On the day of the
school site visit to FPS, it was a pupil-free day. The regional research team observed teachers
collaborate in the preparation and presentations for Back to School Night. The presentations
were done by the grade-level teams. Part of the regional research team returned at a later date to
collect survey data and visit several classrooms. At this time, the researchers noticed in several
classrooms the placement of student desks in small groups. During the student recess, the
researchers observed a group of teachers and parents sorting recyclables. The director explained
that this was a schoolwide initiative both as a means of raising supplemental funds as well as for
a community education initiative.
Another component to PLCs is the opportunity to exchange feedback. When asked about
how feedback is provided at HPS, Marianne Ryker, the science coordinator, explained that
everyone in the community is invited to attend the Expotec, not only students and their families
(interview, June 15, 2015). Nearby schools are invited to observe the Expotec. There is an
opportunity at the end of the event where the participants (students and families) are given an
opportunity to provide feedback about the process and the experience. The students and parents
are asked to provide feedback about their experience during the year, including the support from
the school in the process. The teachers are asked for their feedback during the year and at the end
of the Expotec as well. Ryker went on to explain:
It is the directors’ responsibility to collate the feedback. From there, we [the primary and
secondary directors, teachers, and coordinators] evaluate the operation of the Expotec—
mistakes, success. After a discussion with the directors, we have meetings with the
teachers to discuss the feedback and discuss ways of improvement. At the beginning of
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 116
the next year, we present the changes to all teachers as part of the teacher trainings. (inter-
view, June 15, 2015)
In terms of feedback in the classroom, teacher Peyton Smith explained that it is a continu-
ous process. Teachers regularly meet to discuss project topics and how they are to support the
students. Teachers are also in constant communication with students about their work and with
parents regarding next steps and additional support (interview, June 15, 2015).
When asked about how feedback is provided at FPS as it pertains to the PRONAFECYT
initiative, John David explained that feedback is not really gathered at the site level. The school
site has a small committee to work on the science fair. The regional administration gives the
committee members the rules, and then the committee shares the information with the teachers.
As for the projects, the only projects to garner feedback are those that move through the circuit
and regional levels (interview, June 16, 2015).
Observations made by the regional research team at HPS supported the frequent opportu-
nities for feedback. In the lobby of the school was a large bulletin board dedicated to the Expo-
tec. On the board was a feedback request form that could be torn off and put anonymously into a
locked box next to the bulletin board. In the staff workroom, the regional research team noticed a
similar bulletin board with a similar request for feedback. Posted in each classroom was infor-
mation regarding upcoming Expotec meetings. Meetings were identified to indicate whether
they involved teachers, parents, or students. All meetings were mandatory and scheduled during
the school day. Classroom observations made by the regional research team at FPS failed to
indicate the collection of feedback of any sort.
Triangulation of data affirmed that a key role of educational leaders in the implementa-
tion of PRONAFECYT is to create a sustainable positive culture. The data gathered from the
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 117
surveys, interviews, and observations supported the finding that HPS, which was deemed more
successful with the PRONAFECYT implementation, has created a schoolwide culture around the
PRONAFECYT initiative. This culture has affected teacher practices, activities, and beliefs.
The data indicated that HPS’s positive culture is enabled by PLCs. A component of the PLCs is
the opportunity for collaboration as well as the opportunity to exchange feedback. The data from
surveys, interviews, and observations also indicated that the PRONAFECYT was not an integral
part of FPS’s culture. Instead, the data showed that the PRONAFECYT was a stand-alone
program in which students participated annually.
The Use of STEM PBL
STEM PBL has been described as ill-defined projects or tasks used for the attainment of
well-defined outcomes (Capraro et al., 2013). Well-defined outcomes of STEM–PBL programs
originate from the dual influence of the engineering design process and accountability standards
(Capraro et al., 2013). STEM PBL results in various learning outcomes by using projects
assigned to students that give them the opportunity to utilize knowledge from interdisciplinary
subjects while employing creativity, collaboration, and imagination. Project outcomes may
include a variety of formats including speeches, presentations, projects, or models. There are
three components of well-defined outcomes: (a) clearly stated deliverables informing students
what they are required to produce, (b) project constraints or limitations to keep the project within
boundaries, and (c) learning that takes place while projects are completed.
Undetermined tasks of STEM–PBL projects can be complex, with little or no structure
providing students with opportunities to draw upon knowledge and content from interdisciplinary
subjects and real-world topics (Capraro et al., 2013). Such undetermined tasks integrate both
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 118
engineering principles with interdisciplinary subjects, allowing the application of creativity,
imagination, and collaboration.
STEM PBL emphasizes learning activities that are long term, interdisciplinary, student
centered, and integrated with real-world issues (Capraro et al., 2013). The STEM–PBL approach
bridges discrete subject areas into projects that address challenging questions that are salient to
students. Teachers are seen as facilitators, mentors, or coaches rather than as conveyors of
knowledge. Rather than providing students with direct information, the role of teachers in STEM
PBL is to guide the learning process through effective questioning. In addition, with STEM PBL,
teachers share control of the learning environment with students.
The underlying theme revealed by the data is that teacher practices at HPS included a
higher level of STEM–PBL instructional approaches compared to FPS. This important finding
suggests that an increased application of STEM–PBL approaches can lead to an increased level
of participation in the PRONAFECYT.
Survey results from teachers, parents, and students revealed that there is a stronger
opinion that elements of STEM PBL are utilized to a greater extent at HPS compared to Foothill
PS. Of the 16 teachers surveyed from HPS, 60% strongly agreed that teachers utilize STEM
PBL. Of the four parents surveyed at HPS, 75% strongly agreed that teachers utilize STEM PBL.
When asked if HPS teachers provide opportunities for students to engage in scientific inquiry as
part of regular instruction, 80% of the 16 teachers and 80% of the 63 students surveyed strongly
agreed.
Indicators from FPS revealed that a lower percentage of teachers, parents, and students
strongly agreed that elements of STEM PBL are utilized. Of the 17 teachers surveyed at FPS,
29% strongly agreed that teachers utilize STEM PBL. Of the 26 parents surveyed at FPS, 27%
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 119
strongly agreed that teachers utilize STEM PBL. When asked if teachers provide opportunities
for students to engage in scientific inquiry as part of regular instruction, 41% of the 17 teachers
and 41% of the 66 students surveyed strongly agreed. The survey data from teachers, parents,
and students indicated that the elements of STEM PBL are utilized to a greater extent at HPS
than at FPS.
The finding that elements of STEM PBL are used more extensively at HPS relative to
FPS was substantiated by interviews with key persons at the school sites. The STEM–PBL
framework of Capraro et al. (2013) identifies elements of STEM PBL as follows: (a) a variety of
project outcome formats including speeches, presentations, products, or models; (b) well-defined
outcomes; (c) ill-defined tasks that can be complex, with little or no structure providing students
with opportunities to draw upon knowledge and content from interdisciplinary subjects and
real-world topics; (d) learning activities that are long term, interdisciplinary, student centered,
and integrated with real-world issues; (e) discrete subject areas bridged into projects that address
challenging questions that are salient to students; (f) teachers viewed as facilitators, mentors, or
coaches rather than as deliverers of knowledge; and (g) teachers sharing control of the learning
environment with students. When the HPS Director was interviewed, she described practices
that indicated the presence of STEM-PBL elements that are consistent with elements noted by
Capraro et al. (2013). According to the Director, projects are completed by teams of three over
an extended period of time, and student teams select projects to complete based on their interests
(interview, June 15, 2015).
Interviews with teachers at Highland PS provided additional evidence about the imple-
mentation of STEM PBL. Teachers Smith and Jones described the year-long process. At the
beginning of the school year, students formed study teams of three and selected their area of
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 120
investigation. The area of investigation is a collaborative discussion between the teacher and
student teams. The topic starts as a broad topic, to be refined into a specific question of inquiry.
The student study teams work throughout the year on their question of inquiry, tracking their
work in the group’s lab manual. The lab manual is submitted to the teacher on a regular basis for
evaluation and feedback. Three times throughout the year, the study teams must present their
project (interviews, June 15, 2015).
When asked to describe how the curriculum, pedagogy, and culture have changed to
adopt the science fair, Coordinator Marianne Ryker explained that much of the school year is
driven by the Expotec, including curriculum and instruction (interview, June 15, 2015). Re-
search projects have been incorporated across content areas, including math and social studies.
She added:
We also assign an extra 5% to the research process so the students can incorporate the
observation and all of the processes of the scientific method in other subjects, too. So
they can work on math projects or collect information for social studies, so then it has
been incorporated to the other subjects. And it’s a part of the school culture, because
from the very moment that classes start here, the kids are asking about the science fair,
talking about what they are going to research. (interview, June 15, 2015)
Teacher Peyton Smith noted:
So now what we’ve done is work at the group level during the entire year on projects that
involve the scientific method. So the children are practicing in the classroom. They hold
expositions, research projects related to what we’re working on, some content that we’re
working on. For example, social studies, mathematics, and this helps them to put in
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 121
practice at the level that they are in—the scientific method. So we’re accompanying them
within the classroom to develop the scientific method. (interview, June 15, 2015)
Interviews with the director and teachers at FPS suggested the presence of certain ele-
ments of STEM PBL, but not to the same extent as at HPS. The FPS Director, Ken Roberts,
shared that many students use science projects found on the Internet rather than use the scientific
method to solve original problems. He explained:
Through the use of technology and the Internet, we are not providing the students with the
traditional scientific method to investigate, where they can pose a problem and possible
solutions to that problem, where they can verify it and draw their own conclusions. Now,
the problem is already solved, so they just present it in front of their companions, so I
think that aspect should be strengthened. We have to go to the roots of a basic investiga-
tion which is what will be useful for them in their lives. (interview, June 16, 2015)
FPS Director, Ken Roberts, explained that teachers have not received adequate training
on the elements of STEM PBL. He added:
The MEP should provide more training in that area. Three or 4 years ago, they provided
training for investigation through inquiry-based methods, but there is no follow-up. They
trained one teacher of each institution, but that’s it. They don’t try to train more people,
so I think that aspect should be strengthened because the teachers work according to what
they were able to investigate, according to their likes or dislikes, but they don’t have a
solid foundation on how to conduct a clear process. So, I think we need a lot of training
for our teachers. (interview, June 16, 2015)
Teacher John David of Foothill PS explained that some students are not motivated to prepare
science projects and often distract other students or the teacher:
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 122
We have students that come from challenging home situations. These challenging home
environments are not the most supportive for student learning. This is a significant dis-
tractor at school as well. We are always pulled in many different directions. We don’t
have the luxury of working with our students on long, drawn-out of processes. (inter-
view, June 16, 2015)
Observations performed by the regional research team further supported the survey and
interview data. At HPS, teachers were observed providing guidance to students in a manner that
encouraged them to think and solve problems. In addition, the regional research team observed
several students giving oral presentations. These were delivered in groups and were observed
during English language arts and social studies. Classroom observations made by the regional
research team at FPS failed to indicate the level of STEM–PBL application in the classroom.
The data collected identified an opportunity for improvement in that greater use of STEM
PBL can lead to increased participation in the PRONAFECYT. In addition to greater use of
STEM PBL, training on STEM–PBL approaches is needed to empower teachers with the skills
needed to utilize STEM PBL. The elements of STEM PBL included in the framework of Capraro
et al. (2013) can result in various learning outcomes by assigning to students projects that give
them the opportunity to utilize knowledge from interdisciplinary subjects while employing
creativity, collaboration, and imagination.
Results Summary for Research Question 2
The aim of Research Question 2 was to identify how teacher practices at successful
schools differed from teacher practices at less successful schools, as measured by the level of
participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT. This was an important question because
understanding practices that could increase participation can provide educational leaders with
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 123
potential improvement opportunities that lead to increased participation. The data analyzed
revealed two common themes: (a) that teacher collaboration is more prevalent at the school site
with a higher level of participation and (b) that STEM–PBL practices were utilized to a greater
extent at the school with a higher level of participation. With respect to PLCs, the seven ele-
ments of PLCs included in the framework of DuFour and Fullan (2013) can facilitate greater
collaboration, serve as a vehicle to improve instructional practices, and lead to increased partici-
pate in the PRONAFECYT initiative. The data collected identified an opportunity for improve-
ment in that greater use of STEM PBL can lead to increased participation in the PRONAFECYT.
In addition to greater use of STEM PBL, training on STEM–PBL approaches is required to
empower teachers with the necessary skills.
Results for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, “How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to
equip students with the 21st-century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?”
According to Clifton (2011), the job market now requires people to have essential skills
that help them collaborate with others to tackle various situations within a limited time frame.
The people who have the ability to think critically and possess a greater understanding of prob-
lem solving will know when and how to ask the right questions that will lead them to creative
solutions (Wagner, 2008). Friedman (2007) argued that countries have to put a significant
amount of resources and sustained effort toward creating a program for science and engineering
education that will support efforts to create an innovative workforce that will lead to a competi-
tive edge in the global marketplace. Upon entering the workforce, students who exhibit 21st-
century skills should be prepared to meet the challenges and demands of the new global economy
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 124
(Capraro et al., 2013; Wagner, 2008, 2012). Wagner (2012) argued that teachers must explicitly
teach and help students to develop the essential survival skills that encompass 21st-century skills.
The data analyzed from this study revealed two common themes related to Research Question 3:
(a) that teachers receive an inconsistent level of training related to instructional practices
designed to equip students with 21st-century skills and (b) that site leaders will prioritize instruc-
tional efforts based on their leadership frame as it pertains to the school site.
Training and Ongoing Professional Development
According to Friedman (2007), globalization compounds the urgency for students to
develop the skills and knowledge that they need for economic and civic success in the 21st
century. Wagner (2008) identified the seven survival skills necessary for students to be success-
ful in the 21st-century, globalized workforce as (a) critical thinking and problem solving, (b)
collaboration across networks and leading influence, (c) agility and adaptability, (d) initiative and
entrepreneurship, (e) effective oral and written communication, (f) accessing and analyzing
information, and (g) curiosity and imagination.
In Costa Rica, these attributes are referred to as soft skills. The acquisition of soft skills
in students is seen as a driving rationale for the National Inform and Executive Decree 31900 (as
cited in Chacón, 2011) outlining the PRONAFECYT initiative. According to survey data col-
lected from government officials, 100% strongly agreed or agreed that school leaders saw the
importance of 21st-century skills and their impact on student achievement, 86% strongly agreed
that students develop 21st-century skills through their participation in the PRONAFECYT, and
83% strongly agreed or agreed that teachers received training on how to integrate 21st-century
skills in their classrooms. These data supported that from a government perspective, there were
systems in place to support schools in developing students’ 21st-century skills in the classroom.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 125
This view was supported during interviews across a wide variety of stakeholders wherein a
linkage to soft skills, PRONAFECYT, and the development of an innovation based economy
were related themes. According to MEP Vice Minister Alicia Vargas, economic growth is a
main concern of the government. A focus of the government is science development and innova-
tion for all areas of social development (interview, June 13, 2015). As it pertains to education,
there is a focus on innovation relating to developing global citizenship. Vargas noted:
For us in education, it is very important to develop the people who may have the soft
skills and the hard skills that enable them to live and to relate in a country of global
frontiers. For us, that education, innovation must be related to those skills that have to be
developed in order for the people to become a global citizen. (interview, June 13, 2015)
According to Nathalie Valencia Chacón, the PRONAFECYT Director, by participating in the
PRONAFECYT, students acquire many skills, not only in science and technology but also with
the ability to think critically and creatively as well as the ability to communicate clearly with
others (interview, June 17, 2015).
When the participants at HPS were surveyed, their responses suggested a positive percep-
tion that 21st-century skills were being enhanced and developed through their work preparing for
the PRONAFECYT. Participants were asked if students develop soft skills through participation
in the PRONAFECYT; in response, the school director strongly agreed, and 87% of the teachers
strongly agreed or agreed. Similarly, 87% of students and 100% of parents strongly agreed or
agreed. Participants were also asked if the school director conveyed the importance of 21st-
century skills (soft skills) and their impact on student achievement; in response, the school
director strongly agreed, and 87% of teachers strongly agreed or agreed. Similarly, 100% of
parents and 93% of students strongly agreed or agreed. However, despite agreement among
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 126
parents, educators, and policymakers worldwide that students need skills like critical thinking,
problem solving, teamwork, and creativity, these skills are difficult to teach and learn (Saavedra
& Opfer, 2012).
According to Kotter (1996), in order for a change effort to succeed, individuals responsi-
ble for activities of an initiative need to be empowered to act in a manner consistent with the
vision of the initiative. As it relates to PRONAFECYT and viewed through the symbolic frame,
empowering teachers can include removing obstacles that can hinder or threaten the successful
implementation of the initiative. Obstacles can include lack of training, lack of resources, and
lack of decision-making capacity (Bolman & Deal, 2011). To overcome these barriers, the role
of the school director could be to ensure that resources are available to support the initiative, that
teachers have decision-making capacity, and that teachers receive training. One of the roles of
site and system leaders can be to arrange for teacher training focused on the 21st-century skills
and instructional practices designed to equip students with such skills.
Teacher training is needed to address the challenges of traditional instructional
approaches. Innovative institutions are employing instructional methods, such as STEM PBL,
which are aimed at building knowledge and innovative skills (Wagner, 2012). STEM PBL
emphasizes learning activities that are long term, interdisciplinary, student centered, and inte-
grated with real-world issues (Capraro et al., 2013). STEM PBL is a dynamic approach to
teaching in which students explore real-world problems and challenges. Active and engaged
learning encourages students to obtain a deeper knowledge of the subjects that they are studying.
The STEM–PBL approach bridges discrete subject areas into projects that address challenging
questions that are salient to students. Teachers are viewed as facilitators, mentors, or coaches
rather than deliverers of knowledge. Instead of providing students with direct information, the
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 127
role of teachers in STEM PBL is to guide the learning process through effective questioning. In
STEM PBL, teachers share control of the learning environment with students. A solid STEM–
PBL experience places equal emphasis on significant content and 21st-century skills. Focus on
the significance of content ensures that at its core, the project is focused on teaching students
important knowledge and skills derived from standards and key concepts at the heart of academic
subjects. Focus on 21st-century competencies ensures that students build competencies valuable
for today’s world, such as problem solving, critical thinking, collaboration, communication, and
creativity, which are taught and assessed. When implementing the PRONAFECYT, it is impor-
tant to remove the potential barrier of having unprepared teachers by providing training on
instructional strategies aimed at building knowledge and innovative skills.
Although the data supported the benefit of the PRONAFECYT relating to the develop-
ment of 21st-century skills, the data also suggested that teachers receive an inconsistent level of
training related to instructional practices designed to equip students with 21st-century skills.
Participants were asked if they received training on how to integrate 21st-century skills (soft
skills) in the classroom; in response, 75% of parents and 67% of teachers strongly disagreed or
disagreed.
Findings were further supported by interviews with stakeholders from the government,
business, and HPS. When Nathalie Valencia Chacón, Director of the PRONAFECYT as part of
the MICITT, was asked what skills should be promoted by schools to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT, it was clear that empowering teachers through training is important (interview,
June 17, 2015). Chacón explained that educational leadership is key for the success of the
PRONAFECYT and that principals who empower teachers make a difference:
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 128
I believe we have to empower the teachers more so that they understand what an investi-
gation process implies, because they can’t teach something they don’t know, and that’s
where we find our limitations because the teachers don’t know how to investigate, so they
prefer not to do the process or they don’t do it in an optimal way. (interview, June 17,
2015)
When asked how the government policy supports participation in the PRONAFECYT,
Mary-Helen Bialas, Senior Officer of Projects and Programs for Consejo de Promocion de la
Competividad, indicated that the policy provides guidelines. By setting the guidelines, the
government provides support and builds in incentives for the teachers. Most importantly, the
guidelines have to include training, specifically teacher training: “We cannot expect teachers to
have their students do project-based learning in their classrooms if we don’t teach them how”
(interview, June 13, 2015). Bialas suggested the idea of encouraging teacher training by offering
certification and increased pay to teachers who complete specified levels of training (interviews,
June 13, 2015).
It was explained by Catherine Merel, HPS Director, that most teacher training is given by
the coordinator at the school site who provides training based on training that teachers have
received previously (interview, June 15, 2015). Merel explained there are a limited number of
trainers at the MEP and that training must be scheduled with the MEP months in advance. Not
only are materials and supplies necessary resources, but so is teacher training. When Merel was
interviewed, she explained the importance of removing barriers to the implementation of the
PRONAFECYT and that this involved empowering teachers with proper training.
Merel articulated that training was important to the school and science fair effort and that
it was arranged months in advance (interview, June 15, 2015). She described the curricular gap
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 129
that she is trying to bridge in preparing the primary students for the rigorous instruction and
Expotec process of the secondary school. To bridge this gap, Merel believes that the level of
inquiry must be increased in the classroom across the curriculum, including the work related to
the Expotec projects. Therefore, not only is Merel continuously providing her teachers with
professional development regarding the Expotec process, but also she is seeking curriculum that
addresses inquiry and the scientific method across content areas. Merel is hoping that with this
curriculum and the supporting professional development, more of the activities and practices
related to the projects can be reinforced in the classroom (interview, June 15, 2015).
Interviews with teachers at HPS revealed that most training related to participation in the
PRONAFECYT was specific to the procedures connected to participation, rather than the peda-
gogy of preparing the students. When asked how teachers are prepared for the PRONAFECYT,
teacher Peyton Smith shared that notable training was provided by the UCR 3 years ago, entitled
Students as Scientists. That training served as a foundation to much of what has been done at the
school since then. Each year, the teachers are provided with training from the school that has
been built around the original training. Smith added that “in reality, I have gotten more from
personal experience than the training sessions I’ve attended. I take what I’ve learned to help the
new teachers” (interview, June 15, 2015).
Other teachers at HPS explained a lower level or lack of training related to instructional
methods to equip students with 21st-century skills necessary to participate in the
PRONAFECYT. When asked how teachers are prepared for the PRONAFECYT, teacher Olivia
Jones at HPS explained that she received training in science at her previous school. It involved a
3-day, 40-hour training that provided instructional materials and content to enable the practice of
inquiry and problem solving in her classroom. The training also taught her how to incorporate
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 130
STEM PBL in her instruction. Although this training was not provided at HPS, Jones noted that
“this training could help all teachers” (interview, June 15, 2015).
Classroom observations performed by the regional research team were limited because
teacher training was not directly observed. The researchers did observe teachers providing
guidance to students in a manner that demonstrated inconsistent understanding of 21st-century
skills. Some teachers displayed an understanding of certain elements of 21st-century skills,
while others did not. One observation indicated that a teacher was facilitating a mock oral
defense. The teacher and students were observed asking questions that required the other stu-
dents to respond critically and collaboratively. Another teacher was observed in a similar
situation helping students to memorize their scripted oral defense. The observations were
limited, but they did support the underlying theme.
Prioritizing Instructional Efforts
The leadership framework of Bolman and Deal (2011) was utilized in this study to assess
educational leadership in the ability to effectively implement science fair programs in the respec-
tive schools. According to Bolman and Deal, the ability to view situations with appropriate
perspectives, or frames, can reduce the risk of misreading situations, thereby leading to mis-
guided decisions. The frames utilized can impact action taken by leadership and the correspond-
ing level of success or failure. The framework of Bolman and Deal identifies four frames from
which people view organizational situations: structural, human resources, political, and symbolic.
The structural frame emphasizes goals and efficiency and contends that effective organizations
define clear goals; assign specific roles to people; and coordinate activities through polices, rules,
and chain of command. In the human resource frame, it is reasoned that organizations and
people need one another and that organizations exist to serve human needs. Leaders using the
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 131
human resource frame value relationships and feelings and tend to define problems in individual
or interpersonal terms. According to the political frame, organizations, as viewed by leaders, are
coalitions of various individuals and interest groups with differences in values, beliefs, informa-
tion, interests, and perceptions of reality. The symbolic frame is the most subjective frame
wherein meaning and predictability are social creations and facts are interpretative rather than
objective. Symbolic leaders use charisma and drama, paying attention to myth, ritual, and cere-
mony to instill a sense of enthusiasm and commitment.
Analyzing the data revealed that site leaders will prioritize instructional efforts based on
their leadership frame as it pertains to the school site. The theme is important because the ability
to view situations with appropriate perspectives can reduce the risk of misreading situations,
which can lead to misguided decisions. The frames utilized by leaders can impact action taken
and the corresponding level of success for the PRONAFECYT.
Data from surveys, interviews, and observations indicated that site leaders at HPS utilize
the structural frame to equip students with 21st-century skills necessary to participate in the
Costa Rican PRONAFECYT. The evidence supporting this theme includes the use of a standard-
ized procedure manual covering steps to be used by all site teachers as they prepare students for
the PRONAFECYT, a standardized curriculum, coordination of activities, and assigned roles.
Survey results from teachers, parents, government leaders, and business leaders revealed
mixed opinions about the existence of a school curriculum plan to help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT. When asked if there is a school curriculum plan to help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT, 67% of teachers agreed and 33% of teachers disagreed, thus suggesting an
inconsistent opinion. Of the other participants surveyed at HPS, 100% of the parents strongly
agreed or agreed. Of the six government officials surveyed, 100% strongly agreed or agreed. Of
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 132
the three business leaders surveyed, 67% disagreed and 33% were unsure. Although survey
results supported the presence of a standardized curriculum, the results also indicated that not all
were in agreement.
The structural frame emphasizes goals and efficiency and contends that effective organi-
zations define clear goals (Bolman & Deal, 2011). When asked if the school director communi-
cates the goals for participation in the PRONAFECYT, 73% of the teachers surveyed agreed or
strongly agreed, and 100% of the four parents surveyed agreed or strongly agreed.
Interviews provided additional evidence indicating that site and system leaders utilize the
structural frame to equip students with the 21st-century skills necessary to participate in the
Costa Rican PRONAFECYT. According to Bolman and Deal (2011), the structural frame
emphasizes goals and efficiency and contends that effective organizations define clear goals;
assign specific roles to people; and coordinate activities through polices, rules, and chain of
command. Comments from HPS Director Catherine Merel indicated the utilization of the struc-
tural frame. Merel explained how teachers are assigned different responsibilities related to the
PRONAFECYT and how efforts are coordinated: “We coordinate everything to make sure that
all the teachers are involved in this process” (interview, June 15, 2015). Her comments indicated
a structural frame, as roles were assigned to specific people and activities were coordinated.
Another example of the structural frame at HPS is the adherence to a manual covering
procedures related to the PRONAFECYT. Dr. Alicia Vargas Porras, Academic Vice Minister of
the MEP, explained that the MEP provides schools with a manual detailing all of the guidelines
related to the PRONAFECYT. According to the school director, the manual is provided to the
school from the MEP each year and provides specific instructions related to the initiative. Prior
to teacher training, the site coordinator and school director examine the manual to add
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 133
instructions pertaining to school needs. According to teacher Peyton Smith, the manual is
helpful because it provides specific instructions related to the PRONAFECYT and the school
site. The details include the parameters of the presentation board and the structure of the lab
manual.
A standardized curriculum at the system level is a way to coordinate activities through
polices and rules that demonstrate the structural frame. According to Director Merel, curriculum
comes from the MEP (interview, June 15, 2015). When asked to describe how the curriculum,
pedagogy, and culture have changed to adapt to the science fair, teacher Olivia Jones explained
that the curriculum in science changed almost completely to give the opportunity to students to
research and to investigate and to provide analysis and synthesis of the different subjects studied
in class (interview, June 15, 2015).
When asked to describe how government policy encourages participation in the
PRONAFECYT, Mary-Helen Bialas, Senior Officer of Projects and Programs for Consejo de
Promocion de la Competividad, provided additional evidence substantiating the use of the struc-
tural frame when she explained the importance of providing guidelines and teacher training
related to the initiative (interview, June 13, 2015).
Classroom observations performed by the regional research team further supported the
survey and interview data. Teachers were observed performing specific roles through coordi-
nated efforts. Guidelines were present, as noted in the manual provided to teachers. In addition,
the school director was observed actively communicating the vision, purpose, and urgency of the
PRONAFECYT on the day of the site visit.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 134
Results Summary for Research Question 3
The objective of Research Question 3 was to identify how site and system leaders have
prepared schools to equip students with the 21st-century skills necessary to participate in the
Costa Rican PRONAFECYT. This is an important question to answer because not only does
preparing students with 21st-century skills meet the challenges and demands of the new global
economy but it also addresses the desired skills sought by the PRONAFECYT initiative (Capraro
et al., 2013; MICITT, 2014; Wagner, 2008, 2012). The data analyzed from this study revealed
two common themes: (a) that teachers receive an inconsistent level of training related to 21st-
century skills and instructional practices designed to equip students with such skills and (b) that
site leaders will tend to prioritize instructional efforts based on their leadership frame as it
pertains to the school site. While the use of the structural frame appears appropriate for many of
the aspects related to preparing schools, leaders are encouraged to consider other frames because
viewing situations with appropriate perspectives may reduce the risk of misreading situations,
which subsequently may lead to misguided decisions.
Results for Research Question 4
Research Question 4 asked, “How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT
affected instructional practice?”
Understanding instructional practices affected by the PRONAFECYT can provide educa-
tional leaders with insight about instructional practices used and potential opportunities for
improvement. CINDE (2013) has indicated that Costa Rica’s public schools are making signifi-
cant curricular changes as they expand the implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative in an
effort to produce a knowledge-driven workforce of creative innovators and entrepreneurs who
possess the 21st-century skills necessary to be self-reliant in the global economy. One core area
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 135
to successful implementation is providing instruction for students focused on acquiring and
developing the necessary 21st-century skills. The STEM–PBL framework is an appropriate
instructional model that includes specific components to support instructional practices for the
PRONAFECYT implementation and the promotion of 21st-century skill competencies whereby
students can problem solve, think critically, collaborate, communicate, and utilize their creativ-
ity, curiosity, and innovative skills in a variety of ways (Capraro et al., 2013). As an initiative,
the PRONAFECYT has been designed to embed STEM PBL across all four cycles of the Costa
Rican educational system through inquiry-based learning (Chacón, 2011). Despite this, inter-
views with MEP and MICITT staff members suggested that implementation of STEM PBL is
inconsistent at the primary levels of Costa Rican schools, as measured by participation in the
PRONAFECYT.
Two themes related to instructional practices presented themselves related to this research
question: (a) that participation in the PRONAFECYT has increased elements of PBL in class-
room instruction and (b) that participation in the PRONAFECYT has resulted in the integration
of the science curriculum embedded throughout multiple subjects.
Increased Elements of STEM PBL
One of the objectives of the PRONAFECYT was to provide Costa Rican students with
inquiry and research-related experiences connected to everyday problems within their schools,
families, and communities (MICITT, 2014). The characteristics of STEM PBL make it a sound
approach to support the objective of the PRONAFECYT. STEM PBL is a student-centered
learning methodology whereby students can engage in a multitude of opportunities to gain
knowledge and develop 21st-century skills by investigating and responding to real-world ques-
tions, problems, or challenges over an extended period of time (Capraro et al., 2013). The
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 136
STEM–PBL approach bridges discrete subject areas in projects that address challenging ques-
tions that are salient to students. With this type of active and engaged learning, students can
become inspired to obtain a deeper knowledge of the subjects that they are studying. A solid
PBL experience places equal emphasis on content and on 21st-century skills. Focus on the
significance of content ensures that at its core, the project is focused on teaching students impor-
tant knowledge and skills derived from standards and key concepts at the heart of academic
subjects. Focusing on 21st-century competencies ensures that students build competencies
valuable for today’s world. Competencies identified include problem solving, critical thinking,
collaboration, communication, and creativity, which are all explicitly taught and assessed. The
underlying theme is that participation in the PRONAFECYT has increased elements of STEM
PBL in classroom instructional practices at HPS.
Surveys given to participants at HPS were used to support the finding that there are
elements of STEM PBL in the classrooms. Participants were asked if STEM PBL was used in
the classroom; in response, 93% of students strongly agreed or agreed. Participants were also
asked if students are provided with opportunities to engage in scientific inquiry as a regular part
of instruction; in response, the school director strongly agreed, 87% of teachers strongly agreed
or agreed, 50% of parents strongly agreed or agreed, and 87% of students strongly agreed or
agreed. In addition, student collaboration is a key element of STEM PBL and constitutes a 21st-
century skill. Participants were asked if PRONAFECYT has improved student collaboration; in
response, the school director agreed, 87% of teachers strongly agreed or agreed, and 100% of
parents strongly agreed or agreed.
Although there is a shared opinion that elements of STEM PBL are present as a result of
the PRONAFECYT, data suggested a need to increase teacher training in the area of STEM–PBL
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 137
practices. When asked if teacher training was useful in preparing students for the
PRONAFECYT, 67% of the teachers strongly agreed or agreed and 33% strongly disagreed or
disagreed. When asked if teachers are provided adequate training to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT, 60% of the teachers strongly agreed or agreed and 40% strongly disagreed or
disagreed. The percentage of those surveyed who strongly disagreed or disagreed indicated a
differing of opinion pertaining to adequate training and preparation for implementation of the
PRONAFECYT.
Interview data collected at HPS suggested that participation in the PRONAFECYT
initiative has resulted in the incorporation of STEM–PBL elements into the curriculum. The
STEM–PBL framework of Capraro et al. (2013) identifies seven elements of STEM PBL. When
School Director Catherine Merel was interviewed, she described practices that indicated the
presence of certain STEM–PBL elements consistent with elements noted by Capraro et al.
(2013): science projects completed by students over an extended period of time, students select-
ing science projects based on their personal interests, and students working in teams (interview,
June 15, 2015).
Interviews with teachers provided additional evidence demonstrating the presence of
STEM–PBL elements. Olivia Jones provided information about the formats of projects, explain-
ing that formats include a written report and an oral defense (interview, June 15, 2015). Com-
ments from Peyton Smith described that student work is completed as teams (interview, June 15,
2015). Students are required to work collaboratively both inside and outside of the class time.
When asked to describe how the curriculum, pedagogy, and culture have changed to adapt to the
science fair, Jones explained that the entire school year is planned to lead up to the Expotec. The
school year starts in February with the identification of themes and area of inquiry. Students
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 138
work on their area of inquiry all year long. Students are evaluated on their lab manual and defend
their work with presentations three times throughout the year. Teacher pedagogy has adapted to
incorporate practices of the scientific process across the curriculum as students complete inquiry-
based projects in math and social studies: “We also assign an extra 5% to the research process so
the students can incorporate the observation and all of the processes of the scientific method in
other subjects, too” (interview, June 15, 2015) . Jones added that the Expotec is embedded in the
school culture. Students want to attend HPS because the curriculum is driven by preparations for
the Expotec. “Students walk in on the 1st day of school, excited to talk about the area they are
going to research. The parents are just as excited about the projects” (interview, June 15, 2015).
Smith explained:
With the passing of years, we have been looking for the form in which the children can
feel good, that they are part of something not because of obligation, but because they
want to participate. For them—the parents have a burden sometimes, something that we
obligate a lot of requirements, but the children see it like something great. To be in the
classroom exposing, only them, it’s the best. So now what we’ve done is work at the
group level during the entire year on projects that involve the scientific method. So the
children are practicing in the classroom. They hold expositions, research projects related
to what we’re working on, some content that we’re working on. (interview, June 19,
2015)
Classroom observations performed by the regional research team further supported the
survey and interview data. Teachers were observed providing guidance to students in a manner
that demonstrated elements of STEM PBL. During one observation, a teacher assisted students
in preparing for the oral defense component of the Expotec. The teacher was observed asking
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 139
questions that required the students to respond critically while simultaneously working collabo-
ratively. Another teacher worked with a small group of students, helping them to refine the
problem of inquiry. The observations were limited but did support the underlying theme.
The triangulation of data gathered from surveys, observations, and interviews demon-
strated that participation in the PRONAFECYT has affected the instructional practices at HPS by
increased elements of STEM PBL in classroom instruction. While STEM PBL was present at
HPS to a certain degree, an opportunity for improvement was identified to make greater use of
STEM PBL as a way of improving the skills developed by students. In addition, increased
teacher training on STEM–PBL practices is needed to further empower teachers with the skills to
utilize STEM PBL.
Application of Inquiry in the Classroom
A main component of the STEM–PBL classroom instructional model revolves around
student inquiry. Capraro et al. (2013) found that in-depth inquiry occurs when students are
engaged in an extended, rigorous process of asking questions using resources, and developing
answers. According to Natalie Valencia Chacón, PRONAFECYT Coordinator, “we can’t
continue to teach science from the blackboard. To teach science you have to do it practically and
investigation is a key component to accomplish this” (interview, June 17, 2015). An underlying
theme revealed by the data is that participation in the PRONAFECYT has affected the instruc-
tional practices at HPS. Students and teachers are applying the scientific method and the practice
of inquiry in the classroom.
Survey data obtained from government leaders, business leaders, and participants at HPS
suggested a discrepancy in perception regarding the practice of inquiry in the classroom. In
regard to the presence of STEM PBL, participants were asked if STEM PBL was used in the
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 140
classroom; in response, the school director agreed, 80% of teachers strongly agreed or agreed,
75% of parents strongly agreed or agreed, and 93% of students strongly agreed or agreed.
However, only 28% of business leaders and government leaders agreed that teachers were using
STEM PBL in the classroom. Participants were also asked if students are provided frequent
opportunities to engage in scientific inquiry; in response, the school director strongly agreed,
87% of teachers strongly agreed or agreed, 50% of parents strongly agreed or agreed, and 87% of
students strongly agreed or agreed. On the other hand, 72% of business leaders and government
leaders disagreed that schools provide opportunities for students to engage in scientific inquiry as
part of regular instruction.
According to Capraro et al. (2013), one of the benefits of STEM PBL is that students are
given the opportunity to utilize knowledge from interdisciplinary subjects while employing
creativity, collaboration, and imagination. Project outcomes may include a variety of formats
including speeches, presentations, projects, or models. The ill-defined tasks of STEM–PBL
projects can be complex with little or no structure, thus providing students with opportunities to
draw upon knowledge and content from interdisciplinary subjects and real-world topics (Capraro
et al., 2013). Such ill-defined tasks integrate both engineering principles with interdisciplinary
subjects, thereby allowing the application of creativity, imagination, and collaboration. The
STEM–PBL approach bridges discrete subject areas into projects that address challenging
questions that are salient to students.
A schoolwide vision for the PRONAFECYT is a way to communicate the importance of
applying STEM PBL across the curriculum. Participants were asked if there is a schoolwide
vision for the PRONAFECYT; in response, the school director strongly agreed, 86% of teachers
strongly agreed or agreed, 90% of students strongly agreed or agreed, and 100% of parents
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 141
strongly agreed or agreed. To support teachers’ efforts to effectively apply STEM PBL across
interdisciplinary subject areas effectively, they must collaborate. Teachers were asked if they
worked together to plan and prepare for the PRONAFECYT; in response, 80% strongly agreed or
agreed.
Interviews with government leaders and with the director and teachers at HPS provided
additional evidence regarding the application of inquiry in the classroom. When Mary-Helen
Bialas, Senior Officer of Projects and Programs for Consejo de Promocion de la Competividad,
was asked to describe the vision of the government for the integration of STEM in the subject
curriculum of the schools in Costa Rica, she described the need to integrate curriculum from
multiple subjects (interview, June 13, 2015). Bialas explained that with changes in the curricu-
lum, schools are getting much more into the science curriculum and the math curriculum and
doing things in a much more integrated way. The are not only looking at doing scientific meth-
odology but also taking the project that the student is doing out of the science class and making it
an integrated research project through all the classroom courses. “The government really needs
to work on training teachers to integrate projects across the curriculum. Not only train, but
provide the resources” (interview, June 15, 2015).
When Javier Cambronero, Deputy in the Costa Rican Legislative Assembly, was asked to
describe the vision of the government for the integration of STEM in the school curriculum, he
explained that previously, science was second to the arts and humanities. Now, there is a need to
transform curriculum to prioritize science at the forefront. Cambronero noted that “science is
now a curricular center point in Costa Rica. This is the case in primary schools and secondary
schools. The PRONAFECYT initiative demands it” (interview, June 15, 2015).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 142
When asked to describe how the curriculum, pedagogy, or culture has changed in schools
to adapt to the PRONAFECYT, Director Merel at HPS explained that the study program is
basically the inclusion of the scientific method in all of the subjects so that the students have the
opportunity to experiment with some of the steps of an investigation: “We have especially
focused in research—for example, in computer class a high percentage of their grade comes from
a research project just like in the other classes” (interview, June 15, 2015). When asked the same
question, HPS teachers Peyton Smith and Olivia Jones shared similar thoughts. Smith described
how curriculum has changed to include a focus on science and the integration of different sub-
jects (interview, June 15, 2015). Olivia Jones explained the need to focus on all subjects and the
importance of integrating material from different subjects. She noted that the curriculum in
science changed almost completely to give students the opportunity to research, investigate,
analyze, and synthesize the different content studied in class. Five percent of the students’ grade
has been dedicated to the research process so that the students can incorporate the observation
and all of the processes of the scientific method in other subjects, too. That way students can
choose to work on a math-based project or collect information for a project in the social sciences
for the Expotec (interview, June 15, 2015).
Classroom observations performed by the regional research team further supported the
survey and interview data. At HPS, similar work was being done and showcased by parallel
grade levels, regardless of the classroom. Cross-grade-level collaboration was observed as the
fifth-grade classes were working with the third-grade classes on their presentations. In addition,
the school director, parents, and students were observed collaborating about specific projects,
what was learned from the experience of participation, and what had to be worked on for the next
level of competition. On the day of the site visit, the school was conducting a science fair
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 143
competition and students were observed giving presentations of their respective projects. Each
student presentation included an oral presentation, written report, project demonstration, and
display board with pictures and a narrative describing the project. The presentations revealed the
integration of subjects: STEM, writing, and speech.
The triangulation of data obtained from surveys, observations, and interviews revealed
that participation in the PRONAFECYT has affected instructional practices at HPS by integrat-
ing the science curriculum within multiple subjects. The data analyzed revealed that while some
areas of science curriculum were integrated, the level of integration could be increased. An
improvement opportunity is for HPS and the national educational system to increase the level of
curricular integration to further support the successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT
and the development of 21st-century skills.
Results Summary for Research Question 4
The aim of Research Question 4 was to identify how participation in the PRONAFECYT
has affected instructional practice. This was an important question because understanding
instructional practices affected by the PRONAFECYT can inform educational leaders about
instructional practices used and potential improvement opportunities. The data analyzed re-
vealed two common themes with regard to the implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative
and its effects on teachers’ instructional practices: (a) that participation in the PRONAFECYT
has resulted in the application of STEM–PBL instructional practices and (b) that participation in
the PRONAFECYT has resulted in the integration of science curriculum embedded in multiple
subjects. Data from the surveys, interviews, and observations indicated that since the implemen-
tation of the PRONAFECYT initiative, teachers at HPS believed that they are applying STEM–
PBL instructional practices in the classroom; however, this was not the same perception of the
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 144
business leaders and government leaders. The data also suggested that teachers at HPS felt that
they had modified their instructional approach to integrate the science curriculum across the
entire curriculum as a result of the PRONAFECYT initiative. The two themes revealed improve-
ment opportunities. First, while STEM PBL was present at HPS to a certain degree, an improve-
ment opportunity was identified to make greater use of STEM PBL as a way of improving the
skills developed by students. In addition, increased teacher training on STEM–PBL practices is
needed to further empower teachers with the skills utilize STEM PBL. Related to the integration
of curriculum, an improvement opportunity is for Highland PS and the national educational
system to increase the level of curricular integration to further support the successful implemen-
tation of the PRONAFECYT and students’ development of 21st-century skills.
Chapter Summary
The data analysis process involved reviewing relevant literature, surveys, interviews, and
observations. The various data gathered were analyzed using the following frameworks:
1. Bolman and Deal’s (2011) four frames model and Kotter’s (1996) eight-step change
model were used as the framework to evaluate leadership strategies.
2. Wagner’s (2008, 2012) 21st-century skills was used as the framework for understand-
ing the promotion of 21st-century skills in Costa Rican schools.
3. The work of Capraro et al. (2013) was used as the framework for understanding
STEM PBL.
The data analysis for Research Question 1 included two themes related to Kotter’s (1996)
change process: (a) that school leadership is responsible for empowering others to act consis-
tently with the vision and (b) that celebration and recognition are necessary for sustaining a
positive culture.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 145
The themes that emerged following the analysis of data related to Research Question 2
stemmed from the STEM–PBL instructional model developed by Capraro et al. (2013) and
DuFour and Fullan’s (2013) PLC model. These two themes were (a) that school leadership is
responsible for empowering others to act consistently with the vision and (b) that celebration and
recognition are necessary for sustaining a positive culture.
The data analysis relevant to Research Question 3 revealed two themes that were sup-
ported by Wagner’s (2008, 2012) 21st-century skills and Bolman and Deal’s (2011) four frames
model: (a) that teachers receive an inconsistent level of training related to instructional practices
designed to equip students with 21st-century skills and (b) that site leaders will prioritize instruc-
tional efforts based on their leadership frame as it pertains to the school site.
The chapter concluded with an analysis of data relevant to Research Question 4. Two
themes related to instructional practices presented themselves: (a) that participation in the
PRONAFECYT has increased elements of PBL in classroom instruction and (b) that participa-
tion in the PRONAFECYT has resulted in the integration of the science curriculum embedded
throughout multiple subjects.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 146
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Since the mid 1990s, Costa Rica has shifted from an agricultural economy to a
knowledge-based economy with the support of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) such as
CINDE. CINDE (2013) has been successful in increasing FDI from high-tech companies such as
Intel, Microsoft, Cisco, and Hewlett Packard. The relative gains and losses within technology
industries require the entire labor market to be agile enough to keep pace with the changes
(Spring, 2008; Wagner, 2010, 2012). The development of human capital falls to the education
system, specifically Costa Rica’s MEP. The MEP feels that the country will benefit from in-
creased participation in the STEM fields. As a result, the government issued National Executive
Decree #31900, mandating the participation of all Costa Rican students in the participation in the
PRONAFECYT, or the National Program for Science and Technology Fairs (MICITT, 2014).
As the Costa Rican government disseminates its vision for the future, it will be only as effective
as the leaders responsible for carrying it out are committed to the outcomes. While much
research has addressed the impact of globalization on educational policy, lacking is research
examining the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT.
Chapter One provided an overview of the study, the purpose behind the study, and its
significance. The chapter also described background information and terminology pertaining to
Costa Rica, MNCs, 21st-century skills, leadership, and the impact of globalization on education.
Chapter Two detailed a review of the literature pertaining to globalization, MNCs, 21st-century
skills, and leadership. This chapter also provided a historical review of Costa Rica encompassing
its development as a nation, including economic, political, and educational growth over time.
The education system in Costa Rica was described in depth to give breadth to the details of the
current system, its policies, infrastructure, and makeup of the student body.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 147
Chapter Three presented the research methodology used in this study and dealt with why
a qualitative case study approach with multiple data collection methods was appropriate. Also
included was an explanation of the sample and population as well as the instrumentation used in
the study. The chapter described how the data were collected and analyzed.
Chapter Four provided a narrative of the findings of the study, including a detailed
description of the themes organized by the research questions. A summary of the results of the
qualitative data analysis was presented following each theme. Chapter Five presents a summary
of the study, including a conclusion, possible implications for educational practice, and sugges-
tions for future research opportunities.
The purpose of this study was to understand the effects of educational leadership on
participation by Costa Rican primary schools by Costa Rican primary schools in the
PRONAFECYT. The study identified the role of school leaders in the development and imple-
mentation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. The study also explored how schools have restruc-
tured their educational programs by focusing on sharing of leadership and teacher training.
The research team examined the problem through four theoretical frameworks. The
works of Bolman and Deal’s (2011) four frames model and Kotter’s (1996) eight-step change
model were used as the framework to evaluate leadership strategies; the work of Wagner’s (2008,
2012) 21st-century skills was used as the framework for understanding the promotion of 21st-
century skills in Costa Rican schools; and the work of Capraro et al. (2013) acted as the frame-
work for understanding STEM PBL. These frameworks were utilized to help provide guidance
in creating and answering the following research questions:
1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 148
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practice?
To answer these questions, the team utilized a qualitative case study approach with
multiple data collection methods. In an effort to understand how Costa Rica’s educational
leaders from the government, business, and school sites have impacted the PRONAFECYT
implementation at the site level, it was important to capture the feelings, behaviors, and beliefs of
representatives from each of these educational leader groups (Merriam, 2009). Understanding
and exploring their individual experiences provided insight into what practices and behaviors can
be attributed to successful and unsuccessful PRONAFECYT implementation. The qualitative
approach was also used as a means to extract rich, descriptive data. The research team collected
rich data through surveys, interviews, and observations. These types of data provided a holistic
understanding of how educational leaders from the Costa Rican government agencies, busi-
nesses, and local school sites have supported implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative at
the school site level and shed light on the general characteristics that educational leaders may
possess when having great success with their PRONAFECYT implementation (Merriam, 2009).
Through this study, research has been provided to assist in understanding the effects of
educational leadership on participation in the PRONAFECYT by Costa Rican primary schools.
The MEP and the MICITT intend to utilize these data to strengthen PRONAFECYT and the
support that will be provided to the school sites for implementation in the future. The two
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 149
ministries also hope to use the findings from this study, in conjunction with the findings from the
studies conducted by other members of the research team, to gain a deeper understanding of the
opinions associated with the science and technology fairs throughout the various regions of the
country.
Summary of Findings
Through the analysis of data gathered through interviews, observations, and surveys,
eight main themes emerged:
1. Educational leaders play a strong role in empowering others to act consistently with
the vision.
2. School leadership is responsible for sustaining a positive culture in order to success-
fully implement the PRONAFECYT initiative.
3. There is a positive relationship between teacher collaboration and student participa-
tion in the PRONAFECYT.
4. There is a positive relationship between the utilization of STEM–PBL practices and
student participation in the PRONAFECYT.
5. Teachers receive an inconsistent level of training-related instructional practices
designed to equip students with 21st-century skills.
6. Site and system leaders will prioritize instructional efforts based on their leadership
frame as it pertains to the school site.
7. Participation in the PRONAFECYT has increased elements of PBL in classroom
instructional practices.
8. Participation in the PRONAFECYT has resulted in the application of the scientific
method and the practice of inquiry in the classroom.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 150
Research Question 1
What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT
initiative?
Educational leaders play a critical role in the successful implementation of the
PRONAFECYT initiative. Working to take a school system through the change process requires
leaders to be visionary, always working to develop and refine a shared belief and sense of com-
munity among the members of the organization and a collective understanding of the purpose for
the mission (Bolman & Deal, 2011; Fullan, 2010; Kotter, 1996; Marzano, Waters, & McNulty,
2005). The findings for Research Question 1 revealed that implementation of the
PRONAFECYT is largely dependent on how educational leaders from all groups, including
government, business, and school sites, empower others to act consistently with the vision and
how these leaders celebrate and recognize the students and teachers who participate in the
science fair process. The survey, interview, and observation data specifically supported the
following findings:
1. Although the school site demonstrated the presence of a strong vision and positive
culture toward the PRONAFECYT, the school site leadership needs to continue to empower
others to act consistently with the vision. Empowering teachers can encompass removing
barriers, such as arranging for teacher training to equip teachers with the skills and knowledge
required to successfully implement the PRONAFECYT and arranging or advocating for re-
sources required by the initiative. While teacher training regarding the process is being provided,
dedicated resources are lacking for items, such as supplies, materials, and facilities, as well as
teacher training pertaining to curriculum and instructional methods.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 151
2. Recognition and celebration of only students are occurring at the site level—however,
not the teachers. Government officials must reflect on how they currently recognize the students
and teachers as they move through the national process.
Research Question 2
How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
The findings from Research Question 2 indicated that there are distinct differences
between teacher practices at schools that are successfully implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative and those practices at schools experiencing less success. The data analysis of the
surveys, interviews, and observations revealed that leadership at Highland PS, a school success-
fully implementing PRONAFECYT, has embedded PRONAFECYT within the culture of the
school. As a byproduct of focusing all efforts on supporting the Expotec, instructional practices
at this school site have shifted to adapt to the needs of the students. As suggested by Kotter
(1996), for change to be sustainable, it must be visible in all aspects of the organization. The
data from surveys, interviews, and observations with the School Director and teachers at High-
land PS clearly demonstrated that the Director’s belief in the PRONAFECYT was reflected in
classroom instruction, teachers’ beliefs, and student activities through the school. Teacher
practices at Highland PS have provided students with multiple opportunities to develop their
critical thinking and real-world learning by way of PBL as compared to their peers at Foothill PS,
a school that has been less successful with PRONAFECYT implementation. While elements of
PBL included in the framework of Capraro et al. (2013) were noted to some extent, greater use of
PBL can contribute to increased student participation in the PRONAFECYT. Application of the
elements of PBL included in the framework of Capraro et al. can result in various learning
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 152
outcomes by having projects assigned to students that provide them with opportunities to utilize
knowledge from interdisciplinary subjects while employing creativity, collaboration, and imagi-
nation.
The data also demonstrated that the staff at Highland PS worked in PLCs. This is an
important finding, as it suggests that increased use of the seven elements of PLCs included in the
framework of DuFour and Fullan (2013) can contribute to an increased level of student participa-
tion in the PRONAFECYT.
Research Question 3
How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
Since the adoption of the PRONAFECYT initiative, Costa Rica’s primary school students
have been developing the 21st-century skills needed to be productive members of the country’s
knowledge-driven and innovation-based workforce. Capraro et al. (2013) asserted that students
develop the skills they need to work collaboratively in a high-tech industry through the process of
inquiry and problem solving. The literature supported the analysis of data from Research Ques-
tion 3 in that it revealed that teachers receive an inconsistent level of training related to 21st-
century skills and instructional practices designed to equip students with such skills. While the
data revealed that teachers receive training to a certain extent, the level of training received by
teachers varies indicated the need for an increased level of training focused on 21st-century skills
and instructional practices designed to equip students with such skills. The Director of the
PRONAFECYT, part of the MICITT, Nathalie Valencia Chacón, further supported this notion:
“We have to empower the teachers more so that they understand what an investigation process
implies because they can’t teach something they don’t know” (interview, June 15, 2015).
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 153
The second finding that was affirmed through the data analysis process revealed that site
and system leaders utilize the structural leadership frame when preparing schools for the
PRONAFECYT. According to Bolman and Deal (2011), the structural leadership frame empha-
sizes goals and efficiency and posits that effective organizations define clear goals; assign
specific roles to people; and coordinate activities through polices, rules, and chain of command.
The data revealed the coordination of efforts at the site level and the manual provided to schools
by the MEP covering guidelines for the PRONAFECYT indicated a strong presence of the
structural leadership frame. While use of the structural leadership frame appears appropriate for
many aspects related to preparing schools for the PRONAFECYT, leaders are encouraged to
consider other frames, as the ability to view situations with appropriate perspectives can reduce
the risk of misreading situations hence leading to misguided decisions.
Research Question 4
How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional practice?
The data revealed that participation in the PRONAFECYT has affected the instructional
practices at Highland PS by including elements of PBL. The characteristics of PBL make it a
sound approach to support the objective of the PRONAFECYT. PBL emphasizes learning
activities that are long term, interdisciplinary, student centered, and integrated with real-world
issues (Capraro et al., 2013). While the data revealed elements of PBL to a certain degree,
increased use of PBL is a potential way of improving the skills developed by students. In addi-
tion, increased teacher training on PBL practices is needed to further empower teachers with the
skills needed to utilize PBL.
Another theme revealed was that participation in the PRONAFECYT has affected the
instructional practices at HPS by integrating science curriculum within multiple subjects. This is
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 154
consistent with the assertion of Capraro et al. (2013) that one of the benefits of PBL is that
students are given the opportunity to utilize knowledge from interdisciplinary subjects while
employing creativity, collaboration, and imagination. The data analyzed revealed that while
some areas of science curriculum were integrated, the level of integration could be increased to
further support the successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT and the development of
21st-century skills.
Implications for Practice
Findings identified from this study validated the positive effects of educational leadership
on participation in the PRONAFECYT by Costa Rican primary schools. Specifically in regard to
the PRONAFECYT and educational leadership, much is to be gained from this study. This study
provides evidence that site and system educational leadership is critical to the successful imple-
mentation of the PRONAFECYT, as well as student participation in the initiative. The role of
site and system educational leaders is important from the standpoint of empowering teachers to
act consistently with the school’s vision as it pertains to the PRONAFECYT. Empowering
teachers includes removing barriers, such as arranging for teacher training so that teachers have
the skills and knowledge required to successfully implement the PRONAFECYT. While this
study revealed that teachers receive training to a certain extent, the level of training received by
teachers varies and thus indicates the need for an increased level of training focusing on 21st-
century skills and instructional practices designed to equip students with such skills. Empower-
ing teachers also includes arranging or advocating for resources required by the initiative. What
was made evident by this study was the need for dedicated resources for supplies, materials, and
facilities that support activities related to the PRONAFECYT. While some level of communica-
tion of the vision, purpose, and urgency of the PRONAFECYT was noted, evidence indicated
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 155
that communication from site and system leaders was infrequent. It was evident that increased
recognition of students and teachers by site and system leaders is a form of communication
needed.
This study also found a positive relationship between the utilization of PLCs and PBL on
student participation in the PRONAFECYT. Participation in the PRONAFECYT has resulted in
the application of PBL instructional practices and the integration of science curriculum embed-
ded in multiple subjects. While the data revealed the presence of PLCs and PBL to a certain
extent, it was clear that increased use is needed of PLCs and PBL, as well as teacher training
targeting these areas. Similarly, increased integration of science curriculum can lead to increased
student interest and participation in the PRONAFECYT.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study was conducted by an 18-member team of researchers. The researchers shared
the data collected from government officials and business employees. Six members of the
regional research team collaborated in their data collection at six schools within the River
Region, all selected by Costa Rica’s MEP. At these school sites, school directors and teachers
were interviewed and classroom observations were conducted.
One suggestion for future research would be to combine date from many schools within a
particular region, such as River. In collecting data from multiple schools within one region, the
MEP can gain a deeper understanding on current leadership practices across the entire region and
pinpoint specific areas of support that might strengthen the PRONAFECYT implementation
within all the schools in the region. Another suggestion for future research would be to conduct
the same study in another developing nation that has implemented a science fair program. The
parameters could be set to examine the country’s education system that has approximately the
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 156
same population and socioeconomic status. The results of such a study could be compared with
the current study to elicit best practices and strategies related to the role of educational leadership
on the participation in and implementation of science fair programs. This, too, would serve as a
significant comparison of leadership, taking note how different strategies may be more or less
effective in certain aspects of development.
The present study could also be expanded on by including a longitudinal investigation in
which student participation in the PRONAFECYT is followed over an extended period of time.
This process would allow data to be collected that pertained to the effects of different leadership
strategies employed over a longer period. A longitudinal study could also focus on the schools
with changes in leadership or changes in leadership strategies to determine the resulting level of
impact on student participation. Similarly, a longitudinal study could also focus on system level
changes in leadership or strategies to determine the resulting level of impact on student participa-
tion.
As identified by Kotter (1996), the successful implementation of a change effort is
dependent on the extent of completion of eight phases of the change leadership process. The
present study’s surveys and observation rubrics focused on four of the eight phases. This study
could be replicated in the same way with the adjustment of changing the questions to pertain to
the other four phases identified by Kotter. It would be interesting to see the impact of the other
four phases on the implementation of the PRONAFECYT.
Conclusion
The effects of educational leadership on participation in the PRONAFECYT were clearly
evident through this study. The findings validated the positive effects of educational leadership
on participation in the PRONAFECYT by Costa Rican primary schools. As noted through the
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 157
data analysis of surveys; observations; and interviews with leaders from government, business,
and education, as well as teachers, parents, and students, there was a positive relationship be-
tween educational leadership and participation in the PRONAFECYT. Actions by leadership
were key to empowering teachers, garnering support, encouraging participation, integrating
curriculum, and guiding instructional practice to target student development.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 158
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EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 170
Appendix A
Recruitment Letter
DATE
Dear XXX,
On June 15, 2015, a group of 18 doctoral students from the University of Southern California,
Rossier School of Education, will travel to Costa Rica as part of a study team led by Dr. Michael
Escalante. The purpose of our research is to understand the effects of educational leadership on
participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT) in
primary schools in Costa Rica. Specifically, we are interested in the roles of primary school
leaders in preparing and implementing this initiative. As part of our study, the following ques-
tions will be addressed:
1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with
21st-century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practice?
We would appreciate an opportunity to speak with you, members of the Ministry of Education,
and educational leaders at regional and school site levels. It is our goal to conduct surveys and
interviews to gather data to address these research questions. Your input will be invaluable to
our study.
Thank you for considering our request. We are available to meet with you any time between
from June 15 and June 19. Please feel free to contact any member of our study team if you have
any questions.
Sincerely,
USC Doctoral Students
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 171
Appendix B
List of Research Sites
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 172
Appendix C
Teacher Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 173
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 174
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 175
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 176
Appendix D
School Director Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 177
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 178
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 179
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 180
Appendix E
Government Official Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 181
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 182
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 183
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 184
Appendix F
Business Partner Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 185
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 186
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 187
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 188
Appendix G
Parent Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 189
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 190
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 191
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 192
Appendix H
Student Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 193
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 194
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 195
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 196
Appendix I
Teacher Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 197
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 198
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 199
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 200
Appendix J
School Director Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 201
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 202
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 203
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 204
Appendix K
Government Official/Business Leaders Interview Protocol: English and
Spanish Versions
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 205
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 206
Appendix L
Parent Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 207
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 208
Appendix M
Student Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 209
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 210
Appendix N
Observation Protocol
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 211
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 212
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 213
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 214
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 215
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 216
Appendix O
Consent Form
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089
INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NONMEDICAL RESEARCH
THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN PARTICIPATION IN THE NATIONAL
PROGRAM OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FAIRS IN COSTA RICA
You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You
should ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to understand the effects of educational leadership on participation in
the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs in primary schools in Costa Rica.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a 15-minute survey, a
30-minute audiotaped interview, and/or a 10-minute classroom observation. You do not have to
answer any questions that you don’t want to answer; if you don’t want to be taped, you can still
participate in this study.
CONFIDENTIALITY
There will be no identifiable information obtained in connection with this study. Your name,
address, or other identifiable information will not be collected.
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 217
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Principal Investigator:
Dr. Michael Escalante, University of Southern California,
mescalan@usc.edumailto:mescalan@usc.edu; mailto:mescalan@usc.edu
Co-investigators:
Oryla Wiedoeft, Assistant to Dr. Escalante,
wiedoeft@usc.edumailto:wiedoeft@usc.edu
Patricia Brent-Sanco, Principal, Paramount Unified School District, pbrent@usc.edumailto:pbrent@usc.edu
Cindy Chavez Swenson, MWP Lecturer, University of California, Merced,
ccswenso@usc.edumailto:ccswenso@usc.edu
Jesus Corral, Senior Director, Los Angeles County Probation Dept.,
jesuscorral1@gmail.commailto:jesuscorral1@gmail.com
Ricardo Esquivel, Principal, Partnership to Uplift Communities, ricardoe@usc.edumailto:ricardoe@usc.edu
Carin Fractor, Teacher, Saugus Union School District,
fractor@usc.edumailto:fractor@usc.edu
Miguel Gonzales, Assistant Principal, Santa Barbara Unified School District
gonzalmm@usc.edumailto:gonzalmm@usc.edu
Denise Harshman, Coordinator, Orange County Department of Education
harshman@usc.edumailto:harshman@usc.edu
Mathew Kodama, Assistant Principal, Pasadena Unified School District
mathewwk@usc.edumailto:mathewwk@usc.edu
Jennifer Lashier, Assistant Principal, Arcadia Unified School District, lashier@usc.edumailto:lashier@usc.edu
April Leon, Teacher, West Covina High School,
aprilleo@usc.edumailto:aprilleo@usc.edu
Omar Lopez, Clinical Associate Professor, Assistant Director of Field Education, USC School of Social Work,
omarl@usc.edumailto:omarl@usc.edu
Christin Molano, Principal, Glendale Unified School District, cwalley@gusd.netmailto:cwalley@gusd.net
Fernando Marquez, Teacher on Assignment, Oro Grande School District,
fmarquez@usc.edumailto:fmarquez@usc.edu
Maribel Martinez, Principal, Lynwood Unified School District Mart632@usc.edumailto:Mart632@usc.edu
Wendy Poffenberger, Assistant Principal, Long Beach Unified School District,
wpoffenb@usc.edumailto:wpoffenb@usc.edu
Bea Spelker-Levi, Principal, Paramount Unified School District,
bspelker@paramount.k12.ca.usmailto:bspelker@paramount.k12.ca.us
Richard Storti, Vice President of Administrative Services, Fullerton College, rstorti@usc.edumailto:rstorti@usc.edu
John Tung, Assistant Principal, Arcadia Unified School District, johntung@usc.edumailto:johntung@usc.edu;
mailto:johntung@usc.edu; mailto:johntung@usc.edu
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edumailto:upirb@usc.edu
EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND COSTA RICAN PRONAFECYT 218
Appendix P
Summary of the Research Proposal
Abstract (if available)
Abstract
Globalization and technological advances have enabled emerging countries to compete with traditionally economically dominant countries. Emerging countries can advance their economy through the attraction of foreign direct investment (FDI) from multinational corporations. A key element in the attraction of FDI is the development of human capital. ❧ Costa Rica has transitioned from an economy primarily based on agriculture to a knowledge-based economy with the attraction of FDI from companies such as Intel, Microsoft, Cisco, and Hewlett Packard. The need to create the necessary human capital to support this process placed challenges on the educational system to develop students with 21st-century skills. In response, the government issued National Executive Decree #31900, mandating the participation of all Costa Rican students to participate in the National Program for Science and Technology Fairs (Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología [PRONAFECYT]). ❧ This qualitative research case study examined the role that educational leaders have played in implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative. The study examined leadership practices, instructional strategies, and professional development practices. The research team was comprised of 18 doctoral students from the University of Southern California. The data collection instruments consisted of interviews, surveys, and observation protocols. ❧ To evaluate leadership strategies, John Kotter’s 8-step change model and the 4 frames model developed by Lee Bolman and Terrence Deal were utilized. To connect the transmissibility of leadership to instruction, instructional practices were also examined and evaluated. Specifically, the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) project-based learning approach developed by Robert Capraro and colleagues was used to further understand learner engagement and the transferability of Tony Wagner’s 21st-century skills. ❧ The investigation should benefit Costa Rican government officials, policymakers, school leaders, and business leaders. As noted through the data analysis of surveys
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Lashier, Jennifer W.
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The role of educational leadership on participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Highland Primary School in the Valley Region of Costa Rica
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Rossier School of Education
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Doctor of Education
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Publication Date
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