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The benefits of mentorship to new high school assistant principals and principals
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Mentorship to New High School Administrators
THE BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP TO NEW HIGH SCHOOL ASSISTANT PRINCIPALS
AND PRINCIPALS
by
Katie L. Males
A Dissertation Proposal Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2016
Copyright 2016 Katie L. Males
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 2
THE BENEFITS OF MENTORSHIP TO NEW HIGH SCHOOL ASSISTANT PRINCIPALS
AND PRINCIPALS
by
Katie L. Males
A Dissertation Presented
in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
May 2016
APPROVED:
___________________________________
Dr. Pedro Garcia, Ed.D.
Committee Chair
____________________________________
Dr. Rudy Castruita, Ed.D.
Committee Member
_____________________________________
Dr. Gregory Franklin, Ed.D.
Committee Member
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 3
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine what methods administrators who are new to their
positions use to cope with their ever-evolving roles and the vast amounts of responsibilities
associated with a position in educational administration. The study also sought to determine if
mentorship, whether formal or informal, was beneficial. Participants of this study were new to
their administrative position defined as three years or less of experience. Superintendents were
also sought to provide perspective regarding mentorship processes. One superintendent and
three administrators from southern California conventional high schools were interviewed.
Along with the interviews, thirty-four anonymous administrators completed an online survey.
The study used a mixed-method approach which was comprised of semi-structured interviews,
along with anonymous surveys. The findings were triangulated between the survey results,
interview findings, and educational literature. Results of the finding were the ever increasing
roles and responsibilities of new administrators in conventional high school settings requires
those who fill these position have the skillsets and professional knowledge to lead successfully.
This study confirms the need for mentorship whether formal or informal better prepares qualified
school leaders to fulfill their demanding roles in education. Previous research conducted
supports the study’s findings that the role of mentorship is vital to the educational process of new
administrators. Access to mentorship should be made available for all new administrators,
especially those identified through this study as leading a conventional secondary high school.
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 4
PREFACE
Some of the chapters of this dissertation were coauthored and have been identified as
such. While jointly authored dissertations are not the norm of most doctoral programs, a
collaborative effort is reflective of real-world practices. To meet their objective of developing
highly skilled practitioners equipped to take on real-world challenges, the USC Graduate School
and the USC Rossier School of Education have permitted our inquiry team to carry out this
shared venture.
This dissertation is part of a collaborative project with two other doctoral candidates,
Suena Chang and Donald Rafter. We three doctoral students studied the need and importance of
mentorship for new administrators. However, the process for dissecting and resolving the
problem was too large for a single dissertation. As a result, the three dissertations produced by
our inquiry team collectively address the need for new administrator mentorship (see Chang,
2016; Rafter, 2016).
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 5
DEDICATION
The journey on this road of education has been a long and windy one that throughout the
way struggles and tribulations were encountered. However, in this journey has been one driving
force for success, my daughter. No matter the late nights or the weekends researching, she
consistently asked if I needed any help with a smile and would often say, “Mom, you got this.”
Therefore, it is no surprise that I think back to the conversation I had with my beautiful daughter
the summer leading into her senior year in high school. Over a great cup of coffee, of course, for
me and a sprite for her, my daughter in her infinite wisdom said, “Mom, it’s time.” We had
always had the conversation that one day I wanted to pursue my doctorate degree at my dream
school and when I set out on the journey of education at 25, often I was unsure if that dream
would ever become a realization. Now that dream has become reality. So forever thank you for
being the driving force in the pursuit of my education and the inspiration to not only better our
lives, but to flip the paradigm that we so often talked about. Our family quote is to remember “It
is not where you start, but where you finish.”
To the Fernandez Family, thank you for continuing to be a supportive force in this
journey from California City to Anaheim. Please know that without this support, the journey
would have definitely been far more difficult. Also, to those whom I have had the honor to work
with who have given me “The Force,” to be strong and that graduation was within my reach.
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 6
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank my partners in this endeavor. Suena Chang who always kept me
balanced and continues to inspire me with her grace and knowledge about all things. She is now
more than just a life-long friend, but more family and she will forever be part of life’s journey,
and to Donnie Rafter who balanced the team perfectly and was the voice of reason when it was
so needed. Great job team and now we look to the next stages of our journey. Also, last but not
least Dr. Garcia and Dr. Castruita who guided our journey through this educational process.
They provided guidance and wisdom when it was so needed and ensured that the writing
endeavor was one of success and knowledge. Thank you for all you have done to ensure that I
completed my dissertation.
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 7
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Tables ...........................................................................................................8
List of Figures ..........................................................................................................9
List of Appendices .................................................................................................10
Chapter One: Overview of the Study .....................................................................11
Introduction of the Problem .......................................................................11
Background/Overview of the Problem ......................................................13
Statement of the Problem ...........................................................................14
Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................15
Importance of the Study .............................................................................16
Assumptions, Delimitations, Limitations ..................................................17
Definition of Terms....................................................................................17
Chapter Two: Literature Review ...........................................................................19
Introduction ................................................................................................19
History/Research ........................................................................................20
Increasing Difficulty/Changing of the Job .................................................22
Administrator Shortage ..............................................................................22
The Importance of Well Prepared Administrators .....................................24
Leadership Impacts Student Achievement .................................................25
Theory to Practice ......................................................................................27
Gap/Inconsistencies ...................................................................................37
Summary of Chapter Two ..........................................................................42
Chapter Three: Methodology .................................................................................43
Introduction ................................................................................................43
Sample and Population ..............................................................................44
Instrumentation ..........................................................................................46
Data Collection ..........................................................................................50
Data Analysis .............................................................................................51
Chapter Four: The Findings ...................................................................................52
Background ................................................................................................52
Guiding Questions .....................................................................................52
Research .....................................................................................................53
Reflection on Findings ...............................................................................82
Chapter Five: Conclusions .....................................................................................85
Background ................................................................................................85
Statement of the Problem ...........................................................................85
Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................86
Research Questions ....................................................................................86
Methodology ..............................................................................................87
Findings......................................................................................................87
Recommendations for Future Research .....................................................91
Limitations .................................................................................................92
Conclusion .................................................................................................93
References ..............................................................................................................94
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 8
LIST OF TABLES
Table Sample 1. Principal Participants ..................................................................45
Table Sample 2. Superintendent Characteristics ...................................................46
Table 1. Survey Participants by Ethnicity ..............................................................54
Table 2. Survey Participants: Gender ....................................................................55
Table 3. Survey Participants by Age Group ..........................................................55
Table 4. Survey Participants by Experience in Education .....................................56
Table 5. Survey Participants: Highest Level of Education ...................................57
Table 6. Interview Participants at a Glance: Key Characteristics ..........................60
Table 7. Survey Participants: Response Rate ........................................................61
Table 8. Format of Mentorship: Survey Participants .............................................72
Table 9. Leadership Skills Developed through Mentorship: Survey
Participants ..............................................................................................73
Table 10. Time Spent with Mentor: Survey Participants .......................................74
Table 11. Mentorship Relationship: Survey Participants ......................................74
Table 12. Importance of Mentor to a New Administrator: Survey
Participants ............................................................................................79
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 9
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Coping Methods: Identified by Survey Participants ....................................62
Figure 2: Effectiveness of Current Coping Methods: Survey Participants ..................67
Figure 3: Importance of Mentorship: Survey Participants ...........................................71
Figure 4: Areas Developed through Mentorship: Survey Participants ........................78
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 10
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix A Pre-Interview Invitation Email .............................................................100
Appendix B Online Survey .......................................................................................102
Appendix C Interview Protocol: New Administrators..............................................109
Appendix D Interview Protocol: Superintendent ......................................................112
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 11
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Authors: Suena Chang, Katie Males, and Donald Rafter
1
Introduction of the Problem
Studies clearly indicate that leadership in education is significant to the success of
schools through the leadership provided to all staff and students. Research on effective school
leadership states that leadership plays a crucial role in ensuring the school’s success, however, as
administrators take over the role of such a daunting task minimal hands-on experience is
provided (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006). Lacking real-world experience, educational leaders rely
on personal experiences to provide the opportunities to develop as administrators. The process
of developing real-world experiences can take years of on-the-job-training to develop an
effective administrator. Mentorship provides the opportunity to provide the real-world
experiences for those administrators who have already experienced the aspects of the position
(Mertz, 2004).
Leadership is a process that develops over time, however, within educational
organizations this leadership comes from a person who once served as a classroom teacher and
has completed an administrative educational program. Through the completion of a classroom
program, prior classroom teachers make the move from teacher to administrator. Even though
the move in positions has been made, the experience necessary to make such a move is lacking.
Many educational leadership programs focus on teaching the theories of how an administrator
should lead, but often leave out the real-world experiences for administrators. These limitations
of real-world experiences lends itself to book knowledge, without the ability to access real-world
1
This chapter was jointly written by the authors listed, reflecting the team approach to this project. The authors are
listed alphabetically, reflecting the equal amount of work by all those listed.
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 12
application (Thessin & Clayton, 2013). This real-world application is the missing component for
administrator’s to be able to lead successfully.
This lack of real-world experience proves to be a difficult problem to overcome for new
administrators. Problems arise for administrators who lack such experience when the demands
of the job begin to develop. New administrators lack the on-the-job knowledge that is necessary
to be successful when trying to balance the responsibilities that come with such a position.
Research continues to review how much experience a person must have in real-world application
of administrative duties to be successful in such a position (Thessin & Clayton, 2013). As
research continues on how much experience is necessary for success, this research has already
uncovered the benefits of mentorship programs for new administrators (Brown-Ferringo & Muth,
2004). However, across California, mentorship programs for new administrators are limited
(Darling-Hammond, Orphanos, LaPointe, & Weeks, 2007).
One of the greatest influential factors on student learning that is school-related is school
leadership. Leithwood, Patten, and Jantzi (2010) stated that classroom instruction is the only
school-related factor that outweighs the influence of school leadership. Since there is enough
evidence to justify the significant leadership effects on student achievement, Leithwood, Patten
et al. (2010) tested how leadership influences student learning. Thus, in terms of practical
application of leadership effects, it is only logical to ensure that the educational policies and
practices invest in the building of school leadership capacity through programs such as
mentorship. The requirements for these mentorships and the educational administrator licensures
have little effective accountabilities, great inconsistencies, and variance. For example, in
Virginia, a teacher working to become an administrator must complete 320 clock hours of
structured and supervised internship experience to be licensed, while, in Maryland, only some
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 13
form of internship or practicum supervised by the local school system and university is required
(Thessin & Clayton, 2013). Yet in California and in many more states, no internship is
specifically required to become an educational administrator (Thessin & Clayton, 2013).
Composite findings from research suggest that the disconnected linkage between administrator
recruitment, preparation, and placement is a critical problem (Browne-Ferrigno & Muth, 2004).
Background/Overview of the Problem
The Elementary and Secondary Act (ESEA, Public Law 89-10, 1965) was reauthorized
by the United States Congress in 2001 and immediately renamed the “No Child Left Behind Act
of 2001 (NCLB, Public Law 107-110, 2002).” Its intentions were to close the achievement gap
between students in American public school systems and those in other countries and to better
prepare American students for a 21st century global society (Gonzalez, Hamilton, & Stecher,
2003). This legislation demanded increased accountability at the federal, state, and local level
and also called for better alignment of standardized testing with curriculum. NCLB also
demanded a greater focus on the management of educational funding and total transparency for
parents and community members to access data relating to school management. These changes
have led to a greater focus on the decision making made at school sites, have given permission
for the community to access records, and have put a substantial amount of pressure on both
administrators and superintendents (Pounder & Crow, 2005).
One of the enduring issues yet to be addressed upon examining the current state of
education from a global perspective is the potential scarcity of qualified administrators. A 1996
study that took place in Utah reported that roughly half of the school districts surveyed found
administrator shortages at all school levels (Galvin & Sperry, 1996). Two Colorado studies
reported that between 75% and 90% of public school superintendents indicated a moderate to
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 14
severe shortage of administrator candidates, with 90% predicting a future shortage (Whitaker,
2003). Urban districts such as New York and Los Angeles have a more problematic time hiring
administrators as temporary administrators are assigned to many schools (Whitaker, 2003).
In School Leadership that Works, Marzano, Waters, and McNulty (2005) outlined 21
research-based responsibilities that should be standard operating procedures for effective
administrators. After describing the 21 responsibilities, the authors themselves stated how
difficult it is to be an effective school leader and daunting the task of mastering these skills can
be. Numerous districts across the United States are struggling to find and retain quality
administrators, especially since there are great difficulties associated with the position.
Therefore, it is important that researchers re-examine the roles that administrators have
traditionally played in school success and the ways in which they were supported.
Today, there exists a need to discover how some administrators manage to cope with the
stress and workload associated with their jobs while others struggle in the position and are
unable to survive in the position. Studies show that mentoring future leaders is a vital part of the
development process for administrators as it allows a hands-on learning approach that cannot be
acquired in a classroom (Clarke & Wildy, 2010; Leithwood, Jantzi, & Coffin, 1995; Daresh &
Playko, 1994).
Statement of the Problem
In 2001, “the California Commission on Teacher Credentialing had more than 34,000
people on file with administrative credentials in California – [which was] more than enough to
fill the approximately 23,000” educational leadership positions needed (Bell, 2001, para. 7). Bell
(2001) pointed out that the problem is that “many educators with administrative credentials are
instead seeking administrative work as teacher mentors or curriculum directors, [which are] jobs
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 15
that carry less responsibility” (para. 7). California administrators also face a higher pupil-to-
administrator ratio than the rest of the country. Richard Elmore (2005) explained that school
leadership is asked to assume responsibilities they are largely untrained for, and the
consequences of failure are high for everyone, especially children. Despite the school leaders’
tremendous responsibilities, not all new leaders are equipped with the skills necessary to be
successful in dealing with the responsibilities and challenges of the new position. Research
shows that these skills necessary for success can be best taught through the guidance of a mentor
through real life experiences (Browne-Ferrigno & Muth, 2004; Clarke & Wildy, 2010;
Leithwood, Jantzi et al., 1995; Silver, Lochmiller, Copland, & Tripps, 2009; Thessin & Clayton,
2013).
Purpose of the Study
In order to better understand how to prepare administrators, school administrators were
studied. The purpose of this study was to determine what methods administrators who are new
to their positions used to cope with their ever-evolving roles and the vast amounts of
responsibilities associated with a position in educational administration. It was also to determine
whether mentorship, either formal or informal, was beneficial to new administrators, and if so,
how it was beneficial. This study involved school administrators who were new to
administration, as well as, experienced administrators who were moved to new positions or
unfamiliar settings. The research questions for this study were:
1. What coping methods do new school administrators use to deal with the vast amounts of
responsibilities they encounter?
2. Which of these coping methods worked best for them?
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 16
3. What are the new administrators’ perception of formal or informal mentoring in fulfilling
their responsibilities as secondary administrators?
4. How are the skillsets that are developed through formal or informal mentoring for new
administrators beneficial in fulfilling their responsibilities?
Importance of the Study
In a 2003 article titled Principal role changes and influence on principal recruitment and
selection, Kathryn Whitaker suggested that over the course of the last decade, the roles for
school leaders has changed drastically. Reforms such as higher standards, greater levels of
accountability, higher levels of parent demands, and site-based management have led to an
increased workload for principals. These changes have led to increasing evidence of difficulties
in recruiting and retaining individuals in the principalship (Whitaker, 2003). Whitaker goes on
to suggest that one of the recommendations for addressing the lack of qualified leaders to take on
the role of principal, is to provide ongoing support and mentoring for principals (Whitaker,
2003). Research suggests that mentoring programs for new principals are crucial to their
success.
The findings from this pilot study can be compared to future studies of a similar nature of
mentored administrators new to their positions so that University-District partnership mentorship
programs can apply the comparison study results in building up trained and prepared educational
leaders. This study will also be significant to new leaders in the field of education and those who
may be considering a career in educational leadership. The contents of this study will serve as a
resource to new and aspiring administrators who may question what specific strategies used by
new administrators are, in fact, deemed successful.
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 17
Assumptions, Delimitations, Limitations
Three assumptions were made in this study: (1) The range of districts participating in the
study are representative of the educational institutions; (2) the experiences of the administrators
interviewed and surveyed represent the experiences of all new administrators who went through
the same preparation programs; and (3) previous research on new administrators can be
expanded to new administrators.
Three delimitations included the low number of administrators used, lack of data
collection variety beyond surveys and interviews, and the limited number of districts used in
sampling. In addition, limitations were present in the time available, the small sample of new
administrators at a given time, and the limitation of self-reporting data. These last two
limitations reduce the generalizability of the findings due to the small sample as well as the depth
of perspective, with only new administrators’ perspectives captured through the data-collection
processes.
Definition of Terms
The terms listed below were used throughout this study.
New administrators: an administrator who has served in that administrative position for
three years or less
Formal Mentorship: a structured and coordinated approach by a third party to mentoring
where individuals (usually novices – mentees and more experienced persons – mentors)
agree to engage in a personal and confidential relationship that aims to provide
professional development, growth, and varying degrees of personal support (Hansford &
Erich, 2006, p. 39).
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 18
Informal Mentorship: a mentorship relationship that develops as the parties involved see
the need or feel the desire to confide and advise; mentorship is meant to be a
developmental relationship where a more experienced and knowledgeable person helps
an individual with less experience and knowledge (Casavant & Cherkowski, 2001).
Conventional high school administrators: administrators at a traditional high schools (9th-
12th grade schools); typically larger than 1700 students.
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 19
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Authors: Suena Chang, Katie Males, Donald Rafter
2
Introduction
As the responsibilities and expectancies of a school leader has evolved into a more
complex and instructionally impacting role, the number of qualified and equipped candidates has
decreased. Studies show that mentorship programs better prepare qualified school leaders to
fulfill this demanding role (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006; Browne-Ferrigno & Muth, 2004; Clarke
& Wildy, 2010; Ehrich, Hansford, & Tennent, 2004; Fink & Brayman, 2004; Leithwood, Jantzi
et al., 1995; Orr & Barber, 2005; Parylo, Zepeda, & Bengtson, 2012; Silver et al., 2009; Thessin
& Clayton, 2013). This chapter reviews the past history and research on the quality of education
and the impact that school leadership has on student achievement. Then it addresses the shortage
of administrators and the increasing demands of the position as the role is redefined through
time. Following this discussion, an explanation of the need for preparing administrators in order
to support student achievement will be presented. Administrator readiness can be accomplished
through a well-structured mentorship program which promotes putting theory into practice and is
beneficial to the novice, mentor, and district. Well-structured mentorship programs provide
support/skills, socialization, satisfaction/reward, professional development, and
recruitment/network opportunity for those involved. Finally, this chapter concludes with the
discussion of the gaps and inconsistencies of current mentorship programs and what difficulties–
such as mentor/novice compatibility, mentor quality, limited resources, and university-district
partnership challenges–need to be overcome in order to offer a successful mentorship programs.
2
This chapter was jointly written by the authors listed, reflecting the team approach to this project. The authors are
listed alphabetically, reflecting the equal amount of work by all those listed.
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 20
History/Research
In the 1970s and early 1980s, there was a widely held belief that the American education
system was failing and that the education gap between the United States and the rest of the world
was rapidly narrowing (Gardner, 1983). As a result, in 1981 T. H. Bell (as cited in Gardner,
1983), who at the time served as the Secretary of Education, created the National Commission on
Excellence in Education (Introduction, para. 1). A group of 16 professionals from across the
country were assembled to investigate the quality of education in the United States and assigned
the task of producing a report within 18 months outlining the state of the American education
system (Gardner, 1983). The report that emerged from this commission was entitled A Nation at
Risk and in it a bleak picture of American education system was painted: “If an unfriendly
foreign power had attempted to impose on America the mediocre educational performance that
exists today, we might well have viewed it as an act of war” (U.S. Department of Education,
1983, p. 2). It was from this report that the move towards accountability and standards-driven
frameworks were derived. A Nation at Risk was the nexus of the standards and accountability
movement that called for the establishment of technical standards that would be assessed through
the use of standardized testing (Horn, 2002).
When the school reform movement began in the 1980s, the first consequence for school
leaders was pressure to put student learning at the center of their jobs. In 2002, 22years later,
President George W. Bush published No Child Left Behind (NCLB, Public Law 107-110) which
again placed accountability and standards at the forefront of American Education. The document
was 34 pages long and contained 26 occurrences of the word “accountability.” Definitions of
what an instructional leader is and the role that they play has changed significantly since the No
Child Left Behind Act was first penned. Today, instruction remains a dominant theme, but it is
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 21
taking a much more complex form. Standards of learning and pressure to provide evidence of
student success have confirmed the importance of educational leadership (Lashway, 2002).
Standards-based accountability systems defy traditional assumptions about instructional
leadership. Where once a leader was asked to encourage a teachers’ efforts, principals are now
being asked to lead teachers to produce concrete results on rigorous academic standards. This
requires not just innovative practices, but a different mindset (Lashway, 2002). A school
principal that was once considered a manager of resources, a goal setter, and a staff evaluator is
now someone who takes a much more involved role in the process of teaching and learning and
carries more sophisticated views on professional development (Lashway, 2002).
To further illustrate the evolving role of educational administrators, specifically at the site
level, the Education Commission of the States, in analyzing how the No Child Left Behind Act
will affect leaders, noted that they not only need a sophisticated understanding of assessment,
they should be master teachers (or at least recruit master teachers) so assessment data can be
used intelligently (Anthes, 2002). Yet, another description of the role of educational
administrator recognizes that these leaders need to be “educational visionaries, community
builders, public relations experts, budget analysts, facility managers, special programs
administrators, and expert overseers of legal, contractual, and policy mandates and initiatives”
(Darling-Hammond, LaPointe, Meyerson, Orr, & Cohen, 2007, p. 3). These same leaders are
expected to balance the competing interests of parents, teachers, students, district office officials,
unions, and state and federal agencies while always keeping the best interests of the students in
mind (Darling-Hammond, LaPointe et al., 2007). The research tells us that it is apparent that the
role of educational leaders is constantly evolving and becoming more daunting a task as each day
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 22
goes by. These changing conditions necessitate a conscious commitment to the preparation and
retention of qualified educational leaders.
Increasing Difficulty/Changing of the Job
Several studies have noted the changing role of educational leaders. Role changes such
as pressures related to high-stakes testing, new accountability measures, increased role of
management, changing relationships with the community, and site-based or collaborative
decision making models are changes often referenced in the literature (Hart and Bredesen, 1996;
Murphy, 1994; Whitaker, 1999; Williams & Portin, 1997). Although it could be argued that
these changes are a necessity and that they have had several positive impacts on education as a
whole, these changes have led to an increase in overall workloads and have contributed to an
increase in the stress levels of principals (Pounder & Merrill, 2001; Whan & Thomas, 1996). In
the 2013 MetLife Survey of American Teachers, it was reported that “75% [of principals felt]
their jobs have become too complex . . .about half . . . feel under great stress . . . several days a
week” (Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, 2013, para. 5). and the percentage who said they
felt satisfied in their work dropped from 62 to 39 since 2008 (Metropolitan Life Insurance
Company, 2013, para. 5). In his recent book, The Principal, Michael Fullan (2014) wrote: I
don’t think, “There has never been a time when the circumstances for the role of the principal
have been more volatile. Facing the unpredictable, principals must be able to handle a good deal
of ambiguity while displaying strong lead learner qualities” (p. 145).
Administrator Shortage
In addition to the excessive demands of the job that can make it difficult for principals to
focus on teaching and learning, studies have also shown there appears to be a growing shortage
of people who are both willing to take on the position of the principalship and are well qualified
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 23
to lead instructional improvement, particularly in culturally diverse, low-income communities
and schools (Darling-Hammond, LaPointe et al., 2007). School districts across the nation are
already reporting principal shortages. One report finds that nearly 60% of principals will retire,
resign, or otherwise leave their position in the next five years (Peterson, 2002). In California,
specifically, the problem is not necessarily a shortage of certified administrators, but rather a
shortage of quality administrators willing and committed to working in underserved communities
and schools (Peterson, 2002). Principal candidates and existing principals are often ill-prepared
and inadequately supported to organize schools to improve learning while managing all of the
other demands of the job (Levine, 2005; Young, 2002).
Recent literature has pointed to the increased need for school districts to attract and retain
highly qualified educators to serve in administrative roles. A chief cause for this is the alarming
unavailability of qualified administrators available to fill current positions and the potential
positions likely to open in the near future (Pounder & Crow, 2005). An exploratory study
conducted by Education Research Service (ERS) in 1998 for the National Association of
Secondary School Principals (NASSP) and the National Association of Elementary Principals
(NAESP) indicated that half of the districts surveyed reported a shortage of qualified candidates
for the principal positions they had attempted to fill. They also stated that these shortages were
not limited to a single level or location. Rural, urban, and suburban districts were susceptible to
the shortages and so were elementary, middle, and high school levels (Educational Research
Service, 1998). Forsyth and Smith (2002) suggested that these shortages do, in fact, display
themselves differently at different levels. According to Forsyth and Smith, these shortages are
seen most often in the positions of the high school principalship or the district superintendency
(Forsyth & Smith, 2002). A blend of demographic changes and dissatisfaction with leadership
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 24
roles as a result of the standards-based movement have been cause for rapid turnover in the
position of principals and other leadership roles in schools (Earley, Collarbone, Evans, Gold, &
Halpin, 2002). Ironically, as several studies pointed out, leadership and particularly the
leadership of the principal is a crucial ingredient in school success and improvement (Louis &
Miles, 1990; Fullan, 2001; Glickman, 2002; Sergiovanni, 2000; Stoll, Fink, & Earl, 2002).
Effective recruitment and selection of school leaders continues to be one of the more
challenging human resource functions (Pounder & Young, 1996). School districts are struggling
to attract and retain an adequate supply of highly qualified candidates for leadership roles
(Knapp, Copland, & Talbert, 2003). Principal candidates and existing principals are often ill-
prepared and inadequately supported to organize schools to improve learning while managing all
of the other demands of the job (Levine, 2005; Young, 2002). The difficulty districts face in
recruiting and retaining highly qualified individuals is due in large part to the addition of new
educational initiatives, new conceptualizations of leadership, and changing student
characteristics (Pounder & Young, 1996).
The Importance of Well Prepared Administrators
In the 2004 publication How Leadership Influences Student Learning, the authors pointed
out two distinct claims at the onset of the publication: “1. Leadership is second only to classroom
instruction among all school-related factors that contribute to what students learn at school” and
“2. Leadership effects are usually largest where and when they are needed the most” (Leithwood,
Seashore Louis et al., 2004, p. 5). According to the authors, leadership is a key factor in
accounting for differences in the success of a school and its student population. Leadership and
its effects account for approximately a quarter of a school’s total effect. Leaders contribute to
student learning indirectly, through their influence on other people or features of their
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 25
organization (Leithwood, Seashore Louis et al., 2004). An increasing number of publications
indicated that school principals influence student achievement through the support and
development of effective teachers and the implementation of effective organizational processes
(Darling-Hammond, LaPointe et al., 2007). Evidence suggested that a principal’s ability to lead
is central to the task of building successful schools that promote powerful teaching and learning
for all students (Darling-Hammond, LaPointe et al., 2007)
Researchers have found that principal leadership in the context of accountability-driven
reform is being redefined to focus on effective management of the school improvement process.
In general, Annual Performance Index (API) scores were higher in schools with principals whose
responses indicated they act as managers of school improvement, driving the reform process,
cultivating the school vision, and extensively using student assessment data for a wide variety of
school improvement areas of focus, including evaluation of teacher practice and assistance to
struggling students (Williams, Kirst, & Haertel, 2005).
Leadership Impacts Student Achievement
Leadership at the school sites is also very important to student achievement. Mid-
continent Research for Education and Learning (McREL) performed a quantitative research on
school leadership spanning about 30 years (Waters, Marzano, & McNulty, 2004). The study
answered two important questions of what impact the quality of leadership has on student
achievement and what specific leadership responsibilities and practices have the greatest impact
(Waters et al., 2004). Waters et al. (2004) found that focus of change is important. Focus of
change refers to correctly identifying the factors that will positively impact the student
achievement and properly adjusting to ensure change in practice. Having established that school
leadership can have tremendous influence on student achievement, it is imperative that there
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 26
would be a focus of change ensuring that all administrators are ready to take on the school site
responsibilities. Midcontinent Research for Education and Learning’s (McREL) meta-analysis
of 30 years of research on school-level leadership examined the relationship between school
leadership and student achievement (Grubb & Waters, 2004).
McREL’s meta-analysis resulted in three major findings that support the claim that
school-level leadership matters in terms of student achievement (Grubb & Waters, 2004). They
determined the effect size of leadership on student achievement was .25, expressed as a
correlation. They also listed 66 leadership practices principals use to fulfill 21 responsibilities
that affect student achievement. The top responsibility was situational awareness. Thirdly, just
as leaders can have a positive impact on student achievement, Grubb and Waters (2004) found
that leaders also can have a marginal or negative impact on achievement.
Leithwood, Patten et al. (2010) further supported that leaders have significant positive
impact on student achievement outcome. According to their study, there are many things that
leaders can do to set the goal and school climate towards student learning. The authors outline
four distinct “Paths” along which leadership influence flows to improve student learning:
Rational, Emotions, Organizational, and Family paths. The Rational path deals specifically with
the knowledge and skills staff members have with regards to teaching and learning. The
Emotions path includes the feelings and dispositions of staff members about school related
matters and can be directly compared to Bolman and Deal’s Human Resource frame (Bolman &
Deal, 1991). Variables in the Organizational path consist of school policies and practices or
“standard operating procedures” that must be in place for a school to run effectively. Lastly, the
Family path consists of a focus on the home environment of students. Estimates from one study
pointed out that everything schools do within their walls accounts for about 20% of the variation
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 27
of student achievement (Bosker & Scheerens, 1994; Mortimore et al., 1988; & Scheerens, 1992
as cited in Creemers & Reezigt, 1996, p. 203). Leithwood, Patten et al. (2010) suggested that
leaders wishing to run effective schools should attend to variables needing strengthening on all
Paths, which again, illustrates the all-encompassing job of educational leaders.
Theory to Practice
As shown through the early studies and research, there needs to be an improvement in not
only selecting the right candidates to become administrative leaders, but in the implementation of
theory to practice taught in the higher institutions. This implementation involves training the
candidates through real life experiences so that they feel well-equipped and adequately supported
by the program and the district. Investing in these programs will improve the shortages of highly
qualified administrative leaders.
Mentorship of Administrators
Imagine a doctor entering a surgery room without being trained on how to perform an
open heart surgery or even second hand experience. It is the first time entering the surgical room
and first time having to cut into the heart. The doctor was only taught what to expect through a
text book and the instructor in a university course. That is the scenario for many new
administrators in California. Other than theory that is studied in the lecture hall, many new
administrators step into their offices not having been trained in real-life situations or any
experience (Fink & Brayman, 2004). They are put in charge of an enormous task for which they
have not been trained in.
Many leadership positions in different careers such as medicine, business, architecture,
and engineering provide a type of internship or apprenticeship (Darling-Hammond, LaPointe et
al., 2007; Ehrich et al., 2004). For example, the business sector has recognized that the
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 28
impending retirement of the baby boomers will create a shortage of business leaders and contend
that systemic succession programs must be implemented to replace these leaders with highly
qualified leaders (Fink & Brayman, 2004).
In educational leadership, there appears to be a shortage of candidates desiring the
principalship (Darling-Hammond, LaPointe et al., 2007; Grissom & Harrington, 2010).
According to Darling-Hammond, LaPointe et al. (2007) and Grissom and Harrington (2010), the
candidates do not view principalship as a doable job or are adequately supported by the district.
Moreover, they feel inadequately supported and unprepared to take on the challenging work.
Even current principals feel this pressure leading to high principal turnover. The more turnover
there are of principals, the more resistant teachers become to leadership efforts as constant, yet
inconsistent, plans are implemented by the revolving leaders (Fink & Brayman, 2004; Louis,
Leithwood, Wahlstrom, & Anderson, 2014).
Grissom and Harrington (2010) carried out a quantitative research on professional
development for principals and their effectiveness. They studied principals, teachers, and other
stakeholders for multiple factors such as teacher perception, teacher satisfaction, teacher
retention, student achievement, and classroom conditions. Their study indicated that mentorship
is positively associated with teacher’s perception of principal effectiveness. Darling-Hammond,
La Pointe et al. (2007) indicated that principals who go through good mentorship programs tend
to be more positive and strongly committed to their jobs. In addition, they spend more time as
instructional leaders engaging in activities that build teacher capacity and encourage instructional
dialogue.
Browne-Ferrigno and Muth (2004) analyzed data from participants of several cohorts in
clinical practice and mentorship, and reviews of research on clinical practice, leadership
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 29
preparation programs, and mentoring programs. The study suggested that an effective leadership
program provides the candidates the opportunity to gain authentic administrative experiences.
These programs provide the opportunity for both aspiring and novice administrators to obtain a
more positive perception of principalship leading to greater numbers of talented educators
seeking the position. Browne-Ferrigno and Muth suggested that well-structured mentorship
programs provide a carefully matched mentor-novice pairing where the novice feels supported.
The novice is led through socialization with the help of the mentor. They provide an award to
one another and experience satisfaction, recognition, and even motivation from seeing the
success of the novice. In addition, the continual discourse and reflection provides professional
development for both parties. Lastly, both the parties have extra exposure and create more
opportunities for networking and being recruited for new positions.
Support skills. Alsbury and Hackmann (2006) ran a study of formative assessments
where a mentorship/induction program of Iowa State was studied to identify the beneficial
components of an administrator mentoring program. This evaluation research found that not
only did the mentorship benefit the novices, it also benefitted the mentors and the district. This
study confirms that an important component of mentoring programs is the supportive mentor-
novice relationship. This sense of belonging built through the relationship fosters a positive
leadership perspective in the novice (Daresh, 2004).
A well-developed program teaches the novices the “tricks of the trade” (Alsbury &
Hackmann, 2006). Thessin and Clayton (2013) indicated that experiencing the problems first
hand through these authentic learning environments allow new skills and problem-solving
strategy development. Through this time, the novice receives role clarification and technical
guidelines and expertise (Browne-Ferrigno & Muth, 2004). Novices gain confidence about their
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 30
professional abilities as they develop skills and witness the unfolding of lessons learned from
books through daily interactions with their learning communities (Daresh, 2004). Direct
interaction improves other skills through the mentorship relationship. For example,
communication skills improve as the interaction and discussion take place between the mentor
and the novice (Daresh, 2004).
Even more than this is the encouragement and the continued support of a more
experienced mentor (Browne-Ferrigno & Muth, 2004; Ehrich et al., 2004; Hansford & Ehrich,
2006). In Browne-Ferrigno and Muth’s (2004) study, survey participants of the programs
studied cited the encouragement and support from their sponsors as the most important influence
in program engagement and in seeking principalship. Ehrich et al. (2004) even stated that
friendship of the mentors has led to positive outcomes for the novice. In the long run, the novice
who receives great support will likely become a lifelong learner and will be more likely to
volunteer as a mentor (Daresh, 2004). This cycle will create a culture of collegiality and a
trusting support system within the learning community.
Socialization. Socialization is the process where the new administrator “acquires the
habits, beliefs, and accumulated knowledge of society through education and training for adult
status” (Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 1995, p. 641). Becoming a principal involves a personal
transformation, and mentorship programs provide the context where the novice simulates
socialization (Browne-Ferrigno & Muth, 2004). Browne-Ferrigno and Muth (2004) explained
that as this transformation from teacher to administrator takes place, the new role identity as
principal is constructed. For example, there are unspoken cultural models where the norms and
performance expectations are constructed through social activities.
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 31
The cultural model helps define the acceptable norm in an organization that are
intangible, invisible, and, often times, unnoticeable. According to Rueda (2011), the cultural
model is the customary and normal day-to-day ideas. Gallimore and Goldenberg (2001) referred
to it as the shared mental schema of how the world works around them. Clark and Estes (2002)
explained that the organizational culture consciously and subconsciously dictates how to do our
jobs. Therefore, a cultural model is the automatic shared understanding such as the culture of
trust, appropriate values, etc. Moreover, socialization is a strategy for learning the culture, skills,
and knowledge along with the behaviors, norms, and values so that the novice can be prepared to
take on the complex leadership role as an administrator (Silver et al., 2009).
The mentor can provide a presence or the sense of being supported so that the novice
does not feel alienated in the new culture. It is important to prevent the novice from
experiencing social isolation (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006; Hansford & Ehrich, 2006). Alsbury
and Hackmann’s (2006) study confirmed that the important part of the mentorship relationship is
to develop a supportive relationship especially through socialization. Parylo et al. (2012) further
supported this relationship with their findings from their qualitative study of interviews with 16
principals that having a mentor was very important in having peace of mind and not feeling alone
or isolated.
Some of the socialization can be work-embedded. For example, as the novice shadows
and interviews the mentor, the novice will be socialized into the administrative community and
become familiar with the practices readily used (Browne-Ferrigno & Muth, 2004). Daresh
(2004) explained that socialization to leadership roles is developmental mentoring and a key part
of novices becoming effective leaders.
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 32
Rewarding. Serving as a mentor can be difficult, but it is even more rewarding. There
are challenges as the mentor tries to take on another engagement into their already full schedules,
but Daresh (2004) and Parylo et al. (2012) found that being a mentor can be satisfying to the
mentors. It is satisfying because mentors found that advising a novice administrator was both
challenging and stimulating. Although mentors have to add a greater work load to their plate,
they are molding the culture and values of the next generation of leaders. This fact rejuvenates
the mentors leading to increased productivity and improved recruitment efforts (Ehrich et al.,
2004). Even the senior staff can be motivated and reenergized. Some mentors found fulfilment
in the recognition they received from their peers (Daresh, 2004).
Professional development. Carefully conceived mentoring programs provide excellent
professional development (PD) for both the mentors and novices in the form of reflection. The
role of principals have evolved from just managing the school to a continual reflection of the
vision, goal, and practices (Orr & Barber, 2005). From the mentor-novice dialogue, reflective
conversation between the two parties encourages introspection not only in the novices, but also
serves as a catalyst for the mentors (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006; Browne-Ferrigno & Muth,
2004; Ehrich et al., 2004). The reflective questioning techniques used on the novices can
become a self-reflective tool for the mentors. Research shows that ongoing leadership
development should include opportunities for actively reflecting on leadership experiences
(Clarke & Wildy, 2010; Darling-Hammond, LaPointe et al., 2007; Ehrich et al., 2004; Hansford
and Ehrich, 2006; Leithwood, Jantzi et al., 1995; Thessin & Clayton, 2013). These opportunities
build capacity for even the veteran principals (Browne-Ferrigno & Muth, 2004). In fact,
reflection itself is not only PD in itself, it is an extension to other PD the mentors and novices
previously had received (Parylo et al., 2012).
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 33
Moreover, mentoring fosters the development of leadership skills (Browne-Ferrigno &
Muth, 2004). The continued sharing of the keen perspective of the mentors and the new views
presented by the novices provide greater collegiality as mutual respect is shown (Daresh, 2004;
Ehrich et al., 2004). It is an opportunity of personal growth tapping into the new pool of
knowledge, insight, talent, and energy.
Another important aspect of mentoring is the individualized learning experience around
the needs of the novice. The improvement of the effective experiential learning is facilitated
through reflection that is possible in mentorship (Hansford & Ehrich, 2006; Orr & Barber, 2005).
The mentorship allows for inputs of the novices to set the needs and direction of the relationship
so that the supports offered by the mentors are direct responses to the specific needs of the
novices. Thus, mentorship relationships provide a formalized platform enabling customized
professional development for both parties involved (Browne-Ferrigno & Muth, 2004; Thessin &
Clayton, 2013).
The district also reaps higher levels of employees that result from this natural PD created
through the mentorship program. Grissom and Harrington (2010) used teacher surveys of
principal effectiveness from the nationally representative sample from the Schools and Staffing
Survey (SASS, 2003-2004, p. 3). Their quantitative study showed positive correlation between
professional development and principal performance as well as between principal participation in
formal mentoring programs and principal performance. One possible reason is due to continuous
dialogue between the mentors and the novices generating more capable leaders who are highly
motivated, possess greater self-esteem, and improved productivity (Daresh, 2004).
Recruitment and network. Mentorship provides greater networking and chance for
recruitment (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006; Ehrich et al., 2004; Orr, & Barber, 2005; Parylo et al.,
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 34
2012). Alsbury and Hackmann (2006) found that strong mentorship programs increased self-
efficacy of the new administrators due to the various support received. As the novices are
guided through the various situations that allow for practicing theory, there is an increase in the
comfort level of the new position. With this ease, productivity increases. In this study, Alsbury
and Hackmann found that there was an increase in female and minority job placement. Their
study indicated that candidate visibility, cultural acuity, and networking provided access to new
job opportunities. More obvious is that the novices in mentorship relationships are interacting
with practicing principals and district administrators and forming new networks (Brown-Ferrigno
& Muth, 2004).
For the mentors, as well, increased recognition also brings about more opportunities for
career advancement (Daresh, 2004). This door for advancement is paved by the professional
growth aforementioned as well as the networking that is created which opens access to job
opportunities as the mentors gain greater visibility (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006).
University-District Partnership
If mentorship is imperative, then the most effective method of rolling out the mentorship
is through a University-District partnership. Preparing effective school leaders calls for close
ties between the universities and districts (Browne-Ferrigno & Muth, 2004). Louis, Leithwood
Wahlstrom, and Anderson (2014) explained that districts need to support the leadership by
supplying support and helping them develop a realistic sense of self-efficacy. Orr and Barber
(2005) stated that it is critical because of the impact it has on participation, quality, relevance,
and career advancement of the novices.
In Grissom and Harrington’s (2010) study discussed earlier, one of the hypotheses
addressed graduate level of study and principal effectiveness. They found that graduate course
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 35
work negatively correlates with principal effectiveness. The very purpose of graduate course
work is to better equip potential leaders for the duties (Browne-Ferrigno, 2004), however, many
universities may be teaching ineffective strategies (Nicholson & Leary, 2001). Some programs
have misalignment with the student and district needs.
Orr and Barber’s (2005) research found that University-District partnership programs
have more quality attributes than conventional programs in the same institutions. Orr and Barber
found that these programs yielded higher levels of graduate-reported learning, aspirations to take
on leadership roles, and leadership advancement. A district that provides an authentic
opportunity for the novices under the guidance of the mentors to practice the newly acquired
knowledge and engage in socialization will generate a pool of highly trained leaders to hire from.
The graduates of these exemplary programs who become principals are more likely to become
positive leaders who are strongly committed to their jobs, spend more time as instructional
leaders engaging in activities that build a professional learning community, and engage in
instructional dialogue (Darling-Hammond, LaPointe et al., 2007).
Recruitment. Moreover, candidates who successfully complete the leadership program
should be able to find placement more easily. Having the University-District partnership and
allowing the exposure and networking will mend the disconnected bridge between principal
preparation and recruitment (Browne-Ferrigno & Muth, 2004). This collaborative partnership
will produce principal candidates that are ready for the regional contexts of the specific districts.
These incentives not only provide candidates with greater support, but they are encouraged since
there is a high possibility of being recruited (Darling-Hammond, La Pointe et al., 2007). When
collaborating with local districts, leadership preparation programs can help novices build career
capacity and make a smoother advancement of positions in the field (Orr & Barber, 2005).
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 36
At the same time, Grissom and Harrington (2010) found that mentorship positively
correlates with principal effectiveness. If a program is partnered with the district, the theory can
focus on what is important in the field and in turn the theory can be put into practice. Browne-
Ferrigno and Muth (2004) commented that a well-designed program would build an authentic
opportunity where the aspiring principals can apply what they have learned in class. It needs to
produce real products that can be used by schools in the district. Without the practical
application, the theories learned in the universities would be impractical and irrelevant. In a
University-District partnership, the university can be specific in addressing the District’s needs.
Districts can have greater confidence knowing that the candidates’ preparation was catered to the
needs of the District. This can lead to a pipeline or a stream-lined process of hiring (Darling-
Hammond, LaPointe et al., 2007).
Customized professional development. A strong University-District relationship
allows for bidirectional communication and meeting of one another’s need. A university that
works closely with the district can address the district needs and therefore offer courses that
address the pressing concerns of the districts and provide contextualized theory (Darling-
Hammond, LaPointe et al., 2007). This also means that the support and PD offered are relevant
and directly associated with the needs of their positions in that district.
In addition to the PD customized to the needs of the district, the novices can apply the
theory, readings, and discussions that they have learned in class directly into their fields as they
see events unfold (Darling-Hammond, LaPointe et al., 2007). This type of well-established
University-District collaboration will provide quality professional development since the novices
will be better equipped with the skills needed to support student achievement while being held
accountable by the university in conjunction to their district (Goldring & Sims, 2005). For
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 37
example, the curriculum and instruction of the preparation program can be better aligned to the
leadership priorities of the district. A clear communication between the university and the
district will allow the university to take into account current leadership challenges the districts
are facing in order to improve the leadership preparation programs at the universities (Orr &
Barber, 2005).
Collegial relationship. Darling-Hammond, LaPointe et al.’s (2007) study found that
exemplary programs were distinguished in that both the districts and universities established
policies that allowed for collaboration. For example, some districts in partnerships allowed for
earning of credits and development of curriculum. The study explains that some universities
provide tuition waivers and mentors for the novices. Moreover, the partnership creates an
efficient resource system as the two institutions work together, financially and in human
resources.
Mentorship programs are essential in supporting the new school leaders. Silver et al.
(2009) interviewed and observed the experiences of new administrators, coaches, and principals.
Silver et al. found that university-based mentoring was generally viewed positively by the
members involved. There are many factors to consider, however, in creating a well-structured
mentorship programs.
Gap/Inconsistencies
Gaps and inconsistencies exist within the current programs and models for mentorship for
new administrators. These gaps and inconsistencies exist within the districts of those who
participated as a survey or interview participant, and further lead to a necessary examination of
current models in place.
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 38
Weakness of Mentorship Programs
Poorly designed programs. Mentorships are often mentioned as being beneficial to
administrators such as new principals and new superintendents, but programs do have limitations
in the effectiveness provided to the people who have newly acquired these positions. While
examinations of many mentorship programs have produced positive results, there are studies that
have uncovered the exact opposite of successful mentorship. Mentorship programs that are
designed poorly result in mentorships that can be detrimental to the participants (Alsbury &
Hackmann, 2006). The purpose behind mentorship is to further develop skills in future
educational leaders such as principals and superintendents; however, some mentorship programs
create an over-reliance in the mentor-novice relationship. This is created when a novice is
unable to make choices without the guidance of the mentor with whom they have developed a
myopic relationship through the mentorship process. This narrowed view limits opportunities
for growth in the perspective that only limited options are proposed based on previous
experiences developed in the mentor-novice process.
Alsbury and Hackmann (2006) further explored other problems that develop when
mentors are chosen from a pool of leaders who have become inflexible in their choices and
routines. Administrators as explored through this article were chosen not because of the
educational expertise they could provide, but instead only because they were willing to
participate in the process. This view as proposed by Alsbury and Hackmann stated that mentors
should be instead chosen in a very selective process that seeks only the educational leaders that
can provide novices expanding opportunities for growth through the mentorship process.
Through a restructuring of the mentor recruiting process by seeking only the most successful
educational leaders creates a process by which new principals and new superintendents acquire
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 39
professional, on-the-job skills (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006). Therefore, further exploration of
mentorship programs should be conducted to ensure that thorough screening processes discover
only the most forward thinking and organized educational leaders are chosen for participation.
Poor mentors. Ehrich et al. (2004) further concluded that while mentoring has
tremendous potential for new leaders to learn skills of the profession leading to professional
growth, there are still opportunities to produce conflicting results. Studies have revealed that
poor mentoring can be worse for future leaders than no mentoring at all (Hansford & Ehrich,
2006). Their exploration of mentorship programs concluded that most unsuccessful mentoring
programs were as a result of poor planning and inadequate leaders who are chosen to be mentors.
Planning inconsistencies with regards to mentors were a result of those in charge of creating such
programs not reviewing the current literature on mentoring prior to implementation.
Therefore, without current input on successful mentorship programs, many programs are
created without the necessary supports to produce successful results. Necessary supports were
viewed as time spent with the mentor as well as time developing leadership skills (Parylo et al.,
2012). Mentor support as part of a career-related mentorship was seen as contributing more
positive results to professional growth than mentorship provided as part of a university program.
Therefore, support of mentors should be integrated in a workplace program, instead of a focus on
the academic university level.
Mentor lack of availability. Another weakness that the literature revealed is the lack of
ability for mentorship programs to develop necessary leadership skills (Alsbury & Hackmann,
2006). Many new administrators look to every learning opportunity to develop skills necessary
for leadership positions; however, the counter narrative research does not support mentorship as
being a strong contributor to such skills. Alsbury and Hackmann (2006) stated that while skill
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 40
development is not a result of mentorship programs, these programs provide the ability for
novices to have a strong connection for open communication with another in the same position.
This open communication can in turn lead to opportunities for growth in the area of leadership
and learning to communicate with the school community. Availability of the mentor to the
novice is considered necessary and often can prove to be quite difficult if this availability is not
created as part of the initial supports of a program.
Narrow focused programs. Another concern with mentorship programs is that
programs can become too narrowly defined, therefore, limiting the opportunities for growth
available to those participating within the program (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006). Narrowed
mentorship programs become too focused on specific areas or processes and by doing so limit
opportunities for professional growth. Conception of mentorship programs should account for
all aspects of an educational leader who is currently in a successful leadership position and then
look to mirror such successful traits along with supports such as the correct mentor, time, and
availability; however, often the focus of the program is left from the development, thereby
resulting in a limited learning opportunity (Waido, 2013).
Challenges of Mentorship
Time as a resource. Critical effects of mentorship programs that are not adequately
designed results in a lack of time. This time is considered by those who participated within the
mentorship programs as one of the most important aspects according to Hansford and Ehrich
(2006). Time within a program is critical in ensuring that mentorship has the time necessary to
produce positive results; however, studies indicate that most mentors and mentees claim that
there is not enough time which results in a decrease in effectiveness of such programs. Mentors
have stated that in order to establish compatibility between mentor and mentee, time is crucial
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 41
and in short supply. They further explain that time is critical in the establishment of processes
that will create positive results for mentors who have participated in the mentorship program.
Time is further necessary in ensuring that the mentors who participate are trained and have the
skills necessary to create a successful mentor program (Hansford & Ehrich, 2006).
Time constraints also diminish the capacity of any program and its effectiveness when
participants feel that time is too crucially limited (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006). Explanations
given for the crucial amount of time that is required for the establishment of the fundamentals of
a successful mentorship are further elaborated and inherent flaws are viewed when this time is
not established. Therefore, while time is crucial, effective mentorship programs must focus on
the quality of the activities which are designed to develop the mentee participating in the
program even while dealing with the availability of crucial time.
Skills taught within a mentorship program. Mentorship processes have also been
questioned as to whether they are contributing to the knowledge base of those new administrators
who are participating. Research on mentorship stated that practices should be grounded in the
day-to-day realities of schools to be effective for new administrators (Clarke & Wildy, 2010).
Clarke and Wildy (2010) note that mentorship programs are grounded in the normative process
of administration, but lead to little applicable skills or knowledge in the daily work of
administrators. Gaps existing between mentorship processes and applicable skills often lead to
discontent with those who participate in a program that provides limited administrative skills.
Limitations of university-district programs. While a University-District partnership
would be ideal in creating a program that teaches the theory that is dynamic and reflective of the
field while providing the structure to implement the theories with support and guidance, creating
this partnership is not easy. Most literature on such university-district partnerships focuses on
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 42
the challenges and approaches, while few studies have assessed the impacts of specific program
models (Browne-Ferrigno & Muth, 2004). University-based programs that integrate mentorship
processes as part of an educational administration program are often looked at as a first step to
moving novices forward in their skill sets and experience. However, the skills that are provided
through this program are limited, except those skills that allow administrators to make
meaningful connections to professionals in the field. Programs that connect administrators to
other working professionals focus on limited skill sets over a short period of time that does not
provide the necessary time to develop last skills.
Summary of Chapter Two
This chapter provided a review of the literature that was most current regarding the
impact of mentorship programs on educational leaders such as new principals and new
superintendents. Through this literature review, the history of mentorship programs for
educational leaders and the importance of creating successful new principals and new
superintendents and the impact such leaders have on student achievement were studied. Current
practices of mentorship programs were explored and what research suggests for the
implementation of successful programs. Literature was also examined to determine the gaps and
inconsistencies that exist for current mentorship programs and how these gaps effect new
principals and superintendents and how they lead schools and districts. In Chapter Three, the
methodology for this study will be discussed, how the research will be conducted, and the
introduction of the research questions.
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 43
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Authors: Suena Chang, Katie Males, Donald Rafter
3
Introduction
This chapter will explain the methodology of this study. Creswell (2008) identified six
steps to the process of research: (1) identifying the research problem, (2) reviewing the literature,
(3) specifying a purpose and research questions, (4) collecting data, (5) analyzing and
interpreting data, and (6) reporting and evaluating research. Chapter One discussed the problem
of new educational administrators unequipped with the skills or experience necessary to be
successful in dealing with the responsibilities and challenges of the new position (Bell, 2001;
Elmore, 2005). The purpose of this study was to determine what support structures
administrators who are new to their positions have access to and to what extent mentoring played
a part in coping with their ever-evolving roles and the vast amounts of responsibilities associated
with a position in educational administration. In Chapter Two, significant past research and
literature were discussed along with controversies and gaps in those studies. Chapter Three will
elaborate on Creswell’s step four, five, and six by discussing the sample and population,
instrumentation, data collection, and data analysis process in order to answer the following
research questions:
1. What coping methods do new school administrators use to deal with the vast amounts of
responsibilities they encounter?
2. Which of these coping methods worked best for them?
3
This chapter was jointly written by the authors listed, reflecting the team approach to this project. The authors are
listed alphabetically, reflecting the equal amount of work by all those listed.
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 44
3. What are the new administrators’ perception of formal or informal mentoring in fulfilling
their responsibilities as secondary administrators?
4. How are the skillsets that are developed through formal or informal mentoring for new
administrators beneficial in fulfilling their responsibilities?
The methodology utilized in this section was a mixed-methods study. A mixed-methods
study involves the combined use of a quantitative and qualitative approach (Creswell, 2008).
This study used surveys to gather responses from a larger sample and triangulated those results
with a smaller sample of educational administrators who were interviewed. The survey results
and interviews were used to triangulate and draw a holistic picture of how new administrators
cope in their new positions and the benefits of mentorship in their first years. Triangulation
allows for a stronger study findings since multiple data has been incorporated (Creswell, 2008;
Johnson, Oweuegbuzie, & Turner, 2007; Westat, 2010).
Sample and Population
The research questions address how new administrators learn to manage their new roles.
Individuals best suited to provide insight and directly answer questions regarding the specific
coping strategies are the administrators themselves and the superintendents who oversee district
administrative mentorship or support initiatives. A single stage, mixed-method approach using
both qualitative and quantitative data were used during the course of data collection for this
project. Qualitative data was collected in the form of semi-structured interviews with new
administrators and superintendents and quantitative data were collected through the use of
electronic surveys that were sent out via email to new administrators who participated in the
study. Data was not collected until approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at the
University of Southern California was received. Data collected from this study were secured and
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 45
only used by the approved researchers. No identifiable data were collected such as name of the
participant or the name of the district. All data were kept confidential.
Surveys were used to gather data from new administrators around the local districts. The
research team identified local districts and sought out entry into the districts via public email
lists. Merriam (2009) explained that it is important to gain access to conduct the study. The
districts that granted entry and access were 10 southern California school districts. At these
districts, the list of new principals were obtained and each were emailed a short electronic
survey. A total of 120 samples were emailed and a response of 34 surveys were received. These
principals were given the option to participate in an interview in order to identify potential
interview candidates.
Participants for interviews were chosen using a purposeful sampling method from a list
of available administrators. Purposeful sampling allows for the identification and inclusion of
participants with particular characteristics (Patton, 2002). In order to gain a wide range of
perspectives, three new administrators and one superintendent were selected based on years of
experience, district of employment, geographical location, and availability for interviews (see
Table Sample 1 and Table Sample 2).
Table Sample 1
Principal Participants
Demographic Admin C Admin E Admin T
Population 2554
2617 3490
Largest Subgroups
Asian/Caucasian
Caucasian/Hispanic
Asian
English Language
Learner 229 158 280
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 46
Free/Reduced Lunch 611 705 680
Table Sample 2
Superintendent Characteristics
Characteristics Profile
Age Mid-60’s
Sex Males
Education Ed.D
Experience 39+ years
Ethnic Background Caucasian
Instrumentation
The instrumentation selected for this study was a mixed method and included both
interviews and surveys of superintendents and new administrators at secondary schools in ten
comprehensive, public school districts. Most of the interviews were completed by new
principals or assistant principals, but some were interviewed to gather data and information about
new principal’s induction process in their districts. Mixed methods allow for the depth of
understanding through the qualitative method, as well as the breadth that is made possible in
gathering quantitative data through a larger sample (Creswell, 2008; Johnson, Oweuegbuzie, &
Turner, 2007; Westat, 2010).
Qualitative Methods
The study conducted fell into the category of “applied research” as it sought to improve
the practice in the field of educational administration (Merriam, 2009). Specifically, the study
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 47
sought to generate an understanding of the means by which new administrators develop the skills
and knowledge necessary to be successful educational leaders. Qualitative methods were chosen
because this study sought to gain an understanding of the unique experiences and understanding
had by school leaders (principals and superintendents) regarding the benefits of mentorship to
new administrators (Merriam, 2009). Merriam (2009) explained that qualitative researchers are
interested in understanding how people construct their worlds as they interpret and make
meaning of their experiences. Just as each district, school site, student body, and teaching staff
are different, so too are the experiences each principal and superintendent have faced. In order to
best understand the experiences had by each principal and superintendent, their experiences were
mined to gain important insight. Interviews served as a tool to extract specific experiences each
administrator has had that helped create both positive and negative mentoring experiences in
their respective districts. Interviews were also selected because responses given by participants
may have warranted further questioning and a potential to probe deeper for answers to complex
questions that an informal interview allows for (Merriam, 2009).
Each respondent was been interviewed in a semi-structured format. Scripted questions
were posed while follow-up and probing questions were asked as needed. A semi-structured
format was used because personal responses from each participant were expected to yield an
opportunity to delve deeper into the specific experiences each respondent had (Merriam, 2009).
When the opportunity for important follow-up presented itself, the interviewer was able to ask
questions that further detailed the unique experiences faced by each respondent. These follow-
up questions provided a unique opportunity to delve deeper into the experiences faced by
respondents that would not be attainable through a survey or a completely structured process.
Other data available through the interview were the participants’ backgrounds, experiences,
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 48
opinions, beliefs, values, feelings, knowledge, experience of the senses, and demographics
(Merriam, 2009; Patton, 2002). In addition, the questions that were asked during the interview
were not limited to the present but their experiences in the past or their plans or hopes for the
future (Patton, 2002).
Quantitative Methods
Surveys were selected for their ability to reach several additional participants that may
not have been accessible through direct means of communication (interviews, phone calls, etc.).
A 4-point Likert scale was used to provide a forced-choice response and eliminate the neutral
response of “neither agree or disagree” so that the research team could determine the
respondent’s definite response (Fink, 2013). Quantitative data allows for numerical data analysis
and assessment of amount of evidence (Maxwell, 2013). For example, surveys yield quantitative
description of perception, attitudes, or opinions of a population by studying a sample of the
population (Creswell, 2008). In other words, quantitative methods provide quantitative evidence
to test and support claims.
Validity
Validity, or credibility and trustworthiness, in qualitative research is how true the
conclusion is to the data while validity in quantitative research is how well a test measures what
it set out to measure. Maxwell (2013) stated that validity depends on the conclusion’s
connectedness to reality. Merriam (2009) explained that validity in qualitative research is
different from quantitative research in that the conclusion reached in qualitative research must
make sense provided the detail of the study. Creswell (2008) explained that validity in
quantitative studies has to do with accuracy of the interpretation of the data and when both
validity and reliability or repeatability is high, the study is considered strong.
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 49
To ensure credibility and trustworthiness, data collected were used to support the
assertions. To ensure quality data, interviews were recorded and transcribed word by word. The
transcripts were thoroughly examined and coded on the columns while constantly referring back
to the research questions to maintain focus. To ensure reliability or repeatability, a large sample
of 34 survey results were collected throughout the local districts.
While not all performance validity checks could be performed, triangulation of collecting
data from interviews of both principals, assistant principals, and superintendents were used in
conjunction to the survey data from the new administrators. Maxwell (2013) explained that
while triangulation does not automatically increase validity, if variety is applied, it can improve
the credibility.
LeCompte and Preissle (1993) pointed out four factors that a researcher should consider
to support the claim of high internal validity. Among the four factors, they identified
“participant observation” as a key data source that should be utilized to gain a better perspective
on respondent experiences. They argued that participant observation should be conducted in
natural settings that reflect the normal experiences of the participant. As a result, interviews for
this study were conducted in settings that were natural to the respondents. Interviews were
conducted at the respondent’s place of employment in their office at either their office desk or a
conference table. The validity, however, of an interview relies on whether the interviewee is
willing to tell the truth or not. By using interview data in the participants’ natural setting,
findings gain greater validity (Maxwell, 2013).
Glesne and Peshkin (1992) pointed out that participants have every right to expect that
“when they give you permission to observe and interview, you will protect their confidences and
preserve their anonymity” (p. 117). To assure interview respondents that all information
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 50
collected would be kept confidential, the interview protocol was designed to be anonymous. No
identifiable data, such as names or addresses, were collected either in the surveys or in the
interviews.
Data Collection
It is important to gather accurate data from the participants of the study. For the online
survey, an initial email introducing the study and an invitation to participate was sent with a link
to the survey (see Appendix A and B). These participants were identified by district personnel.
An introduction was provided in the email to allow participants to understand the nature of the
study and how their participation in such a study would contribute to the continued development
of the profession. Participants were asked to complete the survey within a week from receipt for
timely aggregation of the data received. Data received was reviewed for completion on a routine
basis to determine the level of participation and the amount of data received. The final question
on the survey was an invitation to participate in a follow-up interview.
Once there were sufficient responses, the research team looked at which participants
volunteered for the interview. The interview protocol for the new administrators (see Appendix
C) and for superintendents (see Appendix D) outlined the main questions that would be asked,
but it was semi-structured so that the interviewer could probe for more information as needed.
Merriam (2009) and Lichtman (2014) recommend recording and transcribing the interviews.
Interviews were recorded and notes on significant points that could be related to mentorship were
taken during the process. Upon completion of each interview, the recordings were transcribed.
After completion of the transcription of interviews, the data was disaggregated through a coding
process.
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 51
Data Analysis
The key phrases that could be related to specific mentoring process or theories were
coded and analyzed for the purposes of transforming the collected data into findings (Merriam,
2014). As Strauss (1987) pointed out, the goal of coding is not necessarily to count things but to
fracture them into categories that facilitate comparison. Codes were created based on recurring
themes that emerged from the transcriptions. The researchers employed a coding strategy by
segmenting responses into categories and labeling each category with a code or theme (Merriam,
2009).
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 52
CHAPTER FOUR: THE FINDINGS
This dissertation is part of a collaborative project with two other doctoral candidates,
Suena Chang (2016) and Donald Rafter (2016). We three doctoral students studied the need and
importance of mentorship programs for new administrators. However, the process for dissecting
and resolving the problem was too large for a single dissertation, however, parts of this chapter
will have similar data resulting from the study. As a result, the three dissertations produced by
our inquiry team collectively address the need for new administrator mentorship program.
Background
This chapter provides an analysis of data collected from the current study which sought to
discover what methods administrators who are new to their positions use to cope with their ever-
evolving roles and the vast amounts of responsibilities associated with a position in educational
administration. The findings resulted from a mixed-method study and were comprised of semi-
structured interviews of one superintendents from southern California school districts, three
secondary school administrators at comprehensive high schools with three years or less of
experience, and thirty-four respondents who completed an online survey. The research questions
sought to determine whether mentorship, either formal or informal, was beneficial to new
administrators, and if so, how it was beneficial. This study included school administrators who
were new to administration, as well as, experienced administrators who were currently in new
administrative positions.
Guiding Questions
Interviews and surveys were designed to align with the following research questions:
1. What coping methods do new school administrators use to deal with the vast amounts of
responsibilities they encounter?
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 53
2. Which of these coping methods worked best for them?
3. What is the new administrators’ perception of formal or informal mentoring in fulfilling
their responsibilities as secondary administrators?
4. How are the skillsets that are developed through formal or informal mentoring for new
administrators beneficial in fulfilling their responsibilities?
Research
Demographics of Organizations
In this study, new assistant principals and principals from conventional high schools were
interviewed and surveyed. These high schools were located in the following counties: Los
Angeles County, Orange County, and Riverside County. Administrative staff that oversaw the
high schools of those administrators that participated within the survey and interview
varied from one to eight people. The most common administrative team at these conventional
high schools was four which consisted of 32% of the schools. The population of these
conventional high schools ranged from under a 1000 students to more than 3000 students with
the most common school size being between 2001 to 3000 students as indicated by 35% of the
participants.
Four people were interviewed and included one superintendent and three assistant
principals from three local districts. The interview participants were representative of southern
California suburban districts and schools. Demographics and characteristics for the districts and
schools from which the interview participants represented was acquired from the Ed-Data 2013-
2015 profile.
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 54
Demographics of Survey Participants
Personal characteristics. The average participant in this study was a White male in
their early 40s. The great majority of the participants identified their racial background as that of
White as shown by 74% of those surveyed and 66% of the superintendents in Table 1 and 2.
Table 1
Survey Participants by Ethnicity
Ethnicity Number of Participants Percent of Participants
Asian 4 12
Hispanic or Latino
6
18
White (not Hispanic or
Latino)
25
74
Other 1 3
There were significantly greater percentage of male administrators compared to
female counterparts in the survey and interview sample as can be seen in Table 2. In the
survey of 34 and interview of four participants, there were 56% male survey participants
and 75% male interview participants, respectively.
Moreover, the age range of the participants varied from below 30 years of age to 55 years
of age, as shown in Table 3 and 4. Of the survey participants, 30% were between 41 and 45
years, 24% were between 31 and 35 years, and 21% were between 36 and 40 years of age. The
age of the superintendents ranged from 48 to 60 years of age.
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 55
Table 2
Survey Participants: Gender
Gender Number of Participants Percent of Participants
Female
15
44
Male
19
56
Table 3
Survey Participants by Age Group
Age Group Number of Participants Percent of Participants
Undisclosed Age
30 years or younger
1
1
2
2
31 – 35 8 24
36 – 40 7 21
41 – 45 10 30
46 – 50 5 15
51 – 55 2 6
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 56
Table 4
Survey Participants by Experience in Education
Years in Education Number of Participants Percent of Participants
1 – 5 1 3
6 – 10 4 12
11 – 15 16 47
16 – 20 6 18
21 – 25 3 9
26 – 30 3 9
31+ 1 3
Professional characteristics. Many of the administrators were veterans in
education. Table 4 shows that 47% of the participants had 11-15 years of experience in
education and a total of 86% of the participants (including the superintendent) had more
than 11 years of experience. The education level of the participants varied (see Table 5).
The highest level of education attainment possessed by the survey participants ranged
from 53% with a master’s degree, 15% currently taking courses towards their doctorate
degree, and 23% of them had their doctorate degree in education.
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 57
Table 5
Survey Participants: Highest Level of Education
Level of Education Number of Participants Percent of Participants
BA or BS
1
3
MA 18 53
Doctorate in Progress 5 15
Ed.D.
8
23
Other
2 6
Description of Interview Participants
In this study, one superintendent and three administrators in either principal or assistant
principal positions from conventional high schools located in the counties of Los Angeles
County, Orange County, and Riverside County were interviewed. A description of interview
participants provides insights to those administrators who participated in this study.
Superintendent R is a Caucasian male superintendent in his early 60s who oversees a
school district. There are six elementary schools, one middle school, one high school, and one
continuation school in the district which serves approximately 6,000 students (EdData, 2014).
Superintendent R has served as the superintendent for seven years. Prior to serving as the district
superintendent, Superintendent R held numerous positions within the education system. He held
positions as follows: Assistant Superintendent of Business in the same district as his current
superintendent role, Assistant Superintendent of Elementary Education, Director of Human
Resources, middle school principal at two different times, activities director, athletic director,
teacher and a coach. Each of the positions held gave Superintendent R valuable experience from
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 58
which he gained insight on the inner workings of the education system. Superintendent R is
retiring at the end of the current school year and plans to continue working with the Association
of California School Administrators as they develop mentoring programs for administrators at
various levels of school leadership.
Administrator C is an Asian female who is in her mid-30s. She has been in education
since 2005 where she began her career as a long-term substitute teacher at the middle school
level. After achieving a single subject credential, she moved to the high school level where she
remained for four years. After four years she moved districts to take a position as an English
Language Coordinator. She remained in that position for two years before taking a position as
an Assistant Principal at a conventional high school. She has continued as a high school
assistant principal and has currently began her third year in the position. Her current position is
at a conventional high school that serves 2,554 students (EdData, 2014). The student population
is diverse with 34% of the students identifying as Asian, 31% identifying as Caucasian, 28%
identifying as Hispanic while approximately 7% of the students identify in other ethnic
categories (EdData, 2014). Under the accountability system of standardized testing, the high
school earned an 886 on the annual performance index.
Administrator E is a Caucasian female who is her mid-30s. She has been in education
since 2007 where she began her career as a high school English teacher. After teaching English
for three years, she took on the role of the Gifted and Talented Education Coordinator which she
did for several years before becoming a Teacher on Special Assignment (TOSA) as the
Coordinator for the high school she currently was employed as a teacher. In the role of TOSA,
she was working to achieve accreditation under the Western Association of Schools and Colleges
for her high school. After spending two years in this position, she moved to another district
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 59
where she took on the position of Assistant Principal. Her current position is at a conventional
high school that serves 2,617 students (EdData, 2014). The student population is diverse with
48% of the students identifying as Caucasian, 41% identifying as Hispanic, 6% identifying as
Asian while approximately 5% of the students identify in other ethnic categories (EdData, 2014).
Under the accountability system of standardized testing, the high school earned an 878 on the
annual performance index.
Administrator T is an Asian male who is in his mid to late thirties. He has been in
education since 2001 where he began his career on an emergency credential teaching middle
school science. He remained at the middle school level teaching science and Television Media,
until the time he was a Teacher on Special Assignment (TOSA) overseeing leadership and
activities. After this position, he moves to another middle school science position before
becoming a Director of Associated Study Body and Activities at a high school where he
remained for five years. After this position, he was promoted to an Assistant Principal at a
conventional high school. The high school serves a 3,490 student population (EdData, 2014).
The student population is diverse with 65% of the students identifying as Asian, 14% identifying
as Hispanic, 16% identifying as Caucasian while approximately 5% of the students identify in
other ethnic categories (EdData, 2014). Under the accountability system of standardized testing,
the high school earned an 893 on the annual performance index.
Table 6 provides a brief overview of the demographics of the superintendent and
administrators that participated as interviewees as part of this study.
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 60
Table 6
Interview Participants at a Glance: Key Characteristics
Participant
~Age/Sex/Ed
Experience
Other
Characteristics
Sup R 60/M/Ed.D. Superintendent –
7 yrs
Asst. Sup. Business
– 2 yrs
Director HR –
2 yrs
MS Principal –
5 yrs
Served as Activities
and Athletic Director
Admin C 30/F/Ed.D. HS Asst. Principal
– 2 yrs
Served as English
Language
Coordinator
Admin E 30/F/MA HS Asst. Principal
– 2 yrs
Served as TOSA-
WASC Coordinator,
GATE Coordinator
Admin T 35+/M/Ed.D.
in progress
HS Asst. Principal
– 3 yrs
Served as HS
Activities Director,
ASB Advisor
Process for Gathering Data
Survey Data
A mixed-method approach was used in analyzing the quantitative and qualitative data
which was collected in an attempt to better triangulate the data and generate more reliable
conclusions. The data was analyzed and interpreted using triangulation where several data
sources are collected in an attempt to substantiate the findings (Merriam, 2009). Quantitative
data was collected through the use of an online survey tool which was distributed to 120
administrators in the southern California region. Table 7 reflects the response rate of 31% of the
people invited to participate with the survey as well as those who responded. In the survey,
respondents were immediately asked to identify years of experience. Respondents who stated
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 61
that they had three years or less in their current administrative position were allowed to continue
the survey, while those who stated they had four or more years were not permitted to continue
the survey. There were 34 respondents who met the criteria of having three or fewer years in an
administrative position at the secondary level. In order to ensure confidentiality and illicit honest
responses, names of respondents were not collected so that responses could not be traced back
the person who issued them.
Table 7
Survey Participants: Response Rate
Position Held No. Invited to Respond No. Participated % Participated
Administrators 120 34 31
Interview Data
Qualitative data was collected from this study which was conducted in a semi-structured
format. This format allowed the participants opportunities to expand on information or data,
along with the ability for the researcher to ask more probing or in-depth questions when
necessary for understanding. Participants of the qualitative component of this study were
solicited through participation in the survey or through professional networks. One
superintendent was interviewed to provide insight into an educational setting as a whole along
with providing insight to mentorship through personal or professional experiences. Three
administrators in roles of assistant principals who had three years or less experience were
interviewed for their insights to informal or formal mentorship in their new administrative roles.
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 62
Research Question 1: What coping methods do new school administrators use to deal with
the vast amounts of responsibilities they encounter?
Findings: Survey Responses
Darling-Hammond, Orphanos et. al. (2007) stated that leaders are now required to be able
to balance competing interests coming from all participants in the school community; therefore,
the importance of establishing coping methods for new administrators in the educational
community is needed now more than ever. The coping methods that were discovered through
this research study demonstrated that all survey participants valued the need for coping methods.
The survey results noted that the coping methods mentioned by participants were categorized
into six particular areas to include: delegating, professional networking, time management,
professional skills, outside-of-work support, and mentoring as noted in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Coping Methods: Identified by Survey Participants
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 63
The participants further categorized these generalized areas into specific noted categories
which are further discussed from the perspective of the survey participants. The first noted area
was that of the delegation of tasks and duties. This area can be broad in concept but survey
participants were able to isolate the areas of delegation that would specifically strengthen the role
of an administrator by allowing others to do the jobs they were hired for. One survey participant
noted the importance of delegating as stated, “I do my best not to intervene in the work being
carried out by assistant principals and counselors; they are licensed and qualified to make
decisions.” This statement further exudes the importance of delegating and trusting those that
work within the education system to do the jobs they are assigned. By recognizing and allowing
this process new administrators are then able to focus on the tasks assigned to the position.
Another coping skill that was specifically identified was the ability to access professional
networks which provide the ability for new administrators to perform their assigned tasks with
insight and guidance. As one survey participant highlighted, this specific coping skill as
necessary to perform the duties and roles of an administrative position noted, “Relying on the
administrative team for advice and guidance, bounce ideas off of, vent,” was the way by which
the duties and roles were able to be completed. Another survey participant mentioned techniques
that proved useful as an educational administrator include, “Venting to the other administrator,”
which was noted as one of the most important coping skills a new administrator could have.
This venting was mentioned by multiple survey participants as well as noted in the 2013 study
conducted by MetLife Survey of American Teachers. This study noted that principals felt “their
jobs had become too complex” as well as “feeling under a great deal of stress” which leads to the
need for having a professional network of those ingrained in the same role and position
(Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, 2013, para. 5). Further suggesting that relationships
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 64
with those that you are able to confide in and seek advice from professional networks as stated
by a survey participant “and so from that perspective, I think the relationships you maintain is
probably the best coping mechanism because you get really good advice on how to deal with
those problems.” Many of the interview participants mentioned similar notions of building
professional relationships that allow new administrators to have a person to confide in.
Another coping skill specifically mentioned by survey participants was the skill to ensure
proper time management. Time management was noted as being necessary as a new
administrator to ensure all tasks of the job are completed. However, it was also noted that time
management was more often learned through experience and time in the position as noted by one
survey participant, “I've become more organized and I have better time management.” Many of
the participants listed a variety of statements that refer to time management such as: blocking
calendar time, setting up schedules ahead of time, and creating a list of to-dos for each day.
Of the coping methods previously mentioned, the next common theme that emerged from
the survey participant responses was the need for professional skills. While some of these skills
are brought by the participants when they take the job, some of the skills are developed on the
job as needed. An example of professional skills developed while on-the-job as stated by one
survey participant, “Slowing down, listening more, researching solutions, asking a lot of
questions, ‘solution focused counseling,’ are all necessary to be successful in educational
administration.” Another survey participant stated that one of most needed professional skills
was that of learning not to be reactionary, allowing for processing time and decisions on best
choices. As stated by Daresh (2004), novices gain confidence as they develop their professional
abilities as they develop their skills and abilities. Along with the development of professional
skills, survey participants also noted the importance of outside-of-work supports. These supports
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 65
varied from accessing exercise, building a supportive home family-friend structure as well as
creating necessary resources that create quality time away from work. One survey participant
noted the importance of balance stating, “Balance: family, person, spiritual, and work.
The last theme to emerge from the survey responses was the need for mentoring.
Mentoring was noted as being done both in the formal and informal capacity, however, the more
common of the two was noted as the informal process. Survey participants referenced many
opportunities for this mentoring process such as the following: receiving guidance and advice,
support when needed, someone to consult with when needed, and accessing networks such as
those found through the University of Southern California education program.
Findings: Interviews
Common themes regarding coping methods emerged from the survey participants results
which were also evident within the interview results. The interviewees mentioned the coping
methods categorized into the same six areas noted as: delegating, professional networking, time
management, professional skills, outside-of-work support, and mentoring. As stated by
Administrator T, encompassed many of the coping methods that were mentioned with the
following statement, “I worked very closely with the principals to plan student events and the
middle school and the high school levels. The principals gave me full access to themselves. We
had a lot of candid conversations.”
The belief that educational administration requires a balance of all the coping methods
mentioned and that without the proper balance of all six categories work is stressful and can feel
overwhelming at times. Therefore, the ability as a leader to recognize the importance of balance
was noted by all three of the interviewed participants.
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 66
Professional networks were also mentioned as essential to administrators allowing the
ability to speak to someone who has been in the same position who possesses knowledge and
insight to how to do the job successfully. This idea was best said in the statement made by
Administrator E as stated,
Each one of them have been helpful and a lot of times it’s just kind of the venting of
talking about what is happening and getting some feedback from them of what they
would do in a situation like that.
Superintendent R further elaborated on the importance of coping skills and access to a
professional network as an administrator as the following stated,
Trust is built brick by brick and comes down in one fell swoop. You have to build trust
over time and one indiscretion can annihilate that trust for quite some time until it is
again built back up brick by brick.
Administrator C stated,
Mentors have provided me guidance when it comes to my career paths through mentoring
in interview strategies and other necessary tools as an administrator. They have also
mentored me in how to become more involved in the job with more a work smarter not
harder.
The categories of coping skills that emerged from the survey and interviews regarding the
need to adapt into the administrative role are considered necessary tools for success. The survey
and interview participants reflected on coping skills and clearly defined the importance of
understanding how to access and utilize such skills.
Summary
Both survey and interview participants mentioned coping skills as being necessary in the
role as an educational leader which eludes to the very changing job requirements of such a
position. Role changes have led to increased pressures requiring skills necessary to be successful
(Pounder and Merrill, 2001; Whan and Thomas, 1996). Survey and interview participants shared
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 67
varying degrees and ways of coping, however, a common theme emerged as having a person or
persons that can be utilized to develop such coping skills.
Research Question 2: Which of these coping methods worked best for them?
Findings: Survey Responses
The survey results noted that many 35.5% of the participants felt that their current coping
skills were very effective while 51.6% felt that their coping skills could improve (see Figure 2).
Figure 2: Effectiveness of Current Coping Methods: Survey Participants
The data reflects that there are areas for growth with regard to coping skills as not all participants
believed their coping skills to be very effective.
After the surveys were conducted there were six categories that emerged as necessary
coping methods for new administrators. Of these six categories there mixed results as to what
worked best for the survey participants, however, outside of work was noted by 13 survey
11
16
4
0
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
Very Effective Effective Somewhat Effective Not effective
Effectiveness of Current Coping Methods
Survey Participants
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 68
participants was noted as an important coping skill. One survey participant noted the following,
“Find balance with personal interests.” Another participant noted, “Keep off time sacred,” while
another stated, “Family support” is necessary. All the mentioned statements identified the
importance of utilizing outside-of-work support and time as necessary to be successful in the role
of an administrator.
Another identified coping method as important was professional skills. Some of these
skills were identified as already having when taking the job, while some were acquired while on
the job. Therefore, this is where the merge between self-acquired skills and those skills that were
developed through a mentoring process were noted as important skills for all administrators.
One survey participant noted the following, “Asking people at other school sites and asking
colleagues in the doctoral program,” are important opportunities to see how the people who
already possess the coping skills to be successful and will provide a new administrator the
insight to develop such skills. Another survey participant also noted the importance of
understanding when you must seek out help as well as when you can go it alone. “Being
surrounded by like-minded administrators,” was also noted by a survey participant as being a
strong coping skill.
Professional skills acquired through mentoring were also noted as being as important to
acquiring coping skills to be successful in educational administration. One survey participant
noted that support from mentors was necessary while another noted the importance of
conversations with colleagues to develop processes for coping with the stresses of the job.
Networking with others, professional resources, mentoring. Another survey participant noted
that informal mentoring through processes like the University of Southern California network
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 69
provided opportunities to grow as a leader as well as to gain access to opportunities far beyond
one's school site or district.
Time management was also noted as an important coping skill because the job can
naturally lead to far too many hours at work and not enough time away. Therefore, one survey
participant noted the importance of leaving work at work and that checking one more e-mail will
not substantially change the amount of work time the next day, so the e-mail can wait. Also, it
was suggested by one survey participant that sometimes just slowing down is important.
Findings: Interviews
The findings resulting from the interviews regarding the most important coping skills
were not as diverse. Interview participants noted that coping skills were necessary in educational
administration, but noted that many times these coping skills were acquired from professional
networks and mentoring. Professional networks and mentoring allowed interviewees to have a
person who has been in the same position and built experience to help guide the decisions
process of new administrators. Administrator C noted the importance of a mentor, “The most
beneficial part of having a mentor is when they ask you how you are doing while they continue
to coach and guide you in the administrative process.” Administrator E also noted the
importance of a mentor with regards to acquiring coping skills within the position of
administrator:
I think just the just being there. I mean it’s the hours are difficult the amount time and
energy that it takes to get the job done is difficult. So I think it is just kind of the
emotional support more than anything else. Somebody that understands what it feels like
and what I am going through and so even just having somebody’s ear I think is really
helpful.
Another coping skill that was mentioned during the interviews and was considered
important was often acquired through the informal mentoring process. This process developed
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 70
professional skills with the ability to listen clearly and precisely. Administrator T noted, “I
found the conversation to be fruitful and beneficial but not the actual formalized mentorship
programs.” While Administrator C noted the importance of skills acquired through mentor
relationships, “Mentors have provided me guidance when it comes to my career paths through
mentoring in interview strategies and other necessary tools as an administrator.”
Summary
Coping skills identified through the survey participant’s data along with the transcripts of
the interviews reflected many of the same skills with a slight variance between the survey and
the interview participants. The survey participants noted the importance of outside-of-work
support as a necessary coping skill for success within a new administrative position. While the
interview participants did not specifically mention such skills, but eluded to the concept
throughout various statements made during the interviews. Both the survey and interview
participants noted that time management and professional skills to include mentoring were
important coping skills necessary for success. Professional skills and mentoring intertwined with
regard to how such skills were acquired as well as how they developed while on the job.
Research Question 3: What are the new administrators’ perception of formal or informal
mentoring in fulfilling their responsibilities as secondary administrators?
Findings: Survey Responses
Survey participants noted throughout the conduction of the survey that mentorship was
beneficial when in a new administrative role. Participation in a mentorship process whether
formal or informal as noted by Darling-Hammond, LaPointe et al. (2007) tends to make the
participant more positive and strongly committed to their job. Therefore, 91.2% of survey
participants noted they believed that having a mentor in the first few years of an administrative
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 71
position was important. This data is further reflected whereby, no survey participants noted
believe that mentoring was not important (see Figure 3).
Figure 3: Importance of Mentorship: Survey Participants
Examining further the survey results noted that 88.2% of survey participants have had an
experience with a mentor related to his or her current position. However, 11.8% of the survey
participants noted they have not had either a mentor or experience with a mentor in their current
positon. This data referenced informal and formal mentors (see Table 8).
31
1
2
0
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Very Important Important Somewhat Iimportant Not Important
Importance of Mentorship
Survey Participants
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 72
Table 8
Format of Mentorship: Survey Participants
# of Participants Percent of Participants
Very Informal/Unstructured 20 58.8
8 23.5
6 17.6
Very Formal/Structured
Survey participants responded to the format of mentorship by which they participated as
being either formal or informal. Formal, structured mentorship was not noted by any participant,
while 58.8% of survey participants noted they had participated within a very informal or
unstructured mentor process. Further, elaborating on the mentorship with which each survey
participant received was the concept that through the mentorship process skills were developed
or acquired that would not have be developed otherwise. Survey participants were asked to rate
how their leadership skills were developed through a mentorship process. Table 9 shows the
results indicated that 44.1% of those who participated believed the mentorship that they received
helped to develop their leadership skills while 2.9% believed the mentorship had not helped to
develop such skills
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 73
Table 9
Leadership Skills Developed through Mentorship: Survey Participants
Level of Mentorship
Number of
Participants Percent of Participants
Not at all
1
2.9
8
23.5
10 29.4
Very Much 15 44.1
Examining the time necessary to develop such leadership skills was also explored with
regards to participation in a mentorship process. As noted by Parylo et al. (2012), time spent
with a mentor and the time spent to develop necessary leadership skills is invaluable as an
educational leader, and these same views were noted in the results of the survey. Table 10 shows
survey participants noted that while 20.6% believed the time spent with his or her mentor was
more than enough to build these leadership skills, 44.1% of survey participants believed that
more time could be spent, while 35.3% believed that they had not spent enough time with their
mentor.
Further expanding that time was important to the mentorship process, survey participants
were asked the ideal frequency for meeting with their mentor. This frequency ranged from 8.8%
of participants stated daily was the required frequency, while 17.6% preferred a couple days a
week. The majority of survey participants with 44.1% choosing weekly meetings with a mentor
as the ideal frequency. Overall, the survey participants were asked was the mentorship
relationship a positive experience and 61.8% noted that it was a very positive experience while
no survey participants noted that it was not a positive experience.
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 74
Table 10
Time Spent with Mentor: Survey Participants
Time Spent
Number of
Participants Percent of Participants
Not Enough Time
5
14.7
7
20.6
15
44.1
More Than Enough
Time 7 20.6
Further expanding on the concept of how important a mentor relationship is to the survey
participants, 29.4% noted that the relationship with mentors was very important while 20.6% felt
the mentorship was important as shown in Table 11. This data reflects that 50% of the survey
participants noted that the mentor relationship was important while in a new administrative role.
However, it should be noted that the other 50% of the survey participants also reflected that this
relationship was not important while in a new administrative role.
Table 11
Mentorship Relationship: Survey Participants
Level of Importance
Number of
Participants Percent of Participants
Not Important 9 26.5
8 23.5
7 20.6
Very Important 10 29.4
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 75
Findings: Interviews
Interview participants responded with similar results when compared to the data obtained
from survey participants. The responses were categorized into categories like that of the survey
results as follows: reflection, leadership skills and professional knowledge. While the
perspectives were slightly different than those of the survey participants, the interview
participants reflected on their experiences within a formal or informal mentorship program.
Administrator E stated that the ability to reflect on practices was further promoted
through her mentor relationship. She explained this reflection, “I would have probably made
some mistakes along the way if I hadn’t had somebody saying like this is really what you need to
think about when you’re doing this.” A similar belief was reported by Administrator C who
stated, “The most beneficial part of having a mentor is when they ask you how you are doing
while they continue to coach and guide you in the administrative process.”
This statement further reflects the importance of taking the time to reflect on practices as
an educational leader and through a mentorship relationship, reflection becomes a powerful tool
in assessing and developing leadership skills. This reflection was further reiterated by
Superintendent R as stated,
That was a self-awareness, and mold a better reflection. She basically turned the mirror
on me and allowed me to see what my behavior was doing to others. After that point in
time, lo and behold, when I practiced what I thought I needed to do, the group valued my
opinion more.
The importance of reflection was overall valued as a necessary process that is developed
from the mentorship relationship, but is more evident in those informal mentorships where
participants focused on open communication as a means for developing leadership growth.
The next theme that emerged out of the interview data was the leadership skills that
further developed as part of the process of informal and formal mentorship. Interview
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 76
participants noted that these leadership skills were developed from the shared experiences that
were shared through mentorship. Some of these skills were spoken about in the administrative
leadership programs, however, the interview participants noted that the skills being applied
through shared experiences is what further developed these skills.
Superintendent R noted that the importance of developing leadership skills, especially in
smaller districts is necessary to ensure that administrators continue to develop their skills. He
stated,
At some point in time in a smaller district, it will be important for the superintendent to
be freed of whatever tasks would take them away from the time they need of being a
mentor if they have the skills, they have the background knowledge with their folks.
Administrator C noted that one such leadership skill that was developed through the mentor
process was the ability to prioritize work and focus on accomplishing the tasks at hand. She
stated, “They have also mentored me in how to become more involved in the job with more a
work smarter not harder,” approach. This approach was introduced and developed through the
mentorship process, but found it was fostered more through the informal mentorships she had
experienced. Administrator E also noted that these skills were developed through her
participation in the informal mentorship process, “The most useful thing for me going in was
actually having somebody who has completely willing to just open his office to me.” This belief
was further stated by Administrator T, “I also get a lot of advice from them on how to handle
situations prior to becoming a negative situation.” He further expanded that this is a leadership
skill that was developed informally with his mentor’s guidance. The mentor’s guidance provided
insight with regard to handling situations when they are manageable before the situation has
grown beyond your ability to control.
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 77
The final theme that emerged from the interview responses was the development of
professional knowledge through mentorships. This was noted as providing more knowledge
more often through informal means consisting of conversations and open feedback.
Administrator E stated, “I get a lot of feedback, kind of on a daily basis of just ways of thinking
about the work that we are doing and things I should probably consider before making any kind
of special moves.”
This was the knowledge that was believed to be most beneficial through participation in
mentorship practices. Administrator T further stated, “When they are candid with me in terms of
their struggles and their past experiences.” These are the experiences that the interview
participants noted were one of the most beneficial aspects of the participation within a
mentorship process. Superintendent R further elaborated on the benefits of building professional
knowledge through mentorship processes, especially if funding was not a barrier to such a
possibility. He stated the following,
So without a limit on resources, obviously more time and money for people to be able to
chat, less task to the people are going to be charged with being a mentor so they can
actually help manage their people, manage their own personal growth, have healthy
conversations about personal strengths and weaknesses and then developing plans and
experiences where people can do that.
Summary
Survey and interview participants shared similar experiences with regards to the benefits
of participating in either a formal or informal mentorship process. Results indicated that the
benefits were categorized into broad categories that were further elaborated on through specific
reflections and statements. These categories demonstrated the importance of the relationships
and skills developed through mentorship processes, however, further indicated that the majority
of experiences were developed through informal mentorship processes. The limited participation
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 78
of both survey and interview participants in a formal mentorship process contributed to limited
data reflecting on such a process.
Research Question 4: How are the skill sets that are developed through formal or informal
mentoring for new administrators beneficial in fulfilling their responsibilities?
Findings: Survey Responses
Survey participants were asked a variety of questions with regards to the skill sets that
were developed through a mentoring program. Many areas were listed as survey participants felt
they had developed as a result of mentorship. Figure 4 reflects such skills.
Figure 4: Areas Developed through Mentorship: Survey Participants
While many areas were noted by survey participants as being developed through a
mentorship, the most noted area was that of encouragement and support. Thirty-one survey
28
26
17
5
31
21
18
22
2
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Areas Developed
Survey Participants
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 79
participants, or 91.2% of all responses, noted that encouragement and support was an area that
was developed as part of the process of mentorship. This was followed by learning the tricks of
the trade with 82.4% of survey participants noting it as an area developed. These areas are not
clearly defined skills that can be learned in class, but through experiences. In Browne-
Ferrigno and Muth’s study (2004), survey participants of the programs studied cited
the encouragement and support from their sponsors as the most important influence in program
engagement and in seeking principalship. This belief was further confirmed by 91.2% of survey
participants that noted the importance of such a relationship (see Table 12).
Table 12
Importance of Mentor to a New Administrator: Survey Participants
Level of Importance
Number of
Participants Percent of Participants
Not Important
2
5.9
1
2.9
Very Important
31
91.2
Other skillsets that were developed as part of the mentorship were also explored through
the conduction of the survey. There were many answers that were provided, however, the
skillsets could be categorized into three main categories. These categories are as follows:
reflection processes, leadership skills, and professional knowledge
The first category of skillsets developed through a mentorship was that of reflection. One
survey participant stated, “My mentors have provided me the opportunity to think through
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 80
various situations and recognize the benefits and pitfalls of each action, choice.” This statement
defines the importance of mentorships developing skillsets that are necessary when making
choices and decisions such as reflection. Reflections were also noted by one survey participant
as an opportunity to gain perspective, especially when you have someone with experience to
guide you.
Another skillset developed through mentorship was leadership skills. While all new
administrators have completed an administrative program, an opportunity for hands-on
experience is beneficial when developing leadership skillsets. One survey participated stated,
“Mentorship taught me how to lead others, develop trust, and loyalty.” This further substantiates
the leadership skills that are acquired from a mentorship experience that are not learned in a
traditional classroom setting. Through mentorships new administrators are able to acquire such
skills from someone who has been in the same position and therefore, the mentors bring the
experience and knowledge that is acquired through real-world experience. This result further
substantiates the findings of Mertz (2004) when stated that mentorship programs provide the
opportunity to provide the real-world experiences for those administrators who have already
experienced the aspects of the position.
Professional knowledge was another common theme that emerged from the survey data.
This knowledge was content that was taught from those that had been in the field and practicing
the leadership skills necessary for an educational leader. A survey participant noted the
following with regards to mentorship, “Learning when and how to address issues,” is a necessary
skill that is developed and strengthened through the mentorship process. This statement
validates research that stated that novices gain confidence about their professional abilities
through their daily interactions within their learning community known as mentorship (Daresh,
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 81
2004). Another survey participant noted the importance of professional knowledge as bringing
about an awareness of the system that would not have existed if not for participating in a
mentorship process.
Findings: Interviews
Interview responses on the benefits of developed skillsets through mentoring was similar
to the survey results with regards to the responses. Interview participants noted that the skills
developed were beneficial as they would not have been acquired by other means without the
exposure to the mentorship process. Administrator E stated,
I think the more technical side of the jobs, so like coming up on things that I hadn’t been
able to experience before. I think my first suspension. I had never suspended a kid
before and it was purely through being, I mean I was literally walked through it.
She further stated that she felt this was the dummy’s guide to suspension and that she would not
have had the working knowledge that she developed without the mentor process that took place
to build such skills. This belief that skills acquired and developed through the mentorship
process was also reiterated when she stated, “Mentors have provided me guidance when it comes
to my career paths through mentoring in interview strategies and other necessary tools as an
administrator.”
Superintendent R stated the benefits of increasing skillsets through mentorship when he
stated,
I see what’s in him that can be developed into something else. He may not see it in
himself yet but I'm willing to invest in him to let him see what he can become to
make my team more successful, basically working myself out of a job as the mentor.
That’s the golden goal.
He further stated the goal of mentorship and the development of skillsets for new
administrators is to create leaders that feel confident in their skillsets and decision making skills.
He stated, “It is that, when you no longer need me, then my work is done.” This belief in
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 82
developing skillsets was further stated by Administrator C when she stated, “The importance of
mentorship is while you won’t always have all the answers, knowing who to access who does is
important.” Therefore, it was further stated that skillsets are important, but another component
that comprises a very valuable skillset is the ability to access those mentors who have the
answers or experiences to support your decision making process. Administrator T also noted one
of the most important skillsets developed as part of the mentorship process was knowing when it
is time to ask more questions as well as when talking should stop and listening should become
the focus. He also noted that sometimes responding less was the most important skill he learned
by his participation in mentorship.
Summary
Both the survey and interview participants noted similar reflections with regard to the
importance of developed skillsets through mentorship. It was noted that skills are often
introduced in leadership programs, but real-world applications were limited. Therefore, it was
stated that through mentorship processes and relationships, these skills could become the focus
of hands-on applications. They also stated that through the ability of accessing mentors with
real-world experiences to reflect on the knowledge obtained was truly reflective of successful
leaders.
Reflection on Findings
In reflection of the study that was conducted there were many patterns that emerged. The
first research question sought to determine what coping methods new administrators used to
handle the vast amount of responsibilities. The data that emerged from the survey was that
coping skills were defined into six categories including; delegating, professional networking,
time management, professional skills, outside-of-work support, and mentoring. The survey
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 83
participants noted the coping skills that were described as reflecting one of the six categories. As
for the data of the interview participants, there were similar findings, however, all six categories
were not as heavily focused on within the results.
The second research question focused on what coping skill worked best for the
participants of the study. The survey participants reflected that outside-of-work support,
professional skills, time management, and mentoring were the most important coping skills. The
results for the interview participants varied slightly in that outside-of-work support and time
management were noted as important coping skills, however, professional skills and mentoring
were considered one in the same. The unexpected result was how many participants within the
survey and interviews viewed outside-of-work supports as one of the most important coping
skills identified. Noteworthy results did indicate that some of the interview participants
considered some of the informal mentors to be part of this outside-of-work support.
Research question three focused on the perceptions of an informal or formal mentorship
program. Both survey and interview participants noted that mentorship was an important tool in
developing new leaders. However, the majority of survey and interview participants noted that
access to a formal mentorship process was not experienced. Mentorship was referred to from the
informal process and participants felt that this process contributed to a greater depth of
knowledge acquired. Therefore, the perception of mentorship was believed to be important, but
was noted that many believed an informal process was the best choice where formal mandates
for mentorship could contribute to limited opportunities.
The final research question set out to explore the skillsets developed through the
mentorship process. Many skillsets were introduced by the survey participants noting the eight
most important skillsets developed. An important finding was that the most important skillset
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 84
developed was encouragement and support. Encouragement and support were noted as
important when participating in a mentorship process as well as the ability to develop this skill
when in the role of an administrator.
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 85
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS
Background
This chapter provides an analysis of data collected from the current study which sought to
discover what methods administrators who are new to their positions use to cope with their ever-
evolving roles and the vast amounts of responsibilities associated with a position in educational
administration. The findings resulted from a mixed-method study and were comprised of semi-
structured interviews of one superintendent from Southern California school districts, three
secondary school administrators at comprehensive high schools with three years or less of
experience, and 34 respondents who completed an online survey. The research questions sought
to determine whether mentorship, either formal or informal, was beneficial to new
administrators, and if so, how it was beneficial. This study included school administrators who
were new to administration, as well as, experienced administrators who were currently in new
administrative positions.
Statement of the Problem
In 2001, “the California Commission on Teacher Credentialing had more than 34,000
people on file with administrative credentials in California – [which was] more than enough to
fill the approximately 23,000” educational leadership positions needed (Bell, 2001, para. 7). Bell
(2001) pointed out that the problem is that “many educators with administrative credentials are
instead seeking administrative work as teacher mentors or curriculum directors, [which are] jobs
that carry less responsibility” (para. 7). California administrators also face a higher pupil to
administrator ratio than the rest of the country. Richard Elmore (2005) explained that school
leaders are asked to assume responsibilities they are largely untrained for, and the consequences
of failure are high for everyone, especially children. Despite the school leaders’ tremendous
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 86
responsibilities, not all new leaders are equipped with the skills necessary to be successful in
dealing with the responsibilities and challenges of the new position. Research shows that these
skills necessary for success can be best taught through the guidance of a mentor through real-life
experiences (Browne-Ferrigno & Muth, 2004; Clarke & Wildy, 2010; Leithwood, Jantzi et al.,
1995; Silver et al., 2009; Thessin & Clayton, 2013).
Purpose of the Study
In order to better understand how to prepare administrators, school administrators were
studied. The purpose of this study was to determine what methods administrators who are new
to their positions use to cope with their ever-evolving roles and the vast amounts of
responsibilities associated with a position in educational administration. This study involved
school administrators who were new to administration, as well as, experienced administrators
who are moved to new positions or unfamiliar settings.
Research Questions
The following questions guided this study:
1. What coping methods do new school administrators use to deal with the vast amounts of
responsibilities they encounter?
2. Which of these coping methods worked best for them?
3. What are the new administrators’ perception of formal or informal mentoring in
fulfilling their responsibilities as secondary administrators?
4. How are the skillsets that are developed through formal or informal mentoring for new
administrators beneficial in fulfilling their responsibilities?
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 87
Methodology
The methodology utilized was a mixed-methods study. A mixed-methods study involves
the combined use of a quantitative and qualitative approach (Creswell, 2008). This study used
surveys to gather responses from a larger sample and triangulated those results with a smaller
sample of educational administrators who were interviewed. The survey results and interviews
were used to triangulate and draw a holistic picture of how new administrators cope in their new
positions. Triangulation allowed for stronger study findings since multiple data has been
incorporated (Creswell, 2008; Johnson, Oweuegbuzie, & Turner, 2007; Westat, 2010).
Findings
Research question one asked, What coping methods do new school administrators use to
deal with the vast amounts of responsibilities they encounter? Both survey and interview
participants mentioned coping skills as being necessary in the role as an educational leader. The
concept of coping skills eludes to the very changing job requirements of an administrative
positions in secondary education positions. Darling-Hammond, Orphanos et al. (2007) stated
that leaders, now more than ever, need to be able to balance competing interests from all parts of
the learning community. The ability to balance competing interests becomes even more pressing
at the secondary level in conventional high schools because of all the community interests that
are involved in leading such a venture. Therefore, the coping skills identified the conduction of
this study were considered one part of this balance being examined to ensure that educational
leaders, especially those identified as being at the secondary level, are able to balance the job
requirements necessary into today’s educational environment.
The MetLife Survey of American Teachers determined that principals felt their jobs had
become more difficult than ever before which in turn resulted in the need for coping skills such
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 88
as those determined through this current study (Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, 2013).
Survey and interview participants shared varying degrees and ways of coping with the stresses of
today’s educational leadership, however, a common theme emerged from this study as a need for
having a person or persons that can be utilized to develop such coping skills. This point is
further supported by the research of John Daresh (2004) who determined that novices gain
confidence as they develop their professional abilities, their development of skills, and abilities.
Skills and abilities were identified as developing through the guidance on real-world experience
and guidance from those who have held the positions previously. Therefore, having a person or
persons to utilize as a ‘go to’ to develop coping skills through real-world experiences allows
novice or new administrators to develop the confidence necessary to cope with the stresses and
requirements of the job as an educational leader.
Research question two asked, Which of these coping methods worked best for
them? Coping skills identified through the survey participant’s data along with the transcripts of
the interviews reflected many of the same skills with a slight variance between the survey and
the interview participants. The survey participants noted the importance of outside-of-work
support as a necessary coping skill for success within a new administrative position. Outside-of-
work support included persons that were not involved in educational leadership as well as those
persons that had developed a friendship outside of the mentor-mentee relationship. Ehrich et al.
(2004) even stated that friendship of the mentors led to positive outcomes for the novice.
Therefore, the survey and research both support the statement that outside-of-work relationships
are important which can even result in friendship which leads to a longer mentorship process that
can transfer from one educational leadership position to another. The interview participants,
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 89
however, did not specifically mention such coping skills, but eluded to the concept throughout
various statements made during the interviews.
Both the survey and interview participants noted that time management and professional
skills including mentoring were important coping skills necessary for success in educational
leadership. Professional skills and mentoring intertwined with regard to how such skills were
acquired as well as how they developed while on the job. Alsbury and Hackmann’s study (2006)
further confirmed that the important part of the mentorship relationship is to develop a
supportive relationship especially through socialization as noted in the interview results.
Research question three asked, What are the new administrators’ perception of formal or
informal mentoring in fulfilling their responsibilities as secondary administrators? Survey and
interview participants shared similar experiences with regards to the benefits of participating in
either a formal or informal mentorship process. Participation in a mentorship process whether
formal or informal as noted by Darling-Hammond, LaPointe et al. (2007) tends to make the
participant more positive and strongly committed to their job. This commitment is a result of
developing skills and experience that further supports the role of an educational leader. Results
of this study further support the belief that through mentorship new administrators are more
committed to their jobs.
The benefits of mentorship as identified through this study were categorized into more
broad categories that were further elaborated on through specific reflections and statements.
These categories demonstrated the importance of the relationships and skills developed through
mentorship processes, however, further indicated that the majority of experiences were
developed through informal mentorship processes. As noted by Parylo et al., (2012), time spent
with a mentor and the time spent to develop necessary leadership skills is invaluable as an
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 90
educational leader, and these same views were noted in the results of the survey. Results from
both the survey and interviews indicated that the overwhelming experiences of those who
participated were within an informal mentorship process that developed through a work
relationship prior to taking a leadership position. The limited participation of both survey and
interview participants in a formal mentorship process contributed to limited data reflecting on
such a process.
Research question four asked, How are the skillsets that are developed through formal or
informal mentoring for new administrators beneficial in fulfilling their responsibilities? Both
the survey and interview participants noted similar reflections with regard to the importance of
developed skillsets through mentorship. In Browne-Ferrigno and Muth’s study (2004), survey
participants of the programs studied cited the encouragement and support from their sponsors as
the most important influence in program engagement and in seeking principalship which further
supports the results of this study. This statement further expands on those statements reflected
by the interview participants as mentorship being a guiding force in his or her success in current
leadership roles.
It was noted in both the survey and interview results that skills are often introduced in
leadership programs, but real-world applications were limited. Therefore, it was stated that
through mentorship processes and relationships, these skills could become the focus of real-
world applications. These real-world applications were stated by the interview participants as
being the skills that supported their roles in leadership positions. Results of this study are further
substantiated by the findings of Mertz (2004) when stated that mentorship programs provide the
opportunity to provide the real-world experiences for those administrators who have already
experienced the aspects of the position. They also stated that through the ability of accessing
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 91
mentors with real-world experiences came the ability reflect on the knowledge obtained as being
truly reflective of successful leaders. Reflection along with the ability to discuss such reflections
was noted by the interview participants as providing the opportunity for growth as an educational
leader. This growth was noted as being the tool necessary to successfully lead in the educational
environment of today’s secondary conventional high school setting.
Recommendations for Future Research
To gain further insight into the mentorship of new administrators, the following
suggestions are made for future studies:
1. Further exploration of the informal mentorship process that was introduced in this study
and how it impacts those administrators as new in their position. This exploration would
provide insight into how new administrators are connected to mentors, how the
mentorship process is developed, and what skills and knowledge were acquired through
such a process
2. Exploration of formal mentorship programs through organizations such as Association of
California School Administrators to determine the role in developing new administrators.
As part of this exploration data that should be examined is the amount of new
administrators participating in such a program, how mentors were secured for
participation, and what were the guiding processes of the program.
3. Expansion of this study to include new administrators at other educational levels such as
middle school and elementary school to determine the impact of mentorship in these
positions. After expansion of this study, a comparison could be examined to see if the
mentorship process is different based on whether the administrator is elementary, middle,
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 92
or high school level as well as what skills and experiences are unique to each level of
educational leadership.
Limitations
In conducting qualitative research, limitations are present to the nature of the study.
Participants are limited to the knowledge they have of the subject at the time the study is
conducted. The data relies on recall and working memory for context of answers provided, and
therefore, limits the data that can be gleaned from those that are participating within the study.
Another limitation is the small sample of new administrators who were accessed for participation
in this study. Therefore, the data provided is a small data sampling of a larger population of new
school administrators at the secondary level. These limitations reduce the generalizability of the
findings due to the small sample as well as the depth of perspective, with only new
administrators’ perspectives captured through the data-collection processes.
Another limitation of this study was the aggregate information provided through
conduction of the survey. The survey data was collected and the aggregate summative result was
used; however, due to the nature of the survey being non-identifiable, each response was separate
and did not link responses to any others. This resulted in responses not being able to be tracked
back to a specific participant of the survey. An example being that if a participant said
mentorship was not beneficial, the survey results would not be able to determine whether this
participant also responded to formal or informal mentorship as being their experience.
Therefore, survey results could not determine whether or not the participants specifically noted
formal or informal mentorship as being what participation benefitted the participant.
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 93
Conclusions
The ever increasing roles and responsibilities for new administrators in conventional high
school settings requires those who fill these position have the skillsets and professional
knowledge to lead successfully. As research continues on how much experience is necessary for
success, the research conducted as part of this study along with research conducted by Brown-
Ferrnigo and Muth (2004) has already uncovered the benefits of mentorship programs for new
administrators. This study confirms the need for mentorship whether formal or informal
supported by the studies that demonstrated that mentorship programs better prepare qualified
school leaders to fulfill their demanding role (Alsbury & Hackman, 2006; Browne-Ferrigno
& Muth, 2004; Clarke & Wildy, 2010; Ehrich et al., 2004; Fink & Brayman, 2004; Leithwood,
Jantzi et al., 1995; Orr & Barber, 2005; Parylo et al., 2012; Silver et al., 2009; Thessin &
Clayton, 2013).
Browne-Ferrigno, and Muth, (2004) analyzed data from participants of several cohorts in
clinical practice and mentorship and reviews of research on clinical practice, leadership
preparation programs, and mentoring programs. Their study suggested that an effective
leadership program provides the candidates the opportunity to gain authentic administrative
experiences. Through the surveys and interviews examined throughout this study, along with the
examination of previous research conducted, concludes that the role of mentorship is vital to the
educational process of new administrators and access to such mentorship should be made
available for all new administrators, especially those identified through this study as leading a
conventional secondary high school.
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 94
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Mentorship to New High School Administrators 100
Appendix A
Pre-Interview Invitation Email
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 101
Date, 2015
Dear __________
Hello!
We are Suena Chang, Katie Males, and Donnie Rafter, doctoral students in the Rossier School of
Education at the University of Southern California. We are doing our dissertation on the topic of
how to better prepare new administrators, especially with mentorship as a key instrument to
equipping new administrators. We are conducting this study under the guidance of Dr. Pedro
Garcia.
You have been identified as a new principal at a secondary site with two years of experience or
less. Participation in this survey would take around 15 minutes and benefit the study. We ask
that you complete the survey a week from the date of receipt to allow for timely review of the
responses.
Following the completion of this survey, we are asking for volunteers who would be interested in
participating in a personal interview based on the topic surveyed. If you are available for an
interview, please respond at the completion of the survey with contact information.
Participation in this study is completely voluntary. Your identity will be kept confidential at all
times.
If you have any questions, please contact us via email or phone:
Suena Chang: suenacha@usc.edu 714-628-5321
Katie Males: kmales@usc.edu 714-307-6469
Donnie Rafter: drafter@usc.edu 714-306-1757
Thank you for your participation,
Suena Chang, Katie Males, and Donnie Rafter
Doctoral Candidates, University of Southern California
Survey link: https://docs.google.com/forms/d/14-mG6owGajrLI24T-
Hcub4yAZTzAYCQDal5M2KWtTmU/viewform?usp=send_form
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 102
Appendix B
Online Survey
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 103
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 104
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 105
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 106
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 107
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 108
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 109
Appendix C
Interview Protocol: New Administrators
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 110
RQs:
1. What are the new administrators’ perception of mentorship programs in fulfilling their
responsibilities as secondary administrators?
2. How are the skillsets that are developed through a mentorship program for new
administrators beneficial in fulfilling their responsibilities?
3. What coping methods do new school administrators use to deal with the vast amounts of
responsibilities?
4. Which of these coping methods worked best for them?
Interviewee: new administrators
Introduction
Thank you for agreeing to help with my study about your work as an administrator. The data
from this interview may be used to complete the dissertation on new administrators. The
information you provide in this interview will only be used for this dissertation. Your identity
will remain private and confidential. In order to accurately collect your thoughts, I would like to
record this interview. Is that all right with you?
Do you have any questions for me before we start?
Interview Questions:
1. Can you state your job title and how long you have been in your current position?
2. Let’s start by learning about your career background. Please describe your background
and career pathway that led you to your current position. (Where and how long?)
3. How many mentors have you had related to an administrative position?
4. Can you give me instances of how they have been helpful to you, if they have?
5. As a mentee, what do you find to be most beneficial from mentors?
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 111
6. Overall, what do you think about the benefits of the mentorship program, if any?
7. So, what are the responsibilities of your current position?
8. As you are fulfilling your responsibilities in this new position, I’m sure there have been
times where it led you to unknown territory. Think of situations where you didn’t know
what needed to be done and how they needed to be done. Can you describe some of
these situations and how you figured out the what and the how?
9. If you were the mentor of you in your first year as an administrator, what advice would
you share with the younger you to better learn and execute the responsibilities? (Give
examples.)
10. This question is similar but more general. In general, what coping skills would you say
first year administrators most need to be able to “hit the ground running?”
Thank you so much for your time.
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 112
Appendix D
Interview Protocol: Superintendent
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 113
RQs:
1. What are the new administrators’ perception of mentorship programs in fulfilling their
responsibilities as secondary administrators?
2. How are the skillsets that are developed through a mentorship program for new
administrators beneficial in fulfilling their responsibilities?
3. What coping methods do new school administrators use to deal with the vast amounts of
responsibilities?
4. Which of these coping methods worked best for them?
Interviewee: Superintendent
Introduction
Thank you for agreeing to help with my study about your work as an administrator. The
information gathered from this interview will be used in my research on mentorship and its
impact on school administrators. The information you provide in this interview will only be used
for study purpose of this study. Your identity will remain confidential. In order to accurately
record your thoughts, I would like to record this interview. Is that all right with you?
Do you have any questions for me before we start?
1. Can you state your job title, and how long you have been in your current position?
2. Let’s start by learning about your career background. Please describe your background
and career pathway that led you to your current position. (Where and how long?)
3. If you had to give ONE specific role, task, job, or experience that prepared you the most
for a career in educational administration, what would that be and why?
4. Are there any individuals in your career that you would consider a mentor (formal or
informal)?
Mentorship to New High School Administrators 114
5. Can you give me instances of how they have been helpful to you, if they have?
6. As someone who may have experienced what it is like to be mentored, what do you find
to be most beneficial from mentors?
7. Does your current or former district employ any sort of formal mentorship program for
new administrators and can you describe some key components of it?
8. Research indicates that mentoring programs are relatively scarce in the field of
educational administration. What do you feel are some possible reasons that mentorship
programs are the exception rather than the rule?
9. Assuming that resources were not an obstacle, what would an ideal mentoring program
look like for new administrators?
Thank you so much for your time.
Abstract (if available)
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The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on K–12 public school districts in southern California: responses of superintendents, assistant superintendents, and principals
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Successful strategies and skills utilized by high school principals as perceived by Southern California superintendents
Asset Metadata
Creator
Males, Katie L.
(author)
Core Title
The benefits of mentorship to new high school assistant principals and principals
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
02/17/2016
Defense Date
12/14/2015
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
administrator shortage(s),administrator support skill(s),assistant principals,challenges of mentorship,formal mentorship,informal mentorship,leadership,leadership impacts,mentorship,OAI-PMH Harvest,poor designed programs,professional development,professional knowledge,skillsets
Format
application/pdf
(imt)
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Garcia, Pedro E. (
committee chair
), Castruita, Rudy (
committee member
), Franklin, Gregory (
committee member
)
Creator Email
kmales@usc.edu
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-208678
Unique identifier
UC11279349
Identifier
etd-MalesKatie-4105.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-208678 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
etd-MalesKatie-4105.pdf
Dmrecord
208678
Document Type
Dissertation
Format
application/pdf (imt)
Rights
Males, Katie L.
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA
Tags
administrator shortage(s)
administrator support skill(s)
assistant principals
challenges of mentorship
formal mentorship
informal mentorship
leadership impacts
mentorship
poor designed programs
professional development
professional knowledge
skillsets