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4th space teaching: incorporating teachers' funds of knowledge, students' funds of knowledge, and school knowledge in multi-centric teaching

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4th space teaching: incorporating teachers' funds of knowledge, students' funds of knowledge, and school knowledge in multi-centric teaching

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Content Running head: 4
th
SPACE TEACHING 1

4
th
SPACE TEACHING:
INCORPORATING TEACHERS’ FUNDS OF KNOWLEDGE, STUDENTS’ FUNDS OF
KNOWLEDGE, AND SCHOOL KNOWLEDGE IN
MULTI-CENTRIC TEACHING

by
Dulcinea Maria Hearn

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2016

Copyright 2016 Dulcinea Maria Hearn
4th SPACE TEACHING 2

4
th
SPACE TEACHING:
INCORPORATING TEACHERS’ FUNDS OF KNOWLEDGE, STUDENTS’ FUNDS OF
KNOWLEDGE, AND SCHOOL KNOWLEDGE IN
MULTI-CENTRIC TEACHING
by
Dulcinea Maria Hearn

A Dissertation Presented

in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA

2016

APPROVED:
___________________________________
Alan Green, Ph.D.
Committee Chair

__________________________________
Reynaldo Baca, Ph.D.
Committee Member

__________________________________
Eugenia Mora-Flores, Ed.D.
Committee Member
4th SPACE TEACHING 3

ABSTRACT
In today’s diverse classrooms and society as a whole, it is essential that educators are able to
provide educational experiences from central standpoints that are inclusive of all perspectives
that are reflected in all of American society today. This qualitative study examined the ways in
which teachers’ funds of knowledge (FOK) inform and influence their classroom practices and
their ability and willingness to engage in multi-centric practices. The purpose of the study was
to generate an approach to engage all students. The study was conducted through the lens of the
hybridity theory, which posited that individuals draw on multiple sources of informal knowledge,
or FOK within physical and social spaces in which interactions take place to construct new
knowledge (Moje et al., 2004). The findings revealed how particular FOK, experiences, and
personal beliefs of six classroom teachers inform and influence their practices. From these
findings emerged three levels of multi-centric teaching practices and salient characteristics of the
teachers who engaged in these practices.

4th SPACE TEACHING 4

Dedication
This work is dedicated to and inspired by my own children, Anthony, Ani, Azizi,
Assata, Akil, and Adara, and to all children, who are forced to learn within in between spaces.

4th SPACE TEACHING 5

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In the name of God, most Gracious, most Merciful.
First and foremost I would like to give all praises to God. Without The Creator, this
would not have been possible. My deepest thanks are for my husband David and our beautiful
children for their love, support, patience, and forgiveness. Your endurance throughout the many
changes in our lives strengthened and encouraged me to continue to keep going. Ani, Azizi, and
Assata, many of your classroom experiences pained me to no end, but further motivated me and
constantly reminded me of why this is so important. Thank you all for being there for me in
ways that you may never fully be aware of. I most certainly could not have accomplished this
without you, but more importantly, I would not have wanted it without you. I love you all.
I would also like to express my sincerest appreciation for my sister, Tasha, without your
unrelenting love and support; I literally would not have made it through. I love you Sis. Thank
you Rosa and Laura for your friendship and support from day one. Rosa, my friend, I cannot
express enough thanks and appreciation for every conversation we shared, you talked me through
so many obstacles and you never tired of hearing my frustrations. You pulled me through many
times and I will always be grateful and will never forget.
Thank you to Dr. Green and Dr. Baca, my co-chairs, and Dr. Mora-Flores, my committee
member for your expertise, intelligence, and guidance. Dr. Baca and Dr. Green you challenged
me in ways that made me dig deeper than I thought possible and I cannot express the magnitude
of my appreciation for your support and advice throughout this process.
Last, I would like to express my sincere gratitude for all of the teachers who shared their
stories in this study. Your honesty and candor brought this study to life, and hopefully may
provide a voice to create a path for others into Fourth Space. Thank you!
.
4th SPACE TEACHING 6

Table of Contents
Abstract ................................................................................................................... 3
Dedication ............................................................................................................... 4
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................. 5
Chapter One: Overview of the Study .................................................................... 10
Background and Problem Content ............................................................ 11
Statement of the Problem .......................................................................... 16
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................. 18
Significance of the Study .......................................................................... 20
Limitations and Delimitation .................................................................... 21
Definition of Study Terms ......................................................................... 21
Chapter Two: Literature Review ........................................................................... 23
Hybridity Theory ....................................................................................... 24
Funds of Knowledge ................................................................................. 27
Multi-Centric, Anti-Racist, Culturally Responsive Teaching ................... 44
Summary ................................................................................................... 51
Chapter Three: Methodology ................................................................................ 52
Sample and Site Selection ......................................................................... 53
Instrumentation .......................................................................................... 54
Data Collection .......................................................................................... 56
Data Analysis ............................................................................................ 57
Summary ................................................................................................... 60
Chapter Four: Findings .......................................................................................... 62
Research Questions and Design ................................................................ 63
Initial Visit at the School Site ................................................................... 66
Findings for Research Question One ........................................................ 66
Findings for Research Question Two ........................................................ 78
Findings for Research Question Three ...................................................... 87
Summary ................................................................................................... 91
Chapter Five: Discussion ...................................................................................... 93
Introduction ............................................................................................... 93
Discussion of Findings .............................................................................. 94
Implications for Practice ......................................................................... 104
Future Research ....................................................................................... 107
Conclusion ............................................................................................... 108
References ........................................................................................................... 110
4th SPACE TEACHING 7

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Sample and Data Collection .................................................................... 63
Table 2. Levels of Multi-Centric Teaching ........................................................... 79
Table 3. Salient Characteristics of Multi-Centric Practices .................................. 87

4th SPACE TEACHING 8

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. 3rd Space ................................................................................................ 24
Figure 2. 4th Space ................................................................................................ 26

4th SPACE TEACHING 9

LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix A. Qualitative Interviewing Survey .................................................... 114
Appendix B. Observation Recording Tool .......................................................... 116
Appendix C. Teacher Survey .............................................................................. 117

4th SPACE TEACHING 10

CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
The long history of the Western European influence on political and social institutions in
America continues to permeate the American educational system. Many facets of American
educational institutions were created from Euro-centric perspectives and continue to convey this
perspective in policies and practices today. This perspective has trickled down all the way into
individual teachers’ practices and the impact has left many students from diverse backgrounds
unsuccessful. The achievement gap between White-American students and non-White students,
in particular for African-American and Latino students, has been researched into saturation. Yet
the Euro-centric teaching model has still continued to prevail as the standard “American”
teaching model.
What has been considered “The American Dream,” since the inception of this country,
continues to drive many Americans’ beliefs toward the meaning of success in education.
Schools have long been considered the origination point for realizing this dream. For many, the
dream sounds like this:
I am American, so I have the freedom and opportunity to make whatever I want of
my life. I can succeed by working hard and using my talents; if I fail, it will be
my own fault. Success is honorable, and failure is not. In order to make sure that
my children and grandchildren have the same opportunities that I do, I have a
responsibility to be a good citizen – to respect those whose vision of success is
different from my own, to help make sure that everyone has an equal chance to
succeed, to participate in the democratic process, and to teach my children to be
proud of this country (Lucas, 1994).

However, while many Americans who believe in this dream also say they believe in this
dream for all Americans (Lucas, 1994), this dream has not been applicable to or accessible for all
Americans. The inequities in resources and practices along with the marginalization, oppression,
or exclusion of students within this same educational system that claims it makes this dream
4th SPACE TEACHING 11

possible for all students, has created a gap between the beliefs and actions of those who are
called upon in classrooms everyday to bring this dream to fruition for all students.
The landscape of American schools has changed drastically since the American dream
was created and since institutions of education were created in America. American schools no
longer consist of only male students or only White-American students, today almost half of the
students enrolled in elementary and secondary schools in America are identified as students of
color (National Center for Education Statistics, NCES, 2015). In today’s America where one out
of every four Americans is identified as non-White (U.S. Census Bureau, 2002, p. 71), and in
today’s American schools where 49% of students are non-White (NCES, 2015, p. 80), the
current model of Euro-centric teaching is un-American because it is not holistically reflective of
all of the students being served. Thus, the objective of this study is to gain an in-depth
understanding of how teachers’ funds of knowledge (FOK) inform and influence their classroom
practices in order to generate an approach to engage all students in preparation to live and work
in today’s society.
Background and Problem Context
Historically, formal social and political institutions in America, including schools, were
developed from Western European traditions (Berns, 2006). Early educational opportunities in
America were not afforded for all people in society. Schools were created for White-American
males, based upon social classes, with the upper class White males being the primary recipients
of education (Webb, 2006). These institutions were operated by religious organizations, and
were designed to teach a “classical curriculum” that was specifically crafted for their needs
(Webb, 2006). Currently, social and political institutions, including schools in America,
continue to reflect the White Anglo Saxon Protestant influence from which they were derived
4th SPACE TEACHING 12

(Berns, 2006). People of color were not offered public educational opportunities and for some,
for example slaves, learning to read and write was illegal. Later, religious, charitable
organizations intending to Christianize Native-Americans provided education for Native-
Americans who were considered “civilized” and willing to convert to Christianity and give up
their traditional customs and traditions (Webb, 2006).
Assimilationist practices such as this, which were aimed to socialize immigrants from
Eastern European countries, and people from all other racial and ethnic groups into the
“common” or White-American culture continued into the 20th century in all facets of American
life, including institutions of education (Berns, 2006). Throughout history and even today
White-Americans have synonymously referred to “American” as meaning White. The effect of
the assimilation process of blending all groups in American into a “melting pot” of this
“American” culture became deeply rooted within educational institutions today. This macro
ideology of socializing diverse groups was historically connected to immigration policies, which
promoted the acceptance of democratic values to become “good” citizens (Berns, 2006).
Schools have long been primary settings for socialization systems through the promotion of
cultural assimilation, whereby so-called minority cultural groups were expected and required to
adopt the characteristics of the dominant White group. Berns (2006) pointed out that a former
educational leader and historian, Cubberly (1919), led an exhaustive push for schools to
Americanize immigrant children “into the superior ‘American race’” in what he called an
“obligatory” duty (p. 222).
The dominant macro-culture of Whiteness that was created from these beginnings
continues to define practices and policies within educational institutions today. Schools were
created to educate White-American males and the curriculum and pedagogy were designed with
4th SPACE TEACHING 13

them in mind (Webb, 2006). Despite the demographical make-up of many diverse groups in
America in the early 20th century – in 1900 one out of eight people in America were recorded as
non-White (U.S. Census Bureau, 2002, p. 71) and today’s 21st century demographical data – in
2000 one out of every four people were recorded as non-White (U.S. Census Bureau, 2002,
p. 71), not much has changed with the European-American perspective from which most schools
in America today operate. Policies, curriculum, and practices are all created from this
perspective. From 1980 to 2000, White population in America increased just 7.9% while non-
White groups’ population increased 88% (U.S. Census Bureau, 2002, p. 80). In the most recent
census report from 2010, data revealed that in urban areas the non-Hispanic White share of the
population decreased in “every metro area in the country” and the Hispanic share has increased
in every urban area from 2000 to 2010 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2002, p. 80).
As a result of the above-mentioned factors, as well as the race-based practices, whether
overt or covert, from those in the dominant group throughout the history of America, educational
institutions in America have been designed to promote the marginalization and oppression of
students from non-White groups. Racism, whether institutionalized, personally mediated, or
internalized has held this system in place (Jones, 2000). Thus, our current model of education,
which values and promotes Whiteness, is a product of an historic system of racism whereby
everything and everyone that is non-White is not valued and is viewed as an “other” (Thompson,
1997).
The Euro-centricism existent in today’s education model is not reflective of the diverse
student body in today’s classrooms and makes learning difficult, if not “impossible” for them to
succeed (Dei James, Karumanchery, Wilson, & Zine, 2000). Non-White students are forced to
separate themselves from their cultural or ethnic identities and often resort to mimicry of
4th SPACE TEACHING 14

Whiteness for acceptance and success (Bhabha, 1994; Gay, 2002). The landscape of American
students today consists of 49% of all U.S. elementary and secondary students being identified as
non-white (NCES, 2015, p. 80). More specifically, in California during the 2014-2015 school
year 74.84% of all enrolled students were identified as non-White (Data Quest, CDE, 2016).
Current educational practices, curriculum, and even teacher demographics in California are not
reflective of these students and do not work for the majority of these students. In addition, while
White-American students may fare better than other students in this system, it does not fully
benefit them either because it does not prepare them to live and interact within the diverse global
world we live in. It moves them through life with a mono-cultural perspective that perpetuates
the status quo (Nieto, 2000).
Teachers in today’s 21st century classrooms are trying to utilize a curriculum that is no
longer reflective of those who they are serving (Smith, 2009). It is imperative in 21st century
learning for all students in America to experience education from perspectives that reflect all of
the people in America and abroad from an empowering standpoint – not from one in which they
have been victims needing to be saved, terrorists needing to be annihilated, or uncivilized beings
who need to be humanized, it needs to be holistic and accurately depicted (Thompson, 1997).
All students from all backgrounds need to know all people and perspectives and experiences
from central perspectives (Zine, 2002). Thus, there is a need for a new, hybrid model of
teaching.
Up until now efforts to address the need to incorporate FOK in education have consisted
of 3rd space teaching models (connecting students’ FOK to school knowledge), multi-cultural
education, and culturally relevant and responsive teaching practices. While all of these models
have varying aspects and degrees, which independently define them, they all share a
4th SPACE TEACHING 15

commonality of seeking to connect students’ FOK (outside knowledge) with school knowledge
(inside knowledge) (Banks, 1993a; Gay, 2002; Ladson-Billings, 1995; Villegas & Lucas, 2002).
While these are valid and necessary methods for utilization to affirm students’ identities and
enhance their learning, there is no inclusion of teachers’ FOK and its role in prohibiting or
facilitating student learning (Hedges, 2012), nor is there an anti-racist stance that decentralizes
Euro-Centric teaching and challenges institutional racism, personally mediated racism, or
internalized racism (Thompson, 1997). Even though teachers bring cultural ways of knowing,
being, and doing, life experiences through interactions with family, peers, community, and
society in general, and primary Discourses, all of which create their personal identities,
perspectives, and beliefs, their FOK are not considered in their students’ learning as if these
influences have been left at the door when they come into the classroom.
The absence of a multi-centric, anti-racist stance in teaching creates a neutralization of
Whiteness in education and upholds the “other” mentality. The incorporation of 3rd space
teaching has intended to create physical and social hybrid spaces within which students can
construct new knowledge by drawing upon their own FOK as a scaffold to gain school
knowledge or as a navigational space to acquire school knowledge (Moje et al., 2004).
However, there is a need to extend 3rd space teaching to include the teachers’ FOK as 4th space
teaching. Teachers’ FOK provide a lens through which they see the world. Teachers’ FOK are
important for inclusion because they determine teachers’ practices, decision-making, and
judgment formations. Teachers’ FOK determine the ways in which and to what degrees they
draw upon their students’ FOK. In addition, teachers’ FOK determine how they interact with
their students, the parents, and other colleagues. Even more so, teachers’ FOK determine their
4th SPACE TEACHING 16

expectations, curriculum choices, influence what they think is important to know, and how they
impart that information through their instructional practices.
Everyone has personal beliefs, which come from their FOK. We must examine teachers’
FOK because they shape beliefs that ultimately inform practices, key decision-making, and
judgments, which directly impacts student learning and achievement. Knowing how teachers’
FOK relate to practices can provide ways to transform beliefs, enable acquisition of new FOK, or
enhance the positive impact that current FOK can make on practices and decision-making
(Bensimon, 2007). An examination of beliefs along with life experiences, cultural values and
other FOK provides a deeper understanding of why a person believes what they belief and more
importantly how those beliefs, which are created by their own FOK come to life through their
actions in their practices and decision-making.
Statement of the Problem
This study will examine how teachers’ FOK informs and influences their classroom
practices. In this study, teachers’ FOK will be examined to gain an understanding of the bearing
that teachers’ FOK has on their willingness and ability to not only utilize students’ FOK in 3rd
space, but to present formal school knowledge from a multi-centric stance as well. In 3rd space
teaching, student knowledge is constructed through the use of the hybrid, culturally pluralistic
spaces of students’ informal knowledge or FOK and formal school knowledge to create a new
physical and social “space” in which student knowledge is constructed using both of the
pluralistic spaces (Moje et al., 2004).
This study aimed to contribute to the research through an extension of 3rd space teaching
and learning through an examination of an additional hybrid space, which includes teachers’
informal knowledge or FOK. The utilization of hybrid spaces provides a method in which FOK
4th SPACE TEACHING 17

can facilitate student learning by allowing teachers and students to positively contribute to the
enhancement and construction of new academic knowledge. There is a need for the examination
of teachers’ FOK to understand the ways in which teachers’ informal knowledge causes
hindrances or success in students’ learning. As outlined in the previous section, the current
traditional model of teaching is centered upon and derivative of Western European ideologies
and practices that do not correspond with diverse students in today’s classrooms, nor does it fully
benefit White-American students who, through this model, maintain a mono-cultural perspective,
which upholds and perpetuates a system of privilege and systemic racism (Dei et al., 2000;
Nieto, 2000; Thompson, 1997; Zine, 2002).
The need to incorporate students’ FOK into teaching and learning has been established
within the literature. In addition, the positive impact it has on student learning, from drawing
upon students’ FOK, has been examined in many studies (Barton & Tan, 2009; Gonzalez, Moll
& Amanti, 2005; Ladson-Billings, 1995; Moje et al., 2004). An additional space is needed to
carve out teachers’ FOK because teachers can be unaware of their sources of knowledge when,
for example, forming personal philosophies and ideologies on teaching and learning, or why
students succeed or fail (Bensimon, 2007). Further, FOK can even influence teachers’ formal
knowledge construction in understanding theoretical concepts within their practice (Gupta, 2006)
and interpreting the meaning and applicability of researched “best practices” (Hammersley,
2005).
In addition to the examination of the role of teachers’ FOK within their classroom
practices, their willingness and ability to engage in multi-centric teaching, as defined by this
study, is also examined. In multi-centric teaching, as defined by this study, reflective culturally
responsive practices are extended to include an anti-racist stance, which decenters Euro-
4th SPACE TEACHING 18

centricism in education. This anti-racist stance positions racism systemically, internally in
students, and as personally mediated in teachers (Jones, 2000). Teachers’ FOK and multi-centric
teaching practices are worthy of examination to gain understanding of the impact of the link
between students’ and teachers’ FOK in formal knowledge construction within the America that
we all live, work, and interact in today.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to compile data that will produce an approach to teaching
in which all students will be engaged. As a result of the high level of attention toward students’
FOK and culturally responsive practices that promote cultural pluralism in education as an “add
on” to the current, dominant, Euro-centric focus in education, this study will build on research to
extend the hybrid 3rd space teaching to include an examination of teachers’ FOK. It will also
examine teachers’ willingness and ability to engage in multi-centric practices as defined by this
study as the combination of culturally responsive practices with anti-racist education.
Multi-centric teaching was originally coined to describe an approach within anti-racist
education (Zine, 2002). Multi-centric teaching, as defined by this study, refers to: teaching
practices that include the established multi-centric teaching but extends it to combine anti-racist
education with culturally responsive practices. Anti-racist education addresses institutional
racism, challenges the status quo, and deconstructs the dominant narrative (Dei et al., 2000;
Thompson, 1997). Culturally responsive practices utilize students’ cultural views, traits, and
knowledge (Gay, 2002; Ladson-Billings, 1995). Multi-centric teaching conducts teaching
practices from multiple centers, such as race, ethnicity, gender, class, sexuality, religion etc.
(Zine, 2002). Teachers’ FOK have been defined for the purposes of this study, as any type of
informal knowledge gained outside of formal school knowledge, from their cultural beliefs,
4th SPACE TEACHING 19

family, lived experiences, and other belief systems acquired from their community, peer groups
(including those within organizations), and popular culture.
To understand the need for culturally responsive practices, it is essential to understand
systemic racism as well as personally mediated racism in education. Likewise, it is critical to
understand the role of teachers’ informal knowledge in key decision-making, judgment
formation, and overall practices. Research tends to focus on the role of students’ FOK and
culturally responsive practices without an anti-racist stance. Although it is critical to consider
students’ FOK in teachers’ practices, this study will focus on teachers’ FOK. Teachers’ FOK
were selected as the focus of this study due to the need to contribute to the sparse literature on
the role of teachers’ FOK and because of the critical role of teachers as being the most crucial
component in students’ success within the classroom.
Methodology
The qualitative methodology selection for this study is justified due to the inquiry design:
case studies of individual teachers. Characteristics of qualitative research include data collection
in natural settings, the use of the researcher as an instrument, inductive data analysis,
maintaining focus on the meanings that the participants hold versus the meanings that the
researcher brings, the use of multiple data sources, and an emergent design through holistic
accounts and reflexivity (Creswell, 2014), which were necessary in this study to describe the role
of teachers’ FOK in teaching practices, and in particular within multi-centric teaching.
Because having multiple forms of data allows the researcher to triangulate the data
through comparison of multiple sources, which enhances credibility and trustworthiness of the
data collected, interviews with participants from different perspectives will be used during the
study (Creswell, 2014). The interviews will be conducted in a face-to-face, one-on-one setting
4th SPACE TEACHING 20

with individual teachers. The interviews will be recorded. In addition, classroom observations
will be conducted to allow the researcher to observe classroom practices and interactions with
students. A survey will be utilized to provide demographic information and will provide an
opportunity for teachers to share information through open-ended questions that they may have
been unable to share during the interview setting.
Research Questions
The research questions are descriptive in nature and thus align with qualitative research
characteristics (Creswell, 2014). The questions were formed to narrow the focus of the study
and to provide specific foci for the interviews and observations (Creswell, 2014). The research
questions in this study are:
1. How do teachers’ FOK inform their practices?
2. How do teachers’ FOK influence multi-centric teaching in 3rd space?
3. What are salient characteristics of multi-centric teachers?
Theoretical Framework
To explore the role of teachers’ FOK with plurality of students’ FOK and academic
knowledge in construction of new knowledge within the 3rd space, the hybridity theory is
utilized as a guide for this study. The hybridity theory serves as a theoretical framework within
which to examine the concepts of FOK and culturally responsive teaching extended by anti-racist
education into multi-centric teaching.
Significance of the Study
This study is significant because it creates a teaching model that engages all students. It
decentralizes Euro-centric teaching, which is an un-American teaching model based upon the
landscape of today’s Americans in society and in schools. It transforms institutional, personally
4th SPACE TEACHING 21

mediated, and internalized racism in society and in schools through the creation of social change
agents.
Limitations and Delimitations
As with any study, the researcher brings biases and their own FOK from which they rely
on in decision-making and the filtration of new knowledge. I am a woman of color who
experienced education from the traditional Euro-centric model of teaching, which has given me a
student’s perspective from this approach. As a classroom teacher for close to 10 years I also have
acquired the formal knowledge and experiences from the teacher’s perspective.
Definition of Study Terms
Discourse: “A Discourse with a capital ‘D’ is composed of distinctive ways of
speaking/listening and often, too, writing/reading coupled with distinctive ways of acting,
interacting, valuing, feeling, dressing, thinking, believing, with other people and with
various objects, tools, and technologies, so as to enact specific socially recognizable
identities engaged in specific socially recognizable activities” (Gee, 2008, p. 155)

Funds of Knowledge: For the purposes of this study FOK refer to individuals’ informal
knowledge acquired outside of school. It includes lived experiences, belief systems, cultural and
otherwise, and personal identities as accumulated from multiple sources, including family and
culture, community, peer groups (including those within organizations), and popular culture that
are drawn upon in determining practices, decision-making, and in judgment formations.
Hybrid Spaces: Spaces refer to physical and social spatial dimensions of interaction
from which knowledge is constructed. Within education these spaces can be seen as categories
of resources in first and second binary dimensions, for example through primary or secondary
Discourses (Gee, 1996) or inside and outside of school knowledge, (Moje et al., 2004)
Multic-Centric Practices: Multic-centric practices in this study refers to instruction and
practices that are conducted from multiple centers. It combines characteristics of culturally
4th SPACE TEACHING 22

responsive practices and anti-racist education. Anti-racist education addresses institutional
racism, challenges the status quo, and deconstructs the dominant narrative (Dei et al., 2000;
Thompson, 1997). Culturally responsive practices utilize students’ cultural views, traits, and
knowledge (Gay, 2002; Ladson-Billings, 1995). Multi-centric practices conducts teaching
practices from multiple centers, such as race, ethnicity, gender, class, sexuality, religion etc.
(Zine, 2000).
Practices: Practices in this study refer to teachers’ utilization of pedagogical skill sets,
instructional decision making, including curriculum choices, and resources and materials,
collaboration and interactions with students, parents, and colleagues, any decisions made for
students, and any classroom actions conducted that impact students.

4th SPACE TEACHING 23

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
In today’s classrooms in America almost half of the students are non-White. The
prevalent Euro-centric perspective that has historically defined and currently dominates the
American educational system is not reflective of all students within classrooms. In addition, it
has perpetuated a mono-cultural perspective for White students (Nieto, 2000). The system of
White privilege has been upheld through this educational system. While the majority of teachers
in America and in California are identified as White, and over 70% of the students in California
are identified as non-White (Data Quest, CDE, 2016), there is also an ethnic-gap among teachers
and students.
The widening ethnic-gap between teachers and students can result in teachers’ FOK
being in conflict with the students’ FOK (Hogg, 2011; Moje et al., 2004). A fund of knowledge
is a person’s informal knowledge base that is accumulated outside of school and may come from
families, communities, peer groups, popular culture, or lived experiences (Hogg, 2011).
Personal biases, beliefs, attitudes, ideologies, and perceptions are created from this informal
knowledge base and influences practices (Gonzalez et al., 2005; Gupta, 2006; Hedges, 2012;
Moje et al., 2004). FOK put beliefs into action in judgment formation, decision-making, and
practices.
This chapter includes a review of the concept of FOK, anti-racist education, multi-centric
teaching, and culturally responsive practices through the theoretical framework of the Hybridity
Theory. The review begins by observing the origination of the concept of FOK, the ways that it
informs teachers’ informal knowledge, and applies in education and in particular within this
study. Teachers’ FOK in applicability to 4th space teaching in this study will be the focus.
Then, a review of the literature on anti-racist education, culturally responsive practices, and
4th SPACE TEACHING 24

multi-centric teaching is provided to explore the connection between teachers’ practices and their
beliefs and life experiences and the ways in which those beliefs and life experience, as drawn
upon through their FOK, inform and influence their practices.
Hybridity Theory
The term “hybrid” in its simplest forms means the construction of something from varied
sources. Hybridity theory in the educational realm has framed examinations of hybrid spaces
that have been created from the utilization of students’ FOK and formal academic knowledge
(Barton & Tan, 2009; Moje et al., 2004). The hybridity theory posited that people draw on
multiple sources, or funds “to make sense of the world” (Moje et al., 2004, p. 42). The spaces
refer to physical and social spatial dimensions of interaction from which knowledge is
constructed. Within education these spaces can be seen as categories of resources in first and
second binary dimensions, for example through primary or secondary Discourses (Gee, 2008) or
inside and outside of school knowledge, as shown in Figure 1: 3rd Space (Moje et al., 2004).
The 1st space includes official school knowledge and the 2nd space includes students’ informal
knowledge or FOK. The 3rd space is the created space in which new knowledge is constructed.

Figure 1: 3rd Space

Official
school
knowledge
Students'
informal
knowledge
(funds of
knowledge)
3rd
Space

4th SPACE TEACHING 25

From a post-colonialist perspective, Bhabha (1994) explained that the first and second
spaces overlap to create a third space of knowledge construction. “Third space is produced in and
through language as people come together and particularly as people resist cultural authority,
bringing different experiences to bear on the same experiences” (Moje et al., 2004, p. 43). Thus,
two oppositional categories, which Moje et al. (2004) referred to as conflicting FOK, in first and
second spaces, can collaborate to create new knowledge.
Bhabha (1994) explained that oppositional categories or competing Discourses can result
in what he refers to as “splitting.” Splitting occurs when privileged language in academic
contexts is taken up and resisted simultaneously, which can be “problematic and productive”
because the students enhance their Discourse and culture; however, a consequence of this
process is a struggle in which students try “to achieve a strong sense of self but must always
articulate him or herself in response to an ‘other’” (Moje et al., 2004, p. 43). When splitting
ensues the students are thrust within “in between spaces” (Bhabha, 1994). In-between spaces
also referred to as the third space, allow students to construct knowledge in resistance to
dominance and ethnocentricity as a productive hybrid space that is not restricting because it is
produced from and pertains to the FOK of the specific participants involved in creating the
space.
Moje et al. (2004) found three classifications of hybridity in education: 1. Third space
used as a scaffold to conventional academic knowledge for marginalized Discourses; 2. Third
space as a navigational space used to prepare and support students in an exploration of multiple
FOK and discourses across contexts; and 3. Third space to create cultural, social, and
epistemological change in which competing funds and Discourses engage in “conversation to
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challenge and reshape both academic content practices and the knowledge and Discourses of the
youths’ FOK” (Moje et al., 2004, pp. 43-44).
This study considers all three of these views of the third space valid but posited that in
educational dimensions of space the third space must be extended to include a fourth space in
which students’ AND teachers’ informal knowledge, along with formal academic knowledge
constructs new knowledge through multi-centric, antiracist, culturally responsive practices as
shown in Figure 2: 4
th
Space:

Figure 2: 4th Space

The 4th space allows an additional space to include the teachers’ FOK, or informal
knowledge as well. As Bhabha (1994) pointed out in the 3rd space of knowledge construction,
learning is created from and pertains to the FOK of the participants involved in creating the
space. Thus, the inclusion of the teachers’ FOK requires an additional space as a result of the
Official formal
school knowledge
(including
teachers' formal
knowledge)
Teachers'
informal
knowledge
(funds of
knowledge)
Students'
informal
knowledge
(funds of
knowledge)

Hybrid
Space

4th SPACE TEACHING 27

need to acknowledge the informal knowledge they bring that informs and influences their
practices.
The following review of the literature in the section entitled “Funds of Knowledge” first
examines the concept of FOK, then the students’ FOK and finally the teachers’ FOK. The use of
the term FOK has been extensively used (Hogg, 2011) and the studies on the use of students’
FOK have been largely established. However, the consideration of teachers’ informal
knowledge, or FOK in studies are limited, and the consideration of teachers’ informal knowledge
in hybrid spaces, as this study aims to examine, is non-existent.
Funds of Knowledge
FOK is a term that originally was created to refer to the foundation from which those in a
household gain social practice and lived experiences. Moll and Spear-Ellinwood (as cited in
Banks, 2012) described these kinds of funds as “non-monetary capital” that contributes to the
economic structure of the household through the various exchanges in services to others. The
concept originated from the work of anthropologists Greenberg and Velez-Ibanez (1992) through
ethnographic studies in “non-market exchange systems” within Mexican communities in
Arizona.
Gonzalez et al. (2005) established educational implications for FOK through studies in
Arizona in which teachers served as researchers. They sought to identify and document their
students’ FOK who were primarily from Mexican, working-class families. This knowledge was
sought to create pedagogical value in teachers gaining understanding of their students’ FOK and
the ways in which the use of students’ FOK could enhance student learning through improved
pedagogical practices. It was believed that learning about their students’ home lives and
learning from their students’ home lives would provide a way for teachers to impact students’
4th SPACE TEACHING 28

knowledge construction through connecting knowledge that was created outside of school to the
knowledge gained within school. Gonzalez et al. (2005) defined FOK as “historically
accumulated and culturally developed bodies of knowledge and skills essential for household or
individual functioning and well-being” (pp. 72-73).
Traditionally, FOK referred to the students lived experiences, belief systems, and social
practices. The concept of FOK was built on the idea that people are capable and knowledgeable
and their experiences in life have given them their knowledge and abilities (Gonzalez et al.,
2005). Their FOK therefore became the source from which people formulated beliefs, ideologies
and primary Discourses and the well from which they draw upon in making decisions (Gee,
2008; Gonzalez et al., 2005; Gupta, 2006; Hedges, 2012; Moje et al., 2004). Hogg (2011) found
through an examination on copious literature on FOK that it has also been conceptualized as
“sources” or “areas” of knowledge which refer to knowledge that is accessible by students and
households that is separate from education but comes not only from family but also from the
community, popular culture, and peer groups. Hogg (2011) conducted a review of the literature
on the FOK to analyze what writers and researchers are referring to when they use the term FOK
and to examine the current range of research on FOK. She read 50 various texts and found
disagreements in the way FOK is understood and applied.
The disagreements surrounded what components contribute to the areas or sources of
knowledge from which FOK come from. Some of the literature considers family, community,
peer groups, and popular culture to be the sources of FOK, whereas others also include talents,
interests, and other relationships (Hogg, 2011). What knowledge should be considered within
FOK? Whose knowledge is within FOK? She found that the term “areas of knowledge” refer
more closely to the traditional definition of FOK because it considers cultural knowledge and
4th SPACE TEACHING 29

skills accumulated for households or individuals to function within their communities to be the
areas in which FOK come from (Hogg, 2011). Whereas the term “source of knowledge” refers
to a more modern approach in examining FOK as being developed from multiple sources
including community, popular culture, peer groups, and family (Hogg, 2011). For the purposes
of this study, FOK refers to individuals’ lived experiences and belief systems as accumulated
from multiple sources, including family and culture, community, peer groups (including those
within organizations), and popular culture that are drawn upon as informal knowledge in learning
and decision making.
Banks (1993b) asserted that there are five different kinds of knowledge: personal/cultural,
popular, mainstream academic, transformative academic, and school knowledge (p. 7). The
various knowledge typologies serve as sources or foundations for knowledge construction.
Personal knowledge is learned within the home or within personal experiences outside of school.
Popular knowledge is ideas and beliefs that are projected from within mass media outlets.
Mainstream academic knowledge includes traditional concepts, theories, and paradigms that
western traditionalists believe is objective, empirical, and without the influence or subjectivity of
the human being that brings forth the knowledge. When mainstream knowledge has been
challenged and is overridden, it results in transformative academic knowledge.
Transformative scholars challenge established, westernized ways of thinking and
assumptions to provide new perspectives and “transform our conceptions about the experiences
of American ethnic groups” (Banks, 1993b, p. 10). They believe the opposite of mainstream
scholars; they believe that scholars’ human interest, values, and beliefs influence their theories,
concepts, and empirical research (Banks, 1993b). School knowledge emanates from textbooks
and other instructional materials. The textbook is the main source of knowledge in school
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knowledge, but the teacher’s understanding and facilitation of the knowledge within the text
formulates the instruction of the text (Banks, 1993). Thus in relation to this study, Banks’
personal/cultural and popular knowledge referred to students’ and teachers’ FOK, mainstream
academic and school knowledge referred to official school knowledge, and transformative
academic knowledge was acquired through anti-racist education and multi-centric teaching.
As evidenced from the discussion thus far, there are differences in beliefs in how
knowledge is constructed and from where FOK originated. In addition, a consensus has not been
formed on how FOK evolve or progress. Nevertheless, many scholars agree that FOK refer to
personal knowledge that is accumulated outside of school and thus considered to be informal
knowledge (Gonzalez et al., 2005; Gupta, 2006; Hedges, 2012; Moje et al., 2004). It is
imperative to point out that all people have FOK that serve as a basis from which they construct
knowledge, interpret information, and formulate beliefs and ideologies. It is important to
understand students’ FOK, but it is equally important to examine teachers’ FOK as well because
just as students bring various beliefs and perspectives with them into the classroom that have
been formulated by their FOK, which influences their knowledge construction, decision-making,
and interactions with others, teachers also bring beliefs and perspectives that have been shaped
by their FOK that influences their practices, decision-making, beliefs, perceptions, and
interactions with students (Bensimon, 2007; Gupta, 2006; Hedges, 2012; Moje et al., 2004).
The subsequent section is included to provide background on the educational
implications of FOK, which originally focused on students’ FOK within the classroom. While
the focus of this study was on teachers’ FOK, it is noteworthy to include an examination of the
concept of students’ FOK, most significantly to demonstrate that knowledge is constructed
through the use of one’s own FOK, is transferred through one’s own FOK, provides a lens
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through which all people interpret information, formulate beliefs, perceive and interact with
others, and overall understand society and the world (Barton & Tan, 2009; Moje et al., 2004).
Students’ Funds of Knowledge
Since the establishment of FOK within the context of education, much research has been
conducted on the ways that tapping into students’ FOK can improve pedagogical practices and
increase students’ learning and achievement (Gonzalez et al., 2005). At its origination within
education, FOK focused on teachers gaining knowledge from and about their students’ everyday
knowledge acquired within their homes.
In a qualitative study conducted by Gonzalez et al. (2005), teachers served as
collaborative ethnographers within their students’ homes to learn about their everyday household
practices and how those practices and Discourses could be utilized as resources to improve
pedagogical practices and to increase their students’ learning. They used a combination of
observations, open-ended interviews, life histories, and case studies to develop teachers as
qualitative researchers, form new relationships, and define household knowledge as a resource
for teaching.
Their findings demonstrated an increase in access to the school by parents, a positive
change in relationships between teachers and students, teachers’ increased abilities as qualitative
researchers, and the advent of curriculum units utilizing students’ household knowledge as a
resource (Gonzalez et al., 2005). Two themes that consistently emerged among the teachers was
a transformative effect of the FOK standpoint: 1. The way in which they defined culture changed
from a view of culture as food and dance to a deeper understanding of the networks among
families within the community; and 2. An alteration in the deficit perspectives they previously
held toward the families and the community. However, it was noted that while all teachers were
4th SPACE TEACHING 32

changed in some way, the change reflected was more of a change of their views of particular
stereotypes instead of an internal belief change in deficit thinking. The study did not yield a
practical, systemic connection between recognizing FOK in the field and utilizing FOK within
the classroom.
Subsequently, Gonzalez et al. (2005) engaged teachers and students as qualitative
researchers through an ethnographic lens in the Puente Project. In the Puente Project, high
school students participated with teachers as collaborative researchers within their own and
others’ households and communities conducting observations and interviews. The interviews
were conducted more as guided conversations using questionnaires only as loose leads of
possible areas for exploration. The project was designed to enhance the students’ motivation to
learn and to increase their engagement by focusing their learning around that which was familiar
to them through engaging them in drawing upon their own FOK, which enabled them to identify
on a personal level. An additional purpose was to enable teachers to “make sense” of the
families’ everyday lives and knowledge (Gonzalez et al., 2005).
Both the groups of teachers and students met in study groups in various locations to
reflect upon the data they collected. They found that the students not only consumed knowledge,
but they also created it by developing transferable knowledge and skills that they could utilize in
other classes and in college. In addition, they found that parental involvement at the school
increased because parents who previously were hesitant to participate were now comfortable and
willing to participate. Another finding revealed that the reflection within the study groups’
participation served as professional development for the teachers because they had a change in
perspective toward inquiry and the group served as a platform for deeper analysis and
understanding of FOK. Another focus during this study was to gain an understanding of how the
4th SPACE TEACHING 33

teachers would use their students’ FOK in practice as resources, but they did not discuss any
findings that specifically outlined how they would do this.
Barton and Tan (2009) conducted a design experiment to support teachers in
implementing practices within their pedagogy that would draw upon their students’ FOK. In the
experiment, they planned lesson adaptations with teachers and students for one unit on food and
nutrition. This particular unit was selected because in previous case studies in which the
researchers had been investigating, through participant observations, how girls combined their
social worlds with science, they noticed that certain lessons and pedagogical practices promoted
inclusion of students’ FOK. The unit on food and nutrition was one of them. In addition, during
previous focus group interviews the students expressed a high level of interest for this unit as
well.
Barton and Tan (2009) stressed that teachers’ practices that provide opportunities for
students to draw upon their own FOK empowers students to create a hybrid or third space within
which new knowledge is constructed. The first and second “spaces” refer to what knowledge the
students bring and what knowledge the teacher brings. The hybrid or third space refers to taking
what students bring to the classroom through their FOK and integrating it with what they gain in
school (through formal school knowledge) to construct new learning, hence the third space
(Barton and Tan, 2009). This is framed from the Hybridity theory, which says that people draw
on multiple resources or funds to make sense of the world (Moje et al., 2004) as shown earlier in
Figure 1.
Within a low income, urban middle school, Barton and Tan (2009) found that in a science
classroom in which pedagogical practices were authenticated in the students’ FOK, that included
their cultural backgrounds and their everyday informal knowledge, their learning was positively
4th SPACE TEACHING 34

impacted. The findings showed an increase in student engagement through two major shifts in
participation. The first shift indicated that all of the students’ performances during this unit was
better than any other unit during the school year in terms of work completion rates and scores.
Second, the students showed a higher level of care and commitment to the work in this unit with
all of the case study students utilizing pieces from this unit in their 6th grade science portfolio.
The teacher within this study empowered the students to increase their learning by giving
them the opportunity to draw upon their own FOK through physical, political, and pedagogical
methods. The students’ engagement was impacted through increased participation when the
classroom was physically transformed to embody the students’ home kitchens and learning
activities were conducted within students’ neighborhood grocery stores. Political and
pedagogical changes manifested through the co-planning of lessons and other opportunities to
become the expert, and through the use of their FOK.
Students were enabled to bridge their knowledge from family, community, peer, and
popular culture funds and Discourses with the scientific knowledge gained in the classroom to
create a third space of knowledge construction (Barton & Tan, 2009). Yet, the teacher’s FOK
were not considered. Through this experiment, the study showed that third spaces are effective
learning spaces for the students if time is permitted and teachers are committed to the kind of
collaboration and planning that went in to this experiment. However, this teacher had the
support of two outside researchers and even then decided that all that went into this unit could
not be conducted on a regular basis (Barton & Tan, 2009). Whether these practices can be
implemented as regular, everyday classroom practices was not demonstrated.
Moje et al. (2004), too, examined working toward the third space through examining how
literacy practices comprise everyday FOK and discourses within a predominantly Latino middle
4th SPACE TEACHING 35

school in an urban area. This study was part of a longitudinal school study and community
ethnography to examine the intersection of students’ and teachers’ FOK and Discourses. They
did not focus data collection on instructional practices. Instead, they collected data on when and
how students used their FOK in text examination. The participants consisted of 30 students
between the ages of 12 and 15 in a bilingual immersion program within which a science
curriculum was being implemented. Data sources consisted of participant observations,
interviews (formal and informal), surveys, and document collections. Students were all
interviewed at least once and all were observed in classrooms at least two times per week for five
years.
In their study, they pointed out that teachers and students from differing backgrounds can
bring different knowledge bases from multiple sources (Moje et al., 2004). They referred to
results from the differing knowledge bases as potential competing Discourses between everyday
FOK, from home, community, and peers, and the school FOK, including teachers’ discourses
and personal knowledge bases (Moje et al., 2004). Their findings suggested the need for
integration of the diverse Discourses and knowledge bases through the development of a third
space where “what seem to be oppositional categories can actually work together to generate
new knowledge [and] new Discourses…” (Moje et al., 2004, p. 42).
According to Moje et al. (2004) the third space can serve as a scaffold to not only learn
practices “framed” by the privileged, but ultimately as a basis from which to confront and
advance the practices that are typically valued by the privileged. In addition, it can serve as a
bridge for historically marginalized students to obtain conventional academic knowledge and as
a navigational space for guidance through multiple disciplines (Moje et al., 2004).
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The findings of the study revealed that the students did not share their FOK or knowledge
acquired outside of school within their classrooms because the teacher did not call upon them to
do so. They eagerly shared many examples from their personal lives from which knowledge was
gained from family, community, peers, and popular culture that related to the science they were
learning with the interviewers who directly withdrew that knowledge from them. However,
because the teacher did not draw upon it within the classroom it was not shared there. They also
found that it is necessary for teachers to actually construct the third space by actively engaging
students in activities that include experiences from their FOK.
These findings produced implications that the third space is something that teachers and
curriculum developers should be actively seeking to construct with their students by gaining an
in-depth understanding of the FOK and Discourses their students experience outside of school
and by drawing upon that knowledge within the classroom. Still, they did not address the
teachers’ FOK in their data collection, analysis, or findings even though they initially pointed out
that teachers’ informal knowledge or FOK can serve as a potential competing Discourse to the
students’ FOK. Teachers are individuals who have FOK that they themselves draw upon just as
their students do. They have personal beliefs and life experiences that have given them
knowledge and abilities as well (Gonzales & Moll, 2002). In the subsequent section the ways
that teachers draw upon their own FOK in classroom practices is examined.
Teachers’ Funds of Knowledge
Within the context of education, FOK has mostly referred to examining students’ FOK
and the ways in which understanding what students bring with them into the classroom can be
positively and productively utilized to enhance student learning (Barton & Tan, 2009; Gonzalez
et al., 2005; Moje et al., 2004). There is a limited amount of literature that examined teachers’
4th SPACE TEACHING 37

FOK and the ways in which teachers’ FOK impact student learning and engagement. Yet,
teachers’ FOK can determine the ways in which teachers’ backgrounds, beliefs, and formal and
informal knowledge inform and influence their instructional practices and decision making,
interactions with parents and students, how they address issues with diversity, and their roles in
increasing student achievement (Babb, 2012; Bensimon, 2007; Gupta, 2006; Hedges, 2012).
Hedges (2012) argued that when examining teachers’ practices and decision-making they
could not be looked at as evidence-based approaches. Rather, they must be looked at as evidence
informed because being “informed” allows for a range of factors to be considered, for example
informal knowledge or FOK. Her research was based on Hammersley (2005) who found that
research should be filtered through teachers’ experiences and understandings because teachers
use both professional knowledge and informal knowledge that is based upon their personal
beliefs and experiences to inform their practices. Hammersley (2005) argued that practice is a
“matter of judgment” and that even when interpreting research-based practices that personal
assessment of the information is necessary and requires a person to draw upon their own
experiences and background knowledge.
Hedges (2012) further argued that teachers’ decision making using their formal
knowledge is also influenced by their informal knowledge because their personal knowledge, or
informal knowledge, is deeply implanted within them and when they need to make unconscious
or spontaneous decisions they usually rely on their informal knowledge. Further, their learning
philosophies were even based upon their personal or informal knowledge. See Figure 2 which
represents knowledge construction within a hybrid 4th space that recognizes teachers’ informal
knowledge or FOK as having a role in students’ learning based upon teachers’ informal
4th SPACE TEACHING 38

knowledge, which influences their instructional practices, decision-making, and curriculum
choices (Hedges, 2012).
In a qualitative, interpretivist study, conducted in Early Childhood Education Services
with 10 teachers and 35 students in New Zealand, Hedges (2012) found that when engaging with
students, teachers regularly relied on knowledge from their informal knowledge or personal
experiences and their range of FOK evolved from many sources. Hedges (2012) examined
students’ interests as the basis for curriculum and pedagogy development and sought to
understand the array of knowledge that teachers draw on in their decision-making and practices.
Three categories of context emerged as family-based, center-based, and community-based FOK.
The sources within these categories included family, relationships based within the center,
community, as based through professional learning, their general education and teacher
preparation programs, and through professional and academic reading. The findings
demonstrated that the teachers’ informal knowledge became mixed with their professional
knowledge and influenced their curriculum and decision-making practices.
The findings additionally revealed some of the ways that teachers’ personal knowledge
was infused in their teaching and interactions with students, specifically when the teacher’s
interests and/or knowledge bases corresponded with the students. A teacher in the Hedges’
(2012) study whose father had encouraged her childhood interest in science, initially drew upon
her FOK from informal experiences in nature and gardening and later combined that with her
formal knowledge in science in her decision making and other actions. It was found that the
teachers believed it was important to encourage interests that the students valued. However, the
study did not address the ways in which teachers’ decision making and interactions with students
are impacted when their interests and knowledge bases do not correspond with the students.
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In an examination of the impact and contribution of teachers’ personal beliefs on their
practices, Bensimon (2007) looked at 10 students who had succeeded in “crossing the invisible
cultural and social border” between community colleges that serve economically disadvantaged
students and universities. She argued that there are two limitations on students’ success. They
are: there is no consideration given toward looking at practitioners’ (teachers) knowledge,
beliefs, and experiences and how they relate to students’ success. The other is that traditional
research obligates an outside researcher to construct knowledge and subsequently share findings
that become “best practices” for all instead of the practitioners themselves conducting research to
inform their practices. The study showed that institutional agents – whether acting in their job
descripted roles or not went the extra step to help these students succeed. She found that these
practitioners’ were directed by their own “inner ethical compass” to support these students
(Bensimon, 2007). The students themselves credited these institutional agents with their success.
Bensimon (2007) demonstrated that through the practitioners’ role as researchers, within
her Practitioner-as-Researcher Model, they examined their own FOK and recognized their own
perspectives, assumptions, biases, and experiences and how those contributed to their lack of
support for African-American and Latino students’ success. She argued that practitioners have
formulated their own implicit theories about why students fail or succeed without being aware of
why they are making these theories. They are unaware of their knowledge source in formulating
their thoughts (Bensimon, 2007). Bensimon’s (2007) Practitioner-as-Researcher Model was
implemented with practitioners at the college level only.
Bensimon (2007) emphasized that through copious educational research the dominant
paradigm posited students’ success as being a result of their own persistence, effort, and
motivation alone with no consideration of what knowledge and experiences the teacher draws
4th SPACE TEACHING 40

upon in the formulation of their instructional and classroom practices, which have been known to
directly impact student success (see Astin, 1985 as cited in Bensimon, 2007; Dowd & Korn,
2005; Kuh et al., 2006a, 2006b; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991, 2005; Perna & Thomas, 2006).
As a result, the students who do not fit the mold of this ideal student are typically blamed for
their lack of success (Bensimon, 2007). She further expounded upon the notion that researchers
in higher education have been accused of using quantitative studies to justify the status quo and
that these studies are completely free of any qualitative approaches such as examining human
experiences (Bensimon, 2007).
Human experiences are a part of one’s teaching. Teaching is fashioned by FOK and life
experiences and personal beliefs about teaching and learning and these life experiences and
beliefs contribute to what teachers believe is important for students to know and learn (Kern,
Roehrig, & Wattan, 2012). Beliefs reflect a person’s understanding or perspective of the way
things are, will be, or should be. As a result, it is reasonable to believe that beliefs are, at
minimum, partially formed based upon personal narratives and cultural understandings and that
teachers draw upon these FOK to create instructional and classroom practices.
In a qualitative case study with an ethnographic approach, Kern et al. (2012) examined
how one immigrant teacher’s personal expectations and beliefs affected his classroom decisions
and practices, and how they influenced his expectations of students as well. The study was
conducted over the course of one academic school year at a diverse Mid-Western high school.
Through 12 weekly, full class period, classroom observations and 12 weekly post-observation
interviews, they explored how an Asian immigrant teacher’s FOK shaped his personal beliefs
and instructional practices. In addition, they conducted an initial semi-structured interview to
gain understanding of his personal views on teaching and learning at the beginning of the school
4th SPACE TEACHING 41

year and then again at the end of the school year. The majority of his students were immigrants
and he taught all of the English language learners and students with special needs in his ninth
grade physical science class. To minimize their bias as researchers in their interpretations, they
employed member checking for credibility and authenticity and crosschecking for
trustworthiness.
The teacher was an Asian immigrant with a strong belief in hard work and education as a
vessel for success and structure and routine as essential classroom practices for students’ success.
They found he viewed his students through his Asian immigrant lens, his strong belief in
meritocracy, and his belief that everyone has equal opportunities to succeed (Kern et al., 2012).
Through his Asian immigrant lens he believed that hard work would eliminate classroom
difficulties that stemmed from unfamiliar cultural norms and expectations, which often produced
conflict with his students. Because of his personal beliefs on education, he utilized teacher-
centered learning strategies, which caused him to believe his students were off task when they
did not respond well to these strategies. Their findings suggested the teacher’s beliefs and
experiences as an immigrant shaped what he found to be important for students to know and how
he taught (Kern et al., 2012). In addition, he did not take into consideration his students’
personal experiences and what they potentially brought to the learning environment. He was
aware of the cultural differences among his students but he did not acknowledge those
differences, nor how those differences impacted his students’ abilities to learn (Kern et al.,
2012). Like Hedges (2012) and Bensimon (2007), Kern et al. (2012) demonstrated how
teachers’ personal experiences and beliefs as shaped by their FOK influenced their beliefs about
students and impacted their decision-making. However, Kern’s et al. (2012) findings are limited
due to the size of the study.
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Gupta (2006) reaffirmed Hedges’ (2012) findings in the contribution of teachers’ FOK to
the construction of their formal knowledge through findings in a study conducted at an urban
college campus in a historic minority neighborhood. The study consisted of teacher candidates
who were enrolled in a semester-long child development class. The study was conducted over
two semesters. All of the students included in the study were required to be recent or first-year
generation immigrants, had lived in their native countries, and were education majors. The
purpose of the study was to identify how time and space could be created in a child development
class for minority immigrant and non-immigrant teacher candidates to formally reflect on their
prior personal experiences and beliefs within an examination of child-development theories as
they related to the candidates’ own learning experiences. Further, she investigated the common
perceptions held by the immigrant minority teacher candidates. The data collection consisted of
classroom discussions, written reflections, and a survey at the end of the semester. During the
initial phase of the study, they sought understanding of the progressions that the students
underwent to make meaning of theories and how they connected them to their personal
experiences. They also collected data on the teachers’ perceptions and backgrounds through a
survey.
The candidates reflected through narratives recounting their own experiences in acquiring
skills for reading, writing, math, telling time, tying shoes, imaginary play, and moral
development. These experiences were closely tied to familial relationships and life lessons
learned and provided insight into the ways these FOK contributed to their cognitive processes.
Furthermore, they demonstrated the internalization of these socio-cultural experiences, which
illustrate the connection between personal experiences and the creation of formal knowledge.
Gupta (2006) found that through these narrative experiences the teachers’ utilization of their
4th SPACE TEACHING 43

FOK to construct theoretical knowledge allowed the candidates “to better conceptualize
theoretical ideas of development and situate abstract ideas within concrete and more familiar
contexts” (p. 16). Moreover, the candidates experienced the skill of reflective practice and
interactional feedback, and acknowledgement of and respect for their beliefs and values as
critical suppliers to their knowledge construction. The inclusion of the vast array of the students’
perspectives permitted the examination of child-rearing and educational practices “beyond the
confines of North America” (Gupta, 2006, p. 16).
Gupta’s (2006) study demonstrated the ways in which socio-cultural experiences
contributed to teachers’ knowledge construction and how this knowledge encompassed practical
knowledge and implicit beliefs. Her study showed how teachers’ FOK, which include their
value and belief systems, are reflected in what they know and in their understanding of
theoretical concepts. It is limited to immigrant teachers’ perspectives only. Teachers’ beliefs
and perceptions about themselves or others are traits within them that impact their knowledge
construction and classroom practices (Gupta, 2006).
Teachers are human beings who have everyday lived experiences and prior life
experiences that have contributed to and continue to contribute to their FOK. Their belief
systems are formulated based upon their FOK (Gonzalez et al., 2005). The FOK are the source
from which they draw upon in their decision-making and practices to shape their thoughts,
opinions, beliefs and value systems (Babb, 2012; Bensimon, 2007; Gupta, 2006; Hedges, 2012;
Kern et al., 2012). Hence, they are not without informal knowledge when they come in to
classrooms. Teachers come into the classroom with lived experiences that influence how they
view knowledge construction, what they think is important to know, and what they attribute
students’ success to (Bensimon, 2007; Gupta, 2006; Hedges, 2012; Kern et al., 2012). Their
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ability to create strong positive relationships with all students is also guided by their FOK. In the
subsequent section multi-centric teaching, anti-racist education, and culturally responsive
practices are examined to provide a background and a frame from which to view multi-centric
teaching as defined by this study.
Multi-Centric, Anti-Racist, Culturally Responsive Teaching
While multi-centric education, anti-racist education, and culturally responsive practices
are situated within various vantage points, they are inter-connected through their tenets of
education as being without margins and involving a plural center. In education with a plural
center, multiple experiences, histories, cultures, and identities are central to learning. However,
anti-racist education extends culturally responsive practices to include the examination of power
and privilege by challenging systemic racist domination and oppression (Dei et al., 2000;
Thompson, 1997). Established multi-centric education is framed from anti-racist education and
entails curriculum being presented from multiple centers, such as race, ethnicity, gender, class,
sexuality, religion etc. (Zine, 2002).
In a 1995 study, Ladson-Billings qualitatively examined three White teachers and five
Black teachers who were nominated by parents and administrators as “good” teachers. Her aim
was to challenge deficit paradigms through inquiry into the culturally responsive practices of the
teachers. For two years she conducted interviews and unannounced observations of the teachers
at least three times per week. In addition, the teachers took part in collaborative research of each
other through observations of videos of each of the teachers teaching and analyzed the data in 10,
2-3 hour meetings.
Their culturally responsive practices that initially surfaced through the interviews were
proven in their teaching videos. The findings demonstrated that the students in these classrooms
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reached high achievement, at- or above-grade level, despite overall low scores within the school
and the district. From this, Ladson-Billings (1995) developed a grounded theory of culturally
responsive practices. She found characteristics of teachers who implement culturally responsive
practices as being willing to nurture and support cultural competence and the development of a
critical consciousness and being able to cultivate students’ academic growth (Ladson-Billings,
1995). Ladson-Billings’ findings demonstrated that culturally responsive teachers are risk takers
who challenge assumptions, hold high expectations for their students, conceive themselves as
members of the community, and reflect upon their own inadequacies instead of blaming their
students when they do not succeed.
Gay (2002) described culturally responsive teaching as the utilization of students’
cultural views, traits, and knowledge as a method for effective teaching with ethnically diverse
students. She identified responding to ethnic diversity in instructional practices, communicating
with ethnically diverse students, constructing communities of learning and demonstrating caring,
including ethnic diversity in curriculum, and the development of knowledge about cultural
diversity as being five critical components of culturally responsive teaching (Gay, 2002). These
components aim to draw upon students’ FOK to serve as screens through which their knowledge
is constructed.
According to Gay (2002), culture influences attitudes, shapes beliefs, and impacts
behaviors that both students and teachers bring into the learning environment. The American
educational system is centered on Euro-centric culture, beliefs, values, practices and experiences
(Banks, 1993; Bennett, 2001; Gay, 2002; Smith, 2009; Thompson, 1997). As a result, students
face double jeopardy in learning environments such as mentioned above when they are expected
to engage in learning experiences within environments that are culturally unfamiliar to them
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while separating themselves from their own culture (Gay, 2002). Gay (2002) suggested that
teachers acquire a deep knowledge of their students and the contributions of their ethnic groups
to build relationships with their students, create curriculum related to their students, and
implement pedagogical practices that are consistent with the learning styles of their students.
Gay (2002), like Ladson-Billings (1995), did not specifically address the role of institutional
racism and its impact on the marginalization of students of color within the classroom and
society and the need for the teacher to confront and transform the status quo. While culturally
responsive practices are critical in students’ identity affirmation, the utilization of students’ FOK,
and potentially transforming teachers’ FOK through knowledge building on various ethnic
groups and cultural practices, culturally responsive practices unaccompanied by an anti-racist
perspective enables racist and oppressive systems to remain in place by not specifically
challenging racism.
Villegas and Lucas (2002) agreed with Gay (2002) by describing culturally responsive
teachers as those who have knowledge about their students and design learning experiences that
draw upon their students’ FOK to expand what they already know. However, in addition, they
emphasized that culturally responsive teachers develop a socio-cultural conscious through self-
examination and reflection of their own FOK to understand how the formulation of their identity
has been created by their personal history (FOK), possess affirming views of their students, and
see themselves as change agents who challenge inequities and transform systems.
While the elements of culturally responsive practices are present in the actions of anti-
racist educators, proponents of anti-racist education look beyond the individual teacher’s lens. In
anti-racist education, racism was conceived from a macro perspective as being structural and
systemic. Racism was viewed as a system of privilege and oppression in which a network of
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traditions that have emulated from Whiteness are upheld and perpetuated (Thompson, 1997).
Anti-racist educators identify, challenge, and transform those structures that preserve systemic
racism and other forms of oppression (Dei et al., 2000). Anti-racist education differs from
culturally responsive practices in that it does not focus on the utilization of students’ FOK and
teachers’ understanding of differences, but rather its intention is to prepare and equip students to
resist domination, and critique and question assumptions, worldviews, systems, and institutions
by confronting the status quo to affect social change, which is vital for all students of color and
in particular for White students who possess mono-cultural worldviews due to their White
privilege and traditional ethno-centric educational experiences (Nieto, 2000).
Thompson (1997) explained that education as it currently stands in America does not
entail the framework that is needed to address the marginalization of oppressed groups and racial
inequities. She pointed out the need for education to speak to the experiences of the people who
are being educated and who exist within society. Thompson (1997) argued that the current
system in education results in mis-education, which does not prepare students for the society in
which we live in America today. She emphasized that the causes of marginalization and
oppression are greater than simply addressing the unawareness, fallacious beliefs, or individual
defects of teachers. However, instead, she argued for a specific anti-racist pedagogy that
conceives racism as embodied within institutions and systems that must be confronted to
challenge those individual privileges and ethnocentrism that “sentimentalizes, marginalizes,
demonizes, exoticizes,” or flat out ignores other ethnic groups (Thompson, 1997, p. 10), those
same systems that created, cultivated, and uphold these individual beliefs.
Thompson (1997) justified the necessity for anti-racist pedagogy by pointing out that
White ethnocentrism that is present in the American educational system intersects with racism
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through, for example, the treatment of non-White groups as opposing “others” who should be
assimilated within their dominant group. However, she further argued that ethnocentrism is not
the sole trepidation in anti-racist education. Thompson (1997) pointed out that if ethno-centrism
were the sole problem then multi-culturalism, culturally responsive practices, and anti-bias
preparation for educators would suffice. However because society itself is racist, then in order to
equip students to shift structures their education must be anti-racist vs. anti-bias. She cautions,
however, that anti-racist pedagogy be educative and not political. It must deepen knowledge and
understanding. In addition, she caveated that non-racist or color-blind education, which does not
see race, is ineffective because it does not acknowledge race and thus “denies the effects of
racism” (Thompson, 1997, p. 14). Thompson (1997) strongly established the need for anti-racist
pedagogy, but did not stress the necessity of anti-racist educators as being anti-racist themselves
as individuals, nor did she stress the significance of multi-centricism vs. ethno-centrism in
education, both of which are critical factors in a teacher’s willingness and ability to provide anti-
racist education.
Dei et al. (2000) provided an international perspective of anti-racist education in an
examination of practices in schooling within a “westernized” society in Canada and described
today’s schooling conditions as “impossible” for marginalized students of color. In a
longitudinal study conducted by (Dei et al., 2000), exemplary practices of inclusive schooling
were examined over a three-year period. Six schools, including two elementary, two middle
schools, and two high schools served as the sites where researchers investigated the perspectives
of the participants and how their practices “integrated” inclusive resources, use of students’
FOK, the handling of diversity, and the recruitment of teachers and staff members of color.
They conducted case studies in which they gathered data in the form of observations, within the
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classroom and the schools, interviews of students, teachers, and administrators, and documents
that explained programs and policies for inclusive practices and implementation plans.
Dei’s et al. (2000) findings outlined seven central themes in successful anti-racist
education as described and observed by participants and documents that consisted of students
having: 1. Belongingness in class and school communities, 2. Support and empowerment to
transform the system, 3. Spiritual cultivation, 4. Emotional support from peers and educators,
5. Acceptance and understanding of racial identities, 6. High expectations from educators, and
7. Preparation for future goals. The findings suggested that anti-racist education should be
provided from a constructivist approach to create a learner-centered model of teaching and
learning. Within this learner-centered model, Dei et al. (2000) stressed that education should be
provided from within a plural center in order to de-center Euro-centric perspectives and
traditions as the “primary source” and thus alleviate the marginalization of students of color.
Anti-racist education as defined by Dei et al. (2000) described the basic steps of
providing anti-racist education as “establishing representations of a plural center” within visual
representations, knowledge representations, and teacher and staff diversity (p. 16). However,
like Thompson (1997) he did not address the teachers’ personal beliefs as shaped by their FOK
and lived experiences as being influential on their willingness and ability to provide the anti-
racist pedagogy and practices.
Multic-centric teaching, as presently established, is an integrative approach that is framed
from within anti-racist education. Zine (2002) discussed the multi-centric teaching approach that
was established in Dei’s et al. (2003) Removing the Margins: The Challenges and Possibilities of
Inclusive Schooling. Zine (2002) pointed out that the current, dominate Euro-American
educational model “de-legitimizes and devalues other ways of knowing” (p. 38) and forces other
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ways of knowing and perspectives from the center, thus marginalizing non-Euro-American
students.
Teaching from a multi-centric perspective provides an unconventional method
that works, not to eliminate, but to de-centre dominant Euro-centric knowledge so that
other knowledge (based on non-European cultures, indigenous knowledge, and spiritual
ways of knowing) may share centre stage and be incorporated throughout all aspects of
teaching and learning. (Zine, 2002, p. 38)

This differs from multicultural teaching models because it is not an addition to the Eurocentric
curriculum and practices, but instead it removes Euro-centricity from the center. Thus, many
perspectives and cultures are validated and the intersectionalities of many forms of identity are
acknowledged.
Oppression is confronted in multi-centric teaching and social justice and equity are
sought against racism, sexism, classism, religious discrimination, ethnocentrism, ableism, and
homophobia (Zine, 2002). Zine (2002) argued for the adoption of a multi-centric framework of
teaching both heterogeneous and homogenous groups of students and cautions that the
applicability to certain populations should not be a determinant in the implementation of multi-
centric teaching. As she explained, inclusion of all groups derives from a global perspective,
from which all groups benefit from acquiring.
As acknowledged above, as they currently stand culturally responsive practices, multi-
centric education, and anti-racist education all seek to empower students and enhance learning,
however, they do not all share the same tenets. Thus, this study referred to the combination of
culturally responsive practices, anti-racist education, and multi-centric teaching as multi-centric
practices. In this study, culturally responsive practices and multi-centered teaching are
considered, but with an extension of an anti-racist approach, which includes addressing and
challenging systemic racism.
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Summary
A review of the literature on FOK revealed the positive impact that the utilization of
students’ FOK has on students’ learning and achievement and the teachers’ understanding of
their students’ lives, experiences, and cultural history. However, the research on teachers’ FOK
and the role it has on teachers’ decision-making and practices was sparse and provides
implications for the need for a deeper examination. The studies discussed above all contribute in
some way to the understanding of the role of teachers’ FOK as this study aims to do. However,
the inclusion of the literature on culturally responsive practices, anti-racist education, and the
established multi-centric teaching has been provided as a means to provide an explanation for
why the researcher in this study recognizes the need for culturally responsive practices, anti-
racist education, and multi-centric teaching as it exists, but calls for the need to recognize the
coupled practices amongst the three as multi-centric practices.
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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
This study examined the role of teachers’ FOK in the utilization of students’ FOK,
coupled with academic or school knowledge in 3rd space teaching and through the use of multi-
centric practices. Empirical research was limited in understanding how teachers’ FOK impact
their practices, and its function in students’ knowledge construction in hybrid learning spaces.
Research on the positive impact of including students’ FOK to conduct teachers’ practices and to
contribute to students’ learning has been established (Barton & Tan, 2009; Dei et al., 2000; Gay,
2002; Gonzalez et al., 2005; Greenberg & Velez-Ibanez, 1992; Ladson-Billings, 1995; Moje et
al., 2004; Zine, 2002). In addition, research has been founded on ways that teachers’ FOK
impact their practices (Bensimon, 2007; Gupta, 2006; Hedges, 2012; Kern et al., 2012). The
intention of this study was to contribute to the nascent discourse on the role of teachers’ FOK
and the influence it has on teachers’ practices and to gain an in-depth understanding of how
teachers’ FOK inform their practices in order to generate an approach to engage all students.
This section is provided to discuss the processes of methodology within which this phenomenon
was examined.
This chapter will discuss the ways in which this study answered the following research
questions:
1. How do teachers’ FOK inform their practices?
2. How do teachers’ FOK influence multi-centric teaching in 3rd space?
3. What are salient characteristics of multi-centric teachers?
The discussion in this chapter will provide an overview of the selected methodology and an
explanation for why it was appropriate. It will include a description of the sample and
population, instrumentation, data collection, and data analysis.
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Qualitative methods were used to conduct this study. The rationale for the utilization of
qualitative methods in this study was that these methods are best aligned with the inquiry design
of case studies of a small number of individual teachers. Qualitative research is inductive and
descriptive (Maxwell, 2013). Thus, due to the descriptive nature of the research questions in this
study, which sought to discover how teachers’ FOK inform and influence their practices,
qualitative method was most fitting. In addition, qualitative research allows the researcher to
interpret or understand participants’ experiences from their perspectives within settings that are
natural to them (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 2009). Because of this, characteristics of qualitative
research include data collection in natural settings, the use of the researcher as an instrument,
inductive data analysis, maintaining focus on the meanings that the participants hold versus the
meanings that the researcher brings, the use of multiple data sources, and an emergent design
through holistic accounts and reflexivity (Creswell, 2014), which were all necessary in this study
to describe the role of teachers’ FOK in teaching practices, and additionally within multi-centric
practices.
Sample and Site Selection
Merriam (2009) stated that sample selections in qualitative studies basically outline
“what, where, when, and whom to observe or interview.” For this study, a purposive or criterion
based selection process was utilized for participant selection. As small numbers characterize
qualitative studies, six teachers served as participants within this study. The participants
included teachers of color and White teachers to gain access to a heterogeneous group of
teachers to provide a range of FOK to gain understanding of how their FOK inform their
practices. Gupta (2006) examined pre-service teachers’ use of their FOK to construct theoretical
knowledge; however, the study solely consisted of the perspectives of first generation minority
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immigrants. Kern et al. (2012) examined the role of teachers’ FOK in decision-making and
practices, however it was limited to one immigrant teacher. This study sought to understand a
range of perspectives from White teachers and teachers of color. Of the six teachers selected,
three were selected based upon being reputed to be culturally responsive. The remaining three
teachers consisted of teachers who were not reputed to be culturally responsive or who were
reputed to employ practices from the traditional mono-centric perspective. The researcher
conducted this study at a charter school that is located in southern California and serves students
in grades 5 – 8. The charter school is a small public charter school founded 10 years ago to serve
students in low-income communities surrounding the downtown area of a city. It is part of a
larger network of more than one hundred charter schools across the United States. The mission
of the charter school is to ensure that their students develop the academic skills, intellectual
habits, and character traits needed to succeed in top-quality high schools, colleges, and the
competitive world beyond.
Instrumentation
The natural setting within which teachers conduct their practices provides the means for
“face-to-face” interaction between the researcher and the participants through observations and
interviews (Creswell, 2014). This study extracted experiences and perspectives from teachers to
glean understanding of the research questions through interviews, observations, and an open-
ended questions survey. Interviews were selected for this study in particular to allow the
researcher to learn things for example, feelings, opinions, and other inner perspectives that may
not otherwise be disclosed through other means (Patton, 2002). One interview each was
conducted with the six teachers. There was no imposed time frame, as the researcher allowed the
participants to answer questions and contribute to the discussion as long as they needed. The
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participants were informed that they were free to end the interview at any time. Observations
were selected for this study because of the “firsthand experience” they provided as well as the
opportunity they provided for the researcher to observe participants in areas in which they may
otherwise be uncomfortable in discussing (Creswell, 2014, p. 191). Classroom observations of at
least one hour each were conducted with the researcher serving as an observer only. An open-
ended survey question was subsequently administered to gather personal demographic data for
each participant and to offer the participants a place to answer questions and share information in
a way that did not involve the presence of the researcher. The survey questions were created by
the researcher and were directly aligned with the research questions to provide a method for
coding during analysis. The researcher did not conduct a formal document analysis; however the
researcher did informally observe documents, for example, student work posted within the
classroom and student-created collaborative posters.
Protocols
The interviews with all participants were conducted in a semi-structured manner to not
only gain understanding of the ways in which the teachers draw upon their FOK to inform their
practices, but also to use probing as necessary. In addition, the researcher questioned and
observed the teachers to determine levels of engagement in multi-centric practices as well.
Although the questions were written down in a particular order, the interviews were not highly
structured because the questions and the exact wording of the questions were not determined
ahead of time with the intention of being strictly enforced (Merriam, 2009).
The questions were adapted from original questions provided by one of the researcher’s
doctoral advisors, Reynaldo Baca. The questions were designed around the six types of
questions discussed by Merriam (2009). They were experience and behavior questions, opinions
4th SPACE TEACHING 56

and values questions, feeling questions, knowledge questions, sensory questions, and
background/demographic questions. Additionally, they were designed around three of the four
additional types of questions that Merriam (2009) discussed as hypothetical, devil’s advocate,
and interpretive questions. The interviews were conducted in one-on-one, face-to-face settings
within teachers’ classrooms within their school site.
Data Collection
Data were collected within the teachers’ natural setting. After each question was posed,
the researcher followed up with probes or clarifying questions whenever necessary. Participants
were allowed to answer each question until they stopped talking. Interview scheduling was
constructed to accommodate the teachers. All of the interviews were conducted individually to
avoid influence from other participants and to provide an opportunity for the participants to
honestly answer each question. Every effort was made to ensure the teachers’ comfort and
ability to feel safe and unrushed. The interviews were audio recorded on multiple devices to
ensure preservation of the data. The researcher took notes during the interview for re-visitation
both during and after the interview. One to two hours was set aside immediately following the
interviews and observations for expanded note taking. The data was transcribed using line
numbering and included identifying information of when, where, and with whom the interview
took place. The observations were conducted to provide data on classroom practices including
the teachers’ interactions with students. The survey was provided to collect demographic
information, but also to provide the teachers with the time and space to answer questions with
additional details and insight that they may not have been comfortable with sharing during an
interview or may not have exhibited during the observation.
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Data Analysis
In qualitative research there is no hypotheses being tested and the data is compiled and
analyzed through inductive analysis versus deductive analysis, which means that the researcher
begins with collecting pieces of information and compares it between themes instead of testing a
theory as is done in quantitative research (Creswell, 2014). Merriam (2009) stated that
qualitative research is not conducted in a step-by-step method and further pointed out that data
collection and analysis take place concurrently. Analysis of data takes place in the process as
early as the conclusion of the first interview. “Emerging insights” may arise through this initial
analysis that will later lead to modifications of future interview questions (Merriam, 2009).
Merriam (2009) described the goal of analyzing data as finding answers to your research
questions. In attempting to find answers for the research questions in this study, the constant
comparative analysis method was utilized, which consisted of comparing pieces of data with
each other and finding similarities from which to group them by (Merriam, 2009). This
approach was utilized to determine categories and to identify themes in an ongoing basis
throughout the data analysis process. As data was gathered from the first interviews and
observations it was subsequently examined to guide successive interviews and observations,
specifically in clarifying and probing questions and looking for particular behaviors and practices
during observations.
In this study, data transcription took place using line numbering for organizational
purposes following each interview and data analysis was then performed for each piece of data
collected. Coding was performed to organize and analyze the data. Subsequently, analytical
coding was performed, which consisted of grouping codes to construct categories. This type of
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analysis was performed in the first and second levels of analysis. Side column notes were
interwoven within the raw data to track the researcher’s thoughts during analysis.
Initially, the data was compiled into a table. The data included six interviews, six
observations, and an open-ended questions survey for all six participants. Both the interviews
and observations had an expanded set of notes as well that were written immediately after the
interviews and observations. Harding (2013) suggested four steps that included 1) identifying
initial categories after transcript readings, 2) writing codes within the transcripts, 3) reviewing
the list of codes and revising as necessary, and 4) looking for themes and findings in each
category as an effective process for analyzing data. These four steps formed the basis for the
approach that was used to analyze the data in this study.
After initially reading the transcripts, open codes were identified within the data by
underlining key words and phrases, which were then written, in the margin. Summary words
were created for the phrases and were also written in the margin to be used in the next phase of
data analysis. These words were then compiled in a list of potential categories. Harding (2013)
suggested looking for commonalities among the data when looking for categories and themes.
The commonalities among the words, phrases, concepts, and ideas became potential themes.
Harding’s (2013) third step of reviewing and revising the code list allowed the researcher
to group the data together to decide which codes should fit within the categories, to collapse
categories, and to create sub categories. At this point of analysis within this study, the open
codes transformed throughout the analytic coding process through a review of the data multiple
times to gain a more in-depth understanding of the meaning of the data. As a result of this
process, the categories were then grouped based upon their relationships and the codes were fit
into the categories (Merriam, 2009). The original five categories were then collapsed into two
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categories of experiences and comfort. Both categories emerged throughout all three research
questions. Sub-categories emerged for experiences in personal and professional settings. From
the comfort category emerged a sub-category of levels within multi-centric practices. The
teachers’ ability and willingness to engage in multi-centric practices informed the results for
research questions two and three; and served as indicators and determinants of the levels based
upon the impact of the teachers’ FOK as causalities of their ability and willingness to perform
multi-centric practices as a result of the 4th space examination.
Credibility and Trustworthiness:
Because reality can never be fully “captured” due to its ever-changing nature, it is
important to incorporate strategies such as triangulation to ensure credibility (Merriam, 2009).
In qualitative research, credibility can be increased by triangulation, member checking, having
knowledge of when an acceptable amount of engagement in collection of data has transpired,
reflection by the researcher on oneself, and peer review processes (Merriam, 2009). Member
checking and triangulation were used within this study.
Triangulation was used through the use of multiple sources (six people served as data
participant sources) and multiple methods (interviews, observations, and a survey).
Triangulation was performed through comparing and crosschecking interview data from
participants with different perspectives and through follow up questioning. In addition, data
from observations and an open-ended question survey were collected. Member checking was
another strategy that was utilized to ensure credibility through the solicitation of feedback from
the participants throughout the analysis and collection process. This was done to ensure that no
misinterpretation occurred on behalf of the researcher.
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Additionally, reflexivity, or the process of critical self-reflection, was employed by the
researcher in this study as a means to increase credibility by carefully examining potential biases
and assumptions of the researcher as a result of being a woman of color, a teacher, and as a
former student who experienced education from a Euro-centric, mono-cultural perspective. In
collecting and analyzing the data the researcher’s perspectives were clarified through expanded
notes and through the use of a field log.
In addition, the data was treated as confidential to preserve ethics by, for example, using
pseudonyms for the participants and the school site, which was a concern for the participants.
Credibility in qualitative studies is also dependent upon the ethics of the researcher because the
researcher him or herself is the instrument through which the data is collected (Merriam, 2009).
Maintaining professionalism with the participants and following observation and interview
protocols during the study were key factors for maintaining a high level of ethics as a researcher.
As a novice researcher, every effort was made to maintain integrity and “intellectual
rigor” to perform the qualitative methods necessary to conduct this study (Merriam, 2009) to
ensure credibility and trustworthiness. The researcher provided an explanation of the purpose of
inquiry and a disclosure of methods, and maintained confidentiality through the use of
pseudonyms and by meeting with teachers privately. Permission was gained from administration
and the teachers to conduct the study and teachers were informed of their right to end their
participation in the study at any time.
Summary
The purpose of this chapter was to provide the methods for conducting this study,
including how the research questions were answered, a description of the selected methodology,
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and a description of the sample and population, instrumentation, data collection procedures, and
data analysis procedures.
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CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
The purpose of this qualitative study was to gain an in-depth understanding of how
teachers’ FOK informed their practices in order to generate an approach to engage all students.
The study was informed by the hybridity theory. The hybridity theory posited that individuals
draw on multiple sources of knowledge, or FOK within physical and social spaces in which
interactions take place to construct knowledge (Moje et al., 2004). The term spaces refer to
physical and social spatial dimensions of interaction from which knowledge is constructed.
Teaching in 3rd space occurs in hybrid physical and social spaces in which students construct
new knowledge through the utilization of formal academic knowledge (1st space) and their own
FOK (2nd space). In this study, teachers’ FOK were examined to gain an understanding of the
bearing that teachers’ FOK has on their willingness and ability to not only utilize students’ FOK
in 3rd space, but to present formal school knowledge from a multi-centric stance as well. The
purpose of this chapter is to answer the research questions by presenting the findings from the
data analysis.
Multi-centric teaching was originally coined to describe an approach within anti-racist
education (Zine, 2002). Multi-centric teaching, as defined by this study, referred to: teaching
practices that include the established multi-centric teaching but extends it to combine anti-racist
education with culturally responsive practices. Anti-racist education addresses institutional
racism, challenges the status quo, and deconstructs the dominant narrative (Dei et al., 2000;
Thompson, 1997). Culturally responsive practices utilize students’ cultural views, traits, and
knowledge (Gay, 2002; Ladson-Billings, 1995). Multi-centric teaching conducts teaching
practices from multiple centers, such as race, ethnicity, gender, class, sexuality, religion etc.
(Zine, 2002). Teachers’ FOK were defined for the purposes of this study, as any type of
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informal knowledge gained outside of formal school knowledge, from their cultural beliefs,
family, lived experiences, and other belief systems acquired from their community, peer groups
(including those within organizations), and popular culture.
Research Questions and Design
The study design consisted of a qualitative case study in which the researcher collected
data from six classroom teachers through classroom observations, interviews, and surveys.
The research questions that guided this study are:
1. How do teachers’ FOK inform their practices?
2. How do teachers’ FOK influence multi-centric teaching in 3rd space?
3. What are salient characteristics of multi-centric teachers?
Table 1 contains the relevant characteristics for the selection of the sample.

Table 1
Sample and Data Collection

Participants

Ethnicity

Years of
Teaching
Experience
Reputed to
be a
Culturally
Responsive
Teacher

Type, Location, Length
The
Transformer
Latina –
Colombian
11 Yes 1 hour interview and 1 hour
observation completed within
the teacher’s classroom, and a
32 question survey (see
Appendix C), all completed
on separate occasions

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Table 1 (Cont’d.)

Participants

Ethnicity

Years of
Teaching
Experience
Reputed to
be a
Culturally
Responsive
Teacher

Type, Location, Length
The Servant Latina -
Mexican
1.5 Yes 1 hour interview and 1 hour
observation completed within
the teacher’s classroom, and a
32 question survey (see
Appendix C), all completed
on separate occasions

The World
Traveller
White 5 Yes 1 hour interview (within an
on-campus office) and 1 hour
observation (within the
teacher’s classroom) and a 32
question survey, all completed
on separate occasions (see
Appendix C)

The
Neutralizer
Filipina 12 No 1 hour interview (within an
on-campus office) and 1 hour
observation (within the
teacher’s classroom) and a 32
question survey, all completed
on separate occasions (see
Appendix C)

The
Searcher
Latina –
Colombian
5 No 1 hour interview and 1 hour
observation both completed
within the teacher’s classroom
on the same date and a 32
question survey completed on
a separate occasion (see
Appendix C)

The Seeker White 5 No 1 hour interview and 1 hour
observation completed within
the teacher’s classroom, and a
32 question survey (see
Appendix C), all completed
on separate occasions

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The participants in the study consisted of a range of ethnicities, years of teaching
experience, gender, and reputations as culturally responsive teachers. Fifty percent of the
teachers had reputations of being culturally responsive and the experience of all of the teachers
ranged from 1-½ years to 12 years’ experience as classroom teachers. There was only one male
teacher and five female teachers; however this is a realistic ratio in elementary and middle school
settings. Thirty-three percent of the teachers identified as White-Americans, 50% identified as
non-White Hispanics, and the remaining 17% identified as Filipina-American. Of the non-White
Hispanics, two identified as Colombian-American and one identified as Mexican-American.
For organizational purposes and privacy of the participants they will now be referred to
as The Transformer, The Servant, The World Traveller, The Neutralizer, The Searcher, and The
Seeker. Each of these names were selected for the participants as a result of the data that was
collected and was directly connected to each participant through a direct statement from the
participant or similar information that was shared by the participants. The names were bestowed
upon the participants with positive intentions by the researcher to understand information
provided by participants regarding their own practices or needs. Two dominating themes of
experiences and comfort emerged throughout the analysis of the data of the teachers’ ability to
and willingness to engage in multi-centric practices as shaped by their FOK. The teachers’
experiences, whether at home, at school, or at work was found to be the FOK source that was
most influential in shaping their practices. Three levels of multi-centric practice were identified
based upon the teachers’ individual practices: seeking, developing, and continuous. The
participants who performed multi-centric practices at higher levels (developing and continuous)
were mostly driven by their FOK from personal and professional life experiences. Whereas, the
participants who were not engaging in multi-centric practices (seeking), were more driven from
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their FOK that informed their levels of comfort, which were shaped by what they had been
previously taught to believe. All of the participants formed new FOK at various points within
their lives, which also contributed to their classroom practices, based upon their personal and
professional experiences.
Initial Visit at the School Site
The Charter is a small, public charter school that serves students in grades five through
eight. It is located within the downtown area of a large city in southern California. The school is
one of nine independent charter schools within a large urban district and buses students in from
surrounding low-income communities. The Charter is a part of an organization of many charter
schools across the United States and this location was founded 10 years ago.
Although the school does not mirror a traditional public brick and mortar school from the
outside, the walls on the inside vibrantly demonstrated motivational murals, individual student
recognition, and recent student work. The researcher was greeted, signed in, and led to a
classroom on the lower level where all of the fifth grade classrooms were located. A map of the
school, along with the participants’ names and classroom numbers were given to the researcher.
The researcher was not given any specific knowledge concerning who of the teachers were
reputed to be culturally responsive, nor was any other information regarding the participants
given. An explanation of the design of the program was given.
Findings for Research Question One
RQ1 How do teachers’ FOK inform their practices? In addressing the question how
FOK informed practices, all of the participants reported in varying degrees of details that it
guided their practices just as strongly, if not more, than the formal knowledge they received
through teacher preparation and professional development did. One participant pointed out, “I
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would tell people that believe that teachers’ personal biases and cultural beliefs don’t guide their
decisions that that is a dangerous stance to take” (The Transformer). The findings for research
question 1 are presented below with a description of each teacher, all of whom are referred to as
pseudonyms, which were found to represent particular aspects of them.
Funds of Knowledge in Instruction and Pedagogy
The Transformer grew up in America as the youngest child of two immigrant parents.
Her early years were spent in the mid-western part of the country. The family’s income was
lower-middle class while both of her parents pursued their doctorate degrees.
During this time my mom received federal assistance in the form of welfare and was
working as a waitress at night to make ends meet. I remember while in [a Midwestern
state] going to elementary school and receiving bilingual education as well as support to
learn English. Because we lived in graduate housing there was considerable diversity and
we had opportunities to meet other students and their families from around the world.
(The Transformer)

She did not visit her parents’ home country until she was 11 years old, but was raised
with strong cultural ties. Every year since her first visit there she has gone to visit and today
goes with her own family to instill those same values in her children.
Later, when they relocated to southern California their income evolved to upper-middle
class. She described her later experience in school:
Having grown up in a predominately White neighborhood with all White teachers, I felt
the discrimination. I grew up around people who thought calling me ‘the Mexican’ was
an insult and who refused to believe that both my Colombian parents had Doctorates.
One of the biggest insults that they had for me was calling me ‘the Mexican.’ (The
Transformer)

Once she moved to southern California, she attended a school “with a bit more diversity”
but was then surrounded by teachers who she felt “treated her differently and who did not believe
that I had travelled outside of the country during breaks because I was probably the ‘gardener’s
kid.’” She explained the following of one of her teachers: “He made me feel as though he
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expected me to fail.” He discouraged her from joining the math club despite the fact that she
continuously had a high performance in math and often was the only student in the class who
could solve certain math problems. She recognized how she was treated differently than her
classmates by her teachers even though as she pointed out, she “had high grades” and her parents
“were just as educated and financially stable” as her classmates.’ She said, “There was no
difference other than me being Latina.”
Her life experiences outside of the home impacted her FOK, which shaped her classroom
practices even more so than what she was taught at home. Her mother believed in the American
dream and everyone having the same opportunities; she felt that it was up to the individual to
succeed through education. While she sought to instill this belief in her daughter, The
Transformer’s experiences at school did not allow her to share in these beliefs with her mother.
Her FOK that formulated her teaching and other classroom practices are a direct result of the
mistreatment and miseducation that she received.
I distinctly remember having to take a survey in middle school in which I had to indicate
my ethnicity and I realized that if I did so they would know exactly who had taken the
survey because I was the only Latina in my grade level. (The Transformer)

The marginalization that she felt through her classroom experiences has impacted her
practices as a teacher. As a result of her treatment as a student, she believed it is her duty to
improve her students from where they are, to push them, “and to not make any assumptions of
what they know coming into my classroom.”
The Servant also grew up in her early years with two immigrant parents. However,
when she was in fifth grade her life drastically changed when her father was deported. As a
result, her family spent some time homeless and living with others until they later reached solid
ground financially and were able to get their own place. All of her neighborhoods and schools
4th SPACE TEACHING 69

consisted of all Latinos and thus she did not grow up amongst diverse groups. She experienced
“culture shock” when she left her community and went to college. She recalled, “I get here and
it’s predominantly White, and it’s just like I wanted to find my people and I wanted to latch on to
them, but [I realized] that’s not what the experience should be.” She was classified as an English
Learner as she only spoke Spanish in her home while growing up. She explained, “I taught
myself how to speak English by watching movies.” Although she was reclassified as fluent
English Proficient in middle school and classified as a gifted and talented student, she was not
able to attend those classes due to her family’s constant moving. The Puente Program in high
school was her first exposure to the possibility of going to college.
Her FOK from her life experiences within her home, community, and school shaped her
teaching and other classroom practices. She stated: “I’m brown, I look like my students, and I
speak the language they do, I can relate to them one-hundred and twenty percent.” She further
explained that her FOK guided her “one-hundred percent” and
… knowing Spanish and that background that was taught from home, that’s the first
language I ever spoke, um allows me to work with those students a little bit more and in
figuring how to better provide them with the grade level support they need. (The Servant)

She used her FOK to build relationships with the students and connect information to
them. She brings it in ways they can relate and understand.
The World Traveller’s life experiences took him around the world, and to many
different communities. “My dad was in the Marines.” As a result of this, he lived in several
states and countries. His FOK that most impacted his teaching were developed through these
experiences in living in other countries, and experiencing school around the globe. “I mean
moving around and stuff like that definitely has impacted the way I teach…” As a White male,
he did not explicitly get taught his current views on race in his household while growing up but
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his FOK were developed through his experiences. His life overseas made him want to share with
students that there is more than just “the American way of doing things” and he does not teach
that any one way is better than the other, but rather he presents information from and encourages
his students to analyze information from multiple perspectives.
You know, they have to realize that just because this is the way we do things – it doesn’t
mean it has to be the way we do things. It’s crucial…they realize life is going on beyond
the borders of [that city] or the confines of [this city], so that definitely influences the
topics we do. (The World Traveller)

His German family background and military connection developed his fascination with
history and politics from an early age. He recalled his grandmother’s childhood stories of
waving to children on passing trains who were, unbeknownst to her, being transported to
concentration camps and his own memories of attending field trips to concentration camps while
going to school overseas.
You kind of had to adapt as a military kid, you know and you had to be used to – you had
to embrace change. I never liked in school how sometimes you get like the facts, but not
all the facts. (The World Traveller)

He recalled a high school experience of a teacher uplifting Robert E. Lee as a positive
contributor in history. He also pointed out how living in Japan and Germany made learning
European history literally hands on, which taught him to see all perspectives – not just American
perspectives.
Although he did not develop comfort in discussing race from his upbringing, he is very
comfortable talking about race today. “…one of the main reasons that race is a problem [in
America] is that we don’t talk about racism – there are these subjects that’s taboo and that’s a
problem.” His comfort and clarity with discussing race and privilege initiated within a unit in a
writing class on White privilege. After this class, his life experiences changed due to his new
perspective and his FOK were further developed and his belief system changed, which later
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formulated his decision making as a teacher and his overall practices. He draws on his childhood
experiences abroad and these adult experiences when he makes instructional and other classroom
decisions.
The Neutralizer explained,
Growing up, I was not taught about other groups of people, let alone see my people in the
pages of our school textbooks. My interactions with people from different groups were
by way of school interactions, media, friends, etc. and by what I heard about certain
groups from my parents or relatives’ interactions with them. As I got older, I began to
challenge and change some of those views of my parents. I was also taught to question
and be critical of things. It wasn’t until I got to college, outside of my neighborhood,
where I learned the histories and struggles of people from different cultures and walks of
life. As an Ethnic Studies major and as a gay woman of color, I appreciate people from
different cultures, races, religions, etc. (The Neutralizer)

The Neutralizer grew up in the same city where she currently lives and works. When she
was two years old her parents bought a home in a middle class suburban neighborhood of the
city. Her father was in the military; however that did not impact her day-to-day life as he went
away for months at a time, but the rest of the family remained intact in their home. Her paternal
grandparents lived in the home with her while she was growing up and while she was close with
her parents and other nearby extended family, she was closest to her grandmother who over saw
her daily life while her parents worked. Throughout her childhood, her extended family
members were very involved in her daily life and often aunts, uncles, and cousins lived with
them for short periods. Her parents were both immigrants. The neighborhood that she grew up
in was “all” Filipino and the schools she attended were not diverse either, consisting of “all
Filipino and African-Americans.” She too experienced “culture-shock” when she went away to
college.
Her FOK that shaped her teaching and other classroom practices were developed by these
home experiences. “I think for me it’s just being conscious of where my kids are coming from.”
4th SPACE TEACHING 72

The extended family environment she was raised in helped her understand her students as being
on their own or having little support due to language barriers etc. When asked if her life
experiences shape her decision-making in the classroom as a teacher she replied: “yes.” She
drew on her extended family background and related to her kids having multiple adults or “not
necessarily the parents as the sole party involved.” She remembered, “when I went to college or
when I went outside my neighborhood I felt like [I did] not belong in a sense.” She believed that
her “kids” (students) may sometimes feel like this and she understands that. Her experiences as
being uncomfortable guided her interactions with them.
Her experiences with other groups of people did not develop until later in life when she
went to college and began interacting with other people. It was at this time, as an ethnic study
major, that she began to develop new FOK based upon those experiences. It was also at that
time when she began to challenge and question what she was taught about other groups of people
by her family while growing up. When asked about her comfort with discussing racial issues, she
stated: “for me I feel, depending on the severity of it, um I feel very comfortable talking about
it,” she explained that she wants to be objective and does not want to be biased or “not listen to
both sides.”
The Searcher: When asked, what impact does what you were taught as a child and what
you learned from informal life experiences about groups who were different from you and your
family have on you today when you interact with people from those groups, The Searcher
replied, “It influences everything I do.” Both of her parents were immigrants and she relied on
their stories to understand the experiences of others. She was raised “with mostly White
people.” She drew on her parents’ stories of their experiences when making instructional
decisions when something the kids could relate too arises (i.e. immigration) “because most of
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them come from, um other countries as well.” When describing a story that she used with her
students she said, “I think I chose that because I come from a family of immigrants.” She lived a
different life than her students and she thinks it is difficult to view students without having
stereotypes because “everybody was raised with stereotypes” and have ideas of “how to view
people and put them in boxes.” When asked about stereotypes leading to personal biases she
explained, “I try to understand their point of view before making judgments.” She recalled
stories of visiting her parents’ home country and “not feeling Latina enough.”
Her FOK that shaped her instructional decision-making and other classroom practices
were those from her experiences while growing up in an upper-middle class suburban
neighborhood “with mostly White people.” The high school that she attended was also “mostly
White.” Her mother “completed university” and her father “completed medical school.” Her
experiences in school while growing up were “normal.” She attended private school and
“struggled academically” until her late elementary years when she switched to public schools.
She speaks both Spanish and English but was not identified as an ELL.
The Seeker grew up in another part of the country in an “upper-middle class”
neighborhood that she described as “affluent with fairly little diversity.” Both of her parents
were American born and both completed law school. She attended Catholic school all
throughout her K-12 school years. Her parents were strict but raised her and her brothers to
“develop our own ideas.” Her fathers’ tenacity in requiring specificity in communicating
impacts her instructional practices. She described her early years of teaching as being highly
influenced by her experiences in Catholic school, specifically with her classroom management
and expectations. She relied on her FOK from her early childhood teachings in spontaneous
classroom decisions when, for example, determining what is important for students to know.
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She became aware of her background and how it impacted her through later experiences when
she realized she “was the only White person in the room.” It was at that time that she realized
she must make “a cognizant effort to not let that be the only voice in the room.” She feels a
conflict in FOK with her students’ when she is placed in a position of discussing racial or
socioeconomic issues. This conflict originated when she was required to acknowledge
differences and constantly discuss race and socioeconomic issues during a teacher preparation
experience. Race was not something that was conversational in her early life “experience.” “It
was racist to acknowledge race.” “I was very colorblind and was like everybody’s the same.”
She experienced a shift in her beliefs in the development of new FOK, but still does not have a
definite comfort level. Her FOK impact her instructional decisions and other classroom
practices; however she is “aware of her privilege.”
Funds of Knowledge in Interactions with Students
The Transformer drew upon having a similar background with the students, but her
connection stems from more than just a similar ethnicity. She “cares.” She wants to build the
relationship with the kids because she wants them to feel
safe, supported and able to comfortably thrive in class. I think my life experiences,
having always felt very frustrated by being misunderstood and stereotyped, have led me
to be much more accepting of everyone else. One of the most important components is
that students feel safe sharing their stories with one another and with me and know that I
am not going to judge them on their beliefs.

She sees her students as individuals by
…acknowledging that every student comes with different strengths and I seek to find
their strength in order to help my students progress. I build a rapport by taking as many
opportunities as possible to call home and connect with parents to positively reinforce
student behavior. I reach out to parents to ask for volunteers in and out of the classroom.
With students, I build a rapport by sharing with them stories about me and my family.
One of the ways that I validate my students’ racial and ethnic identities is by listening to
their stories and really just providing them the avenue to say what they feel and what they
believe in without passing judgment. One way I’m able to do this with my students is by
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sharing with them my own ideas of my racial and ethnic identity and allowing them to
agree or disagree and ensuring them the classroom is a safe environment for them to
speak and agree and disagree with each other. (The Transformer)

The Servant drew upon her similar background with her students to build a relationship,
and she also reaches out to parents and students beyond the classroom. She visits their homes,
eats in their community restaurants, and tries to get to know their additional cultural practices
(i.e. Columbian) on her own. She believed her ability to relate to the kids builds their connection
which makes her more in tune when something is going on with them. She said that the students
have been “comfortable enough” to approach her to talk about personal things that are going on
with them at home. “I feel like I do share a little bit of my history and my experience with my
students and that also makes them drawn to feel more comfortable to talk to me about these
issues.”
She focused on connections for relationship building and empowerment. She took up a
collection and delivered a basket for a family whose father was deported. She had experienced
the same thing during her childhood and this really hit home for her and it was important for her
to let that family know that someone cares. She explained, “none of the 8th grade team knew
about it even though the student was an 8th grader.” She teaches 5th grade, but the student still
came to her. She believed her FOK were “very beneficial” in her current setting but believed
were she to teach in another setting with students whose backgrounds were not as similar, she
“would do the same thing.”
The World Traveller is mindful of his privilege and position in society. He believed in
taking it from the macro to the micro to “resonate.” He wants his students to feel “validated.”
He is concerned with how they feel in his classroom. He builds relationship with students by
understanding their position in society.
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I tell ‘em you know, we all have the opportunity to do whatever we want, but it’s kind of
like a race, like a mile race, and if somebody’s starting two steps from the finish line –
you’re starting a mile back – we both have the same opportunity but it’s easier [for them]
to win right? I want them to have confidence when they walk in a room. (The World
Traveller)

He also wants to make the learning meaningful to them, “I mean when I was a student if I did not
see relevancy – ok it’s a cool story - but I think it’s all about framing things.”
The Neutralizer relies on her experiences within her home life when interacting with her
students. She remembers how she felt and what her life was like and she relates that to them in
building relationships.
…just being aware of where they’re coming from, how they might be feeling when they
come to school; or sometimes when they didn’t do their homework – what’s going on at
home? Of course they [parents] want to be there, but other things might not permit them
to, so I kind of am a little more conscious about all of those little things. (The
Neutralizer)

She individualizes her relationships with her students by getting to know them. She explained,
“knowing that just because they celebrate the same things [and remembering] they may do so
differently.” She feels that it is important to
…listen to your students and their experiences maybe early on in the year and [to]
continue to try to build that relationship so that you can learn more from them and then
bring something in that’s connected in to who you have in your class. (The Neutralizer)

The Searcher relied on the fact that she, and her students, are Latino and speak Spanish.
“I think I can connect with the students here because um because we’re Latinos and I was raised
Latina.” “We all speak Spanish for the most part.” She feels a connection because she has a
“minority background” and can “understand other minorities” but was raised in mostly White
neighborhoods so she feels that she can make connections with people “either based on um
culture or not…” “She believed that stereotypes are here and you cannot get around them
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because “everyone was raised with them but you can be transparent and talk about what people
think.”
The Seeker was and still is to some degree “uncomfortable with acknowledging
differences.” She is comfortable with using similarities from her FOK with Catholicism to relate
to some of her students and tries to incorporate those connections when she can. She sees the
relationship initiating in some way “on the parents too” and not just the teacher. She has only
reached out to the parents to find out what their expectations are if there is “a problem with the
kid not being successful” in her class. She feels that her life “experience” is “different” from her
kids because of “economic differences” and she also “struggles” to talk to her kids “about that”
from her “position of privilege.” She acknowledges that there is a “separation” between school
and home when “how you teach and expect them to behave is different from what happens at
home” and believes it “creates a division.”
In getting to know her students on an individual basis she “starts with general sweeping
stereotypes,” but later develops them into individual pieces of knowledge of each student. She
said she develops “relationships with individual students around what they like and how they live
their lives” and also commented that this is the “same” way she builds a rapport and develops
relationships with their families. “I don’t know that much about some Mexican traditions but I do
have the advantage of also being Catholic – and so that’s something we can relate…” She
admits that she reflected a lot on her interactions with her students because relationship building
is “not something I naturally prioritize.”
In analyzing the data from the interviews, observations, and the surveys for research
question one, two categories emerged: FOK in instruction and pedagogy and FOK in interactions
with the students. The role of the participants’ FOK in their instruction and pedagogy and in
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their decision-making and judgments is reflected in their responses. These responses explain
how the participants’ FOK were formed and how they determine what they think is important for
students to know. It is important to note that all of the respondents’ experiences while growing
up – within school or within their homes – heavily influence their classroom practices.
Findings for Research Question Two
RQ2 - How do teachers’ FOK influence multi-centric teaching in 3rd space? In
analyzing the data on how the teachers’ FOK influence multi-centric teaching in 3rd space, three
categories emerged. They are: seeking, developing, and continuous (see Table 2). All six of the
teachers are teaching in 3rd space to some degree – meaning they are using the students’ FOK
with school knowledge to create new knowledge in some kind of way. However, some of them
are barely drawing upon students’ FOK and may only be doing so in spontaneous, unplanned
moments or through the use of the required curriculum, or when forced to do so because of the
students bringing in their own FOK, which requires the teacher to respond. The data showed that
the teachers who fall in the seeking category are teaching within their comfort zones only and
will not bring in what they are not familiar with or do not know in terms of other perspectives,
multiple centers, or anti-racist practices. These teachers’ FOK have not prepared them for these
interactions. They use what has been given to them in the required curriculum and do not
regularly or naturally seek to include other perspectives. One participant was classified as
continuous, two were identified as developing, and three were found to be seeking.

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Table 2
Levels of Multi-Centric Teaching
Funds of Knowledge in Multi-Centric Practices: Levels of Multi-Centric Teaching
Continuous:

The Transformer
This teacher is fully engaging in all aspects of multi-centric practices
(anti-racist, culturally responsive, and multiple centers) and is fully
aware of her FOK and how they shape her practices. She is teaching
within a reflective 4th space.

Developing:

The Servant
The World Traveller
These teachers are engaging in multi-centric practices (culturally
responsive and multiple centers) and have developed apparent
relationships with their students. Their practices are more inclusive
of students’ FOK and empowerment methods and less anti-racist.
The practices and relationships that they described in their
interviews were clearly observed in their observations. They have
the willingness and ability to incorporate students’ FOK.

Seeking:

The Neutralizer
The Searcher
The Seeker
These teachers are seeking to incorporate multiple perspectives and
may have drawn on students’ FOK slightly in a spontaneous moment
to get a point across. These teachers talked about drawing on
students’ FOK and building relationships with their students during
interviews, but these practices were not observed. They may be
willing to utilize students’ FOK but may not have the knowledge of
how to do so.

Continuous
The Transformer continuously engaged in multi-centric practices. She used a critical
approach in teaching. She brings in race to initiate the conversation. She used multiple
perspectives. She teaches students how to question the credibility of authors and discuss the
biases they may bring.
It is my job as an educator to teach them to be critical of what they read and what is in
their textbooks in order for them to make decisions on what they believe in. [She
explained,] we cannot simply believe what the media and the mainstream presents us, we
must dig deeper and question and look from different points of views. When we don’t do
this, when students don’t recognize that there are multiple points of view is when they
start internalizing the views of whatever they just read versus really thinking for
themselves and putting themselves in the shoes of other people. (The Transformer)
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She described one way of incorporating multiple perspectives through the following
practices:
when reading historical content whether this be in the form of a novel or whether this be
in the form of a textbook – being able to identify who the speaker is and what biases they
come with and then bringing in a counter story or counter narrative that would allow us to
understand what the other side is feeling. (The Transformer)

This was observed in students’ essays on the wall in the classroom on the Christopher Columbus
narrative.
I think that it is important to teach kids that there are multiple points of views to every
story and that it is important to be cognizant of all of those points of views before one
alternately passes judgment or forms an opinion about an event.
One of the strategies that I’ve used a lot in facilitating conversations about race
with my students is bringing in articles about current events that are happening…having
students read articles where the author talked about race to allow us to have a jumping off
point. I have found that I must do a lot of outside research to enhance the [required]
curriculum. (The Transformer)

Observation: She was clearly content knowledgeable and had a strong apparent rapport
with her students. Her students were clearly accustomed to her practices. She was very
comfortable in interacting with her students. Her students were effectively engaged. They were
not afraid to take risks. She provided immediate feedback. Her students collaborated with and
questioned each other. She facilitated the discussion of values and beliefs to prepare the students
for a writing task in which they would determine the values and beliefs of the Native Americans
and the White immigrants.
Developing
The Servant used “everything to build relationships” and built relationships through
everything. She recognized connections while teaching (knowledge in practice) and modified
lessons in practice to make connections for her students based on her FOK and knowing how her
students may perceive the information as well. She sought to learn from her students. She
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disregarded stereotypes altogether and understood that even within the same ethnic or cultural
groups there are differences and ultimately students are individuals. She had first-hand
knowledge of her students through her Latina background. She attended community events,
families’ restaurants for dinner and conducted home visits in an informal way for example, by
just holding general conversations with mothers. She challenged the White-hero mentality by
engaging her students with high expectations and having a “they’re capable mentality.”
“I definitely feel like socio-emotional learning is very important for us to have as
teachers.” She sought to build and sustain relationships with students through the curriculum.
She initiated discussions on personal issues (i.e. deportation) to build relationships and to make
connections for them to the content. She believed it is important to teach students how to discuss
social issues and race authentically because
students should learn how to work with [all people] other students. Like I said my goal is
not to just focus on Latino groups, because guess what? The moment they walk out this
door, this is not all they’re going to see.”

She said it can make kids uncomfortable when they go out of the confines of their own
non-diverse community and “I’m doing them a disservice if I don’t teach them about everyone
else.”
She did not believe the required curriculum is culturally responsive “so it is my goal to
make stuff culturally responsive” and she depended upon her Latino background to do that. She
was culturally responsive across the content. She changed the language of the examples to make
them relatable to students. She does this because “it draws them to want to know what’s going
on and how to solve the problem because it’s affecting them.” She provided directions in
English and Spanish when necessary. Her students were allowed to engage in discussions with
their peers and write in their home language when appropriate.
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She viewed cultural responsiveness from a wider perspective to include age and popular
culture and sought to tie it all in. She used artifacts to initiate discussion to include multiple
cultures – not specific to a Latino base but from all groups of people. She used videos, articles,
audio etc. to bring in multiple perspectives in addition to what the curriculum had. For example,
she drew on students’ understanding of immigration issues to teach about pilgrims and refugees
and different kinds of immigrants.
Observation: One can clearly see the positive relationship she had with her students and
how she related to them. She was very comfortable in joking and interacting with them while
she was teaching. Her students were eager and engaged. When they volunteered to answer
questions or make comments they fully responded and had something valuable to say. She
brought up multiple perspectives and differences and was not afraid to engage the students in a
conversation about “why” the Native Americans were treated differently by Whites. She spoke
in English but used Spanish for clarification or reinforcement as needed. She gave immediate
feedback consistently when students shared answers. She actively engaged them in structured
collaboration with each other and called on boys and girls evenly.
The World Traveller wanted to be comfortable in his educational experience while
growing up so he instilled confidence in his students to build their comfortability and confidence.
His global experience guided him to want students to realize the way people and systems in
America operate are not the only way. He recognized that within the country there are different
perspectives and outside of the country there are even more perspectives and presents curriculum
and lessons from that standpoint. He does not “candy coat” racial issues and discriminatory acts
and encouraged students to challenge them. He focused on building trust with students. He
initiated conversations about race and believed that the problem with racism existed because it is
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taboo and not talked about. He openly addressed the achievement gap with his students and
acknowledged they are in the “race” with disadvantages and are starting behind others due to
them having privilege, but sought to build confidence, ability, and esteem in his students. “I
think it’s crucial that students realize that they have a voice.”
He required students to justify their thoughts in writing and verbally. He explained that
understanding multiple perspectives helps students as citizens because they need to know that the
world exists beyond the confines of their community and country in order to broaden their
perspective. He recognized that students like to read “what resonates with us or like to have our
own experiences validated,” so he attempted to frame the curriculum from macro perspectives to
micro perspectives to engage students. He believed “we should be a community of learners” and
that students should be accountable for teaching each other as well. “I try to incorporate…more
progressive pieces…I never liked in school how sometimes you get like the facts, but not all the
facts.” He taught the Holocaust and brought in his German family’s background and
perspective. He did not believe the required curriculum was relevant enough and supplemented
with audio, video, articles etc. He recognized irrelevancy and saw the “traps in curriculum for
teachers to not deviate.”
When he was a student he recognized how the curriculum was “just changed” through
language and perspective promoting to glorify the southern role and White people and he wanted
students to get the whole story and not just the dominant narrative.
Observation: His rapport was apparent. His students were comfortable with interacting
with him. He was very comfortable with the content and knowledgeable about it. He guided
them through their thinking versus just giving them answers. He provided constant feedback.
His students were obviously accustomed to his routines and practices. He demonstrated an
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excitement for learning and for the content and in turn his students’ positively responded through
engagement. His students were comfortable with participating in discussions. He did not
demean the students, and he turned their statements into positive learning attributions. “Okay he
made a connection in a different way…” The students were not afraid to be wrong or give
honest answers.
Seeking
The Neutralizer responded to her students’ needs when they brought them up. For
example, she was explaining an upcoming unit and her students began to inquire about the role
of Latinos. It was at that time that she recognized the need to tie that in and explained later that
she was going to incorporate it into the unit. She later explained that she “carved a way into the
curriculum that was going to allow me to talk about Mexican Americans’ contributions” because
her students pointed out the absence so she decided to include it.
She understood some of their experiences from a personal standpoint of being a woman
of color, but she did not always initiate the students’ FOK. She was culturally responsive at
times and was willing to be, but was reliant more upon being responsive to them bringing in their
own perspectives vs. being active to seek them out. She used the required curriculum but
supplemented it to make it more relevant culturally; however, anti-racist teaching is not present.
She is comfortable with discussing race “depending on the severity” and was very
conscious of biases and being objective. Her FOK did not provide her with experiences of
diversity in school or in her neighborhood but her experiences in college enabled her to look
from multiple perspectives. She was comfortable discussing racial issues and content when it
came up, and would facilitate the conversation when it came up in videos and when students
brought it up “indirectly,” but she did not create lessons on it. When students brought up
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something tied to their FOK that may not necessarily be included in the lesson she would stop to
address it or address it immediately afterward.
Observation: Her rapport with her students was obvious. They respected her and she held
good management while maintaining a rapport. She clearly defined expectations and students
were clearly accustomed to routines.
The Searcher’s practices were reliant on the required curriculum and team collaboration
versus initiation. She recalled isolated events of ensuring multiple perspectives through the use
of required materials in a particular unit. She did not question curriculum. She stated, “They do
a good job of integrating different points of view.” She explained that she felt “relieved” to not
be “pressured” into talking about race, but said she was comfortable with talking about race and
liked to challenges assumptions but did not initiate it. She was comfortable with the option being
there to choose do address racial issues, but appreciated not being forced to do it. She followed
the required curriculum closely and does not branch out too much. She described a time when
she brought in an additional article when she taught about immigration. She thought the required
curriculum did not have “any one perspective that overpowers any other.”
She displayed Latin flags around the room to “validate students’ identities.” She allowed
students to write in Spanish when they first came to her class and used gradual release to bring
them to English writing. She also used Spanish for vocabulary development. She is not sure
what cultural responsiveness means but believed it to mean that she should not “single out” any
one culture; she should include all cultures, use culturally relevant literature, and phrase
culturally relevant questions to “think deeper about other cultures as well.”
Observation: There was no apparent rapport between her and her students.
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According to The Seeker, her FOK did not prepare her with cultural responsiveness, nor
did her teacher preparation program or any professional development. She explained that she is
seeking to understand it and utilize it as a future goal. She described her teaching as being
within her comfort zone and not knowing an “alternative.” She explained, “It is very easy to
devolve into guiding the classroom based on what you’re familiar with.” She is aware that she
needs to be culturally responsive and should present material from multiple perspectives but does
not feel prepared to do it.” “One of my biggest goals would be to present students with a
lot of different information, a lot of resources, different viewpoints and then develop their
ability to think for themselves and to kind of examine those pieces critically. (The
Seeker)

She does not feel that culturally responsive practices and drawing upon students’ FOK
needs to be prioritized because it does not come from leadership. She believed that if “teachers”
feel like they are not getting support “plus don’t really know how to do it” then it “just kind of
falls away.” She explained that they (teachers) are made to discuss discipline and other aspects
of curriculum but “because this is not something that is really talked about, it falls by the
wayside, um there are so many other things you need to do.”
She also explained that she is “not fully there yet in discussing racial content” and “not at
all there” in addressing socio-economic differences. She prefers “to see cultural relativity” in
practice versus actively seeking knowledge on her own on how to engage in the practices. She
looks at multi-centric teaching as an addition to the current curriculum, because as she explained,
“there’s not like a whole lot of opportunity to insert extra material.” She relied on her
curriculum team meetings to determine how to present information from multiple perspectives.
During a unit on Christopher Columbus she used the provided multiple perspectives, but made a
connection herself on the justice aspect and created a Socratic seminar. She “was comfortable
enough to get through that one.”
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Observation: There was not an apparent rapport between the teacher and students. She
directed the students to the article to find something on equity, which was one of the required
curriculum’s concepts, when they had a question about it, rather than engaging the students in a
conversation about what it is and what it looked like in relation to the Native Americans and
Whites they were studying.
Findings for Research Question Three
RQ3 - What are salient characteristics of multi-centric teaching? Some of the
original themes that emerged in answering this question required an examination of what makes
the teachers comfortable with dealing with race, or what enables them to lie down ethno-
centricism. The Transformer, The Servant, and The World Traveller were the participants who
were examined for salient characteristics. The remaining respondents could not be considered
because they did not deliberately engage in multi-centric teaching. The Transformer, The
Servant, and The World Traveller had life experiences that shaped their ability and created their
willingness to engage in multi-centric teaching. Some of the observed key salient characteristics
are described in Table 3.

Table 3
Salient Characteristics of Multi-Centric Practices
Salient Characteristics of Multi-Centric Practices
Teachers who have: • High levels of comfort in discussing race and issues that have racial
dimensions
• High levels of comfort in discussing socio-economic differences
• An in-depth understanding of the effects of privilege, power, and
oppression
• A willingness to lay down ethno-centricism

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Table 3 (Cont’d.)

Salient Characteristics of Multi-Centric Practices
• A willingness to include multiple perspectives
• A willingness to learn from people who are different from them
• A strong understanding of who they are

Teachers who do: • Go beyond the required curriculum
• Include multiple centers when teaching
• Acknowledge and address their potential personal biases and
stereotypes
• Challenge and confront the status quo
• Prepare students to question curriculum and the dominant narrative
• Include a social justice stance
• Hold themselves accountable for their students’ learning
• Seek to empower students and hold them to high expectations

Continuous
The Transformer accepted the given curriculum because it is required, but said it “is
always just a foundation.” She understands culturally responsive practices as “including and
incorporating different types of cultures in order for students to be able to relate to the content
through their own experiences.” She understands anti-racist education as
teaching the counter-narrative instead of teaching the status quo. [She] tries to be very reflective
[in her practices.] One way is really internalizing that I as a teacher am the one who determines
how much or how little my students’ learn. I acknowledge any biases I have with students. I also
try to promote a culture of acceptance and appreciation. We discuss the need to learn about
others as a way to grow as individuals and to improve our community. While we may not
always agree, learning about others will help us foster a sense of empathy with others. I am
bothered by the belief that students want to fail or are capable of failing, rather I think that as
teachers we must do what we need to do to support our students and if our students are in fact
failing that is a reflection of us as teachers and, therefore, should be something that we’re
expected to fix. (The Transformer)

She is “frustrated” with colleagues who “still believe that society is colorblind and that
race never matters.” She is also “frustrated” by colleagues who believe that “talking about
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culturally relevant pedagogy is reverse racism” and who “refuse to teach from a culturally
responsive stance.”
I feel very comfortable talking to students about issues of race because we have talked so
openly about other controversial issues. The value in incorporating students’ identities
into the curriculum is that typically it motivates students and it is important for them to
have the understanding of the world and also how they fit into the world. (The
Transformer)

She brings in literature that comes from similar perspectives of her students as a way to
incorporate their identities into her classroom curriculum. “…having kids make connections
with what we’re reading no matter how obscure the connection, seems to give students that space
for learning and connecting to the curriculum” (The Transformer). I present curriculum by
bringing in primary sources or critically analyzing the dominant narrative surrounding a topic
and rewriting it to show the counter-narrative or what the topic would sound like from another
point of view. These are continuous and on-going practices within her classroom.
Developing
The Servant sought out cultural knowledge of groups from which she was not a part of.
She eats in her students’ families’ restaurant. She conducts regular home visits to “see how the
students live and where they come from and why it is that they come every morning the way that
they do.” She reflected through collaborative conversations and regularly requests observations
from her coach to gain feedback and improve her practice.
She could relate to the kids. She recognized how her own FOK impacted her practices
and built upon it. She used her own time for “…going out to the community, going out to the
restaurants, going to cultural events, so you can learn a little bit more about them, not just on
texts. She pointed out that she does this on her own accord and is “not being told to do it” (The
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Servant. She explained that she believes that “everything” [learning] is determined around the
relationship that is created with the students.
Although she can relate to her students and shares a similar background to them, she is
not ethno-centric. She believed, “I’m doing them a disservice if I don’t teach them about
everyone else. I’m pretty sure they know and feel comfortable about themselves already, but it’s
also important to include other things” (The Servant). She is a very new teacher and is still
learning pedagogical practices, but she was constantly seeking to learn and improve her practices
to meet her students’ needs. “I’m currently involved in a teacher exchange program where a
teacher from Mexico is going to come here and I’m going to go over there, and I know that’s
going to expose them to a whole different viewpoint.”
The World Traveller put himself in the place of the students and he envisioned what he
would want for himself. He is not afraid to teach curriculum from an anti-racist standpoint. He
questions the curriculum; he seeks knowledge on his own. He develops himself personally
through active participation in politics through campaigning. He embraced the development of
new FOK from his life experiences and formal knowledge. He accepts information and
leadership from those who do not look like him.
He brought in the multiple perspectives. “I like to bring the topics to life, when
possible…trying to bring in this – the multiple perspectives – make it culturally relevant, but
exposing them to other perspectives...” He is an initiator. After learning about his White and
male privilege he decided, “this is what needs to be happening more” in terms of teaching and
exposing students to the concept and effects of White privilege. “I want students to know the
reality of what’s happening…” He believes students should not have to be in educational
settings beyond high school to first learn about the effects of privilege. He thinks students can be
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“…kind of overwhelmed when they get to college, with here’s this stuff. We don’t need to wait
to college.”
He recognized when teachers, whether in professional development settings or in
classrooms, were “talking about race, but not talking race” and he holds high standards and
expectations for professional development that is supposed to be engaging teachers in
discussions involving race. He stated,
We need to dive into this, one of the main reasons that racism is a problem is because we
don’t talk about racism, right, there’s these subjects that are taboo and that’s a problem,
right, we need to address those in an educated way… (The World Traveller)

He follows the required curriculum
because it’s mandatory [but] I try to supplement it as much as possible. As far as
curriculum choices, I try to incorporate – more progressive pieces. I never liked in
school how sometimes you get like the facts, but not all the facts. [He believed that]
…just having it in the book is a good start…but that’s what it is – is a start. (The World
Traveller)

Summary
The data collected from this qualitative study attempted to answer the following research
questions:
1. How do teachers’ FOK inform their practices?
2. How do teachers’ FOK influence multi-centric teaching in 3rd space?
3. What are salient characteristics of multi-centric teachers?
The analysis of this study demonstrated how teachers’ FOK influenced their ability and
willingness to teach in multi-centric 3rd space. It revealed if and how teachers performed multi-
centric teaching practices. There were two dominating themes that evolved through the analysis,
experience and comfort. These themes led to categories of practice based upon the extent of the
participants’ engagement in multi-centric practices.
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From the data analysis, three levels of multi-centric practice were identified based upon
the teachers’ individual practices. The three levels, seeking, developing, and continuous, were
determined by, if, and to what extent the teachers were engaging in multi-centric practices. The
study defined multi-centric practices as teaching practices that combine anti-racist education,
which addressed institutional racism, challenged the status quo and deconstructed the dominant
narrative, with culturally responsive practices, which utilized students’ cultural views, traits, and
knowledge, to conduct teaching practices from multiple centers, such as race, ethnicity, gender,
class, sexuality, religion etc. within an anti-racist stance.
The data showed that the participants who were identified as seeking were those who
expressed an interest in some aspects of multi-centric teaching, such as cultural responsiveness,
but did not feel prepared to engage in these practices. They also did not initiate the use of
students’ FOK on their own and they were not fully comfortable with addressing issues and
content that is racial in nature. The FOK that mostly impacted their practices were from their
developed belief systems from what they were taught in their early years. These belief systems
determined their comfort levels, which decided their practices. The participants who performed
multi-centric practices at the developing and continuous levels were mostly driven by their FOK
from their personal and professional life experiences.
All of the participants reported in varying degrees of details that their informal
knowledge guided their practices just as intensely as their formal knowledge. It is equally
important to point out that according to all of the respondents; their experiences while growing
up – within school or within their homes – heavily influence their classroom practices,
specifically their willingness and / or ability to perform multi-centric practices.

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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
Introduction
This chapter includes a discussion of the findings of the study, implications for practice,
and recommendations for future research. The discussion of the findings focused on the results
of the research questions and the need for the development of the 4th space examination. The
implications explain what the study’s findings suggest for potential practices, while the
recommendations discuss the ways in which future research may further develop 4th space,
multi-centric teaching. This discussion may benefit educators in all capacities from classroom
teachers to administrators, teacher educators, pre-service teachers, and anyone involved in the
process of creating, developing, implementing, or evaluating educational policies, practices, and
programs.
This qualitative study examined the role of teachers’ FOK and how teachers’ informal
knowledge informed and influenced their formal classroom practices. The purpose of the study
was to gain an in-depth understanding of how teachers’ FOK informed their practices and to
develop an approach to engage all students within today’s diverse classrooms. This qualitative
case study consisted of the examination of six classroom teachers. The triangulation of data
resulted from the collection of data from three instruments including interviews, observations,
and surveys. The research questions that were answered in this study are:
1. How do teachers’ FOK inform their practices?
2. How do teachers’ FOK influence multi-centric teaching in 3rd space?
3. What are salient characteristics of multi-centric teachers?
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The data analysis and interpretation demonstrated how teachers’ FOK influence their ability and
willingness to teach in multi-centric 3rd space. It also revealed if and how teachers performed
multi-centric teaching practices.
Discussion of Findings
There were two dominating themes that evolved through the analysis. They were:
experiences and comfort. The teachers’ experiences throughout their lives were the most
dominant knowledge source in the influence of their practices. The teachers who performed
multi-centric practices at the most developed and advanced levels were most influenced by their
FOK from their personal and professional life experiences (their interactions with others and
how they felt as a result of those interactions). However, the teachers who were not deliberately
engaging in multi-centric practices were most influenced by their FOK that informed their levels
of comfort, which were developed from what they had been previously taught to believe
(personal belief systems). What (content, racial issues etc.) and whom (people: race, ethnicity,
gender, religion, sexuality, economic status, immigration status etc.) they were comfortable with
influenced all of the teachers’ classroom practices and multi-centric engagement levels. From
these themes of experiences and comfort, came categories or levels of practice that were
determined by the extent of the participants’ engagement in multi-centric practices. The study
analysis yielded the following findings:
1. All of the participants reported in varying degrees of details that their informal
knowledge or FOK guided their classroom practices just as intensely as their formal
knowledge. Banks (1993) referred to this as personal knowledge that is learned within
the home or within personal experiences outside of school. Bensimon (2007) and Hedges
(2012) both found that teachers’ FOK shaped their decision-making, judgment formation
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and ultimately their classroom practices. This study also found that all teachers’ FOK
guided their classroom practices as discussed below and provides examples of when,
how, and why teachers’ FOK guided their practices.
2. The early experiences of all of the participants, within school or within their homes,
heavily influence their classroom practices. Similar to the findings by Gupta (2006) in
which teacher candidates recounted their own experiences in acquiring early skills
through written narrative descriptions, the teachers in this study shared experiences that
were closely tied to not only familial relationships and life lessons learned, but also to the
formation of their perspectives from these experiences and the connection between their
perspectives and the creation of their classroom decision making.
3. Three levels of practice were identified as: seeking, developing, and continuous, which
revealed if and to what extent the teachers were engaging in multi-centric practices.
Multi-centric teaching, as defined by this study, referred to: teaching practices that
included the established multi-centric teaching but extended it to combine anti-racist
education with culturally responsive practices. Anti-racist education addressed
institutional racism, challenged the status quo, and deconstructed the dominant narrative
(Dei et al., 2000; Thompson, 1997). Culturally responsive practices utilized students’
cultural views, traits, and knowledge (Gay, 2002; Ladson-Billings, 1995). The
established multi-centric teaching conducted teaching practices from multiple centers,
such as race, ethnicity, gender, class, sexuality, religion etc. (Zine, 2002).
4. The participants who were identified as seeking did not feel prepared to engage in multi-
centric practices, did not initiate the use of students’ FOK on their own, were not
comfortable with addressing issues and content that is racial in nature, and the FOK that
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most informed their practices were developed from their belief systems that were created
from what they were taught informally. These belief systems produced their levels of
comfort, which ultimately shaped their practices. Ladson-Billings (1995) characterized
effective culturally responsive teachers as those who are not only willing to acquire
cultural competence, but also a critical consciousness from which to challenge personal
assumptions, biases, and beliefs. Gay (2002) explained that culture influences teachers’
attitudes, shapes beliefs, and impacts behaviors and suggested that teachers develop a
profound understanding of their students and their ethnic groups to not only build
relationships with their students, but to also provide them with curriculum that is related
to them. Thompson (1997) cautioned that teachers should not only be anti-bias, but anti-
racist as well and to provide anti-racist pedagogy one must acknowledge and confront
racism and the effects of racism.
5. The participants who engaged in multi-centric practices at the developing and continuous
levels were mostly influenced by their FOK from their personal and professional life
experiences. Their practices were shaped by what they feel or felt as a result of their
experiences versus what they were told. Similar to what Bensimon (2007) referred to as
“an inner ethical compass,” which guided the institutional agents in her study, these
teachers are guided and motivated by their experiences to not only support their students,
but to provide them with multi-centric practices to prepare them to live and work within
the diverse society we live in today.
6. The salient characteristics of the multi-centric teachers are practices that the teachers who
were found to be developing and continuous in this study, regularly engaged in and
qualities that they possessed as individuals. The literature revealed that salient
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characteristics of culturally responsive and antiracist teachers are those who were risk
takers, held high expectations for their students, and reflected upon their own
inadequacies instead of blaming students (Ladson-Billings, 1995). They utilized all
students’ cultural views, demonstrated caring, and understood how their personal history
formulates their identity (Gay, 2002; Villegas & Lucas, 2002). Further, they identified,
challenged, and sought to transform systems that preserve systemic racism, presented
curriculum from multiple perspectives, and prepared students to resist domination and
critique and question assumptions, worldviews, systems, and institutions by confronting
the status quo (Dei et al., 2000; Thompson, 1997; Zine, 2002).
RQ1 How do teachers’ FOK inform their practices?
From the data two areas emerged: FOK in instruction and pedagogy and FOK in
interactions with students. The data revealed how the teachers’ experiences in life shaped their
classroom practices. It also demonstrated how their personal backgrounds and experiences
influenced their interactions and relationship building with the students. All of the participants
reported that their informal knowledge from their FOK guided their practices just as powerfully
as their formal knowledge did. However, some of the teachers reported that their personal
beliefs more so informed their practices, while others reported that what they felt as a result of
their life experiences more so informed their practices.
One of the participants in this study reported that the treatment that she received by peers
and teachers throughout her educational experiences directly shaped her classroom practices
which supports the research by Hammersley (2005) in his argument that practice is a “matter of
judgment” that requires individuals to draw upon their own experiences and background
knowledge. Another participant explained that when faced with an on-the-spot decision within a
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lesson during which she had to make a decision to discuss a potentially controversial topic with
her students, she relied on her FOK in her decision-making and went with the way in which she
was raised by her parents with the freedom from restrictions on particular topics or content. In
that moment, she utilized her FOK to determine what was important for the students to know.
Hedges (2012) described this practice as the influence of the informal knowledge on formal
knowledge in spontaneous or unconscious decision-making.
Hedges (2012) found that teachers whose interests and knowledge bases correspond with
those of their students tend to encourage the interests that their students value. The findings in
this study were similar to those findings, and additionally this study found that the teachers with
similar cultural backgrounds and lived experiences as their students were more inclined to not
only encourage their students’ interests, but to also draw upon their students’ FOK to strengthen
their learning experiences. In addition, their similar cultural backgrounds and lived experiences
allowed them to develop strong relationships with their students and their families. Advancing
the findings of Hedges (2012), this study found that when teachers’ FOK, or knowledge bases
differed from their students’ it created a “separation” and caused “division.” One of the
participants in this study recognized that her position of privilege caused her to “struggle” in her
approach to address economic differences or racial issues. Her “struggle” in her approach came
as a result of her personal belief system from which she was taught “to talk about race was being
racist.”
Another participant believed it was important to address his privilege and position in
society head on and to utilize it as a discussion starter to address issues of power and to prepare
students to challenge the status quo. He, on the other hand, drew upon his FOK that were
developed from later life experiences in which he was made aware of his privilege and
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subsequently changed his behaviors due to these newly developed FOK. Bensimon (2007)
pointed out that it is possible to develop new FOK and that practitioners can develop new FOK
through “informal and formal means, including such everyday experiences as talking with
colleagues, observing students, or reading journals and reports” (p. 451).
RQ2 – How do teachers’ FOK influence multi-centric teaching in 3rd space?
Three categories emerged during the analysis of the data on the influence of teachers’
FOK on multi-centric teaching in 3rd space. The data demonstrated that all of the teachers were
engaging in or had engaged in, to some degree, at least some of the aspects of multi-centric
teaching, as defined by this study. The categories, seeking, developing, and continuous, were
identified based upon the teachers’ engagement in multi-centric practices and their ability and
willingness to engage in multi-centric teaching practices. Three teachers were identified as
seeking multi-centric practices. Two teachers were found to be developing, and one was
recognized as continuous.
Teachers who are seeking are those who expressed a willingness to incorporate multiple
perspectives, but felt unprepared to do so. They remained within their personal areas of comfort
when performing classroom practices. When asked about discussing content or issues that were
seen as being about race, they referred to their personal levels of comfort as being determinants
of their practices. These teachers did not engage in anti-racist pedagogy. Even though racial
issues or racial content has arisen in their classrooms, they did not build upon them to bring in an
anti-racist stance. Thompson (1997) argued for the necessity of anti-racist pedagogy to combat
societal and institutional racism by preparing students to shift power structures. This is done
through education that deepens students’ knowledge and understanding of the effects of racism.
Non-racist or colorblind education in which racial content or issues are not discussed is harmful
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because it disillusions students to not recognize race, which in effect, unconsciously or not,
teaches them to “deny the effects of racism” (Thompson, 1997, p. 14).
In addition, these teachers did not engage in culturally responsive practices on their own;
for example, they relied upon the given curriculum to include multiple perspectives or to include
culturally relevant material, or they utilized students’ FOK only when the students brought their
informal knowledge and backgrounds into the classroom experiences. Gay (2002) described
culturally responsive teachers as those who chose to utilize students’ cultural views and include
ethnic diversity in their curriculum as a means of being an effective teacher. While these
teachers expressed a willingness to develop and refine cultural competence and a critical
consciousness to improve students’ academic growth, as Ladson-Billings (1995) pointed out as
characteristics of teachers who implement culturally responsive practices, they did not
deliberately engage in these behaviors on their own.
The teachers who were found to be developing in this study were those who willingly and
deliberately engaged in some aspects of multi-centric teaching. They are separate from
continuous multi-centric teachers in that they did not regularly perform all aspects of multi-
centric teaching, or they either engaged more heavily in culturally responsive practices or more
heavily in anti-racist practices, but did not balance both. This distinction is significant in this
study because as pointed out in Chapter Two, both culturally responsive practices and anti-racist
practices are equally necessary and critical. Culturally responsive practices alone may serve as
empowerment methods for the students, focus on individual teachers’ actions without
organizational factors, and promote the idea of culturally responsive practices as pertaining
solely toward students of color or teachers of students of color (Gay, 2002; Ladson-Billings,
1997, Villegas & Lucas, 2002). Anti-racist practices alone may focus more so on racism within
4th SPACE TEACHING 101

society as a whole, institutional racism, and power and privilege structures without the attention
toward personally mediated racism and the exertion of privilege by individual teachers
(Thompson, 1997). This study recognized the demand for both culturally responsive practices
and anti-racist practices as multi-centric practices as defined by this study. Thus, in order to
classify teachers as continuously engaging in multi-centric practices, they needed to be engaged
in both culturally responsive practices and anti-racist practices.
Developing teachers employed culturally responsive practices, including presenting
content from multiple perspectives. Their practices included the use of students’ FOK as
empowerment methods. Villegas and Lucas (2002) described these kinds of culturally
responsive teachers as those who drew upon their students’ FOK to expand what they know. In
addition, they developed a socio-cultural conscious through their personal examination of
themselves to understand how their identities were created by what Villegas and Lucas referred
to as their personal history, which in turn supplied their FOK.
One teacher within this study was found to be continuously engaging in multi-centric
practices as defined by this study. This teacher was fully engaged in anti-racist and culturally
responsive practices from multiple centers. She utilized the students’ FOK along with school
knowledge to create 3rd space learning. She is completely aware of her FOK and how they
shaped her practices. Further, she used what this study defined as a 4th space to reflectively
recognize why she made curriculum choices and how she determined what was important for
students to know and be able to do. She was aware of her knowledge sources, specifically her
experiences, and she used them to guide her practices, decision-making, interactions with
students, and to construct her personal philosophies and ideologies on teaching and learning.
Her FOK also influenced the ways in which she developed formal knowledge and interpreted
4th SPACE TEACHING 102

and applied theoretical concepts and so-called best practices (Bensimon, 2007; Gupta, 2006;
Hammersley, 2005), all of which she is aware of and used to increase her students’ learning and
to build relationships with her students and their families.
The 4th space allowed her to not only understand and acknowledge her willingness and
ability to engage in multi-centric practices, but beyond the awareness level, it provided her with
a reflective space in which she could not only gain a deep understanding of her views, beliefs,
values, biases, etc. and how they directly influenced all of her practices, but also to act upon, for
example, laid down her ethno-centricism to present content from another perspective. In this
study if the teacher was uncomfortable with discussing racial issues or content or economic
differences then they just did not proactively engage in those practices and it ended there.
However, as one teacher in this study pointed out, “…my goal is not to just focus on Latino
groups, because guess what? The moment they walk out this door, this is not all they’re going to
see.”
RQ3– What are salient characteristics of multi-centric teaching in 3rd space?
These were characteristics found in teachers who were developing and continuous
practitioners of multi-centric practices as shown in Table 3 in Chapter 4. Those teachers who
were seeking were not included because they were not deliberately engaging in these practices.
The findings of the characteristics were separated into two areas: teachers who have and teachers
who do. Multi-centric teachers as defined by this study are not only comfortable with discussing
racial content or issues they initiated it. These teachers not only have a high level of
understanding of power, privilege, oppression, and marginalization, they acted against it in their
classrooms and provided counter-narratives. The characteristics of the multi-centric teachers in
this study aligned with Dei’s et al. (2000) seven central themes in successful anti-racist
4th SPACE TEACHING 103

education, Gay’s (2002) five critical components of culturally responsive teaching, and Zine’s
(2002) method of multi-centric teaching.
Thompson (1997) argued that colorblind teachers do not see the effects of racism. Both
developing and continuous teachers in this study were comfortable in discussing race and issues
that are seen as having racial dimensions. Similar to Dei’s et al. (2000) and Thompson’s (1997)
descriptions of antiracist educators, these teachers had an in-depth understanding of the effects of
privilege, power, and oppression and they challenged the status quo and prepared students to
question the curriculum and dominant narratives. These teachers go beyond the required
curriculum, laid down their own ethnocentricism, and included multiple centers when teaching.
Comparable to Gay (2002), Ladson-Billings (1995), and Villegas and Lucas (2002), they
acknowledged and addressed their potential personal biases, sought to empower students and
held them to high expectations, and held themselves accountable for their students’ learning.
In addition, as demonstrated through the findings in this study, they were willing to learn
from people who are different from them and they have a strong understanding of who they are
and a solid perspective on how to meet all students needs in preparation to live and work in
today’s American society. Parallel to the studies of Hedges (2012) and Gupta (2006), this study
examined how teachers’ FOK informed their practices. In contrast to the studies discussed in
Chapter Two, the research questions in this study additionally sought to examine the ways in
which the participants engaged in multi-centric practices, as they are defined by this study. The
findings revealed how the teachers’ FOK influenced and informed their practices and from the
findings the researcher created three levels of practice (see Table 2 in Chapter 4), which
ultimately defined the salient characteristics of these teachers (see Table 3 in Chapter 4).
4th SPACE TEACHING 104

Implications for Practice
The findings in Chapter 4 and outlined above in Chapter 5 provide several implications
for practice. The implications arose from the levels of multi-centric teaching identified in Table
2 (Chapter 4), the salient characteristics of multi-centric teachers in Table 3 (Chapter 4), and the
need for the examination of teachers’ FOK through the provision of a 4th space as related to their
practices. The findings in this study have not provided a cookie cutter approach to multi-centric
teaching or 4th space examination. However, the findings have provided some characteristics of
teachers engaging in multi-centric practices and an analysis of levels of practice that may provide
a frame for practice.
The term “space” referred to physical and social spatial dimensions of interactions
between people, from which knowledge was formed (Moje et al., 2014). Bhabha (1994) posited
that the 3rd space is produced through the intersection and overlap of the 1st and 2nd spaces (see
Figure 1, Chapter 2). According to this concept, the 3rd space is created “through language as
people come together and particularly as people resist cultural authority bringing different
experiences to bear on the same experiences” (Moje et al., 2004, pp. 43-44). The resistance of
cultural authority within this process allowed two oppositional categories to cooperate to create
new knowledge (Bhabha, 1994). Gee (1996) referred to these oppositional categories as
competing Discourses and Moje et al. (2004) referred to them as conflicting FOK. However, in
3rd space, the onus for learning resides within the student to create new knowledge in resistance
to dominance and ethnocentricity because the 3rd space occurs as a result of “splitting,” which
is the act of the privileged language being taken up and resisted by students at the same time
(Bhabha, 1994). As a result, the students are then forced into “in-between” or 3rd spaces, which
are non-restricting and can benefit the students because 3rd space contains their FOK and school
4th SPACE TEACHING 105

knowledge; however, there is no space for the teachers’ FOK, which are just as present as the
students’ FOK during these interactions (Babb, 2012; Bensimon, 2007; Gee, 2008; Gupta, 2006;
Hedges, 2012; Kern et al., 2012; Moje et al., 2004). In the proposed 4th space the onus resides
with the teacher as well.
The purpose of the proposed 4th space is, among many things, to provide a reflective
space for the resistance of cultural authority and ethno-centricism, the confrontation of prejudice
and biases, and to address comfort levels and the influence of life experiences and personal
beliefs on practices. The 4th space examination of the teachers’ FOK provides a separate
“space” in which teachers’ experiences or levels of comfort can be addressed. If teachers are not
comfortable, or do not feel prepared to engage in multi-centric practices, or even in simply
drawing upon students’ FOK or teaching with multiple centers to include multiple perspectives,
then they are not going to do it, as demonstrated through the findings of this study. The teachers
in this study were aware that their FOK informed their practices, and some of them specifically
understood how, but they did not act on that understanding. Some of the teachers in this study
were uncomfortable discussing race or issues that were seen as having racial dimensions; the 4th
space reflection would require them to confront their discomfort and then to address it. One of
the ways that a teacher could begin their reflection in 4th space is to address their discomfort
with discussing race as mentioned above would be to ask him or herself “Why?” to serve as the
foundation from which to examine the root of their discomfort. Another basis from which to
begin reflection in 4th space would be to utilize previously established protocols such as the
qualitative survey (see Appendix C) to answer questions such as:
1. Describe how you address your personal biases against people who are different than you
when interacting with students and engaging in all classroom practices.
4th SPACE TEACHING 106

2. What impact does what you were taught as a child and what you learned from informal
life experiences about groups who were different (i.e. race, religion, language, sexuality
etc.) from you (and your family) have on you today when you interact with people from
those groups?
3. Describe how your values and beliefs you acquired when you were growing up
formulate/shape your beliefs about teaching and learning.
4. Describe how your values and beliefs you acquired when you were growing up impact
your classroom decision making today.
The answers to questions such as these could provide a starting point for teachers to
understand what this means for their students who do not share their values or beliefs or on the
other hand it may reveal the need for a teacher who does share the same values as their students
to incorporate perspectives that derive from people with values that are different from both the
students and the teacher.
Using the 4th space could allow teachers in situations like those mentioned above to
confront their biases or recognize their own ethno-centricism and mono-cultural practices. This
space places the onus of student learning on the teachers. It provides potential to remove deficit
thinking, which attributes students’ lack of success solely on students and parents; 4th space
examination can take place through individual or group reflection and collaboration. During the
process of 4th space examination, teachers may develop new FOK as a teacher in this study did
when he was forced to confront his Whiteness. Bensimon (2007) argued that teachers form their
own assumptions about why students’ fail and her practitioner as researcher model determined
that teachers are often “unaware” of their knowledge source in making these assumptions; the
4th space examination provides a platform for awareness and more.
4th SPACE TEACHING 107

The 4th space examination served as the foundation for the implications from the
findings of this study. Another implication as a result of the 4th space examination derived from
the needs of the teachers as determined by their 4th space examination. Teachers will become
aware of their needs to meet students’ needs in 3rd space, for example, utilizing their students’
FOK as resources. Some of the teachers who were classified as seeking expressed the lack of
knowledge and preparation to incorporate culturally responsive practices. Professional
development can provide methods and strategies for culturally responsive teaching, but coupled
with the 4th space examination the professional development will allow teachers to assess and
address their willingness and desire to become a culturally responsive and anti-racist teacher.
The findings show that teachers who are not comfortable will not do it. Teachers who feel
unprepared will not do it. Teachers who do not feel that it is necessary or required will not do it.
Future Research
This study has established that teachers’ FOK inform their classroom practices and has
shown the ways in which teachers’ FOK influence their practices. The role of teachers’
willingness and ability to engage in multi-centric practices has been demonstrated as well and
categorized by levels of practice. Finally, various salient characteristics of multi-centric teachers
has been identified, all of which have led to implications for practice. Based upon the findings
and the emergent themes developed through the research analysis of these findings, the following
recommendations are suggested:
• Increase the sample size and include teachers with additional ethnicities and years of
experience, which would provide a wider range of perspectives;
• Increase the geographic area of the study to include additional schools (traditional
schools and elementary and high schools) and additional populations (multiple
4th SPACE TEACHING 108

ethnic/socioeconomic demographics). This could yield importance because of the
potential belief by those who work with traditional settings that the findings in this study
are reflective only of those who work within the parameters of charter schools and thus
may not hold the same weight as those within a traditional school;
• Replicate the study with participants who are all reputed to be culturally responsive or
with whom none of the teachers are reputed to be culturally responsive;
• Replicate the study with a wider variety of demographics within individual classrooms or
no variety (all White students with White teachers).
Conclusion
Many practices within today’s educational institutions in America were created from
Euro-centric perspectives that continue to dominant current classroom practices. Our current
Euro-centric model of education in America promotes Whiteness and thus results in the
perpetuation of privilege and mono-culturalism as well as the marginalization and oppression of
students from non-White groups. The effects of the promotion of Whiteness are far reaching as
this study demonstrated: even teachers of color within classrooms of mostly students of color
continue the perpetuation of the dominance of Euro-centricism throughout the curriculum as
teachers continue to accept the given curriculum and do not challenge the dominant narrative
within it for many reasons, some of which were found in this study to be levels of comfort with
discussing content and issues that are considered to have racial dimensions.
This study sought to provide an approach for teachers to engage all students within
today’s diverse classrooms and to gain an in-depth understanding of how teachers’ FOK informs
and influences their practices. The intention was to provide a means for enhancing
understanding of the role teachers’ play in students’ learning and successes. As pointed out in
4th SPACE TEACHING 109

Chapter Two, research is very limited on teachers’ FOK and specifically on the role their FOK
have on classroom practices. Too often teachers see the students as the sole cause of their own
failings without any reflection of their own role (Bensimon, 2007). It is my hope that this study
will provide not only a “space” for teacher examination and a frame to teach within, but also an
opportunity for the transformation of our current Euro-centric educational system to become
representative, reflective, and inclusive of today’s America and those within our society.
4th SPACE TEACHING 110

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APPENDIX A

Qualitative Interviewing Survey
Research Questions and Interview Questions (sub-questions)
Research Questions Interviewing Questions
1.) How do teachers’
FOK inform their
practices?

1. What happens when teachers don’t validate their students’
racial and ethnic identities?
2. How do school-based policies and practices reflect institutional
racism?
3. What can be done to dismantle racial bias and misconceptions
in the American educational system?
4. Why is it important to openly discuss issues that are seen as
having racial dimensions?
5. What do educators need to do to foster productive examination
of issues that are seen by some – or all – as being influenced
by the race or ethnicity?
6. What are some examples of effective strategies for initiating
and facilitating conversations about race?
7. Tell me about your experiences while growing up.

2.) How do teachers’
FOK, influence multi-
centric teaching in 3rd
space?

1. What are some ways for educators to acknowledge students’
ethnic, cultural, racial, and linguistic identities?
2. Why is important to incorporate students’ identities into the
curriculum?
3. What are some ways teachers can view the cultures of their
students without stereotyping them?
4. What is culturally relevant pedagogy?
5. What is anti-racist education?
6. What is multi-centric teaching?

3.) What are salient
characteristics multi-
centric teachers?

1. How can teachers both view and utilize students’ home
language in a positive manner?
2. How can teachers facilitate the development of academic
English for ELLs?
3. What are some ways that educators can simultaneously have
high expectations of their students and acknowledge their
individual needs?
4. What are some strategic approaches to using group learning in
the classroom?
5. How might you make time to better understand your students,
even in a climate that favors high stakes test preparation over
student-teacher relationships?
6. What resources do teachers utilize…?
4th SPACE TEACHING 115

7. What strategies/tools do teachers use…?
8. What skills do teachers possess that enable them to …?
4th SPACE TEACHING 116

APPENDIX B
Observation Recording Tool
Teacher Demographics Classroom Demographics

What I saw: What I heard: Questions?

Classroom Layout:

Post-Observation Reflection:

4th SPACE TEACHING 117

APPENDIX C
Teacher Survey
1. How would you describe yourself if asked “how do you identify yourself?”
2. What is your age?
3. What is your gender?
4. What is your highest degree attained?
5. How many years of experience do you have in teaching?
6. How do you identify your ethnicity and race?
7. Identify the number of languages you speak fluently, including English.
8. What type of community did you live in while growing up?
9. What type of dwelling did you live in while growing up?
10. How would you describe the diversity of the community in which you grew up?
11. How would you describe the diversity of the high school from which you graduated?
12. Did you ever receive free or reduced lunch while attending school?
13. What was the marital status of your parents while you were growing up?
14. What was the highest grade level completed by your mother?
15. What was the highest grade level completed by your father?
16. Whom did you live with while growing up?
17. Did your parents and / or guardian work outside the home while you were growing up?
18. Which income level did your household belong to when you were growing up?
19. Did your family receive financial assistance of any kind from any governmental sources
while you were growing up? If so, what kind?

4th SPACE TEACHING 118

20. What was life like for you when you were growing up?
21. Describe how your values and beliefs you acquired when you were growing up
formulate/shape your beliefs about teaching and learning.
22. Describe how your values and beliefs you acquired when you were growing up impact your
classroom decision making today.
23. Do you currently live in the same county as you grew up in?
24. Which region of the country or the world did you grow up in?
25. Do you live in the same community that you work in?
26. How would you describe the diversity of the community in which you currently live?
27. How do you build a rapport with your students and their families?
28. Describe how you address your personal biases against people who are different than you
when interacting with students and engaging in all classroom practices.
29. What impact does what you were taught as a child and what you learned from informal life
experiences about groups who were different (i.e. race, religion, language, sexuality etc.)
from you (and your family) have on you today when you interact with people from those
groups?
30. How does your informal knowledge (or knowledge gained outside of school from family,
community, and lived experiences) influence your decision-making and other practices as a
teacher?
31. What resources do you utilize to present curriculum from multiple centers?
32. Provide examples of some of the ways that you present curriculum from multiple centers.

Abstract (if available)

Abstract In today’s diverse classrooms and society as a whole, it is essential that educators are able to provide educational experiences from central standpoints that are inclusive of all perspectives that are reflected in all of American society today. This qualitative study examined the ways in which teachers’ funds of knowledge (FOK) inform and influence their classroom practices and their ability and willingness to engage in multi-centric practices. The purpose of the study was to generate an approach to engage all students. The study was conducted through the lens of the hybridity theory, which posited that individuals draw on multiple sources of informal knowledge, or FOK within physical and social spaces in which interactions take place to construct new knowledge (Moje et al., 2004). The findings revealed how particular FOK, experiences, and personal beliefs of six classroom teachers inform and influence their practices. From these findings emerged three levels of multi-centric teaching practices and salient characteristics of the teachers who engaged in these practices.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Hearn, Dulcinea Maria (author)

Core Title 4th space teaching: incorporating teachers' funds of knowledge, students' funds of knowledge, and school knowledge in multi-centric teaching

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/22/2016

Defense Date 03/21/2016

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag 4th space teaching,anti-racist education,anti-racist teaching,classroom practices,culturally responsive practices,culturally responsive teaching,fourth space teaching,funds of knowledge,hybridity theory,multi-centric teaching,OAI-PMH Harvest,students' funds of knowledge,teachers' beliefs,teachers' funds of knowledge,third space teaching

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Green, Alan (committee chair), Baca, Reynaldo (committee member), Mora-Flores, Eugenia (committee member)

Creator Email dhearn@usc.edu,dulcineahearn@yahoo.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-240132

Unique identifier UC11278376

Identifier etd-HearnDulci-4351.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-240132 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-HearnDulci-4351.pdf

Dmrecord 240132

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Hearn, Dulcinea Maria

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA