University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Engagement of staff within student-athlete academic services

(USC Thesis Other)

Engagement of staff within student-athlete academic services

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content Running head: Engagement within Student-Athlete Academic Services
1

Engagement of Staff within Student-Athlete Academic Services

by

Roger Akio Kiyomura

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACTULY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2015

Copyright 2015 Roger Akio Kiyomura

ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
2

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the members of my dissertation committee, Dr. Dominic Brewer,
Dr. Lawrence O. Picus, and Dr. Scott MacLeod, for their expertise, guidance, and support
throughout this process. I especially want to thank Dr. Brewer for being an inspiration and
motivator during this journey. If it wasn’t for your emails and persistent threats, I’m sure I’d still
be composing a draft in my head. Thank you for not giving up on me and making sure that I just
start typing!
I would like to thank my mother, Diane, for setting me on a career path in education.
Being the great mother you are, you had the foresight that I would have a rewarding and
successful career in education before I ever knew what I wanted in life. For that, I am eternally
grateful.
Most importantly, I would like to thank my wife, Maya, for giving me the love and
support I needed to successfully complete this long and difficult commitment. You continue to
inspire me everyday by the amazing things you do. You set the bar high, and always hold me up
to a gold standard, and for that I give you all the credit in helping me be the man I am today. I
could not have done this without you.

ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
3

Table of Contents
Acknowledgments 2

List of Tables 5

List of Figures 6

Abstract 7

Chapter One: Introduction to the Study 8
Background of the Problem 9
Statement of the Problem 15
Purpose of the Study 16
Research Questions 16
Importance of the Study 17
Limitations 17
Definition of Terms 18
Organization of the Dissertation 19

Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 20
Human Capital Management 20
Student-Athlete Academic Services 32
Theoretical Framework 34
Summary 36

Chapter Three: Methodology 37
Research Questions 37
Research Design 37
Sample and Population 39
Instrumentation 39
Data Collection 42
Data Analysis 43

Chapter Four: Presentation of the Findings 45
Description of Participants 46
Pre-Interview Questionnaire 48
Findings: Research Question 1 49
Findings: Research Question 2 53
Findings: Research Question 3 57
Findings: Research Question 4 61
Findings: Research Question 5 64
Relation to Theoretical Framework 68
Summary of Findings 70

ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
4

Chapter Five: Discussion, Implications, and Recommendations 73
Summary 73
Discussion of Findings 74
Implications for Practice 77
Suggestions for Future Research 78
Conclusions 79

References 81

Appendix A: Pre-Interview Questionnaire 91
Appendix B: Interview Guide 92

ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
5

List of Tables
Table 1: Pre-Interview questions aligned to research questions 40
Table 2: Interview questions aligned to research questions 42
Table 3: Description of participating universities 47
Table 4: Results of Pre-Interview Questionnaire 48

ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
6

List of Figures
Figure A: Values and Competencies Model 23

ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
7

Abstract
This study applies the theoretical framework of student-athlete academic services
(SAAS) developed by Jordan and Denson (1990) to analyze and compare SAAS programs at five
different universities. The purpose of the study is to analyze the human capital management
practices of student-athlete academic services (SAAS), particularly focusing on practices of
engagement referring to qualities of innovation and creativity, personal responsibility, desire for
success of the organization, and emotional bond. Using semi-structured interviews of twelve
participants from five different university SAAS programs, data was collected and analyzed for
common themes regarding the participant’s perceptions in regards to their engagement within
their programs. Findings from this study revealed five themes: 1) Directors that supported
personal growth and ideas were highly valued, 2) There is a large range of variation in amount of
resources at different universities, 3) Personal responsibility for success is placed upon the
student-athlete, 4) SAAS personnel have an authentic desire for student-athlete success, 5)
Student-athlete academic services personnel want to feel valued and respected in their
workplace. This study reveals that there is a high degree of variability in the amount of services
and support available for student-athletes from one university to the next. Despite these
inequities, this study concludes that high levels of engagement of personnel in SAAS programs
have a positive effect on organizational success and thus student-athletes achieve higher
academic success rates than their non-athletic counterparts.

ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
8

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
In a global economy where the most valuable skill you can sell is your knowledge, a
good education is no longer just a pathway to opportunity – it is a pre-requisite. –
President Barak Obama. (as cited in The White House, Office of the Press Secretary,
2009, para 1)

Right now, three-quarters of the fastest-growing occupations require more than a high
school diploma. And yet, just over half of our citizens have that level of education…This
is a prescription for economic decline, because we know the countries that out-teach us
today will out-compete us tomorrow. That is why it will be the goal of this
administration to ensure that every child has access to a complete and competitive
education—from the day they are born to the day they begin a career. That is a promise
we have to make to the children of America… (Obama, 2009, para 62 & 63)

That's why we will support—we will provide the support necessary for all young
Americans to complete college and meet a new goal: By 2020, America will once again
have the highest proportion of college graduates in the world. That's a goal we can meet.
(Obama, 2009, February, para 66)

President Obama speaks about the situation we have created for today’s American youth.
As Thomas Friedman describes in his bestselling book, The World Is Flat, the effect of
globalization on employment in the United States has applied pressure on the educational system
to equip American youth with an education that has adequately prepared them for a global
society (Friedman, 2005). At the 2005 National Education Summit on High Schools, the
pressing issue of discussion was that too few students were graduating from high school prepared
for the demands of college and career in an increasingly competitive global economy (Achieve,
2008). Although high school standards, graduation requirements, and assessments have become
more aligned to college expectations (Achieve, 2013), the implications for higher education still
means having to support students academically whom are unprepared for college, in order for
them to be successful in obtaining careers in a global economy upon graduation.
Institutions of higher education are composed with a broad diversity of students that have
a diverse variety of needs. Student-athletes in higher education are a unique population of
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
9

students that have an atypical role on campus being subjected to pressures of both student and
athlete (Comeaux & Harrison, 2011; Fletcher, Benshoff, & Richburg, 2003; Parham, 1993).
This study will examine the support system in place for student-athletes in higher
education, particularly focusing on the engagement of the support staff. The findings could
provide information and insight on how institutions of higher education can further assist these
students and others so more can achieve success during and after college.
Background of the Problem
In the 21
st
century, completion of schooling beyond the high school level is more
important than ever. According to the United States Department of Education, National Center
for Education Statistics (NCES), in its publication of The Condition of Education 2013, the
employment rate in 2012 was 69% for young adults between the ages of 20-24 and 74% for 25-
34 year olds (NCES, 2013). The report also states that between 1990 and 2012 the employment
rates for adults with at least a bachelor’s degree were higher than employment rates for adults
without a bachelor’s degree (NCES, 2013). Unemployment rates in 2012 for adults 24 years and
older with at least a bachelor’s degree was less than 5% regardless of age compared to 10% for
adults without a bachelor’s degree (NCES, 2013). The employment rates show the necessity for
higher education related to career attainment in the current state of the United States, and the
trends are showing the employment gap between those with college degrees and those without to
be increasing.
The importance of higher education is further emphasized in terms of types of jobs
available. In 1973, two-third of jobs required only a high school diploma, and by 2007 that
number decreased to 41% and is continuing to decline (Achieve, 2008; Carnavale, Smith, &
Strohl, 2010). On the other hand, the percent of jobs held by persons requiring postsecondary
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
10

education increased from 28% in 1973 to 59% in 2008, and is continuing to increase (Carnavale,
et al., 2010). A college education is now the standard for the middle class in the United States
and those without a college degree are falling out of the middle class.
Educational attainment has been linked to individual monetary benefits such as increased
salary. Carnavale, et al. (2010) found that nine out of ten workers with a high school education
or less were limited to occupations that were either lower paying or in decline. It is estimated
that on average, a full-time, full-year worker with a Bachelor’s degree can expect to earn 84%
more money over a lifetime than a colleague with only a high school diploma (Carnavale, Strohl,
& Melton, 2013). The NCES (2013) reported the average annual earnings of full-time, full-year
wage and salary workers ages 25-34 with a Bachelor’s degree or higher was $50,000 compared
to only $30,000 earned for only a high school diploma. As innovation and globalization
increases, technology automates repetitive tasks with computers causing a decline in positions
dominated by repetitive tasks that tend to require high school or less education (Carnavale, et al.,
2010).
However, there has been growth in jobs for professionals and managerial personnel
(occupations with high levels of non-repetitive tasks) with postsecondary education and training
(Carnavale, et al., 2010). The Georgetown University Center on Education and the Workforce
estimates that by 2018, the United States will need 22 million new college degrees to fulfill
available jobs (Carnavale, et al., 2010). However, their projections estimate a shortfall of 3
million degrees, which means lost economic opportunities for millions of Americans (Carnavale,
et al., 2010). Continuing to under-produce college-educated workers will only increase the
growing gap between the earnings of those with college education and those without (Carnavale
& Rose, 2010).
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
11

As stated earlier in his 2009 address, President Obama declared “By 2020, America will
once again have the highest proportion of college graduates in the world” (Obama, 2009,
February, para 66). In 2008, the United States ranked seventh internationally in OECD
(Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) countries in Bachelor’s degree
attainment (42%) in 25-34 year olds compared to the leading countries boasting a 55% college
degree completion rate (Carnavale & Rose, 2010). According to the National Center on Higher
Education Management Systems, America must graduate an additional 8.2 million postsecondary
graduates by 2020 to meet President Obama’s goal (Carnavale, et al., 2010).
The international comparison is significant because as educational attainment increases,
individual incomes typically increase as well (Brewer & McEwan, 2010; NCES, 2013). With an
increase in earned wages, higher tax revenue is collected at the national and state levels.
Increases in a country’s levels of educational attainment would directly lead to increases in
national economic productivity (Hanushek & Woessman, 2008). Educational attainment also
has been linked with individuals that have more job stability, improved health, more likely to
have health insurance, participate in civic responsibilities, are less likely to receive government
financial assistance, and have generally increased social and cultural capital that often enables
upward mobility (Brewer & McEwan, 2010).
To analyze educational attainment, graduation rates are often examined for trends of
growth or decline. According to the NCES (2013), the graduation rate for first time Bachelor’s
degree students within six years of enrollment was 59% in 2011, which was an increase of
roughly 4% since 2002. Graduation rates were higher in private institutions (65%) compared to
public institutions (56%) and for-profit institutions (42%) (NCES, 2013). On average, only two-
thirds of college students graduate with a Bachelor’s degree within six years in the United States.
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
12

However, graduation rates are not the same for all students. Diversity becomes a factor
in the academic success of groups and sub-groups of students when broken down by gender,
race, ethnicity, and participation in on-campus activities. The NCES (2013) reported that
females graduated at a rate of 61% compared to males graduated at a rate of 56% in 2011. In
that same year, Whites graduated at a rate of 60%, Blacks at 35%, Hispanics at 47.5%, Asians at
66.6%, Pacific Islanders at 49%, and American Indian/Alaska Natives at 39% (NCES, 2013).
However, one group of students that has shown an extremely high rate of graduation is the
student-athlete population. The National Collegiate Athletics Association (2013) boasts a
graduation rate of 81% in 2011 for student-athletes in Division I institutions.
The National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and Importance of College Athletics
Intercollegiate athletics has become not only an integral part of the culture of university
life for students, but it has become an integral part of the social popular culture of the United
States (Watt & Moore, 2001). The implications of becoming such an important part of our
culture have economic ramifications throughout our society and universities. The benefits and
costs for the universities and the student-athletes are a constant issue of discussion and debate.
Athletic departments are increasingly becoming the face of colleges and universities.
Media coverage of major college sporting events and internet coverage of sporting news
translates into big business for university athletic programs (Watt & Moore, 2001). A successful
athletic program can provide tremendous benefits to a university in terms of improved reputation
and public image, increased enrollment, alumni support and donations, and increased
sponsorships. Success on the athletic field can also increase national exposure and increase
interest amongst prospective students (Goff, 2000).
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
13

Athletic departments receive substantial funding from sources such as ticket sales,
booster contributions, media rights, and corporate sponsors (Fletcher et al., 2003). These
benefits will improve the ability of the athletic program to recruit better talent, which would then
perpetuate and increase the success of the program (Goff, 2000).
Student-athletes can experience benefits from participating in athletics that extend
beyond the playing field during their career and after. Many strong relationships and business
partnerships have been developed through the medium of sport (Watt & Moore, 2011). Student-
athletes have also been found to generally have better health and well-being over time (Cowley,
1999). Other benefits of participating in athletics have been development of high levels of self-
esteem, leadership and teamwork skills, motivation, and discipline (Harris, 1993).
Although the benefits to the institutions from college athletics are generally accepted,
there is a growing debate regarding the exploitation of student-athletes. Comeaux and Harrison
(2011) suggest that student-athletes suffer academically and socially due to the enormous
demands expected of student-athletes without being rewarded financially other than scholarship.
Student-athletes are often expected to spend over 40 hours a week participating in sport-related
activities (practice, training, meetings, film viewing, etc.) and also suffer from mental and
physical exhaustion and injury (Comeaux & Harrison, 2011). Student-athletes that struggle
academically and socially need to have specific support services that can meet their needs.
Student-athletes in higher education are a unique population of students that have an
atypical role on campus being subjected to pressures of both student and athlete (Comeaux &
Harrison, 2011; Fletcher et al., 2003; Parham, 1993). The costs in which student-athletes face
may seem staggering when considering the added responsibilities student-athletes have
compared to their non-athletic peers. Students choosing to compete in intercollegiate athletics
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
14

face the additional challenge of balancing athletic and academic roles during their college careers
(Chartrand & Lent, 1987; Parham, 1993). Student-athletes also have to deal with the emotional
effects of success or failure in their sport. The disappointment of losing or poorly performing,
injury, or ending a career can have significant psychological effects (Fletcher et al., 2003;
Parham, 1993).
Student-athletes typically, especially during their season of sport, experience limited
flexibility within their daily schedules due to attending classes, participating in sport related
activities, studying, and other necessary daily activities. Generally, academic support services,
counseling, workshops, and other programs are offered during the day when student-athletes are
involved in classes, practices, or games. Athletic facilities are sometimes removed from central
campus areas, which also increase the difficulty in taking advantage of these services (Jordan &
Denson, 1990). Due to these added stressors, it is imperative that student-athletes have academic
services that are specifically designed to help address the distinct needs of student-athletes.
Due to the additional challenges that student-athletes face, student-athlete academic
services (SAAS) are designed specifically to meet the needs of this select student population.
However, there is much variance as to what types of academic services are offered to student-
athletes at different universities. The results of academic services for student-athletes are
graduation rates of 81% nationally (NCAA, 2013) versus 59% for all students (NCES, 2013).
The quality of support that student-athletes receive is linked with academic outcomes, thus
human capital management within the academic services is the critical determinant of achieving
academic success for student-athletes.
The psychological benefits of being a student-athlete have shown to increase the
motivation for student-athletes to perform and succeed academically. Not only do student-
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
15

athletes have to maintain an eligible grade point average as mandated by the NCAA (NCAA,
2013), but participation in athletics may also increase persistence towards graduation (Watt &
Moore, 2011). The NCAA monitors athletic programs through their team’s Academic Progress
Rate (APR) and Graduation Success Rate. The APR is a team-based metric that accounts for the
eligibility and retention of each student-athlete (NCAA, 2013). The GSR accounts for the
graduation rates for each freshman cohort over a six-year period (NCAA, 2013). If either of
these two measures fall below the NCAA’s standard, strict punishments and sanctions are levied
against programs. Punishments and sanctions could include probationary periods and reduction
of scholarships, which could drastically limit the success of a program.
Statement of the Problem
Higher academic outcomes of student-athletes can be attributed to many different factors.
These factors range from psychological (motivation to remain eligible to compete) to academic
(academic support services provided specifically and exclusively for student-athletes). Students
choosing to compete in intercollegiate athletics face the additional challenge of balancing athletic
and academic roles during their college careers (Chartrand & Lent, 1987). Student-athletes
typically, especially during their season of sport, experience limited flexibility within their daily
schedules due to attending classes, participating in sport related activities, studying, and other
necessary daily activities. Generally, academic support services, counseling, workshops, and
other programs are offered during the day when student-athletes are involved in classes,
practices, or games. Athletic facilities are sometimes removed from central campus areas, which
also increase the difficulty in taking advantage of these services (Jordan & Denson, 1990).
Due to the additional challenges that student-athletes face, SAAS programs are designed
specifically to meet the needs of this select student population. However, there is much variance
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
16

as to what types of student services are offered to student-athletes at different universities.
Although student-athletes typically struggle academically or often enter higher education under-
prepared in relation to their non-athletic peers (Shulman & Bowen, 2001), the results of SAAS
programs are graduation rates of 81% nationally (NCAA, 2013) versus 59% for all students
(NCES, 2013). The quality of support that student-athletes receive is linked with academic
outcomes, thus human capital management within the support services is the critical determinant
of achieving academic success for student-athletes.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study is to analyze the human capital management practices of SAAS
programs, particularly focusing on practices of engagement as defined by the framework of
human capital management by Phillips and Roper (2009). Engagement refers to qualities such
as: innovation and creativity, taking personal responsibility, authentic desire for the success of
the organization or team, and an emotional bond to the organization and its mission and vision
(Wagner and Harter, 2006). Engaged employees can have a positive effect on the organizational
success and increase desired outcomes (Phillips and Roper, 2009).
Research Questions
How are university athletic departments engaging student-athlete support service
personnel to work with student athletes? Are particular engagement practices more successful at
increasing desired outcomes than others?
• Are support staff personnel encouraged to use innovation and creativity?
• Are support staff personnel given opportunities to develop and grow professionally and
personally?
• Are support staff personnel taking personal responsibility in their performance?
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
17

• Do support staff personnel have an authentic desire for the success of the organization,
team, and/or individuals?
• Do support staff personnel have an emotional bond to the organization and its mission
and vision?
Importance of the Study
When comparing graduation rates, student-athletes are graduating at a 22% greater rate
than their non-athletic peers. However, student-athletes struggle academically and socially due
to the demands of participating in intercollegiate athletics. Without the support of specific
services for student-athletes, many student-athletes would not be successful and the graduation
rates would be much lower. Identifying engagement practices, or lack thereof, utilized by
student-athlete support services may provide greater insight to assisting performance of student-
athletes in higher education. With increasing satisfactory academic progress standards being set
by the NCAA, the findings will assist academic support personnel working with student-athletes.
The findings of the study may also reveal strategies and tactics that are successful for student-
athletes that can be utilized for all students.
Limitations
This study is designed to be a comparative case study utilizing data from multiple
university support service programs. The inclusion of multiple cases will enhance the external
validity and generalizability of the findings (Merriam, 2009), however only four different
support service programs from four universities will be analyzed which does pose a limitation on
the study. This study is also limited to NCAA Division I universities and thus findings may not
be generalizable to Division II, III, or other universities with athletic programs. Additional
studies should be considered to investigate programs at universities in NCAA Division II, III,
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
18

and other athletic levels to enhance the knowledge in this field. An additional limitation is that
this study does not take into account the perspective of the student-athlete. This study only
focuses on the perspective of the support service personnel.
Definition of Terms
More information about the terms defined is located in the Literature Review.
Academic Progress Rate (APR)
According to the 2013-2014 NCAA Division I Academic Performance Program Manual,
APR is referred to as:
Term-by-term measure of eligibility, retention and graduation for student-athletes who
have received institutional financial aid based in any degree on athletics ability during the
academic term(s) in question. Desired Outcomes is a general term that encompasses
positive affects experienced by student-athletes as a result of experiences working with
support services. Desired outcomes can include such outcomes as improved grades,
meeting graduation requirements, improved study skills, reduction of stress, improved
athletic performance, etc. (NCAA, 2013b, p. 15)
Graduation Success Rate (GSR)
The 2013-2014 NCAA Division I Academic Performance Program Manual defines GSR
as:
… a six-year proportion of those student-athletes who graduate versus those who entered
an institution. The GSR is calculated for each team. The cohort includes student-athletes
who receive athletics aid in the first year of enrollment at the institution either as initial
enrollees or transfers. (NCAA, 2013b, p. 24)

ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
19

National Collegiate Athletic Association
The 2013-2014 NCAA Division I Manual states that the NCAA “a diverse, voluntary,
unincorporated Association of four-year colleges and universities, conferences, affiliated
associations and other educational institutions” (NCAA, 2013a, p. 18).
Student-Athlete
A student-athlete is a term used by the NCAA in the 1950s to counter the threat of the
newly implemented play-for-pay, grant-in-aid athletic scholarship policy (Byers, 1995).
Student-athlete commonly refers to students that participate in intercollegiate athletics.
Student-Athlete Academic Services (SAAS)
Student-athlete academic services are any support services that are specifically designed
and exclusively available to help student athletes during their college careers.
Organization of the Study
The over-arching goal of this study is to improve the academic support services provided
to student-athletes by analyzing the engagement practices of academic support personnel. In
order to accomplish the goal of the study, the dissertation is organized as follows: Chapter I
describes the importance of the problem and presents the research questions that guide the study.
Chapter II provides a thorough review of the literature relating to human capital management, an
overview of support services for student-athletes, and a framework for student-athlete support
services. Chapter III discusses the methods used to gather and analyze the data from the study
and provides a detailed description of the research design. Chapter IV contains the findings and
results of the study. Chapter V presents the conclusions and significance of the study as well as
implications for future research or practice.

ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
20

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This study analyzes the human capital management practices of student services for
student-athletes, particularly focusing on practices of engagement as defined by the framework
of human capital management by Phillips and Roper (2009). The purpose of this literature
review is to provide background on Human Capital Management emphasizing how engagement
of human capital within student support services for student-athletes can lead to organizational
success and increases in desired outcomes. The progression of information will be presented as
follows:
1. A review of research on Human Capital Management and its components as
presented by Phillips and Roper (2009)
2. A review of support services for student-athletes in higher education
3. A review of the theoretical framework, Student Services for Athletes, as presented by
Jordan and Denson (1990)
Human Capital Management
Human capital refers to the knowledge, ideas, skills, and health of individuals (Becker,
2002; Eide & Showalter, 2010; Coff, 2002; Flamholtz & Lacey, 1981) and is, according to
Becker, the most important form of capital in modern economies. Constituting over 70% of the
total capital invested in the United States (Becker, 2002) and one of the largest organizational
investments (Schiemann, 2006), human capital management is vital to the economic success of
individuals and organizations
1

1

The description of Human Capital Management was developed collaboratively by Julie Elting,
Jana Fukada, Richard Gonsalves, Maureen Ikeda, Roger Kiyomura, Keoni Kuoha, Eric Okazaki,
and Melia Tauvela.

ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
21

Human Capital Theory
Formal economic theories of developing human capital as a common good date back
approximately 50 years although the awareness of positive outcomes from investing in people is
far from new (Becker, 1962; Eide & Showalter, 2010; Schultz, 1961). The modern usage of
human capital took root in the economic growth and societal changes that followed World War
II. Contemporary economists such as Schultz (1961) and Becker (1962) observed that increased
levels of education and training were creating a knowledge-based economy in which individuals
could better control their destinies. When individuals acquired knowledge, skills, and attitudes
(KSA) as a form of human capital, it could not be separated from them as was possible with
other forms of capital. Ultimately, the success of these individuals would impact not only their
own lives, but have far-reaching effects on society as a whole (Becker, 1962; Eide & Showalter,
2010; Schultz, 1961).
Human capital resources can be tangible (physical in nature) or intangible or those that
are not directly owned specifically by the organization. These kinds of resources can take two
forms: generic human capital resources and specific human capital resources (Ployhart & Kim,
2014). Generic human capital resources include cognitive abilities, personality traits, and KSAs.
Specific human capital resources are relevant to a specific firm and can take the form of
knowledge, some forms of skills, and expertise.
The benefit to an organization from investment in their workers is also a focus of human
capital theory. Ample research provides evidence that the knowledge, skills, and abilities
possessed by employees at a variety of levels contribute to organizational success (Blair, 2011;
Boxall, 2011; Byerly, 2012; Crook, Todd, Combs, Woehr, & Ketchen Jr, 2011; Guest, 2011;
Lepak, Takeuchi, & Swart, 2011). Boxall (2011) adds that the configuration of human capital,
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
22

how managers allocate resources and recognize potential talent worth investing in, is critical.
Additionally, ongoing evaluation of human capital is a critical component to the success of an
organization. Clark and Estes (2008) argue that it essential when seeking to improve or close
performance disparities.
Maximizing the impact and efficiency of human capital in organizations is one of the
cornerstones of industrial and organizational psychology inquiry (Ketchen, 2011). Research
shows that investing in human capital can yield positive individual as well as organizational
benefits. Compensation for employees and managers is strongly related to the education and
experience they possess. Superior human capital leads to sustainable performance advantages
because talent tends to expand over time.
The Human Capital Management Model
Human Capital Management (HCM) is a complex but critical system that can enhance an
organization's success (Joshi, 2012; Becker & Gerhart, 1996; Huselid, 1995). The literature
defines HCM as a systematic approach to attracting, selecting, engaging, developing, and
retaining the highest ability individuals (Joshi, 2012; Becker & Gerhart, 1996; Huselid, 1995;
Phillips & Roper, 2009; McMahan & Wright, 1992). Phillips and Roper (2009) created a
framework upon which this study of HCM will be based upon.

ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
23

Figure A:
Values and Competencies Model

Phillips and Roper’s (2009) model depicts the interrelationship of five stages of human capital
management (HCM): attracting, selecting, engaging, developing, and retaining employees
(figure 1).
Central to the model is the alignment of employee and organizational values and job
competencies, which is the foundation for effective human capital management (Bauer &
Erdogan, 2012; Phillips & Roper, 2009). Research emphasizes that all decisions made by the
organization must be aligned to one another and linked to the strategic needs of the organization
(McMahan & Wright, 1992).
Linking the five stages to organizational values and competencies are employee
opportunities for learning. Life-long learning, a catch-phrase of 21
st
century educational jargon,
is integral to HCM. Each HCM stage is connected to the next one by organizational strategic
planning and the actual implementation of those plans. Evaluating the effectiveness of the plan
can help determine if goals of the stage were met (Phillips & Roper, 2009).

ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
24

Attracting
Stages one and two, attraction and selection of employees, involve recruiting the right
people for the job as the initial human resource management goal (Bauer & Erdogan, 2012;
Phillips & Roper, 2009). As a primary means of acquiring human resources, recruitment
strategies, policies, and practices serve an important role in the selective value of recruitment
(Ployhart, 2012). Recruitment strategies are a critical component of every organization’s overall
framework for selecting and hiring qualified individuals (Ployhart & Kim, 2014).
Careful creation of job descriptions and responsibilities is a key step of the attraction
stage to ensure clarity. When attracting specific KSAs, recruiters often employ recruiting-related
activities like publicity, sponsorship, word-of-mouth, endorsements, and advertising (Rice &
Goessling, 2005). These recruiting techniques have been around since 1957 (Walling, 1998) and
have progressed to specifically address turnover rates of hard to fill positions (Ingersoll,
2001). In recent years, e-recruiting has become popular and have aided in increased favorable
perceptions towards firms with attractive websites (Braddy, Thompson, Wuensch, &
Grossnickle, 2003). An applicant possessing the necessary knowledge, skills, and attitudes
(KSA) needed for a particular job position leads to successful integration into the organization.
Selecting and Hiring
Labor, like all organizational resources, is highly dependent on supply and demand of
human talent in different occupations/professions and industries (Mueller & Baum, 2011).
Huang & Cappelli (2010) affirm that a central research question in economics is how to ensure
that employees do not avoid their workplace responsibilities. Most of the research pertaining to
this issue focuses on economic governance schemes that provide incentives to entice employees
to act in the interest of their employers (Huang & Cappelli, 2010). To that end, selection of
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
25

potential employees within organization is paramount in the success and productivity of any
organization.
Virtually all employers use some level of applicant screening which might include an
evaluation of competence, motivation, and cultural fitness adaptability (Huang & Cappelli,
2010). Mueller & Baum (2011) propose a 12-step research-based guide to hiring that incudes
elements such as: conduct a job analysis, update job description, source potential employees,
review resumes, conduct telephone screenings, performance tests, interviews, office tours,
background checks, and create a matrix comparison of all candidates. Bradt (2012) affirms that
recruitment should not start until all key stakeholders are in agreement with what the new
employees’ roles and expectations will be within the organization. As described by Bradt and
Vonnegut (2009), a quality recruiting brief should address the applicant's’ mission and
responsibilities (why the position exists), a vision of success (an example or aspirational peer),
the talents and strengths required for the position, as well as motivation (how will this position fit
with the applicants’ likes/dislikes, goals, etc.). Following these basic recruitment guidelines may
aid organizations in more efficient recruitment and hiring practices.
Engaging Employees
The third and fourth stages, engagement and development, can be viewed on a
continuum. The employer and employee share the responsibilities of these stages. Engagement
includes early organizational socialization, the process in which new employees are acclimated
to the institutional structure and job role (Bauer & Erdogan, 2012; Bradt, 2012). The
organization offers some type of formal onboarding of varying quality and depth depending on
the job position. Numerous activities occur during this initial period, including reviewing
benefits and job responsibilities, orienting to the institution’s mission, goals, and structure, and
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
26

orienting to the physical surroundings (Bauer & Erdogan, 2012; Bradt, 2012). Employees share
equally in the engagement stage. The level of pro-activity of the employee, in seeking
information and connections, has significant influence on early organizational socialization
(Bauer & Erdogan, 2012).
Informal socialization is a key part of engagement and development (Bauer & Erdogan,
2012; Bradt, 2012). Initially, this socialization helps newcomers navigate the unwritten policies
in the workplace but ultimately leads to ongoing employee investment. Building respectful and
trusting relationships between all levels of management and workers has been found to
profoundly impact employee loyalty and satisfaction (Bauer & Erdogan, 2012; Bradt, 2012).
According to Phillips and Roper (2009), satisfaction and engagement are two different
sentiments that organizations must instill in their employees. Satisfaction occurs when an
employee is happy with the current pay, working atmosphere, and benefits received. While
satisfaction is a positive sentiment to have within employees, satisfaction alone can lead to
stagnation and less ambition and initiation (Phillips & Roper, 2009). However, engagement
refers to qualities within employees such as: innovation and creativity, taking personal
responsibility, authentic desire for the success of the organization or team, and an emotional
bond to the organization and its mission and vision (Wagner & Harter, 2006). When employees
are satisfied and engaged, they can have a positive effect on organizational success and increase
desired outcomes such as productivity, profitability, employee retention, safety, and customer
satisfaction (Buckingham & Coffman, 1999; Harter, Schmidt, & Hayes, 2002; Phillips & Roper,
2009).
The term employee engagement has been coined by the Gallup Organization as a result of
over 30 years of conducting qualitative research amongst thousands of focus groups across a
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
27

wide variety of industries. Through the research of the Gallup Organization, the Gallup
Workplace Audit (GWA) was developed as an instrument to evaluate and measure employee
engagement (Harter & Schmidt, 2000; Buckingham & Coffman, 1999). Instead of asking
employees how satisfied they are with various aspects of their jobs (e.g., pay, benefits,
supervisors, co-workers, responsibilities, etc.), the GWA asks employees to rate the extent to
which their basic needs are met in their workplace. Employees who score high on the GWA are
“emotionally engaged” in the work and organization (Harter & Schmidt, 2000; Buckingham &
Coffman, 1999). Harter (2000) argues that when employees’ basic needs are met and positive
emotions are experienced more frequently, a “broadening and building”, as described by
Fredrickson and Joiner (2002), occurs and differentiates between highly productive and less
productive work groups. Harter, Schmidt and Hayes (2002) define employee engagement as
“the individual’s involvement and satisfaction with as well as enthusiasm for work” (p. 269).
Harter and Schmidt (2000) of the Gallup Organization report the design and
performance-relatedness to business-unit level outcomes of the GWA. According to Harter and
Schmidt (2000), business-units that score above the median on the GWA had a 70% higher
likelihood of positive outcomes compared to business-units below the median. Wagner & Harter
(2006) analyzed GWA results from the Gallup Organization and found that business units that
scored in the top quartile on the GWA were three times more likely to be successful than those
that scored in the bottom quartile. The top quartile also experienced 18% higher productivity
and 12% higher profitability than the bottom quartile. In engaged organizations, these numbers
translate into better organizational performance (i.e., reduced absenteeism, fewer resignations,
lower turnover, fewer accidents, better customer service, boosted productivity, increased
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
28

creativity and innovation, etc.). In contrast, less engaged organizations experience the opposite
effects due to managerial neglect and subsequent diminished team spirit.
Developing and Training
Engagement should naturally flow into the development stage. Development refers to
training and personal and professional development, which are valued by employees at all job
levels (Phillips & Roper, 2009). In a nationwide survey of workers and their preferences by
Dychtwald, Erickson, and Morison (2006), the opportunity to learn and grow and try new things
ranked third most important of basic elements.
Developing human capital, the continuing investment in employees, has been shown to
increase retention of effective employees (Bauer & Erdogan, 2012; Becker, 1962; Blair, 2011;
Bradt, 2012; Byerly, 2012; Crook, et al., 2011; Guest, 2011). Offering opportunities for
professional development or ongoing training of employees produces increased general and firm
specific knowledge and skills (Bauer & Erdogan, 2012; Bradt, 2012; Crook, et al., 2011).
Committed employees will use this knowledge to advance the organizational mission.
Research indicates that it is beneficial to the organization to train employees and have
supervisors and mentors dedicated to discussing and evaluating their performance (Wagner &
Harter, 2006). The importance of investing in human capital so solve economic and social
problems in organizations has gained in popularity and poses two questions: Who gets trained
and what are the effects of training (O’Connell & Jungblut, 2008)? According to O’Connell and
Jungblut (2008), typically it is the employed and educated that are more likely to participate in
training and be sponsored by their employers, which can cause a further labor market
segmentation and social exclusion of underprivileged workers. Access to training is determined
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
29

by employers’ decisions on investment based on estimates of future returns, which include
employment prospects, wages, and productivity gains.
Human capital theory suggests that training can exist as “general” and “specific”
(O’Connell & Jungblut, 2008). General training refers to the transferability of the knowledge
and skills learned in the training to current and subsequent employers. Specific training provides
knowledge and skills for use only to the current employer. Employers typically will not pay for
general training, or will lose the costs of training if the employee leaves the company in a
competitive labor market.
Retaining Employees
Retaining a skilled workforce and decreasing unwanted employee turnover are necessities
for companies and organizations (Belbin, Erwee, & Wiesner, 2012). Preserving the most skilled
workers can be critical in determining whether a company can maintain a competitive advantage
while ensuring that operations are preserved (Cardy & Lengnick-Hall, 2011). Losing talented
employees translates to losses in human capital, as the time and financial resources spent on the
departed employee are now lost (Cardy & Lengnick-Hall, 2011). If the best employees are not
retained, an organization can be negatively affected on both the operational and strategic levels
(Cardy & Lengnick-Hall, 2011). As organizations compete to hire the most talented employees,
a strong focus is made to retain gifted employees as well (Govaerts & Kyndt, 2010).
High employee retention is vital to the operational success of an organization (Belbin,
Erwee, & Wiesner, 2012). Because personal and organizational costs are high, efforts to
increase workplace retention has become paramount for organizations around the globe (Belbin,
Erwee, & Wiesner, 2012). Laddha (2012) found that companies pay up to 50% of an employee’s
salary on turnover costs highlighting the importance of increasing employee retention. In light
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
30

of the lieu of the high costs to replace workers, a considerable amount of focus and attention
have been given to investigate the reasons why workers leave one job in pursuit of another
(Belbin, Erwee, & Wiesner, 2012).
According to Govaerts and Kyndt (2010) several factors can be linked to employee
retention. From an organizational perspective factors such as the existence of challenging and
meaningful work, opportunities for career advancement, empowerment, increased
responsibilities, managerial quality and integrity, and the presence of new
opportunities/challenges can determine whether or not an employee stays in an organization
(Birt, 2004). Other factors that can influence employee retention include fair compensation,
appreciation for work performed, opportunities to learn, positive relationships with colleagues,
recognition of worker capabilities and contributions, a healthy balance between work duties and
responsibilities at home, and positive communication on the job (Walker, 2001).
According to Hytter (2007), workplace factors such as rewards, leadership style, career
advancement opportunities, training and skills development, physical working conditions, and
work-life balance have an impact on employee retention. Echols (2007) states that on the job
learning and development processes, coupled with promotions and salary increases, contribute to
increased retention. Rodrigez (2007) found that retention is positively influenced when
employees feel that they are learning and growing on the job, while limited growth and scarce
opportunities lead to decreased retention. Development and learning are critical to attracting and
maintaining high-quality employees (Govaerts & Kyndt, 2010). Work experience and tenure
were also found to have positive influences on retention (Gunz & Gunz, 2007).
Strong coworker relationships also positively influence workplace retention. Basford and
Offerman (2012) found that while some coworker relationships are a product of sharing the same
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
31

physical space, many are the result of team-based, cooperative efforts to achieve a common goal
for the organization. Self-managed teams, project work, task forces, working groups, and other
forms of teamwork have become quite common in the workplace. With an estimated 80% of
mid-to-large scale companies incorporating the teamwork approach to conducting business,
healthy coworker relationships are key to organizational success (Basford & Offerman, 2012).
Effective coworker relationships result in increased levels of motivation to stay at one’s current
place of employment for both high and low level employees (Basford & Offerman, 2012).
Evaluation
Evaluation of human capital occurs throughout the HCM process and is an essential
component of human capital management when attempting to improve or close performance
gaps (Clark & Estes, 2008). It is the process of providing employees with performance feedback
and assessing employees’ value to the organization (DeNisi & Pritchard, 2006; Flamholz, 1981;
Roberts, G.E, 1994) while determining the connections between performance gaps, improvement
programs, and cost-effectiveness (Clark & Estes, 2008). The goal of a human capital evaluation
system is to provide information to the employee and organization that will enhance employee
effectiveness and performance. Clark and Estes (2008) assert that evaluation is one of the most
cost-effective ways to improve performance. According to Kirkpatrick (1998) human capital
evaluation systems are most effective when the purpose and design is aligned to organizational
goals and areas of need. Effective performance appraisal systems ensure that evaluations and
outcomes are structured so that the employee will focus on his or her actions in the ways desired
by the organization, and will result in the kind of performance that is needed (DeNisi &
Pritchard, 2006).

ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
32

Student-Athlete Academic Services
Student-athletes in higher education are a unique population of students that have an
atypical role on campus being subjected to pressures of both student and athlete (Comeaux &
Harrison, 2011; Fletcher et al., 2003; Parham, 1993). The costs in which student-athletes face
may seem staggering when considering the added responsibilities student-athletes have
compared to their non-athletic peers. Students choosing to compete in intercollegiate athletics
face the additional challenge of balancing athletic and academic roles during their college careers
(Chartrand & Lent, 1987; Parham, 1993). Student-athletes also have to deal with the emotional
effects of success or failure in their sport. The disappointment of losing or poorly performing,
injury, or ending a career can have significant psychological effects (Fletcher et al., 2003;
Parham, 1993). Student-athletes typically struggle academically and often enter higher
education under-prepared in relation to their non-athletic peers (Shulman & Bowen, 2001).
Support services for student-athletes are not the same at all universities and colleges.
Support services may include academic counseling, guidance counseling, academic tutoring,
sports psychology, athletic training, nutrition, and sport specific support staff. The availability
and quality of these services are completely variable from one institution to the next (Watt &
Moore, 2001).
In order to emphasize effectively and to develop effective intervention strategies for
student-athletes, college counselors and support staff must have a comprehensive understanding
of college athletics and the challenges faced by student-athletes (Fletcher et al., 2003). The
student-athlete counselor must be knowledgeable of the policies of the NCAA, institution,
athletic department, and the team while being able to guide and support the student-athlete
throughout college. Student-athlete counselors may have to work with individuals in creating
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
33

personal plans for success or may have to work with entire teams or groups (Fletcher et al.,
2003). Recognizing the unique characteristics and needs of student-athletes and understanding
the specialized set of KSA required to support student-athletes, many institutions have developed
special support programs to directly support student-athletes (Ferrante, Etzel, & Lantz, 1996).
An example of such program is Student Services for Athletes, developed by Jordan and Denson
(1990), which provides a comprehensive, integrated program of support services to address
issues from a holistic perspective. Student Services for Athletes is designed to help student-
athletes balance all of the challenges of being a student and an athlete in higher education.
Although colleges and universities offer a variety of support services and programs for
student-athletes, consistent and effective enhancement of student-athletes’ learning and personal
development has yet to be achieved (Comeaux, 2007). The Knight Commission on
Intercollegiate Athletics (2001) revealed that most of these programs are primarily focused on
maintaining academic eligibility rather than achieving academic excellence. Recent focus has
turned to providing support services for student-athletes that apply new strategies that direct
competitive spirits beyond the game and into the classroom (Comeaux, 2010). One example of
intervention for student-athletes is the Scholar-Baller program (Harrison, 2002), which combines
efforts to improve academic outcomes with social integration into the college setting. The
Scholar-Baller program considers experiences, values, and cultural orientations of student-
athletes in order to create more positive learning environments and desirable outcomes. Student-
athletes often represent a more diverse population of students, which increases the need for
support services that are culturally sensitive to the needs of student-athletes (Comeaux, 2010;
Comeaux & Harrison, 2011).
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
34

The quality and effectiveness of services delivered by these academic support services
depends on their human capital management systems. Attracting and hiring (Phillips & Roper,
2009) qualified personnel is key to establishing a strong foundation to an effective support
service. The personnel must have qualified knowledge, skills, and attitude in order for the
organization to begin to be successful. Student-athletes have been found to be less likely to seek
help from counseling staff compared to non-athlete students (Watson, 2005). However,
Broughton and Neyer (2001) found that counselors with knowledge of sports enhanced the
relationship between counselor and student-athlete. In addition, the knowledge of sports and the
athletic system allows counselors to more accurately analyze the situations and experiences of
student-athletes (Fletcher et al., 2003). If student-athletes had counselors that were more
relatable to their needs, then student-athletes may be more inclined to reach out for assistance.
Theoretical Framework
Academic and social outcomes of student-athletes are dependent on the quality of the
academic support services (SAAS) provided for student-athletes. Jordan and Denson (1990)
provide a conceptual model for student services for student-athletes that takes a holistic approach
and addresses the previously described needs of student-athletes. Jordan and Denson (1990)
conceptualized their framework around four primary areas: academic monitoring, consultation
services with the university community, outreach through workshops and special programs, and
personal counseling.
Academic monitoring ensures that student-athletes are enrolled in the minimum number
of units per semester and are maintaining satisfactory grades in their classes. Academic
monitoring is also responsible for direct consultation and communication with faculty to address
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
35

strengths and weaknesses of the students. By communicating directly with faculty, improved
understanding of the students’ needs can be used to increase academic outcomes.
Consultation services work closely with academic monitoring to handle any concerns or
suggestions faculty may have regarding academic and/or social performance. Consultation
services also work closely with parents, coaches, and other university staff about any concerns
such as, but not limited to, meeting academic requirements, financial aid or scholarship, and
family situations.
Outreach workshops and special programs are offered in areas of transitions into and out
of college, career development, training for academic success, and coping and relaxation. These
workshops and programs are catered specifically to meet the needs and expectations of the
student-athlete.
Personal Counseling is also available to all student-athletes. Personal counseling is
conducted informally with a support service advisor and if the staff member recognizes a need
for more formal counseling, the student is then referred to the appropriate department. Student-
athletes may also be referred for counseling by their coaches, trainers, or any athletic department
staff member.
According to Jordan and Denson (1990), the most critical factor in the success of
academic support services for student-athletes is the cultivation of positive working relationships
between student-athletes and coaches, athletic administrators, and support staff. Personal
relationships are the key to the engagement of employees in human capital management. If
employees feel a personal connection to their workplace and coworkers, they are more likely to
be engaged and thus more productive (Buckingham & Coffman, 1999; Harter, Schmidt, &
Hayes, 2002; Phillips & Roper, 2009; Wagner & Harter, 2006).
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
36

Summary
Student-athletes are a diverse group of students that have a distinct set of needs that are
quite different than those of their non-athletic peers. As described earlier, student-athletes have
an atypical role on campus being subjected to pressures of both student and athlete (Comeaux &
Harrison, 2011; Fletcher et al., 2003; Parham, 1993). Parham (1993) describes the challenges of
student-athletes to include: (a) balancing academics and athletics; (b) a degree of isolation from
mainstream social activities; (c) managing success and/or failure; (d) managing health and/or
injury; (e) managing relationships with coaches, teammates, parents, friends, and community;
and (f) coping with athletic career termination. These complex characteristics possessed by
student-athletes require support specifically catered to meet their needs (Comeaux & Harrison,
2011; Fletcher et al., 2003; Parham, 1993). Effective engagement practices utilized by SAAS
personnel can have a positive effect on organizational success and increase desired outcomes
(Phillips & Roper, 2009; Wagner & Harter, 2006).
This study will utilize interviews to investigate the engagement strategies used within
SAAS programs at various universities. Jordan and Denson’s (1990) conceptual model for
student services for athletes will be used to frame the analysis in this study.

ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
37

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
The purpose of the study is to analyze the human capital management practices of
student-athlete academic services (SAAS), particularly focusing on practices of engagement as
defined by the framework of human capital management by Phillips and Roper (2009).
Engagement refers to qualities such as: innovation and creativity, taking personal responsibility,
authentic desire for the success of the organization or team, and an emotional bond to the
organization and its mission and vision (Wagner & Harter, 2006). Engaged employees can have
a positive effect on organizational success and increase desired outcomes (Phillips & Roper,
2009; Wagner & Harter, 2006).
Research Questions
How are university athletic departments engaging student-athlete academic service
personnel to work with student athletes?
1. Are support staff personnel encouraged to use innovation and creativity?
2. Are support staff personnel given opportunities to develop and grow professionally and
personally?
3. Are support staff personnel taking personal responsibility in their performance?
4. Do support staff personnel have an authentic desire for the success of the organization,
team, and/or individuals?
5. Do support staff personnel have an emotional bond to the organization and its mission
and vision?
Research Design
Conducting an analysis of engagement practices utilized by SAAS at various universities
and colleges would shed some light on particular strategies and methods that proved to be
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
38

successful at increasing desired outcomes. This study is designed to be a comparative case study
utilizing data from multiple SAAS programs. According to Merriam (2009), qualitative research
methods are used to understand and capture the life experiences of the participants. The problem
and research questions in this study are designed to investigate the experiences of SAAS
personnel working with student-athletes, thus qualitative research methods are appropriate and
applicable. Patton (2005) also describes qualitative research as having the ability to give more
valuable information than simply knowing if a target indicator or value has been achieved. The
focus of this study is to provide insight as to how SAAS can be improved by analyzing effective
practices of engagement at various universities.
The first step of collecting data was to select the sample of universities and the support
service personnel to be examined in the study. Then, the instruments of a pre-interview
questionnaire and interview protocol were developed utilizing researcher-selected questions
based on the literature provided in chapter two. The pre-interview questionnaire was based on
the Gallup Organization’s Gallup Workplace Audit (GWA) utilizing a modified version of the
twelve questions appropriate to student services for student-athletes (Appendix A). The
responses from the pre-interview questionnaire were used to gain insight during the interview
protocol. The interview protocol was designed based upon the framework for Student Services
for Athletes developed by Jordan and Denson (1990) and the research conducted by the Gallup
Organization presented by Buckingham and Coffman (1999) and Wagner and Harter (2006)
(Appendix B). The finalized instruments were then used to collect data that was coded, analyzed,
and reported in chapters four and five.

ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
39

Sample and Population
Non-probability sampling in the form of purposeful sampling was utilized in the selection
process of the participants. Purposeful sampling is based on the assumption that the selected
participants will yield insight to the research question posed in the study (Merriam, 2009).
Merriam (2009) further describes purposeful sampling as utilizing a set of selection criteria that
directly reflects the purpose of the study in order to identify the participants.
Five universities were selected to conduct the study. Each school selected had met the
following criteria:
1. NCAA Division I institution
2. University participates in NCAA Division I football
3. University provides academic services specifically designed for student-athletes
Selection criteria for participants consisted of academic support service personnel for
student-athletes who had the following roles, but not limited to:
1. Counselors
2. Academic Advisors
3. Tutors
4. Athletic Directors
5. Learning Specialists
6. Support Service Staff
Instrumentation
Interviews are conducted to gain insight on behavior, feelings, and how the participants
view their experiences in particular settings (Merriam, 2009). Interviews were used in this study
to gain insight specifically on the experiences of the SAAS personnel participants at various
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
40

universities. Prior to the interviews of the participants, a pre-interview questionnaire was used to
gain insight and guide the interview process. The pre-interview questionnaire was based on the
Gallup Organization’s Gallup Workplace Audit (GWA), utilizing a modified version of the
twelve questions appropriate to student services for student-athletes (Appendix A). The pre-
interview questionnaire asked the participants to rate on a scale of one to five, in which one is
strongly disagree and five is strongly agree, and included the questions found in Table 1.
Table 1
Pre-Interview questions aligned to research questions
Research question Pre-Interview Questions
1. Are support staff personnel encouraged
to use innovation and creativity?
I have the resources and knowledge I
need to do my job to the best of my
ability.
2. Are support staff personnel given
opportunities to develop and grow
professionally and personally?
In the last year, I have had
opportunities at work to learn and
grow.
3. Are support staff personnel taking
personal responsibility in their
performance?
My coworkers are committed to doing
quality work.
4. Do support staff personnel have an
authentic desire for the success of the
organization, team, and/or individuals?
My supervisor, or someone at work,
seems to care about me as a person.

5. Do support staff personnel have an
emotional bond to the organization and its
mission and vision?
I believe in the mission/purpose of my
organization.

The results of the pre-interview questionnaire were used to help the interviewer guide the
interview process and provide further insight in painting the overall picture of how support
service personnel are engaged in their organizations.
A semi-structured interview format consists of guiding questions that are used flexibly,
but are given to collect specific data from all participants (Merriam, 2009). The semi-structured
interview format was chosen to allow for flexibility in asking guiding questions that were
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
41

appropriate to maintain the general flow of the interview and not be held to a rigid structure that
could interfere with the personal experiences being shared. According to Maxwell (2013),
interview questions should be designed to answer the research questions. The interview protocol
developed (Appendix B) contained a series of seven open-ended questions given to all
participants, however as Merriam (2009) describes about semi-structured interviews, due to the
natural and varying flow of the interviews, personal discretion was used to adjust the wording
and/or order of the questions while still maintaining the consistency of the meaning of the
questions. The interview protocol was designed based upon the framework for Student Services
for Athletes developed by Jordan and Denson (1990) and the research conducted by the Gallup
Organization presented by Buckingham and Coffman (1999) and Wagner & Harter (2006). Pre-
interview responses were also taken into consideration when facilitating the interview process in
order to develop a more detailed report of the experiences. The interview questions aligned to
the research questions can be found in Table 2.

ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
42

Table 2
Interview questions aligned to research questions
Research question Interview Questions
1. Are support staff personnel encouraged
to use innovation and creativity?
In what ways are you encouraged to be
creative and innovative in your
workplace?
2. Are support staff personnel given
opportunities to develop and grow
professionally and personally?

What is your position within your
organization (Support Services for
Student-Athletes)?
Are there any services for student-
athletes that your program is lacking?
3. Are support staff personnel taking
personal responsibility in their
performance?
Describe how you take personal
responsibility for the outcomes of the
student-athletes you work with.
4. Do support staff personnel have an
authentic desire for the success of the
organization, team, and/or individuals?
Does your organization create an
authentic desire for success within the
workplace?
5. Do support staff personnel have an
emotional bond to the organization and its
mission and vision?

Do you feel an emotional bond to your
organization and students you work
with?
Is your work meaningful and do you
feel valued by your workplace?

Data Collection
Pre-interviews and interviews were conducted at the five universities with the various
participant support service personnel. Prior to conducting the interviews, an information sheet
was distributed to the participants. Additionally, conformation of date, time, and location of the
sessions will be arranged through email or phone correspondence. Upon obtaining verbal
consent, each participant was asked if they were comfortable with recording the conversation.
Each participant was also informed that the interview process will ask for them to recall personal
experiences that has the potential to cause them to feel uncomfortable and that the participants
have the right to discontinue and exit the interview at any moment. Participants were also made
aware that they might not receive any benefits from participating in the study.
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
43

Each participant was asked to participate in the pre-interview questionnaire immediately
prior to the interview. The 1-5 rating scale of the pre-interview made analyzing the data of each
participant immediately available and ready to utilize during the following interview. Based on
the results of the pre-interview responses, the interviewer was able to modify, adjust, and
personalize the semi-structured interview questions to each participant in order to gain better
insight. Interviews were voice recorded and the interviewer reported field notes during the
interviews.
Data Analysis
Following data collection, the interview data were reviewed and transcribed. Utilizing
the data analysis process outlined in Merriam (2009), each transcript was read and coded.
Coding involves identifying data that appears to be interesting, important, or potentially relevant
to the study by writing codes, themes, or notes in the margins (Merriam, 2009).
Reflective field notes taken during the interviews helped provide context to the
transcripts during the data analysis. Bogden and Biklen (2007) define reflective field-notes as
“sentences and paragraphs that reflect a more personal account of the course of inquiry” (p. 122).
Reflective field-notes record observations such as the arrangement of the room, placement and
engagement of the participants, and overall impression of the conversation.
Patton (2005) states that triangulation of the data strengthens a study by providing
multiple reference points. This study triangulates data by combining the responses of the pre-
interview, interview, and the interviewer’s field notes to create a more comprehensive depiction
of the experiences of the participants. In addition, the use of five different universities also
strengthens the triangulation of the findings by providing different perspectives. By comparing
the results of the interviews of personnel from different universities, we are able to differentiate
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
44

effective practices of employee engagement versus ineffective practice and can apply these
lessons to improve student services for athletes at all universities.
Ethical considerations were of utmost importance throughout the study. Participation in
the study was completely voluntary and informed consent was obtained prior to the interviews.
Participants were informed that their experiences might be reported in the findings of the study,
but their identities and the identities of their universities would be held confidential and
anonymous. All documents, audio recordings, and transcriptions were kept private and secure in
a password-protected file. Keeping identities anonymous and confidential was important for
maintaining the integrity of the data as well as ensuring the participants’ privacy so as to prevent
any harm. Ensured privacy and confidentiality also allowed for participants to feel more
comfortable in sharing sensitive information and experiences that could possibly have negative
affects.
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
45

CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS
The purpose of the study is to analyze the human capital management practices of SAAS
programs, particularly focusing on practices of engagement as defined by the framework of
human capital management by Phillips and Roper (2009). As described in the literature, student-
athletes in higher education are a unique population of students that have an atypical role on
campus being subjected to pressures of both student and athlete. SAAS provide the support that
can have a positive affect on the student-athlete’s success in higher education. Engaged
employees within SAAS can have a positive effect on the organizational success and increase the
academic success of these students.
The following research questions guided the study under the overarching question: How
are university athletic departments engaging student-athlete academic service personnel to work
with student athletes?
1. Are support staff personnel encouraged to use innovation and creativity?
2. Are support staff personnel given opportunities to develop and grow professionally and
personally?
3. Are support staff personnel taking personal responsibility in their performance?
4. Do support staff personnel have an authentic desire for the success of the organization,
team, and/or individuals?
5. Do support staff personnel have an emotional bond to the organization and its mission
and vision?
Chapter four presents the findings from this comparative case study examining
engagement practices within student-athlete academic services at five different universities.
First, a description of the participants will be made. Second, a brief description of the results
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
46

from the pre-interview questionnaire will be discussed. Third, themes revealed in the data will
be presented categorically by research question. Fourth, themes will be related to the framework
of support services for student-athletes, as presented by Jordan and Denson (1990). Last, the
chapter will conclude with a summary of the findings.
Description of Participants
As discussed in the methodology, five different universities were purposefully selected
based on the following criteria: (a) participation in NCAA Division I athletics, (b) participation
in NCAA Division I football, and (c) exclusive provision of SAAS. Please see Table 3 to see a
detailed description of the five universities studied. The five universities were also selected
based on convenience sampling to allow for easier access to participants through personal
connections and contacts of the principal investigator. The sampling practices should not have a
negative threat to validity nor negatively threaten integrity of the data obtained, however, due to
convenience sampling, data revealed could possibly be more positive in nature toward preserving
the reputation of the participant’s institutions. Pseudonyms will be utilized (when applicable) to
protect the identities of the participants and universities. Table 3 describes the participating
universities in terms of school size, size of athletic programs, and size of SAAS programs.

ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
47

Table 3
Description of participating universities

Twelve participants from five different universities participated in this study. Each
participant completed the pre-interview questionnaire and a twenty to thirty minute semi-
structured interview. The participants were all employed by student-athlete academic services at
their respective universities. Positions of participants varied, but included: Directors, Athletic
Directors, Academic Advisors, Learning Specialists, Learning Resource Coordinators, and
Counselors. Titles of positions were found to vary from one university or program to the next.
Positions were found to often be similar despite title, and often included many different roles and
responsibilities, which will be further explained in the findings.
Participants ranged in years of experience in SAAS from one year to twenty plus years.
Experience in SAAS and working with student-athletes in general will also have an influence in
the findings as explained further. Five of the participants were alums of their respective
universities. This also had an influence on the findings, which will be discussed further.
University
(Pseudonym)
Undergraduate
Student
Population
Student-
Athletes
(Approx.)
Sports
Offered
Academic
Advisors/
Counselors/
Learning
Specialists
Eastern 20,000-30,000 400-500 17 5
Northern 10,000-20,000 >500 19 5
Pacific 5,000-10,000 300-400 15 3
Southern 20,000-30,000 >500 21 8
Western 10,000-20,000 >500 20 12
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
48

Pre-Interview Questionnaire
Each participant fulfilled the pre-interview questionnaire (Appendix A) prior to
participating in the interview. The pre-interview questionnaire revealed valuable information
that helped to guide the interview questions and shape the overall picture of the participants’
feelings toward their organizations.
The pre-interview questionnaire revealed overwhelming participant satisfaction with their
organizations. Eleven out of twelve participants reported satisfaction with their organization as a
place to work. Only one participant reported un-satisfaction in their organization. For the
purposes of data analysis, the findings from the eleven satisfied participants were separated from
the lone un-satisfied participant to illustrate the degree of satisfaction. As presented in Table 3,
on a scale of one to five, where one is strongly disagree and five is strongly agree, the mean
score reported for the satisfied participants were all in strong agreement with the statements in
the pre-interview questionnaire.
Table 4
Results of Pre-Interview Questionnaire

The results of the satisfied participants show that the majority of SAAS personnel felt
satisfied with the human capital management of their organization. The subsequent interviews
with these participants, from different universities, further supported these results as they each
gave favorable responses when describing the climate of their workplace.
Participant

Q1
(Mean)
Q2
(Mean)
Q3
(Mean)
Q4
(Mean)
Q5
(Mean)
Satisfied Participants
(11)
4.55 5.00 4.82 4.91 4.82
Un-Satisfied Participant
(1)
2 2 3 4 3
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
49

Casey: I feel good about coming to work every day. So yeah, I mean I like my
job. I know that this is a field that there is a lot of turnover in, or so at least I’ve
seen. But I feel good, I like what I’m doing and I feel passionate about the work I
do, the institution I work for, and the students I support.

Denise: My bosses are wonderful and they’ve always been supportive of me and
my goals and what’s important to me. I’ve been very blessed and I think that’s
why I’ve been here for so long cause they’ve been so good to me.

Keith: We all work together to help each other succeed. Everyone picks up each
other like a family, we work like a team, which is ironic because we work with
teams. So I guess it makes sense. But I just enjoy seeing everybody and saying
hi and high fiving everyone.

On the other hand, the participant that was not satisfied with his organization painted a
much different picture.
Jeff: I’ve been through a few different universities. This university to me is just a
disaster, from the registrar’s office to catering to the English department. I mean
everything about this university doesn’t operate or function well or run well.
People are not a team here, it’s very political, it’s very good ole boys… I don’t
have an emotional bond with this university. To the guys, yes. And to a few
people in the department, yes. As a whole, no.

However, it seemed that Jeff’s negative perception of satisfaction with his organization
did not create different themes of what was important to him in relation to the other participants.
In fact, his interview revealed similar themes as other participants that reported satisfaction with
their organizations.
Findings: Research Question One
The first research question is: Are support staff personnel encouraged to use innovation
and creativity? The aim of this research question was to investigate ways in which SAAS
personnel are encouraged to be self-empowered to utilize their own creative ideas and strengths.
According to the literature, employees are more likely to be engaged and produce higher
outcomes when encouraged to use creativity and innovation. The research question was aligned
with the interview question: In what ways are you encouraged to be creative and innovative in
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
50

your workplace? Through data analysis, the following theme emerged: Directors that supported
personal growth and ideas were highly valued.
Supportive Directors
According to the literature, a supportive director can increase employee engagement,
especially when employees are encouraged to be creative and innovative in their workplace. The
majority of participants reported that their directors were very open to hearing their ideas,
suggestions, and proposals as well as supporting employees in collaborating and sharing ideas
and strategies. However, one university’s participants consciously pointed out that their director
and organization highly valued autonomy, while the participants from other universities
expressed creativity in the form of collaboration. A division of two sub-themes emerged
consistent within the data, SAAS personnel valued autonomy and collaboration.
Autonomy. Participants from one university revealed that having the freedom and
flexibility to make decisions and implement creative ideas were highly valued and appreciated
characteristics of their directors. Of the three participants interviewed from the university, all
three echoed similar sentiments of their director. One academic advisor, Lisa, mentioned, “Our
director promotes autonomy and creativity in every single aspect”.
The other two participants from the same university, both academic advisors, further
illustrate the creative support they receive from their director and how this support positively
influences their workplace:
Alyssa: I would say we have free reign with creativity and innovation in our
office. Our director gives us free reign. She says the more ideas we come up
with the better its gonna be. And I’ll let you know if there’s something you
cannot do or we cannot fund. So she has verbally and in writing pretty much said
you have the authority to do whatever you want… She’s a big proponent of
professional development. So if you’re creating or doing something that’s gonna
help to develop you professionally it’s gonna to bring more ideas to the table. She
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
51

doesn’t hinder us that way and it helps the growth, helps the creativity, and helps
the dynamic in the office.

Jeff: I basically have free range to do what I want…and to develop programs as I
best see fit, or to try things as I best see fit, as long as I stay within NCAA
compliance which most of the time the only thing I have to worry about is
volunteer opportunities. As far as being creative, I have free range, I just have to
ask prior to what I want to do, see if its possible, and typically the answer is
always yes. As far as having the support to always do it, its not necessarily there.

It should be noted that the above participants were from the same university SAAS, in
which this program would be considered having a low amount of resources to operate the
program. For the sake of this study, resources are described as, but not limited to, budget,
faculty and staff positions, ability to fund programs, and physical facilities. As will be described
later as a separate theme, large variations in amount of resources were discovered from one
university to the next. The large variation in resources, play a major factor in the roles and
responsibilities of the participants.
Collaboration. The lack of resources in the aforementioned SAAS program could be a
factor in why the participants above were given more autonomy by their director. Due to the
limited and small faculty in their department, each individual must carry out multiple roles and
responsibilities while making creative decisions that maximize results with limited resources. In
contrast, SAAS programs with larger amounts of resources have larger staffs that are more
specialized to carry out more focused and streamlined roles. With larger resources,
responsibilities may often be narrow, allowing individuals to focus on specific roles.
Participants at universities with SAAS programs with greater amounts of resources mentioned
their directors’ support coming in the form of department collaboration.
Participants reported that their directors were often receptive to input and ideas and
highly supported collaborative meetings. SAAS programs with larger staffs found more time to
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
52

have collaborative meetings. One participant, Brad, mentioned having four to five staff meetings
a week where ideas were often shared and problems were collectively solved and discussed.
Casey, at a different university, described his workplace as open to sharing ideas and often those
ideas easily gain momentum and support. Participants highly valued their director’s emphasis on
collaboration:
Jayme: I feel that everyone is collaborative and willing to help out. We have a
great leader in our director. She is really supportive and encouraging and goes
above and beyond to help out. So I feel like all those pieces are there so an
individual can be successful and do good work on a day to day basis…I do feel
like we’ve had a lot of conversations about how are we gonna solve this problem
and what are we gonna do and how are we gonna approach it? So I do feel like
there is a lot of receptiveness to doing new and different things and just trying to
figure out what is the best way to do things.

Kevin: I just had a meeting with my director and she was very adamant that, “this
was the way we’ve been doing it for the seven years, but I’m very eager to hear
your ideas of how we can make it better”. So yeah, I think she’s very interested
in my ideas and directions I’d like to see the program go.

Directors of SAAS programs stressed that collaboration at the university level was
important to them in finding ways to improve their own programs. Collaborations often took
place amongst different departments:
Phillip: I will hear faculty talk about cross-department collaborations and
research, it’s not just in one particular area. I don’t know why people have
gravitated here but they have, genuinely good people that see that by being
connected to other people, the quality of their work and the quality of their life
will be better. And people don’t seem very selfish here, they want to help out
when they can…I think that it’s really healthy.

Kerri: I was in a meeting with our sports information director regarding the use of
social media. Social media has been underutilized by many athletic departments
in terms of cultivating relationships with fans, donors, and things like that…One
way is for us to start thinking about content that can be used on social media such
as talking about the number of student athletes that made the honor role last
quarter, or we just did a major breakdown report that our student athletes are
majoring in 51 diff majors, highlighting on some of the academic stories down
here and how we can do that via twitter or instagram. We have to be constantly
evolving in order to stay relevant. I’m not afraid to start something, evaluate it,
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
53

and realize hmm that may not be the right choice, how can we tweak it. I’m not
afraid of change, I’m not going to change just for the sake of changing, I’m going
to change for a purpose. I think that’s why we can be creative and we can be
innovative.

Findings: Research Question Two
According to the literature, employees are more likely to be engaged and produce higher
outcomes when given opportunities for personal and professional growth. Thus, the question
arises: Are support staff personnel given opportunities to develop and grow professionally and
personally? The research question was aligned with the two interview questions: What is your
position within your organization (Support Services for Student-Athletes)? Are there any
services for student-athletes that your program is lacking? Through data analysis, the following
two themes emerged:
• There is a large range of variation in amount of resources at different universities.
• Directors that supported personal growth and ideas were highly valued.
Variation in Resources
There is a wide range of variation in the amount of resources universities provide to
SAAS programs. Factors in this variation are related to organizational structure within the
university, source of budget, and size of budget. The following is a common example of how
university logistics could impair SAAS personnel from serving student-athletes to the best of
their ability:
Jeff: I have a huge desire for success and I want to see my student athletes
succeed. I know that the workplace does want them to succeed, I’m not sure if
we’re set up for the most success. Does that make sense? Just the way our
offices are ran and where we’re housed and things of that nature keep me from
doing the best ability that I could possibly do. Like I have to share an office and
the three of us are crunched into an adjoining office. I think that it hurts the
student athlete, we’re not in the athletic center, we’re housed across campus in the
general advising and I think that hinders success because the student athletes
aren’t as willing to come over here cause there’s not as much privacy and they
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
54

can’t feel as open with you cause there’s always someone in the office, there’s
always another student athlete in the office. So it’s hard to maintain privacy and
it’s hard to practice the best success habits because of those things.

Data, such as stated above, revealed that there are variations in where SAAS programs
are housed within the university structure. Some SAAS programs are housed within athletic
departments, while other SAAS programs are housed within student affairs or academic
advising. Organizational structure determines source of financial budget and ability to use funds.
For example, SAAS programs that were structured under athletic departments were found to
have larger budgets that were sourced through the athletic departments. Athletic departments
tend to have greater access to funds through external financial contributions from donors, media
rights, ticket sales, advertising, etc. On the other hand, SAAS programs that were structured
within offices of student affairs or academic advising were typically found with substantially
smaller budgets due to the source of these budgets provided by the university system.
An unfortunate result of having an SAAS program with a smaller budget or lack of
resources is having a smaller staff that is required to handle multiple responsibilities. Personnel
at smaller SAAS programs often struggle to handle the many roles that are forced upon them.
Kevin, a learning resource coordinator, handles the responsibilities of managing study tables for
several hundred athletes and their study facilitators, while also coordinating all aspects of
tutoring and developing the university’s summer bridge program. Casey, an academic advisor
by title, is responsible for advising five different sports while also coordinating eligibility for the
entire department. Lisa, another academic advisor at a different university, works with roughly
130 athletes across five sports while also coordinating tutoring and mentoring for all student-
athletes in the department.
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
55

However, being forced to handle multiple roles was often viewed as a positive. Keith, an
academic advisor, described that having to handle multiple roles outside of advising his five
teams has enabled him to learn new skills and diversify himself. He also mentioned that he is a
better advisor because he is more involved in his students’ lives. He understands more of what
they go through and sees them more frequently due to his multiple roles in the department.
SAAS programs with ample resources were found to have larger staffs that contained
very specialized staff members such as learning specialists, learning resource coordinators,
personal counselors, sports psychologists, and specialized tutors. These SAAS programs had
multiple individuals to handle the roles that a single individual had responsibility for in the
smaller SAAS programs.
Kerri: I’m very fortunate that I’m at an institution that has resources. Versus a
school that only has two people or a school that has 3 people. I’m at a larger
school with significantly more resources than most.

It was evident in the data that participants from SAAS programs with smaller resources
stated that they wanted to have an increase in personnel in order to offer more services and
workshops. Participants felt that if they had more resources, they could offer more programs and
services and student-athletes would benefit:
Jeff: I don’t know if we are necessarily lacking anything, but we don’t have
enough of anything. So we try to touch a lot of areas: tutoring, mentoring,
workshops, counseling, advising. So we try to touch everything that needs to be
addressed that’s vital to being addressed but we don’t have enough resources. We
could use two or three more academic advisors. I could use an assistant…or at
least a graduate assistant. We could use a larger budget so we could have fifty
tutors or at least mandate tutoring. We could use more mentors so that we could
require every freshman to be in the mentoring program. We could use a grading
assistant for our education class. I feel like we touch on everything and we do the
best that we can with the resources that we have, but I don’t think that we have
enough.

Lisa: More advisors, there are only 3 of us for 330 student-athletes. Having a
learning specialist. Having an actual coordinator for our office. Having what
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
56

other big programs have. But I think for our size office, I think we do a damn
good job of supporting in the ways we can afford it and in ways that we are
allowed to.

Other participants mentioned that their program only addressed the needs of the typical student
but doesn’t help all students, especially the students that need the most assistance. They describe
the need of educational specialists below:
Kevin: The way it’s set up now is to reach out to a wide range of students. It’s
like a wide swath. Get the students in and get them on target. But we have like
20% of students that are really struggling, and a lot of it’s because they’ve been
provisionally accepted, there’s a bad culture in their particular part of athletics
and academics is seen as uncool and pushed aside. And at the same time, I think
they feel as uncomfortable in the classroom as I would on the football field
because they just don’t have that core understanding of metacognitive skills and
how to push their understanding higher and what it takes to understand a syllabus.
That’s what we’re really lacking, is to have someone full time that really
understands how to work with a student one on one that’s really troubled. And
help them understand the value of it and even knows where to start.

Jayme: A lot of schools have a learning specialist. Some of our students need
someone to help them learn how to study and approach things. Some have no
idea of what they are getting into in college. Someone that can sit down one on
one and help a student build up those skills. We don’t have very many counselors
and we have a lot of students. There are kids that are just not prepared and with
the demands they have on both sides they just need someone that can teach them
how to learn. They just haven’t had to know how to learn.

Supportive Directors
Personal and professional development. Similar to the findings for research question
one, supportive directors are again a common theme in supporting research question two.
Supportive directors, in terms of professional and personal development, were found in all of the
SAAS programs studied. Participants identified that feeling their directors cared about their own
professional and personal growth was an important factor in their satisfaction in their workplace.
Denise: My bosses are wonderful and they’ve always been supportive of me and
my goals and what’s important to me. I’ve been very blessed and I think that’s
why I’ve been here for so long cause they’ve been so good to me.

ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
57

Alyssa: It depends on what we, as an employee, wants as success. If I’m someone
that wants to move up the career ladder it doesn’t move very easily, and the
process takes time. But I do think that each year we are evaluated by our
supervisor and she asks us Where are we going, where do we want to be? I feel
completely comfortable to tell her if I wanted to be an assistant athletic director
she would help me get there.

Directors also encouraged their personnel to regularly pursue professional development
opportunities. Participation in NCAA conferences, counseling conferences, seminars,
workshops, and enrolling in classes are often promoted by directors to further develop the skills
of the staff.
Lisa: Our supervisors promote staff development and we are able to go to diff
conferences. I’ve been to NCAA conferences, NCAA leadership forums, regional
rules seminars, always promoting excellence and development. We are always
able to meet with our supervisors if we have any questions or want to do more
self-development or have any goals or questions.

Denise: We’re always being sent to conferences to see what’s new and out there
that we can bring in to our office. Basically, any idea we have is something we
can implement here if we’re passionate about it. They’re very supportive of that.
Professional development is really big here.

One academic advisor, Keith, was suggested to enroll in language and culture courses to
help him relate to a certain population of students that the university had a high population of.
Keith explained that the course did help and allow him to develop a closer relationship with
many of his student-athletes. He thinks this helped the students performed better academically
because the students had a greater sense of trust in him and a feeling that he cared for their well-
being.
Findings: Research Question Three
According to the literature, employees are more likely to be engaged and produce higher
outcomes when they take personal responsibility for their performance in their workplace. Thus,
the third research question presents itself: Are support staff personnel taking personal
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
58

responsibility in their performance? The research question was aligned with the interview
question: Describe how you take personal responsibility for the outcomes of the student-athletes
you work with. Through data analysis, the following theme emerged: Personal responsibility for
success is placed upon the student-athlete.
Student’s own responsibility
As one participant described: “My motto is to help students become self-regulated
learners”. Participants agreed that their responsibility was to offer and provide services, but it
was the student-athlete’s responsibility to take advantage of them. Two sub-themes arose from
this data: A commitment to provide services and a shift of responsibility from SAAS personnel
to the student-athlete.
Commitment to provide services. As early as when a student-athlete is being recruited,
a commitment from the university is being made to provide academic services to the student-
athlete in exchange for their participation in sport. Academic services include tuition, room and
board, and academic assistance and support. It becomes the responsibility of the university to do
its due diligence to provide the best academic services in its power to assist the student-athlete to
be successful. Participants in this study further explain this commitment:
Alyssa: I think the freshman class gets that right off the bat. We do a lot of
interaction with them prior to them getting to campus right after they sign their
NLI (national letter of intent). We do a lot of interaction with them getting them
registered ahead of time. So we do a lot of interaction via phone and email ahead
of time so by the time they get here, to have them in class, it solidifies the
relationship.

Phillip: We all genuinely believe that by bringing these kids to our university,
when the coaches go out and sit in the living rooms with the kids and say we want
you to come and be a part of us. We have a commitment to honor that. So that’s
what we try to do.

ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
59

Teresa: Athletics is different. They are here for us, we are here for them. We’re
both here to provide a service. With student-athletes, there is unfortunately more
leg work involved to make sure they are aware of everything.

However, this commitment to provide services can only create successful outcomes when
the student-athlete fulfills their academic responsibilities. Participants identified that they could
only do so much to help a student-athlete be successful, but it was the student-athlete that must
put in the hard work in order to achieve success.
Student-athlete’s responsibility. Participants agreed that it was the student-athlete’s
own responsibility to take advantage of all of the resources provided by SAAS and made
available to them. If the SAAS provides as many services and programs it can within its power,
then the SAAS has done its due diligence. One director of a SAAS, described this transfer of
responsibility to the student-athlete and supported her staff:
Kerri: The way I view it is that my role and my responsibility is to create
opportunity and it’s their job, the student’s job, to take advantage of them. What I
mean by creating opportunities is are we providing them with resources? Do we
have enough tutorial support? Do we have enough academic counseling support?
Are we providing them with workshops regarding career development, leadership
development, personal development. In the end it’s ultimately the student
athlete’s responsibility to take advantage of those opportunities, to go to class, to
complete their work with integrity, to fulfill their academic obligations. My job is
not determined by wins and losses as a coach would be, granted we have
mechanisms for graduation. We have mechanisms to evaluate academic success.
But on a daily basis I’m evaluating whether or not we are providing enough
opportunities and enough services… but in the end, if a student fails to prepare for
an exam and fails, I am personally not losing any sleep over that because I’m
confident that my staff and our unit provided them with the support and the
student made the decision not to fulfill their academic responsibility.

A common sentiment was that if the SAAS personnel did their due diligence to fulfill
their duties and communicated these resources to the student-athlete, then the responsibility
would fall upon the student-athlete to take advantage of them.
Lisa: Let’s say a student athlete wants to be eligible but for some reason can’t
regain eligibility or are ineligible, I just handle it for what it is. I sit down and I
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
60

talk to the student and say look this is the situation you put yourself in for
whatever reason. We provided this much academic support. Which resources
have you taken advantage of and which have you not taken advantage of? You
know really exhausting every possibility that the student athlete can utilize and
should’ve utilized but didn’t or perhaps did utilize every resource and is still
ineligible. Figuring out exactly why that student is not doing well.

Alyssa: So on a regular basis I communicate with the student athlete, I give them
the people they need to talk to, the steps they need to take to do something, and
the follow through that needs to happen. And if they do not do that, I am
comfortable that the ramifications are the student’s responsibility because they are
an adult and they need to take responsibility for what they need to do. If I have
not given them something, if I have not followed through, or if I have told them
information in error, then I totally feel like its my responsibility and I should’ve
fixed it or I should’ve done something better with it. So then I’ll put every effort
forward to making it work out for our student athlete as best as I can. It’s a fine
line with how much you do for them and how much you don’t do for them, it’s
taken me a long time to get there.

Jeff: If I’ve done what I’m supposed to do and I’ve set the student athlete up for
success, they have to follow through and they have to do their part too. So if
somebody is not passing a class because they chose not to go to class, then I can’t
take that personally. If they’re not passing a class because they didn’t come in
and seek advise or ask for a tutor or ask for me to talk to their professor or help
them figure out where to make up work on their syllabus, then I can’t take that
personally. I take it personally if I advise someone wrong, or I put them in a class
that I was maybe unsure of them having the capability, maybe. If I put them in
this and they seek resources, then definitely. But if they don’t seek resources and
they fail, I can’t take it personally.

Kevin: I’ve gotten to the point that I know that I’m just one piece of multiple
pieces in the student’s education. So I cant take the full brunt of it. I’m
competent in my job at this point that I feel like I’ve given them everything I’ve
got and if they still don’t succeed then I don’t know what more I could do. I’ve
given them everything I could give for them to be successful and if you still don’t
then it’s gotta be something outside of me.

Phillip: You can’t be responsible for what another person does. All you can do is
try to guide and offer help. They ultimately choose. It just saddens you. And
you can hope that at some point in life that will change.

The data clearly presented the responsibility of success was put upon the student-athlete.
It was clear that SAAS personnel felt responsible for providing as many opportunities as
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
61

possible, but academic outcomes of the student-athlete were completely placed upon the student-
athlete.
Findings: Research Question Four
The fourth research question is: Do support staff personnel have an authentic desire for
the success of the organization, team, and/or individuals? According to the literature, employees
are more likely to be engaged and produce higher outcomes when they have a personal desire for
successful outcomes. The research question was aligned with the interview question: Does your
organization create an authentic desire for success within the workplace? Through data analysis,
the following theme emerged: SAAS personnel have an authentic desire for student-athlete
success.
Student-Athlete Success
Phillip: I like the students, I like hearing their stories, I like seeing them struggle
and achieve, I like seeing them grow into adults. It’s a good time to stay
connected to young people and see how they can prosper once they find their
footing.

SAAS personnel all reported a similar characteristic: an authentic desire for student-
athlete success. It was very clear from the data that student-athletes achieving academic success
is the most important desired outcome. Many participants stated in various ways that the reason
they are working in SAAS is because of their desire to see student-athletes achieve success.
Casey: I really feel that all of us in here all have the desire to see the students
succeed and challenge themselves and develop. I think with any job there’s
gonna be some frustrations and things, but I think that all of us that are working
here are in it for the right reasons. In some ways we all have our own cases and
our own students and have our own ways of doing things. We are doing our own
thing, but we’re all doing it for the right reasons. I know everyone is working
hard. I don’t have any doubts about that.

Teresa: I love my job. I love working with students and love helping
them…rewarding knowing that you’ve helped them.

ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
62

Denise: I don’t know I just want them to do well, you know? Not just athletically,
but academically. And when they leave here, I just want them to be ready for the
real world. So yeah, I definitely want them to be successful.

Kevin: Am I passionate about students, yes. Am I passionate about low-income
first generation students? Yeah. And are a lot of the students I’ve been working
with in athletics? Yes. Am I super passionate about athletics and making sure the
students are eligible to play? Not yet. I like seeing students grow and progress,
but I’m seeing them as students. I understand they are athletes and there are
challenges, but I want to see them as students first and athletes second.

The desire for student-athlete success was often related to developing an emotional bond
to the student-athletes that they worked with. One participant describes the emotional bond
between SAAS personnel and student-athlete begins from a source of empathy. Having empathy
allows the relationship grow and enhances the desire for student-athlete success.
Kerri: So you have to be emotionally vested in what you do as a profession, at
least for me, to get some level of satisfaction. There are some good days and
some bad days and I feel it emotionally. I think emotions are necessary but it
depends on what type of emotions. You want to be compassionate; you want to be
patient, and empathetic. But in the end, they need to respect me. I’m not looking
for any other relationship other than a student administrator relationship. I’m not
looking to be their friend; I’m looking to serve as a resource. I’m looking to serve
as a person of support and at times a mentor. But my emotional ties with them are
more geared toward compassion and empathy more than anything, because you
need to be able to empathize with what they are doing in order to provide them
with advice and resources. You need to somewhat have an understanding of their
experience and relate to them.

The emotional bond was found to help improve communication and trust between SAAS
personnel and student-athlete, which in turn helped improve academic outcomes. Investing and
building an authentic, personal relationship with the student-athletes was often a strategy utilized
by SAAS personnel. Often, this emotional connection and personal relationship between SAAS
personnel and student-athlete was more important that connection with the university.
Casey: I like to support the students I work with. Watch their games, etc. Keeps
me and them motivated. Be able to talk to them about their games helps me
connect to them. Build rapport and trust.

ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
63

Brad: The relationships created with the student-athletes are important. Students
start having success and they start vouching for you, telling their friends about
you. You build amazing relationships, meet their parents, see them succeed on
and off the field, grow as people. Our offices are always open for students so they
always come by and talk. When you’re here, you’re family. The trust comes
from there.

Jayme: I really do love working with the student-athletes. Definitely in this line
of work you have an emotional bond. And I think that part of it comes with
meeting students on the recruiting visits and you work with them all the way
through until they graduate or finish. So you really get to see their struggles along
the way and how they overcome those. You get to see where they really succeed
and shine and you get to see how they manage all the pressure put upon them both
athletically and academically. And you know a lot of time you’re there to help
give them support for that like tutoring and study table support. But a lot of times
its just talking through it with them like giving them encouragement and support
that they need to get through. So when you’re doing that you really get a chance
to get to know them closely and see what it feels like to be in their shoes. So it’s
certainly easy to get emotionally attached.

Jeff: I feel an emotional bond to my students, but not to my organization…I’ve
gotten to know the guys really well being that I’m the only advisor for them. So
I’ve gotten the opportunity to sit down with multiple of them one on one…I have
an advantage because they want to come and talk to me about things other than
football and what’s going on and off the field. They want to talk to me about their
family life, their personal life, and their girlfriends and so I connect with them on
a different level. And I love that part of my job. Absolutely.

According to the literature, student-athletes are often a population of students in higher
education that are more likely to be under-prepared and under-qualified for university academics.
Student-athletes are often admitted to the university under provisional exemptions or athletic
scholarships that allow them admittance with less than qualified academic abilities. These
student-athletes are often under-prepared because they have never been challenged to do well
academically because of their athletic prowess. Once they enter higher education, they are
expected to maintain a satisfactory grade point average (GPA) and stay on track to graduate,
which is typically a difficult task without ample academic assistance. Thus the necessity for
SAAS programs is to assist student-athletes that need extra academic support. Another
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
64

sentiment expressed by SAAS personnel is their desire to help student-athletes because of
necessity to support student-athletes that are under-prepared and would not be able to survive
and graduate without support.
Phillip: If you take the academic profile of an incoming male student athlete, it is
not comparable to the academic profile of an incoming non-athlete male. So you
think our guys are gonna get the same grades as those guys? No, but my data
shows that they achieve at a comparable rate, and the student athlete passes more
classes! Athletics is always the piñata that everyone likes to whack at.

Jayme: Some of our students need someone to help them learn how to study and
approach things. Some have no idea of what they are getting into in college.
Someone that can sit down one on one and help a student build up those skills.
We don’t have very many counselors and we have a lot of students. There are
kids that are just not prepared and with the demands they have on both sides they
just need someone that can teach them how to learn. They just haven’t had to
know how to learn.

Denise: In a lot of ways, what we do is help our more at risk students who
probably wouldn’t have had a chance to go to college. But because they play
sports and are gifted in their sport they’ve been given the opportunity to come
here and that’s really nice too. That gives us a lot of pride too when you see
someone who normally wouldn’t have gone to college and graduate, that’s a
wonderful feeling. Just seeing our students graduate is a wonder feeling.

Lisa: At the end of the day I see a lot of students that come in and out of athletic
programs that are not fit for higher education. To be frank, they should be
competing but they’re not suited for higher education. So you have to sit down
and have that discussion with them and say hey look maybe a technical degree
would be a better situation for you, unfortunately that’s not an NCAA recognized
degree. So let me help you with your career but it’s not going to include athletics.
And I’ve had to do that several times with student athletes and it’s an unfortunate
discussion but it has to happen cause it’s reality. Not everyone can succeed on the
field and in the classroom.

Findings: Research Question Five
According to the literature, employees are more likely to be engaged and produce higher
outcomes when they feel valued and respected by those that they work with. Hence the fifth
research question arises: Do support staff personnel have an emotional bond to the organization
and its mission and vision? The research question was aligned with the two interview questions:
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
65

Do you feel an emotional bond to your organization and students you work with? Is your work
meaningful and do you feel valued by your workplace? Through data analysis, the following
theme emerged: Student-athlete academic services personnel want to feel valued and respected in
their workplace.
Feeling Valued and Respected
Participants made several references to being valued and respected in their workplace. A
feeling of being valued was described as the work of the SAAS personnel being valuable to the
university and also described as the need to feel valued by their peers and student-athletes.
SAAS personnel reported data revealed two sub-themes that underlined the above stated theme:
(a) Participants shared a philosophy that placed a high value on education; and (b) Participants
wanted to feel that their work is meaningful and valued.
Valuing education. Participants shared a personal philosophy in the high value of
education. For most participants, working in education is a highly valuable profession. Their
role in the university is meaningful and contributes to improving the lives of the student-athletes
that they work with. These participants were involved in education for the sake of the students
and truly believed in the mission of their universities.
Kerri: Yes, I think my work is meaningful. Education is extremely important to
me. It was the way I was brought up. It has given me opportunities that I
wouldn’t have had without it. I view myself as a sort of teacher, when I meet
with recruits I give them my title they sort of stare at me, and I say just think of
me as your principal, and they say “Oh I get it now”. I feel very satisfied and I do
feel that what I do has a purpose.

Jayme: I really do like the school and the institution as a whole is really strong
and has a lot of good things going. But it really comes down to people. Who I
work with and come across are good people. And you build an emotional
attachment to the people and the pride in your work that you do everyday and that
it’s a part of the bigger mission that the school and your department are trying to
accomplish… I do feel like the work is really meaningful and it’s important. On a
day-to-day basis you’re making a small incremental differences in the students’
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
66

lives but as a whole that really affects each athletic program because if the
students aren’t on track academically, then you can’t have any success on the
field. So I do feel that importance and I do feel that we are valued and people
understand that our work is important and it does make a difference.

Kevin: I think education in general is very meaningful. You know? I went to
college for ten years. I would assume most people go to college for ten years to
make a lot of money and I didn’t. I went to college to be emotionally fulfilled.
To be able to go into work and feel like I’m doing something. Making a change.
And I get that. I’ve worked in a lot of different aspects of education whether it’s
teaching or counseling or tutoring and I always feel that. Emotional capital really
means a lot to me. I do feel really rewarded in what I do. Sure more money
would be good too. But yeah, I do feel an emotional capital and it keeps me
coming in every day.

Work is meaningful and valued. The feeling of doing work that is meaningful and
valuable to society is one factor that drives the participants to be successful. Participants
expressed their desire to help student-athletes achieve and create successful outcomes, however,
working in education should not be purely motivated by a selfless willingness to help others.
Most participants explained that although they find their work meaningful and important, they
also wanted to feel valued and appreciated by their peers and student-athletes.
Alyssa: I do feel like my work is meaningful. Sometimes we have this stereotype
on campus that we are the babysitters for student athletes, but when I actually
converse with people about what we actually do and our expectations they realize
very quickly that it’s not babysitting student athletes. So I feel like its
meaningful. I get a lot out of it. I feel very empowered when the light bulb goes
off and they’re able to figure out how to do things. I feel like I taught them the
right way. I feel very fortunate that my direct supervisor line and the director of
athletics really value academics. I really truly do on this campus. I truly feel that
our supervisor supports us.

Jeff: Yes, my work is meaningful. No, I don’t feel valued. What I do, working in
education, I believe is so important. What you learn on the way to class is
probably more important than what you learn in class. But having a college
experience and learning all the tools that you do while in college is absolutely
meaningful. And being able to help somebody graduate, or help someone through
a personal issue, or advise them on professors and counsel them is definitely
meaningful. The life skills side of my job is 100% meaningful. Helping someone
with their resume and career opportunity, or helping someone with a mental
health issues and providing them resources, or providing guest speakers,
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
67

workshops, having connections within the communities and giving them
volunteer opportunities to give back is absolutely meaningful.

Kerri: I’m very lucky, that this university has a history of excelling both
academically and athletically, and I’m extremely valued and respected. I just met
with the entire football staff, from the head coach all the way down to their
interns, to talk about the importance of academics. We met for an hour. And we
have some of the bigger names in college football in that room and I felt fully
respected, they were attentive and asked great questions. I think that comes from
working at a place where there is tremendous value on the academic experience,
which makes my job a lot easier.

However, many participants felt unappreciated at times, although participants were not
directly seeking for appreciation. Participants often felt unappreciated by the university, athletic
departments, coaches, and student-athletes. But despite feeling unappreciated, SAAS personnel
agreed that they were not in this profession, of helping students, to be commended.
Jayme: I think a lot of people don’t realize all the behind the scenes things that
happen. But I think a lot of it comes back to the level of respect you get from the
students and coaches, to me that speaks a lot to being valued. They respect your
work and are responsive and try to work with you, to me, that feels like I’m doing
the right thing and I’m doing some good here. I think in general that the students
are respectful and appreciate me. There are some exceptions where they take a
little longer to understand that I’m there to help them. But in general they get it. I
think that sometimes they don’t understand the value, but they’re young and it
takes them a little while to get it.

Jeff: I think what I do is great, and I think is an underappreciated job and
thankless. But I don’t do it to be thanked, I do it because I love education and I
think the experience of going to college and everything that comes with being a
student athlete is unique and one of a kind and very important and vital if used
appropriately.

Phillip: My biased view is that academics should trump everything but that’s not
real world. But I gotta stick with it… I think the university appreciates us, but I
think athletics sometimes thinks of us as car insurance. You gotta have it but
you’re not sure if you want to pay for it. But yeah, I think they do appreciate it, I
know they do. But it’s difficult at times.

Lisa: Our supervisor congratulates us on our small wins. I think overall, this is an
underappreciated profession. I think that a lot of student-athletes come to just
expect help cause they’re just used to having constant access to whatever their
needs. You know, water, jerseys, food, anything at their disposal. So I think that
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
68

many student athletes get too accustomed to the help and where regular students
don’t get immediate access to advisors. But I don’t think our work goes
unnoticed by our supervisors.

SAAS personnel also indicated that personal engagement in their workplace came from a
feeling of being respected by the student-athletes that they worked with. Respect was a form of
validation that came mutually through the authentic, personal relationships that were built
between SAAS personnel and student-athlete. This relationship could only be built through
experiencing and sharing the college experience with the student-athlete throughout their entire
college career.
Alyssa: My biggest attachment is being able to be in advising where I can be with
the students one on one. I feel like a second mom. But I’m a tough mom. I teach
them to fish. I don’t give them the fish. So I think they come to respect me a
little bit more for that because they actual learn how to do the things they need to
do through my expectations. But I do feel really close to my student athletes.
And very partial to the ones on the teams I work with. We see all the students
that come through the door but we get a little bit closer to the ones we work with.
So it’s really rewarding.

Casey: I think rewards come too from students. Thank yous, hugs, and hand
shakes at graduation. Coaches having your back when you have ideas,
suggestions, and needs. People you see in the hall and around saying hi is even a
form of support, feeling like you’re doing things together. We all have different
roles but we all have the same goal. We don’t work for athletics but we work in
collaboration with them and have a good relationship with coaches and admin and
other support services there, cause we have a lot of overlap in our jobs. The
hellos in the hallways and seeing each other at sporting events and being able to
socialize and talk about families are a form of support.

Relation to Theoretical Framework

This section will relate the five themes revealed from this study to Jordan and Denson’s
(1990) framework for student-athlete academic services. Jordan and Denson (1990)
conceptualized their framework around four primary areas: academic monitoring, consultation
services with the university community, outreach through workshops and special programs, and
personal counseling. The data from the study revealed that each of the programs that the
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
69

participants were drawn from fulfilled, in some capacity, each of the aforementioned areas in
Jordan and Denson’s (1990) framework. However, as mentioned earlier in this chapter under
research question two, the capacity in which each SAAS were able to offer each area of support
was heavily dependent on the variation in resources from one university to the next. Programs
with ample resources were able to offer much more thorough comprehensive services in all four
areas. On the other hand, programs with little resources were only able to offer the bare
minimum of these services to student-athletes that needed them the most.
Lisa: More advisors, there are only 3 of us for 330 student-athletes. Having a
learning specialist. Having an actual coordinator for our office. Having what
other big programs have. But I think for our size office, I think we do a damn
good job of supporting in the ways we can afford it and in ways that we are
allowed to.

According to Jordan and Denson (1990), the most critical factor in the success of
academic support services for student-athletes is the cultivation of positive working relationships
between student-athletes and coaches, athletic administrators, and support staff. Personal
relationships are the key to the engagement of employees in human capital management. If
employees feel a personal connection to their workplace and coworkers, they are more likely to
be engaged and thus more productive (Buckingham & Coffman, 1999; Harter, Schmidt, &
Hayes, 2002; Phillips & Roper, 2009; Wagner & Harter, 2006). The data thoroughly supported
this notion of positive working relationships as the key element to successful outcomes in
student-athletes. SAAS personnel found that building a trusting and real relationship was
essential to developing positive outcomes with student-athletes. When student-athletes trusted
and communicated with their advisors, they produced higher academic outcomes.
Brad: The relationships created with the student-athletes are important. Students
start having success and they start vouching for you, telling their friends about
you. You build amazing relationships, meet their parents, see them succeed on
and off the field, grow as people. Our offices are always open for students so they
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
70

always come by and talk. When you’re here, you’re family. The trust comes
from there.

Likewise, communication and support plays a large role in developing positive working
relationships with peers. Having a supportive director was important to many of the participants.
Denise: My bosses are wonderful and they’ve always been supportive of me and
my goals and what’s important to me. I’ve been very blessed and I think that’s
why I’ve been here for so long cause they’ve been so good to Sue.

Summary of Findings

The purpose of this study is to analyze the human capital management practices of SAAS
programs, particularly focusing on practices of engagement as defined by the framework of
human capital management by Phillips and Roper (2009). Chapter four has presented five
themes that were found in the data in response to the research questions posed by the study.
These five themes were: (a) Supportive directors; (b) Variation in resources; (c) Student’s own
responsibility; (d) Student-athlete success; and (e) Feeling valued and respected.
Supportive Directors
The study found that supportive directors were highly valued by SAAS personnel.
Supportive directors often provided participants with more autonomy within their roles in the
program. This autonomy allowed for greater engagement and also encouraged collaboration
internally and between departments. Supportive directors also promoted personal and
professional development. The participants reported that having a supportive director enhanced
their engagement and increased their job satisfaction.
Resources
A high amount of variation in the amount of resources different SAAS programs received
was revealed during interviews. Variation in budget, number of personnel, facilities, and
organizational structure all influenced the roles and responsibilities of personnel. Participants
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
71

were found to have more responsibilities and multiple roles in programs with less resources.
Smaller programs also have difficulty providing specialized services to smaller populations of
students while they try to provide services to the majority of students. However, participants felt
that their programs offered the best they could with the given resources received.
There was a feeling of a mutual contract between SAAS and student-athletes to provide
support services, financial assistance, room, and board in exchange for athletic participation.
Participants believed it was their responsibility to provide adequate services and workshops to
help student-athletes be successful in higher education. However, all participants believed that it
was the student-athlete’s responsibility to fulfill their academic responsibilities as long as the
SAAS personnel fulfill their due diligence.
Student-Athlete Success
All participants had an intrinsic desire for student-athlete success. According to the data,
helping student-athletes achieve success was facilitated by developing meaningful and trustful
relationships between student-athlete and SAAS personnel. Another factor is the desire to help
students that are under-prepared or under-qualified. Participants felt the need to give extra
support for students that are only admitted to the university for athletic reasons and then are
expected to maintain a high GPA.
Education
Student-athlete academic services personnel all shared a personal value in education.
Education played an important role in each of their lives and many believed in the importance of
helping others achieve success. Participants felt great value in seeing their student-athletes
succeed. At the same time, SAAS personnel wanted to feel valued and respected by both their
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
72

student-athletes and their peers and received this appreciation through the personal success of
their student-athletes.

ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
73

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
Student-athletes are a diverse group of students that have a distinct set of needs that are
quite different than those of their non-athletic peers. As described earlier, student-athletes have
an atypical role on campus being subjected to pressures of both student and athlete (Chartrand &
Lent, 1987; Comeaux & Harrison, 2011; Fletcher, Benshoff, & Richburg, 2003; Parham, 1993).
Parham (1993) further describes the challenges of student-athletes to include: (a) balancing
academics and athletics; (b) a degree of isolation from mainstream social activities; (c) managing
success and/or failure; (d) managing health and/or injury; (e) managing relationships with
coaches, teammates, parents, friends, and community; and (f) coping with athletic career
termination. These complex characteristics possessed by student-athletes require support
specifically catered to meet their needs (Comeaux & Harrison, 2011; Fletcher, Benshoff, &
Richburg, 2003; Parham, 1993).
The purpose of the study was to analyze the human capital management practices of
student-athlete academic services (SAAS), particularly focusing on practices of engagement as
defined by the framework of human capital management by Phillips and Roper (2009).
Engagement refers to qualities such as: innovation and creativity, taking personal responsibility,
authentic desire for the success of the organization or team, and an emotional bond to the
organization and its mission and vision (Wagner & Harter, 2006). Engaged employees can have
a positive effect on organizational success and increase desired outcomes (Phillips & Roper,
2009; Wagner & Harter, 2006).
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
74

The study was designed as a comparative case study utilizing semi-structured interviews
to investigate experiences of twelve participants from five different universities. The study was
designed based on the following research questions:
How are university athletic departments engaging student-athlete academic service
personnel to work with student athletes?
1. Are support staff personnel encouraged to use innovation and creativity?
2. Are support staff personnel taking personal responsibility in their performance?
3. Do support staff personnel have an authentic desire for the success of the organization,
team, and/or individuals?
4. Do support staff personnel have an emotional bond to the organization and its mission
and vision?
5. Are support staff personnel given opportunities to develop and grow professionally and
personally?
This chapter will discuss the findings and investigate the limitations of the study.
Implications of the findings will be examined and suggestions for future research will be made
followed by a brief conclusion of final thoughts.
Discussion of Findings
As discussed in chapter four, the study revealed five themes in response to the research
questions stated above: (a) Supportive directors; (b) Variation in resources; (c) Student’s own
responsibility; (d) Student-athlete success; and (e) Feeling valued and respected.
Supportive Directors
The first finding revealed by the study was that student-athlete service personnel placed a
high value on having supportive directors. This was a constant at each university. Each
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
75

participant interviewed stressed that their directors were supportive in at least one of three sub-
themes and that these characteristics were important to them: autonomy, collaboration, and
personal and professional development. Participants appreciated the high amount of autonomy
given to them by their superiors. Participants were encouraged to collaborate and share ideas
with colleagues within and amongst departments and universities to promote the best course of
actions and encourage innovation and creativity. Participants were also encouraged to regularly
attend professional development and pursue personal goals. Together, the presence of supportive
directors lead to more engaged personnel.
Variations in Resources
The second finding revealed from the study was a high amount of variability in resources
available to different SAAS at different universities. Despite all universities involved in this
study being NCAA Division I universities, there was a very large variation in amount of
resources, which affected number of personnel, types of services offered, amount of services
provided, and structure of the SAAS. This discrepancy plays out from a personnel perspective
where smaller resourced programs had as little as three full time employees to offer similar
services as a faculty of 15-20 at larger resourced programs. It seems virtually impossible to offer
the same level of quality in services with only three full time employees to service a similar
number of athletes. The result is that employees must carry out multiple roles to provide a wide
range of services, services are designed to cater to a wide range of students, specialty workshops
and programs are not within budgets, and specialized services for small populations of special
need students are often un-provided.

ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
76

Student’s own Responsibility
The third theme that was revealed in the study was the firm notion that it was the
student’s responsibility to achieve success. A sub-theme evolved that SAAS was one of the
university’s obligations to provide for the student-athlete in exchange for their athletic services.
SAAS personnel felt a strong feeling to provide services to the best of their ability due to this
feeling that the student-athlete deserved their services in exchange for their athletic dedication
and performance. However, when it came to the results of their efforts, it was entirely the
student’s responsibility for achieving academic success. The second sub-theme was that
participants felt that if they did all they could to support the student-athlete and provide services
and avenues for help, then it was the student’s responsibility to follow through and perform.
Student-Athlete Success
The fourth theme revealed in the study was the sincere desire for student-athlete success.
It was found that all participants had an authentic desire for student-athlete success athletically
and academically. In fact, academic and social success seemed more important than athletic
accomplishments. Participants felt the need to create strong emotional bonds with their student-
athletes that helped them both achieve academic success. Participants also felt a strong intrinsic
desire to help student-athletes that they often found needed ample academic support to succeed
in a rigorous level of education that they were not adequately prepared for.
Feeling Valued and Respected
The fifth and final theme revealed from the study was the desire to feel valued and
respected in the workplace. Participants naturally placed a high value on the importance of
education. The importance of education is often what drove them to pursue a career in academic
services. The participants appreciated working with others that shared these same values and
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
77

found comfort in finding support within organizations that shared this value in education.
Participants realized that work in education is often underappreciated, but still yearned to feel
that their work is meaningful and valued by others. Being appreciated by the student-athletes
was reported to be the best form of validation for the participants.
Implications for Practice
The findings from the study revealed a very large variation in the amount of resources
available to SAAS programs at different universities. Although resources in general also have a
high degree of variability in athletic programs and universities at a whole, the NCAA does not
regulate the amount of academic services a university must provide (NCAA, 2013). The NCAA
only states in its rule 16.3.1.1 (NCAA, 2013) that the university must provide academic
counseling and tutoring services to its student-athletes. However, the NCAA does not have a
minimum, nor maximum, amount of services it allows, but maybe it needs to set minimum levels
of services to create more equity in provision of services for student-athletes. The inequity in
services not only can reduce the opportunities for success for students that need support, but it
also creates an unfair advantage in terms of recruiting athletes. The NCAA places such high
standards for student-athlete academic progress and success, yet the lack of higher requirements
for providing services to help student-athletes achieve those standards is contradictive.
The findings of this study also suggest that more resources should be allocated to SAAS
programs to help meet the needs of the many under-prepared student-athletes that participate in
NCAA Division I athletics. As discussed in the literature, many student-athletes that are
athletically gifted have never been challenged academically, are well behind their peers, and are
admitted to universities under special provisions and conditions. These student-athletes cannot
and will not succeed in higher education without specific academic services to assist them.
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
78

Specialized personnel, such as learning specialists, can benefit these students tremendously while
also taking some added stress off other personnel.
As mentioned in chapter one, student-athletes have been found to graduate at a rate of
81% nationally versus 59% for all students. Despite all the demands of participating in athletics,
it is likely that SAAS is a strong contributing factor in the academic success of student-athletes.
If student-athletes are graduating at such a high rate, and student-athletes have access to SAAS
programs, then why are we not offering such services for all students? If our goal in education is
for students to succeed in education, then shouldn’t we offer them the best support services we
can? Universities can learn a lot from SAAS and the way they administer support to student-
athletes. Academic counselors can learn a lot from SAAS and the styles and strategies they
utilize to serve their student-athletes. If all students were given the type of care student-athletes
receive, the graduation rate would surely increase.
Suggestions for Future Research
Several items come to mind for future research in terms of the implications of this study.
First, research could be done to inquire about the feasibility of implementing strategies utilized
by SAAS to the student population at large. As previously stated, if it works for student-athletes,
then why wouldn’t it be beneficial to all students?
Second, research needs to be done to examine SAAS programs at other NCAA levels as
well as NAIA and Community Colleges. Research at this level is important because student-
athletes at these levels operate under different scholarship rules and guidelines. Some of these
levels don’t allow scholarships at all. The presence or absence of scholarship can be a highly
motivating or demotivating presence in a student’s academic life. It would be interesting to learn
how both, faculty and student, behave in these different environments.
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
79

Third, it would be interesting to learn the student’s perspective on SAAS and how
impactful and influential they feel it is on their academic success. A quantitative study to learn
the actual impact would be a luxury to allow universities to see the value and make appropriate
budgetary decisions and allocations.
Last, a greater comparison involving more institutions could reveal more themes and may
be able to provide which types of services yield the highest outcomes. A larger study may also
indicate regional trends, recruiting patterns, and expose greater discrepancies.
Conclusions
The purpose of the study was to analyze the human capital management practices of
student-athlete academic services (SAAS), particularly focusing on practices of engagement as
defined by the framework of human capital management by Phillips and Roper (2009).
Engagement, as defined by Wagner and Harter (2006), refers to qualities such as: innovation and
creativity, taking personal responsibility, authentic desire for the success of the organization or
team, and an emotional bond to the organization and its mission and vision. This study was
designed to examine if SAAS personnel were engaged at their workplace, and if so, what were
the reasons.
The combination of the five themes revealed in this study – (a) Supportive directors; (b)
Variation in resources; (c) Student’s own responsibility; (d) Student-athlete success; and (e)
Feeling valued and respected – thoroughly supported the research questions that guided this
study thus supporting the framework of engagement by Phillips and Roper (2009). Therefore, if
SAAS personnel are engaged in their places of work, then as stated in the literature, engaged
personnel can have a positive effect on organizational success and increase desired outcomes
(Phillips & Roper, 2009; Wagner & Harter, 2006). Thus, supporting the claim that student-
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
80

athletes graduate at a higher rate than students in general because of the positive influence of
SAAS on their academics.

ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
81

References
Achieve (2008). Closing the Expectations Gap, 2008: 50-State Progress Report on the Alignment
of High School Policies with the Demands of College and Careers. Achieve, Inc.
Achieve (2013). Closing the Expectations Gap, 2013: 50-State Progress Report on the Alignment
of K-12 Policies and Practice with the Demands of College and Careers. Achieve, Inc.
Basford, T. E., Offermann, L. R., & Wirtz, P. W. (2012). Considering the source: The impact of
leadership level on follower motivation and intent to stay. Journal of Leadership and
Organizational Studies, 19(2), 200–212.
Bauer, T. & Erdogan, B. (2012). Organizational socialization outcomes: Now and into the future.
In Wanberg, C. (Ed), The Oxford Handbook of Organizational Socialization (pp. 97-
112). New York; Oxford University Press.
Becker, G.S. (2002). The age of human capital. In E.P. Lazear (Ed.), Education in the
Twenty-First Century (pp 3-8). Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press.
Becker, G. (1962). Investment in human capital: A theoretical analysis. The Journal of Political
Economy, 70(5), 9-49.
Becker, B., & Gerhart, B. (1996). The impact of human resource management on organizational
performance: progress and prospects. Academy of Management Journal, 39(4), 779-801.
Retrieved from
http://libproxy.usc.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/19
9810331?accountid=14749
Belbin, C., Erwee, R., & Wiesner, R. (2012). Employee perceptions of workforce retention
strategies in a health system. Journal of Management and Organization, 18(5), 742-760.
Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1268167639?accountid=14749
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
82

Blair, M. (2011). An economic perspective on the notion of human capital. In Burton-
Bogdan, R. C., & Biklen, S. K. (2007). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to
theory and methods. Boston, MA: Pearson Education Group, Inc.
Boxall, P. F. (2011). Human capital, HR strategy and organizational effectiveness. The Oxford
Handbook of Human Capital
Braddy, P. W., Thompson, L. F., Wuensch, K. L., & Grossnickle, W. F. (2003). Internet
recruiting: The effects of web page design features. Social science computer review,
21(3), 374-385.
Bradt, G. B. (2012). Socializing Socialization: Everything Is Connected—Especially Recruiting,
Hiring, and Accelerating Talent. The Oxford Handbook of Organizational Socialization,
315.
Bradt, G. B., & Vonnegut, M. (2009). Onboarding: How to get your new employees up to speed
in half the time. John Wiley & Sons.
Brewer, D. J., & McEwan, P. J. (Eds.). (2010). Economics of education. Elsevier.
Broughton, E., & Neyer, M. (2001). Advising and counseling student athletes. New Directions
for Student Services, 2001(93), 47-53.
Buckingham, M., & Coffman, C. (1999). First, break all the rules: What the worlds greatest
managers do differently. Simon and Schuster.
Byerly, B. (2012). Measuring the impact of employee loss. Performance Improvement, 51(5),
40-47. DOI: 10.1002/pfi.21268
Byers, W. (1995). Unsportsmanlike conduct: Exploiting college athletes. Ann Arbor: The
University of Michigan Press.
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
83

Cardy, R. L., & Lengnick-Hall, M. L. (2011). Will they stay or will they go? Exploring a
customer-oriented approach to employee retention. Journal of Business and Psychology,
26(2), 213-217.
Carnevale, A. P., & Rose, S. J. (2010). The Undereducated American. Georgetown University,
Center on Education and the Workforce.
Carnevale, A. P., Smith, N., & Strohl, J. (2010). Help wanted: Projections of job and education
requirements through 2018. Lumina Foundation.
Carnevale, A. P., Strohl, J., & Melton, M. (2013). What's it worth?: the economic value of
college majors.
Chartrand, J. M., & Lent, R. W. (1987). Sports Counseling: Enhancing the Development of the
Student-Athlete. Journal of Counseling & Development 66, no. 4 (1987): 164-167.
Clarke, R. E., & Estes, F. (2008). Turning research into results: A guide to selecting the right
performance solutions. IAP.
Coff, R.W. (2002). Human capital, shared expertise, and the likelihood of impasse in
corporate acquisitions. Journal of Management, 28(1), 107-128. doi:
10.1177/014920630202800107
Comeaux, E. (2007). The student (less) athlete: identifying the unidentified college
student. Journal for the Study of Sports and Athletes in Education, 1(1), 37-44.
Comeaux, E. (2010). Racial Differences in Faculty Perceptions of Collegiate Student-Athletes'
Academic and Post-Undergraduate Achievements. Sociology of Sport Journal, 27(4).
Comeaux, E., & Harrison, C. K. (2011). A Conceptual Model of Academic Success for Student–
Athletes. Educational Researcher, 40(5), 235-245.
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
84

Cowley, W. H. (1999). Athletics in American colleges. Journal of Higher Education. 70, 494-
502.
Crook, T. R., Todd, S. Y., Combs, J. G., Woehr, D. J., & Ketchen Jr, D. J. (2011). Does human
capital matter? A meta-analysis of the relationship between human capital and firm
performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96(3), 443
DeNisi, A. S., & Pritchard, R. D. (2006). Performance appraisal, performance management and
improving individual performance: A motivational framework. Management and
Organization Review, 2(2), 253-277.
Dychtwald, K., Erickson, T.J. and Morison, R. (2006). Workforce crisis: How to beat the
coming shortage of skills and talent. Harvard Business School Press. Boston,MA.
Echols, M.E. (2007). Learning’s role in talent management. Chief Learning Officer,
6(10), 36-40.
Eide, E.R., & Showalter, M.H. (2010). Human Capital. In D. J. Brewer & P.J. McEwan (Eds.),
Economics of Education (pp 27-31). San Diego, CA: Elsevier.
Ferrante, A. P., Etzel, E., & Lantz, C. (1996). Counseling college student-athletes: The problem,
the need. In E. Etzel, A. P. Ferrante, & J. W. Pinkney (Eds.), Counseling
college student-athletes: Issues and interventions. Morgantown, WV: Fitness
Information Technology, Inc.
Flamholtz, E.G., & Lacey, J. (1981). The implications of the economic theory of human capital
for personnel management. Personnel Review, 10(1), 30-40. Retrieved from
http://libproxy.usc.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/21
4808049?accountid=14749
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
85

Fletcher, T. B., Benshoff, J. M., & Richburg, M. J. (2003). A Systems Approach to
Understanding and Counseling College Student-‐Athletes. Journal of College Counseling,
6(1), 35-45.
Fredrickson, B. L., & Joiner, T. (2002). Positive emotions trigger upward spirals toward
emotional well-being. Psychological science, 13(2), 172-175.
Friedman, T. (2005). The world is flat: A brief history of the twenty-first century. Macmillan.
Goff, B. (2000). Effects of university athletics on the university: A review and extension of
empirical assessment. Journal of Sport Management, 14(2).
Govaerts, N. & Kyndt, E. (2010). Influence of learning and working climate on the
retention of talented employees. Journal of Workplace Learning, 23(1). 35-55. Retrieved
from
http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/817167859/fulltext/BDD69A8988E
1429APQ/1?accountid=14749
Guest, D. (2011). Human resource management and performance: Still searching for answers.
Human Resource Management Journal, 21(1), 3–13.
Gunz, H. & Gunz, S. (2007). Hired professional to hired gun: An identity theory approach to
understanding the ethical behaviour of professionals in non-professional organizations.
Human Relations. 60(6). 851-870.

Hanushek, E., & Woessmann, L. (2008). The role of cognitive skills in economic development.
Journal of economic literature 46(3), pp. 607-668.
Harris, M. M. (1993). Developmental benefits of athletics. In Kirk & Kirk (Eds.), Student
Athletes: Shattering the Myths and Sharing the Realities. Alexandria: American
Counseling Association.
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
86

Harrison, K. (2002). Scholar or Baller in American Higher Education? A visual elicitation and
qualitative assessment of the studentathlete's mindset. National Association of Student
Affairs Professional Journal, 5(1), 66-81.
Harter, J. K. (2000). Managerial talent, employee engagement, and business-unit
performance. The Psychologist-Manager Journal, 4(2), 215.
Harter, J. K., & Schmidt, F. L. (2000). Validation of a performance-related and actionable
management tool: A meta-analysis and utility analysis. Lincoln, NE: Gallup Technical
Report.
Harter, J. K., Schmidt, F. L., & Hayes, T. L. (2002). Business-unit-level relationship between
employee satisfaction, employee engagement, and business outcomes: a meta-
analysis. Journal of applied psychology, 87(2), 268.
Huang, F. & Cappelli, P. (2010). Applicant Screening and Performance-Related
Outcomes. The American Economic Review 100(2). Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org.libproxy.usc.edu/stable/27804992
Huselid, M.A. (1995). The impact of human resource management practices on turnover,
productivity, and corporate financial performance. Academy of Management
Journal, 38(3), 635-672. doi: 10.2307/256741
Hytter, A. (2007). Retention strategies in France and Sweden. The Irish Journal of
Management, 28(1), 59-79. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/207628321/fulltextPDF/72CD562C
6D2F4753PQ/1?accountid=14749
Ingersoll, R. M. (2001). Teacher turnover and teacher shortages: An organizational analysis.
American educational research journal, 38(3), 499-534.
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
87

Jones & Spender (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Human Capital (pp. 49-70). New York;
Oxford University Press.
Jordan, J. M., & Denson, E. L. (1990). Student Services for Athletes: A Model for Enhancing the
Student-‐Athlete Experience. Journal of Counseling & Development, 69(1), 95-97.
Joshi, A. (2012). Human capital management: Strategies for retention of productive work force.
International Journal of Management Research and Review, 2(11), 1943-1951. Retrieved
from
http://libproxy.usc.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/14
19632164?accountid=14749
Kirkpatrick, D. (1998). Evaluating training programs: The four levels. San Francisco,
California: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
Knight Commission on Intercollegiate Athletics. (2001).
Lepak, D., Takeuchi, R., & Swart, J. (2011). Aligning human capital with organizational needs.
In Burton-Jones & Spender (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Human Capital (pp. 334-
357). New York: Oxford University Press, Inc.
Maxwell, J. A. (2013). Qualitative research design. Los Angeles. CA: SAGE.
McMahan, G.C., & Wright, P.M. (1992). Theoretical perspective for strategic human
resource management. Journal of Management, 18(2), 295-320. doi:
10.1177/014920639201800205
Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. San
Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass.
Mueller, J.R. & Baum, B. (2011). The definitive guide to hiring right. Journal of
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
88

Applied Business and Economics, 12(3), 140-153. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/885179591/fulltextPDF/B105223E
3A45427EPQ/1?accountid=14749
National Collegiate Athletic Association. (2013a). 2013-2014 NCAA Division I Manual.
Indianapolis, IN. NCAA Eligibility Committee.
National Collegiate Athletic Association. (2013b). 2013-2014 NCAA Division I Academic
Performance Program Manual. Indianapolis, IN. NCAA Eligibility Committee.
National Collegiate Athletic Association. (2013c). www.ncaa.org
National Center for Education Statistics (2013). The Condition of Education 2013. Washington,
DC: U. S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement.
Obama, B. (2009, February). Remarks of President Barak Obama – As prepared for delivery
address to the joint session of Congress. Retrieved February 14, 2014 from
https://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/Remarks-of-President-Barack-Obama-
Address-to-Joint-Session-of-Congress/
O’Connell, P. J., & Jungblut, J. M. (2008). What Do We Know About Training at Work? Skill
formation: Interdisciplinary and cross-national perspectives, 109.
Parham, W. D. (1993). The Intercollegiate Athlete A 1990s Profile. The counseling psychologist,
21(3), 411-429.
Patton, M. Q. (2005). Qualitative research. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Phillips, D. R., & Roper, K. O. (2009). A framework for talent management in real estate.
Journal of Corporate Real Estate, 11(1), 7-16. Retrieved from
http://libproxy.usc.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/23
3432641?accountid=14749
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
89

Ployhart, R. E. (2012). Personnel selection and the competitive advantage of firms. In G.
P. Hodgkinson & H.K. Ford (Eds.), International Review of Industrial and
Organizational psychology. Indianapolis, IN: John Wiley & Sons.
Ployhart, R. E. & Kim, Y. (2014). Strategic recruiting. In Yu, K.Y.T. & Cable,D.
(Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Recruitment (pp. 5-20). New York, NY: Oxford
University Press.
Rice, C. J., & Goessling, D. P. (2005). Recruiting and retaining male special education teachers.
Remedial and Special Education, 26(6), 347-356.
Rodriguez, R. (2008). Learning’s impact on talent flow. Chief Learning Officer, 7(4), 50-
64.
Schiemann, W.A. (2006). People equity: A new paradigm for measuring and managing
human capital. Human Resource Planning, 29(1), 34-44. Retrieved from
http://libproxy.usc.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.usc.edu/docview/22
4366228?accountid=14749
Simons, H. D., Rheenen, D. V., & Covington, M. B. (1999). Academic motivation and the
student athlete. Journal of College Student Development. 40(2), 151-161.
Shulman, J.L., & Bowen, W. G. (2001). College sports and educational values: The game of life.
Princeton, NJ.
Schultz, T. (1961). Inverstment in human capital. The American Economic Review, 51(1), 1-17.
Schuster, J. & Finkelstein, M. (2006). The American faculty: Restructuring of academic
work and careers. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
The White House, Office of the Press Secretary. (2009). Fact sheet explaining the promise of
education in America [Press release]. Retrieved from
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
90

https://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/Fact-Sheet-Expanding-the-Promise-of-
Education-in-America/
Wagner, R. and Harter, J.K. (2006). Twelve: The elements of great managing. The Gallup
Organization. Washington, DC.
Walling, D. R. (1998). Recruiting men and minorities into teaching: A Phi Delta Kappa
International Special Report.
Watson, J. C. (2005). College student-athletes' attitudes toward help-seeking behavior and
expectations of counseling services. Journal of College Student Development, 46(4), 442-
449.
Watt, S. K. & Moore, J. L. (2001). Who are student athletes?. New Directions for Student
Services, 2001(93), 7-18.
ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
91

APPENDIX A

Pre-Interview Questionnaire

Overall Satisfaction: On a five-point scale, where 5 is extremely satisfied and 1 is extremely
dissatisfied, how satisfied are you with your organization (Support Services for Student-Athletes)
as a place to work?

On a scale of 1 to 5, where 1 is strongly disagree and 5 is strongly agree, please indicate your
agreement with the following statements:

1. I have the resources and knowledge I need to do my job to the best of my ability.
2. My supervisor, or someone at work, seems to care about me as a person.
3. I believe in the mission/purpose of my organization.
4. My coworkers are committed to doing quality work.
5. In the last year, I have had opportunities at work to learn and grow.

ENGAGEMENT WITHIN STUDENT-ATHLETE ACADEMIC SERVICES
92

APPENDIX B

Interview Guide
1. What is your position within your organization (Support Services for Student-Athletes)?
2. What types of support services are offered specifically to student-athletes at your
university?
3. Does your university offer the following services for student-athletes?
a. Academic Monitoring
b. Consultation Services with the University Community
c. Workshops and Special Programs for Student-Athletes
d. Personal Counseling
4. In what ways are you encouraged to be creative and innovative in your workplace?
5. Describe how you take personal responsibility for the outcomes of the student-athletes
you work with.
6. Does your organization create an authentic desire for success within the workplace?
7. Do you feel an emotional bond to your organization and students you work with?
8. Is your work meaningful and do you feel valued by your workplace?

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This study applies the theoretical framework of student-athlete academic services (SAAS) developed by Jordan and Denson (1990) to analyze and compare SAAS programs at five different universities. The purpose of the study is to analyze the human capital management practices of student-athlete academic services (SAAS), particularly focusing on practices of engagement referring to qualities of innovation and creativity, personal responsibility, desire for success of the organization, and emotional bond. Using semi-structured interviews of twelve participants from five different university SAAS programs, data was collected and analyzed for common themes regarding the participant’s perceptions in regards to their engagement within their programs. Findings from this study revealed five themes: 1) Directors that supported personal growth and ideas were highly valued, 2) There is a large range of variation in amount of resources at different universities, 3) Personal responsibility for success is placed upon the student-athlete, 4) SAAS personnel have an authentic desire for student-athlete success, 5) Student-athlete academic services personnel want to feel valued and respected in their workplace. This study reveals that there is a high degree of variability in the amount of services and support available for student-athletes from one university to the next. Despite these inequities, this study concludes that high levels of engagement of personnel in SAAS programs have a positive effect on organizational success and thus student-athletes achieve higher academic success rates than their non-athletic counterparts.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Examining the relationship between Latinx community college STEM students’ self-efficacy, social capital, academic engagement and their academic success

PDF

Exploring the academic success of black male former student-athletes and their experiences with academic support upon re-entry to college

PDF

A grounded theory study on the academic and athletic success of female student-athletes at a private, research, Division I university

PDF

Male student-athlete perceptions of university academic staff expectations: a qualitative analysis of perceptions, value and academic motivation

PDF

The perceived importance coaches have on student-athletes' academic performance

PDF

Career development of Black male revenue generating student-athletes within an environment of anti-Black racism

PDF

Huddle-up: a phenomenological approach to understanding the impact of intercollegiate athletic participation on the academic socialization of male revenue-generating student-athletes

PDF

The impact of academic support services on Division I student-athletes' college degree completion

PDF

A study of Pacific Islander scholarship football players and their institutional experience in higher education

PDF

Student engagement in an outperforming urban school as measured through cognitive, behavioral, and emotional indicators

PDF

Studying the impact of a career academy on Chicano/Latino students in a specific high school: a quantitative case study

PDF

Effective services provided to community college student-athletes: a gap analysis

PDF

A comparative case study analysis of academically at risk African American male student athletes

PDF

Defining values in smaller college athletic programs: athletics effect on graduation rates

PDF

Relationships between academic and psychosocial skills of community college students

PDF

Improving student-athlete mental health services: addressing the mental health needs of college student-athletes

PDF

Relationships between a community college student’s sense of belonging and student services engagement with completion of transfer gateway courses and persistence

PDF

Student-athletes and leadership: a case study of the impact of collegiate athletics on social change behavior and leadership development

PDF

Online, flipped, and traditional instruction: a comparison of student performance in higher education

PDF

Cross-cultural adjustment: examining how involvement in service-learning contributes to the adjustment experiences of undergraduate international students

Asset Metadata

Creator Kiyomura, Roger Akio (author)

Core Title Engagement of staff within student-athlete academic services

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education

Publication Date 11/16/2015

Defense Date 04/18/2015

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag academic services,engagement,human capital management,OAI-PMH Harvest,student-athlete,student-athlete academic services

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Brewer, Dominic (committee chair), MacLeod, Scott (committee member), Picus, Lawrence (committee member)

Creator Email kiyomura@usc.edu,rogerusagi@yahoo.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-200536

Unique identifier UC11279183

Identifier etd-KiyomuraRo-4044.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-200536 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-KiyomuraRo-4044.pdf

Dmrecord 200536

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Kiyomura, Roger Akio

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA