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Mothers can make it too: applying the positive deviance framework to support Latina teenage mothers' academic achievement through college
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Mothers can make it too: applying the positive deviance framework to support Latina teenage mothers' academic achievement through college
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Running head: SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 1
MOTHERS CAN MAKE IT TOO: APPLYING THE POSITIVE DEVIANCE FRAMEWORK
TO SUPPORT LATINA TEENAGE MOTHERS' ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT THROUGH
COLLEGE
by
Sarah J. Iraheta-Lara
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2016
Copyright 2016 Sarah J. Iraheta-Lara
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 2
Dedication
This dissertation is dedicated to all the young mothers that work hard every day in school,
at home, and in the workplace in order to provide a better life for their children. They unselfishly
dedicate all their time, love, and energy to ensure that their children have better opportunities and
a better life than they experienced. They are a true image of dedication, perseverance, and
resiliency.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 3
Acknowledgements
I would like to sincerely acknowledge those who made this dissertation possible due to
their support and encouragement. First of all, a “Big Thank You” to my husband, Manuel, and
my son and daughter, Max and Hailey. Thank you for understanding and pushing me to work
harder and never give up. Manuel, I love you and I know that I couldn’t have done this without
you. Max and Hailey, you are my inspiration and I thank you for always reminding me that I
have to finish! You’re next! I would also like to thank my mother and father for being my role
models, mentors, counselors, and cheerleaders. Mom, Dad, you have never doubted me and
always encouraged me to be anything I believe in. Thank you for instilling that confidence and
work ethic in me.
Thank you to Dr. Courtney Malloy for being patient, flexible and supportive with me
during the most challenging times. Thank you Dr. Fischer for encouraging me and reminding me
that it is possible to finish. When I only dreamed of writing chapter 5, you told me I’d get there
and that I just have to “Write On”. Thank you to Dr. Christie Rainey for your support and time
when I needed it the most. When I was at a desperate point, you helped me organize my thoughts
and goals for this study. Thank You to Dr. Erica Castaneda-Flores my classmate, colleague,
support and friend. I am grateful that I have been able to work with you and am grateful for all
you do. Without your encouragement, I would not have entered the Ed.D. program or have
grown so much professionally. Thank You to Dr. Heidi Davila for working with me this Summer
to finish this dissertation. Heidi, as my accountability partner, I thank you for keeping me in
check and reminding me that I should be writing.
I would also like to share my appreciation for my committee members, Dr. Kathy Stowe
and Dr. Pedro Garcia, whose suggestions and feedback helped me thrive in study. Dr. Garcia,
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 4
you are a motivating professor and I was thrilled to access your expertise. Dr. Stowe, you are
inspiring and encouraging. Thank you for your feedback and recommendations in this study and
your contributions to this work. Finally, I would like to thank family, friends, teachers and
colleagues who have supported me during this journey. You have constantly reminded me that
“Si Se Puede!” I have appreciated your investment in my success and your patience and
understanding during the busiest times. Your support and encouragement has sustained me.
Thank you for all that you do!
.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 5
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Tables 7
List of Figures 8
Abstract 9
Chapter 1: Introduction 10
Statement of the Problem 11
Purpose of the Study 12
Significance of the Study 13
Social and Economic Implications 13
Significance for the Latina Community 14
Theoretical Implications 14
Limitations, Delimitations, Assumptions, and Glossary of Terms 15
Limitations 15
Delimitations 15
Assumptions 16
Organization of the Study 16
Chapter 2: Literature Review 17
Teenage Childbearing in the United States 17
Normative Outcomes for Latina Teenage Mothers 18
Attempts to Improve the Outcomes of Teenage Mothers 20
Legislative Efforts 20
Programmatic Efforts 23
Summary 25
Challenges for Teenage Mothers 25
Cultural Challenges 25
Educational Challenges 30
Financial Challenges 31
Health Challenges 32
Summary 33
Success Factors 34
Role of Community 34
Social Capital 35
Positive Deviance 35
Positive Deviance Approach 35
Examples of Positive Deviance 37
Conceptual Framework 39
Summary 41
Chapter 3: Methodology 43
Methodology 43
Sample 43
Sampling techniques and Purposes 44
Instrument/Measures 45
Data Collection Procedures 47
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 6
Data Analysis 48
Ethical Considerations 49
Confidentiality 49
Distress Caused by Participation 49
Vulnerable Population 50
Compensation for Participation 50
Chapter 4: Results 51
Participants 51
Olivia 53
Mariela 53
Jennifer 54
Isabel 54
Jasmine 54
Andrea 55
Challenges Latina Teenage Mothers Face 56
Stigma of Being a Teenage Mother 56
Balancing Parenting with Work and School 66
Supporting a Family 72
Emotional and Physical Health Challenges 74
Summary 77
Strategies and Behaviors Used by Positive Deviant Latina Teenage Mothers 78
Support Systems 79
Academic Focus 91
Self-Advocacy 99
Summary 106
Conclusion 107
Chapter 5: Discussion and Implications for Practice 109
Conceptual Framework Revisited 110
Implications for Practice 114
Taking Advantage of Existing Supports 115
Communication With Peers and Other Teen Moms 119
Maintaining an Academic Focus 120
Utilizing Resources Available to Teen Moms 123
Seeking University Supports 124
Training for College Counselors and University Support Providers 125
Study Challenges, Limitations, and Implications for Future Research 127
Conclusion 128
Appendix A: Information Sheet 129
Appendix B: Consent Form 131
Appendix C: General Recruitment Letter 132
Appendix D: Interview Protocol Questions 133
Appendix E: Matrix of Interview Protocol Questions 134
References 135
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 7
List of Tables
Table 1: Legislative Measures 21
Table 2: Mapping of Interview Protocol Questions to Research Questions 46
Table 3: Mapping of Interview Guide Items and Topics to Research Questions 47
Table 4: Description of Positive Deviants 52
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 8
List of Figures
Figure 1. Comparison of Teenage Mothers and Non-Teen Mothers and their diploma or GED
attainment by the age of 22. Image extracted from Perper et al. (2010) 18
Figure 2. Diploma/GED attainment before age 22, by age at first birth. Image extracted from
Perper et al. (2010) 19
Figure 3. Steps involved in conducting a positive deviance inquiry 36
Figure 4. Conceptual Framework 40
Figure 5. Challenges faced by Latina teenage mothers 56
Figure 6. Strategies used by Latina teenage mothers 79
Figure 7. Positive Deviance Framework Revision 114
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 9
Abstract
This study utilized the theory of positive deviance to explore the challenges and success factors
for Latina teenage mothers who attained a postsecondary education. To accomplish this, six
interviews were conducted with Latina teenage mothers who were either enrolled in college or
graduated with a bachelor’s degree. Results revealed that Latina teenage mothers faced
challenges connected to a lack of social support, time management challenges, financial
challenges, and emotional and physical challenges. However, the Latina teenage mothers who
participated in this study mitigated these challenges by utilizing specific strategies, including
paying particular attention to their academic success, and were able to advocate for themselves
when necessary. In particular, they employed support systems, an academic focus, and self-
advocacy. Findings from this study have significant implications for Latina teenage mothers
hoping to attain a postsecondary education as well for other young parents, high schools,
colleges and teenage parenting organizations seeking to aid in the academic achievement of
Latina teenage mothers in terms of utilizing resources available to Latina teenage mothers.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 10
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The educational underachievement of teenage mothers in America is well documented,
yet effective solutions to this pervasive problem remain elusive and unimplemented. Teenage
mothers consistently underperform academically when compared to non-parenting teens and are
less likely to complete high school than those who give birth later in life (Hofferth et al., 2001;
Levine & Painter, 2003; Smithbattle, 2007). However, according to the National Campaign to
Prevent Unplanned Pregnancy (NCPUP, 2008), 51% of teenage mothers manage to finish high
school, but less than 2% finish college by age 30. This issue is especially prominent for Latinas,
as Latina teenage mothers are 61% less likely to obtain at least a high school education (NCPUP,
2010). Further still, only one out of every three Latina teenage mothers will earn a high school
diploma (NCPUP, 2010). Thus, the educational outcomes for teenage mothers are dire,
particularly for young Latinas.
This issue is critically important because these outcomes have significant implications in
the lives of these young women. Simply put, without the knowledge and credentials earned from
completing high school and pursuing a postsecondary education, these young women struggle
socially, financially, and psychologically (Driscoll et al., 2003; Hoffman, 2006; Smithbattle,
2006, 2007; Vexler, 2007; Zachary, 2005). This, in turn, has broader social implications, as these
young women often have to rely on other forms of support to provide for their family, such as
welfare assistance and minimum wage jobs (Smithbattle, 2007).
In the United States, these negative outcomes have been categorized as a social problem,
which legislators and politicians attempted to address. Policymakers and practitioners launched
several efforts to support teenage mothers in pursuing their education. Numerous acts, such as
Title X, established provisions and specific supports to prevent discrimination and help young
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 11
mothers complete their high school education. At the K-12 level, school-based programs such as
the California School Age Families Education Program (Cal-SAFE) provide resources (e.g.,
child care) to young parents to enable them to complete their education (California Department
of Education, 2000). At the postsecondary level, programs such as the Welfare to Work
component of CalWORKS offer access to vocational training, adult education, and community
college programs, as well as childcare, transportation, and other forms of tangible support
(California Department of Social Services, 2015). However, despite these efforts, young women
continue to struggle academically and sometimes fail to enroll in a postsecondary institution.
This is unsurprising since their educational path is fragile and beset by the tenuous connections
to school and by competing demands and responsibilities (Smithbattle, 2006). Thus, these
programs, while supportive, fail to address all the challenges that these young mothers face.
Statement of the Problem
The inability of Latina teenage mothers to mitigate social, academic, psychological, and
financial challenges and attain a postsecondary education continues to be an ongoing, pervasive
issue. The majority of Latina teenage mothers who leave school to have children do not return to
complete their education (California Department of Education, 2014). Consequently, young
mothers lose the opportunity to learn skills that are critical for employment and self-survival as
adults. Existing approaches to addressing the educational outcomes of Latina teenage mothers
have focused on providing limited financial assistance, childcare, transportation, parenting
programs to provide parenting support, and government aid. These examples of external
supports, however, divert the attention from the strategies that the mothers themselves use to
address their challenges. Thus, there is limited knowledge about the strategies Latina teenage
mothers employ to facilitate the attainment of their educational goals.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 12
Purpose of the Study
The barriers to academic success for Latina teenage mothers are numerous, as evidenced
by a substantial body of research regarding the detrimental effects that early motherhood has on
young women’s educational outcomes (Driscoll et al., 2003; Hoffman, 2006; Smithbattle, 2006,
2007; Zachary, 2005). However, very few studies focused on capturing the specific behaviors
and actions of teenage mothers that enable them to graduate from high school and obtain a
postsecondary education. The purpose of this study was to explore the strategies and practices
employed by unusually successful teenage Latina mothers that enabled them mitigate their
challenges and achieve their educational goals.
This study relied on the positive deviance approach as an underlying theoretical
framework for exploring this issue. According to Pascale, Sternin and Sternin (2010), the
positive deviance approach utilizes asset-based inquiry through which the community identifies
individuals or groups engaging in uncommon strategies that enabled them to be more successful
than is typically found in the community, given similar access to contextual resources. The
approach is useful for intractable social issues, such as teenage childbearing, for which a
technical solution does not exist and no other effective solutions have been identified. This
approach is suitable to the issue of low educational attainment of Latina teenage mothers because
the problem persists despite existing efforts to address it.
In alignment with this approach, three research questions guided this study:
1. What are the challenges faced by Latina teenage mothers who attained a
postsecondary education?
2. What are the behaviors and strategies of these positive deviants?
3. How do positive deviant Latina teenage mothers utilize these strategies and behaviors
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 13
to facilitate success?
Significance of the Study
According to the Postcard: Teen Pregnancy Affects Graduation Rates (National
Conference of the State Legislature [NCSL], 2015), 30% of all girls who drop out cite pregnancy
and parenthood as key reasons. Alarmingly, data indicates that rate among Latinas is higher: only
40% of teen mothers finish high school and fewer than 2% finish college by age thirty (NCSL,
2015). If teen mothers continue on this current trajectory, they may not only fail, but may
continue to experience the struggles that afflict their community.
Social and Economic Implications
Importance of education. An education is necessary in order to find employment that
can sufficiently support a family without assistance programs. While these young mothers aspire
to further their education, finish high school, and obtain a college education in order to provide a
stable future for their children (Driscoll et al., 2003; Smithbattle, 2007), they find themselves
facing with numerous challenges that make it difficult to achieve their goal.
Social and economic outcomes tied to low educational attainment. A young mother’s
failure to graduate has long-term implications for her economic and social outcomes
(Smithbattle, 2006, 2007; Zachary, 2005). Indeed, the research shows that teenage parents are
more likely to be unmarried, less educated, and earn lower incomes (Driscoll et al., 2003).
Consequently they are more likely to be poor and may request public assistance (Hoffman,
2006). For instance, one of every four teenage mothers goes on welfare assistance within the first
three years of having a baby (NCPUP, 2014). Additionally, young mothers experience more
emotional and psychological issues than non-parenting teens, struggle to find employment, and
rarely attain a postsecondary education (Driscoll et al., 2003; Perper, Petterson, & Manlove,
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 14
2010; Smithbattle, 2007; Zachary, 2005). Addressing the issue of educational attainment would
help subvert many of these negative outcomes.
Significance for the Latina Community
California Latinas make up 26% of the childbearing population in the United States, as
compared to 4% of whites, 4% of blacks, 6% of Native Americans, and 5% of Asians (Public
Policy Institute of California, 2010). Research shows that the national birth rate for Latina
teenage mothers is double the rate for non-Latino Whites (Driscoll et al., 2003). Further still,
California ranks first in the number of pregnancies among adolescents, and two of every three
babies born to teenagers in California are born to Latinas (Public Policy Institute of California,
2010). Because the pregnancy statistics are particularly notable for Latina teenagers, this
research can have a significant impact on the community by illuminating the ways in which
Latina teenage mothers can overcome their challenges and improve their educational outcomes.
Theoretical Implications
As discussed previously, the positive deviance approach is often used with low-resource
communities and, as part of its inquiry process, directs focus to those individuals whose special,
or uncommon, practices and behaviors enable them to find better ways to prevent negative
outcomes (Pascale et al., 2010). It is a relatively new approach in the area of action research and
has been infrequently used in the field of education. Using positive deviance as a lens through
which to conduct research can help redirect focus from deficits within the community to assets
and understanding the behaviors and strategies that enable Latina teenage mothers to be
successful. Thus, use of positive deviance inquiry offers a new perspective on a longstanding
issue.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 15
Limitations, Delimitations, Assumptions, and Glossary of Terms
Limitations
There are several limitations to this study. First, it may be a considerable challenge to
uncover all of the behaviors and strategies used by successful teenage mothers. Thus, the
strategies revealed may not be comprehensive. Since the primary method for gathering data was
interviews, there was room for bias in respondents’ self-reporting. In addition, the study was
limited to a small sample size, which also limits generalizability.
Delimitations
The sample of positive deviants was limited to Latina females who are at least eighteen
years of age, but became pregnant between the ages of 12 and 19. Additionally, positive deviants
were enrolled in a postsecondary institution—either a community college or four-year institution.
Research was conducted within a small community in the greater Los Angeles area.
Assumptions
It was assumed that teenagers who are enrolled in college and have a child have been
successful at overcoming many of the challenges connected with teenage childbearing.
Glossary of Terms
Academic success. In this study, academic success refers to the ability to graduate high
school and obtain a high school diploma, enroll and attend in a postsecondary institution, and
complete at least 90% of course requirements each semester.
Dropout. This term is used to describe a young Latina mother who withdraws from high
school before completing the course requirements to obtain a high school diploma or GED.
Latina. The term Latina is used to describe a woman or girl of Latin-American origin
living in the United States (Merriam Webster, 2015).
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 16
Positive deviance. The term is used to define the observation that there are a few
individuals or groups who have found uncommon practices and behaviors that enable them to
achieve better solutions to problems in every community or organization (Pascale et al., 2010).
Positive deviants. Pascale et al. (2010) define a positive deviant as someone that
“demonstrates special or uncommon behaviors and strategies that enable the person or group to
overcome a problem without special resources” (p. 183). In this study, the term refers to Latina
teenage mothers who successfully navigate the challenges of parenting and are enrolled in a
postsecondary institution.
Teenage mother. In this study, a teenage mother is defined as a female between the ages
of 12 and 19 who gave birth and is currently raising her child.
Teenage pregnancy. This refers to a pregnancy that occurs between the ages of 12 and
19 years of age. Pregnancy may be intended or unintended.
Underachievement. This refers to a student’s lack or limited achievement of academic
success, as defined in this study.
Unintended pregnancy. An unintended pregnancy is one that is either unwanted,
unplanned, or mistimed at the time of conception.
Organization of the Study
This manuscript is organized into five chapters. Chapter One provided background
information on teenage pregnancy and childbearing, and the purpose of the study was
introduced. Chapter Two discusses a review of the literature on teenage pregnancy and
childbearing and positive deviance. Chapter Three details the methodology used in developing
and implementing the study. Chapter Four describes the results of the qualitative analyses.
Finally, Chapter Five discusses the implications for research and practice.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 17
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter presents literature on the educational outcomes of Latina teenage mothers
and introduces the positive deviance approach which serves as the theoretical framework for this
study. To accomplish this, this literature review is divided into five sections. The first section
discusses the normative outcomes experienced by Latina teenage mothers and examines teenage
childbearing in the United States, including the historical context and legislative challenges.
Discussion then turns to how these outcomes create contextual barriers that often result in
underachievement. Next, the challenges of Latina teenage mothers, including cultural and
traditional expectations, low socioeconomic status, lack of quality education, and subsequent
pregnancy are discussed. Attention is next given to the various research-based recommendations
and strategies that may have a positive impact on their academic success. A discussion of
positive deviance inquiry and the settings in which it has been used follows. Finally, a
conceptual framework is presented to contextualize this issue within the lens of the positive
deviance approach.
Teenage Childbearing in the United States
Teenage childbearing in the United States has been perceived as a challenging social
issue with educational and financial consequences. Between 1975 and 1994, teenage pregnancy
rose from 23.9 births per 1000 single female teenagers in 1975 to 31.4 in 1985 to an all-time high
of 46.4 in 1994 (Valenzuela et al., 1999). For decades, policymakers worried about the negative
effects uneducated teenage mothers and their children may have on society (Gallager, 1999). The
present section discusses the normative outcomes for Latina teenage mothers with a focus on
their educational and financial outcomes.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 18
Normative Outcomes for Latina Teenage Mothers
Although some teenage mothers have been able to succeed, the literature tends to
emphasize their deficits and focuses primarily on the negative outcomes teenage mothers
experience. For example, teenage mothers are more likely to drop out of high school and are less
likely to attend a postsecondary institution (Acs & Koball, 2003; Driscoll et al., 2003; Hoffman,
2006; Melby, 2006; Smithbattle, 2007). Furthermore, recent studies illustrate that one out of
every three teenage mothers will obtain a high school diploma or GED by the age of 22, and less
than 22% will have graduated from college by the time they are 30 years old (National Campaign
to Prevent Teen and Unplanned Pregnancy, 2014). This offers a stark contrast to young women
who do not have children as teenagers, the vast majority of whom complete their high school
diploma or GED, as shown in Figure 1 (Perper et al., 2010).
Figure 1. Comparison of Teenage Mothers and Non-Teen Mothers and their diploma or GED
attainment by the age of 22. Image extracted from Perper et. al. (2010)
This is of great concern because having a high school and college education is a viable
path to success, and many jobs require academic skills such as reading, writing, critical thinking
and analysis. For example, Graham and Hebert (2010) stated that “technological innovations,
globalization, and changes in the workplace increase the need for young people to obtain some
form of education whether it is in a two or four-year college or involves technical or career
coursework” (p. 7). Without a high school education and college or career training, teenage
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 19
mothers experience difficulty in securing a good job and steady income (Driscoll et al., 2003;
Perper et. al., 2010; Smithbattle, 2007; Zachary, 2005). Thus, their educational outcomes are
jeopardized.
Smithbattle (2007) suggested that mothers with childhood advantages experience better
opportunities for academic success than do teenagers from lower socioeconomic status.
Therefore, within the Latino population, the educational attainment of teenage mothers becomes
an area of concern given that most perform below their peers in school and are more likely to
drop out entirely (NCPUP, 2010; NCSL, 2015). Latinas are twice as likely to drop out of high
school as compared to black teens and four times more likely as compared to white teens
(Tortolero et al., 2010). Further still, the younger the girl is when she becomes a mother, the less
likely she is to earn a high school diploma or GED (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Diploma/GED attainment before age 22, by age at first birth. Image extracted from
Perper et al. (2010)
In the case where a young mother drops out of high school, she may lack the academic
skills and education needed to find employment. Driscoll et.al. (2003) found that teens reported
relying on welfare in order to survive, but hoped to acquire skills in order to obtain full-time
employment. Research revealed that most teenage mothers are more likely to rely on welfare,
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 20
have limited financial support, and live in poverty as well as to have children who also become
teenage parents (Driscoll et al., 2003; Rich-Edwards, 2002). Thus, dropping out of high school
results in a number of negative financial outcomes that affect the life of both the young mother
and the child. This is evident in the fact that nearly 80 percent of teenage mothers receive some
form of public assistance such as food stamps, housing assistance, Temporary Assistance for
Needy Families (TANF), or WIC vouchers (Acs & Koball, 2003). It is particularly noteworthy
that teenage mothers not only receive more financial assistance, but they receive this assistance
for a longer period of time as compared to women who delay childbirth (Hoffman, 2006; Levin-
Epstein & Schwartz, 2005).
Attempts to Improve the Outcomes of Teenage Mothers
There have been several legislative attempts to curtail teenage pregnancy and improve
the outcomes for teenage mothers. The following section summarizes legislative efforts and
programmatic efforts that have attempted to support teen mothers.
Legislative Efforts
For decades, teenage childbearing has worried social scientists and critical researchers
because they have focused on the negative consequences for children, their parents, and society
rather than the stories of success (Furstenberg, 2004). As a result, these outcomes raised
concerns among legislators and, thus, had a significant impact on legislation in the United States.
As seen in Table 1, the first legislative measure to support teenage mothers’ educational
attainment was the Title X Family Planning and Population Research Act of 1970. It was also
one of the first attempts to indirectly target teenage pregnancy. Years later, in 1981, Congress
introduced the Adolescent Family Life Demonstration Project. The two acts were designed to
support parenting teenagers and to prevent teenage pregnancy numbers from rising. They also
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 21
gave rise to a number of acts that followed years later. The following table provides, in
chronological order, highlights of the legislative acts developed to address teenage pregnancy
and childbearing.
Table 1
Legislative Measures
Legislative
Measure
Description
Title X Family
Planning and
Comprehensive
Research Act of
1970
Adolescent Family
Life Demonstration
Project.
The Comprehensive
Adolescent
Pregnancy Program
Amendment of
1985
The act focused primarily on supporting research and education, and it
provided grants for family planning. It was the first of many attempts
to decrease the teenage pregnancy rate (United States Department of
Health and Human Services, 2015). Additionally, Title X resulted in a
publicly funded program, still available today, that supports family
planning services. The goal of the program was to provide individuals
(males and females of all ages) from underserved communities with
the appropriate resources in order to ensure health care (United States
Department of Health and Human Services, 2015). Impoverished
teenagers benefit from Title X because it provides resources such as
family planning, birth control, and pre-natal and post-natal care for
mother and child (United States Department of Health and Human
Services, 2015).
Unlike Title X, this act directly targeted teenage pregnancy by
providing pregnancy testing, maternity counseling, abortions, and
adoption counseling (U.S. House of Representatives, 97
th
Congress,
1981). This act is also still active today
This act provided sexually active teenagers information and
contraception. Services were voluntary and confidential. Public and
non-profit organizations were allowed to receive grants in order to
provide sexually active teenagers services to help reduce the number of
teenage pregnancies.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 22
Table 1, continued
Legislative
Measure
Description
School Based
Adolescent Health
Act of 1987
Grants were made available to establish school-based facilities to
provide health education, pregnancy and sexually transmitted disease
(STD) testing, pre-natal care, and family planning services. The bill
required facilities to be active year-round and be within or adjacent to
schools in the project area (or a location better suited for the
teenagers).
Teen Pregnancy
Prevention and
Parental
Responsibility Act
of 1995
This act required teenage mothers to live in adult-supervised settings in
order to be eligible for AFDC benefits. In addition to receiving
benefits, young mothers had to have completed high school or be in the
process of completing high school. The act also allowed States to
receive grants to operate programs to reduce teenage pregnancy; the
federal government matched up to 75% of the state’s contribution. The
final part of the act required the Secretaries of Health and Human
Services, Education and the Chief Executive Officer of the Corporation
for National and Community Service to establish the National
Clearinghouse on Teen Pregnancy Prevention Programs. This center
served as a national information and data center, as well as a source of
development for teenage pregnancy prevention programs.
Personal
Responsibility and
Work Opportunity
Reconciliation Act
of 1996
One of the latest developments in Congress regarding teenage
pregnancy, Section 408 of the Personal Responsibility and Work
Opportunity Reconciliation Act prohibited TANF (Temporary
Assistance to Needy Families) aid to teenage parents who do not
complete high school and are not living in an adult-supervised setting.
In addition, Section 905 stated the Secretary of Health and Human
Services must establish a strategy for preventing out-of-wedlock
teenage pregnancies and must assure that at least 25% of United States
communities have a teenage pregnancy prevention program in place.
Finally, Section 912 amended Title V of the Social Security Act
(Maternal and Child Health Services) to provide $50,000,000 between
1996 and 2002 for states to teach abstinence in public schools,
including teaching that abstinence is the only way to avoid unintended
pregnancy and disease.
Family Life
Education Act of
2001
The legislation attempted to amend the abstinence education clause in
the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act
of 1996. It mandated that grants be given to states to teach family life
education, stressing abstinence, while also providing contraceptive
information. It also directed that the states should provide funds
matching those of the federal government. Finally, it required the
Secretary of Health and Human Services to provide national evaluation
of programs for effectiveness in changing adolescent behavior.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 23
Table 1, continued
Legislative
Measure
Description
Personal
Responsibility and
Work Opportunity
Act of 2010
This act altered the welfare bill to mandate that teenage parents attend
school, and that they live with a parent or responsible adult to receive
cash from welfare assistance. The objective is to encourage young
teenage mothers to further their education in order to obtain a high
school degree and enhance their chances of becoming successful,
enabling them to provide financially for themselves and their children.
There are a myriad of financial reasons Congress attempts to reduce teenage
childbearing. One of the first studies in this area found that young mothers greatly increase the
nation’s welfare and social costs because teenage parenting impairs their future education and
opportunity for employment (Zelman, 1982). Moreover, children of teenage mothers are more
likely to experience poor health, have a hard time in school, spend time in prison, and may even
become teenage parents themselves (Driscoll et al., 2003; Perper et al., 2010; Smithbattle, 2007.
Another concern is that teenage mothers may not have the time, energy, or motivation to
continue attending school and may rely on government assistance, eventually becoming
dependent on government aid and programs such as welfare and food stamps for survival (Brosh
et al., 2007). The most recent act, the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act (2010)
is meant to address these issues, as it offers possible solutions for supporting and motivating
young mothers to stay in school.
Programmatic Efforts
In years past, legislative efforts were launched to address teenage motherhood rates. In
addition to legislative measures, programmatic efforts such as El Nido, Project ABC, and Project
NATEEN have been established to provide further support to teen mothers hoping to further
their education and improve their academic and financial outcomes. Similarly, there are currently
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 24
programs that help and support teen mothers from impoverished communities. The following
descriptions provide examples of services available to young mothers and their children.
El Nido. The largest provider of teenage parent services in California is El Nido (El
Nido, 2015). More than ten thousand children, teens, and young adults benefit from services with
sixty-seven percent being Latino. In its annual report for 2012-2013, ninety-eight percent of all
its clients were attending or have completed school (El Nido Family Centers, 2014). The
program focuses on supporting teenage mothers because their children are more prone to
premature birth, frail health, school failure/dropout, and abuse or neglect than are the children of
mature parents. Through El Nido, teens receive home visits from case managers who assess their
needs in order to link them with services like health care, educational assistance, vocational
training, and housing.
Project ABC. The program was created in 2005 to support children, including teens, in
Los Angeles County who may be at risk of dropping out of school..The program claims that teen
parents help their children have better futures when they learn good parenting skills. The
program offers resources for teenage mothers in various areas: parenting classes, educational
options and opportunities, support groups, housing, and health information for the teenage
mother and the baby.
Project NATEEN. Children’s Hospital Los Angeles (CHLA) launched Project NATEEN
to support young parents, their families and partners work with specially-trained advocates. The
program also works with surrounding communities to link youth through various services: pre-
natal care, health care for the teenager and her child, housing assistance, public benefits, school
and academic counseling, and vocational training.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 25
Summary
Despite programmatic and legislative action in place to support Latina teenage mothers,
negative outcomes persist. Most young mothers are unable to mitigate social, academic,
psychological and financial challenges to attain a postsecondary education (Melby, 2006;
Gilliam, 2007; Denner, Kirby, Coyle, & Brindis, 2001; Talaskek, Norr & Dancy, 2003).
Although there are legislative measures and some programs such as El Nido, Project ABC, and
Project NATEEN that provide external supports to Latina teenage mothers, only a few are able to
further their education and improve their and their child’s future.
Challenges for Teenage Mothers
Teenage mothers face numerous challenges that have an impact on their chances for
academic and personal success, including cultural, educational, financial, social support, and
health challenges (Driscoll et al., 2003; Hoffman, 2006; Levin-Epstein & Schwartz, 2005). Some
challenges include low self-esteem, challenging intrapersonal communication with close family
and partners, low socioeconomic status, and barriers to pursuing educational goals (Abel &
Greco, 2008; Biggs et al., 2010; Denner, Kirby, Coyle, & Brindis, 2001; Dogan-Ates & Carrion-
Basham, 2007; Garcia, 2009; Gilliam, 2007; Talashek, Norr, & Dancy, 2003), which can have a
negative influence on their educational outcomes. This section provides a review of the main
obstacles encountered by most Latina teenage mothers as identified by the extant literature.
Cultural Challenges
Discrimination within broader culture. Although discrimination against pregnant and
parenting students by public schools became illegal in 1972 with the passage of Title IX of the
Educational Amendment Act (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2015), studies
suggest that such discrimination persists. Teenage mothers face discrimination and are looked
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 26
down upon for having a child at a young age (Driscoll et al., 2003; Ettinger, 1991; Hoffman,
2006; Melby, 2006). They are often are viewed as incompetent parents who are children
themselves (Smithbattle, 2007). Moreover, discrimination from peers, teachers, the community,
and family members can discourage a young mother and prevent her from furthering her
education (Driscoll et al., 2003; Hoffman, 2006; Levin-Epstein & Schwartz, 2005).
Teenage mothers may also feel alienated and judged. Kirman, Harrison, Hiller, and Pyett
(2001) interviewed twenty young mothers between the ages of 16 and 23. Participants reported
feeling judged and condemned by peers, family, and society in terms of their parenting skills.
Although their autobiographical narratives demonstrate they perceive themselves as good
mothers, they expressed difficulty in reconciling their sense of pride with the discrimination they
faced. In addition, Frith (1993) explored the parenting experiences of single mothers and found
that single teenage mothers were aware that they were stigmatized by society, and that society’s
perceptions conflict with their own knowledge of themselves as mature and capable parents.
Therefore suggesting that teenage childbearing is viewed as “negative” or a “disappointment” in
the community (Geronimus, 2003).
Social Capital. According to Bourdieu (1986), social capital includes a vast network of
personal relationships that provide social obligations which may lead to economic capital or
access to positions of power. Most young Latina mothers are more likely to come from poverty
(Dilworth, 2000), and low-income individuals and families may often be deprived of
opportunities to develop this social capital (Bordieu, 1986). Moreover, poor children inherit the
social, health, and educational injustices of their parents (Smithbattle, 2007). Low-income
individuals and families are often deprived of opportunities to develop their capabilities (Kunz &
Frank, 2004).
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 27
In terms of poverty, Smithbattle (2007) found that normative outcomes are largely
determined by race and that social class determined the future of the young mother even before
she became pregnant. Smithbattle (2007) explored the effects of teenage pregnancy for sixteen
mothers and children sixteen years after childbirth. Although the study did not include Latinas,
the author did take into account socioeconomic status and grandparents’ (parents of the teenage
mother) levels of education. The results revealed that nine out of the sixteen mothers stayed in
school and graduated from high school. The remaining seven of the girls dropped out and five of
the girls lived in poor, urban neighborhoods and attended inferior schools. Young mothers
expressed their desire to return to school to obtain their high school diploma or equivalent (e.g.,
GED) but their efforts were complicated by “economic hardships, family obligations, unreliable
childcare, and memories from past school failures” (p. 413). The remaining nine young mothers
that did not drop out and were able to manage their education and motherhood with the help of
parents, school, and community resources. However, the research also showed there were gaps in
opportunities and resources available to teenagers depending on their economic background.
Sixteen years later, middle-class mothers expected their children to go to college whereas, poor
mothers expressed lower expectations for their children, such as graduating from high school,
working and staying out of jail. Teenagers who came from the middle-class backgrounds were
able to achieve academically and held college aspirations.
In another study, Smithbattle (2006) found that young mothers who experienced financial
hardship relied on welfare and, if their children lived in the inner-city and attended large urban
high schools, they were more likely to contribute to the cycle of poverty and their children were
more likely to also become teenage parents, live in poverty, use drugs and be incarcerated.
Smithbattle (2006) concluded that “mothers with childhood advantages fare better over time than
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 28
their more vulnerable peers, and this legacy of advantages contributes to a cushion of safety and
opportunity for their teenaged children” (p. 418). Additionally, findings from recent studies
indicate that teenagers who become pregnant and come from predominantly poor and non-white
backgrounds are more likely to maintain their conditions of poverty and suffer health issues
(Smithbattle, 2006).
Parenting and raising a child presents hope and purpose for many teenage mothers. It is
important to note that teenage mothers who live in poverty would not necessarily have fared
better if they had waited to have children, as some young girls’ conditions are so disadvantaged
that, even if they postponed childbearing into their late twenties, conditions would not have
differed (Rich-Edwards, 2002). In fact, some researchers argued that, when women experience
detrimental life conditions, it makes sense for them to have children in their teenage years rather
than waiting (Geronimus, 1996; Rich-Edwards, 2002). Researchers hypothesized that some
teenagers may even choose to become mothers at a young age because they recognize their
limited possibilities (Smithbattle, 2000). For some young mothers, conditions of poverty are so
hopeless that bringing a child into the world presents hope, purpose, and opportunity. As
Dilworth (2000) noted, many young mothers say their child provided them with more joy than
they had ever known. For these teens, motherhood represents an acceptable solution that will
compensate for a life of psychological, moral, and family hardship (Dilworth, 2000). For
disadvantaged teenagers, parenting becomes a part of their identity and purpose in life
(Smithbattle, 2000).
Challenges endemic to Latino culture. Culture and ethnicity play a major role in the
future of Latinas with regards to motherhood and marriage, and may interfere with attaining a
postsecondary education. Latina teenage mothers may be expected to fulfill their gender
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 29
obligations to get married and become mothers (Smithbattle, 2007), and some research suggested
that, for Mexican American girls, marriage is not only very important, but is believed to affirm
womanhood (Oropeza, 1996). Furthermore, cultural expectations in U.S. society, schools, and
Latino families contribute to the challenges they face in obtaining a postsecondary education
(Romo, 1998), as stereotypes of Latina girls as submissive underachievers are often reinforced
by family, school, and media (De Leon, 1996).
Culture and family members influence the decisions that young Latinas make in regards
to parenting. Erickson (1994) suggested that Latino culture approves and supports early and high
birthing rates and Driscoll et al. (2003) found some Latinas believed “religious beliefs and
practices, holiday traditions, and gender roles” greatly affected how they perceived parenting and
their womanhood (p. 122). Thus, young mothers may prioritize cultural expectations and family
over academic aspirations. For this reason, Melby (2006) explained that they are less likely to
have an abortion. According to Tinajero, Gonzales, and Dick (1991), mothers of Latina teenagers
exert powerful influences over their daughters' education and career and family choices. A
Latina’s mother may pressure a teenage mother to leave school to focus on caring for her family.
As a result, even Latina teenage mothers who are above-average achievers may think about
leaving school to fulfill family and cultural expectations (Romo, 1998). Mainly, this is because
Latino families highly value and prioritize the role of the family and parenting at a young age
(Garcia, 2009). Ortiz (1995) reported that working-class Mexican American females often
experience additional challenges among traditional roles of motherhood, family responsibilities,
and academic success. Thus, young teenage mothers may prioritize family and caregiving, and
may choose to put their education on hold in order to fulfill these roles.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 30
Educational Challenges
Lack of support. School instability presents a major challenge to teenage mothers
(Driscoll et al., 2003; Geronimus, 1987; Lawlor, Shaw, & Johns, 2001). Young mothers report
that teachers, classmates, and other school personnel may not be supportive or understanding.
Driscoll, et.al. (2003) interviewed twenty-seven Latina mothers ages fifteen to nineteen
regarding effective supports to enhance their academic success. Young mothers reported that
staff at schools should be sensitive and responsive to Latina subgroup differences in addition to
being culturally sensitive and non-judgmental to their parenting status. Young mothers also
report that schools and programs should promote education and high aspirations (Driscoll, et.al.,
2003). Teen mothers’ understand that education is an important way to improve their lives and
the lives of their children. Although they express a desire in furthering their education, they do
not feel supported enough to handle the responsibilities of school and parenting (Driscoll, et.al.,
2003). Thus, young mothers have difficulty overcoming such educational challenges (Driscoll,
et.al., 2003).
Access to quality education. Many young mothers do not have access to quality
education. In fact, Smithbattle (2007) found that, for teenage mothers, there is a strong
relationship among inequalities in education, income, healthcare, resources, poverty, and
violence in neighborhoods. Therefore, growing up in poor, gang-infested neighborhoods and
attending inferior schools increases the risk that teenage mothers will drop out of high school.
Hockaday (2000) suggested that low educational ability and low aspirations may explain why
adolescents leave school, as the students’ educational experiences show little or no promise for
them; they do not relate their educational experiences to positive outcomes.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 31
Balancing school and parenting. Balancing parental and student responsibilities is
difficult (Driscoll et al., 2003; Geronimus, 1987; Lawlor, Shaw, & Johns, 2001; Smithbattle,
2007) and pregnancy and teenage parenting are cited as the most common reason a young
woman leaves school (Driscoll et al., 2003; Lawlor, Shaw, & Johns, 2001; Smithbattle, 2007).
Teenage mothers report that they prefer to stay home and care for their children rather than
further their education (Smithbattle, 2007). As a result, they may not have the academic skills
and or sufficient education to obtain a skilled job.
This issue is compounded if the teenage mother has multiple children. Young mothers
who have a child as a teenager are at higher risk for getting pregnant a second time in the near
future (Driscoll et al., 2003), and a second pregnancy is more likely for teenagers living apart
from their parents and for Latina mothers who dropped out of school or who grew up in
disadvantaged neighborhoods (Berglas, Brindis, & Cohen, 2003). Furthermore, young mothers
with more than one child are significantly less likely to go back to school and balance a job,
which makes it more difficult for them to further their education (Driscoll et al., 2003).
Financial Challenges
The previous sections discussed the fact that educational challenges make it more
difficult for teenage mothers to find and keep well-paying jobs. Similarly, financial stability is a
major challenge for teenage mothers (Hoffman, Foster, & Furstenberg, 1993; Smithbattle, 2007),
as they are more likely to live in poverty. According to the National Campaign to Prevent Teen
and Unplanned Pregnancy (2014), more than 75% of unmarried teenage mothers go on welfare
within five years of having their first baby. Financial difficulties are common among this
population, and the following sections discuss these along with the hardships of balancing work
and motherhood and of navigating the cycle of poverty.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 32
As previously mentioned, only 40% of teenage mothers graduate from high school, which
affects their job prospects (NCPUP, 2010; NSCL, 2015). Also, teenage mothers often receive
neither personal nor financial support from the fathers of their children. The Annie E. Casey
Foundation (2004) reported that in 2001, only 30% of teenage mothers received child support
payment. Additionally, it is challenging for mothers to maintain a job because they must balance
work in addition to motherhood and school (Talashek, Norr, & Dancy, 2003). Therefore, teenage
mothers require childcare in order for them to go to work. It is less challenging if a teenage
mother has support from an individual who is able to provide childcare. Women with lower
incomes cannot afford to pay for childcare (Kunz & Frank, 2004). Thus, mothers often report
that they prefer to stay home and care for their child (Smithbattle, 2007).
Health Challenges
Emotional Instability. Emotional instability can be a major obstacle in a young mother’s
educational pursuits (Ettinger, 1991).Teenage mothers may quickly realize that they have many
responsibilities and develop feelings of helplessness and hopelessness which could lead to
developing low self-esteem, low self-expectations and even depression (Driscoll et al., 2003;
Geronimus, 1987; Lawlor, Shaw, & Johns, 2001; Smithbattle, 2007). Young mothers may
experience a range of emotions, including feeling overwhelmed, depressed, fearful, disappointed,
disillusioned, alone, tired, and many other emotions (Ettinger, 1991). In research pertaining to
young Latina mothers, Smithbattle (2007) found that they often report feeling overwhelmed
because of the sense that the “job is never done” (p.412).
A young mother’s emotional health has a great influence on her outcomes. According to
the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (2015), depression, for example, is
common among teenage mothers. Teenage parents that experience emotional health are more
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 33
likely to report feeling overwhelmed by their unfamiliar, ever-demanding roles as parents
(Talashek, Norr, & Dancy, 2003). Ettinger (1991) listed a number of psychosocial factors that
affect the education and training of teenage parents: low self-esteem, low aspirations, motivation,
and expectations; unrealistic goals and ambitions. Latina teenage mothers in particular
experience one or more of the previous psychosocial factors listed (Ettinger, 1991), which may
add to emotional challenges.
Caring for sick children. Teenage mothers tend to experience more pregnancy-related
problems and tend to have less healthy infants over time because they neglect to obtain pre-natal
care (Constantine & Nevarez, 2008). Research shows that children of teenagers are more likely
to have developmental problems and experience more frequent health-related issues (Barnet et
al., 2004; Driscoll et al., 2003; Hoffman, 2006; Hoffman & Maynard, 2008; Smithbattle, 2007).
Furthermore, preschool children of teenage mothers tend to show some delay in cognitive
development as well as more behavioral problems and more aggressive behavior than do
children of older mothers (Driscoll et al., 2003; Geronimus, 1987; Lawlor, Shaw, & Johns, 2001;
Smithbattle, 2007). Thus, the mother is challenged with providing her child with support and is
less able to focus on her own education (Talashek, Norr & Dancy, 2003).
Summary
In summary, Latina teenage mothers, who generally struggle to complete their high
school education and pursue postsecondary education, face numerous barriers to academic
success (Driscoll et al., 2003; Ettinger, 1991; Hoffman, 2006; Melby, 2006). Often, the
challenges young mothers experience often lead to poor outcomes listed in the previous section.
Myriad factors contribute to the normative outcomes experienced by young Latina mothers
including a lack of social support, emotional stress, and depression. (Constantine & Nevarez,
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 34
2008; Driscoll et al., 2003; Ettinger, 1991). Additionally, Latina teenage mothers have limited
access to high quality education (Driscoll et al., 2003; Ettinger, 1991; Hoffman, 2006; Melby,
2006; Smithbattle, 2006), therefore affecting their educational outcomes. Finally, most young
mothers feel unprepared for adulthood and independence and have difficulty finding
employment, finishing school, and raising a child.
Success Factors
Although the majority of the literature explores the challenges of young mothers, there
have been a handful of studies focused on uncovering success factors leading to more positive
outcomes for teenage mothers.
Role of Community
Driscoll et al. (2003) found that the role of community is one of the greatest factors in
determining a teenage mother’s success. The authors examined the perspectives of Latina
teenage mothers and whether they viewed specific community programs as a resource to help
them improve their and their child’s future and to prevent a second pregnancy. During their
interviews, mothers identified three critical support areas. First, they stated that it was important
that they were able to relate to their mentors, teachers, and advisors. These individuals served as
role models for these young mothers and reinforced their aspirations. Second, teenage mothers
stated they needed to feel that the teachers and adults in their lives were patient and
understanding. Finally, they indicated that they needed counseling and advice. They described
that, although they were feeling overwhelmed and inefficient at many times, they knew they had
a support system in the program that would understand and guide them in the right direction. The
respondents also stated they felt they were not alone because of the resources available to them
and their peers (Driscoll, et.al., 2003).
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 35
Social Capital
The role of social capital is critical in determining a young mother’s future. Denner,
Kirby, Coyle, and Brindis (2001) investigated social supports among teenage mothers despite
their high rates of poverty. The authors found that social capital levels were higher in these
communities and that the communities had more social networks and institutional collaborative
(Denner, Kirby, Coyle, & Brindis, 2001). Even though socioeconomic status can be a risk factor
for negative behaviors, social networks can empower teenage mothers and motivate them not to
follow negative common patterns and succeed (Denner, Kirby, Coyle, & Brindis, 2001).
Positive Deviance
The issue of low educational attainment of Latina teenage mothers is an intractable social
issue that has yet to be resolved, despite long-term ongoing national efforts (Banerjee et.al.,
2009). Because of this, the positive deviance approach (Pascale, Sternin & Sternin, 2010) offers
a useful framework for exploring how to address this social issue. The purpose of this section is
to present the positive deviance framework, examples of how its use, and the adaptability of the
framework for diverse contexts.
Positive Deviance Approach
The positive deviance approach is a problem-solving inquiry framework which has been
uniquely successful for extremely difficult situations in which other common or more standard
approaches have failed (Durá & Singhal, 2009, 2010;Pascale, Sternin & Sternin, 2010;Singhal,
2010; Singhal & Dura, 2009a, 2009b; Spreitzer & Sonenshein, 2004; Walker, Sterling, Hoke,
&Dearden, 2007). This asset-based form of inquiry is founded on the premise that, within any
struggling community, there are individuals who overcame certain deep-rooted barriers that the
majority of community members do not overcome. These individuals, or positive deviants,
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 36
manage to bypass the normative outcomes common within the community because of their
unique strategies and behaviors.
The Positive Deviance Initiative (2010) described positive deviance based on the notion
that there are particular individuals in every community who, through uncommon strategies and
behaviors, find better solutions to problems than do their peers. Tapping into this positive
deviance is an inquiry approach aimed at identifying these behaviors and strategies in order to
promote their adoption by all members of the community. Thus, this approach is used to identify
these individuals and, through understanding their behaviors, improve the community’s overall
outcomes.
In most instances where positive deviance is implemented as a community action project,
a six-step partnership is established with the community (Marsh et al., 2009). Figure 3 displays
this process.
Figure 3. Steps involved in conducting a positive deviance inquiry
Develop
case
de,initions
Identify
4-‐6
people
who
have
achieved
an
unexpected
good
outcome,
despite
high
risk
Interview
and
observe
these
people
to
discover
uncommon
behaviors
or
enabling
factors
that
could
explain
the
positive
outcomes
Analyze
the
,indings
to
con,irm
that
the
behaviors
are
uncommon
and
accessible
to
those
who
need
to
adopt
them
Design
behavior
change
activities
to
encourage
community
adoption
of
the
new
behavior
Monitor
the
implementation
and
evaluate
the
results
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 37
The approach is focused on three aspects that facilitate change. The first, social
mobilization, encourages participants to be empowered and motivated to do the “right thing”
because they feel they are rewarded for doing something “right”. The second, information
gathering, is an in-depth inquiry-based approach that seeks to discover the transferable behaviors
that account for the favorable outcomes. Finally, it is important to look for behavioral change—
affordable and accessible behaviors that can be applied immediately to other members of the
community. This approach facilitates the discovery of solutions, even in the poorest communities
(Pascale, Sterning & Sterning, 2010).
Examples of Positive Deviance
The positive deviance approach has been used to solve a myriad of intractable problems
in various contexts (Positive Deviance Initiative, 2010).The paragraphs below provide two
examples of such use.
Example 1: Childhood malnutrition and health in Vietnam. The positive deviance
approach first emerged as a problem-solving approach in Vietnam, where the community was
struggling with child malnutrition. The researchers served as facilitators within the community,
and they discovered there were positive deviant parents who engaged in uncommon behaviors,
including special care for hygiene, feeding children smaller and more frequent food portions, and
using food sources that typically would not have been used within the community (Singhal,
Sternin, & Durá, 2009). Collectively, community members worked to implement the strategies of
positive deviants. Tangible measures were used to track the changes in the children. For
example, children were weighed over the course of two weeks, and the results were apparent: the
children were becoming healthier. Thus, the community engaged in a form of inquiry that
focused on the assets within it: parents whose children had better health outcomes. This revealed
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 38
strategies used so that others could learn and adapt their own behaviors to create similar
outcomes for themselves. Eventually, the lessons learned in the initial community were
disseminated to other parts of the country.
This study was important because of three key findings. First, people learn best by
experiencing and acting out the desired behaviors, so the typical linear approach of KAP
(Knowledge leads to Attitude change, leads to Practice) was operationalized in reverse. Second,
it highlighted that the solution to the problem can be found from within. Third, an intervention
program has a better likelihood of sustainability when the local people show each other how to
solve the problem, demonstrating that people in similar situations within the same community
are able to solve the problem (Durá & Singhal, 2009, 2010; Singhal, 2010; Singhal & Durá,
2009a, 2009b; Pascale, Sterning, & Sterning, 2010; Spreitzer & Sonenshein, 2004).
Example 2: Reintegrating kidnapping victims in the Ugandan conflict. Since 1986,
Northern Uganda suffered from civil conflict involving guerrilla warfare (Singhal &Durá 2009).
During the conflict, thousands of young girls were abducted. If the girls were fortunate enough to
survive and return to their villages, they faced many problems reintegrating within their own
communities. Many were alienated and stigmatized for having sided with the enemy, mothering
their children, and serving as spies and soldiers for them against their own people (Singhal &
Durá, 2009). Alienated girls often engaged in transactional sex to obtain food or a place to sleep.
However, some girls, the positive deviants, found alternative ways to make a living and more
successfully reintegrated themselves into the community (Pascale &Sternin, 2005). They
engaged in practices such as picking up extra loads of firewood, filling an extra jerry can of
water to sell, sharing the tasks of babysitting with friends, selling their crops, extra work in their
gardens, and reinvesting money saved. These practices were accessible to all the girls, but few
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 39
engaged in them. Here lies the value of the positive deviant inquiry: it allows other community
members to identify the successful behavioral strategies of the positive deviants within their own
(Singhal & Durá, 2009).
Conceptual Framework
Despite legislative measures and support, research indicates that Latina teenage mothers
continue to drop out of high school at alarming rates and fail to obtain a postsecondary education
(Acs & Koball, 2003; Hoffman, 2006; Levin-Epstein & Schwartz, 2005). However, some young
mothers successfully graduate from high school and pursue postsecondary education (Driscoll et
al., 2003; Hoffman, 2006; Smithbattle, 2006, 2007; Zachary, 2005). Using the positive deviance
framework, this study will investigate strategies and behaviors of successful teenage Latina
mothers in order to address the educational underachievement experienced by this community.
This study will focus on those positive deviant Latina teenage mothers who mitigated challenges
and contextual barriers. Specifically, this dissertation will focus on Latina teenage mothers who
graduated high school and currently pursue a postsecondary education. Since California has very
high teenage pregnancy rates, this approach may be especially useful because it may reveal
strategies and examples that may be shared with youth, parents, educators, health advocates,
medical practitioners, and other individuals and organizations interested in addressing the issue
of educational outcomes for Latina teenage mothers at the local, state, or national levels. Given
that most of the past research, as evidenced by the studies reviewed in this chapter, focused on
the problems associated with teenage childbearing, this investigation is designed to find solutions
that already exist and to amplify them. Figure 4 conceptualized these challenges in the context of
the positive deviance framework.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 40
Figure 4. Conceptual Framework
In this figure, Latina teenage mothers are depicted as progressing towards one of two
outcomes. Mothers either attain the normative outcomes experienced by the majority of teenage
mothers or they achieve the positive deviant outcome, which is to graduate high school and
Challenges
• Cultural challenges
o Discrimination within the broader culture
o Lack of social capital
o Balancing parental and student
responsibilities
o Unprepared for adulthood and independence
• Educational challenges
o Lack of support in school
o Access to quality education
• Financial challenges
o Lack financial resources
o Difficulty balancing employment and
motherhood
• Health challenges
o Feelings of hopelessness and helplessness
o Emotional instability
o Depression
o Neglect and abuse
Normative
Outcomes
• Drop out of high school or only obtain high school
diploma or GED.
• Lack of postsecondary education
Latina
Teen
Mother
s
Postsecondary
Education
Uncommon
Successful
Strategies
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 41
attend a postsecondary education. The following challenges: cultural, educational, financial, and
health have depicted have a significant impact on both paths. The positive deviance inquiry
process will primarily focus on the investigation of uncommon successful strategies that
facilitate the academic success of teenage mothers.
The positive deviance approach can be used to help communities solve complex social
problems by basing actions on the wisdom that already exists within the community (Durá &
Singhal, 2009, 2010; Singhal, 2010; Pascale, Sterning, & Sterning, 2010; Spreitzer &
Sonenshein, 2004). If some people within the community, despite the challenges, found a way to
solve a problem without any extra resources, then there is social evidence that the problem can
be solved with existing resources.
Summary
This chapter presented literature on the educational outcomes of Latina teenage mothers
and the positive deviance approach which serves as the theoretical framework for this study. An
analysis the normative outcomes experienced by Latina teenage mothers was provided in
addition to a summary of how these outcomes create contextual barriers that often result in
underachievement. This lead to a discussion of teenage childbearing in the United States,
including the historical context and a summary of legislative measures in order to illustrate
efforts to improve normative outcomes. The challenges of Latina teenage mothers, including
cultural and traditional expectations, low socioeconomic status, lack of quality education, and
subsequent pregnancy were also discussed. Furthermore, a discussion of positive deviance
inquiry and the settings in which it has been used followed to provide a context for its
application. Finally, the conceptual framework was presented to contextualize this issue within
the lens of the positive deviance approach. By examining behaviors of teenage mothers who are
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 42
succeeding in college, knowledge can be generated regarding successful strategies and support
can be provided to other Latina teenage mothers within the community to enable them to remain
in school.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 43
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
A review of the literature demonstrated that a majority of Latina teenage mothers
struggle with obtaining a postsecondary education. Young Latina mothers face many social,
academic, psychological, and financial challenges (Driscoll et al., 2003; Geronimus, 1987;
Lawlor, Shaw, & Johns, 2001; Smithbattle, 2007). Yet, despite these challenges, there are young
Latina mothers–positive deviants–who are able to mitigate the challenges and enroll in a
postsecondary institution.
Using a positive deviance framework, this study sought to uncover the behaviors and
strategies of successful young Latina mothers. Specifically, the following research questions
were addressed:
1. What are the challenges faced by Latina teenage mothers who attained a
postsecondary education?
2. What are the behaviors and strategies of these positive deviants?
3. How do positive deviant Latina teenage mothers utilize these strategies and behaviors
to facilitate success?
This chapter discusses the methodological approach for this study. First, the research
design is discussed. A discussion of the study sample, instrumentation and analysis strategy will
follow. Finally, ethical issues are addressed.
Methodology
Sample
Participants were required to meet several key criteria to participate in the study. Young
mothers had to have become pregnant and given birth as a teenager (during their high school
years, between the ages of 12 and 19). They had to have a minimum of one child that is their
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 44
dependent. They also had to be enrolled in a postsecondary institution such as community
college or four-year University for at least half time student status. They were required to have
completed one or more years of education in a postsecondary institution. They had to self-
identify as Latina, Hispanic, or Chicana, and be over eighteen years of age.
Sampling techniques and Purposes
Participants were selected by means of purposeful sampling, which is an approach that
allows for the selection of a small sample able to provide rich, thick description on the topic
explored (Creswell, 2007; Patton, 1990). A total of six participants were recruited for the study.
Participants were residents of a South Los Angeles neighborhood that is predominantly
Latino and low socioeconomic status (SES). Participants were identified based on students’
connections with staff at the school site where many of these young girls attended. Participants
were contacted via email and invited to meet with the researcher. A basic yes/no Positive
Deviance screening survey comprising the above criteria was provided to potential participants
to determine if they met the criteria.
Through non-profit community contacts and connections with colleagues tied to the
Rossier School of Education’s Doctor of Education program, the researcher was able to identify
individuals who have frequent contact with positive deviants. High school teachers, counselors,
and administrators were asked to identify students who fit qualifications to participate in this
study and invite students to participate by gathering their contact information. As an initial
contact from the researcher, potential respondents received an electronic invitation to participate
in the research study (Appendix A). The research invitation included the key criteria mentioned
above for participation. The email invitation to participate also included an information sheet for
the study outlining the research purpose, time commitment, and benefits of participation
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 45
(Appendix B).
Instrument/Measures
A semi-structured interview protocol was used to guide the researcher in identifying the
strategies and behaviors of positive deviants. The interview questions in the protocol were
matched to each of the research questions to ensure that items are accurately aligned with the
study’s focus (Anfara et. al., 2002) as demonstrated in Table 2.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 46
Table
2
Mapping
of
Interview
Protocol
Questions
to
Research
Questions
Research
Question
1 2 3
What does a college going Latina teenage mother look like to you? What
do they do?
X
ü
Did you ever consider not going to college? Why or Why not? ü
What are the challenges faced by Latina teenage mothers who want to go
to college?
ü
Why did you decide to go to college instead of dropping out of high
school?
ü
What influenced you to go down this path? How? ü ü
Who has supported you along the way? How? What did they do? How
did you find these supportive people/ networks?
ü ü
What steps did you take to go to college? What strategies did you use to
overcome your challenges?
ü ü
What was a typical high school day for you once you made the decision
to go to college?
ü ü
What daily obstacles did you encounter when you were working towards
going to college? How did you overcome them? What strategies did you
use?
ü ü ü
Think about other Latina teenage mothers like yourself who did not go to
college. How are they different?
ü ü
Which strategies have been most useful to you? Which have made the
biggest difference in your success?
ü ü
What advice would you give other Latina teenage mothers who want to
go to college?
ü
What lessons have you learned during your path to college that might
benefit other Latina teenage mothers?
ü
In Table 3, each of the topics explored in the study (strategies, behaviors, and other
factors related to success) are mapped by respondent group.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 47
Table 3
Mapping of Interview Guide Items and Topics to Research Questions
Research Question
Interview Protocol
Student/mothers
What are the behaviors and
strategies of positive deviants?
• Self-report strategies
• Observed normative strategies
How do positive deviants utilize
these strategies and behaviors to
facilitate success?
• Self-reported PD
strategies
How can the successful
strategies of positive deviants be
adapted and transferred to others
so that more students can
experience success?
• Related factors
• Recommendations
As seen in tables 2 and 3, participants were asked to discuss their experiences in their
academic environment, their behaviors and strategies to support their academic goals and
ambitions, and how they balance time to comply with their parenting responsibilities and student
expectations. They were asked about the challenges they encountered, and the strategies they
implemented to overcome them.
Data Collection Procedures
Once positive deviants were identified and recruited, they were asked to meet face-to-
face with the researcher to conduct the interview. Since the essence of qualitative research is that
it is naturalistic, individuals were interviewed in natural settings rather than in artificial isolation
(Marsh, 1996), and in the location the student identified as a safe and natural space.
At the start of each interview, the researcher formally gained the consent of participants
to record the interview through an IRB consent form. In addition to responding to the interview
questions, participants were allowed the opportunity to express concerns or share information
they felt be relevant to the study. At the end of the interview, the researcher provided each
participant with contact information in case the participants needed to contact the researcher.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 48
Contact information was also collected from each participant and was kept confidential and used
solely for the purpose of gathering data for this research study.
All interviews were audio recorded and transcribed in order to preserve authenticity and
so that no verbal information was misinterpreted or lost. The audio recording was sent to an
external transcribing service for processing. The interviewee also received a copy of the
transcript to determine the transcript was correct. Field notes were recorded by hand throughout
each interview in order to document elements of the interview not captured by the audio
recording, such as body language and the physical environment.
Data Analysis
Transcribed interview data was coded using a qualitative research analysis tool,
ATLAS.ti, and patterns were identified and categorized according to patterns observed. Anfara et
al. (2002) recommend that data should be simultaneously collected and analyzed by using a
three-stage iterative process. During the first iteration or process, the researcher coded the data
by analyzing raw data from the interview transcription. During this iteration, codes were
identified and categorized. During the second iteration, the responses from interviews were
compared within the categories and between the categories in order to identify patterns. Finally,
during the third iteration, theories were generated to answer the research questions. The coding
process is a constant comparative analysis that occurs as the data is compared, coded, and
categorized on their emerging properties. The authors suggest that constant comparative analysis
is important because it aids in “identifying patterns, coding data, and categorizing findings” (p.
32). The main goal of the analysis was to find what exists in the data, label it, and present “viable
interpretations of the findings collected” (Anfara et al., 2002, p. 33).
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 49
Ethical Considerations
This study was reviewed by the University of Southern California’s Institutional Review
Board for the protection of human research subjects. The researcher followed the university
procedures for ethical conduct in research. As part of this effort, there are several key ethical
issues addressed in this study: confidentiality of participants’ responses and identity; distress
caused by participation; participants’ membership in a vulnerable group; and the potential impact
of compensation for participation.
Confidentiality
Confidentiality was maintained in a couple of ways. First, the identity of each participant
was protected with a pseudonym used at the beginning of the data collection process. Other
names mentioned during the interview were changed. Second, both audio and transcribed data
were stored in a safe and secure location to protect participants from any harm or inappropriate
usage; these data were either password-protected (electronic files) or locked in a filing cabinet
(paper files).
Distress Caused by Participation
The research questions required in-depth analysis and discussion of personal experiences
that may have been either traumatic or therapeutic to the participants. Merriam (2009) noted that
interviewing individuals in-depth may pose ethical dilemmas in a research study because they
carry both risks and benefits to the participants. For example, young mothers may have felt
empowered to discuss their challenges and struggles. Others, however, may have felt
embarrassed or upset about their experiences and may have become distressed by the re-telling
process. Participants were reminded that all information and data was confidential and
anonymous. In addition, the researcher was prepared to provide participants with counseling
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 50
referrals to deal with their distress as necessary.
Vulnerable Population
This study sought to recruit members of a vulnerable population. To minimize the
potential for coercion tied to their status as a vulnerable population, participants were reminded
at multiple points in the study that their participation was voluntary and they would suffer no
harm if they choose to stop participating at any point in the study. Additionally, the researcher
carefully reviewed the information sheet once more before the interview commenced.
Compensation for Participation
Participants were provided a $15 gift card for their participation. In order to minimize the
potential for coercion, incentives were deliberately kept small. The general principle was to
provide enough so that participants were fairly compensated for their time, without providing so
much that they felt compelled to participate—that is, that refusing to participate would be
associated with detriment or loss for themselves or their family.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 51
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
The purpose of this study was to uncover the uncommon behaviors and strategies of
Latina teenage mothers who graduated from high school and attained a post-secondary
education. The following research questions drove the study:
1. What were the challenges faced by Latina teenage mothers who attained a post-
secondary education?
2. What were the behaviors and strategies of these positive deviants?
3. How did positive deviants utilize these strategies and behaviors to facilitate success?
The positive deviance approach served as the underlying framework for this study (Pascale,
Sterling, & Sterling, 2010). Data were collected via interviews with identified Latina teenage
mothers and analyzed by the researcher (Creswell, 2011). The purpose of this chapter is to
present the challenges faced by Latina teenage mothers hoping to attain a postsecondary
education and the unique behaviors and strategies they utilized to, ultimately, achieve that goal.
Participants
This study focused on the unique behaviors and strategies exhibited by six Latina teenage
mothers who graduated from high school and attained a postsecondary education at either a
community college or a four-year institution. Pseudonyms for names and institutions were used
to protect the privacy of this study’s participants.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 52
Table 4
Description of Positive Deviants
Mother Age Children Relationship status Degree
Olivia
Mariela
Jennifer
Isabel
Jasmine
Andrea
21 years old 1 child single mother Sociology
22 years old 1 child, married B.A.
22 years old 1 child single mother Biology
21 years old 1 child, married. Sociology
36 years old, 3 children, married B.A. M.S.
39 years old, 2 children, married B.A., M.S.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 53
Olivia
Olivia is a 21-year-old college student working on her fourth year at Cal State Inglewood.
She grew up in South Los Angeles in a small urban community, is the first in her family to go to
college and identifies as a Mexican-American. Olivia attended College Preparation High school
and graduated in 2011. She started college after high school and became pregnant at the age of
18. With a major in sociology, Olivia hopes to become a probation officer in the near future. She
is currently working at a fast food restaurant and lives with her daughter in a room she rents at
her aunt’s house. Olivia and her daughter’s father broke up one year ago, and she has been a
single mother since then. Olivia describes her daughter as a “happy and active one-and-a-half-
year-old that requires lots of time and attention.” Olivia attributes her success to the support she
receives from her mother, aunt, sisters, and cousin.
Mariela
Mariela is a 22-year-old Mexican-American student who also attends Cal State
Inglewood. Like Olivia, Mariela grew up in an urban neighborhood in South Los Angeles and is
the first in her family to attend college. She attended College Preparation High school and
graduated in 2010. Upon graduation, Mariela enrolled in college to pursue a bachelor’s degree in
law and society with a minor in criminology. This is her last year, and she hopes to complete her
remaining units in the next quarter. Her goal is to become a probation officer in order to have an
impact on the lives of young people and contribute to positive changes in society. Mariela
became pregnant as a junior in college, is married, and currently lives with her husband, two-
and-a-half year-old son, mother, and two younger brothers. Mariela works a part-time job in
order to provide an additional source of income for the household while attending school full
time. She considers herself fortunate to have the support of her husband and her mother.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 54
Jennifer
Jennifer is also a 22-year-old, Mexican-American student that attends Cal State
Inglewood. Her only daughter was born when she was a junior in high school, and she is
currently a single mother. Like the two previous participants, she grew up in an urban
neighborhood of South Los Angeles and graduated with honors in 2010 from College
Preparation high school. Jennifer became pregnant at the age of 16; her younger had become
pregnant one year earlier while only 13 years old. Jennifer currently lives with her parents and is
proud to be the first in her family to attend college. She is still deciding on what she hopes to do
in the future.
Isabel
Isabel is a 21-year-old student at The Catholic University in California. Although Isabel
was born in Mexico, she came to the United States at a young age and grew up in a
neighborhood in South Los Angeles. While attending College Preparation High school, Isabel
became pregnant during her senior year and waited one year to enroll in college because of the
birth of her son. Although Isabel’s parents refused to allow her to live in their home, she was
able to move in with her husband and his family. Currently, Isabel is completing her second year
at The Catholic University and is working part-time at a retail store. She is a pre-medicine major
and aspires to become a gynecologist one day. She currently lives with her husband and his
family and attributes her success to their support.
Jasmine
Jasmine is a 36-year-old mother of three. Her oldest son is currently 18 and enrolled at
UC Stockton. She also has a three-year-old daughter and a newborn. Jasmine is married to the
father of her two younger children. Jasmine became pregnant during her senior year in high
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 55
school, but she did not take time off after giving birth to her son. In high school, Jasmine applied
to and was accepted to several prestigious universities, but, eventually, decided to stay local to be
close to her mother. Jasmine holds a bachelor’s degree from UC Santa Monica in sociology and
a master’s degree in public health from the same institution. She is an international certified
motherhood consultant and works at Washington Hospital in Los Angeles for a program called
Newborn Babies. The program helps pregnant and post-partum mothers with preparation for
motherhood, including parenting, attachment, bonding, breast-feeding, and gaining access to
resources and programs available in the community. Jasmine acknowledges that having a baby as
a teenager is what led her directly to that path of work.
Andrea
Andrea is a 39-year-old mother of two. Her oldest daughter is a 20-year-old college
student studying neuroscience at UC Daly City. She has a three-and-a-half-year old and re-
married two years ago. She became pregnant with her oldest daughter when she was an 18-year-
old high school student at a Catholic high school. Upon graduating from high school, Andrea
attended Cal State Yorba Linda in California and graduated with a bachelor’s degree in human
services. She taught high school for ten years before going back to school for her master’s degree
from a prestigious university in Los Angeles. Andrea self-identifies as a Chicana. She is
currently a clinical supervisor for the Bringing Babies into the World program and focuses on
helping mothers and children. Andrea has a passion for social work and has been working for
maternal and child health access for the past five years. She enjoys conducting home visitations
for her program and promoting attachment and bonding with moms in Los Angeles during which
she focuses on best practices. She is currently working on becoming a licensed clinical social
worker and hopes to, one day, start her own private practice.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 56
Challenges Latina Teenage Mothers Face
The Latina teenage mothers who participated in this study experienced numerous
challenges, including the stigma of being a teenage mother, balancing parenting with work and
school, supporting a family, and emotional and physical health challenges. Figure 5 provides a
graphic overview of the aforementioned challenges.
Figure 5. Challenges faced by positive deviant Latina teenage mothers.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 57
Stigma of Being a Teenage Mother
Participants described their challenges as stemming from discouragement and stigma, a
sense of isolation in terms of their academic peers, and an initial lack of parental support.
Discouragement and Stigma. All participants mentioned they experienced what they
perceived as discouragement and stigma in their efforts to further their education. Positive
deviants experienced discrimination from counselors, doctors, nurses, professors, and family
members.
Jennifer was very excited to fulfill her dream of becoming a college student. She stated
that she was determined to graduate from the university, acknowledged there would be
challenges she had to overcome, and constantly looked for people and programs for support. On
one occasion, she visited her counselor to requested support with scheduling her classes for the
next semester. She was shocked to hear his perspective on teenage mothers:
It was my EOP counselor. I remember he didn’t know I actually had a daughter. He
would talk to the five of us and he would talk to us and tell us stories. He said “I’ve
never, never, ever- had to deal with a mother who had a child and was going to school
because I feel like they will never accomplish their goal.” That’s what he said. I was
about to cry when he said that.
Jennifer added:
I felt discriminated when he said that teenage mothers were not going to make it through.
I don’t know why he had it against teenage mothers in particular. He wasn’t even just
like, “students” or that… it was teenage mothers. Teenage mothers wouldn’t make it
through college.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 58
She did not say anything to him at the time because she did not have the courage to stand up for
herself and she did not want to contradict him. However, she vowed to bring up his comment in
the future when she felt better prepared to address it. She looked forward to the day where she
would tell him, “Well, now you can’t say that you don’t know any Latina teenage mothers that
graduated from college because you know me, and I will be your first!” According to Jennifer,
her counselor admitted that he had no idea that she had a child, but he did not apologize and did
not take back his comment. She said that, although the statement hurt her, it also motivated her to
work harder at school, and it pushed her academically because she was aware of the stigma of
being a teenage mom, “it hurt that he didn’t apologize because I realized that’s how he really
felt. But, it’s okay because I know I have to work that much harder to prove them wrong.”
Like Jennifer, Jasmin was also discouraged by her counselor. She mentioned, “I
remember meeting with a college counselor. She said it would be too challenging and
discouraged me from applying to top schools in the nation and said I wouldn’t get in because of
my kid. I applied and got in anyway.” In addition to discrimination and stigma for being a teen
mom, she stated she also faced a great deal of discouragement because of her desire to pursue
college while raising a baby:
When I got pregnant, so many people were trying to convince me to terminate the
pregnancy because they just said I was ruining my life. I was never going to get through
UC Stockton. As a matter of fact, the pediatrician I had at the time, that’s who confirmed
my pregnancy. He went to UC Stockton, and he told me that my best option was to
terminate because he went there, and it was a hard school, and there was no way that I
would ever be able to make it with a child.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 59
Although Jasmin had plans to further her education, she knew people around her assumed
and expected her to fail. She described her emotions as she recalled how her doctor, friends, and
mother tried to convince her to terminate the pregnancy:
I think that just drove me to prove everyone wrong. I really was driven to prove everyone
wrong. I was like, “You guys are all crazy! Like, how can you do that to someone? How
can you tell someone that they can’t do something?”
Thus, she decided to have the child and further her education. She remembered this experience
as the first of several instances in which she was discouraged from school and discriminated for
being a teenage mother.
In addition to stigma, Jasmin described terrible experiences as she attended appointments
for her child. On many occasions, she even had to miss class because her appointments
conflicted with her schedule. The county appointments were necessary for her child to have
access to medical and health benefits that are provided to support teen mothers and their
children. She recalled feeling that office workers were “rude and inconsiderate people” who
made her feel terrible for asking for support. Now, she said little has changed. Eighteen years
later, she describes how the conversations about teenage mothers are very similar to her
experience back then:
I hear it at the hospital, when I work, where there’s some 15- or 16-year-old girl that has
a baby, and the nurses are making some snarky comment and it’s like, number one, it’s
not your life, but, instead of having that negative thought or that negative idea of a teen
mom, why not say, “what can I do to help her?” What resource is available that I can
share to make her experience a little bit easier to help her out? Or just sit down and listen
to her. You don’t know why she became pregnant. You don’t know why she chose to
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 60
have this child. There is a stigma, and I see it now. I see other girls experience it.
Perception hasn’t changed much since I had my kid.
Like Jasmin and Jennifer, Andrea also mentioned she experienced discrimination as a
teen mother. However, her experience involved her professor:
There was this professor…like for the social work program, and she was a therapist, but
she was not culturally competent. I turned my paper in late, so I went up to ask her after
class if she received it. She just cut me off. She like raised her voice and she got really
loud and confrontational, and she was like and “I know you’re a single mother, but you
can’t just turn your paper in late.” And there were all these other students there. My
daughter was sitting in the back since I used to sometimes take her to class with me when
I had no child-care. She assumed that I couldn’t get things done because of my child. It
was just really bad.
Like Jasmin and Jennifer, Andrea perceived this interaction as a discriminatory action, “It makes
me angry to think that all these people just judge me because I have a kid. I have goals too, I
work my butt off, but I guess it doesn’t matter. People only see what they want.” As the above
examples illustrate, teen mothers are often stigmatized and discouraged by their parenting status
and are often discouraged when it comes to education.
Of the six positive deviants who participated in this study, Isabel was the only one to
report feeling stigmatized by a family member:
One of my uncles actually hurt me because he used my experience as a bad example for
his 18-year-old daughter. She had an “accident” going on with her boyfriend, but she
wasn’t pregnant or anything. The day my kid was born and they came to visit me at
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 61
home, when they were headed out the door, I heard my uncle say, “You see, that’s what
happens when you’re going around doing that and what not.”
Isabel became teary-eyed as she sadly remembered the day her uncle used her as an example of
how motherhood is associated with negative outcomes, “I was angry, disappointed, and hurt, all at
once…there was a lot of just people’s own expectations. Mostly negative. So I think that was
always a challenge.”
In their efforts to pursue a college education, positive deviants were challenged with the
stigma of being a teenage mother, discrimination, and discouragement from professors, counselors,
doctors, nurses, and even family members.
Isolation from Peers. Although they felt peer support was very important, all six
participants reported often feeling left out because of having a child. Most expressed feeling
alone and separated. Respondents stated they longed for support from friends and family in order
to be successful, “Being a teen mom is hard you know. Sometimes, you just need to know that
someone’s got your back. All of a sudden, you don’t have any friends anymore.” Isabel stated. In
addition, they reported having little to no support from the fathers of their children. For instance,
Andrea recalled feeling lonely in college:
I think it’s very isolating for young moms because the main way for them to connect and
socialize is through college parties and stuff like that….so moms aren’t usually able to
that. So, like, for me, I never joined any clubs, sororities, or anything social because I had
no energy and I never had the time… I had to go home to my baby. It’s like you’re trying
to manage learning- learning class material, learning to be a mom, and how to balance
everything. You’re trying to adjust to being in this huge environment, big campus. It’s a
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 62
lot for a teen, let alone a teen mother…..socially, you want to connect and then you can’t,
so you start to feel isolated.
Four of the positive deviants in this study acknowledged it was challenging to socialize on
campus. For instance, Olivia stated, “Because I don’t really socialize with people at school. I’m
just in school and get out of school. I don’t really know anyone. You really feel alone.”
Respondents also reported they wished they had support from friends and family in order to be
successful. At a time when peer support is critical, all interviewees reported often feeling left out
because of their child. Jennifer explained how, “Other friends that I’ve had have actually left me
out. They would say, ‘Oh, because you have a daughter, you can’t spend more time with us.’
They left me out.” Jennifer recalled how she struggled because she had no peer support in school
and that was important for her. Andrea, on the other hand, described one of her challenges as,
“maybe peer pressure to go out and have a good time and know that I always had to say no to
that. My friends weren’t happy, but I had no choice.” Like Andrea, Olivia was isolated because
she knew that, “as soon as I get out of school, I have to go back home. I don’t really have any
extracurricular activities or anything…I just go straight home to take care of my daughter, do
chores, finish homework or sometimes I go to work right after school.”
Positive deviants acknowledged that having a child meant giving up time with peers and their
friends.
Mothers realized that their non-mothering peers had an advantage because they never had
to worry about issues like finding a babysitter. Olivia stated, “people that I know in school can
just go to the library, or go out, or do whatever they want because they don’t have to worry about
kids.” Even the idea of socializing with other mothers was a challenge because it took time away
from other responsibilities, and their child. Isabel recalls, “I don’t really talk to other teenage
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 63
moms because I guess we’re all busy so we don’t really have that communication. We’re just
trying to get home to our kids, get our day over with.” Teen mothers reported that, most of the
time, they were too exhausted to go out and enjoy time with peers. Similarly, Isabel reported, “I
don’t have many friends. I don’t have time to hang out with people or anything. It’s hard ‘cause I
see other students help each other in class sometimes, but I don’t talk to them so I can’t join the
conversation. It gives me lots of stress.” Respondents stated that a lack of stability and support
resulted in additional stress and challenges.
Support from the father of their child. In addition to a lack of peer support, most of the
interviewees also received little to no support from the fathers of their children, a critical person
and peer. Only two of the six were still in relationships with the father of their child at the time
of the study; the four other positive deviants were single mothers and received little to no
support. For instance, Jennifer learned at beginning of her pregnancy that she would not be able
to count on the father of her child for any support, “The baby’s father was pretty upset because
from the moment that I actually told him I was pregnant, he told me that he wanted me have an
abortion.” At that point, Jennifer knew that she would one responsible for raising her baby, “I
was on my own at that point. I couldn’t count on his support at all.” Similarly, Olivia realized
that she could not count on her daughter’s father for support. In fact, having a connection with
him was detrimental because he added more stress to their daily lives since he was irresponsible
and unreliable:
He was taking her the first few months we separated, but then he stopped taking her. He
takes her only when he wants to, and I don’t like that. I can’t really rely on him to say,
“You’re going to babysit the baby on Saturday and Sunday,” which was his schedule
because then he’ll tell me, “I’ll come at this time,” and doesn’t show up. He never picks
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 64
her up. So, I’m like, “Just call me when you’re ready to take responsibility. We’re not
going to be waiting for you. I’m not going to force you if you don’t want to. It’s okay.” I
will deal with it. She’s my daughter. I am her mother, and I cannot force him to be a
father.
Respondents stated that a lack of stability from the father added to their daily challenges because
they were responsible for providing care, attention, and protection for their child. Olivia stated,
“Sometimes I just cry myself to sleep. I’m like, ‘how am I going to do this by myself? School is
so hard and I have to work and take care of my baby while he just does whatever he wants. It’s
really hard sometimes.”
Single teen mothers experienced additional challenges because they recognized that as
the sole provider for their child, they were responsible for everything.
Parental support. Each of the six mothers described family members feeling anger and
disappointment in them. Some refused to be supportive when the child was born. Andrea
described, “There was a lot of disappointment. I think my mom, and my grandma was very
disappointed. She was the one I think that we had to like to figure out how we were going to tell
her…I was really anxious and frustrated because I knew that she would be really mad at me. I
was not supposed to get pregnant so young. I had it together, school, friends…I was the kid that
had it together. Now, I was just irresponsible.” Andrea was upset that her grandmother and
parents would think “she messed up her life with pregnancy.”
Like Andrea, Jennifer stated that she knew her parents would be furious and extremely
disappointed since she was not the first teenager in her family to have a child. Jennifer’s thirteen
year-old sister had a baby one year prior to her own pregnancy and her parents were already
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 65
overwhelmed with caring for the child. This meant that Jennifer’s pregnancy was not at all
welcomed:
For my mom, she was very disappointed. I remember her talk. When she found out I was
pregnant, she was angry and told me, “Well, didn’t you already learn from your sister’s
mistake? You even went through my labor,” because I actually was there for her when
she gave birth to my brother, and I was there for my sister when she gave birth to my
niece. She would tell me, “Haven’t you learned anything from your sister’s struggle?”
Even the baby’s dad, my sister’s ex, he isn’t even around for my niece. For my family, it
was more of a disappointment, and it made me feel awful. I knew I let everyone down.
Disappointing her parents resulted in additional challenges because Jennifer was sad, stressed,
and frustrated for letting them down, “I was supposed to go to college, not have a baby. In their
eyes, I was hopeless and there was no chance of making it.” Jennifer’s parents also did not
support her decision to go to college once she became pregnant. She recalled a conversation with
her mother:
“Are you sure you’re going to be able to deal with this? Are you ready to go to college
even though you have your daughter?” I would tell her, “Yes, of course.” It’s not even a
question…. It’s an obvious answer that I wanted to go to college even more than [I did]
before I had my daughter.
Jasmine’s experience was similar to Jennifer’s. She described her mother’s fear that she
would not be able to handle the challenges of being a teen mother and would eventually drop out
of college. Jasmine recalled, “At one point, my mom even suggested that I get an abortion
because she knew it would be very difficult, and she did not want me to suffer the same way she
did…She didn’t believe I’d make it. It was hard to deal with, on top of being pregnant.”
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 66
Balancing Parenting with Work and School
Each of the positive deviants in this study shared that balancing their parental
responsibilities with school and work presented many challenges. They described how managing
their time was challenging because they had limited time for their schoolwork, employment and
personal commitments. Young mothers stated they struggled with finding the time required for
school, parenting, and all other responsibilities.
In terms of schoolwork, all of the mothers who participated in this study identified time
management as a challenge. Mariela, for example, described how she could never find the time
to stay after class to study or complete her assignments and attend office hours because she knew
she had to get home to care for her son. She identified one her of her greatest challenges as
“having to go to school and leave my child” and further explained:
Sometimes, going back to school at night. I’ve been trying to crumble up all my classes
together [by] taking…17 units in total. On Mondays, after 6 p.m., I had to leave school
[at] 10. I used to see my son [when] he was sleeping or, sometimes, I was super tired, and
I had to study because I had wake up super early the next day to go to school. But it’s a
little bit more of a struggle because I have to care for him. I can’t go to sleep and pretend
he’s not there. It’s a little bit of a challenge in that aspect. It really is difficult for me.
Mariela stated she also struggled with balancing her time attending class, completing
assignments, and studying while caring for her child. She said, “although I am dedicated to my
education, it is a challenge to make time and balance my course load and parenting
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 67
responsibilities.” She explained that it is particularly difficult to “find time to focus on your work
in school and keep up with school work outside of class because there is always so much to do.”
Jasmine’s transition from high school to college along with the additional time required
to perform well, was particularly challenging. She recalled that, as a young mother, her time for
school was limited and she had few opportunities to focus solely on her academic
responsibilities:
Dealing with the shock of being in college, large, 400+ student classes, and a child…I
remember it was a huge blow to my ego because I was very much a perfectionist and a
straight A student. I just did the best I could, it was survival really.
Unlike high school, Jasmine stated she quickly realized college was very time
consuming. She described shared: “It takes so much time to write papers and study and all of
that.” She said she found she did not have the time she used to for class, schoolwork, and to
perform well academically.
Like Jasmin, Andrea also struggled with balancing her time as a college student, “It’s
definitely a challenge. I mean a college student has so many barriers and challenges in general.
So, add a young mom to that. It’s difficult.” Andrea stated she constantly worried she would not
be able to pass her classes because she did not have the time required to completely focus on her
required course work, complete assignments, and attend office hours.
Similarly, Olivia described that staying in school was a challenge in itself because, like
other positive deviants, she was a single mother and also had trouble balancing her time:
With the schoolwork, it’s hard, especially if you work. Sometimes, it’s too much. One of
the obstacles in schools I experience is my baby…She wants my full attention. If I’m
trying to read or do homework, I first have to play with her, or do any activity she wants
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 68
until she gets tired and sleepy. Then, I have to continue…with schoolwork, but by then,
I’m too tired and exhausted to focus.
Like Olivia, Isabel realized that her toddler required a lot of time, stimulation and
attention, thus, taking away time for school and studying. Isabel described that, “It was hard
because when I try to study, my baby wants to play or he just doesn’t want me to study.” Thus,
dedicating time to academic responsibilities was difficult with an active baby.
Overall, positive deviants described their challenges with motherhood and their efforts to
do well in school. As a result, they stated they found themselves struggling to do as much as
possible in very limited time. This often meant that if they spent time on one area, they probably
neglected another. As Isabel stated, “If I stayed at school to do homework, that meant I left my
baby. But, if I spent time with my baby, I won’t get much done. It’s really tough.”
In terms of employment, all participants reported they held a job while attending college
and raising a child. All stated it was challenging to manage their time in order to remain
employed and attend school while raising a child, but meeting financial needs meant relying on a
job for income. Mariela, for example, stated that, “one of the challenges to staying in school is
also having a job to support your child.” Jennifer described the difficulties involved in
scheduling employment around coursework, “I work seven hours on Wednesdays and Thursdays
because those are usually the days that I don’t have classes. When I don’t go to school, I do
work.” Jennifer, like other positive deviants, described her challenges between her job, school,
and parenting responsibilities.
Olivia reflected on the difficulties of finding a better job because as a college student, she
never had a stable schedule since every semester, her classes changed. Therefore, Olivia could
never commit to one job. This added an additional layer of stress and anxiety because she needed
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 69
the financial income. She was certain that her schedule would change the following semester,
resulting in a different work schedule:
I think when you’re a student, I don’t know if it’s just for me, but I have a hard time
finding a better job. I’ve had interviews with the district to work with after school
programs, but they require you to be present every day at a specific time. Being a college
student, your classes are all over the place. Before, I was able to get all classes in the
morning and now some classes in the afternoon, but it doesn’t always work out that way.
Even if I’m a qualified candidate for the job position, I can’t commit because of my
school schedule. I feel like obtaining a better job is hard when you have trouble balancing
your time.
For this reason, some of the positive deviants in this study worked hours and shifts that were
convenient to them. For instance, Olivia had the morning shift to open the restaurant where she
works, “I would take the bus at like five in the morning to get to work. It was really hard.”
The challenge of balancing time meant taking shifts at odd hours of the day. Isabel, for
instance, stayed late at the store where she worked. She had to work long hours putting items
back on shelves and in their proper place before leaving for the day, leaving her exhausted. “At
times I’d come home after midnight, and since my baby takes naps, he has energy when I get
home so I still have to stay up and play with him.” Similarly, Jasmin stated that it was especially
difficult when, “trying to put in work hours when you were in finals week” because mothers
realized that they needed to spend the additional time with course requirements, but also had to
work because they needed the money. Olivia realized that she never had time for both school and
work, “If you’re giving your all in school you’re not giving it at work- and if you’re putting your
effort at work, then you’re not giving your full effort in school.”
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 70
Personal. Balancing time between personal responsibilities, work, and school, in addition
to parenting, was a challenge for the positive deviants in this study. Young mothers described
how taking care of personal responsibilities was one of their greatest challenges because it
consumed so much of their time. All six of the positive deviants admitted they “never had any
time” and described how “transportation was an issue.” For instance, Olivia always felt that she
only had time “to go to school, home, school, work, and home. I don’t have time for anything
else.”
Like Olivia, positive deviants admit that balancing time for transportation was a
challenge. For example, the commute between home, work and school, required time the young
mothers could not afford. Participants described feeling like they lost much of their personal time
during their commute. Mariela, for example, described how:
I had to be up at five-thirty or six in the morning catch the bus to start and then I wouldn’t
get home until 6:00, 6:30 at night because I was literally taking 3 classes all day long and
then I always took the bus home. The ride was an hour and half home in rush hour traffic
each way. I wasn’t getting home until dinnertime, and I still had a lot to do for school, for
my baby, and I was tired.
Like Mariela, Jennifer was constantly late to work and school. As a result, she was usually
embarrassed to arrive tardy:
I have told them before that I have school and if I’m late, it’s because I came out a little
bit later from my class. Before, I used to go on the bus, and I wouldn’t make it to work on
time because of the bus or traffic or whatever else. Even when I got my car, I would
struggle with time during my commute, because I didn’t know how to drive on the
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 71
freeway, so I would take an hour to get there from my house or from school to my job. I
would tell them it’s because traffic.”
Mariela, Jennifer, Andrea, and remaining positive deviants acknowledged that their personal time
was very limited because they invested their time in their academic and work responsibilities. One
solution Andrea attempted was to avoid the use of public transportation by purchasing a car.
Unfortunately, she could only afford an old car with mechanical problems resulting in even more
challenges when her car would not work properly. She admits that she “was traumatized by car
problems, you know…..I had to be somewhere and could not afford to waste time.”
In addition to transportation, teen mothers neglected themselves and were challenged
with setting time aside to bond with their child. This greatly affected their self-esteem as a
mother. Jennifer, for instance, had three jobs including her internship while she was attending
school. She admits that she did not spend time with her daughter and it sometimes caused her to
think about dropping out. Spending time with her daughter was a challenge because of all her
other responsibilities. Finding time to care for her daughter or herself meant taking away time
from fulfilling another task.
As teen mothers completed more courses in school, young mothers realized that the rigor
in their classes increased thus, requiring a greater personal investment. As classes became more
challenging, they required additional time, resulting in less time to spend with their child. Isabel
describes how she never finds enough time in a day to accomplish everything she needs to:
Because every day that goes by I feel like the time goes by so fast. I don’t even know
how the days go by. The next thing I know the week is over and there’s a due date for
this, a due date for that. It’s practically a mixture of everything, from bills to homework
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 72
to my kid’s Medical and his WIC coupons. I have to keep up with everything. I feel like I
don’t have that much time anymore. I definitely don’t have time for myself.
Learning to balance her personal time is a challenge she struggled with. In fact, even after
all her years of being in college, Mariela echoes Isabel’s sentiment and claims:
I’m still learning how to manage my time. It’s really difficult. I’m still figuring out
what’s the best time to do work, homework. I figured out, for now I have to stay up until
sometimes four in the morning doing homework. Until he falls asleep, that’s the best
time.
Positive deviants all stated that taking care of personal matters in addition to managing their time
among employment, personal responsibilities and school, affected their academic progress.
Olivia stated, “One big challenge is that I’m trying to do lots of things at the same time. Like,
I have an hour to do everything. I don’t know how I do it. I try to do as much as I can.” Young
mothers found that their responsibilities were time consuming and it was challenging to take care
of everything they needed to.
Supporting a Family
The positive deviant Latina teenage mothers who participated in this study experienced
numerous financial challenges as they attempted to obtain a postsecondary education. All six of
the mothers reported they struggled financially and lacked resources to provide for their children.
As a result, all six young mothers relied, at least in part, on financial aid and work income in
order to pay for college. However, they stated they received too little financial aid, which
resulted in out-of-pocket expenses.
With the exception of one, the participants in this study came from low-income
households. Jennifer admits that her “challenges to staying in school would be money.”
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 73
Although Jennifer knew that she needed a full-time job, she stated she also knew that she could
not handle one because of the time demands. She stated that, “If a teen doesn’t have financial
aid, she has to go out and seek resources.” Jennifer lamented that, when she lost a scholarship,
she feared she was not going to make it through school. Although she still had financial aid, the
amount was less than half of what she used to receive which meant she had to work in addition
to attending school.
Similarly, Andrea faced a great challenge because having limited financial resources
meant she did not have access to materials and technology necessary for her education. She did
not have access to a computer or the Internet once she left the campus:
I did not own a computer, and it becomes an access issue. There were times when I
wanted to work on my papers, but because I didn’t have a computer or a zip drive, I
didn’t have something to save my work so I just couldn’t do it. It definitely was a
challenge not having my own computer.
Andrea, spurred by a lack of financial aid, decided to accept several student loans. Even
though she graduated from college over a decade before this study, she still saw the
consequences of accepting loans to pay for college:
I took out all these loans to subsidize my life, and now I’m stuck with debt - probably
forever. So, I didn’t really have any financial awareness. You’ve got these lump sums,
and you figure out a way to spend it.
In addition to financial challenges, positive deviants described their struggles with
financial aid. For example, Mariela never had enough financial aid to cover her entire tuition and
textbook expenses. However, she refused to accept student loans. In order to pay for tuition and
afford their living expenses, she and her husband both maintained jobs and worked long hours.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 74
Isabel, on the other hand, did not qualify for loans or financial aid because of her citizenship
status. She was the only mother who was also an AB540 student. Although she came to this
country as a young girl, she did not have residency and, therefore, did not qualify for several
financial aid resources available to full-time students. Thus, Isabel stated she works additional
hours in order to pay her tuition:
I’ve been able to cover it because, for foreign students, we don’t really get that much.
That’s a thought too, and I’m not always going to have [a stroke] of luck, so where am I
going to get the money from?
In summary, all the young mothers relied on financial aid in order to pay for school and faced the
challenge of limited assistance from these programs. In order to meet their financial obligations,
young mothers expressed the need to work as well. These challenges added to their struggles to
attain a post-secondary education and contributed to emotional and physical challenges described
in the following section.
Emotional and Physical Challenges Teen Mothers Experience
In the previous sections, positive deviants identified a number of challenges they
encountered in their pursuit to graduate from college. The challenges described in the previous
sections contributed to the emotional and physical challenges young mothers experienced
throughout their academic journey. Emotional challenges related to feelings of guilt and stress.
Physical challenges were related to malnutrition and exhaustion.
In terms of emotional challenges, all of the mothers in this study be reported feelings of
guilt, anxiety and depression at some point. For example, Andrea described feeling guilt daily
because she was leaving her child to go to class, work, or to finish homework:
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 75
I felt like I was always a hot mess, like it was always a balancing act, and I was never
really good at any of it because I was just trying to get by in all areas. I would try to keep
a part-time job but I would always end up quitting because I felt so guilty that I left my
daughter for work and I left my daughter for school… I could write a book on guilt;
Catholic guilt, family guilt. It was always an issue.
Andrea was not the only mother who stated she felt guilty all the time. All participants
identified guilt as an emotion that constantly made them feel inadequate as mothers. Olivia
shared:
I feel guilty, because I feel like I don’t spend much time with my daughter, although my
family knows I spend every little minute I have with her. Like I said, I feel guilty and,
honestly, when she goes to sleep, I start crying. Sometimes it’s so, so stressful…
Sometimes, I just cry to myself. I try, but I can’t.”
Another source of guilt was the idea that investing time in their education precluded them from
being good mothers. As Jennifer stated:
I feel guilty so many times. I’m always wondering, “What if she looks up to somebody
else like her grandmother or even her father’s girlfriend as her own mother?” I feel like
she’s spending more time with them, so I worry.
Although most young mothers were able to leave their child with a relative, they still
identified emotional challenges in leaving them. Andrea was the only positive deviant that was
unable to depend on a family member to care for her child. As a result, she enrolled her baby in
the childcare center at the university. She stated she felt guilty and uncomfortable about leaving
her child there, “It made me feel terrible.” Likewise, Olivia stated she knew she had to be away
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 76
from her daughter for long periods because of her hours at work and school. She mentioned,
“Sometimes, I feel really guilty, and it makes me really depressed.”
Overall, respondents reported feelings of guilt, anxiety, frustration, and remorse
associated with balancing motherhood and their academic responsibilities. Most of the time, they
mentioned, these feelings gave way to stress. The positive deviants in this study experienced
increased levels of stress because of the emotional, and mental demands of mothering, working,
and attending school. Additionally, Andrea experienced “a lot of family stress” in addition to
school and work. She also suffered stress from parenting, her personal relationship, school and
her job. At times, she said, it was very challenging to overcome stress because she felt it was too
much to handle.
Like Andrea, Isabel admitted to being very stressed out and overwhelmed. She stated she
sometimes felt she could not do it all:
I felt like a walking zombie. I really was lacking on sleep. Things got hard, classes got
hard, and then trying to spend time with my kid got ever harder. .. I wasn’t really able to
balance it out as well as I thought I would.
Isabel experienced stress from the fear she felt when travelling on the train at midnight as she
made her way home from work. She declared that the ride was frightening, “Public
transportation adds to my stress.” In addition to transportation, she also worries about her legal
status in this country. Since she does not have residency status in the United States, she has no
guarantee that, even if she does eventually earn a medical doctorate degree, she will be able to
practice medicine. Isabel stated she constantly found herself questioning whether she “is doing
this for a reason, or doing this for nothing.”
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In terms of consequences on their physical health, the positive deviants in this study
experienced numerous challenges. One area they critically neglected was caring for their
personal health. They stated that, in their efforts to take care of their baby, education, and job,
they forgot to eat right, neglected to take care of their nutrition and even became sick as a result.
Isabel admitted that she did not always get a chance to eat breakfast. In addition to malnutrition,
she realized that she was not getting enough sleep, “I guess I got sick because I was stressing, I
wasn’t eating right, and I wasn’t sleeping.” Mariela stated that, during her most difficult
academic quarter, she did not have time to eat because she was always in a hurry or already late:
I didn’t even take care of myself. No eating, not anything at all. It really affected my
health badly. I was like that for 3 months - for a quarter…every single day. It was really a
struggle…It has all of these effects on you. I was tired, cranky, and worst of all, I had no
energy to do anything.
Positive deviants neglected to take care for themselves at times because they focused on their
numerous responsibilities. As a result, they did not always maintain high levels of energy, had
difficulty remembering things, were often deprived of sleep and were tired, and became ill often.
Their physical and emotional health was compromised by all their challenges and
responsibilities.
Summary
Data analysis revealed that the positive deviant Latina teenage mothers who participated
in this study faced a myriad of challenges that could have very well prevented them from
attaining a postsecondary education: a lack of supports, time management difficulties, financial
challenges, and emotional and physical health challenges. Positive deviants struggled with
meeting the demand of motherhood, school, work, personal care, and everything else. When
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 78
these support systems were missing, they presented additional challenges for the young mother.
In addition to a lack of support, young mothers struggled with balancing time for work, school,
and personal responsibilities. Young mothers also identified financial challenges as an area of
concern. The challenges led to feeling guilt and stress, adding to the challenges of obtaining a
post-secondary degree.
Strategies and Behaviors Used by Positive Deviant Latina Teenage Mothers
The positive deviants that participated in this study exhibited various behaviors and used a
myriad of strategies that contributed to their academic success. The young mothers in this study
were able to attain a postsecondary education because they were able to mitigate the challenges
and take advantage of support systems they had access to, paid particular attention to their
academic success, and were able to advocate for themselves when necessary. In particular, they
employed support systems, an academic focus and self-advocacy. Figure 6 provides a graphic
overview of the aforementioned strategies.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 79
Figure 6. Strategies used by positive deviant Latina teenage mothers.
Support Systems
The positive deviants employed specific support systems that assisted their academic
progress. These support systems were supportive relationships with family members and other
essential persons, taking advantage of childcare opportunities, taking advantage of program and
university support systems, and establishing positive peer networks.
Supportive Relationships. All of the positive deviants who participated in this study
established supportive relationships with essential persons they respected and trusted. Through
these relationships, the positive deviants found they had a reliable person they could count on for
advice and support. Support came either from their mother, husband or baby’s father, in-laws,
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 80
and other family members or friends. Andrea presented what she believes are a few key points in
supporting a young mother in college:
I think that the teenage mothers who are successful, they had childcare, and they had
family support. They didn’t have any relationship issues. Relationship issues make it
even harder to parent, mother, and go to school. They have to be in a really supportive
relationship. I think just the intention and the commitment to wanting to finish.
Jasmin attributes her success to five main people: herself, her mother, her baby’s father,
and his parents. She stated these supportive people were willing to jump in and help. Jasmin’s
mother, however, was the most supportive person and she always accepted any support that was
offered. Jasmin stated that, as soon as her mother learned of the pregnancy, she focused on what
would be best for her daughter:
I think…she was so afraid that I was just going to quit...that he was going to walk away,
that I was going lose this opportunity for a better life and, when I finally just said, “This
is what it is. I’m going to have this baby,” she said, “Okay, that’s fine. You’ve got what
you want, let’s see how we’re going to do it.” She never wavered at her support. I think
she just wanted what was best for us.
Jasmin’s mother begged her daughter to stay home and not to get married because she would
have to deal with being a wife on top of being a mom and a student. She was very determined
that Jasmin finish college, and Jasmin stated she accepted and appreciated her physical and
mental support,
She’s an inspiration, a complete and total inspiration. She’s my hero. She always pushed
me. Not like in a negative way, it was always very positive, it was always just like, “I
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 81
want something better for you, what can I do to help you get there?” She never demanded
anything in return.
In addition to her mother, Jasmin’s entire family was involved in caring for the child,
My poor little baby! He was constantly with some family member! It was always like his
father, his grandparents, and my mom. Somebody was always transporting him or had
him. I could always count on them. It really was a village. They say it takes a village to
raise a child, and that’s what it was with him.
Jasmin acknowledges that her academic success and that of her child is because of her strong
support system, “I think that, without them, it wouldn’t have turned out the same way. She
credited her support system for her feeling able to reach her academic goals.
Like Jasmin, Jennifer also reported that she has a strong support group. Specifically, she
found support from two key individuals: her stepfather and daughter’s grandmother. She stated
her motivation, inspiration, and support comes from her stepfather:
He’s the one that motivates me all the time, like, he actually tells me “Stay in school.
Stay in school even though you have a job. Just because you have money, don’t let that
influence you to drop out of college.” He’s always telling me that. He’s actually the one
who pays our rent, and, because of him, I don’t have to.
In addition to encouraging and motivating her, Jennifer’s mentioned her stepfather is supportive
because he prioritizes school completion and reminds her that school is her priority.
Jennifer’s second most important person is the paternal grandmother. She provides food,
love, care, and attention for her daughter while she is away at school or work. Jennifer stated that
she “has peace of mind” when she leaves her daughter with her grandmother because she knows
the child is safe and well cared for. This allows Jennifer to attend her classes, focus on
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completing assignments, and take care of her responsibilities because her daughter is always
taken care of.
Like Jennifer and Jasmin, Isabel also depended on a network of people to support her
goals. Isabel’s support came from a variety of individuals: her husband, her in-laws, her teenage
sister-in-law, her own parents, and her employer. About her in-laws, she mentioned, “Since I
first got pregnant, my husband’s parents were always very supportive. They also didn’t want me
to drop out of college or stop going. They’ve always been there for us, financially and
emotionally.” About her husband, she stated that, whenever she has a problem, she talks to him
because he is always there to listen, “He just hugs me and I cry in his arms. Afterwards, I’m
feeling pretty good again. I just let it all out.” Isabel also communicates with her employer and
established a supportive relationship with her boss and co-workers:
At my work, I have a lot of people who are friendly with me and they always tell me to
keep going. When they see me at work and they see that I’m stressed out, they try to
make me happy, help me feel relaxed. If I need anything, they are always there for me. At
work, they help me out by letting me talk it out.
Isabel built supportive relationships and opened areas of communication with critical people in
her life. She stated she believes this fostered her academic success in college.
Like Isabel, Mariela attributes her success in college to her parents and her husband.
Although she still works, she admitted that her husband pays for many of the bills, thus
alleviating some of her financial stress. Mariela’s father always pushed her to go to college and
believed in her. He is her greatest motivation and inspired her to graduate from college:
Definitely, my dad. He was the first person to push me to go to college. He told me,
“You’re going to go to college whether you want it or not.” I really did want to go to
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 83
college. I want to go on to get my Ph.D. as well. It can be a challenging- working, paying
for school, and paying other stuff, but because of him, I have been able to continue going
to school until now. It’s still because of him because he told me, “You’re going to finish
if you continue,” and that’s what I’ve been doing.
Mariela stated that, although her late father inspired her and pushed her to pursue a college
degree, her mother also influenced her by telling her about the world and education, “My mother
ignited a desire in me to make a positive change and do something better with her life.” An
additional support provider for Mariela is her husband. She said that, aside from paying bills, he
provides her with unconditional support by offering love, advice, encouragement, and childcare.
Olivia’s support system is also made up of those around her: her mother, aunt and
cousins:
I have my mom’s support. She has always told me that whatever it is for school, she will
always to be here for me. They give me full support, so every time I want to drop out, I
talk to them, I tell them I can’t do it no more, and they always give me strength to keep
on going. I think, for Latinas, families are everything. You actually go to your family for
everything. In the Latin culture, you take your family into consideration for everything
you do.
Olivia stated she is aware that she can count on her mother, her aunt, and her cousin for support
when she is overwhelmed with all her responsibilities. She said she receives full support from
her family and attributes her success to her network of family members.
Unlike the previous participants, Andrea’s support primarily came from one very
important individual: her grandmother:
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 84
She was always my number one supporter. She never thought like, “Oh, you have to stop
school.” She always encouraged me... she probably barely finished high school. To her,
she just knew, like, I could do this, I can do that, you know. I think it speaks to Chicano
and Latina cultures…your emphasis is home and family. You take care of people. I think
it just comes down to having a strong support system.
Each young mother established a relationship with essential persons, which helped them
focus on their academic goals and make progress towards their degree requirements. Strong
support systems resulted in behavioral steps and strategies that helped them attain a
postsecondary education.
Child Care. All six positive deviants participating in this study reported they had reliable
childcare or a babysitter who cared for their children when they went to school and work. They
also reported they either did not have to pay for services or paid a discounted rate and trusted
their child was well cared for. In Jasmin’s case, her mother even decided to leave her long-term
job in order work at a childcare center so that Jasmin could get a discounted rate and her
grandson could attend the center. As a result, Jasmin “never felt pressured to drop out.” In
addition, she mentioned that, even after they separated, her baby’s father continued to support
her, “I never had to tell his father, “Okay I need to do this, so you need to spend more time with
him or you need to take more responsibility.’ He was always supportive.” Jasmin recognized that
she had a great support system from both sides of the baby’s family; thus, she found dropping
out was never an option.
When asked to identify her source of childcare, Jennifer mentioned her daughter’s
babysitter:
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She’s very supportive because she’s always taking care of my daughter. Ever since my
daughter was a month, even from when I was in high school, she would take care of her.
No matter the time that I had to stay afterschool and study.
During high school, Jennifer participated in a program called Crystal Stairs, which paid for
childcare as long as she was enrolled in school. Until one year prior to this study, the child’s
babysitter, or paternal grandmother, was paid through the program. Fortunately, when her
participation ended, her grandmother continued to provide unconditional childcare for Jennifer’s
daughter at no cost. Jennifer mentioned, “that’s actually one of the reasons that I’m staying in
school, because of the support system that I have.”
Although Andrea did not have a family support system, she took advantage of the
childcare center at the university. She said did not worry about leaving her child alone because
her sister worked at the center and her nephew went there as well. Her daughter attended the
childcare center until she entered kindergarten. Andrea said she was confident her daughter was
well cared for and knew she had a reliable source of child care. At one point, Andrea even
worked there as a student for one of her internships:
I could be there when my daughter was there. It was really nice, and then my cousin
worked there, and there’s always someone there to connect with. It was an amazing
school. They were very focused on non-violent, kind messages. It was just amazing. You
could even drop them off, and they would give you after a few hours of study time, and it
was free, like based on your income.
Isabel stated she feels fortunate that her mother-in-law and sister-in-law help her out by
caring for her son in her absence:
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They feed him, bathe him, play with him, and protect him. Every time I need a little time
for myself to do homework or whatnot, they are always there to help me out. That saves
me some money, too. I’m not saying that you can’t do it alone but it’s always nice to
have somebody there to help you out.
Mariela identified her mother as her primary childcare provider, “When I come from
school late at night, she helps me out. She says, ‘Here, I’ll put him to sleep…. finish your
homework.’ Or she lets me do something I need to do.” Mariela said the support she receives
from her mother allows her to continue going to school, “If I don’t have anyone, I can’t really go
to school. That’s one of the things that they really help me out a lot.”
Olivia attributes her success to all the support she receives from several family members
including her mother, aunt, sisters, and cousins. She stated, “they babysit and entertain my
daughter while I go to work and school.” For example, her cousin knows that she does not get
much sleep because of her busy work and school schedules. To help, her cousin sometimes
offers to watch her child so Olivia can have a moment to take care of herself:
That’s where my cousin comes in and she’s like, “You can take a nap, I’ll watch the
baby” or anything like that. My aunt is more like, “Go relax yourself.” I have full
support. Even my mom and aunt are like, “You can go and have a little fun.” It’s like I
have full support for everything. I can count on then, I can rely on them.”
Programs and University Support. All six Latina teenage mothers reported they either
participated in one or more programs or received some type of university support. These
programs served to provide structure, support and networking opportunities. Two of the
participants did not receive assistance from a program, but, at the time of this study, worked for
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 87
programs that provide teen mothers with information and access to resources to support their
academic success.
In a previous section, Jasmin described that it takes a village to raise a child. According
to her experience, support does not necessarily have to come from family:
I do know other girls through my work…so a lot of the teens, the pregnant teens,
parenting teens that have gone through the programs have come back and work for those
programs. They’ve gone on to college and are successful. They were part of those teen
programs, so maybe they didn’t have support from their families or their baby’s dads, but
what you have was another type of village there to help. They got together with other
teen moms or they went through some sort…of support parenting programs where there
was some person that …inspired them or didn’t give up on them or encouraged them.
Jennifer stated she can relate to using external support programs and said she took
advantage of every opportunity she encountered. Since she was in high school, she looked for
opportunities and scholarships. That is how she discovered the program, Crystal Stairs, and
learned that she qualified for full child-care financial assistance. She also joined a teen parent
support program, El Nido Program. She said she really liked that program and claims that
because of them, she “got a three year scholarship…I saw it as opportunity and I said, ‘Great.
I’m going to get paid to go to high school’ so I jumped on it.” The program offered to pay
Jennifer $500 if her grade point average remained a 3.0 or higher, which it did.
In addition to the aforementioned programs, Jennifer was also a member of the
Educational Opportunity Program at the university she attended. The program required her to
join another program called Students in Learning Communities, which was a study group. The
experience taught her the value of a learning community and, “From there, I think, was the
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 88
reason why I feel like it’s really important to have study partners and to have study groups.”
Through EOP, Jennifer became involved with another club, called EOP Student Council and
eventually, she became involved in the Parenting Council as well. She was very active in both
groups and eventually became the leader of the club:
It was just a support group for mothers and parents in general I was actually the president
of that club. Actually, we started it, because we knew that there was no other club that
was actually meant for parents, mothers or even fathers.
She stated the group was structured so that “parents could be there and talk, request
support, ask for advice, and know that they are not alone.” The group also provided access to
resources such as guest speakers who discussed self-defense, health or nutrition, and other
important topics. From that group, “two of the participating mothers have already graduated with
their bachelor’s degrees and are currently working towards their master’s degrees.” Jessica said
she feels proud to be a part of the support program.
Although they did not participate in programs, Isabel, Andrea, Mariela and Olivia relied
on university supports and reported they took advantage of every opportunity they had to visit
their counselor. Counselors helped them plan their schedule, identified required courses, and
provided advice on progress toward graduation. Specifically, Olivia regularly visits the sociology
department to review the road map for the six-year graduation plan, “I just go by, look at the
classes I need. I also check my online account because it tells you what classes you’re missing,
what classes you passed. It’s pretty easy and it keeps me informed of my progress.” Mariela
made appointments with her counselor and requested advisement prior to registering for any
courses. She relied on her counselor for everything. Even when she was told she could not
participate in the commencement ceremony because of a missing class, “the counselor really
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 89
helped me out because she even wrote a letter of recommendation in order for me to graduate
and participate in the ceremony this year.”
Positive deviants relied on programs and university support in order to make progress
towards graduation.
Positive peer networks. Establishing positive peer networks was an essential step in the
academic success of this study’s positive deviants. Upon graduating high school, Andrea realized
that:
All of the friends that I hung out with were all going to go to college. It just was what it
was. We were all going to college, so we would all be together. I remember going to the
college center and looking through stuff or asking my friends, ‘How do you fill this out?”
or “have you guys done this yet?” and kind of working together to do that. They were
always on it, like, “okay this is when your AP exams are, this is when the SAT is” or
whatever. We supported each other like that.
When Andrea enrolled in college, her experience was very similar, “I had some really, awesome
friends in college who just were super-supportive. They didn’t have kids but were just really
supportive.” Even while working on her master’s degree, Andrea said she took advantage of any
opportunity to access her peer networks for support:
I always had people reviewing my papers, though. Whether it was the English teachers I
worked with back then, or my husband now. He used to read some of my work when I
was in my last year of grad school. I always got feedback. Just being able to get feedback,
you know… I wouldn’t miss class. I’d just show up no matter what.
Like Andrea, Jennifer also valued her supportive peer networks. She knew that she
learned best when she worked with study partners. She described how met with a group of
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classmates to study and review material covered in class. She made friends with a classmate who
shared the very expensive textbook he purchased for class. In addition to study groups, Jennifer
found that communication with her peers and her supervisor at work was critical factor in her
success:
Communication with my classmates, communication with my manager. I would always
let them know what was going on. Like for work, I always notified them if I was going to
be late. Or, if I’m late to class, my strategies are to find a study-partner and ask them
what I missed.
By using study groups, Jennifer was able to hold herself accountable and invest the
necessary time to study. She also reported that she has one friend in particular who she can
always count on:
She’s my best friend that I met in college. She’s actually one of my support people. She’s
really my support system because we always share things. She buys me food, and I buy
her food. I’m always with her whenever I want to cry it out or I want to tell somebody my
situation. She’s always there for me.
She stated her friend provides her with moral and emotional support in addition to academic
support. She describes her as a very understanding and supportive person.
Isabel’s experience was slightly different than that of Andrea and Jennifer. She realized
that most her professor’s office hours were scheduled during her work hours. For this reason, she
could never stay to ask for help and relied on friends and classmates for support, “I talk to them
and I ask them if they understood it. If they did, I ask them if they could explain it to me a little
bit better. That helps me out too.” Isabel said she and her friends also got together and searched
the internet for scholarships or other forms of financial assistance:
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You just have to learn how to find it. Having communication with them about the
scholarships is important to me because they may find something that I didn’t know
about and vice versa. If find something, I tell them about it. We help each other out. We
have built a little community between the three of us and are able to support each other.
Like Isabel, Mariela and Olivia both established relationships with friends who are like-
minded and seek to accomplish the same goals. For instance, Mariela made friends with a
classmate who also a criminal justice major, “We try to help each other out. It’s important to
have friends and acquaintance who have the same mentality.” Similarly, Olivia reported that her
peers are great form of support, “I guess that’s another reason why I keep on doing what I’m
doing because I could count on them on anything.”
Academic Focus
All of the Latina teenage mothers who participated in this study utilized particular
strategies that allowed them to maintain academic focus. These strategies were setting aside time
to study and complete homework assignments, staying organized, visiting the college and career
center and the financial aid office.
Study Time and Completing Homework. In order to succeed in college, Latina teenage
mothers were required to set aside time to study and complete their assignments on a regular
basis in order to master course objectives pass their classes. For example, Jasmin took advantage
of every opportunity her baby’s father offered to help:
It takes so much time to write papers and study and all of that, and he was very
supportive with that. He would watch him or take him out or do whatever he needed to
get done so that I could get my schoolwork done. I do remember being up very late at
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night studying, finishing papers, and doing homework. When I look back, I don’t know
how I did it! I guess it’s what comes with youth and support.
Jennifer, on the other hand, found study partners, and it forced her to keep appointments and
meet at school to study and do homework. She said she made friends or identified peers who
would hold her accountable. She also made sure to keep every appointment:
I always went to office hours. I also looked for classmates. I’m not shy to ask a person to
ask, “Do, you think you could be my study partner?” I also find a place to study, and
assign a day to do work. One of my days is Mondays, and I study in the afternoon. I am
persistent and keep my appointments to always be there to study and do my homework,
even if I have to take my daughter with me. That actually is a good strategy for me to
ensure that I take care of business.
By designating a day and time to study, Jennifer allowed herself to complete her
homework and keep up with her coursework. Even though her schedule changed at the beginning
of the semester, she said she made sure to arrange study sessions with her peers and designated a
time to study and complete assignments to ensure she passed her classes. Scheduling time to
study and complete homework allowed Jennifer to spend necessary time and energy on her
coursework. She never missed an opportunity to excel in her education.
Andrea used a different system to ensure that she could study and review material. She
identified one of her most useful strategies as the use of flashcards, “that was like a strategy I
used because I could do those anywhere. For example, if there was a family party, I could study
my cards.” Andrea took advantage of every opportunity and would even isolate herself to
continue studying her cards, “I never really had a lot of time so I always did whenever I could.”
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Like Andrea, Isabel also used every opportunity to study. Isabel realized that she could
set time aside so that she could study at home. Isabel said, “My family, like my sister-in-law, my
mother-in-law, they help me. They watch him and it helps me out so I can study.” She said they
provide her the opportunity to attend professors’ office hours and ask for help at school. She said
she would stay on campus approximately two times week. Occasionally, Isabel even took her
books with her to work invested time during her breaks and lunch to read and catch up class
material.
Mariela admitted that she is still trying to figure out the best time to do homework.
Although she struggles with balancing time for work, class, and homework, she said she learned
to stay up, even until four in the morning, doing homework. Either that, or until her son falls
asleep, “that’s the best time I can study and do all that stuff.”
Staying Organized. All of this study’s positive deviants believed that staying organized
with time and responsibilities was critical to their academic success. In addition to staying
organized, they stated they had a backup plan in case things did not go as planned. Jasmin
specifically attributed her success to staying organized. With her goal in mind, she strategically
planned what needed to happen:
I’ve always been super organized. I’m like, “okay, this is the big picture, this is the goal.
Let me figure out what I need to do to get there.” I’m very much a list person, and I
identified the things that needed to happen in order for me to get there. I was very
strategic about the classes I took and the timing of them. I graduated with the required
number of credits I needed. I didn’t go over! It was very calculated and very like, “what
do I need to do to get out of here, to get my degree and just move on and take the next
steps?” There was a lot of organization and just thought behind it.
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Staying organized allowed Jasmine to plan her classes accordingly. She checked the schedule of
classes and registered early to prevent classes from filling up, and scheduled her classes on the
same day, “I remember I would try to schedule all my classes Monday, Wednesday so that I
could just be in school all day and then have Tuesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday, and Sunday
to do homework, or work.” She lived with her mother, and felt lucky that her mother picked up
her child and took care of the dinner. This allowed her to spend time with her son and take care
of his needs.
Like Jasmin, Jennifer learned to manage her time to ensure success. Since she could
count on a babysitter, this allowed her time to get organized and plan study sessions to take care
of her responsibilities in advance. One of her strategies was to use a calendar to help her stay on
task:
I keep a calendar to set a time limit of what I have to do. I try to go by my schedule, and,
if I don’t, I’m like, “Ah, darn it! I forgot to do this.” Let’s say I’m off the schedule that I
want to be, I set up to another time. I revise my schedule to make sure I plan out time for
everything I need to do. If not, I’m afraid I won’t get to it.
In addition to a calendar, Jennifer uses a phone app, Siri, to help remind her of tasks she
needs to have done for the day, “I sometimes have to set an alarm on whatever time I have to do,
because, sometimes, I forget. I am really horrible at remembering. Sometimes I forget things.”
Managing her time helped Jennifer accomplish her tasks. Staying organized allowed her to plan
out when to study and when to go to work:
I know how to separate my work from school. I know when I’m supposed to have fun,
when I’m not supposed to have fun. Instead of fun, it’s like suffering. I call it suffering,
studying. It’s suffering, but at the same time, it’s more rewarding afterwards. Because it’s
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just ten weeks, we have to keep on track of our education. When it’s just 10 weeks on a
quarter system so we have to stay on top of school or else you’ll fall behind really
quickly. ”
In order to make progress and avoid falling behind, Jennifer asked her sister to become
either her study partner or babysitter so that she could stay focused and accomplish her goals for
the day. She also referred to her sister as her backup plan in case something did not work out, “If
I can’t make an appointment, I can always ask my sister to watch my kid. I don’t let myself have
an excuse.”. Andrea learned early on in college that she needed to stay organized to be
successful. She identified some things she needed to do in order to thrive, “Being able to have
discipline. I knew how to write a five-paragraph essay and I used a journal. Those kind of basic
things that I feel like some students don’t even have.” These strategies in addition to organization
allowed Andrea to use every available moment to study. Other days, when she had a tight
schedule, she was very strategic about her time. After earning her bachelor’s degree, she recalled
how she had to do it again for her Master’s. However, “It was only for three years for my
master’s degree, so it was not bad. But, yeah, you still, you’ll feel it.” Since she shared custody
with her daughter’s father, there were days when she did not have to stay with her. Andrea said
she took advantage of those days and scheduled time to stay on campus to study.
Isabel also utilized organizational strategies to keep herself focused and on task. She
reported that she would set small goals for herself in order to accomplish what she was supposed
in a given day, “I’ll create a little schedule ahead, like from this time to this time you have to be
at this bus stop, and from this time to this time you have to finish this. It just helps me be more
organized.” Isabel said she keeps track of time and makes mental notes for herself as well. By
setting small goals, she is able to maximize her time, “I always keep an eye on the clock.” In
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addition, she said she also has a backup plan, plan B, and plan C in case things do not turn out as
planned. From previous experiences, she learned that anything can happen, and she needed to be
prepared with backup plan just in case:
Because there were a couple of times I arrived a little bit late at school, and so I had to
stay after, then, when I left, I missed the bus, and I realized I was going to be late for
work, too. The point is that I got in trouble at work. I told myself I couldn’t keep doing
that because I needed the job. That’s why I made a plan B.
By managing her time, Isabel learned that she could stay organized and get from one location to
the next on time without compromising her other responsibilities.
Like Isabel, time management and staying organized were two of Mariela’s greatest
strategies to ensure success. She admitted that it helped her stay up late to write essays, study, or
do homework. Between school and work, Mariela only had an hour to get ready and go to work.
Although she felt overwhelmed, chunking tasks helped her stay organized in order to fulfill her
responsibilities, “I have one hour to do everything. I don’t know how I do it, but I try to do
everything I can.” Like the positive deviants previously described, Mariela also has a backup
plan when it comes to childcare. In case her mother is not able watch her son that day, she has
established a relationship with her husband’s aunt to care for her child, “that’s one of most
important things in order for mother’s to attend college. You must have a babysitter and a
backup. His aunt is like an alternative, my plan B.” In addition to having a backup plan, Mariela
also uses strategies such as writing notes to herself to help her remember all she has to do. She
also keeps a calendar to remember and fulfill her responsibilities.
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Like Mariela, Olivia organizes her priorities in order to accomplish as much as possible
in a given time. She stated this allowed her to create and maintain a schedule that facilitates her
success:
My work schedule is, basically, always the same. I set days aside to do things. Like,
Friday I do laundry, Tuesday I go to the market, and Saturdays I always come out at noon
so I rest a little a bit and take her anywhere. Let’s say Chuck E Cheese, the park, or go
buy something for her or anything that I need for the house. Other than that, Sunday and
Wednesdays after work are my homework and study days.
Olivia’s daily routine include:
School, work, home, doing homework, reading, showering my baby, playing with her,
and sleeping. If it’s my day off and I don’t go to work, then I just continue with my
schedule, cook, or whatever it is I have to do. That’s the schedule I follow. If I fall behind
on laundry day, I have to do it within two or three days so everything has to be back on
schedule...you have to do it, I know I have to do it.
Staying organized with time and creating a backup plan ensured that positive deviants remained
goal oriented regardless of any obstacles or challenges they encountered that day.
Visiting the College and Career Center and Financial Aid Office. In the previous
section, all positive deviants reported that one of their greatest challenges was paying for college.
Five of the positive deviants in this study were first generation college students, and they relied
on information from other sources to ensure they were making progress towards graduation.
Since all six participants attended a college preparation high school, they felt somewhat
supported by school staff throughout their college application process. Once enrolled in college,
positive deviants continued support-seeking behaviors by visiting the college and career center
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whenever they needed additional information. Positive deviants also visited the financial aid
office to ensure that they received any available resources to afford for school.
Olivia said that, at first, she was not planning on going to college, “I was actually
planning on going to cosmetology school.” As she was considering college, the first step she
took was visiting the campus, checking out what they offered, including support systems and
activities, “I actually liked it, especially because it was in the L.A. area, and I didn’t want to live
far away from here.” After that, she took the necessary steps to ensure she was admitted, she
attended orientation, and visited her college counselor, financial aid office, and other support
departments on campus.
All of the positive deviants reported their high school provided them with basic
information to get into college, and friends informed them of financial opportunities to pay for it.
Jasmin relied on Cal Grants and, “filled out the FAFSA each year, which I knew that I needed to
do. That’s where most of my money came from.” As a result, Jasmin spent a significant amount
of time in the financial aid office when she had a question or concern about paying for college.
Like Jasmin, Isabel also identified the financial aid office and its employees as a system of
support:
One of the other strategies I use is visiting the financial aid office. That’s actually one of
the reasons I’m staying in school, too, because I’m trying to take advantage that I actually
receive financial aid and a scholarship too. I know there’s help out there, but I don’t
always know what’s available so I always ask. There is never a problem with just seeking
the help.
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Isabel consistently filled out the FAFSA on time to ensure she received financial aid. She also
visited the financial aid office and the college center consistently. This ensured that she was
optimizing all her available resources.
Like Isabel and Jasmine, Jennifer stated she really valued how she could walk into the
support offices on campus and request help whenever she needed it. Similarly, Andrea
remembered that it was always important to “talk to the people who are on those letters you
receive and make connections at the universities.” She mentioned:
They make sure you’re successful. It’s like, you’re doing it on your own, so you to have
get more support. You have to advocate for yourself by making appointments with
offices, your professors, taking advantage of office hours with your professors.
An additional strategy positive deviants used was to visit campus offices that provided
support in order to stay on track to graduate. For instance, when Mariela was close to graduating,
she went to the counseling offices and requested an appointment to see her counselor:
She looked at my grades and my units. I’ve been taking 4 classes every quarter. My
previous counselor told me, “If you want to graduate in 2015, this is what you need to
do.” I did every single step they wanted me to do in order for me to graduate.
By making sure to visit the college and career center in addition to the financial aid
office, young mothers were able to request additional support. This helped them remain
purposeful in scheduling their classes and paying for school. They ensured they were making
progress towards their goal- college graduation.
Self-Advocacy
The positive deviants who participated in this study were able to overcome some their
financial, emotional, and academic roadblocks by advocating for themselves. Self-advocacy
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came in the form seeking help and self-awareness resources and of being goal oriented and
exhibiting drive, motivation, and resiliency. Young mothers were able to speak up for
themselves, made decisions about their lives, were able to get information about things they did
not understand, and were able to find support in those areas.
Seeking Help and Self-Awareness Resources. The positive deviants who participated in
this study realized they needed to seek help in order to succeed in obtaining a post-secondary
education. Jasmin discovered early on the many resources available to students from low-income
families. She said she never had to worry about paying for school because she completed the
Free Application for Federal Student Assistance, FAFSA, every year and received Cal Grants
and scholarships for the first four years that she never had to pay back. The financial aspect of
school was taken care of, and it was one less item to worry about as a teen mother. Since one
expectation was that she maintained her grade point average above average to maintain her
financial aid, in order to stay focused on her goal, Jasmin purposefully scheduled time during the
week to attend tutoring sessions or the professor’s office hours. She stated:
Going to college in and of itself, is a challenge, it’s hard, you know. If you’ve got the
added responsibility of having a child so I think moms should take whatever help you can
get. There’s resources on campus for parenting students and I think people don’t even
realize they’re there. You have to look for them. It takes time too, but it is so worth it.
She recalled that, for her, a nurse in the clinic that she attended was also a counselor that advised
her during her pregnancy. She admits she would visit the counseling nurse whenever she needed
support with medical or emotional issues. Jasmin was aware of resources available to her and she
just needed to look for them and access them.
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Like Jennifer, Andrea said knew she needed to advocate for herself in order to be
successful in college. Seeking help when she needed support was the greatest strategy she
identified, and she said she did not allow her mental health to deter her from her goal:
I feel like just having access to mental health support. When I look back, I just think of
how much crisis and how much is going on… “All those family stressors, life stressors
that I mentioned… for me, the strength was that my family always believed in therapy
and always believed in counseling. It was never a stigma.
Andrea advocated for herself by looking for therapy and counseling. She stated one of the
greatest lessons she learned was to stand up for what is right, and speak up when something is
unfair. Recalling the instance when her professor concluded that her assignment was late because
she was a teen mother, she mentioned her father recommended she speak with someone at the
university. She informed the sociology chair, and, eventually, the professor apologized and
accepted her paper. Andrea said this experience taught her how to advocate for herself:
I mean, maybe it comes with just being so humble, like you just feel so grateful being
there that you don’t want to rock in the boat. But, at the same time, you can’t forget that
you have rights, you are entitled to supports. So, especially as a teen mother, I can see
how that could be very intimidating. But I didn’t drown in my sorrow. I talked to people.
I felt what she did was wrong, and with encouragement from my dad, I did bring it to her
attention.
Knowing she could access university and family support in addition to therapy whenever she
needed it, gave Andrea confidence and a peace of mind in knowing there was always help. She
just needed to advocate for herself.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 102
Isabel also advocated for herself by looking for resources to help her overcome her
financial challenges. She said she went to her MediCal and WIC appointments to get food and
medical coverage for her son. Knowing her son was covered, she said, allowed her to focus on
researching what her school offered, such as where she could access financial aid opportunities,
and where she could acquire counseling and other support the university provided, “There’s
always that one person who’s going to help you. It could either be a professor, a counselor, a
friend, or staff member. The help is out there. You just have to find it.”
During her second to last quarter at school, Mariela checked in with a counselor to
determine her graduation progress. When her counselor told her that she still needed about
another year of course work, she said became frustrated and almost gave up. After processing
that information, she was determined to look for a second opinion. She made several phone calls
to different counselors and offices and eventually called the dean’s office by mistake. She said
this turned out to be the greatest mistake she ever made. She explained her situation and
requested to speak with someone who could help her. To her surprise, the dean offered full
support and met with her to determine her actual graduation progress. As it turned out, her
counselor made a mistake and did not count units she transferred from courses she completed at
a community college, “
She really helped me out and even wrote a letter of recommendation so that I could
graduate and participate in the ceremony. I was going to get my degree at the end, but
attending the ceremony was the whole point. I’m so glad that I started making random
phone calls that day. If not, I wouldn’t have participated in the ceremony. I knew
someone had to help me…..I just needed to find them.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 103
Mariela advocated for herself and looked for advisement and support when she needed it most,
“Sometimes you get the information you want, and sometimes don’t get it. You have to find
another person to help you out with that. College is finding your own self. Finding your own
way, your career.” Mothers expressed having an attitude of not giving up. They were resilient
and pushed through the challenges to ensure their outcome was achieved.
As a single mother, Olivia said she looked for support in school, work and parenting. In
order to determine progress in school, Olivia advocated for herself by using her online account to
obtain information about the classes she needed and course requirements she satisfied. In
addition, Olivia said she visited the sociology department on a regular basis to verify she was
taking the necessary classes to graduate. Regarding work, she reported it was very exhausting
and overwhelming at times, leaving her feeling guilty, stressed out and even depressed. The
strategy she used in order to deal with her emotions was to speak up with family and her boss.
She exhibited self advocacy by requesting a few days off to spend quality time with her daughter
at the park or the beach, “Seeing her smile, spending time with her, and buying her things help
remind me that sacrifice is worth it.”
Like Olivia, all six of the positive deviants in this study advocated for themselves by
speaking up and actively looked for resources to help them access financial support, mental
health, and academic advisement. By advocating for themselves and looking for help and
resources, all said they were able to make progress towards their post-secondary degrees.
Goal Orientation. All of the positive deviants in this study exhibited goal oriented
behaviors and academic drive. This goal orientation was motivated by both internal and external
factors. Internally, some of the positive deviants were driven to provide a better life for their
child and themselves. Externally, all of the positive deviants felt a sense of responsibility to their
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 104
child by setting an example of what was expected for them in their future. Positive deviants
exhibited academic drive because they were focused on academic achievement, persisted against
all odds, and maintained focus on their educational outcome.
For instance, Jasmine stated she always knew that the only way that she could provide
her son with a better future was with a college education. She said she aimed to thrive and
always told herself, “Okay, we’ll we need to get through this because this is what’s going to give
my kid a better life.” She knew she would have to give up many things if she wanted to get
through school:
I would never have the typical college life. I knew there was not going to be the
weekends in TJ and the partying. I had priorities. I knew that and, as much as it sucked
and it hurt because I was watching my friends have a good time, I just knew that it was
one or the other. What did I want more?” I wanted to succeed. Nothing else mattered
other than my son.
Jasmin never allowed herself to feel like quitting. She did not remember at any point feeling like
she couldn’t go on. She recalled there were times when she was stressed and overwhelmed, but
she knew she had to get through it. She never took a quarter off, and always went to school full
time. Most important, she recalled:
You need to have different plans. There’s the like, “How am I going to get through
today?” because that’s huge when you have a kid, just how do you even get through the
day? Then, 1-year plan, the 5-year plan and just kind of think about your goals and the
bigger picture. The smaller steps make it easier for you because it’s not
overwhelming…It was a matter of then looking back and saying, “Okay, if I want to do
this, what do I need to do now that’s going to get me there?” and I did.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 105
Andrea admitted that graduating college with a bachelor’s degree and a master’s degree
was challenging but not impossible. She was happy to finally, “be in the position where I see
myself being in for a long time. I always envisioned and planned everything because and I knew
that I was meant to do something important.” The thought of a successful future motivated her.
Even when she felt like dropping out, she said she knew it was never an option. She always
reminded herself that “C’s get degrees.”
Jennifer said dropping out was never an option for her either. Like the other positive
deviants in this study, she saw her goal of an education as the key to a better life and future, “It’s
actually going to help you become better, make you become educated. Education is very
important. Without it, you basically are going to fall into poverty and will remain uneducated.”
She believed that a college degree would help her provide a better life for her daughter. Although
she was tempted to drop out when she was offered a full time position with great pay, she turned
the position down because she believed that, in the long run, her education and degree would pay
off, “It was tempting to actually drop out of college, but I decided, no, I actually have to focus on
furthering my education instead of just finding that one appealing job at the moment.” In
addition to having a better job in the future, Jennifer identified the main reason for staying in
school was her daughter, “I thought, if I actually dropped out, what would she think of me? What
example would I give her? That was my motivation for staying in school.”
Isabel hopes to one day accomplish her dream of becoming a gynecologist. Like the other
participants, she has a plan and has mentally prepared herself to acquire the career she desires.
By identifying challenges in advance, she said she is able to prepare and plan for them
accordingly. This allows her to remain goal oriented and positive. She realizes that, “there’s
always going to be obstacles and things that push you down. It’s not easy, but you have to
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 106
always get back up, keep fighting, and keep your child in mind. Keep your goals in mind and just
don’t give up.”
Mariela remained motivated to accomplish her goal and graduate from college because it
would honor her father and fulfill his dying wishes. She admitted that, “It is hard to have a child
and go to school. It will always be a struggle whether you go to college or not.” However, she
said she had to find a way to finish, “If someone really wants it, everyone has the same
opportunity. We live in the US. California is now even allowing a lot of immigrants to go to
college with financial assistance. They can even get help with financial aid and some help is
better than nothing.” Mariela stated she does get frustrated about things that take time away
from meeting her goals. In her pursuit of a postsecondary degree, she said she always advocates
for herself and her child because it’s the only way she can achieve her ultimate goal, a college
degree.
As a single mother, it was easy for Olivia to get tired and lose sight of her purpose.
However, she said she always reminded herself that her priority was school and her goal was
graduation. She admitted that she was fortunate to have her family because she could rely on
them whenever she needed time “to just refresh, and charge my batteries.” She was never afraid
or nervous about asking her family for support whenever she felt to tired to continue. In order to
stay focused on her goal, she said she took time to plan a day with her daughter, enjoy the time
she spent with her, and was constantly reminded that the purpose of school is to provide her with
a better life.
Summary
The mothers in this study were motivated and determined to prove that they can acquire a
post-secondary education. The positive deviants that participated in this study exhibited various
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 107
behaviors such as establishing supportive relationships, maintaining an academic focus, and self-
advocacy and used a myriad of strategies that contributed to their academic success. By
establishing supportive relationships, positive deviants were able to establish networks that
provided them support with child-care, access to programs and resources available, and they
established positive peer networks. By maintaining an academic focus, positive deviants passed
their classes and made progress towards graduation. Specific strategies included establishing a
time to study, staying organized, and consistently visiting the financial aid office and college
center for advise. Finally, participants always advocated for themselves and their children. Two
of the positive deviants, Jasmin and Andrea, were able to obtain a Master’s Degree in addition to
their Master’s degree, illustrating that teen mothers can make it too. Mariela summed up their
resiliency and motivation by stating, “You have to trust yourself. I think that’s the biggest lesson
that I’ve learned, knowing to depend on yourself and to believe in yourself, because you’re
stronger than you think.”
Conclusion
The positive deviants who participated in this study exhibited various challenges that
presented obstacles in their quest for a college education. Young mothers were not prepared to
handle all the challenges they experienced. Although they experienced discrimination and
stigma, were isolated from their peers, and struggled balancing parenting with school and work,
they did not give up. Positive deviants even expressed concerns over their physical and
emotional health. However, they were able to use a myriad of strategies that contributed to their
academic success. Positive deviants were able to obtain a post-secondary education because they
were able to take advantage of support systems they had access to, they paid particular attention
to success, and were able to advocate for themselves when necessary. All had supportive
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 108
systems, either from home, school, or a program, that helped them focus on their academic
progress. For example, they also had reliable child-care and were able to trust other individuals
with their child while they were in school, work, or taking care of other business. Latina teenage
mothers also supported each other by creating networks with positive peers who were going
through similar experiences, or who understood their challenges and offered to help. Positive
deviants always accepted any help. They also realized that, in order for them to succeed,
academically, they had to have an organized system for managing their time among academic,
employment, and personal responsibilities. All reported visiting visited the college and career
center, which allowed them to ensure they were proactive in attaining a postsecondary education.
The young mothers found it helpful to plan their course work and meet with advisors on a
regular basis in order to succeed academically.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 109
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE
The educational underachievement of teenage mothers in America is well documented,
yet effective solutions to this pervasive problem remain elusive and unimplemented. Young
mothers struggle socially, financially, and psychologically (Driscoll et al., 2003; Hoffman, 2006;
Smithbattle, 2006, 2007; Vexler, 2007; Zachary, 2005). This, in turn, has broader social
implications, as these young women often have to rely on social supports and government
assistance to provide for their family (Driscoll, et.al., 2003; Smithbattle, 2007). Attempts to
support teenage mothers through legislative measures, and programmatic efforts have attempted
to solve the issue, however, they are not enough to facilitate the success of young mothers (Brosh
et al., 2007; Furstenberg, 2004; Gallager, 1999).
Although a substantial body of research on teenage pregnancy and prevention exists, the
primary focus of these studies have been on the deficits of teenage mothers and on the
detrimental outcomes associated with teenage childbearing (Driscoll et al., 2003; Perper
et.al.,2010; Smithbattle, 2007). There is gap in the literature when addressing successful
strategies of positive deviant mothers who are enrolled in a post-secondary institution working
towards a post-secondary degree. This study utilized the theoretical framework of positive
deviance (Pascale, Sternin and Sternin, 2010) to address this gap in the literature and learn about
the strategies used by successful Latina teenage mothers who have attained a postsecondary
education.
Positive deviance is an asset-based approach to the inquiry process used to identify the
uncommon behaviors and strategies of particular individuals or groups who have been able to
stray from the norm and overcome the contextual roadblocks that have traditionally plagued the
community as a whole (Pascale, Sternin and Sternin, 2010). This approach is especially useful in
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 110
addressing intractable problems for which no answers have been found (Durá & Singhal, 2009,
2010; Singhal, 2010; Singhal & Dura, 2009a, 2009b; Spreitzer & Sonenshein, 2004; Walker,
Sterling, Hoke, & Dearden, 2007). By using an adapted version of the positive deviance
framework, this study addressed the following research questions:
1. What were the challenges faced by Latina teenage mothers who attained a post-
secondary education?
2. What were the behaviors and strategies of these positive deviants?
3. How did positive deviants utilize these strategies and behaviors to facilitate success?
The participants in this study consisted of six Latina teenage mothers from Los Angeles,
California. The positive deviants were selected to participate in this study in order to understand
the challenges faced by Latina teenage mothers enrolled in college and their unique behaviors
and strategies they exhibited in order to attain a postsecondary education.
Conceptual Framework Revisited
The positive deviant Latina teenage mothers that participated in this study were
confronted with several challenges including 1) lack of social supports, 2) time management
challenges, 3) financial challenges, and 4) emotional and physical health challenges. The
strategies and behaviors employed by the positive deviant Latina teenage mothers allowed them
to mitigate these challenges. These strategies include utilizing support systems, maintaining a
focus on academic success, and self-advocacy.
Although several of the challenges uncovered by this study reflect the extant literature,
there were success factors that were not identified. As previously stated, the research is deficit-
oriented and neglects to provides strategies that successful teenage mothers have used to mitigate
their challenges.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 111
In Chapter 2, school stressors such as low grades, poor academic achievement and
disillusionment, coupled with lower parental socioeconomic status and race and ethnicity, were
identified as triggers that decrease the likelihood of remaining in school (Hockaday, 2000;
Smithbattle, 2007). The literature focuses on educational attainment of teenage mothers and
emphasizes how it is an area of great concern because most will perform below their peers in
school and are more likely to drop out entirely (NCPUP, 2010; NCSL, 2015). Furthermore, the
literature revealed that Latina teenage mothers face bureaucratic barriers such as discrimination
and isolation affecting their academic and emotional needs (Driscoll et al., 2003; Hoffman, 2006;
Smithbattle, 2006, 2007; Vexler, 2007; Zachary, 2005). In addition, the literature review
revealed that most Latina teenage mothers live in areas of poverty and are academically hindered
by their overrepresentation in low performing schools, thus decreasing their access to
experienced, and credentialed teachers (Abel & Greco, 2008; Biggs et al., 2010; Denner, Kirby,
Coyle, & Brindis, 2001; Dogan-Ates & Carrion-Basham, 2007; Garcia, 2009; Gilliam, 2007;
Talashek, Norr, & Dancy, 2003). Hockaday (2000) suggested that low educational ability and
low aspirations may explain why adolescents leave school, as the students’ educational
experiences show little or no promise for them—that is, they did not relate their educational
experiences to positive outcomes for them in the future. Many young Latinas from impoverished
backgrounds attend inferior schools and are not provided with a quality education. In this study,
however, the six positive deviants that participated attended college preparatory high schools in
South Los Angeles that heavily emphasized college completion and post-secondary options.
Although participants in this study expressed concerns over being stigmatized, they did
not discuss issues related to bureaucracy or placement in low performing schools. Specifically,
positive deviants experienced discouragement from various individuals including counselors,
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 112
professors, family members, and friends. As noted in Chapter 2, discrimination from peers,
teachers, the community, and family members can discourage a young mother and prevent her
from attending school and furthering her education (Driscoll, et.al., 2003).
Mothers also reported being isolated from their peers and stated that a lack of parental
support presented additional challenges. Smithbattle (2007) found that young mothers often drop
out of school because of the pressures they experience, including isolation from peers; and lack
of needed support from family, friends, schools, social service agencies, and other organizations
(including access to financial resources). All six positive deviants in this study reported feeling
that they were isolated by either peers, family members, school officials, or a service agency.
Mothers also identified time management as a challenge because they struggled
with keeping track of school, work and personal responsibilities. Moreover, financial challenges
were an area of great concern as most needed to work to afford school. As noted in Chapter 2,
financial stability is indeed a major challenge for teenage mothers (Hoffman, Foster, &
Furstenberg, 1993; Smithbattle, 2007).
Finally, positive deviants identified emotional and physical challenges including
depression and personal neglect, making it difficult at times to focus on their academic goals.
Literature revealed that teenage mothers may quickly realize that they have many responsibilities
and develop feelings of helplessness and hopelessness which could lead to developing low self-
esteem, low self-expectations and even depression (Driscoll et al., 2003; Geronimus, 1987;
Lawlor, Shaw, & Johns, 2001; Smithbattle, 2007). Positive deviants in this study expressed
feelings of being stressed and overwhelmed, but never decided to drop out of college.
Although the research tends not to identify strategies or behaviors teen mothers could
employ in order to attain a post-secondary degree, it does identify successful support programs,
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 113
such as El Nido and Project Nateen, available for Latina teenage mothers who desire to finish
school. These programs provide young mothers with access to resources such as parenting
workshops, emotional and financial support, and counseling and mentoring services. Driscoll,
et.al., (2003) found that the effect of community is critical in supporting teenage mothers
complete high school and further their education in a postsecondary institution. Even though
socioeconomic status can be a risk factor for negative behaviors, social networks can empower
teenage mothers and motivate them not to follow negative common patterns and succeed
(Denner, Kirby, Coyle, & Brindis, 2001).. In order to support teenage mothers, it is important to
create an environment of high expectations and rich opportunities (Smithbattle, 2007). High
school diploma attainment should not be the end goal; rather more emphasis should be placed on
postsecondary education. Modeling success programs can showcase effective strategies by
highlighting the educational success stories of mothers who began parenting in their teenage
years (Smithbattle, 2006; 2007). These findings were consistent with this study; successful
strategies used by teen mothers included utilizing support systems, maintaining high expectations
and a focus on academic success, and advocating for self.
Figure 7 provides a revised conceptual framework drawing on both the challenges from
the literature and this study and adds the effective strategies that positive deviants used to
mitigate their challenges.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 114
Postsecondary
Education
Figure 7. Positive Deviance Framework Revision
Implications for Practice
This study focused on identifying the specific strategies and behaviors used by Latina
teenage mothers who graduated from high school and who are presently attending a community
Latina
teenage
mothers
Challenges
• Balancing
Parenting
with
Work
and
School
• Supporting
a
Family
• Stigma
of
Being
a
Teenage
Mother
• Emotional
and
Physical
Challenges
Teen
Mothers
experience
• Discrimination
and
Isolation
• Bureaucratic
Barriers
• Lack
access
to
a
Quality
Education
• Financial
challenges
Uncommon
Behaviors
&
Strategies
Normative
Outcomes
*High
School
dropout
*High
School
graduation/GED
only
*Unemployed
*Welfare
dependency
*Cycle
of
poverty
continues
with
child
Focus
on
Academic
Success
Support
Systems
Self-‐Advocacy
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 115
college or four-year institution working towards a post-secondary degree. The findings suggest
that teenage mothers can benefit from utilizing a variety of support strategies such as:
● Taking Advantage of Existing Programs and Support Systems
● Bonding with Peers and Other Teen Mothers
● Maintaining an Academic Focus
● Utilizing Resources Available to Teen Mothers
● Managing and Prioritizing Study Time
Each of these strategies will be described in detail followed by a comprehensive list of
recommendations for young mothers and colleges and universities.
Taking advantage of Existing Programs and Support Systems
The positive deviants that participated in this study all took advantage of programs and
support systems that assisted in their academic progress. They exhibited various help-seeking
behaviors that allowed them to utilize available resources available to them. It is recommended
that parents, college counselors, and social workers encourage teen mothers to 1) identify
supportive relationships with family members and other essential persons, and 2) take advantage
of child-care opportunities 3) seek out financial aid opportunities, 4) visit and check in with
academic advisors, and 5) seek tutoring when needed.
Identify Supportive Relationships. All positive deviants reported that they relied on
supporting relationships with people or programs to help them succeed in attaining a post-
secondary degree. Positive deviants in this study established a relationship with essential persons
or programs that helped them maintain focus on their academic goals and make progress towards
a degree. Chapter 2 examined the perspectives of Latina teenage mothers and whether or not they
viewed specific community programs as a resource to help them improve their and their child’s
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 116
future (Driscoll, et.al., 2003). Supportive relationships were important because young mothers
knew they were not alone in their struggles and could rely on someone or something to be there
when she needed it. Most importantly, the support programs or persons provided reliable child-
care in their absence. This allowed them solely focus on post-secondary attainment. In the case
of Jasmin and Marisol, their supportive relationship included their mother, and several family
members. They volunteered to watch the baby and their mothers provided additional support by
taking care of all household responsibilities. This allowed Jasmin and Marisol to completely
focus on school to ensure they were making academic progress. Olivia had a team of family
member that were willing to take her child so that she could study, go to class, work, or just rest.
Jennifer knew she could always depend on the paternal grandmother for support when she
needed to take care of school business. Similarly, Isabel knew she could always count on her
husband and her mother-in-law for support. Although Andrea did not have family support in
terms of child-care, she took advantage of the reduced-cost/free child-care program on campus at
the university and relied on the relationship she developed with the child’s day care center. She
described it as such an “awesome program”, that they even allowed her to drop off her baby so
that she could go to the library and study for a few hours. By identifying support systems,
positive deviants were able to focus on their academic progress without the guilt of neglecting
their baby. It is recommended that mothers establish positive relationships with their child-care
providers so that they can that attend school and take care of responsibilities. In addition, Nurses,
social workers, and college counselors should check in with teenage mothers to determine what
supportive relationships, family or programs, have in place in order to ensure they succeed
academically. If teen mothers do not have supporting relationships with family members or
friends, they should be informed of programs available that provide this type of support. Young
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 117
mothers should have access to the “Working With Pregnant and Parenting Teens Tip Sheet”
created by the United States Department of Health and Human Services
(https://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/assets/pregnant-parenting-teens-tips.pdf) to access
information on programs and supports accessible to them.
Visiting and Checking in with Academic Advisors. All positive deviants stated that
teen mothers should seek out academic advisement and visit their counselors on a regular basis.
The two positive deviants that completed their Bachelor’s degree and Master’s degree
requirements stated that they visited their counselor regularly and requested academic
advisement every semester. Both positive deviants graduated with the required number of units
and verified that their classes were required for their major to avoid wasting time in taking
unnecessary courses. They graduated with the exact number of required units. The remaining
four positive deviants consistently visited their counselor or their advisor to plan their schedule,
identify required courses, and request academic advisement. By visiting their academic advisor
on a regular basis, teen mothers will gain a better understanding of their major, degree
requirements, and the postsecondary resources that exist for them. Four of the six positive
deviants joined specific programs on campus such as EOP. Such programs offer supports such as
academic advisement, tutoring, peer networking opportunities, financial aid, and opportunities
for student involvement and leadership. Therefore, the researcher recommends that teen mothers
1) visit their academic advisor on a regular basis to determine if the courses they plan to take
fulfill their degree requirements, and 2) join support programs and stay in contact with
counselors on a regular basis to obtain information about workshops, tutoring sessions, peer
networking opportunities, and take advantage of any resources the program provides.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 118
Seeking out Financial Aid Opportunities. The positive deviants that participated in this
study were awarded state and university financial aid and grants but only after they took action
and sought out these opportunities. All positive deviants completed the FAFSA, but reported that
it was not enough to cover their academic costs. As a result, they decided to find a job in order to
supplement their income. Therefore, the researcher recommends that teen mothers 1) visit the
financial aid office on a regular basis to determine eligibility for financial aid, available grants
and scholarships, and 2) ask for assistance with the FAFSA and any financial aid applications
when necessary by staying in contact with financial advisors on a regular basis.
Attending Office Hours and Seeking Tutoring. The positive deviants in this study
reported that attending office hours and seeking tutoring helped keep up with course work
requirements. When they could not attend class for any reason, they use office hours to request
support from professors and teachers assistants. This helped them catch up on class material they
missed or did not understand and helped them maintain their grades above average. Additional
strategies, like creating study group with classmates and peer support networks allowed Jennifer
to ensure she was able to keep up with the course material. Jasmin, Andrea, and Marisol also
made sure to attend office hours and access their professors when they needed academic support.
Jasmin even attended Teacher Assistant session to ensure that she was mastering the material.
Isabel’s strategies included communication with classmates and asking them for support when
she was late or absent to class so that she would not fall behind. Implementation of these
strategies allowed positive deviants to succeed in college and pass their classes. Attending office
hours and tutoring also helped these positive deviants establish supportive relationships with
their teachers and classmates. Based on these findings, it is recommended that 1) teen mothers
schedule a time segment with classmates and friends and consistently attend those sessions or
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 119
establish their own study groups or learning communities, 2) regularly visit the math or writing
center in addition to office hours, and 3) establish a system of accountability with peers and
classmates to ensure that time is dedicated to studying and homework completion.
Communication with Peers and Other Teen Mothers
The researcher recommends that teenage mothers seek opportunities to join clubs,
programs, and organizations that will provide them with a valuable network of peer support. For
Isabel, the peer support she received from three other mothers helped her find scholarships and
financial aid opportunities. Communicating with peers and establishing a connection with other
mothers was a strategy that helped her identify other resources and opportunities that she was not
aware existed. Jennifer was able to join a number of support programs and even support other
mothers like her because of her communication and ability to establish peer support networks.
As the President of her parenting club, she was able to connect other mother like her with
motivational speakers, program advisors, and available resources that were also beneficial for
her. Communicating with peers and establishing peer networks with mothers like her provided
her with strategies that helped her balance school responsibilities and the rest of her life.
Jennifer’s motivation allowed her to motivate others and as the president, she supported mothers
in college like herself. By taking on a leadership position, Jennifer developed strategies that
helped her thrive in school. In this community, students could relate and support each other in
areas of school, parenting, and life.
This study revealed that positive deviant teens often created networks and communities
with peers that supported their decision to obtain a post-secondary education. The findings align
with research findings from Driscoll et.al. (2003) and Smithbattle (2007) described in the
literature review. For instance, Andrea had a friend in college that offered to even pick up her
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 120
child and take care of her when Andrea was in class. Her friend didn’t have any children, but she
wanted to help. Therefore it is recommended that teen mothers seek other mothers like
themselves and establish communities to provide each other support. Support can be in the form
of a monthly meeting, recreational or leisure activity, and even just an opportunity to talk about
like. It is recommended that school campuses, support organizations, and campus programs
communicate with students, especially teen mothers, to inform them of tutoring clubs, study
sessions, and networks available.
Maintaining an Academic Focus
The positive deviants in this study all maintained an academic focus by employing
strategies that allowed them to 1) stay organized in order to remember all their responsibilities,
and 2) complete their assignment to ensure they are mastering course content material so that
they can succeed academically.
Staying Organized. Several positive deviants used organizational strategies that helped
them maintain an academic focus. By organizing their time and responsibilities, teen mothers
were able to focus on one responsibility at a time and ensure they put forth their best effort to get
it done right. Young mothers were able to organize their responsibilities which range from sitting
in class, doing homework, doing laundry, taking care of household items, going to work, caring
and bonding with their child, and even taking care of themselves. Some strategies young mothers
expressed included using calendars, notepads, cell phone apps, and keeping mental notes to stay
organized. Some even used journaling techniques to keep track of everything they needed to
accomplish. Mothers also expressed that setting small daily goals allowed them to hold
themselves accountable and accomplish all they needed to do for the day and the week.
Therefore, it is recommended that schools and colleges provide students, especially teen
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 121
mothers, with workshops on goal setting and time management. Skills such as journaling,
keeping a record, and a calendar can help teen mothers stay on task and develop a system to
ensure that they accomplish daily tasks and meet their goals. In addition, teen mothers should be
encouraged to keep an agenda. School counselors and advisors can provide teen mothers with an
agenda that contains motivational and inspirational messages, and counselors should provide
teen mothers a thirty-minute training session on how to use an agenda and the benefits or staying
organized and setting goals. This way, teen mothers can consistently record their class
assignments in a planner or journal, thus keeping track of their responsibilities. This is especially
important for teen mothers because they reported that they had trouble remembering things.
Often, they were mentally overwhelmed by all their tasks and responsibilities. Since positive
deviants stated that they could not rely on their memory to remember things, use of an agenda
and training workshops will provide them with necessary strategies to succeed.
Staying organized also helped the positive deviants stay focused in class and complete
their assignments. By setting aside a time segment for certain items, teen mothers were able to
set small attainable goals for themselves. As a result, rather than feeling overwhelmed, teen
mothers reported feeling successful and motivated because they were productive. It is
recommended that teen mother organize their time, tasks, and assignments in order to ensure
they are taking care of all their responsibilities. It is also recommended that teen mothers create a
back-up plan in case something does not work out as planned. This way, young mothers are
prepared and can continue with their plan even through any setback and challenges they
experience.
Organizing a back-up plan was an additional strategy teen mother’s employed. They
identified this behavior as an essential one for any teen parent hoping to graduate from college.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 122
All six of this study’s positive deviants had a back-up plan for child-care, transportation, and
accessing information from class in their absence. For instance, when Jennifer noticed the
paternal grandmother was not available, she always had a backup plan. She communicated with
her mother and sister in advance to ensure that she could stick with her plan and could make it to
school. Isabel knew that she could call her husband’s cousin for a ride in case she missed the bus
and was going to be late for her destination. Olivia could rely on a classmate for notes and
information in case she missed class. For this reason, it is recommended that colleges provide
teen mothers with monthly support meeting to inform teen mothers 1) Identify more than one
child care provider, and 2) communicate with peers and family in advance to establish a network
to rely on if necessary, and 3) always organize a backup plan.
Study Time and Completing Assignments. All positive deviants completed the
majority of their class assignments and dedicated long hours to studying. Despite raising a child
and having to work, teen mothers made sure to complete their assignments and finish papers and
invest time in studying and keeping up with the coursework. Isabel, Olivia, and Marisol
sometimes sacrificed their sleep and stayed up all night in order to finish their homework. Jenifer
even took her daughter with her to the school library when she could not find a babysitter so that
she could do some school-work. She did not allow any reasons or excuse keep her from meeting
her goals for the day. Andrea discovered that she could use flash cards and take them with her
everywhere so that she could study them any time she had a free second.
All positive deviants completed their assignments consistently by working in distraction-
free locations such as the school library or room in their home. They also accessed resources at
the University such as the computer lab, the library, office hours and tutoring. By doing so,
successful teenage mothers were able to maintain their academic focus. Therefore, it is
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 123
recommended that teenage mothers find a quiet place to study and do homework such as the
school library, computer labs, or designated study area. As a result, teen mothers will have a
quiet place to complete their assignments as well as access to resources such as printers and the
Internet.
Utilizing Resources Available to Teen Mothers
Several positive deviants utilized resources that are accessible to all teenage mothers such
as Medical, WIC, Healthy Families, and food stamps. They were able to access financial
resources and take workshops that helped them become a better parent and provide for their
child. Therefore, it is recommended that teen mothers 1) take advantage of these programs and 2)
self-advocate for themselves and their child.
Joining a Support Group. It is recommended that teen mothers join at least one
program or support group while in college. Several positive deviants cited programs as being
very helpful in getting them to finish college and make plans for the future. Positive deviants,
like Andrea and Jasmin, used their experience and college education to further a career in
supporting teen mothers like themselves. They ensure that young mothers understand that there
are many resources out there meant to encourage and support them. Support programs provide
services, for mother and baby, such as health care, counseling, educational assistance, vocational
training, housing, nutrition, and even income support (www.elnidofamilycenters, 2015). Teen
mothers may attend meetings and learn about their options and supports. When Jennifer joined
the program, El Nido even offered to pay her $500 if she maintained a high grade point average.
The program also paid for her prom while she was in high school and even awarded her a
scholarship her first two years of college. It is recommended that 1) All college counselors and
academic advisors are aware of these programs so that they can encourage their students to
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 124
become a part of them, and 2) all new mothers receive information in the hospital upon delivery
of their child, regarding all teen parenting support programs available and how to access them.
Self-Advocacy for Mother and Child. Positive deviants in this study were able to
advocate for themselves and their child by utilizing resources that are accessible to all teenage
mothers such as Medical, WIC, Healthy Families, and food stamps. Four of the positive deviants
that participated in this study looked for resources that were available to students coming from
low income households. These positive deviants completed the FAFSA and even looked for
scholarships and grants in order to pay for college. They also visited the financial aid office
when they did not receive their financial aid ward in its entirety. One of the positive deviants
even requested therapy because she feeling overwhelmed, stressed, and depressed. Other positive
deviants requested emotional support from a family member or friend so that they could talk
about their experiences and emotions. Because therapy is readily in college, it is recommended
that 1) young mothers are informed about counseling services and therapy sessions provided for
students at their university and 2) teen mothers are informed of supplement services such as
WIC, Healthy families, and Medical upon being discharged from the hospital.
Seeking University Supports
The positive deviant teenage mothers that participated in this study all plugged into
university supports by joining EOP, or teen mother support programs, and communicating with
their teachers, and counselors. Consequently, they were able to mitigate several of the challenges
the majority teenage mothers are deterred by. Based on these findings, the researcher
recommends that teenage mothers join university programs such as EOP.
Joining University Programs. Study data suggest the importance of support systems for
teenage mothers hoping to attain a postsecondary education (Smithbattle, 2007; Driscoll, et.al.,
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 125
2003). All but two positive deviants joined programs that helped them combat and overcome the
myriad of challenges that teenage mothers typically encounter. By joining a University program,
attending workshops, and participating in success seminars, this study’s positive deviants were
able interact with other engaged and college-oriented students. The supportive peer networks
created through the university programs allowed Isabel to identify other mothers that also
encouraged her to get good grades and maintain her academic focus. Because of these findings, it
is recommended that colleges require teenage mothers to join at least one club or program their
first year of college. High school counselors and college personnel need training regarding what
underserved mothers need. College campuses should begin support groups, and non-profits could
put together study lounges specifically for young mothers.
Training for College Counselors and University Support Providers
In order to support teen mothers with the recommendations listed above, it is important to
provide counselors and school personnel with viable information to ensure student success.
Although some recommendations for colleges and school support personnel were included in the
previous sections, this section provides more specific recommendations.
Counselor Training. One recommendation requires counselor training. As
previously stated, Jennifer visited her counselor on a regular basis, but he had no idea she had a
daughter. Although it was not his intention, he discouraged Jennifer and all other teenage
mothers from pursuing a post-secondary degree. Fortunately, Jennifer had the determination and
will power to stand up for herself and didn’t allow it to upset her too much, but being
discriminated did affect her. The researcher recommends that college counselors and academic
advisors receive proper training to identify their students’ needs, and get to know their students.
As a result, they will be able to support teenage mothers by 1) encouraging teen mothers to
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 126
attend office hours and request tutoring to ensure they do not fall behind, and 2) directing them
to teen support programs, websites and organizations geared towards supporting teen mothers.
Additionally, college counselors need receive training on information, resources,
programs, and opportunities for teen mothers regarding workshops and programs that have been
established for this purpose. With proper training, the information can be passed along to ensure
teen mothers have access to it. To achieve this, colleges and universities should explore non-
profit organizations such as El Nido Family centers, The Cal-Learn and Adolescent Family Life
Programs, Best Babies Program, and Harold Cares About Your Future which provide various
educational services aimed at helping teen parents, and at-risk students hoping to attain a
postsecondary education.
Furthermore, colleges need to create programs specifically geared to teen mothers to
provide leadership opportunities in addition to a safe and supportive space This will provide teen
parents leadership and mentoring opportunities to guide other mothers experiencing similar
struggles. With proper training, college counselors and advisors will provide mothers with
specific support and resources to encourage teen mothers to form study groups with at least one
other person in every course. This will allow teen mothers opportunities where they can support
each other and hold each other accountable.
It is recommended that colleges host financial aid workshops for teen parents in order to
aid them with the FAFSA form and inform them about existing scholarship and financial aid
opportunities. It is also recommended that counselors and academic get to know their students on
a personal level in order to determine which specific programs and/ or scholarships they qualify
for. It is also suggested that colleges and universities provide workshops and information for
parents of teen mothers to learn more about the FAFSA, financial aid opportunities and
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 127
scholarships such as the El Nido scholarship for teen mothers working towards a post-secondary
degree.
Study Challenges, Limitations and Implications for Future Research
Because this study was confined to the experiences of Latina teenage mothers who lived
in Los Angeles, California, it is uncertain if their unique behaviors and strategies are applicable
to teen mothers attending charter schools, private schools, or other public high schools in other
cities and states. Teen mothers in other settings may not have access to college prep curriculum
during high school, and they may not have access to programs such as EOP, and El Nido, for
example. The types of positive deviant behaviors and strategies that are needed to attain a
postsecondary education in these settings may be vastly different.
The positive deviant teenage mothers that participated in this study included two college
graduates, one college senior who was completing her final quarter, two college juniors, and one
college sophomore. The researcher recommends a longitudinal study in the future to interview
the positive deviants five and ten years from now to learn more about their postsecondary
trajectories including. (1) if they graduated from college, (2) their career goals and obtainment,
(3) additional postsecondary or continuing educational opportunities; and (4) their children’s
academic trajectories.
The positive deviants in this study all reported that they attended a high school that
supported a college going atmosphere. Teen mothers stated that they were informed about
college and resources available before they applied to their University. This correlates with
findings from Smithbattle (2007) suggesting that mothers with childhood advantages experience
better opportunities for academic success than do teenagers from lower socioeconomic status. In
this case, teen mothers had access to a high quality teachers and educators. The researcher
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 128
suggests additional research on the impact of college going cultures on the success of teenage
mothers.
Conclusion
The extant research on the academic achievement of Latina teenage mothers is largely
deficit-based. This study sought to apply an asset-based positive deviance framework in an effort
to uncover the successful and promising strategies of teenage mothers. The study was conducted
in Los Angeles, California with teenage mothers that graduated high school in South LA.
Positive deviants utilized numerous strategies, including support systems, peer-networks,
academic and time management, and self-advocacy to mitigate their lack of support, academic,
emotional, financial and physical challenges. The results of this study suggest that when proper
support is offered and utilized, teenage mothers can be successful postsecondary students.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 129
Appendix A: Information Sheet
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089-4038
INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH
Study: Positive Deviance – Latina Teenage Mothers
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to discover behaviors that influence college persistence and higher
levels of educational attainment for Latina teenage mothers.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
You will be asked to engage in an interview that may range from 45 to 90 minutes in length. The
minimum time commitment for the interview will be 60 minutes for students and 45 minutes for school
staff or family. If all of the interviewer’s items have been responded to, then the minimum time
commitment will be considered as met.
Participation in the study is always voluntary, and participants can choose to remove themselves
from the study at any time. There will be no researcher- or school-imposed consequences for
choosing not to participate in the study.
In the interview, you will be asked about your thoughts regarding college persistence and levels of
educational attainment amongst Latina teenage mothers. This will include details about your personal
experiences and what it is like to be in your role as a teenage mothers, college student, family member, or
staff member. You will be asked about the types of things you did in order to attend college and your
current strategies for completing two years of postsecondary studies. You will also be asked questions
about the school, and how young mothers can be supported once they are in college. One of the major
goals of the study is to see how your experiences can be used to help other Latina teenage mothers persist
in college and attain higher levels of educational attainment.
A digital audio recording of the interview will be made, and the results of the recording will be
transcribed to text. The recording is necessary and required for participation in the study.
PAYMENT/COMPENSATION FOR PARTICIPATION
You will receive a $15 gift card for your time to one of the following vendors of your choice: Target,
Amazon.com, or Starbucks. You do not have to answer all of the questions in the interview in order to
receive the card; however, compensation will be provided only in the event that a) you have responded to
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 130
all of the interviewer’s questions, and/or b) you have met the minimum time commitment requested for
the interview.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Although personal information may be collected about you during the interview, your identity will not be
revealed when the results of the study are reported. In cases where specific quotes are used, pseudonyms
will be assigned to protect your identity. Your personal information will be stored in a location separated
from where the transcribed interviews and audio recordings will be stored, and will be password
protected. The transcribed interviews and audio recordings will not contain any personal information
about you within it. Any contact information that you share will be stored in a password protected
location until the data collection period has ended. At that point, your contact information will be
destroyed.
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data.
The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Principal Investigator
Courtney L. Malloy, Ph.D.
Clinical Assistant Professor
University of Southern California
3470 Trousdale Parkway
WPH802, MC 4038
Los Angeles, CA 90089-4038
clm@usc.edu
Co-Investigator and Primary Contact
Sarah Iraheta, M.Ed.
Ed.D. Doctoral Candidate
University of Southern California
siraheta@usc.edu
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for Research Advancement, Credit Union Building, 3720
South Flower Street, CUB # 301 Los Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 131
Appendix B: Consent Form
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089-4038
The purpose of this study is to identify the behaviors and strategies of Latina teenage mothers
who successfully completed at least two years of postsecondary education and are working
towards a degree in a postsecondary institution.
Because you are a Latina teenage mothers who is now attending college, the researcher has asked
you to participate in this study.
This interview is being conducted in order to understand the behaviors and strategies you use
while in college that result in academic success and progress towards a Bachelor’s Degree.
During this interview you will be asked about your personal experiences in throughout your first
few years of college. You will be asked about what it is like to be a Latina Teenage Mother while
attending college. You will be asked details about your actions and behaviors while in college
with a focus on the things you did that resulted in academic success and a college education.
The interview will last approximately 45 to 90 minutes.
The interview will be recorded and transcribed by the researcher. All personal information will
be kept confidential and all notes and recordings will be destroyed by the researcher at the
conclusion of the study.
Participation in this study is voluntary and you can choose to remove yourself from this study at
any time without consequence.
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 132
Appendix C: General Recruitment Letter
[Date]
Dear [Insert Participant Name],
My name is Sarah Iraheta, and I am a doctoral candidate in the Rossier School of Education at
University of Southern California. I am conducting a research study as part of my dissertation,
focusing on the uncommon strategies and behaviors used by Latina teenage mothers who have
successfully completed two years of college. You are invited to participate in the study. If you
agree, you are invited to participate in an interview session that may take between 45 and 90
minutes to complete and will be recorded via digital audio recorder.
Participation in this study is voluntary. Your identity as a participant will remain confidential at
all times during and after the study.
If you have questions or would like to participate, please contact me at siraheta@animo.org
(323) 819-0819
Thank you for your participation,
Sarah Iraheta, M.Ed.
University of Southern California
Sarah Iraheta
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 133
Appendix D: Interview Protocol Questions
Research
Question
1 2 3
What does a college going Latina teenage mother look like to you? What
do they do?
X
ü
Did you ever consider not going to college? Why or Why not? ü
What are the challenges faced by Latina teenage mothers who want to go
to college?
ü
Why did you decide to go to college instead of dropping out of high
school?
ü
What influenced you to go down this path? How? ü ü
Who has supported you along the way? How? What did they do? How
did you find these supportive people/ networks?
ü ü
What steps did you take to go to college? What strategies did you use to
overcome your challenges?
ü ü
What was a typical high school day for you once you made the decision
to go to college?
ü ü
What daily obstacles did you encounter when you were working towards
going to college? How did you overcome them? What strategies did you
use?
ü ü ü
Think about other Latina teenage mothers like yourself who did not go to
college. How are they different?
ü ü
Which strategies have been most useful to you? Which have made the
biggest difference in your success?
ü ü
What advice would you give other Latina teenage mothers who want to
go to college?
ü
What lessons have you learned during your path to college that might
benefit other Latina teenage mothers?
ü
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 134
Appendix E: Matrix of Interview Protocol Questions
Research Question
Interview Protocol
Student/mothers
What are the behaviors and
strategies of positive deviants?
• Self-report strategies
Observed normative
strategies
How do positive deviants utilize
these strategies and behaviors to
facilitate success?
Self-reported PD
strategies
How can the successful
strategies of positive deviants be
adapted and transferred to others
so that more students can
experience success?
• Related factors
Recommendations
SUPPORTING TEENAGE MOTHERS 135
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Abstract (if available)
Abstract
This study utilized the theory of positive deviance to explore the challenges and success factors for Latina teenage mothers who attained a postsecondary education. To accomplish this, six interviews were conducted with Latina teenage mothers who were either enrolled in college or graduated with a bachelor’s degree. Results revealed that Latina teenage mothers faced challenges connected to a lack of social support, time management challenges, financial challenges, and emotional and physical challenges. However, the Latina teenage mothers who participated in this study mitigated these challenges by utilizing specific strategies, including paying particular attention to their academic success, and were able to advocate for themselves when necessary. In particular, they employed support systems, an academic focus, and self-advocacy. Findings from this study have significant implications for Latina teenage mothers hoping to attain a postsecondary education as well for other young parents, high schools, colleges and teenage parenting organizations seeking to aid in the academic achievement of Latina teenage mothers in terms of utilizing resources available to Latina teenage mothers.
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Iraheta-Lara, Sarah Jackeline
(author)
Core Title
Mothers can make it too: applying the positive deviance framework to support Latina teenage mothers' academic achievement through college
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education
Publication Date
02/24/2016
Defense Date
02/24/2016
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
Academic Achievement,academic success teen parenting organizations,college,Latina mothers,OAI-PMH Harvest,positive deviance,postsecondary education,support mothers,teen mothers,teen mothers challenges,teen mothers strategies
Format
application/pdf
(imt)
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
Malloy, Courtney (
committee chair
), Garcia, Pedro E. (
committee member
), Stowe, Kathy (
committee member
)
Creator Email
sarahiraheta@gmail.com,siraheta@usc.edu
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-216366
Unique identifier
UC11279172
Identifier
etd-IrahetaLar-4166.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-216366 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
etd-IrahetaLar-4166.pdf
Dmrecord
216366
Document Type
Dissertation
Format
application/pdf (imt)
Rights
Iraheta-Lara, Sarah Jackeline
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA
Tags
academic success teen parenting organizations
Latina mothers
positive deviance
postsecondary education
support mothers
teen mothers
teen mothers challenges
teen mothers strategies