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The role of educational leadership on participation in the Costa Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs

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The role of educational leadership on participation in the Costa Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs

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Content Running head: ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 1

THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP ON PARTICIPATION IN THE COSTA
RICAN NATIONAL PROGRAM OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FAIRS AT ESCUELA
SANTA CRUZ IN THE SAN JOSÉ OESTE REGION
by
Richard Storti
____________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2016
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 2
DEDICATION
To my children, Anna and Michael—both constantly amaze me with their talents and
accomplishments. To the students and communities that I serve—my personal mission is to make
a positive impact through education.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 3
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Completing this dissertation has been an extremely rewarding experience. I have grown
personally, professionally, and intellectually. I am grateful to the many people who have
supported, inspired, and encouraged me over the past 3 years as I have pursued the Doctor of
Education degree and undertaken the task of researching and writing this dissertation. I owe a
great deal to the following:
• My family and closest friends, who have been understanding during the past 3 years and
have encouraged me through the process of completing this study and the doctoral
program.
• My fellow Rossier students, who have inspired me, shared knowledge, and become close
friends.
• Dr. Michael Escalante, who selected me to be a member of the research team and served
as mentor and trusted advisor during the doctoral program.
• My dissertation committee members, Chairperson Dr. Michael Escalante, Dr. Pedro
Garcia, Dr. David Cash, and Dr. David Verdugo, who gave time, assistance, valuable
input, and insight.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
List of Tables 7
List of Abbreviations 8
Abstract 9
Chapter 1: Introduction 11
Background of the Problem 12
Statement of the Problem 14
Purpose of the Study 15
Significance of the Study 16
Limitations 17
Delimitations 17
Assumptions 18
Definition of Terms 18
Organization of the Dissertation 20
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature 22
Globalization 24
Costa Rica 28
History 29
Society 34
Democratic Government 34
Education 35
Geography 36
Terrain and Climate 37
CINDE 38
FDI and MNCs in Costa Rica 40
Economic Growth and Education 46
Impact of Globalization on Education 46
STEM 47
STEM PBL 48
PD, PLCs, and Observation Instruments 49
Resources 51
Science Fairs 51
Twenty-First-Century Skills 52
Innovative Skills 54
Theoretical Frameworks 57
Leadership 58
Change Leadership 59
STEM PBL 62
PLCs 63
Summary of the Literature Review 64
Chapter 3: Research Methodology 65
Restatement of the Background, Problem, Purpose, and Research Questions 65
Frameworks 66
Research Design 70
Research Team 70
Sample and Population 71
Instruments 76
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 5
Interviews 76
Surveys 77
Observations 78
Data Collection 78
Data Analysis 80
Validity and Reliability 81
Ethical Considerations 82
Chapter Summary 83
Chapter 4: Results 85
Participants 85
Results for Research Question 1 87
Educational Leaders Empower Teachers 88
Educational Leaders Communicate Vision 93
Summary of Results for Research Question 1 98
Results for Research Question 2 98
PLCs Support Participation in the PRONAFECYT 100
PBL Supports Participation in the PRONAFECYT 103
Summary of Results for Research Question 2 108
Results for Research Question 3 108
Inconsistent Level of Training Received by Teachers 109
Educational Leaders Utilize the Structural Leadership Frame 114
Summary of Results for Research Question 3 118
Results for Research Question 4 118
PBL Elements Present 119
Integration of Science Curriculum 122
Summary of Results for Research Question 4 126
Chapter Summary 126
Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations 129
Summary of Findings 131
Research Question 1 132
Research Question 2 133
Research Question 3 134
Research Question 4 135
Implications for Practice 136
Recommendations for Future Research 137
Conclusion 138
References 139
Appendices
Appendix A: Recruitment Letter 147
Appendix B: Summary of the Research Proposal 148
Appendix C: List of Research Sites 149
Appendix D: Teacher Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 150
Appendix E: School Director Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 152
Appendix F: Government Official/Business Leaders Interview Protocol: English
and Spanish Versions 154
Appendix G: Parent Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 156
Appendix H: Student Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 158
Appendix I: Teacher Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 160
Appendix J: School Director Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 165
Appendix K: Government Official Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 169
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 6
Appendix L: Business Partner Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 174
Appendix M: Parent Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 178
Appendix N: Student Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 183
Appendix O: Observation Protocol 187
Appendix P: Consent Form 193
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 7
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Survey Data Regarding Educational Leaders Empowering Teachers
as a Percentage of Those Surveyed 91
Table 2: Survey Data Regarding Inconsistent Level of Training Received by
Teachers as a Percentage of Those Surveyed 111
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 8
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CINDE Costa Rica Investment Promotion Agency
CITI Collaborative IRB Training Initiative
FDI foreign direct investment
FTZ free trade zone
HT high-tech
HT-MNC high-tech multinational corporation
ISEF Intel International Science and Engineering Fair
IRB Institutional Review Board
IT information technology
ITCR Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica
KBE knowledge-based economy
MEP Ministry of Public Education
MICITT Ministry of Science, Technology, and Telecommunications
MNC multinational corporation
NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement
PRONAFECYT Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología
(National Program of Science and Technology Fairs)
ODF Omar Dengo Foundation
PBL project-based learning
PD professional development
PLC professional learning community
STEM science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
UCR University of Costa Rica
USAID U.S. Agency for International Development
USC University of Southern California
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 9
ABSTRACT
Globalization has resulted in increased competition among nations that participate in the
global economy and, as a result, has had a direct impact on skills and knowledge required by
employers and a direct impact on educational policy. In response to the skills required from
human capital as a result of globalization, nations have implemented and are implementing
instructional programs to encourage and foster student learning in areas specifically related to
21st-century skills. To promote an educated workforce, stimulate creativity in students, promote
a culture of science and technology, and develop scientific thinking and knowledge in students,
Costa Rica has mandated participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs
(Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología [PRONAFECYT]). The purpose of this
study was to understand the effects of educational leadership on participation in the
PRONAFECYT in Costa Rican primary schools. The study identified the role of school leaders
in development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. The study also explored
how schools have restructured their educational programs by focusing on sharing leadership and
teacher training.
The analysis of data gathered through interviews, observations, and surveys revealed that
educational leadership contributes directly to student participation in the PRONAFECYT in
Costa Rican primary schools. Actions by leadership were key to empowering teachers, garnering
support, encouraging participation, integrating curriculum, and guiding instructional practice
targeting student development. The data also indicated greater utilization of professional learning
communities and project-based learning (PBL) at a school with a higher level of student
participation relative to a school with a lower level of student participation in the
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 10
PRONAFECYT. PBL elements and integration of science curriculum in multiple subjects were
noted to a certain degree.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 11
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Globalization has affected the global economy, leading to changes in the way human
capital is produced. Globalization is defined as the “integration of economies and societies
through cross country flows of information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance
and people” (Misra, 2012, p. 69). Globalization has a direct impact on cultural, geopolitical, and
social changes, which encompasses schooling (Spring, 2008). Globalization has resulted in
increased competition among nations that participate in the global economy and, as a result, has
had a direct impact on skills and knowledge required by employers and a direct impact on
educational policy. For a nation to succeed economically in an increasingly interconnected
global economy, changes to the local economy and educational system must occur (Biesanz,
Biesanz, & Biesanz, 1999; Friedman, 2007). Attracting foreign direct investment (FDI) in the
form of capital, technology, and technical and managerial skills serves as a catalyst for economic
growth of developing countries. One of the ways to attract FDI is by having an educated
workforce with 21st-century skills (Hanson, 2001; Jensen, 2003; Mughal & Vechiu, 2009). In
response to the skills required from human capital as a result of globalization, nations have
implemented and are implementing instructional programs to encourage and foster student
learning in areas specifically related to 21st-century skills (Wagner, 2010).
Costa Rica has been successful at attracting FDI and multinational corporations (MNCs)
with incentives, infrastructure, and an educated workforce (Clark, 1995). To promote an
educated workforce, stimulate creativity in students, promote a culture of science and
technology, and develop scientific thinking and knowledge of students, Costa Rica has mandated
participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (Programa Nacional de
Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología [PRONAFECYT]; Chacón, 2011). While much research has
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 12
addressed the impact of globalization on educational policy, lacking is research examining the
role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT.
Background of the Problem
In the past two centuries improvements in communication technology, transportation, and
political influences have contributed to the significant growth of the world economy and have
transformed the world economy from many separate and isolated markets to a centralized and
global economy (Wagner, 2010). In today’s global economy, large international companies
operate with plants in multiple countries, offering opportunities to increase production levels,
reduce costs, and offer products to consumers in greater quantities and at lower prices (Wagner,
2010). Results of today’s global economy include increased competition for labor, natural
resources, and products. Increased competition has direct implications for the labor forces and
educational systems of individual countries (Clifton, 2011). Workers in a particular country are
not only competing for jobs with other workers within the same geographical area; they are now
competing for jobs with workers in many other countries. In order to support a competitive
workforce, countries must consider the skills that employers desire and provide educational
opportunities to develop such skills in future workers (Clifton, 2011).
Professionals in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM)
have been shown to foster economic stability through innovation and technological advancement
(Marshall, 2009; Pfeiffer, Overstreet, & Park, 2009). Research demonstrates that countries with a
higher proportion of engineering college majors experience greater economic growth and
development (Murphy, Shleifer, & Vishny, 1990). Other research suggests that the quality of a
nation’s labor force, as measured by comparative tests in mathematics and science, is
consistently correlated with the nation’s production levels and economic growth (Hanushek &
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 13
Kimko, 2000). A labor force educated in STEM-related fields is a key component of a country’s
economic growth and development and a key factor to support the need for investment in
education as a way for countries to remain competitive in the global economy.
To encourage and stimulate student interest and performance in STEM subjects,
innovative institutions are employing instructional methods such as project-based learning (PBL)
aimed at building knowledge and innovative skills (Wagner, 2012). PBL emphasizes learning
activities that are long-term, interdisciplinary, student centered, and integrated with real-world
issues (Capraro, Capraro, & Morgan, 2013). The PBL approach bridges discrete subject areas
into projects that address challenging questions that are salient to students. Teachers are viewed
as facilitators, mentors, or coaches rather than deliverers of knowledge. The role of teachers in
PBL is to guide the learning process through effective questioning. In addition, with PBL,
teachers share control of the learning environment with students.
To increase student interest and academic achievement in STEM subjects, there has been
significant growth in programs and professional development (PD) targeted at STEM (Capraro et
al., 2013). Research has shown that professional learning communities (PLCs), coupled with
long-term targeted PD, lead to improved implementation of STEM PBL in classrooms (Sterns,
Morgan, Capraro, & Capraro, 2012). PLCs can support STEM education by enhancing
curriculum and improving the PBL implementation school wide (Liddicoat, 2008). PLCs provide
teachers with time to reflect and plan and to engage fully in a professional task (Krause,
Culbertson, Oehrtman, & Carlson, 2008).
Student participation in science fairs is a method to encourage a culture of science and
technology and increase student interest and academic achievement in STEM subjects (Intel,
2014). In addition, science fairs provide participants with opportunities to improve and develop
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 14
science skills, win awards and scholarships, prepare for college, meet scientists, and be exposed
to college and STEM career opportunities. Such opportunities have been shown to increase
student interest in STEM fields.
Costa Rica has recognized the value of student participation in science fairs and as a
result has instituted the PRONAFECYT, which is designed to stimulate the creativity of
students, promote a culture of science and technology, and develop scientific thinking and
knowledge of students (Chacón, 2011). Science fairs in Costa Rica date back to the 1960s and
have grown dramatically following a national executive decree in 2004 that grants participation
at various levels and in various research categories of the science fair process to all students from
preschool through high school. The number of Costa Rican schools with organized science fairs
has grown from 710 in 2000 to 3,019 in 2005. While some Costa Rican schools have successful
science fair programs, as measured by student participation and advancement, others have
experienced lower levels of success. Understanding why some schools have successful science
fair programs has important implications for the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT.
Statement of the Problem
Misra (2012) defined globalization as the “integration of economies and societies through
cross country flows of information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance and
people” (p. 69). These global changes have led to a highly competitive and rapidly changing
environment for countries throughout the world. World societies are now more interconnected
and interdependent than ever before (Friedman, 2007). For a nation to succeed in an increasingly
interconnected global economy, changes to the local economy and educational system must
occur (Biesanz et al., 1999; Friedman, 2007). Globalization has necessitated changes in the skills
that students must develop to compete in an increasingly global workforce (Friedman, 2007;
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 15
Spring, 2008). As a result, educational systems are no longer competing with other school
systems in the same city, state, or even nation; rather, they are competing with schools around
the world (Wagner, 2010).
Costa Rica has endured many changes since gaining independence in 1859 (Biesanz et
al., 1999). Since its independence and the abolition of its military, Costa Rica has placed its
primary focus on education (Palmer & Molina, 2004). During the past 30 years, Costa Rica has
adapted and reformed from a rural, agrarian society, to a high-tech (HT) hub of innovation in
Latin America (Rodriguez-Clare, 2001). In addition, Costa Rica has initiated actions designed to
attract FDI, including tax incentives and investments in infrastructure, as well as changes to the
educational system (OECD, 2012).
In order to continue to attract FDI, Costa Rica’s economic future is dependent on schools
that produce knowledge and conceptually based workers with skills in STEM, in addition to
essential 21st-century competencies (Rodriguez-Clare, 2001). However, according to Americas
Society/Council of the Americas (2011), 20-30% of students in Costa Rica do not finish their
secondary school experience. Moreover, in order to ensure a 100% literacy rate by 2017,
including students in rural and poor communities, principal and teacher leadership must ensure
that all students have equitable educational access to rigorous, project-based educational
opportunities in all schools (CINDE, 2012).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to understand the effects of educational leadership on
participation in the PRONAFECYT in primary schools in Costa Rica. The study identified what
role school leaders have played in the development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 16
initiative. The study also explored how schools have restructured their educational programs by
focusing on sharing of leadership and teacher training.
The following research questions were investigated in this study:
1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practice?
Significance of the Study
There is an abundance of research regarding the impact of globalization on cultural,
geopolitical, and social changes, including schooling. Such research demonstrates that
globalization has resulted in increased competition among nations that participate in the global
economy and, as a result, has had a direct impact on the skills and knowledge required by
employers and a direct impact on educational policy. Research also demonstrates that, to succeed
economically in an increasingly interconnected global economy, changes to the local economy
and education systems of countries must occur.
In response to the skills required from human capital as a result of globalization, nations
have implemented and are implementing instructional programs, such as science fairs, to
encourage and foster student learning in areas specifically related to 21st-century skills. Science
fairs have been shown to promote a culture of science and technology and provide participants
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 17
with opportunities to improve and develop science skills, win awards and scholarships, prepare
for college, meet scientists, and be exposed to college and STEM career opportunities. Costa
Rica has recognized the value of student participation in science fairs and as a result has
instituted the PRONAFECYT, designed to stimulate the creativity of students, promote a culture
of science and technology, and develop scientific thinking and knowledge of students.
Although the number of schools participating in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT has
increased significantly since the 1960s, lacking is evidence explaining why some schools have
implemented science fair programs successfully while others have been less successful.
Specifically, evidence is needed pertaining to the role of educational leaders in implementing
programs in Costa Rican schools. Such evidence will provide educational leaders with
information needed to improve the implementation of science fair programs.
Limitations
Limitations of the study include the distance from southern California to San José, Costa
Rica, and language barriers, as both researchers and interviewees will likely lack high ability in
the second language (Spanish or English). The time allotted for primary data collection was
limited to 10 days. The validity of the interviews and surveys was limited to the responding
participants and the reliability of the instruments. The researchers had to be aware of any bias
that may have occurred during the study, as implications from the findings influence various
financial and dependent relationships.
Delimitations
A key delimitation to this study is that the school sites visited were not selected using a
sampling approach that would allow generalization. Rather, the sites were selected by Costa
Rican officials within the Ministry of Public Education (MEP) and the Ministry of Science,
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 18
Technology, and Telecommunication (MICITT). This delimitation prevented the generalization
of findings.
Assumptions
Assumptions were made when developing the study:
1. Science fairs encourage a culture of technology leading to increased development of
21st-century skills.
2. Twenty-first-century skills are needed for development of Costa Rica’s labor force to
compete in the diverse global knowledge-based economy (KBE).
3. STEM skills are needed for development of Costa Rica’s labor force to compete in the
innovation sector of the diverse global KBE.
4. Globalization has had an impact on the educational system in Costa Rica.
5. All participants of this study provided accurate information.
6. The interviews, surveys, and observation protocols provided information required to
assess the impact of leadership practices, instructional strategies, and PD practices on successful
implementation of the PRONAFECYT.
7. The collected data supports an understanding of the relationships among leadership
practices, instructional strategies, and PD practices and their impact on successful participation
in the PRONAFECYT.
Definitions of Terms
Foreign direct investment (FDI): This term refers to investment by a company in a
country other than the place where the company is based. FDI includes mergers and acquisitions,
building new facilities, reinvesting profits earned from overseas operations, and intracompany
loans.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 19
Globalization: This term refers to a phenomenon of increased economic integration
among nations, characterized by the movement of people, ideas, social customs, and products
across borders. It has a direct impact on economic, cultural, geopolitical, and social changes,
including education (Spring, 2008).
High-tech multinational corporation (HT-MNC): The term high tech refers to technology
that is at the cutting edge, the most advanced technology available. It is often used in reference to
microelectronics rather than other technologies. A HT-MNC is an MNC that produces the most
advanced technology available, such as Intel and its microchips for cutting-edge computer
processing (Giuliani, 2008).
Human capital: This term refers to the stock of competencies, knowledge, and social and
personality attributes, including creativity, embodied in the ability to perform labor to produce
economic value. It is an aggregate economic view of the human being acting within economies
in an attempt to capture social, biological, cultural, and psychological complexities as people
interact in explicit and/or economic transactions. Many theories explicitly connect investment in
human capital development to education. The role of human capital in economic development,
productivity growth, and innovation has frequently been cited as a justification for government
subsidies for education and job skills training (Schultz, 1961).
Knowledge-based economy (KBE): This term refers to the use of knowledge technologies
such as knowledge engineering and knowledge management to produce economic benefits, as
well as job creation (Machlup, 1973).
Knowledge-based global economy: This term refers to the use of knowledge,
technologies, and skills to produce economic benefits and job creation in the global market.
Knowledge resources such as know-how and expertise are as critical as other economic
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 20
resources in an interconnected globalized economy. A key concept of the knowledge-based
global economy is that knowledge and education (often referred to as human capital) can be
treated as a productive asset, a business product, or as educational and innovative intellectual
products and services that can be exported for a high-value return (Wagner, 2010).
Multinational corporation (MNC): The term refers to a corporation that is registered in
more than one country or that has operations in more than one country. An MNC is a large
corporation that both produces and sells goods or services in various countries and often has a
social responsibility and commitment to help improve the host country’s educational system
(Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007).
Science fair: Science fairs are competitions in which scientific projects created by
students are displayed and judged. There are many benefits of science fairs, including promotion
of a culture of science and technology (Intel, 2014). Science fairs also provide participants with
opportunities to improve and develop science skills, win awards and scholarships, prepare for
college, meet scientists, and be exposed to college and STEM career opportunities.
Twenty-first-century skills: The essential skills of the knowledge-based global economy
are (a) critical thinking and problem solving, (b) collaboration across networks and leading by
influence, (c) agility and adaptability, (d) initiative and entrepreneurship, (e) effective oral and
written communication, (f) accessing and analyzing information, and (g) curiosity and
imagination (Wagner, 2010).
Organization of the Dissertation
The dissertation consists of five chapters. Chapter 1 provides an overview of the study:
an introduction; a background to the problem; the problem statement; the purpose of the study;
research questions; significance of the study; limitations, delimitations, and assumptions of the
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 21
study; and definitions of terms. Chapter 2 presents a review of the literature pertaining to
globalization, MNCs, 21st-century skills, and leadership. The chapter also presents an historical
review of Costa Rica encompassing its development as a nation, including economic, political,
and educational growth over time. The education system in Costa Rica is described at depth to
give breadth to the details of the current system, its policies, its infrastructure, and the makeup of
the student body.
Chapter 3 describes the study methodology, including frameworks utilized, research
design, sample and population, instrumentation, data collection, data analysis, and ethical
considerations. Chapter 4 offers insight into the findings of the study, including a detailed
description organized by the research questions. Chapter 5 presents a summary of the study.
including a conclusion and possible implications for practice. Also included are suggestions for
future research opportunities relating to the same phenomena.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 22
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Globalization is defined as the “integration of economies and societies through cross
country flows of information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance and people”
(Misra, 2012, p. 69). Globalization has a direct impact on cultural, geopolitical, and social
changes, of which schooling is encompassed (Spring, 2008). Globalization has resulted in
increased competition among nations participating in the global economy and as a result, has had
a direct impact on skills and knowledge required by employers and a direct impact on
educational policy. For a nation to succeed economically in an increasingly interconnected
global economy, changes to the local economy and educational system must occur (Biesanz et
al., 1999; Friedman, 2007). Attracting FDI in the form of capital, technology, and technical and
managerial skills serves as a catalyst for economic growth of developing countries and one of the
ways to attract FDI is to have an educated workforce with 21st-century skills (Hanson, 2001;
Jensen, 2003; Mughal & Vechiu, 2009). In response to the skills required from human capital as
a result of globalization, nations have implemented and are implementing instructional programs
to encourage and foster student learning in areas specifically related to 21st-century skills
(Wagner, 2010).
Costa Rica has been successful at attracting FDI and MNCs with incentives,
infrastructure, and an educated workforce (Clark, 1995). To further promote an educated
workforce, stimulate the creativity of students, promote a culture of science and technology, and
develop scientific thinking and knowledge in students, Costa Rica has mandated participation in
the PRONAFECYT (Chacón, 2011). While much research has been conducted addressing the
impact of globalization on educational policy, lacking is research examining the role of
educational leadership on the participation in the PRONAFECYT in primary schools in Costa
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 23
Rica. The purpose of this study is to understand the effects of educational leadership on
participation in the PRONAFECYT in primary schools in Costa Rica.
This chapter examines five key areas of literature: (a) globalization, (b) history of Costa
Rica, (c) impact of globalization on education, (b) 21st-century skills, and (e) frameworks. In the
first section, a definition of globalization is provided that will be used throughout this research
study. In addition, the four perspectives of globalization identified by Spring (2008) will be
reviewed, along with the implications of globalization on education and encouragement of a
language of commerce among countries participating in today’s global environment. In the
second section, the history of Costa Rica and aspects of Costa Rica will be examined to inform
this research study as it relates to the strong economic growth in the global economic
environment experienced by Costa Rica. The second section examines Costa Rica’s geography,
terrain and climate, history from pre-Colonial period, society, government, educational system,
and strategic advantages that have attracted MNCs and FDI, contributing greatly to Costa Rica’s
current position in today’s global economy. The third section examines literature that addresses
the impact of globalization on education, along with efforts made by educational systems to
foster and encourage student development of skills and knowledge shown to attract FDI and
MNCs. Key areas of literature reviewed include STEM PBL, PD, PLCs, and the use of science
fairs to encourage STEM development and a culture of science and technology. The fourth
section examines literature that focuses on the 21st-century skills required by employers in
today’s competitive global economy. The section demonstrates that, in response to increased
competition in today’s global economy, employers are requiring certain skills and knowledge
from employees in order to compete (Wagner, 2010). The final section reviews frameworks that
will guide and inform this research study, including leadership, implementing change initiatives,
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 24
STEM PBL, and PLCs. The frameworks will be utilized to assess, in their specific areas, the
participation in science fair programs.
Globalization
This section provides a definition of globalization that will be used throughout this
research study. In addition, the four perspectives of globalization identified by Spring (2008) are
reviewed, followed by a review of the impact of globalization on education and encouragement
of a language of commerce among countries participating in today’s global environment.
Economist Theodore Levitt is credited with coining the term globalization in 1983 to
describe changes in global economics affecting production, consumption, and investment (Levitt,
1983; Stromquist, 2002). The term quickly became used to describe political and cultural
changes that affect in common ways large segments of the world’s peoples, including schooling.
Myriad technological changes have occurred since 1983 that have caused augmentation of global
interrelationships, directly affecting the definition of globalization (Bradley, Hausman, & Nolan,
1993; Hrynyshyn, 2002). The term is now expanded to more than businesses and includes the
impact on education and the education of students as they prepare for requirements of today’s
global employers (Stromquist & Monkman, 2000). Misra (2012) provided an updated definition
of globalization as the “integration of economies and societies through cross country flows of
information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance and people” (p. 69).
The Asia Society’s (2008) handbook, Going Global: Preparing Our Students for an
Interconnected World, defined globalization as requiring individuals “to have sensitivity to
foreign cultures, be fluent in a foreign language, understand international trade, be
technologically savvy, have the ability to manage complex work in international teams and most
importantly, possess a strong ethical core” (p. 5). This definition of globalization will be used for
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this case study because it is well aligned with the study’s overarching theme, including a focus
on technology and developing a language of commerce while being mindful of the role that
culture holds in the process of globalization.
The world economy has experienced significant technological developments and
economic growth over the past two centuries (Wagner, 2010). Wagner (2010) asserted that the
world economy, once comprised of many separate and isolated markets, is now a more
centralized and global economy as a result of improvements in communication technology,
transportation, and political influences. The global economy today is one where large
international companies operate with plants in multiple countries, offering opportunities to
increase production levels, reduce costs, and offer products in greater quantities and at lower
prices to consumers. There are many benefits to the new world economy, including opportunities
for third world and developing countries to grow with improved job opportunities and quality of
life for their citizenry. New challenges include increased competition for labor, natural resources,
and products. Clifton (2011) asserted that the increased competition in today’s global economy
has direct implications for labor forces and educational systems in individual countries. One of
the implications of today’s global economy is that workers in a particular country are not only
competing for jobs with other workers in the same country; they are now competing for jobs with
workers of many other countries. Another implication is that, in order to support a competitive
workforce, countries should consider the skills that employers desire and provide educational
opportunities to develop such skills in future workers.
Globalization has affected the global economy, leading to a change in the way human
capital is produced. Local and national markets have changed from independent isolated markets
to intertwined, complex organisms, dependent on the workings of other equally multifaceted
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nations (Spring, 2008; Stromquist, 2002). The interdependency of world markets resulting from
globalization has led to increased competition among global market participants (Hitts, Keats, &
DeMarie, 1998). Increased competition has required that nations that participate in the global
economy examine their educational institutions to ensure that they are preparing their students to
become knowledge-ready workers who are competitive in the global market. Increased global
competition has led the global market to create common educational practices and policies based
on global discussions regarding technology, human capital, lifelong learning, and the global
migration of workers, resulting in a knowledge-based economy (Spring, 2008).
Technology skills and proficiency in the English language have become a central theme
for the knowledge-based economy. Tsui and Tollefson (2007) asserted that “globalization is
affected by two inseparable meditational tools, technology and English; proficiencies in these
tools have been referred to as global literacy skills” (p. 1). The attainment of global literacy skills
allows a workforce to have the necessary skills to compete globally. Technology serves as the
mode of communication, medium for knowledge transfer, and the path to success, as defined by
financial rewards (Rotherham & Willingham, 2010; Spring, 2008). According to The World
Bank (2003), “a knowledge based economy relies primarily on the use of ideas rather than
physical abilities and on the application of technology. . . . Equipping people to deal with these
demands requires a new model of education and training” (p. xvii). In order for nations to be
competitive and successful in the global market, they must adapt to these changing demands.
Globalization has directly affected education as a result of the need for a knowledge-
ready workforce. There are four major interpretations of the process of educational globalization:
world culture view, world systems approach, postcolonial analysis, and culturalist approach
(Spring, 2008). With the world culture view, through globalization of education, a new global
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culture is evolving and converging centered on the idea that schooling is based on a belief that all
children have the right to an education and that education is of utmost importance in maintaining
economic and democratic rights. The world systems approach views globalization of education
as limited by the paradigm of the haves and have-nots. The world is seen as integrated but as
having two major unequal parts comprising the powerful half: (a) the United States and (b) the
European Union and Japan. Under the postcolonial analysis view, globalization is seen as an
effort to impose particular economic and political agendas on the global society that benefit
wealthy and rich nations at the expense of the world’s poor. With the culturalist approach,
globalization of education is affected by integration with local culture. Local decision makers
borrow and lend from multiple models of educational systems, thus melding what applies and
excluding areas that do not apply to their specific situation. Although each of the four
perspectives is different, a common theme is that globalization has played and continues to play
a major role in the shaping of educational systems. Knowledge of these four perspectives is
important as it provides different lenses to view the Costa Rican perspective on education.
In addition to technological skills and English language proficiency, students need to
acquire strategies for lifelong learning to remain competitive in the ever-changing KBE.
According to Spring (2008), an emphasis in primary and secondary schools must be placed on
learning basic skills, in particular communication and mathematics skills, interpersonal skills,
and skills needed to learn other subjects in order to prepare students to become lifelong learners.
Skills and knowledge of various subject material are intertwined and must be developed in an
ongoing process in which students develop the ability to think, solve problems, and apply
knowledge to appropriate situations (Rotherham & Willingham, 2010). Similarly, Silva (2009)
suggested that instructional methods should move away from rote memorization of material to
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methods that encourage conceptual understanding and application associated with 21st-century
skills as students become lifelong learners.
Globalization has influenced development of education over the past several decades.
The world economy, once comprised of many separate and isolated markets, is now a more
centralized and global economy as a result of political influences and improvements in
communication technology and transportation (Wagner, 2010). Such improvements have
contributed to development of a KBE with English as the language of commerce. In response to
globalization, many schools around the world have adopted new curricula and instructional
methods with a focus on 21st-century skills, technology, English, and lifelong learning to include
interpersonal and communication skills, as well as basic mathematics and language arts skills
necessary to succeed in the global market.
Costa Rica
This section reviews literature to provide a background of Costa Rica, including its
history and an overview of Costa Rican society, government, educational system, geography,
Costa Rica Investment Promotion Agency (CINDE), and FDI. Such information provides a
background to inform this research study as it relates to the strong economic growth within the
global economic environment experienced by Costa Rica. Since the 1980s, much of this growth
has been in the HT sector, while other areas of the economy have continued to prosper. Costa
Rica’s success as a participant in the global economy can be attributed to many factors: stable
government, educated labor force, quality educational system, successful health care system,
protected natural environment, tax incentives, and strategic location. These factors offer strategic
advantages and have attracted MNCs and FDI, contributing greatly to Costa Rica’s current
position in today’s global economy.
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History
Costa Rica has successfully addressed many of the challenges encountered throughout its
rich history to contribute to the unique aspects of Costa Rican society (Booth, 2008). Not only
does Costa Rica have a successful and diversified economy in today’s global environment; it also
has the oldest uninterrupted democracy in Central America, a successful health care system, a
high literacy rate, and a quality educational system. Alone, each of these accomplishments is
admirable; taken together, they represent aspects of a society of which Costa Ricans can be
proud. Four major periods have influenced the evolution of Costa Rican culture, government,
economy, and educational system: (a) colonial period from 1502 to 1820, (b) postcolonial early
national period from 1821 to 1905, (c) turbulent transition period from 1905 to 1945, and (d) the
crisis and consolidation period from 1946 through the 1960s. Important implications identified
by literature for each of these periods and the pre-colonial period are examined to understand
historical factors influencing Costa Rica’s current state.
Archeological evidence demonstrates that the Costa Rican territory has been inhabited by
humans for at least 11,000 years (Biesanz et al., 1999). While evidence indicates that the first
inhabitants were hunter-gatherers, evidence also demonstrates the presence of agriculture-based
inhabitants dating back 5,000 years. Although Costa Rica was inhabited by humans during this
early period, their impact on modern culture was minimal as the early inhabitants lacked a strong
civilization and were mostly absorbed into Spanish-speaking society.
The colonial period lasted from 1502 until 1820 and resulted in a strong impact on many
aspects of the county (Biesanz et al., 1999). When Christopher Columbus arrived in Costa Rica
on his fourth Atlantic voyage in 1502, it is estimated that there were 400,000 to 500,000 native
inhabitants. During his first visit, Columbus stayed for 18 days to refit his ships. Although there
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is some dispute about the origins of the name of Costa Rica, many contend that it originated from
either Columbus, who was given a number of gold items from natives, or from Spanish Captain
Gil Gonzalez, who appropriated gold from natives during his 1522 exposition of the western
coast. It is believed that the region between Nicaragua and Panama was referred to by Columbus
or Gonzalez as la costa rica (the rich coast), which became Costa Rica. Although there was gold
in Costa Rica, other more promising areas resulted in Spain temporarily neglecting Costa Rica.
From 1502 through 1560, Spain explored both coasts of Costa Rica, conquering part of the
native population (Booth, 2008). From 1560 through 1610, Spain established several permanent
settlements. However, Spain was drawn to other areas in Central America that offered more
abundant supplies of precious metals. In addition, the native population declined drastically
following the Spanish conquest, as many of the surviving natives fled to the forest rather than
succumb to Spain’s system of forced labor. A census in 1700 reported the population of
Spaniards and their Costa Rican-born children at 2,000. The absence of a large labor force
resulted in most people being small landowners, farming their own land and having a vested
interest in local affairs. Although some became rich by developing larger farms and estates, a
limited supply of labor resulted in paid labor and small land-owning farmers receiving a decent
wage. Many historians give credit to these developments for the influence and growth of
democratic ideals embedded in Costa Rica’s society.
The period following Costa Rica’s independence from Spain is referred to as the
postcolonial period, from 1821 through 1905. The postcolonial period was marked by significant
developments in economics, democracy ideals, educational system, and transportation that have
influenced modern Costa Rica (Booth, 2008). When Mexico won its freedom from Spain in
1821, Costa Rica and other Central American countries also became independent. Initially, both
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conservative and liberal elites used cabildos (municipal councils) to govern. In 1824 the elites
forged a pact that declared Costa Rica sovereign. Also in 1824, Costa Rica joined other Central
American colonies in the Central American Federal Republic; however, Costa Rica severed its
ties with the federation in 1838 because of conflict that plagued the four other states. In the years
that followed, Costa Rica experienced a period of isolation similar to that of the colonial period.
The period from 1824 through 1905 was a period of presidential instability (Booth,
2008). During this period, Costa Rica was led by both civilian presidents and military rulers. The
tenure of military presidents averaged 4.8 years, compared to 2.3 years for civilian presidents.
Military rulers led the country during 36% of the time during this period and 17% of the civilian
presidents were toppled by coups. In addition, 24% of civilian presidents served a year or less in
office. Even with such instability, certain leaders made significant changes that led to lasting
improvements.
In 1870 a liberal dictator, Colonel Tomás Guardia, seized control of Costa Rica and
became president (Booth, 2008). President Tomás Guardia led the country until 1882, making
lasting improvements. Important modernizing effects came under his rule: establishment of a
unicameral legislature, increased taxes, improved educational system, improved public health
care, improved transportation, and increased investments in armed forces. Historians agree that
changes made under Guardia contributed to the eventual democratization of the country. Such
improvements included the expansion of public education, which led to increased literacy and
expanded the population of enfranchised citizens. In addition, in 1871 President Guardia
contracted with a U.S. firm to build a railroad from San Jose to the Atlantic port of Limón. Land
concessions were given to the U.S. firm that built the railroad that were later used to grow
bananas, which served to diversify the country’s economy. The changes made under the rule of
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President Guardia led to improvements in education, literacy, health care, transportation,
governance, and economic diversification that have influenced Costa Rica through current times.
The economy matured and grew significantly from 1821 through 1905 (Booth, 2008).
Grown since 1740, coffee eventually became the force driving Costa Rica’s economy and social
growth. Encouraged by the government, direct coffee exports to Europe began in 1845 and
resulted in expansion of small coffee farmers for many decades. The large yeomanry and lack of
coerced labor kept the labor supply scarce and wages high. Although large coffee farms were
formed by the elite, known as cafetalero (large coffee producers and exporters), wages for
workers remained sufficient to support a decent living. In addition, the cafetalero did not resort
to military-backed forced labor as employed in other Central American countries. Exporting
coffee opened Costa Rica to the world economy, facilitating social diversification, urbanization,
governmental growth, occupational diversification, and military expansion.
Although early 20th-century Costa Rica was marked by episodes of militarism,
dictatorship, and violence, the period experienced expanding literacy, greater citizen political
engagement, and gradual political reforms in the direction of democratization (Booth, 2008). The
period from 1905 through 1945, known as the turbulent and transition period, was a period of
turbulent economic fluctuations that led to strengthened labor unions and tensions with the
political elite. During the first four decades of the 20th century, Costa Rica experienced volatile
economic conditions linked to exports and world markets. During this period of repeated booms
and busts in coffee and banana exports, class conflict and political turmoil increased, largely
affecting working and middle-class labor, and unions became more combative. The labor and
market conditions helped to unite Social Christians and Labor behind Republican Party coffee
aristocrat Rafael Angel Calderón Guardia, who was elected President in 1941; he enacted a
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social security program to protect workers. A major step in the direction of democratization
came when President Calderón Guardia included labor in the ruling coalition. Tensions between
the labor-backed government and the political elite grew, leading to the 1948 civil war that
generated Costa Rica’s new political model of civilian constitutional democracy.
The Costa Rican Civil War of 1948, the bloodiest event in Costa Rica’s 20th-century
history, resulted in critical contributions to democracy (Booth, 2008). The war lasted 6 weeks
and resulted in approximately 2,000 deaths. The conflict was precipitated by annulment of the
1948 presidential election results. Elected legislators who were supporters of the losing candidate
claimed that the election was fraudulent and they were unwilling to relinquish the presidency.
Supporters of the election winner, Otilio Ulate, attacked the seated regime, which it quickly
defeated. Rebellion commander José Figueres led the junta for 18 months following the civil war
before handing power to Ulate. The junta made significant contributions: abolished the military,
strengthened the electoral tribunal, enacted female and Black suffrage, abolished institutionalized
racism, and prohibited immediate self-succession of all officeholders. The new 1949 constitution
was subsequently produced.
The reform measures that were enacted following the civil war, along with the new
constitution of 1949, served to solidified democracy in Costa Rica (Booth, 2008). Civilian
participation rose significantly after the peaceful transition of power from the junta to Ulate,
election reform, demilitarization, and extension of suffrage. Voter turnout rose to over 80% by
the 1960s and remained high through the 1990s. Peaceful transitions of power following the civil
war demonstrated validation of the electoral process and democracy. Since the civil war, Costa
Rica has held 14 presidential elections, the latest in 2014, and all have been widely regarded by
the international community as peaceful and transparent.
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Society
Many aspects of Costa Rican society are impressive and highly regarded by the global
community. Costa Rica has the oldest uninterrupted democracy in Central America. After
becoming a democracy in 1949, the Costa Rican government continued uninterrupted while
many other democratic nations in Central American have fallen (Booth, 2008). Costa Rica does
not have a military force. The quality of Costa Rica’s educational system ranks 21st in the world
(World Economic Forum, 2014-2015). Similar to its educational system, the Costa Rican health
care system is successful and ranks favorably when compared to other countries (United Nations
Human Development Report, 2014). The United Nations has ranked the Costa Rican health care
system in the top 20 worldwide, which has contributed to the increase in life expectancy of Costa
Ricans to 78 years. Another success story of Costa Rica is its position as an environmental
leader. More than 25% of the country’s geographical area has been designated as protected space
(Parker, 2014). More than 90% of electricity is generated from renewable sources, such as
hydroelectric, geothermal, biomass, and wind (CINDE, 2013a). These are some of the
impressive aspects of Costa Rican society that can be linked to its stable government and
educated citizenry.
Democratic Government
Costa Rica is governed by a democratic republic form of government with an executive
branch led by a president and two vice presidents who are elected every 4 years (Central
Intelligence Agency [CIA], 2014). President Luis Guillermo Solis Rivera is the current president,
elected May 8, 2014. The president selects cabinet members, including the Minister of Public
Education. The current minister, Dr. Sonia Marta Mora Escalante, began her term on May 8,
2014. Prior to her appointment, Dr. Escalante was the Dean of Universidad Nacional de Costa
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Rica and President of the National Higher Education Accreditation System (SINAES), the
institution responsible for promoting the continuous improvement of the quality of Costa Rican
higher education. From a geographical standpoint, the country is comprised of seven provinces
composed of 81 cantons. Each province has a separate administrator and school board. Each of
the 81 cantons is directed by an elected mayor, with elections every 4 years. Cantons are further
divided into districts. There are 473 districts in Costa Rica.
Education
Costa Rica has continually valued education from its early history through the current
modern era. Early advances in public education date back to President Tomas Guardia, who
during his time as president from 1870 through 1882, invested heavily in education (Booth,
2008). Education in Costa Rica has been free and mandatory since 1870. Support for public
education continues today, as explained by the country’s Constitution, which calls for
compulsory education and large investments in public education n Article 78:
ARTICLE 78. Preschool education and general basic education are compulsory. In the
public system, these levels and the diversified education level are free of charge and
supported by the Nation. Public expenditure on State education, including higher
education, shall not be less than six percent (6%) per annum of the gross domestic
product, in accordance with the law, without detriment to the provisions of Articles 84
and 85 of this Constitution. The State shall facilitate the pursuit of higher education by
persons who lack monetary resources. The Ministry of Public Education, through the
organization established by law, shall be in charge of awarding scholarships and
assistance. (Constitution of Costa Rica, §VII, as cited in MEP, 2013, para. 7)
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The Costa Rican educational system is comprised of cycles serving students from
preschool through higher education (CINDE, 2013b). Elementary schools provide instruction to
students between the ages of 6 and 13. There are two pathways for secondary education. One of
the secondary school pathways is academic instruction, which includes 5 years of study. The
second pathway is a 6-year technical instruction route that usually leads to a technical degree. In
the final year of secondary school, students are required to pass tests to receive a high school
diploma. Higher education in Cost Rica is provided by 60 universities, five of which are public
institutions and the remaining are private institutions. The University of Costa Rica (UCR),
founded in 1940, was the first public university in Costa Rica.
The commitment to education has been successful in many ways. According to the
United Nations Human Development Report 2014, Costa Rica has a literacy rate of 96.3% for
persons ages 15 years and older and 98.3% for persons ages of 15 to 24. The higher literacy rate
for ages 15 through 24 demonstrates the improving success rate of the educational system. The
Costa Rican educational system is highly ranked in Latin America. Costa Rica also has an
educated workforce that has played a key role in attracting MNCs and FDI. Although the Costa
Rican educational system has many success stories, it also has challenges. While elementary
enrollment rates are high, as education is compulsory and free, the country continues to struggle
to increase enrollment at the secondary and tertiary levels, resulting in challenges to provide a
labor force equipped with the skills and knowledge required by MNCs (Monge-González &
González-Alvarado, 2007).
Geography
Costa Rica’s geographical location offers strategic advantages to MNCs. Located on the
Central American isthmus, Costa Rica is bordered by Nicaragua on the north, the Caribbean Sea
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on the east, Panama on the South, and the Pacific Ocean on the west (CIA, 2014). Its location
offers direct ocean access to Europe, Asia, and North America. In addition, its location is in the
same time zone as the central portion of the United States. Comprised of 51,060 square
kilometers, Costa Rica has 1,290 kilometers of coastline and 639 kilometers of land boundaries.
Land boundaries include 309 kilometers to the north bordering Nicaragua and 330 kilometers to
the south bordering Panama. Costa Rica also has several islands, ranging in size to 151
kilometers.
Cost Ricans highly value the country’s natural habitat, which has contributed to the
success of its travel industry. More than 25% of Costa Rica is designated as protected space
(Parker, 2014). Costa Rica is also known for its dense plant life, with approximately one third of
the country covered by dense evergreen forest. The country’s tropical environment and protected
space foster a habitat favorable to the abundant variety of animal species found in Costa Rica.
Costa Rica’s protected rich tropical environment, scenic coastal region, and abundant plant and
animal species greatly contribute to the country’s attraction to tourists and the travel industry
(CIA, 2014). Costa Rica is the most visited travel destination in Central America.
Terrain and Climate
The tropical climate and terrain of Costa Rica have influenced the country’s political and
economic development. The Costa Rica terrain includes coastal plains separated by rugged
mountains, with more than 100 volcanic cones (CIA, 2014). Cerro Chirripó, at a height of 3,819
meters, is the highest point in Costa Rica and the fifth-highest peak in Central America. There
are several volcanoes in Costa Rica, two of which are active near the country’s capital of San
José. The climate of Costa Rica is considered tropical and subtropical, with average yearly rain
of 70 and a rainy season spanning May through November. The rugged terrain and climate of
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Costa Rica influenced the pace of its economic development during the early colonial period
(Booth, 2008). During early Spanish colonization, Spaniards pursued other Central American
areas first because of their abundance of minerals and more accessible territories. The result was
a delay in the timing and magnitude of the occupation of Costa Rica compared to other countries
in the region. The challenging terrain and climate of Costa Rica made yeoman farming prevalent,
as opposed to larger-scale farming operations in other countries that tended to utilize coerced or
slave labor common. These early tendencies are viewed as having influenced the democratic
governance of Costa Rica. Although Costa Rica was not as attractive to early Spaniards as
nearby territories, it eventually proved to be a prime area for crops such as coffee and bananas.
Such crops were important to development of Costa Rica’s early economy and are still important
components of the Costa Rican economy.
CINDE
The CINDE is a private, nonprofit, apolitical organization. It was founded in 1983 by
prominent business people, supported by the Costa Rican government, and financed by grants
from the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). During its 30 years, CINDE has
attracted more than 200 companies to Costa Rica, including Intel, Procter & Gamble, Hospira
Inc., Baxter International Inc., St. Jude Medical Center, and Western Union (Rodríguez-Clare,
2001).
During the 1980s, CINDE gained expertise in promoting the country abroad and
attracting FDI, primarily in agriculture and unskilled labor-intensive manufacturing sectors. The
success achieved by CINDE was driven by the fact that it was nonpolitical and
nongovernmental, which allowed it to have continuous programs and a long-term strategy
without being affected by periodic changes in government (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
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In the early 1990s, CINDE realized that, due to the North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA), Costa Rica was losing competitiveness in unskilled labor-intensive
industries. At the same time, it was losing sources of funding from USAID. Funded by grants
from USAID in the 1980s, CINDE had annual budgets ranging from $4 million to $8 million, ran
seven international offices, and employed 400 people. When Costa Rica no longer qualified for
USAID funding, CINDE’s budget was reduced to the interest income from the initial
endowment. In 2006, the organization had an annual budget of nearly $1.5 million, a staff of 29
people, and one foreign office located in New York City. Given these circumstances, CINDE
decided to focus its FDI attraction efforts on fewer sectors, choosing ones that were a better
match for relatively high education levels of Costa Rica’s human capital (Rodríguez-Clare,
2001).
CINDE’s 1993 strategic plan focused on attracting FDI in the electrical, electronic, and
telecommunication industries. These sectors not only required highly skilled labor but also were
experiencing fast growth in the United States. The strong competitive pressures forced
companies to search for low-cost locations around the world. Based on this strategy, CINDE was
able to attract DSC Communications Corporation, as well as other HT-MNCs to the country.
CINDE acquired a deeper understanding of the industry and learned that Intel was starting the
site selection process for an assembly and testing plant for one of its newest chips. CINDE
designed a campaign that ultimately landed a $300 million investment in Costa Rica by Intel
(Cordero & Paus, 2008; Rodríguez-Clare, 2001; World Bank Group, 2006). With Intel’s decision
to invest in Costa Rica, it became clear that attracting HT-MNCs to the country was feasible and
potentially effective as a part of the development strategy of the country. What was then a
CINDE strategy became a national strategy (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
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FDI and MNCs in Costa Rica
Development of the Costa Rican economy over the past several decades has been
influenced to a large extent by MNCs with implications affecting the workforce and educational
system (Hanson, 2001; Jensen, 2003; Paus & Gallagher, 2008). The workforce skills and
knowledge required as a result of the economic development are different than what was needed
when Costa Rica was solely an agrarian society. As a result, the Costa Rican educational system
has been required to adjust policy and curricula to equip students with the skills and knowledge
required by MNC employers.
Costa Rica is not alone in the influence of globalization. As global trade increases, the
impact of globalization is felt worldwide. The 2001 United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development’s World Investment Report suggested that domestic suppliers can benefit from
linkages to multinational subsidiaries as such linkages serve as channels for spreading
knowledge and skills. MNCs have incentives to improve the productivity of their suppliers by
providing training, ensuring quality control, and upgrading suppliers’ production capabilities
(Blalock & Gertler, 2005). Such incentives encourage direct transfer of knowledge among
MNCs. Moreover, FDI serves as a catalyst for economic growth by providing developing
countries with both physical capital and employment opportunities that might not be available
through other channels. In addition, FDI benefits developing countries by transferring
technology from more advanced countries (Jensen, 2003). FDI is one of the ways in which
globalization has helped developing countries (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). According to Mughal
and Vechiu (2009), FDI in the form of capital, technology, and technical and managerial skills is
playing a larger role in developing countries such as Costa Rica. While some researchers argue
that there are certain benefits to FDI (Jensen, 2003; Mughal & Vechiu, 2009), others oppose
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FDI, arguing that it is not beneficial to the host country (Paus & Gallagher, 2008). Critics of FDI
argue that countries seeking FDI assume that positive spillover effects will benefit the host
country. Critics further argue that such positive spillover effects have not been found in case
studies of developing countries (Paus & Gallagher, 2008). Regardless of the position taken
regarding FDI, the potential benefits noted are major reasons why many countries seek to attract
FDI as a strategy to aid economic development.
Giuliani (2008) suggested that the potential for spillover effects from FDI is dependent
on the type of industry. Giuliani posited that, by attracting FDI from HT-MNCs, Costa Rica
received greater potential for spillover effects than for other types of industries, such as low-tech
or natural resource-based materials. According to Giuliani, HT industries have a higher value
added than low-tech or natural resource industries and are less subject to fluctuations in
international price and product commodification (Giuliani, 2008).
Similar to many developing countries, Costa Rica has encouraged FDI as a strategy to aid
economic development. Empirical research has suggested that FDI is sensitive to both host
country tax policies and economic conditions, including the education level of the labor force,
overall market size, and the size of the local industrial base (Hanson, 2001). With the assistance
of CINDE, Costa Rica has increased the country’s appeal to MNCs through incentive programs
that have proven successful at attracting FDI.
Costa Rica took several measures to increase its appeal to MNCs. Seeking to attract FDI
and free itself from financial crisis, Costa Rica unified exchange rates in 1983, officially
acknowledging the de facto devaluation of the colon and eliminated the gap between the black
market rates and banking rates (Clark, 1995). In addition, CINDE created and obtained political
support for a series of export incentives that served to attract HT-MNCs (Clark, 1995). These
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incentives included a package of fiscal benefits and tax exemptions known as the export contract
and special import arrangements for industries engaged in light assembly work and free trade
zone (FTZ) legislation (Clark, 1995). The FTZ provided incentives for export manufacturing
companies, export trade companies excluding producers, export service companies,
organizations engaged in scientific research, or manufacturing firms (CINDE, 2010).
Tax exemptions were one of the primary incentives received by eligible organizations.
One of the tax incentives provided manufacturing organizations that export more than 75% of
their production in Costa Rican operations with a 100% exemption on corporate income tax for
the first 8 years and a 50% exemption during the following 4 years. Another tax exemption is
provided to large-scale manufacturers that have $10 million or more in annual spending and 100
or more employees. Such firms receive a 100% exemption on corporate income tax, a 10%
income tax credit to be used toward domestic and foreign training, as well as up to 10 years of
income tax deferral. In addition to the tax benefits, all companies operating under the FTZ, with
no time limit, receive 100% exemption on import duties, export and excise taxes, and a
repatriation tax on remittances, among others (CINDE, 2010). These incentives, coupled with a
well-educated workforce, respectable infrastructure, and strategic port locations, have
contributed to Costa Rica’s success at attracting FDI (Clark, 1995).
Efforts by CINDE and the Costa Rican government to attract FDI have proven
successful. In 1996, Intel decided to locate its $300 million semiconductor assembly and test
plant in Costa Rica. Also in 1996, Cisco started operations in Costa Rica and maintained an
office that served as the headquarters for Central America. In 1995 Microsoft started operations
in Costa Rica. Although the mid to late 1990s was a period of increased FDI from HT companies
in Costa Rica, it is important to note that other HT companies had operations in Costa Rica prior
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to the 1990s. Firms such as Siemens, Bticino, Eaton, and Panasonic began to invest in Costa Rica
as early as the 1950s (Giuliani, 2008).
Intel’s decision to invest in Costa Rica in 1996 was significant because of its magnitude
and name recognition that conveyed positive signals relative to Costa Rica. It led other MNCs to
believe that Costa Rica had met the requirements of Intel’s due diligence as a viable country in
which to invest, known as the “signaling effect,” and therefore paved the way for other firms to
follow Intel’s lead (OECD, 2012; World Bank Group, 2006). By 2005, the number of foreign
electronics firms investing in Costa Rica grew to more than 50, employing over 11,000 people
and with exports reaching $2.12 million (Giuliani, 2008). In addition to attracting firms in the
electronics industry, Costa Rica has attracted many companies that manufacture medical devices.
Such medical device manufactures followed the lead set by Baxter in 1987 and include world
leaders such as Hospira, Boston Scientific, Arthrocare, Inamed, and Coloplast (CINDE, 2013b).
The growth in FDI in Costa Rica demonstrates the successful relationship among foreign
investors, CINDE, and the government of Costa Rica. This relationship has been visible within
the country and promoted and recognized abroad (World Bank Group, 2006).
FDI and MNCs in Costa Rica have led to both economic development and challenges for
the Costa Rican educational system. As Intel alone accounted for nearly 25% of the country’s
exports between 1999 and 2006, FDI has played a major role in the economic development of
Costa Rica (Paus & Gallagher, 2008). While Costa Rica experiences a high rate of elementary
enrollment as education is compulsory and free, the country continues to struggle to increase
enrollment at the secondary and tertiary levels, resulting in challenges to provide a labor force
equipped with the skills and knowledge required by MNCs (Monge-González & González-
Alvarado, 2007).
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In response to the increased demand for a skilled workforce, Costa Rica has made
strategic changes to parts of its educational system. One of the changes has been to increase
resources assigned to tertiary education and to increase scholarships available for university
students with limited resources (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007). Another change
was targeted at increasing human capital with English language proficiency by creating the
National English Plan, which has a goal of creating competent English language users who are
able to communicate effectively in a work environment (CINDE, 2013b). In addition to moving
toward an English-speaking workforce, there has been increased recognition of the importance of
technology skills, which are now included in elementary level curricula to increase fluency in the
language of the globalized business world.
Since first investing in Costa Rica in 1996, Intel has supported improvements to the
Costa Rican educational system. As part of the initial conditional agreement that brought Intel to
Costa Rica, Intel required improvements in the Costa Rican educational system to ensure that
Costa Rican human capital had the skills and knowledge required by Intel. The agreement called
for Intel to contribute annual funding reaching $700,000 and donations of laboratories to
technical professional high schools and universities. In 2001, these contributions reached
$2,500,000 in electronics and English language laboratories (Monge-González & González-
Alvarado, 2007). At the tertiary level, these improvements have resulted in implementation of
several programs and enhanced curricula (World Bank Group, MIGA, 2006). One example
occurred with the Instituto Tecnológico de Costa Rica (ITCR), which under its “Intel Associate”
status, has introduced new degree programs, strengthened and updated its teachers’ knowledge in
several technical fields, and improved its financial position (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). Intel has
also supported elementary and secondary schools through implementation of various programs
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and donations of technological equipment. Moreover, Intel invests in teacher support and
training in Costa Rica by contributing approximately $300,000 per year for teacher support and
training targeted at improving teacher preparation in the areas of science, mathematics, technical
education, and computing to help students to acquire skills that are needed for the 21st century
(Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007). Intel has influenced enrollment of Costa Rican
students in careers such as computer science and electronics and provided resource support for
the Costa Rican educational system (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007).
While not at the same magnitude, other MNCs, including Microsoft and Cisco, have also
taken measures to improve the Costa Rican educational system. Microsoft has aided the Costa
Rican educational system mostly notably through its Partners in Learning initiative, which has
allowed some Costa Rican schools to interact with technology that would otherwise not be
available to them due to financial constraints and/or technological access (Monge-González &
González-Alvarado, 2007). Cisco established the Cisco Networking Academy in Costa Rica in
1999 to train students in skills to design, create, and maintain computer networks. The Cisco
Networking Academy provides opportunities for students to acquire skills needed for
information technology (IT)-related jobs and pursue recognized certifications in the
communications technologies industry, thus giving them a distinct advantage in response to the
market’s technology requirements (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007). Aid from
Microsoft and Cisco has helped to improve students’ preparedness for the change in human
capital required by the global marketplace.
It is important to note that the Omar Dengo Foundation (ODF), a private nonprofit
organization founded in 1987, has launched and manages national and regional projects in the
areas of educational innovation and the social benefits of new technologies (ODF, 2014). The
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ODF has partnered with several national and international companies, including not only Intel,
Microsoft, and Cisco but also Dell, HP, Motorola, LG, and many more to ensure productive
relationships for renovation of national educational processes. ODF projects have benefited more
than 1.5 million Costa Ricans since 1987.
FDI and MNCs have played a major role in advancing curricula and technological
aspects of education in some Costa Rican schools and universities. FDI and MNCs, coupled with
efforts of nonprofit organizations such as ODF, have improved the Costa Rican educational
system and laid a foundation for further improvements.
Economic Growth and Education
This section examines literature that addresses the impact of globalization on education,
along with efforts made by educational systems to foster and encourage student development of
skills and knowledge that have been shown to attract FDI and MNCs. The efforts and methods
reviewed include PBL to encourage and foster student development in STEM subjects, STEM
PBL, PD, and PLCs. The section concludes with a discussion of the role of science fairs in
encouraging STEM development and a culture of science and technology.
Impact of Globalization on Education
The world economy has experienced significant technological developments and
economic growth over the past two centuries (Wagner, 2010). Wagner (2010) asserted that the
world economy, once comprised of many separate and isolated markets, is now a more
centralized and global economy as a result of improvements in communication technology,
transportation, and political influences. The global economy today is one where large
international companies operate with plants in multiple countries, offering opportunities to
increase production levels, reduce costs, and offer products in greater quantities and at lower
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prices to consumers. There are many benefits to the new world economy, including opportunities
for third world and developing countries to grow with improved job opportunities and quality of
life for their citizenry. There are also new challenges, including increased competition for labor,
natural resources, and products. The increased competition in today’s global economy has direct
implications for the labor forces and educational systems of individual countries (Clifton, 2011).
One of the implications of today’s global economy is that workers of a particular country are not
only competing for jobs with other workers within the same geographical area, they are now
competing for jobs with workers of many other countries (Clifton, 2011). Clifton asserted that, in
order to support a competitive workforce, countries should consider the skills that employers
desire and provide educational opportunities to develop such skills in future workers.
In a classical piece of literature covering the topic of investment in human capital,
Schultz (1961) theorized that investments are made in education by individuals and society for
three primary reasons. The first two reasons include short-term and long-term cultural reasons,
including personal growth and development, personal interests, and cultural knowledge. The
third reason is for future economic benefit. For example, future earnings power is an important
motivational factor for engineers and medical doctors to invest time and financial resources in
education. From a societal perspective, there is motivation to allocate resources to education as a
way of improving the quality of life of citizens, advancing economic development, creating job
opportunities, improving technology for public benefit, and global competition.
STEM
From an economic standpoint, STEM-related professions have been shown to foster
economic stability through innovation and technological advancement (Marshall, 2009; Pfeiffer
et al., 2009). Research demonstrates that countries with a higher proportion of engineering
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college majors experience greater economic growth and development (Murphy et al., 1990).
These findings are corroborated by findings of a study conducted by Hanushek and Kimko
(2000), which identified evidence that economic and production growth rates of countries center
on human capital. Specifically, the quality of a nation’s labor force, as measured by comparative
performance on tests in mathematics and science, is consistently correlated with a nation’s
production levels and economic growth (Hanushek & Kimko, 2000). This is important because it
demonstrates that a labor force educated in STEM-related fields is a key component to a
country’s economic growth and development and a key component in supporting the need for
investment in education as a way for countries to remain competitive in the global economy.
According to the National Governors’ Association (2008), pre-college STEM programs
create opportunities for students to build competence and interest in STEM areas. Effective
STEM curriculum nurtures student problem solving and inventive thinking (Marshall, 2009).
Marshall (2009) suggested that STEM courses should focus on creative exploration, projects,
problem solving, and innovation rather than on rote memorization of facts, which dominates
instructional practices in many schools.
STEM PBL
To address the challenges of traditional instructional approaches, innovative institutions
are employing instructional methods, such as PBL, aimed at building knowledge and innovative
skills (Wagner, 2012). PBL emphasizes learning activities that are long-term, interdisciplinary,
student centered, and integrated with real-world issues (Capraro et al., 2013). PBL differs from
classroom activities that are teacher centered with short isolated lessons. The PBL approach
bridges discrete subject areas into projects that address challenging questions that are salient to
students. Teachers are viewed as facilitators, mentors, or coaches rather than deliverers of
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knowledge. Rather than provide students with direct information, the role of teachers in PBL is
to guide the learning process through effective questioning. In PBL, teachers share control of the
learning environment with students.
STEM is well suited for PBL because of the overlap of STEM fields. There are direct
benefits to STEM PBL, such as the integration of interdisciplinary subjects, application of
engineering principles, increased motivation, and increased interest in STEM fields (Capraro et
al., 2013). STEM PBL has been defined as ill-defined projects or tasks used for the attainment of
well-defined outcomes. Well-defined outcomes of STEM PBL programs originate from the dual
influence of the engineering design process and accountability standards. STEM PBL results in
various learning outcomes by using projects assigned to students to give students the opportunity
to utilize knowledge from interdisciplinary subjects while employing creativity, collaboration,
and imagination. Project outcomes may include a variety of formats such as speeches,
presentations, products, or models. Capraro, Capraro, and Morgan (2013) identified three
components of well-defined outcomes: (a) the deliverable that students produce, (b) project
constraints or limitations to keep the project within boundaries, and (c) learning that takes place
through completing the project. Ill-defined tasks of STEM PBL projects can be complex with
little or no structure to provide students with opportunities to draw on knowledge and content
from interdisciplinary subjects and real-world topics (Chin & Chia, 2006). Such ill-defined tasks
integrate both engineering principles with interdisciplinary subjects, allowing application of
creativity, imagination, and collaboration.
PD, PLCs, and Observation Instruments
To increase student interest in STEM, there has been significant growth in programs and
PD targeted at STEM (Capraro et al., 2013). Research has shown that PLCs, coupled with long-
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term targeted PD, lead to improved implementation of STEM PBL in classrooms (Sterns et al.,
2012). Wilson (2011) asserted that implementation of STEM PBL programs can be
compromised by inadequate PD or short-term PD events with little or no follow-up. Wilson
contended that, in order to increase the effectiveness of PD, it must move beyond short-term
training sessions to long-term recurring training. While long-term PD coupled with PLCs and
classroom observations has been shown to increase the success of STEM PBL (Sterns et al.,
2012), according to the National Research Council (2011), PD is often short, fragmented,
ineffective, and not designed to address targeted needs. According to the National Research
Council, effective PD should focus on three areas: (a) developing teachers’ capabilities and
knowledge to teach specific subject matter, (b) addressing teachers’ classroom work and issues
encountered in school settings, and (c) providing multiple and sustained opportunities for teacher
learning over substantial time intervals.
PLCs can support STEM education by enhancing curriculum and improving the PBL
implementation school-wide (Liddicoat, 2008). The primary goals of PLCs are to provide
teachers with time to reflect and plan and to engage fully in a professional task (Krause,
Culbertson, Oehrtman, & Carlson, 2008). Krause et al. demonstrated that PLCs create a positive
community of collaboration with common goals to advance STEM. PLCs represent an ongoing
process in which educators work collaboratively using inquiry and action research to improve
results for students (DuFour, DuFour, Eaker, & Many, 2010).
Research demonstrates that, in order to increase the effectiveness of PD, the content of
PD should be data driven and aligned with specific STEM PBL objectives (Sterns et al., 2012).
The use of well-designed classroom observation instruments, followed by constructive feedback
given to teachers, aids in improvement and implementation of STEM PBL programs.
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Resources
The will and skill of teachers are complemented by resources. Students and teachers
cannot use resources that they do not have, but the resources that do have are not self-acting
(Cohen, Raudenbush, & Ball, 2003). Cohen et al. (2003) described three types of resources:
conventional resources, personal resources, and environmental and social resources.
Conventional resources include things that money can buy, such as books, buildings, class size,
libraries, and teacher training and professional development. Personal resources include the will,
skill, and knowledge of teachers and students. Environmental and social resources include
professional leadership, family support, academic norms, systemic guidance for instruction. An
important point made by Cohen et al. was that access to resources creates opportunities for
resource use but does not guarantee resource use. This is where the will and skill of teachers and
student becomes very important. The effects of resources depend on both access and use.
Resources are facilitators or inhibitors of teaching and learning.
Science Fairs
Science fairs are competitions in which scientific projects created by students are
displayed and judged (Intel, 2014). The many benefits of science fairs include promotion of a
culture of science and technology. In addition, science fairs provide participants with
opportunities to improve and develop science skills, win awards and scholarships, prepare for
college, meet scientists, and be exposed to college and STEM career opportunities. Such
opportunities have been shown to increase student interest in STEM fields.
Costa Rica has recognized the value of student participation in science fairs and, as a
result, has instituted the PRONAFECYT, which is designed to stimulate the creativity of
students, promote a culture of science and technology, and develop scientific thinking and
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knowledge of students (Chacón, 2011). Science fairs in Costa Rica date back to the 1960s and
have grown dramatically following a national executive decree in 2004 that grants participation
at different levels and in different research categories of the science fair process to all students,
from preschool through high school. Costa Rican schools with organized science fairs have
grown in number from 710 in 2000 to 3,019 in 2005.
In 1999 the Costa Rican science fairs became affiliated with the Intel International
Science and Engineering Fair (ISEF), the largest pre-college science competition in the world
(Intel, 2014). The ISEF began as a national science fair in 1950 and became an international
event in 1958 with participation by Canada, Germany, and Japan. The ISEF has been sponsored
by Intel since 1997 and now includes participants from approximately 70 countries, regions, and
territories. Of the approximately 7 million students who participate worldwide in local science
fairs each year, slightly more than 1,800 of the top participants advance from local fairs to
national fairs and to the ISEF. The ISEF participants compete for individual and team awards
amounting to nearly $5 million annually. The largest of the awards is $75,000. As of 2012, seven
alumni of the ISEF have gone on to win the Nobel Prize.
Advancing to participate in the ISEF is a prestigious event not only for the participants
but also for their families and the countries and regions that they represent. Participating and
winning a prize at the ISEF demonstrates the intelligence, knowledge, and quality of the
educational system of the countries and regions represented. In a competitive global
environment, these are important messages that help to attract FDI.
Twenty-First-Century Skills
In response to increased competition present in today’s global economy, employers
require certain skills and knowledge from employees in order to compete (Wagner, 2010). This
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section examines literature that focuses on the 21st-century skills required by employers in
today’s competitive global economy.
Evolution of the world’s economy has had a direct impact on the skills that employers
require from employees in today’s competitive global economy (Wagner, 2010). As asserted by
Wagner (2010), skills that are most desired by employers have evolved to include seven key
skills: critical thinking and problem solving, collaboration and leading by influence, agility and
adaptability, initiative and entrepreneurialism, effective oral and written communication,
accessing and analyzing information, curiosity and imagination. Wagner (2010) posited in The
Global Achievement Gap that education is needed to provide these skills to students for students
to be competitive. Wagner, Rotherham, and Willingham (2010) suggested that an increasing
number of business leaders, politicians, and educators support the idea that education should
provide students with opportunities to learn new 21st-century skills. These 21st-century skills
identified by Rotherham and Willingham are similar to those named by Wagner and include
critical thinking, problem solving, information literacy, global awareness, mastery of knowledge,
self-direction, collaboration, creativity, and innovation. Although Rotherham and Willingham
support the need to provide students with opportunities to learn these skills, they argued that the
skills noted by many as 21st-century skills are not new and have been taught historically at
effective schools and by good teachers. They posited three improvements to improve the quality
of education to a level that will provide equitable opportunities for all students. First, better
curriculum is needed that specifically addresses the desired skills. Second, teachers should
collaborate and share experiences and employ more effective instructional methods, such as
problem-based learning and PBL. Such methods allow students to collaborate, work on authentic
problems, and engage with the community. The third improvement area noted by Rotherham and
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Willingham is the need for better assessments to measure and monitor progress toward intended
goals.
Innovative Skills
The importance of an innovative labor force and methods of developing innovation skills
was examined in Creating Innovators: The Making of Young People Who Will Change the World
(Wagner, 2012). Wagner reasoned that innovators solve problems and are needed in the labor
force to make improvements that benefit society. Such innovations and improvements are
viewed as critical components of the success of entrepreneurs, which leads to business growth
and employment opportunities. Over recent decades, the impact of a more globalized economy
has resulted in creation of many jobs in countries such as China, India, and Costa Rica, which
offer labor at lower costs relative to other countries. These increases in jobs come at the expense
of job losses in other countries, such as the United States. With improving labor forces
throughout the world, this trend is expected to continue as companies seek quality labor at a
lower cost point. For countries to be competitive in attracting international firms in today’s
global economy, labor forces must become more innovative (Wagner, 2012).
Warner (2012) defined innovation based on insights from interviews with successful
innovators, academic scholars, administrators, and business leaders. Innovation refers to original
ideas that have value at improving current ways of doing things or developing new ways of
doing things. Innovation can also be viewed as creative problem solving. A general consensus
noted by Wagner is that there are two types of innovation: incremental and disruptive.
Incremental innovation involves making improvements to existing technologies, practices,
services, or processes. In comparison, disruptive or transformative innovation involves creating
something fundamentally new or different. Innovation comes in many forms. For example,
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innovation can take place with technological advancements, such as the iPhone, or in customer
service practices to improve how customers are treated and served. Another example is how
Martin Luther King was an exceptional transformative social innovator by using nonviolent
strategies during the civil rights movement. These are examples of improvements made through
innovation.
Wagner (2010) identified skills that are most desired by employers in The Global
Achievement Gap. Such skills include critical thinking and problem solving, collaboration and
leading by influence, agility and adaptability, initiative and entrepreneurship, accessing and
analytical skills, oral and written communication skills, and curiosity and imagination (Wagner
2008). According to Wagner (2012), although the skills referred to in The Global Achievement
Gap matter most in today’s world, they are not sufficient for individuals to be successful
innovators. While the seven survival skills include some of the qualities that innovators possess,
such as curiosity and imagination, other qualities of innovators are lacking, such as perseverance,
a willingness to take risks, ability to tolerate failure, willingness to experiment, and a capacity for
design thinking.
This leads to the questions of what are the characteristics of innovators and can such
characteristics be developed and learned. Research shows that successful innovators tend to be
curious, collaborative, empathetic, integrative thinkers, optimistic, questioning, and observing,
with a bias toward action and experimentation (Brown, 2008; Dyer, Gregersen, & Christensen
2009; Wagner 2012). Wagner (2012) asserted that the characteristics of innovators are habits of
mind that can be nurtured, taught, and mentored. Other research has shown that characteristics of
innovators can be developed and learned (Brown, 2008; Dyer et al., 2009).
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Similar to Wagner (2012), Dyer, Gregersen, and Christensen (2009) performed a 6-year
study examining the habits of 25 innovative entrepreneurs and found that innovators possessed
five key skills: associating, questioning, observing, experimenting, and networking. Associating
relates to how well a range of fields or subjects can be drawn upon to solve problems.
Questioning is a skill involving continually asking how to do something better and asking
questions such as why, why not, and what if. Innovators also observe others or processes to gain
insights about ways to make improvements. Innovators are risk takers and experiment with ideas.
They often fail but failure is viewed as a part of doing business. Innovators are able to accept
failure. Finally, networking refers to innovators obtaining ideas and insights from networking
with others. Consistent with Wagner, research performed by Dyer et al. (2009) found that these
skills can be cultivated, developed, and learned.
Wagner (2012) discussed the challenges facing teaching and learning in the 21st century.
Society’s educational system is charged with preserving and transferring knowledge capital from
one generation to the next. As knowledge is an essential component of innovation, educational
systems must evaluate traditional approaches to learning that have commonly relied on
transferring information through rote memorization, with limited opportunities for students to
ask questions and discover things on their own. This is problematic because these practices are
essential to innovation.
In addition to the challenges noted with instructional methods, Wagner (2012) explained
that a common issue at the university level is the tenure track system in which research and
publication are encouraged in preference to the quality of teaching. All of the innovators
interviewed by Wagner referred to influential college instructors whom they had encountered
who had encouraged their growth. All of the instructors noted in the interviews of successful
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innovators were adjunct instructors who provided exceptional instruction but could not receive
tenure because they lacked a record of research. Wagner asserted that a system that limits tenure
to research faculty has the potential of limiting quality instruction.
A key question for educators is how to nurture and develop habits of mind found in
innovators: initiative, curiosity, imagination, creativity, collaboration skills, and analytical
abilities. A related question is how to nurture and develop qualities of character: persistence,
empathy, and a strong moral foundation. A conceptual framework developed by Amabile (1998)
to encourage creativity was used by Wagner (2012) to encourage development of habits of mind
and qualities of character found in successful innovators. The framework includes three
components: expertise, motivation, and creative thinking skills. Innovation is encouraged when
all three components intersect. Motivation is seen as the most important of the three components,
as motivation determines what people will actually do. Wagner identified two kinds of
motivation: extrinsic and intrinsic. Extrinsic motivation refers to external sources such as grades
on an assignment or money. Intrinsic motivation is stronger than extrinsic motivation and stems
from the person’s internal desire and passion to do something. Wagner posited that three factors
influence intrinsic motivation: play, passion, and purpose. Play allows people to explore,
experiment, and imagine new possibilities. From play comes passion, which is the desire to learn
more and master a topic that is found to be interesting. In turn, passion leads to a deeper and
more mature sense of purpose.
Theoretical Frameworks
Four theoretical frameworks provided guidance for this study in the areas of leadership,
the change process, STEM PBL, and PLCs. The frameworks will be utilized to assess, in their
specific areas, the development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative in Costa
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Rican schools. First, from a leadership standpoint, the Bolman and Deal (2008) leadership
framework provides a structure for the multiframed perspectives utilized by leaders to
understand and address challenges encountered when implementing science fair programs.
Second, the change process framework presented by Kotter (1995) will be used to assess change
efforts employed during the implementation of science fairs in Costa Rican schools. The third
framework is based on the work of Capraro et al. (2013), which provides a basis for
understanding STEM PBL. The fourth framework addresses components of PLCs and is based
on work by DuFour and Marzano (2011).
Leadership
The leadership framework of Bolman and Deal (2008) will be utilized in this study to
assess educational leadership and leaders’ ability to implement science fair programs effectively
in their respective schools. According to Bolman and Deal, the ability to view situations with
appropriate perspectives, or frames, can reduce the risk of misreading situations that could lead
to misguided decisions. The frames can influence action taken by leaders and the corresponding
level of success or failure. The framework of Bolman and Deal identifies four frames from which
people view organizational situations: structural, human resources, political, and symbolic.
The structural frame emphasizes goals and efficiency. It posits that effective
organizations define clear goals, assign specific roles to people, and coordinate activities through
polices, rules, and chain of command (Bolman & Deal, 1991). Placing people in the right roles
and relationships is needed to accomplish organizational goals in an efficient and effective
manner. Leaders who utilize the structural frame value analysis and data, hold people
accountable, and try to solve problems with new policies and rules or through restructuring.
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The assumption under the human resource frame is that organizations and people need
each other and that organizations exist to serve human needs (Bolman & Deal, 2008). Leaders
who utilize the human resource frame value relationships and feelings and tend to define
problems in individual or interpersonal terms. Human resource leaders look for ways to adjust
people to fit organizations through training or development.
When utilizing the political frame, organizations are viewed by leaders as coalitions of
various individuals and interest groups with differences in values, beliefs, information, interests,
and perceptions of reality (Bolman & Deal, 2008). Allocation of scarce resources between
coalitions is an important decision that often leads to conflict and makes power the most
important resource. Goals and decisions emerge from bargaining and negotiating for position
among stakeholders.
The symbolic frame is the most subjective frame, where meaning and predictability are
social creations and facts are interpretative rather than objective (Bolman & Deal, 1991).
Symbolic leaders use charisma and drama, paying attention to myth, ritual, and ceremony to
instill a sense of enthusiasm and commitment. In addition, symbolic leaders believe that team
building is a key component to the success of an organization.
Change Leadership
The change leadership framework of Kotter (1995) will be utilized to assess the
effectiveness of school leadership as it relates to making changes needed to develop and
implement the PRONAFECYT initiative. The framework posits that the change process goes
through a series of phases and that the collective process usually requires a considerable amount
of time. Kotter (1995) suggested eight phases be completed in sequential order, with the caution
that bypassing or failing to complete any phase can have a devastating impact on the overall
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change process. The eight phases of the change leadership framework of Kotter are (a)
establishing a sense of urgency by identifying the need for change, (b) forming a group with
enough power to lead the change effort, (c) creating a vision to help direct the change effort and
a strategy for achieving the vision, (d) communicating the vision effectively, (e) removing
obstacles and empowering others to act consistent with the vision, (f) planning for and creating
short-term success opportunities, (g) using short-term success to build confidence and support to
address larger-scale change initiatives, and (h) institutionalizing new processes and behaviors
that have resulted from the change process.
The first phase identified by Kotter (1995) is to develop a sense of urgency for change by
identifying negative trends or outcomes that will continue or worsen if change is not instituted.
The key to this phase is to identify unfavorable or negative trends or outcomes that require
change in order to improve. Identifying unfavorable or negative trends that require improvement
substantiates the need for change and provides a foundation for motivating change efforts.
The second phase of change is to form a guiding coalition that supports the change effort
and has enough power and influence to lead and guide the effort (Kotter, 1995). While a change
effort may begin with ideas of one individual or a small group, in order to be fully executed, a
coalition is needed to support and guide the effort. Within this phase, Kotter (1995) posited that
the coalition needs enough power to guide and direct the change. It is also important for the
coalition to work together as a team toward a common vision which leads to the third phase,
creating a vision.
The third phase of change is to create a vision to direct change efforts by clarifying the
direction in which an organization should move (Kotter, 1995). Included in this phase is the
development of strategies needed to achieve the vision.
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Once a clear vision is established, the fourth phase of change is to communicate the
vision (Kotter, 1995). Communication of the vision is a key area of the change process because it
shares the vision with others, communicates the importance of the vision, builds support for
change, and continually reinforces the vision. Communication should not take place only once.
Kotter asserted the importance of frequently communicating the vision as a way of reinforcing
and encouraging the effort. In addition to common communication techniques, such as
newsletters and speeches, communications include actions taken by leaders that can be viewed
by others as consistent with or in conflict with change efforts. According to Kotter, actions can
often be a more powerful message relative to newsletters and speeches.
The fifth phase of change is to empower others to act in a manner consistent with the
vision (Kotter, 1995). According to Kotter, in order for a change effort to succeed, obstacles or
structures that hinder or prevent actions consistent with the change effort must be removed.
While some of the obstacles may be in the mindset of individuals, others are real.
The sixth phase of change is to plan for and create short-term success opportunities
(Kotter, 1995). According to Kotter, change efforts can continue for years and, as a result,
motivation and urgency can sway in the absence of evidence supporting progress. Such evidence
is often success made at intermediate progress points to provide motivation and confidence to
continue change efforts.
Short-term wins from the sixth phase are garnered to build momentum in the seventh
phase, to continue change efforts and address more challenging situations (Kotter, 1995).
According to Kotter (1995), success from short-term wins leads to increases in credibility,
confidence, and momentum in the change systems to encourage continued change and efforts to
allow change in more challenging situations. Kotter cautioned that it is important not to become
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overly satisfied with short-term wins, which can lead to declaration of victory and abandonment
of change efforts.
The eighth and final phase of the change process is to institutionalize new approaches
(Kotter, 1995). Institutionalization is accomplished through articulating the connections between
new approaches and success. Kotter also noted the importance of leadership development to
ensure succession of new approaches.
STEM PBL
Work by Capraro et al. (2013) provides a framework used to inform this study as it
relates to understanding STEM PBL education. STEM PBL has been defined as ill-defined
projects or tasks used for the attainment of well-defined outcomes (Capraro et al., 2013). Well-
defined outcomes of STEM PBL programs originate from the dual influence of the engineering
design process and accountability standards (Capraro et al., 2013). PBL results in various
learning outcomes by using projects assigned to students which give students the opportunity to
utilize knowledge from interdisciplinary subjects while employing creativity, collaboration, and
imagination. Project outcomes may include a variety of formats including speeches,
presentations, products, or models. There are three components of well-defined outcomes: (a)
clearly stated deliverables informing students what they are required to produce, (b) project
constraints or limitations to keep the project within boundaries, and (c) learning that takes place
while projects are completed.
Ill-defined tasks of STEM PBL projects can be complex with little or no structure
providing students with opportunities to draw upon knowledge and content from
interdisciplinary subjects and real-world topics (Capraro et al., 2013). Such ill-defined tasks
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integrate both engineering principles with interdisciplinary subjects, allowing the application of
creativity, imagination, and collaboration.
STEM PBL emphasizes learning activities that are long-term, interdisciplinary, student-
centered, and integrated with real-world issues (Capraro et al., 2013). The STEM PBL approach
bridges discrete subject areas into projects that address challenging questions that are salient to
students. Teachers are viewed as facilitators, mentors, or coaches rather than delivers of
knowledge. Rather than providing students with direct information, the role of teachers in STEM
PBL is to guide the learning process through effective questioning. In addition, with STEM PBL,
teachers share control of the learning environment with students.
PLCs
PLCs can support STEM education by enhancing curriculum and improving the PBL
implementation school-wide (Liddicoat, 2008). The primary goals of PLCs are to provide
teachers with time to reflect and plan and to fully engage in a professional task (Krause, et al.,
2008). The research of Krause et al. (2008) also demonstrated that PLCs create a positive
community of collaboration with common goals advancing STEM. PLCs represent an ongoing
process in which educators work collaboratively using inquiry and action research to improve
results for students (DuFour et al., 2010).
The work of DuFour and Marzano (2011) provides a framework of seven components or
processes included in effective PLCs: (a) organize staff into meaningful teams, (b) provide teams
with time to collaborate, (c) provide supportive structures that help groups become teams, (d)
clarify the work the team must accomplish, (e) monitor the work of teams and provide direction
and support as needed, (f) avoid shortcuts in the collaboration team process, and (g) celebrate
short-term wins, and confront those who do not contribute to their teams.
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Summary of the Literature Review
This chapter examined literature that serves to inform and guide this research study and
provide an understanding of the effects of educational leadership on the participation and success
of initiatives designed to increase student competencies in the areas of STEM and 21st-century
skills in schools and universities in Costa Rica. To accomplish this, five key areas of literature
were reviewed: (a) globalization, (b) history of Costa Rica, (c) impact of globalization on
education, (b) 21st-century skills, and (e) theoretical frameworks. The literature reviewed
demonstrates that globalization has resulted in increased competition among nations participating
in the global economy and, as a result, has had a direct impact on skills and knowledge required
by employers and a direct impact on educational policy (Hitts et al., 1998; Wagner, 2010).
Moreover, literature demonstrates that there are advantages to attracting FDI (Jensen, 2003;
Mughal & Vechiu, 2009) and one of the ways to attract FDI is by having an educated workforce
with 21st-centry skills (Hanson, 2001). In response to the skills required from labor as a result of
globalization, nations have and are implementing instructional programs to encourage and foster
student learning in areas specifically related to 21st-century skills (Wagner, 2010). Costa Rica
has been successful at attracting FDI and MNCs with incentives, infrastructure, and an educated
workforce (Clark, 1995). Mandating participation in the PRONAFECYT is one of the strategies
implemented by Costa Rica to encourage STEM development and a culture of science and
technology (Chacón, 2011). The four theoretical frameworks cited within this chapter have been
selected to provide guidance for this study in the areas of leadership, the change process, STEM
PBL, and PLCs. The frameworks will be utilized to assess, in their specific areas, the
participation in science fair programs in Costa Rican schools.
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CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Restatement of the Background, Problem, Purpose, and
Research Questions
Globalization is defined as the “integration of economies and societies through cross
country flows of information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance and people”
(Misra, 2012, p. 69). Globalization has a direct impact on cultural, geopolitical, and social
changes, of which schooling is encompassed (Spring, 2008). Globalization has resulted in
increased competition among nations participating in the global economy and as a result, has had
a direct impact on skills and knowledge required by employers and a direct impact on education
policy. For a nation to succeed economically in an ever-increasingly interconnected global
economy, changes to the local economy and educational system must occur (Biesanz et al., 1999;
Friedman, 2007). Attracting FDI in the form of capital, technology, technical and managerial
skills serves as a catalyst for economic growth of developing countries and one of the ways to
attract FDI is by having an educated workforce with 21st-century skills (Hanson, 2001; Jensen,
2003; Mughal & Vechiu, 2009). In response to the skills required from human capital as a result
of globalization, nations have and are implementing instructional programs to encourage and
foster student learning in areas specifically related to 21st-century skills (Wagner, 2010).
Costa Rica has been successful at attracting FDI and MNCs with incentives,
infrastructure, and an educated workforce (Clark, 1995). To further promote an educated
workforce, stimulate the creativity of students, promote a culture of science and technology, and
develop scientific thinking and knowledge of students, Costa Rica has mandated participation in
the PRONAFECYT (Chacón, 2011). While much research has been conducted addressing the
impact of globalization on educational policy, lacking is research examining the role of
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educational leadership on the participation in the PRONAFECYT in primary schools in Costa
Rica.
The purpose of this study was to understand the effects of educational leadership on the
participation in the PRONAFECYT in primary schools in Costa Rica. The study identified what
role school leaders have played in the development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT
initiative. The study also explored how schools may have restructured their educational programs
by focusing on sharing of leadership and teacher training.
The following research questions guided this study:
1. What is the role educational leaders play in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practice?
The preceding chapters provided an overview of the study and a review of salient
literature. This chapter provides an outline of the study and methodology including frameworks
utilized, research design, sample and population, instrumentation, data collection, data analysis,
and ethical considerations.
Frameworks
Four theoretical frameworks provided guidance for this study in the areas of leadership,
the change process, STEM PBL, and PLCs. The frameworks were utilized to assess, in their
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 67
specific areas, the development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative in Costa
Rican schools. First, from a leadership standpoint, the Bolman and Deal (2008) leadership
framework provided a structure for the multiframed perspectives utilized by leaders’ to
understand and address challenges encountered when implementing science fair programs.
Second, the change process framework of Kotter (1995) was used to assess change efforts
employed during the implementation of and participation in science fairs in Costa Rican schools.
The third framework is based on the work of Capraro et al. (2013) and provided a basis for
understanding STEM PBL. The forth framework covered components of PLCs and is based on
the work of DuFour and Marzano (2011).
The leadership framework of Bolman and Deal (2008) was utilized in this study to assess
educational leadership and their ability to effectively implement science fair programs in their
respective schools. According to Bolman and Deal, the ability to view situations with appropriate
perspectives, or frames, can reduce the risk of misreading situations which can lead to misguided
decisions. The frames utilized can impact action taken by leadership and the corresponding level
of success or failure. The framework of Bolman and Deal identifies four frames from which
people view organizational situations: structural, human resources, political, and symbolic. The
structural frame emphasizes goals and efficiency and argues that effective organizations define
clear goals, assign specific roles to people, and coordinate activities through polices, rules, and
chain of command. In the human resource frame, it is reasoned that organizations and people
need each other and that organizations exist to serve human needs. Leaders utilizing the human
resource frame value relationships and feelings and tend to define problems in individual or
interpersonal terms. According to the political frame, organizations, as viewed by leaders, are
coalitions of various individuals and interest groups with differences in values, beliefs,
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information, interests, and perceptions of reality. The symbolic frame is the most subjective
frame where meaning and predictability are social creations and facts are interpretative rather
than objective. Symbolic leaders use charisma and drama, paying attention to myth, ritual, and
ceremony to instill a sense of enthusiasm and commitment.
The change leadership framework of Kotter (1995) was utilized to assess the
effectiveness of school leadership as it relates to makings changes needed to implement the
PRONAFECYT in Costa Rican schools. The framework posits that the change process goes
through a series of phases and the collective process usually requires a considerable amount of
time (Kotter, 1995). The change leadership framework of Kotter identifies eight phases that are
need when leading through change: (a) establishing a sense of urgency by identifying the need
for change, (b) forming a group with enough power to lead the change effort, (c) creating a
vision to help direct the change effort and a strategy for achieving the vision, (d) effectively
communicating the vision, (e) removing obstacles and empowering others to act consistent with
the vision, (f) plan for and create short-term success opportunities, (g) use short-term success to
build confidence and support needed to address larger scale change initiatives, (h)
institutionalizing new processes and behaviors that have resulted from the change process. Kotter
asserts that the phases need to be completed in sequential order and bypassing or failing to
complete any phase can have a devastating impact on the overall change process.
The work of Capraro et al. (2013) provided a framework used to inform this study as it
relates to understanding STEM PBL education. STEM PBL has been defined as ill-defined
projects or tasks used for the attainment of well-defined outcomes (Capraro et al., 2013). Well-
defined outcomes of STEM PBL programs originate from the dual influence of the engineering
design process and accountability standards (Capraro et al., 2013). PBL results in various
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 69
learning outcomes by using projects assigned to students which give students the opportunity to
utilize knowledge from interdisciplinary subjects while employing creativity, collaboration, and
imagination. Project outcomes may include a variety of formats including speeches,
presentations, products, or models. There are three components of well-defined outcomes: (a)
clearly stated deliverables informing students what they are required to produce, (b) project
constraints or limitations to keep the project within boundaries, and (c) learning that takes place
while projects are completed.
PLCs can support STEM education by enhancing curriculum and improving the PBL
implementation school-wide (Liddicoat, 2008). The primary goals of PLCs are to provide
teachers with time to reflect and plan and to fully engage in a professional task (Krause et al.,
2008). The research of Krause et al. (2008) also demonstrated that PLCs create a positive
community of collaboration with common goals advancing STEM. PLCs represent an ongoing
process in which educators work collaboratively using inquiry and action research to improve
results for students (DuFour et al., 2010). The work of DuFour and Marzano (2011) provided a
framework of seven components or processes included in effective PLCs: (a) organize staff into
meaningful teams, (b) provide teams with time to collaborate, (c) provide supportive structures
that help groups become teams, (d) clarify the work the team must accomplish, (e) monitor the
work of teams and provide direction and support as needed, (f) avoid shortcuts in the
collaboration team process, and (g) celebrate short-term wins, and confront those who do not
contribute to their teams.
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Research Design
This research study was designed as a qualitative case study with multiple data collection
methods. Certain factors were considered while designing this study: research problem, nature of
the research questions, objective of the research questions, and available research approaches.
According to Maxwell (2013), research can be either inductive or deductive. While,
quantitative research methods are deductive and attempt to test existing theories, qualitative
methods of research are inductive as they are concerned with generating new theories from data.
If a concept or phenomenon needs to be understood because research is lacking, then a
qualitative approach is appropriate. There are five intellectual goals for which qualitative studies
are best suited: understanding meaning, understanding contexts, understanding processes,
identifying unanticipated influences, and developing casual explanations. As the objectives of
the research questions of this study are inductive in nature and the objectives are to understand
the meaning, contexts, and processes, a qualitative approach is reasoned to be the most
appropriate approach.
A case study strategy was utilized for this study. A case study is bounded by time and
activity, where information is collected using a variety of data collection methods to explore a
program or activity in depth (Stake, 1995). As this study is designed to examine leadership
practices, instructional strategies, and PD practices at various school sites in order to identify key
components in the development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT in Costa Rican
schools, a case study was reasoned to be the most appropriate strategy.
Research Team
The research team was led by Dr. Michael Escalante and his assistant, Dr. Oryla
Wiedoeft, both of the University of Southern California (USC) Rossier School of Education. The
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research team was comprised of a dissertation group of 18 USC doctoral students. The group
began meeting in July of 2014 and met one to two times per month to collaborate, establish
research questions, examine the research literature, and review potential conceptual frameworks
that would contribute to understanding the effects of educational leadership on the participation
in the PRONAFECYT in primary schools in Costa Rica. As a result of the many group aspects of
the thematic process of this dissertation cohort, there may be similarities in the dissertations.
Sample and Population
The purpose of this study was to understand the effects of educational leadership on the
participation in the PRONAFECYT in primary schools in Costa Rica. As noted by Merriam
(2009), two levels of sampling are usually necessary for qualitative case studies. The first level
of sampling is the selection of the cases to be studied. After the cases are determined, the second
level of sampling involves selecting people or activities from the cases to be interviewed and
observed.
The research team requested access to school sites from Costa Rican officials (Appendix
A) with the Ministry of Public Education (MEP) and the Ministry of Science, Technology, and
Telecommunications (MICITT). Requests were made via email to Alicia Vargas Porras,
Academic Vice Minister of Public Education and Ms. Nathalie Valencia Chacón, Director of the
PRONAFECYT as part of the MICITT. A summary of the research proposal (Appendix B) was
provided with the request. Access was granted to 18 elementary school sites (Appendix C). As
the school sites that will be visited were selected for the research team, first level of sampling did
not apply. This study compared the level of success at implementing the PRONAFECYT at each
of the sites where access has been granted. Comparison of the roles educational leaders play in
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implementing the PRONAFECYT was also compared to identify practices leading to and
supporting successful participation in the PRONAFECYT.
Second level of sampling included in this study utilized purposeful sampling and
snowballing to select interview participants and classrooms to observe at each school site.
Purposeful sampling was used as this study focused on discovering, understanding, and gaining
insight into the specific phenomena of the role of educational leadership on the participation in
the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT. According to Merriam (2009), the objective of qualitative
methods is not generalization and therefore, qualitative methods use nonprobability sampling
techniques. Purposeful sample selection is used when the researcher wants to discover,
understand, and gain insight and therefore selects a sample that is believed to offer insightful
information. This is precisely what this study attempted to do.
The sample population consisted of six groups: teachers, school site administrators,
political leaders, business leaders, parents, and students. The research group collaboratively
identified these six populations as necessary informants in the triangulation of data, providing for
an opportunity to cross-reference information with a substantial depth of understanding.
This case study focused on one of the 18 school sites visited by the research team. For
purposes of confidentiality, the school site that was the focus of this case study is referred to
Escuela Santa Cruz, a pseudonym. Over the years, Escuela Santa Cruz has grown to its current
size with 23 classrooms. The school serves approximately 1,050 students with a director and 44
teachers. Four of the teachers serve as science fair coordinators. The school has experienced
turnover in the director position in the past year; it serves a community with a large population of
low-income families.
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To inform this study from the perspective of the director and teachers at Escuela Santa
Cruz, as well as students and parents of students attending Escuela Santa Cruz, surveys were
completed by 40 teachers, 30 students, and 11 parents. Observations of Escuela Santa Cruz were
conducted, including classrooms and a sample of student presentations of their respective science
projects. The following administrator and teachers were interviewed at Escuela Santa Cruz (for
purposes of confidentiality, pseudonyms are used): (a) Hector Ortiz, Director; (b) Olivia
Romero, second-grade teacher, science tutor, and school coordinator of PRONAFECYT; (c)
Elizabeth Garcia, third-grade teacher and coordinator; (d) Belinda Flores, English teacher; (e)
Marcia Castro, fifth-grade teacher and coordinator; (f) Teresita Soto, first-grade teacher; (g)
Laura Herrera, fourth-grade teacher; and (h) Anna Gutierrez, fifth-grade teacher specializing in
mathematics and science.
To inform the study from the perspective of leaders from business, higher education, and
government, data were obtained from individuals holding leadership positions within various
organizations in these fields. The following leaders were interviewed for the study. Per
Institutional Review Board (IRB) protocol, participants’ names were used:
1. Javier Cambronero, Deputy with the Costa Rican Legislative Assembly
2. Dr. Alicia Vargas Porras, Academic Vice Minister of the MEP
3. Nathalie Valencia Chacón, Director of the PRONAFECYT as part of the MICITT
4. Carolina Vásquez Soto, Vice Minister of MICITT
5. Sylvia Elena Ugalde Fernández, Costa Rican Consulate General in Los Angeles.
6. Vanessa Gibson, Director of Aftercare at CINDE
7. Mary-Helen Bialas, former Academic Relations and Education Program Manager at
Intel
8. Ana Lourdes Acuña, Coordinator of Science of the ODF
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9. Eduardo Monge, Project Development and International Relations of the ODF
10. Ana Hernandez, Program Evaluation of the ODF
11. Maria Santos Pasamontes, Director of the Estado de la Nacion report, Unidad
Nacionales
12. Dr. Alejandrina Segreda-Mata, Dean of Primary Teacher Education at the UCR an
13. Hugo Navarro, Dean of the School of Technical Education at ITCR
Javier Cambronero is an educator and politician. He currently holds the elected position
of Deputy with the Costa Rican Legislative Assembly. Mr. Cambronero earned a Master of
Science degree in educational administration. Prior to being elected Deputy, he worked for the
Ministry of Education's western region branch as the Director of the Department of Pedagogical
Counseling.

Dr. Alicia Vargas Porras currently holds the position of Academic Vice Minister at the
MEP. She earned a doctorate in education. from the University of Costa Rica, where she also has
served as a professor, researcher, and director of the Institute for Research in Education. Her
publications and research topics focus primarily on evaluation, accreditation, curriculum
development, higher education, quality and academic networks, and conflict resolution in
educational institutions.
Nathalie Valencia Chacón is a coordinator with the MICITT and serves as director of the
PRONAFECYT. She is responsible for many aspects of the PRONAFECYT, as well as other
projects that promote science and technology in education.
Carolina Vásquez Soto is Vice Minister of MICITT. Soto earned a Master of Business
Administration degree from the University of Costa Rica, where she has served as a professor
and director.
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Sylvia Ugalde Fernández started her service as the Costa Rican Consulate General in Los
Angeles in 2012. She began her diplomatic career as Minister Counselor at the Costa Rican
embassy in London, where she later served as Deputy Head of Mission. Previous to her current
position, she served in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in San Jose.
Vanessa Gibson has worked at CINDE for 14 years. In her current position as Director of
Aftercare, Gibson oversees coordination of several public and private partnership projects and
programs designed to improve investment in and the business environment of Costa Rica.
Gibson earned a Master’s degree in Development Program and Project Evaluation from the
University of Costa Rica.
Mary-Helen Bialas, currently with Consejo de Promocion de la Competividad, served as
the Academic Relations and Education Program Manager for Intel. In her position with Intel, she
was the liaison between Costa Rica and the programs that Intel corporate office provided.
Representatives from ODF who were interviewed included Ana Lourdes Acuña,
Coordinator of Science; Eduardo Monge, Project Development and International Relations; and
Ana Hernandez, Program Evaluation. The ODF was created in 1987 and is a private, nonprofit
organization that implements national and regional projects in the fields of human development,
educational innovation, and new technologies.
Maria Santos Pasamontes is a director with Unidad Nacionales and is responsible for the
Estado de la Nacion, an annual report on the status of the education system in Costa Rica.
Pasamontes earned a Master’s degree in Molecular Genetics at UCR and has served as a
consultant to the National Academy of Sciences of Costa Rica, a professor at the School of
Biology at UCR, and a researcher in the Department of Human Genetics at UCR.
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Dr. Alejandrina Segreda-Mata has held various position in education since 1971; she
earned a doctorate from the Universidad Nacional de Educacion in Spain. Dr. Mata-Segreda
currently serves as Dean of the Department of Education at UCR. Prior to this assignment, she
served as the Academic Vice Minister at the MEP. She has published more than 40 articles,
editorials, book contributions focusing on education.
Hugo Navarro currently serves as Dean of the School of Technical Education at ITCR.
Navarro earned a Master’s degree in civil engineering from the University of New Mexico and
has held positions in education and industry.
Instruments
This study was designed to employ three types of data collection instruments: surveys,
interviews, and observations. The three methods were chosen as they were reasoned to be the
best available alternatives to collect data that will address the research questions of this study. In
addition, using multiple methods facilitated the triangulation of the data, increasing confidence in
the reliability.
Interviews
Interviews are needed when the researcher cannot observe behavior, feelings, or how
people interpret the world around them (Merriam, 2009). Interviews serve as a method for
obtaining such information from others. Interviews are one of the instruments chosen for this
study as they allow researchers to obtain information for events, behaviors, feelings, or
interpretations that the researcher cannot directly observe. Interview protocols were developed
by the research team in January 2015 and refined during February and March 2015.
The research group utilized Merriam’s (2009) guidelines when creating interview
questions to give structure to and elicit substance from the questions. A semistructured interview
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format was used to provide structured questions necessary to address the research questions,
while allowing interviewers flexibility in the form of follow-up or probing questions. Six sets of
interview questions were created to address the six groups of individuals being interviewed:
teachers (Appendix D), school directors (Appendix E), government officials and business
partners (Appendix F), parents (Appendix G), and students (Appendix H). The questions
stemmed from the same basic root question but were worded differently to make each applicable
to its audience; however, the root of the question remained to provide clear triangulation from
the responses. When establishing interview questions, the cohort worked collaboratively to
include the following six types of questions that Patton (2002) identified as necessary to
stimulate responses from the interviewee: experience and behavior questions, opinion and values
questions, feeling questions, knowledge questions, sensory questions, and
background/demographic questions.
Surveys
Similar to the interviews planned for this study, six sets of survey questions were created
to address the six groups of individuals being interviewed: teachers (Appendix I), school
directors (Appendix J), government officials (Appendix K), business partners (Appendix L),
parents (Appendix M), and students (Appendix N). The questions stemmed from the same basic
root questions but were worded differently to make each applicable to its audience; however, the
root of the question remained to provide for clear triangulation from the responses.
Fink (2012) noted that conducting surveys is a good form of data collection when
researchers want to evaluate the effectiveness of a program designed to change people’s
knowledge, attitudes, health, or welfare. Surveys created for this research study utilized forced-
choice questions to elicit specific information regarding the role educational leaders and teachers
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have in the participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT. A 5-point Likert-type scale
identified a level of agreement with the statements detailing specific points aimed at informing
the research questions.
Observations
While interviews obtain information from people with firsthand knowledge, with
observations, the researcher observes the phenomena of interest firsthand (Merriam, 2009).
Observations take place at the setting where phenomena naturally occur. Observations are
important as they represent an opportunity for researchers to witness phenomena firsthand.
Observations are one of the instruments that were used to inform this study as they provided the
research team with a firsthand opportunity to witness actual practices and events that will inform
this study. An observation protocol (Appendix O) was developed by the research team in
February 2015 and refined in March 2015 to assess the PBL and strategies that encourage
development of 21st-century skills in the classroom. The protocol was created using Merriam’s
(2009) checklist of observable elements, including the following: physical setting, participants,
activities and interactions, conversation, subtle factors, and the observer’s own behavior. In
utilizing this observation protocol, each researcher assumed the role of observer as participant,
whereby the group knows the researcher’s observer activities but participation of the observer in
the group is definitely secondary to the role of information gatherer (Merriam, 2009).
Data Collection
The researchers traveled to Costa Rica in June 2015 to gather data using interviews,
surveys, and observations. Data were obtained from six separate populations using interviews
and surveys: teachers, school site administrators, political leaders, business leaders, parents, and
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students. An observation protocol guided classroom observations specifically targeting the use of
PBL techniques in classrooms.
Various methods were included in the design to provide a depth of data from multiple
sources to facilitate triangulation. Triangulation is a strategy in which data is collected from a
diverse range of individuals and settings using a variety of methods (Maxwell, 2013).
Comparison of data from multiple sources reduces the risk of chance associations and of
systematic biases due to a specific method and allows a better assessment of the generality of
explanations.
Interviews with teachers, school site administrators, political leaders, business leaders,
parents, and students were used to gather information and gain an understanding of the
perspective of each group regarding how the role of educational leaders and teachers impact the
participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT. In addition, observations of classrooms were
utilized to gain firsthand knowledge of PBL practices utilized by teachers to encourage a culture
of science and technology and the implementation of 21st-century skills. Information from
observations either validated or negated the survey responses from the classroom teachers.
According to Merriam (2009), “observations can be used as a firsthand encounter with the
phenomena of interest rather than a secondhand account of the world obtained in an interview”
(p.117). Due to the limited time available for data gathering in Costa Rica, the research team
employed surveys to assess teachers’ and school site administrators’ perspectives on their roles
regarding participation in the PRONAFECYT. Fink (2012) asserted that surveys are best used
when one needs information directly from people about what they believe, know, and think in
relation to the effectiveness of a particular program. Utilizing these various methods is valuable
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 80
in providing divergent perspectives, thereby creating a more complex understanding of the
phenomena studied (Greene, 2007).
The research group of 18 dissertation students were divided into three teams with six
researchers on each team. Each team of six researchers visited six school sites to conduct
observations and interviews. Data were captured in the form of written notes during the
observations. Audiotaping alone was not considered a viable option due to noise interference and
nonverbal data. The number of students and description of the classroom were also documented.
Data were captured during interviews in the form of written notes and audiotapes if permission
was obtained from the participant.
Data Analysis
Data analysis is a process intended to uncover patterns and themes from the data
collected. According to Creswell (2013), data analysis involves preparing the data for analysis,
conducting different analyses, obtaining a deep understanding of the data, representing the data,
and interpreting the larger meaning of the data. The data analysis for this study was performed
both collaboratively and individually utilizing Creswell’s (2013) six steps for data analysis in
qualitative research, identified as follows:
Step 1: Organize and prepare data for analysis. This step involved transcribing
interviews, typing up field notes from observations, and organizing data into different types
depending on the sources of information.
Step 2: Read through all the data. In order to gain a general sense of patterns and themes,
all researchers read through the data to gain a general understanding of and comfort level with
the material collected.
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Step 3: Begin detailed analysis with a coding process. “Coding is the process of
organizing the material into chunks or segments of text before bringing meaning to information”
(Rossman & Rallis, 1998, p. 171).
Step 4: Use the coding process to generate a description of the setting or people as well as
categories or themes for analysis.
Step 5: Advance how the description and themes will be represented in the qualitative
narrative.
Step 6: Make an interpretation of the data by answering the question, “What were the
lessons learned?” (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). (pp. 185–190)
The research team utilized Dedoose, a web based qualitative data analysis application.
The application is an alternative to other qualitative data analysis software systems and is
explicitly aimed at facilitating rigorous mixed methods research. Each of the research team
members purchased a subscription to the application. The team collaborated to identify
consistent coding of data. The application was used to review literature and analyze data
obtained during the June 2015 site visits in Costa Rica.
Validity and Reliability
This study was designed to include procedures and strategies that helped to ensure the
findings are both accurate and credible. Such procedures and strategies address validity and
reliability. Qualitative validity refers to the verification of the accuracy of findings by the
researcher by employing certain procedures (Creswell, 2013). Qualitative reliability indicates the
approaches used by the research team are performed in a consistent manner by each member of
the researcher team (Creswell, 2013).
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To help ensure reliability, the dissertation research group utilized Creswell’s (2013)
reliability procedures including checking transcripts to make sure that they do not contain any
obvious mistakes, checking to make sure definition codes are clear and well defined, hold regular
meetings to ensure constant communication regarding codes, and crosschecking codes that will
be developed by the individual researchers.
To help ensure the accuracy of findings, several validity strategies identified by Creswell
(2013) were included in the design of this study: triangulation, member checking, peer
debriefing, present negative or discrepant information, external auditor, rich descriptions, and
maximum variations. Triangulation was accomplished by conducting multiple observations,
interviews, and surveys that will provide data from multiple sources allowing comparison to
identify consistencies and variances. Member checking was performed for the interviews by
asking a sample of the informants to review a summary of their respective interview notes. Peer
debriefing was used to enhance the accuracy of the account by having a peer review and ask
questions about the study. Negative or discrepant information was discussed to address all
information. Rich and thick descriptions were developed to provide detailed descriptions of data
and observations. These strategies were included in the design of the study to improve the
accuracy of findings.
Ethical Considerations
All members of the research team, including the research leader, Dr. Escalante,
completed the IRB application process that included being trained and certified by the
Collaborative IRB Training Initiative (CITI). This is an online training program addressing
ethical conduct toward human subjects in all research projects. After viewing four online
modules, each researcher completed quizzes individually. A minimum average score of 80% was
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required to receive certification by CITI. Through this training and certification process, the
researchers learned about their responsibility to protect human subjects and agreed to do so when
conducting research.
In addition, all instruments including interview protocols, observation protocols, and
survey protocols were cleared through the USC IRB. The IRB process helps ensure that all
aspects of the research project meet necessary ethical requirements and that the project does not
cause harm (mental, physical or otherwise) to any participants.
According to Merriam (2009), standard data collection techniques of interviewing and
observations present their own ethical dilemmas such as the protection of subjects from harm,
right to privacy, informed consent, and the use of deception. In performing the interviews and
observations of this research study, certain measures will be taken to ensure the study is
performed in an ethical manner. To address some of the potential ethical issues that can arise
with interviews, each interview participant will be asked to read and sign a consent form
(Appendix P). The consent form included a description of the study, purpose of the study,
confidentiality provisions, potential risks and discomforts, and potential benefits. The
participants were also given an opportunity to ask questions related to the consent form. In
addition, permission was obtained prior to audiotaping any of the participants to ensure they
approved and were comfortable being recorded. To address some of the potential ethical issues
related to observations, permission was obtained in advance of each of the observations so that
subjects are aware they are being observed.
Chapter Summary
This chapter provided an outline of the study and methodology including frameworks
utilized, research design, sample and population, instrumentation, data collection, data analysis,
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and ethical considerations. The four theoretical frameworks cover the areas of leadership, the
change process, STEM PBL, and PLCs and were utilized to assess, in their specific areas, the
implementation of and participation in the PRONAFECYT in Costa Rican schools. The research
study was designed as a qualitative case study with multiple data collection methods using
guidance from Maxwell (2013). The sample of 18 school sites was selected for the research team
by Costa Rican officials from the MEP and MICITT. Second level sampling within school sites
utilized purposeful sampling and snowballing to select interview participants and classrooms to
observe. According to Merriam (2009), this method of purposeful sampling selection is used
when the researcher wants to discover, understand, and gain insight and therefore selects a
sample that is believed to offer insightful information. The sample population consisted of six
groups: teachers, school site administrators, political leaders, business leaders, parents, and
students. The researchers traveled to Costa Rica in June 2015 to gather data using interviews,
surveys, and observations. The data analysis for this study was performed both collaboratively
and individually utilizing Creswell’s (2013) six steps for data analysis in qualitative research. In
addition, the research team utilized Dedoose, a web based qualitative data analysis application
explicitly aimed at facilitating rigorous mixed methods research. To help ensure the accuracy of
findings, several validity strategies identified by Creswell (2013) were included in the design of
this study: triangulation, member checking, peer debriefing, present negative or discrepant
information, external auditor, rich descriptions, and maximum variations. All members of the
research team, including the research leader, Dr. Escalante, completed the IRB application
process that included being trained and certified by CITI.
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CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
The purpose of this study was to understand the effects of educational leadership on
participation in the PRONAFECYT in Costa Rican primary schools. The study identified the
roles of school leaders in development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. The
study also explored how schools have restructured their educational programs by focusing on
sharing of leadership and teacher training. The following questions guided this study:
1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practice?
This chapter presents the themes identified as a result of analyzing information gathered
during this qualitative case study through interviews, surveys, and observations. Data were
analyzed using four theoretical frameworks: (a) the multiframed leadership framework by
Bolman and Deal (2008), (b) the change process framework by Kotter (1995), (c) the STEM
PBL framework by Capraro et al. (2013), and (d) the PLC framework by DuFour and Marzano
(2011).
Participants
Participants from six groups informed this study: teachers, school site administrators,
political leaders, business leaders, parents, and students. The research group collaboratively
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identified these six groups as necessary informants. The multiple groups allowed triangulation of
data, providing an opportunity to cross-reference information with a substantial depth of
understanding.
The school sites involved in this study were 18 elementary school sites (Appendix C)
preselected by Costa Rican officials from the MEP and the MICITT. This case study focused on
one of the 18 school sites visited by the research team. For purposes of confidentiality, the school
site that is the focus of this study is referred to as Escuela Santa Cruz (a pseudonym). To inform
this study, interviews were conducted with the director and seven teachers. Surveys were
completed by 40 teachers, 30 students, and 11 parents. In addition, observations of the school,
classrooms, and a sample of student presentations of their respective science projects were
conducted by the researchers.
The following leaders were interviewed for the study. Per IRB protocol, participants’
names were used: (a) Javier Cambronero, Deputy with the Costa Rican Legislative Assembly;
(b) Dr. Alicia Vargas Porras, Academic Vice Minister of the MEP; (c) Nathalie Valencia
Chacón, Director of the PRONAFECYT as part of the MICITT; (d) Carolina Vásquez Soto, Vice
Minister of MICITT; (e) Sylvia Elena Ugalde Fernández, Costa Rican Consulate General in Los
Angeles; (f) Vanessa Gibson, Director of Aftercare at CINDE; (g) Mary-Helen Bialas, former
Academic Relations and Education Program Manager at Intel; (h) Ana Lourdes Acuña,
Coordinator of Science of the ODF; (i) Eduardo Monge, Project Development and International
Relations of the ODF; (j) Ana Hernandez, Program Evaluation of the ODF; (k) Maria Santos
Pasamontes, Director of the Estado de la Nacion report, Unidad Nacionales; (l) Dr. Alejandrina
Segreda-Mata, Dean of Primary Teacher Education at the UCR; and (m) Hugo Navarro, Dean of
the School of Technical Education at ITCR.
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The remaining sections of this chapter present results for each research question,
including identified themes. Evidence from surveys, interviews, and observations is reported to
substantiate each theme. The chapter concludes with a summary of the identified themes.
Results for Research Question 1
Research question 1 asked, “What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the
Costa Rican PRONAFECYT initiative?” The goal of Research Question 1 was to explore the
role of educational leaders in implementing the PRONAFECYT. This is an important question to
answer because, although the number of schools participating in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT has increased significantly since the 1960s, lacking is evidence explaining why
some schools have implemented the science fair program with greater success than other schools.
Specifically, evidence is needed pertaining to the role of educational leaders in implementation
of the PRONAFECYT. Such evidence will provide educational leaders with information needed
to improve implementation of science fair programs.
According to the change leadership framework by Kotter (1995), the change process goes
through a series of phases and the collective process usually requires considerable time. The
eight phases of the change leadership framework of Kotter are (a) establishing a sense of urgency
by identifying the need for change, (b) forming a group with enough power to lead the change
effort, (c) creating a vision to help direct the change effort and a strategy for achieving the
vision, (d) communicating the vision effectively, (e) removing obstacles and empowering others
to act consistent with the vision, (f) planning for and creating short-term success opportunities,
(g) using short-term success to build confidence and support to address larger-scale change
initiatives, and (h) institutionalizing new processes and behaviors that have resulted from the
change process. According to the change leadership framework by Kotter, successful
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implementation of change efforts is dependent on the extent to which each phase is completed.
The data analyzed revealed two common themes: (a) site and system educational leaders
empower teachers, and (b) site and system educational leaders communicate the vision, purpose,
and urgency of the PRONAFECYT.
Educational Leaders Empower Teachers
The fifth phase of the Kotter (1995) change leadership framework is to empower others
to act in a manner consistent with the vision of an initiative. According to Kotter, in order for a
change effort to succeed, people responsible for the activities of an initiative must be empowered
to act in a manner consistent with the vision of the initiative. As it relates to PRONAFECYT,
empowering teachers includes removing barriers that can hinder or threaten successful
implementation of the initiative.
The underlying theme revealed by the data was that a role of site and system educational
leaders is to empower teachers by removing barriers that can hinder or threaten successful
implementation of the PRONAFECYT. Removing barriers includes arranging for training to
equip teachers with the skills and knowledge required to implement the PRONAFECYT and
arranging or advocating for resources required by the initiative.
Teacher training is needed to address the challenges of traditional instructional
approaches. According to Wagner (2012), innovative institutions are employing instructional
methods, such as PBL, aimed at building knowledge and innovative skills. PBL emphasizes
learning activities that are long term, interdisciplinary, student centered, and integrated with real-
world issues (Capraro et al., 2013). PBL differs from traditional classroom activities that are
teacher centered with short isolated lessons. The PBL approach bridges discrete subject areas
into projects that address challenging questions salient to students. Teachers are viewed as
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facilitators, mentors, or coaches rather than deliverers of knowledge. Rather than provide
students with direct information, teachers in PBL to guide the learning process through effective
questioning. In PBL, teachers share control of the learning environment with students. It is
important to remove the barrier of underprepared teachers by providing training to teachers on
pedagogical approaches designed to support successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT.
The role of site and system educational leaders is to empower teachers by providing training to
equip teachers with the skills required to implement the PRONAFECYT.
Resources complement the will and skill of teachers. Students and teachers cannot use
resources that they do not have, but the resources they do have are not self-acting (Cohen et al.,
2003). In addition to teacher training, resources are needed to support the PRONAFECYT for
items such as laboratory facilities, supplies, and instructional materials needed by students who
participate in science fairs. If resources are not available, the role of site and system educational
leaders is to communicate the need and advocate for resources from sources such as the
government, MEP, community, businesses, parents, and school employees.
Survey results from 40 teachers reflected the teachers’ position on the role of the school
director to remove obstacles, as well as how well obstacles are removed: (a) 95% agreed or
strongly agreed that teachers need the support of the school director to fully and effectively
implement PRONAFECYT; (b) 68% agreed or strongly agreed that they are provided with
adequate training to prepare students for PRONAFECYT; and (c) 70% disagreed or strongly
disagreed that the school has adequate resources to allow the teacher to prepare students for
PRONAFECYT.
Survey results from 11 parents revealed that the position of parents was similar to the
position of the teachers regarding the role of the school director to remove obstacles and how
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well obstacles are removed: (a) 100% agreed or strongly agreed that teachers need the support of
the school director to fully and effectively implement PRONAFECYT; (b) 91% agreed or
strongly agreed that they are provided with adequate training to prepare students for
PRONAFECYT; and (c) 64% disagreed or strongly disagreed that the school has adequate
resources to allow the teacher to prepare students for PRONAFECYT.
Survey data collected also reflected a majority agreement among government officials
and business leaders that teachers need the support of the school director. There was agreement
that teachers are provided adequate training. In addition, there was agreement regarding the
inadequacy of resources to prepare students for PRONAFECYT (Table 1).
This theme was substantiated by interviews with key persons in government and the
school site. When Nathalie Valencia Chacón, Director of the PRONAFECYT as part of the
MICITT, was asked what role the leaders of the education system have in implementation of
science fairs, it was clear that empowering teachers is a key component. Chacón explained that
educational leadership is key for the success of PRONAFECYT and principals who empower
teachers make a difference:
A principal who is committed, a principal who empowers his teachers makes a difference
. . . teachers who are leaders, who are committed, empowered, who are acquainted with
the process, and who motivate their students since the early stages is something critical.
(June 15, 2015)
Javier Cambronero, Deputy with the Costa Rican Legislative Assembly, shared his
opinion on the need for resources. When Cambronero was asked what role leaders of the
education system have in implementation of science fairs, it was clear that one of the roles of
educational leaders is empowering teachers by advocating for what is needed to make the
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Table 1

Survey Data Regarding Educational Leaders Empowering Teachers as a Percentage of Those

Surveyed

Escuela Escuela
Government Business Santa Cruz Santa Cruz
officials leaders teachers parents
Survey item (n = 7) (n = 3) (n = 40) (n = 11)

2. Teachers need the support of the
school director to fully and
effectively implement the
PRONAFECYT.

Agree/Strongly Agree 100 100 95 100
Disagree/Strongly Disagree 0 0 3 0
Not Sure 0 0 3 0
7. Teachers are provided adequate
training to prepare students for
the PRONAFECYT.
Agree/Strongly Agree 57 0 68 91
Disagree/Strongly Disagree 43 67 28 9
Not Sure 0 33 5 0
8. My school has adequate resources
that allow me to prepare students
for the PRONAFECYT.

Agree/Strongly Agree 43 0 28 36
Disagree/Strongly Disagree 57 33 70 64
Not Sure 0 67 3 0
22. Teachers are provided annual
training on the PRONAFECYT
guidelines.
Agree/Strongly Agree 100 0 60 73
Disagree/Strongly Disagree 0 0 38 18
Not Sure 0 100 3 9

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initiative successful. Cambronero stated, “They [educational leaders] have to convince
politicians, those who make decisions, that it is worth doing” (June 15, 2015). As empowering
teachers includes providing resources necessary for the initiative, Combranero was asked
whether the government provides schools with resources necessary to participate in
PRONAFECYT. Cambronero said,
No, in this case the Ministry of Education provides support and the injection of resources
is not very big. That is why there is a need for a law of the Republic that forces
investment in this type of process. Currently, most of the expenditure is financed by the
education center, by the teachers who use their own money to make contributions, and
from the parents of those children who are participating in the process. The contribution
is very small and it should be increased. (June 15, 2015)
Hector Ortiz, Director of Escuela Santa Cruz, explained the importance of removing
barriers to the implementation of the PRONAFECYT by empowering teachers and providing
teachers with training. Ortiz explained that training was important to the school and science fair
effort and was arranged months in advance. When asked how resources that support the
PRONAFECYT are obtained, Ortiz said, “Most of the resources are provided by the parents”
(June 19, 2015). Relying on parents to provide resources creates potential access and equity
issues for schools with families lacking the means to support the program.
When Olivia Romero, second-grade teacher, science tutor, and school coordinator of
PRONAFECYT at Escuela Santa Cruz, was asked how she prepares for the PRONAFECYT, she
explained that much training is received. She also explained that the director empowers teachers
by arranging for teacher training. When asked how resources needed for the science fair are
obtained, she stated, “We do not have financial support. We have not received in this school any
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sort of financial aid from the patronage or from the board” (interview, June 19, 2015). Responses
to the same question by the other six teachers interviewed at Escuela Santa Cruz were consistent
with the statement by Romero.
During the visit to Escuela Santa Cruz by the research team, observations were made that
substantiated the theme. On the day of the site visit, the school was conducting a science fair
competition. It was observed that teachers were empowered to make decisions in running the fair
that were consistent with the initiative. Teachers demonstrated an understanding of the science
process and coached students during the competition. Individual teachers were also responsible
for different components of the competition, including monitoring students, answering questions
from parents and students, and guiding the flow of the competition. Observations were also made
that revealed a lack of laboratory facilities.
The triangulation of information from surveys, observations, and interviews indicated
that a key role of educational leaders in the implementation of the PRONAFECYT is to
empower teachers by removing obstacles that can hinder or prevent implementation of the
PRONAFECYT. Removing obstacles faced by teachers includes providing training to teachers
and providing or advocating for resources. The theme identified the need for site and system
leaders to advocate for resources to support the PRONAFECYT, such as supplies, materials, and
facilities.
Educational Leaders Communicate Vision
Once a clear vision has been established, the fourth phase of the Kotter (1995) change
leadership framework is to communicate vision. Communication of the vision is a key area of the
change process because it shares the vision with others, communicates the importance of the
vision, builds support for change, and continually reinforces the vision. Communication should
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not take place only once. Kotter asserted the importance of frequently communicating the vision
as a way of reinforcing and encouraging the effort. In addition to common communication
techniques such as newsletters and speeches, communication methods include actions taken by
leaders that can be viewed by others as consistent with or in conflict with change efforts. As
related to the PRONAFECYT, communications from site and system educational leaders
targeting the vision, purpose, and urgency of the PRONAFECYT are ways of building support
and motivation for the PRONAFECYT.
The second theme revealed by the data was that a role of site and system educational
leaders is to communicate the vision, purpose, and urgency of the PRONAFECYT.
Communication from educational leaders is an important element in implementation of the
PRONAFECYT because it garners support and builds motivation for the initiative among
teachers, students, parents, and the community.
Survey results from 40 teachers at Escuela Santa Cruz reflected their position on the role
of the school director to communicate the vision, purpose, and urgency of PRONAFECYT: (a)
85% agreed or strongly agreed that there is a schoolwide vision for the initiative, (b) 90% agreed
or strongly agreed that the school director communicates the purpose and urgency of the
PRONAFECYT, and (c) 78% agreed or strongly agreed that the school director communicates
the goals for participation in the PRONAFECYT.
Survey results from 30 students at Escuela Santa Cruz revealed that the position of
students was similar to the position of teachers on the role of the school director to communicate
the vision, purpose, and urgency of PRONAFECYT: (a) 97% agreed or strongly agreed that
there is a schoolwide vision for the initiative, and (b) 87% agreed or strongly agreed that the
school director communicates the purpose and urgency of the PRONAFECYT.
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According to Kotter (1995), actions taken by leaders that can be viewed by others as
consistent with or in conflict with an initiative and actions can often be a more powerful message
relative to newsletters and speeches. Related to the PRONAFECYT, actions taken by educational
leaders include recognition of students and teachers for accomplishments that are aligned with
the initiative. Classroom visits by educational leaders to observe and provide frequent feedback
to teachers and students is another example of actions supporting the vision of the
PRONAFECYT.
When key persons in government and industry were asked whether the government
recognizes the schools or regions for their participation in the PRONAFECYT, it was evident
that more frequent actions by leaders, such as recognition, can share the vision of the initiative
and increase motivation. Javier Cambronero, Deputy with the Costa Rican Legislative Assembly,
said,
No, we are in debt. This is a great weakness. We need to have a framework that enables
the encouragement and reward of the good things that are being done. At the end of the
way there is recognition, but we don’t think it’s enough. (June 15, 2015)
Nathalie Valencia Chacón, Director of the PRONAFECYT as part of the MICITT, stated,
The Ministry of Science and Technology provides the trophies and certificates for all the
participants in the regional science fairs, but I think we can work harder in the teachers’
recognition and especially from the Ministry of Public Education. I think it would be very
important to work on that aspect, in order to reward the teachers and the principals, the
supervisors and the science consultants, through a public recognition, not only the
material awards are important but also a public recognition is important. That is
something all the institutions that participate in the program can strengthen. We do it
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publicly but I think we could do something more to motivate the teachers since they are
the ones who have this valuable and important task. (June 15, 2015)
Mary Helen, former Academic Relations and Education Program Manager at Intel, responded,
No. I don’t believe so. Yes, the ministers go to the national fair award ceremony. Yes,
they hand out the awards to the kids but having a recognition program for schools that are
science-based or that are oriented towards science or general, they have not. It would be
great if they could create more incentives for teachers or recognize the teacher’s efforts.
That would also be very, very important. (June 15, 2015)
When teachers were asked how they are recognized for their efforts with respect to
application of the PRONAFECYT, responses indicated that recognition is lacking. Olivia
Romero, second-grade teacher, science tutor, and school coordinator of PRONAFECYT at
Escuela Santa Cruz, explained that some teachers are not recognized. Elizabeth Garcia, third-
grade teacher and coordinator at Escuela Santa Cruz, said,
If there is some kind of recognition, it is just at an institutional level because we never get
any recognition at the Ministry or even from the regional level. . . . At the institutional
level, our boss thanks us and he does publicly acknowledge our work. (June 19, 2015)
When asked how the director provides feedback for application of the science fair,
Belinda Flores, English teacher at Escuela Santa Cruz, commented that the director has little
involvement in the science fair:
Actually, in regard to the principals, at the end of the science fair, of course, they will
congratulate the students that are going to win the science fair but actually, that’s the only
thing. The entire work is going to be on top of the teacher shoulders. They are the ones
that are going to be working and praising their kids and everything. The principal is just
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 97
the head of the school that is going to say, “Very good job, I’m happy that you won.”
That’s the only job that they do. (June 19, 2015)
Flores noted that students appreciate feedback from teachers and that direct and frequent
communication from the school director would help to motivate teachers and students to be more
engaged with PRONAFECYT.
Observations made by the researchers substantiated the theme. On the day of the site
visit, the school was conducting a science fair competition. The director was observed actively
participating in the event by giving a speech during an opening ceremony attended by students,
parents, and teachers. The director also attended the award ceremony at the end of the
competition. Although the director was observed participating on the day of the competition,
evidence from interviews indicated that the frequency and extent of his participation were
limited. Increased frequency of communication of the vision, purpose, and urgency of
PRONAFECYT is a potential improvement opportunity.
Triangulation of data from surveys, observations, and interviews indicated that a key role
of educational leaders in implementation of PRONAFECYT is to communicate the vision,
purpose, and urgency of the PRONAFECYT. Communication from the school director and
system leaders is important in implementation of the PRONAFECYT as it garners support and
builds motivation for the initiative among teachers, students, parents, and the community.
According to Kotter (1995), actions can often be a more powerful message than newsletters and
speeches. The need became evident for site and system leaders to engage in frequent
communication of the vision, purpose, and urgency of PRONAFECYT as a way to reinforce and
encourage participation in the effort. In addition to common communication techniques, such as
newsletters and speeches, suggested methods of communication include actions that can be
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 98
viewed by others as consistent with the change efforts, such as recognition of students and
teachers.
Summary of Results for Research Question 1
The goal of Research Question 1 was to explore the role of educational leaders in
implementing the PRONAFECYT. The data analyzed revealed two common themes: (a) site and
system leaders empower teachers by removing obstacles that prevent or hinder implementation
of the PRONAFECYT, and (b) site and system leaders communicate the vision, purpose, and
urgency of the PRONAFECYT. Improvement opportunities became evident from the data
analyzed. First, site and system leaders are encouraged to advocate for dedicated resources for
supplies, materials, and facilities that support of the PRONAFECYT. Second, site and system
leaders are encouraged to engage in frequent communication of the vision, purpose, and urgency
of PRONAFECYT to reinforce and encourage the effort. In addition to common communication
techniques, such as newsletters and speeches, suggested communications include actions taken
that can be viewed by others as consistent with the change efforts, such as recognition of
students and teachers.
Results for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, “How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from
teacher practices at less successful schools, as measured by the level of participation in the Costa
Rican PRONAFECYT?” The purpose of Research Question 2 was to identify teacher practices
that contribute to student participation in the PRONAFECYT. This is an important question
because understanding practices that contribute to student participation can inform educational
leaders about alternative methods that can lead to increased student participation.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 99
For purposes of addressing Research Question 2, teacher practices at Escuela Santa Cruz
were compared to teacher practices at Escuela San Antonio (a pseudonym) because data
identified during this study indicated a higher level of student participation in the
PRONAFECYT at Escuela Santa Cruz relative to Escuela San Antonio. As indicators to measure
the level of participation in the PRONAFECYT were limited, this study relied on survey data
and observations to differentiate levels of participation. When teachers were asked whether there
is a high level of participation in the PRONAFECYT at their school, 45% of the 40 teachers
surveyed at Escuela Santa Cruz strongly agreed, compared to 24% of the 17 teachers at Escuela
San Antonio. Observations of student and teacher activities at both schools further demonstrated
a higher level of participation at Escuela Santa Cruz relative to Escuela San Antonio.
Escuela San Antonio serves approximately 900 students with a director and 40 teachers.
To inform this study, interviews were conducted with the director of the school, Hugo Perez, and
two teachers: Helen Ochoa and Cecilia Miranda. (For purposes of confidentiality, pseudonyms
are used for the names of the director and teachers.) Surveys were completed by 17 teachers and
15 students. In addition, the researchers observed samples of active classroom settings.
Two theoretical frameworks provided guidance for addressing Research Question 2 in the
areas of STEM PBL and PLCs. The first framework was based on the work by Capraro et al.
(2013) and provided a basis for understanding STEM PBL. The second framework addressed
components of PLCs and was based on work by DuFour and Marzano (2011). The frameworks
were utilized to assess, in their specific areas, practices utilized at Escuela Santa Cruz and
Escuela San Antonio. The data revealed two common themes: (a) Elements of PLCs are used
more extensively at the school with a higher level of student participation in the PRONAFECYT,
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 100
and (b) elements of PBL are used to a greater extent at the school with a higher level of student
participation in the PRONAFECYT.
PLCs Support Participation in the PRONAFECYT
PLCs can support STEM education by enhancing curriculum and improving
implementation of PBL (Liddicoat, 2008). The primary goal of PLCs is to provide teachers time
to reflect, plan, and fully engage in a professional task (Krause et al., 2008). Research by Krause
et al. (2008) demonstrated that PLCs create a positive community of collaboration with common
goals of advancing STEM. PLCs represent an ongoing process in which educators work
collaboratively, using inquiry and action research to improve results for students (DuFour et al.,
2010).
To aid in the analysis of the data, the work by DuFour and Marzano (2011) was used as a
framework to assess actual activities identified in this study. The framework includes seven
components or processes included in effective PLCs: (a) organize staff into meaningful teams,
(b) provide teams with time to collaborate, (c) provide supportive structures that help groups to
become teams, (d) clarify the work that the team must accomplish, (e) monitor the work of teams
and provide direction and support as needed, (f) avoid shortcuts in the collaboration team
process, and (g) celebrate short-term wins and confront those who do not contribute to their
teams.
The underlying theme revealed by the data was that elements of PLCs are used more
extensively at the school with a higher level of student participation in the PRONAFECYT. This
is an important theme as it suggests that increased use of PLCs can contribute to an increased
level of student participation in the PRONAFECYT.
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Survey results from teachers and parents revealed the opinion that teachers at Escuela
Santa Cruz utilize elements of PLCs to a greater extent than those at Escuela San Antonio. Of the
40 teachers surveyed at Escuela Santa Cruz, 63% strongly agreed that teachers work together to
plan and prepare for the PRONAFECYT. Of the 11 parents surveyed at Escuela Santa Cruz, 82%
strongly agreed that teachers work together to plan and prepare for the PRONAFECYT.
Indicators from Escuela San Antonio revealed a lower percentage of teachers and parents who
strongly agreed that teachers work together to plan and prepare for the PRONAFECYT. Of those
surveyed at the Escuela San Antonio, 18% of the 17 teachers and 27% of the 26 parents strongly
agreed that teachers work together to plan and prepare for the PRONAFECYT.
The theme that elements of PLCs are used more extensively at Escuela Santa Cruz than at
Escuela San Antonio was substantiated by interviews with key persons from the school sites.
Interviews conducted at both school sites revealed evidence demonstrating a greater presence of
the elements of PLCs at Escuela Santa Cruz than at Escuela San Antonio. When Hector Ortiz,
Director of Escuela Santa Cruz, was interviewed, he explained practices that indicated a greater
presence of the components or processes included in effective PLCs that are identified in the
DuFour and Marzano (2011) framework. For example, Ortiz indicated the presence of certain
elements of the framework:
We coordinate everything. I meet every month with the different commissions [groups of
teachers assigned to specific tasks of the PRONAFECYT] to see how things are evolving.
If during those meetings I see that there is a teacher with a very negative attitude, we try
to find the way to motivate him to participate. . . . I have to be aware of everything so that
things turn out okay. The teachers in this school are very active and they like to
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participate. We coordinate everything to make sure that all the teachers are involved in
this process. (June 19, 2015)
Teacher interviews substantiated a greater presence of PLC elements at Escuela Santa
Cruz than at Escuela San Antonio. When teachers at Escuela Santa Cruz were asked how they
prepared for the PRONAFECYT, their responses indicated the presence of PLC elements. Maria
Castro described training and support received from other teachers. Elizabeth Garcia explained
how teachers work together to plan activities related to science projects and activities. Terisita
Soto indicated that teachers are provided time to plan and research activities for students. These
comments were consistent with those of the other teachers interviewed at Escuela Santa Cruz. In
contrast, interviews with the director and teachers at Escuela San Antonio revealed that elements
of PLC were either absent or rarely utilized. Hugo Perez, Director of Escuela San Antonio,
indicated that elements of PLCs were either absent or rarely utilized. The two teachers
interviewed from Escuela San Antonio, Helene Ochoa and Cecilia Miranda, indicated that
training and support needed improvement. Perez, Ochoa, and Miranda also indicated that
collaboration among teachers was rare.
Observations conducted by the research team supported the survey and interview data. At
Escuela Santa Cruz, teachers were observed collaborating and sharing information during the
science competition. The school director, parents, and students were observed collaborating
about specific projects and what had been learned from participating in the competition. While
collaboration was noted at Escuela San Antonio, it was at a lower level than at Escuela Santa
Cruz.
The triangulation of data from surveys, observations, and interviews indicated that
elements of PLCs are used more extensively at the school with a higher level of student
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participation in the PRONAFECYT. This is an important theme as it suggests that increased use
of PLCs can contribute to an increased level of student participation in the PRONAFECYT. It
was clear that greater use of PLCs can contribute to increased student participation in the
PRONAFECYT. The seven elements of PLCs included in the framework by DuFour and
Marzano (2011) can facilitate greater collaboration, serve as a vehicle to improve instructional
practices, and lead to increased participation in the PRONAFECYT.
PBL Supports Participation in the PRONAFECYT
STEM PBL has been defined as ill-defined projects or tasks used for attainment of well-
defined outcomes (Capraro et al., 2013). Well-defined outcomes of STEM PBL programs
originate from the dual influence of the engineering design process and accountability standards
(Capraro et al., 2013). PBL results in various learning outcomes by using projects assigned to
students that give students the opportunity to utilize knowledge from interdisciplinary subjects
while employing creativity, collaboration, and imagination. Project outcomes may include a
variety of formats, including speeches, presentations, products, or models. There are three
components of well-defined outcomes: (a) clearly stated deliverables informing students what
they are required to produce, (b) project constraints or limitations to keep the project within
boundaries, and (c) learning that takes place while projects are completed.
Ill-defined tasks of STEM PBL projects can be complex, with little or no structure
providing students with opportunities to draw on knowledge and content from interdisciplinary
subjects and real-world topics (Capraro et al., 2013). Such ill-defined tasks integrate both
engineering principles with interdisciplinary subjects, allowing the application of creativity,
imagination, and collaboration.
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STEM PBL emphasizes learning activities that are long term, interdisciplinary, student
centered, and integrated with real-world issues (Capraro et al., 2013). The STEM PBL approach
bridges discrete subject areas into projects that address challenging questions that are salient to
students. Teachers are viewed as facilitators, mentors, or coaches rather than deliverers of
knowledge. Rather than providing students with direct information, the role of teachers in STEM
PBL is to guide the learning process through effective questioning. In addition, with STEM PBL,
teachers share control of the learning environment with students.
The underlying theme revealed by the data was a positive relationship between utilization
of PBL practices and student participation in the PRONAFECYT. This is an important finding as
it suggests that an increased application of PBL approaches can contribute to an increased level
of student participation in the PRONAFECYT.
Survey results from teachers, parents, and students revealed that elements of PBL are
utilized to a greater extent at Escuela Santa Cruz relative to Escuela San Antonio. Of the 40
teachers surveyed at Escuela Santa Cruz, 45% strongly agreed that teachers utilize PBL. Of the
11 parents interviewed at Escuela Santa Cruz, 82% strongly agreed that teachers utilize PBL.
When asked whether teachers provide opportunities for students to engage in scientific inquiry as
part of regular instruction, 68% of the 40 teachers and 60% of the 30 students surveyed at
Escuela Santa Cruz strongly agreed. Indicators from Escuela San Antonio revealed a lower
percentage of teachers, parents, and students strongly agreeing that elements of PBL are utilized.
Of the 17 teachers surveyed at Escuela San Antonio, 29% strongly agreed that teachers utilize
PBL. Of the 26 parents interviewed at Escuela San Antonio, 42% strongly agreed that teachers
utilize PBL. When asked whether teachers provide opportunities for students to engage in
scientific inquiry as part of regular instruction, 41% of the 17 teachers and 41% of the 30
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 105
students surveyed at Escuela San Antonio strongly agreed. The survey data from teachers,
parents, and students indicate that elements of PBL are utilized to a greater extent at Escuela
Santa Cruz school than at Escuela San Antonio.
The theme that elements of PBL are used more extensively at Escuela Santa Cruz than at
Escuela San Antonio was substantiated by interviews with key persons from the school sites.
Interviews conducted at both school sites revealed evidence demonstrating a greater presence of
PBL at Escuela Santa Cruz than at Escuela San Antonio. The STEM PBL framework of Capraro
et al. (2013) identifies elements of PBL: (a) a variety of project outcome formats including
speeches, presentations, products, or models; (b) well-defined outcomes; (c) ill-defined tasks that
can be complex with little or no structure providing students with opportunities to draw upon
knowledge and content from interdisciplinary subjects and real-world topics; (d) learning
activities that are long term, interdisciplinary, student centered, and integrated with real-world
issues; (e) discrete subject areas bridged into projects that address challenging questions that are
salient to students; (f) teachers who are viewed as facilitators, mentors, or coaches rather than
deliverers of knowledge; and (g) teachers who share control of the learning environment with
students. Hector Ortiz, Director of Escuela Santa Cruz, explained practices that indicated the
presence of the PBL elements that are consistent with elements noted by Capraro et al. (2013).
According to Ortiz, projects are completed over an extended period of time and students choose
projects based on their personal interests.
Interviews with teachers at Escuela Santa Cruz provided additional evidence about PBL.
Olivia Romero provided information about the formats of projects, explaining that the formats
include a written report and an oral presentation and that students have flexibility in the style and
content of reports. Comments by Belinda Flores and Marcia Castro provided information about
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work completed in teams as they explained how students work on science projects either
individually or in teams. When asked to describe how the curriculum, the pedagogy, and the
culture have changed to adopt the science fair, Belinda Flores said,
The curriculum in science changed almost completely to give the opportunity to the
students to research and to investigate, to provide analysis and the synthesis of different
things they have studied in class. In regards to pedagogy, the teachers understand that
because the curriculum has changed, teachers have to bring different methodologies and
approaches that allows the student to investigate. (June 19, 2015)
Marcia Castro explained how students are provided opportunities to draw on knowledge
and content from interdisciplinary subjects and real-world topics. Elizabeth Garcia explained that
teachers guide students through research:
Everything is research, experimentation, and investigation and this makes the child
develop critical thinking. When students generate their own knowledge, it helps their
critical thinking. We stop making learning boring, repeating what is already established
over and over and now have children that generate knowledge. (June 19, 2015)
The interviews with the school director and teachers at Escuela Santa Cruz revealed that
elements of PBL are present.
Interviews with Escuela San Antonio personnel indicated less frequent utilization of PBL,
relative to Escuela Santa Cruz. Hugo Perez, Director of Escuela San Antonio, explained that
many students obtain science projects with solutions from the Internet rather than develop
original projects. This comment suggested a lack of PBL. Perez also said,
Through the use of technology and the Internet we are not providing the students with the
traditional scientific method to investigate, where they can pose a problem and possible
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solutions to that problem, where they can verify it and draw their own conclusions. Now,
the problem is already solved, so they just present it in front of their companions, so I
think that aspect should be strengthened, we have to go to the roots of a basic
investigation, which is what will be useful for them in their lives. (June 17, 2015)
Perez explained that teachers have not received adequate training on the elements of PBL:
The MEP should provide more training in that area. Three or four years ago they
provided training for investigation through inquiry-based methods but there is no follow-
up. They trained one teacher at each institution but that’s it, they don’t try to train more
people, so I think that aspect should be strengthened because the teachers work according
to what they were able to investigate, according to their likes or dislikes, but they don’t
have a solid foundation on how to conduct a clear process. So, I think we need a lot of
training for our teachers. (June 17, 2015)
Observations performed by the research team supported the survey and interview data. At
Escuela Santa Cruz, teachers were observed providing guidance to students in a manner that
encouraged students to think and solve problems. The research team observed several student
presentations demonstrating their respective science projects. The projects were varied and of
interest to the students. Student presentations were either individual or in small groups of
students. Although there was not a science competition on the day of the visit to Escuela San
Antonio, observations were made that supported the survey and interview data and the finding
that PBL was not utilized to the same extent at Escuela San Antonio as at Escuela Santa Cruz.
The triangulation of information from surveys, observations, and interviews indicated
that elements of PBL are used to a greater extent at the school with a higher level of student
participation in the PRONAFECYT. It was evident that greater use of PBL can contribute to
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 108
increased student participation in the PRONAFECYT. In addition to greater use of PBL, training
on PBL approaches is needed to empower teachers with skills needed to utilize PBL. Application
of the elements of PBL included in the framework by Capraro et al. (2013) can result in various
learning outcomes by using projects that give students the opportunity to utilize knowledge from
interdisciplinary subjects while employing creativity, collaboration, and imagination.
Summary of Results for Research Question 2
The goal of Research Question 2 was to identify how teacher practices at successful
schools differ from teacher practices at less successful schools, as measured by the level of
student participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT. This is an important question because
understanding practices that contribute to increased student participation can inform educational
leaders about potential improvement opportunities. The data analyzed revealed two common
themes: (a) Elements of PLCs are used more extensively at the school with a higher level of
student participation in the PRONAFECYT, and (b) elements of PBL are used to a greater extent
at the school with a higher level of student participation in the PRONAFECYT. With respect to
PLCs, the seven elements of PLCs included in the framework by DuFour and Marzano (2011)
can facilitate greater collaboration, serve as a vehicle to improve instructional practices, and lead
to increased participate in the PRONAFECYT initiative. It became evident from the themes that
increased use of PLCs and PBL can contribute to increased student participation in the
PRONAFECYT. Also evident was the need for increased training specifically targeting PBL
approaches to empower teachers with the skills needed to utilize PBL.
Results for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, “How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to
equip students with 21st-century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 109
PRONAFECYT?” The objective of Research Question 3 was to identify how site and system
leaders have prepared schools to equip students with 21st-century skills necessary to participate
in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT. This is an important question to address because preparing
schools to equip students with 21st-century skills is an important step in achieving a successful
level of participation in the PRONAFECYT. Understanding and comparing the methods used by
educational leaders with methods identified in the literature will assist in either validating
methods used or identifying potential improvement opportunities. Three frameworks were used
to guide the analysis of data related to Research Question 3: (a) the multiframed leadership
framework by Bolman and Deal (2008), the change process framework by Kotter (1995), and the
STEM PBL framework by Capraro et al. (2013).
The data analyzed from this study revealed two common themes: (a) Teachers receive an
inconsistent level of training related to 21st-century skills and instructional practices designed to
equip students with such skills, and (b) site and system leaders utilize the structural leadership
frame when preparing schools for the PRONAFECYT.
Inconsistent Level of Training Received by Teachers
The underlying theme revealed by the data was that teachers receive an inconsistent level
of training related to 21st-century skills and instructional practices designed to equip students
with such skills. While teacher training was noted to some extent, the need was evident for an
increased level of teacher training related to 21st-century skills and instructional practices
designed to equip students with such skills.
One of the key phases of the change leadership process is that individuals responsible for
activities of an initiative must be empowered to act in a manner consistent with the vision of the
initiative (Kotter, 1995). As it relates to the PRONAFECYT, empowering teachers includes
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 110
providing teachers with training opportunities to overcome potential barriers of having teachers
who lack the skills required to equip students with the 21st-century skills necessary to participate
in the PRONAFECYT. One of the roles of site and system leaders is to arrange for teacher
training focused on the 21st-century skills and instructional practices designed to equip students
with such skills.
Teacher training is needed to address the challenges of traditional instructional
approaches. Innovative institutions are employing instructional methods, such as PBL, aimed at
building knowledge and innovative skills (Wagner, 2012). PBL emphasizes learning activities
that are long term, interdisciplinary, student centered, and integrated with real-world issues
(Capraro et al., 2013). PBL differs from traditional classroom activities that are teacher centered
with short isolated lessons. The PBL approach bridges discrete subject areas into projects that
address challenging questions that are salient to students. Teachers are viewed as facilitators,
mentors, or coaches rather than deliverers of knowledge. Rather than provide students with direct
information, the role of teachers in PBL is to guide the learning process through effective
questioning. In PBL, teachers share control of the learning environment with students. When
implementing PRONAFECYT, it is important to remove the potential barrier of having
unprepared teachers by providing training on pedagogical approaches aimed at building
knowledge and innovative skills.
Survey results from teachers, system leaders, government leaders, and business leaders
revealed that many shared the opinion that teachers receive inconsistent levels of training related
to 21st-century skills and instructional practices designed to equip students with such skills.
When asked whether teachers are provided with adequate training to prepare students for
PRONAFECYT, of the 40 teachers from Escuela Santa Cruz surveyed, 28% disagreed or
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strongly disagreed, and of the seven system and government leaders surveyed, 43% disagreed or
strongly disagreed. When asked whether teachers received training on how to integrate 21st-
century skills in the classroom, of the 40 teachers from Escuela Santa Cruz surveyed, 30%
disagreed or strongly disagreed, and of the seven system and government leaders surveyed, 17%
disagreed or strongly disagreed (Table 2).
Table 2

Survey Data Regarding Inconsistent Level of Training Received by Teachers as a Percentage of

Those Surveyed

Escuela Escuela
Government Business Santa Cruz Santa Cruz
officials leaders teachers parents
Survey item (n = 7) (n = 3) (n = 40) (n = 11)

7. Teachers are provided adequate
training to prepare students for
the PRONAFECYT.
57 0 68 91
Agree/Strongly Agree 43 67 28 9
Disagree/Strongly Disagree 0 33 5 0
Not Sure 0 0 0 0
12. Teachers have received training
on how to integrate 21st-century
skills in the classroom. 83 67 60 100
Agree/Strongly Agree 17 0 30 0
Disagree/Strongly Disagree 0 33 10 0
Not Sure 0 0 0 0
20. Teacher training was useful in
preparing students for the
PRONAFECYT.
83 0 75 64
Agree/Strongly Agree 17 67 18 0
Disagree/Strongly Disagree 0 33 8 36
Not Sure 0 0 0 0

ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 112
This theme was supported by interviews with key persons from the government, business,
and Escuela Santa Cruz. When Nathalie Valencia-Chacón, Director of the PRONAFECYT as
part of the MICITT, was asked what skills should be promoted by schools to prepare students for
PRONAFECYT, it was clear that empowering teachers through training is important. Chacón
explained that educational leadership is key for the success of PRONAFECYT and principals
who empower teachers make a difference:
I believe we have to empower the teachers more so they understand what an investigation
process implies because they can’t teach something they don’t know, and that’s where we
find our limitations because the teachers don’t know how to investigate, so they prefer
not to do the process or they don’t do it in an optimal way. (June 15, 2015)
When asked how the government policy encourages participation in PRONAFECYT,
Mary-Helen Bialas, former Academic Relations and Education Program Manager at Intel, said,
By providing guidelines, by providing incentives and by helping with the education
process for the teachers. Definitely, the Ministry of Education has to put out training for
the teachers and how to do it and how to work. . . . Do project-based learning in their
classrooms and how to make it simpler. (June 15, 2015)
Bialas offered as a suggestion the idea of encouraging teacher training by offering certification
and increased pay to teachers who complete specified levels of training.
It was explained by Hector Ortiz, Director of Escuela Santa Cruz, that most teacher
training is provided by coordinators at the school site, who provide training based on training
that they have received, a train-the-trainer approach. Ortiz reported a limited number of trainers
at the MEP and noted that training must be scheduled with the MEP months in advance. The
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limited availability of trainers from the MEP can be problematic for the PRONAFECYT if it is
preventing or delaying teachers from receiving needed training.
Interviews with teachers at Escuela Santa Cruz revealed an inconsistent level of training
received by teachers. Some teachers at Escuela Santa Cruz reported that they received training
related to 21st-century skills and instructional practices designed to equip students with such
skills. When asked how teachers are prepared for the PRONAFECYT, Marcia Castro, fifth-grade
teacher and coordinator, said,
As a teacher, you are trained to know what steps to follow, how the fair is organized with
the students and what you have to do with them. So then we have that general
information of how the fair works and also we provide tutorship and support. (June 19,
2015)
Other teachers at Escuela Santa Cruz reported a lower level or lack of training related to
instructional methods to equip students with 21st-century skills necessary to participate in the
PRONAFECYT. When asked how teachers are prepared for the PRONAFECYT, Laura Herrera,
fourth-grade teacher at Escuela Santa Cruz, explained that training requires 40 hours and is
completed outside of school. Herrera said, “I personally started training but haven’t finished it
yet” (June 19, 2015). The data demonstrated an inconsistent level of training received by
teachers.
Observations performed by the research team were limited because teacher training was
not directly observed by the researchers. In addition, classes were not held on the day of the
observation because the school was conducting a science competition. Still, teachers were
observed providing guidance to students in a manner that demonstrated inconsistent
understanding of 21st-century skills. While some of the observed teachers displayed
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understanding of certain elements of 21st-century skills, other teachers did not. It was noted
during one observation that a teacher was assisting students to prepare for the competition and
mentioned elements of 21st-century skills such as collaboration and critical thinking. Another
teacher observed in a similar situation failed to mention elements of 21st-century skills. While
the observations were limited, they supported the theme.
Triangulation of data from surveys, observations, and interviews revealed that teachers
receive an inconsistent level of training related to 21st-century skills and instructional practices
designed to equip students with such skills. The need was evident for site and system leaders to
arrange for an increased level of teacher training in the areas of 21st-century skills and
instructional practices designed to equip students with such skills.
Educational Leaders Utilize the Structural Leadership Frame
The leadership framework by Bolman and Deal (2008) was utilized in this study to assess
educational leadership and the ability to implement science fair programs effectively in their
respective schools. According to Bolman and Deal, the ability to view situations with appropriate
perspectives, or frames, can reduce the risk of misreading situations, which could lead to
misguided decisions. The frame that is utilized can affect action taken by leadership and the
corresponding level of success or failure. Bolman and Deal identified four frames from which
people view organizational situations: structural, human resources, political, and symbolic. The
structural frame emphasizes goals and efficiency and posits that effective organizations define
clear goals, assign specific roles to people, and coordinate activities through polices, rules, and
chain of command. In the human resource frame, it is reasoned that organizations and people
need each other and that organizations exist to serve human needs. Leaders who utilize the
human resource frame value relationships and feelings and tend to define problems in individual
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or interpersonal terms. According to the political frame, organizations, as viewed by leaders, are
coalitions of various individuals and interest groups with differences in values, beliefs,
information, interests, and perceptions of reality. The symbolic frame is the most subjective
frame, where meaning and predictability are social creations and facts are interpretative rather
than objective. Symbolic leaders use charisma and drama, paying attention to myth, ritual, and
ceremony to instill a sense of enthusiasm and commitment.
A theme revealed from analyzing the data was that site and system leaders commonly
utilize the structural frame to prepare schools to equip students with 21st-century skills necessary
to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT. The evidence supporting this theme includes
the use of a standardized procedure manual covering steps and guideline to be used related to the
PRONAFECYT, a national curriculum, coordination of activities, and assigned roles. The theme
is important because the ability to view situations with appropriate perspectives can reduce the
risk of misreading situations, which can lead to misguided decisions. The frames utilized by
leaders can impact action taken and the corresponding level of success for the PRONAFECYT.
Data from the surveys indicated that site and system leaders utilize the structural frame to
prepare schools to equip students with 21st-century skills necessary to participate in the Costa
Rican PRONAFECYT. The presence of a national curriculum and school level curriculum plan
indicated use of the structural frame as a way of coordinating activities through polices and rules.
Survey results from teachers, parents, government leaders, and business leaders revealed a
shared opinion related to the existence of a school curriculum plan to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT. When asked whether there is a school curriculum plan to prepare students for
the PRONAFECYT, of the 40 teachers surveyed at Escuela Santa Cruz, 78% strongly agreed or
agreed and 21% strongly disagreed or disagreed, suggesting inconsistent opinions. Of the 11
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 116
parents surveyed at Escuela Santa Cruz, 73% strongly agreed or agreed and 27% were unsure. Of
the 6 government officials surveyed, 100% strongly agreed or agreed. Of the 3 business leaders
surveyed, 67% disagreed and 33% were unsure. Although not all agreed, the survey results
indicated the presence of a school curriculum plan.
The structural frame emphasizes goals and efficiency and posits that effective
organizations define clear goals (Bolman & Deal, 2008). When asked whether the school
director communicates the goals for participation in the PRONAFECYT, 78% of the 40 teachers
surveyed agreed or strongly agreed and 82% of the 11 parents surveyed agreed or strongly
agreed.
Interviews provided additional evidence that site and system leaders utilize the structural
frame to prepare schools to equip students with 21st-century skills necessary to participate in the
Costa Rican PRONAFECYT. According to Bolman and Deal (2008), the structural frame
emphasizes goals and efficiency and posits that effective organizations define clear goals, assign
specific roles to people, and coordinate activities through polices, rules, and chain of command.
Comments by Hector Ortiz, Director of Escuela Santa Cruz, indicated utilization of the structural
frame. Ortiz explained that teachers are assigned different responsibilities related to the
PRONAFECYT and that efforts are coordinated. “We coordinate everything to make sure that all
the teachers are involved in this process” (June 19, 2015). His comments indicated use of the
structural frame by assigning specific roles to people and coordinating activities.
Another example of the structure frame is the use of a manual covering procedures and
guidelines related to the PRONAFECYT. Dr. Alicia Vargas Porras, Academic Vice Minister of
the MEP, explained that the MEP provides schools with a manual that includes guidelines related
to the PRONAFECYT. According to Hector Ortiz, Director of Escuela Santa Cruz, the manual is
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provided to the school from the MEP each year and contains specific instructions related to the
initiative. According to Marcia Castro, fifth-grade teacher and coordinator at Escuela Santa Cruz,
the manual is helpful because it provides specific instructions related to the PRONAFECYT.
A national curriculum is a way to coordinate activities through policies and rules that
demonstrate the structural frame. According to the Hector Ortiz, Director of Escuela Santa Cruz,
curriculum comes from the MEP. When asked to describe how the curriculum, pedagogy, and
culture have changed in order to adopt the science fair, Belinda Flores, English teacher at
Escuela Santa Cruz, explained the use of a school curriculum plan: “The curriculum in science
changed almost completely to give the opportunity to the students to research and to investigate,
to provide analysis and the synthesis of the different things they studied in class” (June 19,
2015).
When asked to describe how government policy encourages participation in the
PRONAFECYT, Mary-Helen Bialas, former Academic Relations and Education Program
Manager at Intel, identified components of the structural frame when she explained the
importance of providing guidelines and teacher training related to the initiative:
We have a national curriculum so involving in the curriculum here is a very important
point. Having the science fairs or scientific methodology involved as part of the
curriculum is really important. (June 15, 2015)
Observations performed by the research team supported the theme. At Escuela Santa
Cruz, teachers were observed performing specific roles through coordinated efforts. The school
director was observed actively communicating the vision, purpose, and urgency of the
PRONAFECYT on the day of the site visit.
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The triangulation of data gathered from surveys, observations, and interviews revealed
that site and system leaders utilize the structural frame to prepare schools to equip students with
21st-century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT. The frames
utilized by leaders can influence actions and the corresponding level of success for the
PRONAFECYT. While the use of the structural frame appears appropriate for many of the
aspects related to preparing schools, there is a need for leaders to consider other frames because
the ability to view situations with appropriate perspectives can reduce the risk of misreading
situations, which can lead to misguided decisions.
Summary of Results for Research Question 3
The data revealed two common themes: (a) Teachers receive an inconsistent level of
training related to 21st-century skills and instructional practices designed to equip students with
such skills, and (b) site and system leaders utilize the structural leadership frame when preparing
schools for the PRONAFECYT. Two improvement opportunities were identified. First, the need
became evident for an increased level of teacher training in the areas of 21st-century skills and
instructional practices designed to equip students with such skills. Second, while the use of the
structural frame appears appropriate for many of the aspects related to preparing schools, there is
a need for leaders to consider other frames because the ability to view situations with appropriate
perspectives can reduce the risk of misreading situations, which can lead to misguided decisions.
Results for Research Question 4
Research Question 4 asked, “How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT
affected instructional practice?” This is an important question because understanding
instructional practices affected by the PRONAFECYT can inform educational leaders about
instructional practices used and potential alternative approaches. Capraro et al. (2013) provided a
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framework that informed this study as it relates to understanding STEM PBL education. The
elements of STEM PBL included in the framework by Capraro et al. can result in various
learning outcomes by utilizing projects assigned to students that provide students with
opportunities to utilize knowledge from interdisciplinary subjects while employing creativity,
collaboration, and imagination. The data revealed two common themes: (a) a) PBL elements are
utilized with the PRONAFECYT, and (b) science curriculum is integrated within multiple
subjects.
PBL Elements Present
The characteristics of STEM PBL make it a sound approach to support the objectives of
the PRONAFECYT. STEM PBL emphasizes learning activities that are long term,
interdisciplinary, student centered, and integrated with real-world issues (Capraro et al., 2013).
The STEM PBL approach bridges discrete subject areas into projects that address challenging
questions that are salient to students. With STEM PBL, teachers are viewed as facilitators,
mentors, or coaches rather than deliverers of knowledge. Rather than providing students with
direct information, the role of teachers in STEM PBL is to guide the learning process through
effective questioning. With STEM PBL, teachers share control of the learning environment with
students.
The underlying theme revealed from the data was that PBL elements are utilized with the
PRONAFECYT. Survey results from teachers, parents, and students revealed a strong opinion
that elements of PBL are utilized with the PRONAFECYT at Escuela Santa Cruz. Of the 40
teachers surveyed at Escuela Santa Cruz, 78% strongly agreed or agreed that teachers utilize
PBL. Of the 11 parents interviewed at Escuela Santa Cruz, 82% strongly agreed or agreed that
teachers utilize PBL. When asked whether teachers provide opportunities for students to engage
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in scientific inquiry as part of regular instruction, 98% of the 40 teachers and 87% of the 30
students surveyed at Escuela Santa Cruz strongly agreed or agreed. Further, student collaboration
is a key element of PBL. When ask whether PRONAFECYT has improved student collaboration,
78% of the 40 teachers and 82% of the 11 parents surveyed at Escuela Santa Cruz strongly
agreed or agreed.
Although there was a shared opinion that PBL elements are utilized with the
PRONAFECYT at Escuela Santa Cruz, it became clear that increasing the use of PBL and
teacher training in the area of PBL practices could lead to further benefits. When asked whether
teacher training was useful in preparing students for the PRONAFECYT, 75% of the 40 teachers
surveyed at Escuela Santa Cruz strongly agreed or agreed and 18% strongly disagreed or
disagreed. When asked whether teachers are provided adequate training to prepare students for
the PRONAFECYT, 68% of the 40 teachers strongly agreed or agreed and 28% strongly
disagreed or disagreed. The percentage of those surveyed who strongly disagreed or disagreed
suggests room for improvement in teacher training related to PRONAFECYT and one of the
areas of training is instructional practices such as PBL.
This theme was substantiated by interviews with key persons from Escuela Santa Cruz.
The STEM PBL framework by Capraro et al. (2013) identifies elements of PBL: (a) a variety of
project outcome formats, including speeches, presentations, products, or models; (b) well-
defined outcomes; (c) ill-defined tasks that can be complex, with little or no structure, providing
students with opportunities to draw on knowledge and content from interdisciplinary subjects
and real-world topics; (d) learning activities that are long term, interdisciplinary, student
centered, and integrated with real-world issues; (e) discrete subject areas that are bridged into
projects that address challenging questions that are salient to students; (f) teachers who are
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viewed as facilitators, mentors, or coaches rather than deliverers of knowledge; and (g) teachers
who share control of the learning environment with students. Hector Ortiz, Director of Escuela
Santa Cruz, cited practices that indicated the presence of certain PBL elements consistent with
elements noted by Capraro et al. (2013): Science projects are completed by students over an
extended period of time, students select science projects based on their personal interests, and
students work in teams.
Interviews with teachers at Escuela Santa Cruz provided additional evidence of the
presence of PBL. Olivia Romero, second-grade teacher, science tutor, and school coordinator of
PRONAFECYT, provided information about the formats of projects, explaining that formats
include a written report and an oral presentation. Comments by Belinda Flores, English teacher,
and Marcia Castro, fifth-grade teacher and coordinator, provided information about work
completed in teams as they explained how students work on science projects either individually
or in teams.
When asked to describe how the curriculum, pedagogy, and culture have changed in
order to adopt the science fair, Belinda Flores, English teacher, responded:
The curriculum in science changed almost completely to give the opportunity to the
students to research and to investigate, to provide analysis and the synthesis of the
different things they studied in class. In regards to pedagogy, teachers understand that
they have to apply different methodologies and approaches that allow students to
investigate. (June 19, 2015)
Marcia Castro, fifth-grade teacher and coordinator, said,
In science we are using the research method. That is done through questions, we ask the
students for their knowledge about the subject. There is an exploration part and there is a
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part of the analysis of that knowledge and the most important part that is the application
of the knowledge, through written proof or a presentation or a project in class. (June 19,
2015)
Castro also noted that students are provided opportunities to draw on knowledge and content
from interdisciplinary subjects and real-world topics.
Elizabeth Garcia, third-grade teacher and coordinator at Escuela Santa Cruz, explained
that teachers guide students through research: “Everything is research, experimentation, and
investigation and this makes the child develop critical thinking. When students generate their
own knowledge, it helps their critical thinking” (June 19, 2015).
Observations performed by the research team support the survey responses and interview
data. At Escuela Santa Cruz, teachers were observed providing guidance to students in a manner
that encouraged the students to think critically and solve problems. The research team observed
several students giving oral presentations and demonstrations of their science projects. The
project topics seemed to be of interest to the students. Student presentations were either
individual or in small groups, demonstrating collaboration.
The triangulation of data from surveys, observations, and interviews revealed that PBL
elements are utilized with the PRONAFECYT at Escuela Santa Cruz. While PBL was present at
Escuela Santa Cruz to a certain degree, the analysis revealed that an increased use of PBL could
lead to improving the skills developed by students. In addition, increased teacher training on
PBL practices is needed to further empower teachers with the skills needed to utilize PBL.
Integration of Science Curriculum
According to Capraro et al. (2013), one of the benefits of PBL is that students are given
the opportunity to utilize knowledge from interdisciplinary subjects while employing creativity,
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collaboration, and imagination. The ill-defined tasks of STEM PBL projects can be complex,
with little or no structure, providing students with opportunities to draw on knowledge and
content from interdisciplinary subjects and real-world topics (Capraro et al., 2013). Such ill-
defined tasks integrate both engineering principles with interdisciplinary subjects, allowing the
application of creativity, imagination, and collaboration. The STEM PBL approach bridges
discrete subject areas into projects that address challenging questions that are salient to students.
An underlying theme revealed by the data was that science curriculum is integrated
within multiple subjects at Escuela Santa Cruz. While integration of certain elements of science
curriculum was noted, increasing the level of curricular integration is needed to capture greater
benefits.
Survey results from teachers, parents, and students revealed a strong opinion that teachers
provide opportunities for students to engage in scientific inquiry as part of regular instruction at
Escuela Santa Cruz. When asked whether teachers provide opportunities for students to engage
in scientific inquiry as part of regular instruction, 98% of the 40 teachers surveyed at Escuela
Santa Cruz strongly agreed or agreed. All 11 parents surveyed at Escuela Santa Cruz strongly
agreed or agreed. Of the 30 students surveyed at Escuela Santa Cruz, 87% strongly agreed or
agreed.
A school curriculum plan is a way to support and encourage integration of science
curriculum within multiple subjects. Survey results from teachers, parents, government leaders,
and business leaders revealed mixed opinions about the existence of a school curriculum plan to
prepare students for the PRONAFECYT. When asked whether there is a school curriculum plan
to prepare students for the PRONAFECYT, 78% of the 40 teachers surveyed at Escuela Santa
Cruz strongly agreed or agreed and 21% strongly disagreed or disagreed, suggesting inconsistent
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opinions. Of the 11 parents surveyed at Escuela Santa Cruz, 73% strongly agreed or agreed and
27% were unsure. All 6 government officials surveyed agreed or agreed. Of the 3 business
leaders who were surveyed, two disagreed and one was unsure. Responses to this survey
question revealed mixed opinions about the existence of a school curriculum plan.
Interviews with government leaders and the director and teachers at Escuela Santa Cruz
provided additional evidence to support this theme. When Nathalie Valencia Chacón, Director of
the PRONAFECYT as part of the MICITT, was asked to describe the vision of the government
for the integration of STEM in the subject curriculum of the schools in Costa Rica, she noted the
importance of including the scientific investigation process in the curriculum and the need to
make improvements in this area:
Regarding the curriculum, I believe that the transformation of the curriculum is
fundamental in the sense that investigation has to be integrated as a component of the
learning process in science. . . . To teach science you have to do it practically and
investigation is a key component to accomplish this. . . . We should strengthen the
curriculum where investigation, especially in science, is seen as mainstream. (June 15,
2015)
Mary-Helen Bialas, former Academic Relations and Education Program Manager at Intel,
explained the need to integrate curriculum from multiple subjects:
With changes in the curriculum, schools are getting much more into the science
curriculum and the math curriculum and doing things in a much more integrated way.
Not only looking at doing scientific methodology but taking the project that the student is
doing out of the science class and making it an integrated research project through all the
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classroom courses. You could integrate it. . . . I think that’s something that the
government really has to work more on is working on curriculum. (June 15, 2015)
When Javier Cambronero, Deputy with the Costa Rican Legislative Assembly, was asked
to describe the vision of the government for the integration of STEM in the curriculum of the
schools in Costa Rica, he explained that in the past science was second to the arts and humanities
and now there is a need to transform curriculum to include science: “Science is effectively
present in the subject curriculum in Costa Rica. It is present in primary schools and in high
schools and the fairs strengthen that initiative” (June 15, 2015).
When asked to describe how the curriculum, pedagogy, or culture has changed in schools
to adapt to the PRONAFECYT, Hector Ortiz, Director of Escuela Santa Cruz, cited the
importance of focusing on mathematics and science. When asked the same question, teachers at
Escuela Santa Cruz shared similar thoughts. Laura Herrera, fourth-grade teacher, described how
curriculum has changed to include a focus on science and the integration of various subjects.
Belinda Flores, English teacher, explained the need to focus on all subjects and the importance of
integrating material from various subjects: “The curriculum in science changed almost
completely to give students the opportunity to research and investigate and analyze and
synthesize different material studied in class” (interview, June 19, 2015).
Observations at Escuela Santa Cruz substantiated the theme. On the day of the site visit,
the school was conducting a science fair competition and students were observed giving
presentations of their respective projects. Each student presentation included an oral
presentation, written report, project demonstration, and display board with pictures and narrative
describing the project. The presentations revealed the integration of subjects: science,
mathematics, technology, engineering, writing, and speech.
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The triangulation of data from surveys, observations, and interviews revealed that the
science curriculum is integrated within multiple subjects at Escuela Santa Cruz. The data
revealed that, while some areas of science curriculum were integrated, the level of integration
could be increased. An improvement opportunity is for Escuela Santa Cruz and the national
educational system to increase the level of curricular integration to further support successful
implementation of the PRONAFECYT and development of 21st-century skills.
Summary of Results for Research Question 4
The goal of Research Question 4 was to identify how participation in the PRONAFECYT
has affected instructional practice. This is an important question because understanding
instructional practices affected by the PRONAFECYT can inform educational leaders about
instructional practices used and potential improvement opportunities. The data revealed two
common themes: (a) PBL elements are utilized with the PRONAFECYT, and (b) science
curriculum is integrated within multiple subjects. While PBL elements are utilized at Escuela
Santa Cruz to a certain degree, greater use of PBL can lead to improved outcomes. Increased
teacher training on PBL practices is needed to further empower teachers with the skills needed to
utilize PBL. In addition, there is a need for Escuela Santa Cruz and the national educational
system to increase the level of curricular integration to support successful implementation of the
PRONAFECYT and student development of 21st-century skills.
Chapter Summary
Research Question 1 asked, “What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the
Costa Rican PRONAFECYT initiative?” Two themes emerged in response to this question. The
first theme was that site and system leaders empower teachers by removing obstacles that
prevent or hinder implementation of PRONAFECYT. The second theme was that site and system
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leaders communicate the purpose and urgency of the PRONAFECYT initiative. The two themes
revealed improvement opportunities. First, there is evident need for site and system leaders to
advocate for dedicated resources for supplies, material, and facilities that support of the
PRONAFECYT. Second, there is a need for site and system leaders to engage in frequent
communication of the vision, purpose, and urgency of PRONAFECYT as a way to reinforce and
encourage the effort. Suggested methods of communication include actions that can be viewed
by others as consistent with the initiative, such as recognition of students and teachers.
Research Question 2 asked, “How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from
teacher practices at less successful schools, as measured by the level of participation in the Costa
Rican PRONAFECYT?” The aim of this question was to identify teacher practices that
contribute to student participation in the PRONAFECYT. The first theme was that elements of
PLCs are used more extensively at the school with a higher level of student participation in the
PRONAFECYT. The second theme was that elements of PBL are used more extensively at the
school with a higher level of student participation in the PRONAFECYT. It became evident that
increased use of PLCs and PBL could contribute to increased student participation in the
PRONAFECYT. In addition, increased teacher training targeting PBL approaches is needed to
further empower teachers with the skills needed to utilize PBL.
Research Question 3 asked, “How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to
equip students with 21st-century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?” This is an important question because preparing schools to equip students
with 21st-century skills is an important step in achieving a successful level of participation in the
PRONAFECYT. The data revealed two common themes. First, teachers receive an inconsistent
level of training related to 21st-century skills and instructional practices designed to equip
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students with such skills. Second, site and system leaders utilize the structural leadership frame
when preparing schools for the PRONAFECYT. There is a need for an increased level of teacher
training in the areas of 21st-century skills and instructional practices designed to equip students
with such skills. While the use of the structure leadership frame appears appropriate for many of
the aspects related to preparing schools, leaders should consider other frames because the ability
to view situations with appropriate perspectives can reduce the risk of misreading situations,
which can lead to misguided decisions.
Research Question 4 asked, “How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT
affected instructional practice?” This is an important question because understanding
instructional practices affected by the PRONAFECYT can inform educational leaders about
instructional practices used and potential alternatives. The data revealed two themes. The first
theme was that PBL elements are utilized with the PRONAFECYT at Escuela Santa Cruz. The
second theme was that the science curriculum is integrated within multiple subjects at Escuela
Santa Cruz. The data revealed potential improvement opportunities with greater use of PBL,
increased teacher training targeting PBL practices, and increased integration of curriculum.
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CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Globalization has a direct impact on cultural, geopolitical, and social changes, which
encompass schooling (Spring, 2008). Globalization has resulted in increased competition among
nations that participate in the global economy and, as a result, has had a direct impact on skills
and knowledge required by employers and a direct impact on educational policy. For a nation to
succeed economically in an increasingly interconnected global economy, changes to the local
economy and educational system must occur (Biesanz et al., 1999; Friedman, 2007). Attracting
FDI in the form of capital, technology, and technical and managerial skills serves as a catalyst
for economic growth of developing countries. One of the ways to attract FDI is by having an
educated workforce with 21st-century skills (Hanson, 2001; Jensen, 2003; Mughal & Vechiu,
2009). In response to the skills required from human capital as a result of globalization, nations
have implemented and are implementing instructional programs to encourage and foster student
learning in areas specifically related to 21st-century skills (Wagner, 2010).
Costa Rica has been successful at attracting FDI and MNCs with incentives,
infrastructure, and an educated workforce (Clark, 1995). To promote an educated workforce,
stimulate creativity in students, promote a culture of science and technology, and develop
scientific thinking and knowledge of students, Costa Rica has mandated participation in the
PRONAFECYT (Chacón, 2011). While much research has addressed the impact of globalization
on educational policy, lacking is research examining the role of educational leaders in
implementing the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT.
Chapter 1 provided an overview of the study, including the purpose and significance, as
well as the organization of the dissertation. The chapter also included background information
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and key terminology pertaining to Costa Rica, MNCs, 21st-century skills, leadership, and the
impact of globalization on education.
Chapter 2 reviewed the literature pertaining to globalization, MNCs, 21st-century skills,
and leadership. This chapter also presented a historical review of Costa Rica encompassing its
development as a nation, including economic, political, and educational growth over time. The
education system in Costa Rica was described in depth to give breadth to the details of the
current system, its policies, infrastructure, and makeup of the student body.
Chapter 3 described the research methodology used in this study, discussing why a
qualitative case study approach with multiple data collection methods was appropriate. Also
included was an explanation of the sample and population, as well as the instrumentation used in
the study. The chapter described how the data were collected and analyzed.
Chapter 4 presented the findings of the study, including a detailed description of the
evident themes as they pertained to each research question. In addition, data analysis was
presented for each research question.
Chapter 5 presents a summary of the study and includes a conclusion and possible
implications for practice. Also in this chapter are suggestions for future research opportunities
relating to the same phenomena.
The purpose of this study was to understand the effects of educational leadership on
participation in the PRONAFECYT in Costa Rican primary schools. The study identified the role
of school leaders in the development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. The
study also explored how schools have restructured their educational programs by focusing on
sharing of leadership and teacher training.
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The research team examined the problem through four theoretical frameworks: (a) the
multiframed leadership framework by Bolman and Deal (2008), (b) the change process
framework by Kotter (1995), (c) the STEM PBL framework by Capraro et al. (2013), and (d) the
PLC framework by DuFour and Marzano (2011). These frameworks were utilized to guide
development and addressing of four research questions:
1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practice?
In order to address these questions, the team utilized a qualitative case study approach
with multiple data collection methods. Participants from six groups informed this study: teachers,
school site administrators, political leaders, business leaders, parents, and students. Information
was gathered from participants using interviews and surveys. Observations were conducted at
school sites. Through this study, research has been provided to assist in understanding the effects
of educational leadership on participation in the PRONAFECYT in Costa Rican primary schools.
Summary of Findings
Through analysis of data gathered through interviews, observations, and surveys, eight
main themes emerged.
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1. Site and system educational leaders empower teachers by removing obstacles which
prevent or hinder implementation of PRONAFECYT.
2. Site and system educational leaders communicate the vision, purpose, and urgency of
the PRONAFECYT.
3. Elements of PLCs are used more extensively at the school with a higher level of
student participation in the PRONAFECYT.
4. Elements of PBL are used to a greater extent at the school with a higher level of
student participation in the PRONAFECYT.
5. Teachers receive an inconsistent level of training related to 21st-century skills and
instructional practices designed to equip students with such skills.
6. Site and system leaders commonly utilize the structural leadership frame when
preparing schools for the PRONAFECYT.
7. PBL elements are utilized with the PRONAFECYT.
8. The science curriculum is integrated within multiple subjects.
Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, “What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the
Costa Rican PRONAFECYT initiative?” Through analysis of data from interviews, surveys, and
observations, it was clear that one of the roles of the school director is to empower teachers by
removing obstacles that prevent or hinder implementation of PRONAFECYT. This finding is
consistent with the assertion by Kotter (1995) that individuals responsible for the activities of an
initiative must be empowered to act in a manner consistent with the vision of the initiative. As it
relates to the PRONAFECYT, empowering teachers encompasses removing barriers such as
arranging for teacher training to equip teachers with the skills and knowledge required to
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implement the PRONAFECYT and arranging or advocating for resources required by the
initiative. While teacher training is currently being provided, dedicated resources for items such
as supplies, materials, and facilities are lacking.
The second theme related to Research Question 1 was that another role of the school
director is to communicate the vision, purpose, and urgency of the PRONAFECYT initiative.
This finding is consistent with the assertion by Kotter (1995) that communication of the vision is
a key area of the change process because it shares the vision with others, communicates the
importance of the vision, builds support for change, and continually reinforces the vision. While
some level of communication of the vision, purpose, and urgency of the PRONAFECYT was
noted, evidence indicated that communication from site and system leaders was infrequent. As
asserted by Kotter (1995), actions can often be a more powerful message relative to newsletters
and speeches. It was noted that actions such as recognition of students and teachers were
infrequent.
Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, “How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from
teacher practices at less successful schools, as measured by the level of participation in the Costa
Rican PRONAFECYT?” The triangulation of data from surveys, observations, and interviews
indicated that elements of PLCs are used more extensively at the school with a higher level of
student participation in the PRONAFECYT. This finding is consistent with the assertion by
Liddicoat (2008) that PLCs can support STEM education by enhancing curriculum and
improving the implementation of PBL. This is an important finding because it suggests that
increased use of the seven elements of PLCs included in the framework by DuFour and Marzano
(2011) can contribute to an increased level of student participation in the PRONAFECYT.
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Another theme revealed by the data was that elements of PBL are used more extensively
at the school with a higher level of student participation in the PRONAFECYT. While elements
of PBL included in the framework by Capraro et al. (2013) were noted to some extent, greater
use of PBL could contribute to increased student participation in the PRONAFECYT.
Application of the elements of PBL included in the framework by Capraro et al. can result in
various learning outcomes by using projects assigned to students that provide students
opportunities to utilize knowledge from interdisciplinary subjects while employing creativity,
collaboration, and imagination.
Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, “How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to
equip students with 21st-century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?” Analysis of the data revealed that teachers receive an inconsistent level of
training related to 21st-century skills and instructional practices designed to equip students with
such skills. While the data revealed that teachers receive training to a certain extent, the level of
training received by teachers varies, indicating a need for an increased level of teacher training
focused on 21st-century skills and instructional practices designed to equip students with such
skills. The Director of the PRONAFECYT as part of the MICITT, Nathalie Valencia Chacón,
supported this notion: “We have to empower the teachers more so that they understand what an
investigation process implies because they can’t teach something they don’t know” (June 15,
2015).
Another theme that emerged was that site and system leaders utilize the structural
leadership frame when preparing schools for the PRONAFECYT. According to Bolman and
Deal (2008), the structural leadership frame emphasizes goals and efficiency and posits that
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effective organizations define clear goals, assign specific roles to people, and coordinate
activities through polices, rules, and chain of command. The data revealed coordination of efforts
at the site level; also, the manual provided to schools by the MEP covering guidelines for the
PRONAFECYT indicated a strong presence of the structural leadership frame. While use of the
structural leadership frame appears appropriate for many aspects related to preparing schools for
the PRONAFECYT, leaders are encouraged to consider other frames because the ability to view
situations with appropriate perspectives can reduce the risk of misreading situations, leading to
misguided decisions.
Research Question 4
Research Question 4 asked, “How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT
affected instructional practice?” A theme that emerged from the data was that participation in the
PRONAFECYT has affected the instructional practices at Escuela Santa Cruz by including
elements of PBL. The characteristics of PBL make it a sound approach supporting the objective
of the PRONAFECYT. PBL emphasizes learning activities that are long term, interdisciplinary,
student centered, and integrated with real-world issues (Capraro et al., 2013). While the data
revealed elements of PBL to a certain degree, increased use of PBL is a potential way to improve
the skills developed by students. In addition, increased teacher training on PBL practices is
needed to further empower teachers with the skills needed to utilize PBL.
Another theme was that the science curriculum is integrated within multiple subjects at
Escuela Santa Cruz. This is consistent with the assertion by Capraro et al. (2013) that one of the
benefits of PBL is that students are given the opportunity to utilize knowledge from
interdisciplinary subjects while employing creativity, collaboration, and imagination. The data
revealed that, while some areas of science curriculum were integrated, the level of integration
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 136
could be increased to further support the successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT and
the development of 21st-century skills.
Implications for Practice
Findings from this study validated the positive effects of educational leadership on
participation in the PRONAFECYT in Costa Rican primary schools. Specifically, in regard to
the PRONAFECYT and educational leadership, much is to be gained from this study. This study
provided evidence that site and system educational leadership is critical to successful
implementation of the PRONAFECYT, as well as student participation in the initiative. The role
of site and system educational leaders is important from the standpoint of empowering teachers
and communicating the vision, purpose, and urgency of the PRONAFECYT. Empowering
teachers includes removing barriers such as arranging for teacher training so that teachers have
the skills and knowledge required to implement the PRONAFECYT. While this study revealed
that teachers receive training to a certain extent, the level of training received by teachers varies,
indicating the need for an increased level of teacher training focusing on 21st-century skills and
instructional practices designed to equip students with such skills. Empowering teachers also
includes arranging or advocating for resources required by the initiative. It was made evident by
this study that there is a need for dedicated resources for supplies, materials, and facilities
supporting activities related to the PRONAFECYT. While some level of communication of the
vision, purpose, and urgency of the PRONAFECYT was noted, evidence indicated that
communication from site and system leaders was infrequent. It was evident that increased
recognition of students and teachers by site and system leaders is a needed form of
communication.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 137
This study found that elements of PLCs and PBL are used to a greater extent at the school
site with a higher level of student participation in the PRONAFECYT. While the data revealed
the presence of PLCs and PBL to a certain extent, it was clear that increased use of PLCs and
PBL, as well as teacher training targeting these areas, is needed. Similarly, increased integration
of science curriculum can lead to increased student interest and participation in the
PRONAFECYT.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study was conducted by an 18-member team of researchers. The researchers shared
data collected from schools in Costa Rica. Several Costa Rican political figures were
interviewed, as well as business leaders and school site leaders. In addition, teachers, parents and
students were interviewed and several classrooms were observed.
It is suggested to conduct the same study in another developing nation that has
implemented a science fair program. The parameters could be set to examine the education
system of a country with approximately the same population and socioeconomic status. The
results of such a study could be compared with the current study to elicit best practices and
strategies related to the role of educational leadership on the participation in and implementation
of science fair programs. This, too, would serve as a significant comparison of leadership, noting
how different strategies may be more or less effective in certain aspects of development.
The present study could be expanded by including a longitudinal investigation in which
student participation in the PRONAFECYT is followed over an extended period of time. This
process would allow data to be collected pertaining to the effects of various leadership strategies
employed over an extended period of time. A longitudinal study could also focus on the schools
with changes in leadership or changes in leadership strategies to determine the resulting impact
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 138
on student participation. Similarly, a longitudinal study could focus on system-level changes in
leadership or strategies to determine the resulting impact on student participation.
As identified by Kotter (1995), successful implementation of a change effort is dependent
on the extent of completion of eight phases of the change leadership process. The present study’s
surveys and observation rubrics focused on four of the eight phases. This study could be
replicated with adjustment of the questions to pertain to the four other phases identified by
Kotter. It would be interesting to see the impact of the other four phases on the implementation
of the PRONAFECYT.
Conclusion
The effects of educational leadership on participation in the PRONAFECYT were clearly
evident through this study. The findings validated the positive effects of educational leadership
on participation in the PRONAFECYT in Costa Rican primary schools. As noted through the
data analysis of surveys, observations, and interviews with leaders from government, business,
and education, as well as teachers, parents, and students, educational leadership directly
contributed to student participation in the PRONAFECYT. Actions by leadership were key to
empowering teachers, garnering support, encouraging participation, integrating curriculum, and
guiding instructional practice targeting student development.
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 139
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APPENDIX A
Recruitment Letter

DATE

Dear XXX,

On June 15, 2015, a group of 18 doctoral students from the University of Southern California,
Rossier School of Education, will travel to Costa Rica as part of a study team led by Dr. Michael
Escalante. The purpose of our research is to understand the effects of educational leadership on
participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT) in
primary schools in Costa Rica. Specifically, we are interested in the roles of primary school
leaders in preparing and implementing this initiative. As part of our study, the following
questions will be addressed:

1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT
initiative?

2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?

3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?

4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional practice?

We would appreciate an opportunity to speak with you, members of the Ministry of Education,
and educational leaders at regional and school site levels. It is our goal to conduct surveys and
interviews to gather data to address these research questions. Your input will be invaluable to our
study.

Thank you for considering our request. We are available to meet with you any time between
from June 15 through June 19. Please feel free to contact any member of our study team if you
have any questions.

Sincerely,

USC Doctoral Students
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APPENDIX B
Summary of the Research Proposal

USC Rossier
School of Education
March 1, 2015

Summary of the Research Proposal: Globalization has resulted in increased competition among countries
for economic growth. Costa Rica has initiated many actions designed to increase the nation’s
competitiveness. In the educational system, changes have been made to increase development of student
competencies in the STEM areas, one of those changes being mandated participation in the National
Program of Science and Technology Fairs (NPSTF). Unfortunately, there is currently a disparity in the
levels of success across the country in participation and quality of the NPSTF initiative at individual
school sites.

Goals of the Research: The purpose of this study is to understand the effects of educational leadership on
participation in the NPSTF in primary schools in Costa Rica. The study will identify the role of school
leaders in development and implementation of the NPSTF initiative. Also, the study will explore how
schools may have restructured their educational programs by focusing on sharing of leadership and
teacher training.

Brief Description of the Methodology: Interviews of leaders: School Director interviews will typically
last about 30 minutes. In the past, interviews were longer only when the director wanted to talk more
about the school—which is great!

Teacher surveys: There will be no teacher interviews, just a short survey. Last year we put it online so
teachers could complete it before our students arrive. For those with limited Internet access, we had paper
surveys for them when we arrived.

Classroom observations: Classroom observations are about 10 minutes per room unless the Director or
teacher wants our students to stay longer.

Most of our students are subdirectors or directors or hold higher positions, so they understand the pressure
on school directors and are very respectful of their time and the time of their teachers. We do not want to
be an interruption or imposition. We are very grateful for the time that people spend with us and are
humbled by the high quality of academics that we see in Costa Rican schools, particularly with respect to
the science fairs.

Thank you for your assistance.

Sincerely,
Dr. Michael Escalante and Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft
Michael Escalante, Ed.D. Oryla Wiedoeft, Ed.D.
Executive in Residence Adjunct Assistant Professor
USC Rossier School of Education USC Rossier School of Education

University of Southern California
3470 Trousdale Parkway, Suite 1004B, Los Angeles, California 90089-1234
 Tel: 213 740 3711 Fax: 213 740 3553
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APPENDIX C
List of Research Sites

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APPENDIX D
Teacher Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Position:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. How have you been prepared for the PRONAFECYT?
2. In what ways do you elicit teacher feedback to improve implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
3. How do teachers ensure that all students participate in the PRONAFECYT?
4. How do you acquire resources necessary for participation in the PRONAFECYT?
5. How are teachers recognized for their efforts with regard to implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
6. Please describe how curriculum, pedagogy, or school culture has changed to
accommodate the PRONAFECYT.
7. How does the PRONAFECYT benefit students?
8. What instructional practices do teachers at your school use to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT?
9. How have your teachers been trained to help students to prepare for the PRONAFECYT?

ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 151

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cómo se han preparado para el PRONAFECYT?

2. ¿De qué manera provocan los directores retroalimentación con respecto a la
aplicación de el PRONAFECYT?

3. ¿De qué manera aseguran que todos los estudiantes participen en el PRONAFECYT?

4. ¿Cómo obtienen los directores de escuelas los recursos necesarios para participar en
la PRONAFECYT?

5. ¿Cómo son reconocidos los maestros por sus esfuerzos en lo que respecta a la
aplicación de la PRONAFECYT?

6. Por favor describa cómo currículo, pedagogía, o la cultura de escuela ha cambiado
para adaptarse a la PRONAFECYT.

7. ¿De qué manera el PRONAFECYT beneficia a los estudiantes?

8. ¿Qué prácticas de enseñanza utiliza para preparar a los estudiantes para el
PRONAFECYT?

9. ¿Cómo ha sido entrenado para ayudar a los estudiantes prepararse para el
PRONAFECYT?

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APPENDIX E
School Director Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Position:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. How have you been prepared for the PRONAFECYT?
2. In what ways do you elicit teacher feedback to improve implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
3. How do teachers ensure that all students participate in the PRONAFECYT?
4. How do you acquire resources necessary for participation in the PRONAFECYT?
5. How are teachers recognized for their efforts with regard to implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
6. Please describe how curriculum, pedagogy, or school culture has changed to
accommodate for the PRONAFECYT.
7. How does the PRONAFECYT benefit students?
8. What instructional practices do teachers at your school use to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT?
9. How have your teachers been trained to help students to prepare for the
PRONAFECYT?
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 153

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cómo se han preparado para el PRONAFECYT?
2. ¿De qué manera provoca retroalimentación con respecto a la aplicación de el
PRONAFECYT?

3. ¿De qué manera aseguran los maestros que todos los estudiantes participen en el
PRONAFECYT?

4. ¿Cómo obtiene los recursos necesarios para participar en la PRONAFECYT?
5. ¿Cómo son reconocidos los maestros por sus esfuerzos con respecto a la aplicación
de la PRONAFECYT?
6. Por favor describa cómo currículo, pedagogía, o la cultura de escuela ha cambiado
para adaptarse a la PRONAFECYT.
7. ¿De qué manera el PRONAFECYT beneficia a los estudiantes?
8. ¿Qué prácticas de enseñanza utilizan los maestros en su escuela para preparar a los
estudiantes para el PRONAFECYT?

9. ¿Cómo ha sido entrenado sus maestros para ayudar a los estudiantes prepararse para
el PRONAFECYT?

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APPENDIX F
Government Official/Business Leaders Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Position:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. What are your country’s goals for economic growth and creating an innovation-based
society?
2. How are the goals coordinated among the various governmental agencies?
3. Based on your perception, who are the key leaders in developing an innovation-based
workforce?
4. How does the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT)
support the national goals of developing an innovation-based workforce?
5. What role(s) do educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT?
6. How does government policy encourage PRONAFECYT participation?
7. Does the government provide schools with resources necessary for participation in the
PRONAFECYT? If so, what kind of resources are provided? If no, what would those
resources be?
8. Does the government recognize schools and/or regions for successful participation in the
PRONAFECYT? If so, please describe.
9. What is the government’s vision for implementation of science, technology, engineering,
and mathematics (STEM) in Costa Rican Schools?
10. What skills should schools promote to prepare students for the PRONAFECYT?

ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 155

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cuáles son las metas de su país para el crecimiento económico y la creación de una
sociedad basada en la innovación?
2. ¿Cómo son estas metas coordinadas entre las distintas agencias gubernamentales?
3. En base a su percepción, ¿quiénes son los líderes clave en el desarrollo de una fuerza
laboral que está basada en la innovación?
4. ¿Cómo apoya el Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología (PNFCT) a los
objetivos nacionales en el desarrollo de una fuerza laboral que está basada en la
innovación?
5. ¿Qué función(es) desempeña(n) los líderes del sistema educativo en la aplicación del
PNFCT?
6. ¿De qué manera la política del gobierno fomenta la participación en el PNFCT?
7. ¿El gobierno proporciona a las escuelas con los recursos necesarios para participar en el
PNFCT? Si es así, ¿qué tipo de recursos se proporcionan? Si no, ¿cuáles serían esos
recursos?
8. ¿El gobierno reconoce a las escuelas y/o regiones por su participación en el PNFCT? Si
es así, por favor describa como lo hace el gobierno.
9. ¿Cuál es la visión del gobierno para la integración de la ciencia, tecnología, ingeniería y
matemáticas en el plan de estudios de las escuelas en Costa Rica?
10. ¿Qué habilidades cree usted que las escuelas deben promover para preparar a los
estudiantes para el PNFCT?
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APPENDIX G
Parent Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Position:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. How has your child been prepared for the PRONAFECYT?
2. In what ways do School Directors elicit parent feedback to improve implementation of
the PRONAFECYT?
3. How do teachers ensure that all students participate in the PRONAFECYT?
4. How do School Directors acquire resources necessary for participation in the
PRONAFECYT?
5. How are students recognized for their efforts with regard to implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
6. Please describe how curriculum, pedagogy, or school culture has changed to
accommodate the PRONAFECYT.
7. How does the PRONAFECYT benefit students?
8. What instructional practices does your child’s teacher use to prepare him/her for the
PRONAFECYT?
9. How have you been trained to help your student(s) to prepare for the PRONAFECYT?

ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 157

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cómo se ha preparado su hijo/a para el PRONAFECYT?

2. ¿De qué manera provoca retroalimentación los directores de escuela con respecto a la
aplicación de el PRONAFECYT?
3. ¿De qué manera aseguran los maestros que todos los estudiantes participen en el
PRONAFECYT?
4. ¿Cómo obtiene los directores de escuelas recursos necesarios para participar en la
PRONAFECYT?
5. ¿Cómo son reconocidos los estudiantes por sus esfuerzos con respecto a la aplicación
de la PRONAFECYT?
6. Por favor describa cómo currículo, pedagogía, o la cultura de escuela ha cambiado
para adaptarse a la PRONAFECYT.
7. ¿De qué manera el PRONAFECYT beneficia a los estudiantes?
8. ¿Qué prácticas de enseñanza utilizan los maestros de su hijo/a en su escuela para
preparar a los estudiantes para el PRONAFECYT?
9. ¿Cómo ha sido entrenado usted para ayudar a su estudiante (s) prepararse para el
PRONAFECYT?

ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 158
APPENDIX H
Student Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Grade:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. How did you get ready for the science fair project?
2. How does your teacher make sure everyone participates in the science fair?
3. How do you get all the things you need for your science fair project?
4. Are you rewarded for participating in the science fair? If so, how are your rewarded?
5. How does participation in the science fair help you?
6. How do your teachers get you ready for the science fair?

ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 159

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cómo te preparas para el proyecto de feria de ciencias?

2. ¿Cómo se asegúra su maestro de que todos participen en la feria de ciencias?

3. ¿Cómo obtienes todo lo que necesitas para tu proyecto de ciencias?

4. ¿La escuela los recompense or celebra por su participación en la feria de ciencias? Si
es así, ¿Cómo celebra la escuela?

5. ¿Cómo te ayuda la participación en la feria de ciencia?

6. ¿Cómo te preparan los maestros para la feria de ciencias?

ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 160
APPENDIX I
Teacher Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 161

Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. The School Director plays a critical
role in ensuring that teachers imple-
ment the National Programs of
Science and Technology Fairs
(PRONAFECYT).
m m m m m
2. Teachers need support from the
school Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and
effectively.
m m m m m
3. The School Director elicits teacher
feedback to improve implementation
of the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
4. The School Director communicates
the purpose and urgency of the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
5. I provide opportunities for students
to engage in scientific inquiry as
part of my regular instruction.
m m m m m
6. I utilize project-based learning
(PBL) in my teaching.
m m m m
7. I am provided adequate training to
prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
8. My school has adequate resources
that allow me to prepare students for
the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
9. I am familiar with soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
m m m m m
10. My School Director talks about the
importance of soft skills and their
impact on student achievement.
m m m m m
11. Students develop soft skills through
participation in the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 162

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
12. I have received training on how to
integrate soft skills in the classroom.
m m m m m
13. Student participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized
throughout my school.
m m m m m
14. Teachers at my school work
together to plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration in my
classroom.
m m m m m
16. Teachers are given the leadership
capacity to make decisions about
projects for the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
17. There is a school-wide vision for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
18. There is a positive culture at my
school regarding the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
19. The School Director communicates
the goals for participation in the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
20. Teacher training was useful in
preparing students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
22. I am provided yearly training on the
PRONAFECYT guidelines.
m m m m m
23. There is a high level of participation
in the PRONAFECYT at my school.
m m m m m

ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 163
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No
estoy

seguro

1. El director de la escuela tiene un papel
crítico en asegurar que los maestros
participen en el Programa Nacional de
Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología
(PNFCT).
m m m m m
2. Los maestros necesitan el apoyo del
director de la escuela para
implementar el PNFCT plena y
efectivamente.
m m m m m
3. El director de la escuela solicita
retroalimentación de los maestros para
mejorar la implementación del
PNFCT.
m m m m m
4. El director de la escuela comunica el
propósito y la urgencia del PNFCT.
m m m m m
5. Yo ofrezco oportunidades a mis
estudiantes para participar en
proyectos de investigación científica o
ingeniería como parte de mi
enseñanza regular.
m m m m m
6. Yo utilizo el aprendizaje basado en
proyectos (ABP) cuando doy clase.
m m m m m
7. Yo recibo formación y entrenamiento
adecuado para preparar a mis
estudiantes en la competencia de la
PNFCT.
m m m m m
8. Mi escuela tiene recursos suficientes
que me permiten preparar la
competencia estudiantil en la PNFCT.
m m m m m
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas,
colaboración, comunicación,
capacidad de adaptación, análisis,
curiosidad e imaginación).
m m m m m
10. El director de la escuela comunica la
importancia de las habilidades
sociales y su impacto en el
rendimiento estudiantil.
m m m m m
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 164

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No
estoy

seguro

11. Los estudiantes desarrollan
habilidades sociales a través de la
participación en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
12. He recibido capacitación de cómo
integrar habilidades sociales en el
aula.
m m m m m
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la
colaboración estudiantil en mi aula.
m m m m m
16. Maestros en mi escuela reciben la
capacidad de liderazgo para tomar
decisiones de proyectos relacionados
con el PNFCT.
m m m m m
17. Existe una visión en mi escuela sobre
el PNFCT.
m m m m m
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en mi escuela.
m m m m m
19. El director de la escuela comunica los
objetivos de participación en el
PNFCT.
m m m m m
20. La capacitación de maestros fue útil
para preparar a los estudiantes para el
PNFCT.
m m m m m
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la
escuela para preparar la competencia
estudiantil en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
22. Yo recibo capacitación anual sobre las
directrices del PNFCT.
m m m m m
23. Hay un alto nivel de participación en
el PNFCT en mi escuela.
m m m m m

ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 165
APPENDIX J
School Director Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly

Agree
Agree
Disagree

Strongly

Disagree

Not

Sure

1. School Directors play a critical role in
assuring teachers implement the
National Science and Technology Fair
(PRONAFECYT). m m m m m
2. Teachers need the support of the school
Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and effectively.
m m m m m
3. I elicit student feedback to improve
implementation of the PRONAFECYT .
m m m m m
4. I communicate the purpose and urgency
of the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
5. My teachers provide opportunities for
their students to engage in scientific
inquiry as part of regular instruction.

m m m m m
6. My teachers utilize project-based
learning (PBL) in their teaching.
m m m m
7. I am provided adequate training to
prepare teachers and students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
8. My school has adequate resources to
prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
9. I am familiar with soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
m m m m m
10. I communicate with teachers about the
importance of soft skills and their
impact on student achievement.
m m m m m
11. Students develop soft skills through
participation in PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m

ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 166

Strongly

Agree
Agree
Disagree

Strongly

Disagree

Not

Sure

12. I have received training on how to
integrate soft skills in the classroom.
m m m m m
13. Student participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized
throughout my school.
m m m m m
14. Teachers at my school work together to
plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration at my school.
m m m m m
16. Teachers are given the leadership
capacity to make decisions about
projects for the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
17. There is a school-wide vision for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
18. There is a positive culture at my school
regarding the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
19. I communicate the goals for
participation in the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
20. My teachers receive useful training that
assists to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
22. I am provided yearly training on the
PRONAFECYT guidelines.
m m m m m
23. There is a high level of participation at
my school in the PRONAFECYT .
m m m m m

ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 167
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

1. Los directores de las escuelas tienen un
papel crítico en asegurar que los
maestros participen en el Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología (PNFCT).
m m m m m
2. Los maestros necesitan el apoyo del
director de la escuela para implementar
el PNFCT plena y efectivamente.
m m m m m
3. Yo solicito retroalimentación de los
estudiantes para mejorar la
implementación del PNFCT.
m m m m m
4. Yo comunico el propósito y la urgencia
del PNFCT.
m m m m m
5. Mis maestros ofrecen oportunidades a sus
estudiantes para participar en proyectos
de investigación científica o ingeniería
como parte de enseñanza regular.
m m m m m
6. Mis maestros utilizan el aprendizaje
basado en proyectos (ABP) cuando dan
clase.
m m m m m
7. Yo recibo formación y entrenamiento
adecuado para preparar a los maestros y
estudiantes en la competencia del
PNFCT.
m m m m m
8. Mi escuela tiene recursos suficientes para
preparar la competencia estudiantil en el
PNFCT.
m m m m m
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas, colaboración,
comunicación, capacidad de adaptación,
análisis, curiosidad e imaginación).
m m m m m
10. Yo comunico la importancia de las
habilidades sociales y su impacto en el
rendimiento estudiantil con mis
maestros.
m m m m m
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 168

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

11. Los estudiantes desarrollan habilidades
sociales a través de la participación en
el PNFCT.
m m m m m
12. He proporcionado capacitación de cómo
integrar habilidades sociales en el aula.
m m m m m
13. La participación estudiantil en el
PNFCT se reconoce en mi escuela.
m m m m m
14. Los maestros en mi escuela trabajan
juntos para planificar y prepararse para
el PNFCT.
m m m m m
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la colaboración
estudiantil en mi escuela.
m m m m m
16. Mis maestros reciben la capacidad de
liderazgo para tomar decisiones de
proyectos relacionados con el PNFCT.
m m m m m
17. Existe una visión en mi escuela sobre el
PNFCT.
m m m m m
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en mi escuela.
m m m m m
19. Yo comunico los objetivos de
participación en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
20. Mis maestros reciben capacitación útil
que ayuda a preparar a los estudiantes
para el PNFCT.
m m m m m
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la escuela
para preparar la competencia estudiantil
en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
22. Yo recibo capacitación anual sobre las
directrices del PNFCT.
m m m m m
23. Hay un alto nivel de participación en el
PNFCT en mi escuela.
m m m m m

ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 169
APPENDIX K
Government Official Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 170
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. School Directors play a critical role
in assuring teachers implement the
National Program of Science and
Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT).
m m m m m
2. Teachers need the support of the
school Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and
effectively.
m m m m m
3. School Directors elicit student feed-
back to improve implementation of
the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
4. Schools communicate the purpose
and urgency of the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
5. Schools provide opportunities for
students to engage in scientific
inquiry as part of my regular
instruction.
m m m m m
6. Teachers utilize project-based
learning (PBL) in their teaching.
m m m m
7. Schools are provided adequate
training to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
8. Schools are provided adequate
resources to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
9. I am familiar with soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
m m m m m
10. We communicate the importance of
soft skills and their impact on
student achievement.
m m m m m
11. Students develop soft skills through
participation in PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m

ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 171

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
12. We have provided training on how
to integrate soft skills in the
classroom.
m m m m m
13. Student participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized
throughout the schools.
m m m m m
14. Teachers in this region work
together to plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration at schools in
my region.
m m m m m
16. Teachers are given the leadership
capacity to make decisions about
projects for the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
17. There are school-wide visions for
the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
18. There is a positive culture at schools
regarding the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
19. The goals for participation in the
PRONAFECYT are communicated
by school site leaders.
m m m m m
20. Teachers receive useful training that
assists to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
22. Teachers and administrators are
provided yearly training on the
PRONAFECYT guidelines.
m m m m m
23. There is a high level of
PRONAFECYT participation at
schools in my region.
m m m m m

ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 172
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente
en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

1. Los directores de las escuelas tienen
un papel crítico en asegurar que los
maestros participen en el Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología (PNFCT).
m m m m m
2. Los maestros necesitan el apoyo del
director de la escuela para
implementar el PNFCT plena y
efectivamente.
m m m m m
3. Los directores de las escuelas solicitan
retroalimentación de los estudiantes
para mejorar la implementación del
PNFCT.
m m m m m
4. Las escuelas comunican el propósito y
la urgencia del PNFCT.
m m m m m
5. Las escuelas ofrecen oportunidades
para participar en proyectos de
investigación científica o ingeniería.
m m m m m
6. Los maestros utilizan el aprendizaje
basado en proyectos (ABP) cuando
dan clase.
m m m m m
7. Las escuelas están provistas con
formación y entrenamiento adecuado
para preparar la competencia
estudiantil en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
8. Las escuelas tienen recursos
suficientes para preparar la
competencia estudiantil en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas, colabora-
ción, comunicación, capacidad de
adaptación, análisis, curiosidad e
imaginación).
m m m m m
10. Comunicamos la importancia de las
habilidades sociales y su impacto en el
rendimiento estudiantil.
m m m m m
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 173

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente
en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

11. Los estudiantes desarrollan habili-
dades sociales a través de la participa-
ción en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
12. Hemos proporcionado capacitación de
cómo integrar habilidades sociales en
el aula.
m m m m m
13. La participación estudiantil en el
PNFCT se reconoce en las escuelas.
m m m m m
14. Los maestros de mi región trabajan
juntos para planificar y prepararse
para el PNFCT.
m m m m m
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la
colaboración estudiantil en las
escuelas de mi región.
m m m m m
16. A los maestros se les da la capacidad
de liderazgo para tomar decisiones de
proyectos relacionados con el PNFCT.
m m m m m
17. Existe una visión en todas las escuelas
de esta región sobre el PNFCT.
m m m m m
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en las escuelas.
m m m m m
19. Los maestros y los directores de las
escuelas comunican los objetivos de
participación en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
20. Los maestros reciben capacitación útil
que ayuda a preparar a los estudiantes
para el PNFCT.
m m m m m
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la
escuela para preparar la competencia
estudiantil en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
22. Los maestros y administradores
reciben capacitación anual sobre las
directrices del PNFCT.
m m m m m
23. Hay un alto nivel de participación en
el PNFCT en las escuelas de mi
región.
m m m m m

ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 174
APPENDIX L
Business Partner Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. School Directors play a critical role
in assuring teachers implement the
National Program of Science and
Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT).
m m m m m
2. Teachers need the support of the
school Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and
effectively.
m m m m m
3. School Directors elicit student
feedback to improve implementation
of the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
4. Schools communicate the purpose
and urgency of the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
5. Schools provide opportunities for
students to engage in scientific
inquiry as part of regular instruction.
m m m m m
6. Teachers utilize project-based
learning (PBL) in their teaching.
m m m m
7. Schools are provided adequate
training to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
8. Schools are provided adequate
resources to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
9. I am familiar with soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
m m m m m
10. We communicate the importance of
soft skills and their impact on
student achievement.
m m m m m
11. Students develop soft skills through
participation in PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m

ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 175

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
12. We have provided training on how
to integrate soft skills in the
classroom.
m m m m m
13. Student participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized
throughout the schools.
m m m m m
14. Teachers at my local schools work
together to plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration at the schools
with which I work with.
m m m m m
16. Teachers are given the leadership
capacity to make decisions about
projects for the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
17. There are school-wide visions for
the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
18. There is a positive culture at schools
regarding the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
19. The goals for participation in the
PRONAFECYT are communicated
by school site leaders.
m m m m m
20. Teachers receive useful training that
assists to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
22. Teachers and administrators are
provided yearly training on the
PRONAFECYT guidelines.
m m m m m
23. There is a high level of
PRONAFECYT participation at
schools I work with.
m m m m m

ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 176
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

1. Los directores de las escuelas tienen un
papel crítico en asegurar que los maestros
participen en el Programa Nacional de
Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología (PNFCT).
m m m m m
2. Los maestros necesitan el apoyo del
director de la escuela para implementar el
PNFCT plena y efectivamente.
m m m m m
3. Los directores de las escuelas solicitan
retroalimentación de los estudiantes para
mejorar la implementación del PNFCT.
m m m m m
4. Las escuelas comunican el propósito y la
urgencia del PNFCT.
m m m m m
5. Las escuelas ofrecen oportunidades para
participar en proyectos de investigación
científica o ingeniería.
m m m m m
6. Los maestros utilizan el aprendizaje basado
en proyectos (ABP) cuando dan clase.
m m m m m
7. Las escuelas están provistas con formación
y entrenamiento adecuado para preparar la
competencia estudiantil en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
8. Las escuelas tienen recursos suficientes
para preparar la competencia estudiantil
en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas, colaboración,
comunicación, capacidad de adaptación,
análisis, curiosidad e imaginación).
m m m m m
10. Comunicamos la importancia de las
habilidades sociales y su impacto en el
rendimiento estudiantil.
m m m m m
11. Los estudiantes desarrollan habilidades
sociales a través de la participación en el
PNFCT.
m m m m m
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 177

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

12. Hemos proporcionado capacitación de
cómo integrar habilidades sociales en el
aula.
m m m m m
13. La participación estudiantil en el
PNFCT se reconoce en las escuelas.
m m m m m
14. Los maestros en las escuelas con las que
colaboro trabajan juntos para planificar
y prepararse para el PNFCT.
m m m m m
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la colaboración
estudiantil en las escuelas con las que
trabajo.
m m m m m
16. A los maestros se les da la capacidad de
liderazgo para tomar decisiones de
proyectos relacionados con el PNFCT.
m m m m m
17. Existe una visión en todas las escuelas
con las que trabajo sobre el PNFCT.
m m m m m
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en las escuelas.
m m m m m
19. Los maestros y los directores las
escuelas comunican los objetivos de
participación en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
20. Los maestros reciben capacitación útil
que ayuda a preparar a los estudiantes
para el PNFCT.
m m m m m
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la escuela
para preparar la competencia estudiantil
en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
22. Los maestros y administradores reciben
capacitación anual sobre las directrices
del PNFCT.
m m m m m
23. Hay un alto nivel de participación en las
escuelas con las que trabajo en el
PNFCT.
m m m m m

ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 178
APPENDIX M
Parent Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 179
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly

Agree
Agree
Disagree

Strongly

Disagree

Not

Sure

1. My child’s school director plays a
critical role in assuring teachers
implement the National Program of
Science and Technology Fairs
(PRONAFECYT).
m m m m m
2. My child’s teachers need the support of
the School Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and effectively.
m m m m m
3. My child’s school director elicits
student feedback to improve
implementation of the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
4. My child’s teachers communicate the
purpose and urgency of the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
5. My child’s teachers provide me oppor-
tunities to engage in scientific inquiry as
part of my child’s regular instruction.
m m m m m
6. My child’s teachers utilize project-based
learning (PBL) in their teaching.
m m m m
7. My child’s school is provided with
adequate training to prepare students for
the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
8. My child’s school has adequate
resources to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
9. My child is familiar with soft skills (i.e.
critical thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
m m m m m
10. My child’s teachers communicate the
importance of soft skills and their
impact on my child’s achievement.
m m m m m
11. My child developed soft skills through
participation in PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m

ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 180

Strongly

Agree
Agree
Disagree

Strongly

Disagree

Not

Sure

12. My child’s teachers have shared how
they have integrated soft skills in the
classroom.
m m m m m
13. My child’s participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized at my
school.
m m m m m
14. My child’s teachers work together to
plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration in my child’s
classroom.
m m m m m
16. My child’s teachers are given the
leadership capacity to make decisions
about projects for the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
17. There is a school-wide vision for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
18. There is a positive culture at my child’s
school regarding the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
19. Teachers and the Director at my child’s
school communicate the goals for
participation in the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
20. My child’s teachers receive useful
training that assist to prepare students
for the PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare my child for the
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m
22. My child’s teachers share
PRONAFECYT guidelines with me.
m m m m m
23. My child participated in the school’s
PRONAFECYT.
m m m m m

ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 181
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

1. El director de la escuela de mi hijo/a
tiene un papel crítico en asegurar que
los maestros participen en el Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología (PNFCT).
m m m m m
2. Los maestros de mi hijo/a necesitan el
apoyo del director de la escuela para
implementar el PNFCT plena y
efectivamente.
m m m m m
3. El director de la escuela de mi hijo/a
solicita retroalimentación de los estudi-
antes para mejorar la implementación
del PNFCT.
m m m m m
4. Los maestros de mi hijo/a comunican el
propósito y la urgencia del PNFCT.
m m m m m
5. Los maestros de mi hijo/a ofrecen
oportunidades para participar en
proyectos de investigación científica o
ingeniería como parte de la enseñanza
regular.
m m m m m
6. Los maestros de mi hijo/a utilizan el
aprendizaje basado en proyectos (ABP)
cuando dan clase.
m m m m m
7. La escuela de mi hijo/a está provista con
formación y entrenamiento adecuado
para preparar la competencia estudiantil
en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
8. La escuela de mi hijo/a tiene recursos
suficientes para preparar la competencia
estudiantil en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
9. Mi hijo/a esta familiarizado/a con
habilidades sociales (e.g. pensamiento
crítico y resolución de problemas,
colaboración, comunicación, capacidad
de adaptación, análisis, curiosidad e
imaginación).
m m m m m
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 182

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

10. Los maestros de mi hijo/a comunican la
importancia de las habilidades sociales
y su impacto en su rendimiento
estudiantil.
m m m m m
11. Mi hijo/a desarrolla habilidades sociales
a través de la participación en el
PNFCT.
m m m m m
12. Los maestros de mi hijo/a platican de
cómo integran habilidades sociales en el
aula.
m m m m m
13. La participación de mi hijo/a en el
PNFCT se reconoce en su escuela.
m m m m m
14. Los maestros de mi hijo/a trabajan
juntos para planificar y prepararse para
el PNFCT.
m m m m m
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la colaboración
estudiantil en el aula de mi hijo/a.
m m m m m
16. Los maestros de mi hijo/a reciben
capacidad de liderazgo para tomar
decisiones de proyectos relacionados
con el PNFCT.
m m m m m
17. Existe una visión sobre el PNFCT en la
escuela de mi hijo/a.
m m m m m
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en la escuela de mi hijo/a.
m m m m m
19. Los maestros y los directores las
escuelas comunican los objetivos de
participación en el PNFCT.
m m m m m
20. El director de la escuela y los maestros
de mi hijo/a reciben capacitación útil
que ayuda a preparar a los estudiantes
para el PNFCT.
m m m m m
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la escuela
que prepara a mi hijo/a para el PNFCT.
m m m m m
22. Los maestros de mi hijo/a platican de
las directrices del PNFCT conmigo.
m m m m m
23. Mi hijo/a participo en el PNFCT de su
escuela.
m m m m m
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 183
APPENDIX N
Student Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. n/a m m m m m
2. n/a m m m m m
3. n/a m m m m m
4. My teachers talk about why we are
doing science fair projects.
m m m m m
5. My teachers often help me learn
about the scientific method through
science and technology activities.
m m m m m
6. My teachers have us work on group
projects where we solve problems
and work together.
m m m m m
7. My teachers help me get my science
fair project ready.
m m m m m
8. My school has all the things I need
to help me with my science fair
project.
m m m m m
9. I know about soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
m m m m m
10. My teachers talk about the import-
ance of soft skills and how they will
help me do well in school.
m m m m m
11. I can improve my soft skills when I
do projects for the science fair.
m m m m m

ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 184
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
12. n/a m m m m m
13. My school rewards students who
participate in the science fair.
m m m m m
14. n/a m m m m m
15. n/a m m m m m
16. n/a m m m m m
17. People at my school enjoy getting
ready for the science fair.
m m m m m
18. n/a m m m m m
19. n/a m m m m m
20. n/a m m m m m
21. n/a m m m m m
22. n/a m m m m m
23. n/a m m m m m

ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 185

Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo
En

desacuerdo

Totalmente

en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

1. m m m m m
2. m m m m m
3. m m m m m
4. Mis maestros hablan del por qué
estamos haciendo proyectos para la feria
científica.
m m m m m
5. Mis maestros a menudo me ayudan a
aprender del método científico por
medio de actividades de ciencia y
tecnología.
m m m m m
6. Mis maestros nos asignan proyectos de
trabajo de equipo donde colaboramos
para resolver problemas.
m m m m m
7. Mis maestros me apoyan para que mi
proyecto esté listo para la feria
científica.
m m m m m
8. Mi escuela tiene todo lo que necesito
para mi proyecto de la feria científica.
m m m m m
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas, colaboración,
comunicación, capacidad de adaptación,
análisis, curiosidad e imaginación).
m m m m m
10. Mis maestros hablan de la importancia
de las habilidades sociales y de su
impacto en mi rendimiento como
estudiante.
m m m m m
11. Mejoro mis habilidades sociales cuando
participo en la feria científica.
m m m m m
12. m m m m m
13. Mi escuela recompensas a alumnos que
participan en la feria científica.
m m m m m
14. m m m m m
15. m m m m m

ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 186

Totalmente

de
acuerdo

De

acuerdo

En

desacuerdo

Totalmente
en

desacuerdo

No

estoy

seguro

16. m m m m m
17. La gente de mi escuela disfrutan la
preparación para la feria científica.
m m m m m
18. m m m m m
19. m m m m m
20. m m m m m
21. m m m m m
22. m m m m m
23. m m m m m

ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 187
APPENDIX O
Observation Protocol

School:

Grade Level: Total Students:
Teacher:

Observer(s):

Questions
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Evident
1. School Directors communicate with teachers.
2. School Directors are visible in the classrooms.
3. STEM/PBL activities related to NSTF are
apparent (process).

4. Evidence of student projects is related to the
implementation of the NSTF. (outcome)

5. The school has resources to prepare students for
the NSTF.

6. Teacher collaboration is evident.
7. Teachers are facilitating soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving, collaboration,
communication, adaptability, analysis, curiosity,
and imagination).

8. Training and professional development are
evident.

ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 188

9. Other
Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Evident
1. School directors communicate with
teachers.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Evident
2. School Directors are visible in
classrooms.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 189
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Evident
3. STEM/PBL activities related to NSTF
are apparent (process).
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
4. Evidence of student projects is related to
the implementation of the NSTF (outcome).
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 190

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
5. The school has resources to prepare
students for NSTF.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
6. Teacher collaboration is evident. 4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 191

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
7. Teachers are facilitating soft skills
(critical thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication, adaptability,
analysis, curiosity, and imagination).
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
8. Training and professional development is
evident.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 192

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
9. Other 4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Observation Checklist
Capraro
(STEM PBL)
Wagner
(Soft Skills)
Observed
Student Group Work/Collaboration X X
Discourse and Questioning
(student-student, teacher-student)
X
Student Work
Student Engagement X X
Computers in the Classroom X
Student Centered X X
STEM Integration Across Content Areas X

ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 193
APPENDIX P
Consent Form
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089

INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN PARTICIPATION IN THE NATIONAL
PROGRAM OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FAIRS IN COSTA RICA

You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should
ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to understand the effects of educational leadership on participation
in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs in primary schools in Costa Rica.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a 15-minute survey, a
30-minute audiotaped interview, and/or a 10-minute classroom observation. You do not have to
answer any questions that you don’t want to answer; if you don’t want to be taped, you can still
participate in this study.

CONFIDENTIALITY
There will be no identifiable information obtained in connection with this study. Your name,
address, or other identifiable information will not be collected.

The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.

ROLE OF LEADERSHIP ON SCIENCE FAIR PARTICIPATION 194
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION

Principal Investigator:
Dr. Michael Escalante, University of Southern California,
mescalan@usc.edumailto:mescalan@usc.edu; mailto:mescalan@usc.edu

Co-investigators:
Oryla Wiedoeft, Assistant to Dr. Escalante,
wiedoeft@usc.edumailto:wiedoeft@usc.edu
Patricia Brent-Sanco, Principal, Paramount Unified School District,
pbrent@usc.edumailto:pbrent@usc.edu
Cindy Chavez Swenson, MWP Lecturer, University of California, Merced,
ccswenso@usc.edumailto:ccswenso@usc.edu
Jesus Corral, Senior Director, Los Angeles County Probation Dept.,
jesuscorral1@gmail.commailto:jesuscorral1@gmail.com
Ricardo Esquivel, Principal, Partnership to Uplift Communities,
ricardoe@usc.edumailto:ricardoe@usc.edu
Carin Fractor, Teacher, Saugus Union School District,
fractor@usc.edumailto:fractor@usc.edu
Miguel Gonzales, Assistant Principal, Santa Barbara Unified School District
gonzalmm@usc.edumailto:gonzalmm@usc.edu
Denise Harshman, Coordinator, Orange County Department of Education
harshman@usc.edumailto:harshman@usc.edu
Mathew Kodama, Assistant Principal, Pasadena Unified School District
mathewwk@usc.edumailto:mathewwk@usc.edu
April Leon, Teacher, West Covina High School,
aprilleo@usc.edumailto:aprilleo@usc.edu
Jennifer Lashier, Assistant Principal, Arcadia Unified School District,
lashier@usc.edumailto:lashier@usc.edu
Omar Lopez, Clinical Associate Professor, Assistant Director of Field Education, USC School of Social
Work, omarl@usc.edumailto:omarl@usc.edu
Christin Molano, Principal, Glendale Unified School District, cwalley@gusd.netmailto:cwalley@gusd.net
Fernando Marquez, Teacher on Assignment, Oro Grande School District,
fmarquez@usc.edumailto:fmarquez@usc.edu
Maribel Martinez, Principal, Lynwood Unified School District
Mart632@usc.edumailto:Mart632@usc.edu
Wendy Poffenberger, Assistant Principal, Long Beach Unified School District,
wpoffenb@usc.edumailto:wpoffenb@usc.edu
Bea Spelker-Levi, Principal, Paramount Unified School District,
bspelker@paramount.k12.ca.usmailto:bspelker@paramount.k12.ca.us
Richard Storti, Vice President of Administrative Services, Fullerton College,
rstorti@usc.edumailto:rstorti@usc.edu
John Tung, Assistant Principal, Arcadia Unified School District,
johntung@usc.edumailto:johntung@usc.edu; mailto:johntung@usc.edu; mailto:johntung@usc.edu

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edumailto:upirb@usc.edu

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Globalization has resulted in increased competition among nations that participate in the global economy and, as a result, has had a direct impact on skills and knowledge required by employers and a direct impact on educational policy. In response to the skills required from human capital as a result of globalization, nations have implemented and are implementing instructional programs to encourage and foster student learning in areas specifically related to 21st-century skills. To promote an educated workforce, stimulate creativity in students, promote a culture of science and technology, and develop scientific thinking and knowledge in students, Costa Rica has mandated participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología [PRONAFECYT]). The purpose of this study was to understand the effects of educational leadership on participation in the PRONAFECYT in Costa Rican primary schools. The study identified the role of school leaders in development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. The study also explored how schools have restructured their educational programs by focusing on sharing leadership and teacher training. ❧ The analysis of data gathered through interviews, observations, and surveys revealed that educational leadership contributes directly to student participation in the PRONAFECYT in Costa Rican primary schools. Actions by leadership were key to empowering teachers, garnering support, encouraging participation, integrating curriculum, and guiding instructional practice targeting student development. The data also indicated greater utilization of professional learning communities and project-based learning (PBL) at a school with a higher level of student participation relative to a school with a lower level of student participation in the PRONAFECYT. PBL elements and integration of science curriculum in multiple subjects were noted to a certain degree.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Storti, Richard S. (author)

Core Title The role of educational leadership on participation in the Costa Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Defense Date 02/19/2016

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag education,Globalization,human capital,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,science fairs

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael F. (committee chair), Garcia, Pedro E. (committee member), Verdugo, David J. (committee member)

Creator Email rs_storti@yahoo.com,rstorti@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-223097

Unique identifier UC11279197

Identifier etd-StortiRich-4179.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-223097 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-StortiRich-4179.pdf

Dmrecord 223097

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Storti, Richard S.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

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