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The Indian Himalayan building energy code as a step towards energy conservation
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Content
THE INDIAN HIMALAYAN BUILDING ENERGY CODE AS A
STEP TOWARDS ENERGY CONSERVATION
by
Sharmila Bharali
A Thesis Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF BUILDING SCIENCE
May 1994
Copyright 1991 Sharmila Bharali
UMI Number: EP41437
All rights reserved
INFORMATION TO ALL USERS
The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed,
a note will indicate the deletion.
Dissertation Publishing
UMI EP41437
Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author.
Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC.
All rights reserved. This work is protected against
unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code
ProQuest LLC.
789 East Eisenhower Parkway
P.O. Box 1346
Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
THE SCHOOL O F ARCHITECTURE
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 90089- 0291
Bv-S.
This thesis, written by
. SH.4RV\.\UA ... J&H 4R A L ,J...............................
under the direction of heX Thesis Committee,
and approved by all its members, has been pre
sented to and accepted by the Dean of The School
of Architecture, in partial fulfillment of the require
ments for the degree of
. 1 4A&Z& .. .0F... .0PJUPIX$.. s c m o z .
i t w r t b
Dean
r
THESIS COMMITTEE
L - J ,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I take this opportunity to express my heartfelt thanks to
Professor Marc Schiler, my chief advisor, who has been pivotal in the shaping of
this thesis from the seminal stages of its conception to its present form with his
incredible breadth of knowledge and admirable patience, and the experience of
working with whom I shall always cherish;
Professor Goetz Schierle, whose energy and enthusiasm for academic pursuit has
been a constant source of inspiration for me, and whose pragmatism has helped iron
out some of the problems faced during the developing of this thesis;
Professor Tridib Banerjee, for adding another dimension to this thesis with his
perspective on the "big picture”, which helped bring reality closer to the research;
my parents, Pranab and Gita Bharali, for their continued support and
encouragement in my endeavour for a higher education, and also for undertaking a
very valuable market research at Guwahati for me;
to Saiyeev Tankha, for the use of his photographs of Kulu, Manali and Daijeeling,
and, not the least, for providing moral support when I most need it, and without
whose encouragement and good faith in my capabilities I wouldn’t have been here;
to Holly Effiom, who educated me on the science of referencing;
and to all my friends here at the University of Southern California and in Los
Angeles for creating a warm environ to thrive in.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List Of Tables vi
List Of Figures vii
Introduction 1
Chapter 1. Energy-Use Patterns In The Indian Himalayas 6
1.1 Data Collection For Energy-Use Patterns 6
1.2 Village Cluster Level Energy Use 7
1.3 Urban Level Energy Use 11
1.4 Fuel Products And Appropriate Of Use 12
1.5 Availibility Of Energy Forms 16
1.6 Comparison Of Energy Figures With California Cities 20
1.7 References 22
Chapter 2. Sketch Of The Himalayas 23
2.1 General Description 23
2.2 Background Information Of Some Towns And Cities 25
2.3 Brief Description Of Agricultural Practices 27
2.4 Vernacular Architecture 29
2.5 Tourism And Its Effects 36
2.6 Cottage Industry 39
2.7 Seismic Activity 39
2.8 References 40
Chapter 3. Codes And Their Role 43
3.1 General Description 43
3.2 Strategies And Methods Of Enforcement 44
3.3 Codes Related To The Built Environment 46
3.4 Planning And Building Codes In India 47
3.5 Choosing A Prototype Code 48
3.6 References 49
Chapter 4. A Study Of The California Energy Code 50
4.1 Code Compliance Approaches 50
4.2 The Content Of The Codes 53
4.3 Differences In The Internal Loads Of High-Rise And 55
Low-Rise Residential Occupancies
4.4 Other Laws And Stipulations That Affect Energy 57
Conservation In Buildings
Chapter 5. A Direct Application Of The California Energy Code To 58
Test Buildings
5.1 Description Of Model Buildings 58
5.2 Methodology 62
5.3 Default Settings For Interior Space Conditions In 63
CALRES Program
5.4 Observations On Energy-Use Figures 65
5.5 Conclusions 67
5.6 References 69
Chapter 6. Analysis Of Weather Data For Code-Writing 70
6.1 Data Collection 70
6.2 Analysis 71
6.3 Inferences 76
6.4 References 77
Chapter 7. Analysis And Formulation Of The Himalayan Building 79
Energy Code
7.1 Analysis Of Building Envelope Components 79
7.2 Analysis For Lighting Systems 88
7.3 Analysis For Space-Conditioning Systems 89
7.4 Analysis For Domestic Hot-Water Budgets 91
7.5 Analysis For Energy-Use In Cooking 91
7.6 References 92
Chapter 8. Structure And Outline Of The Code 94
8.1 General Organization 94
8.2 Contents Of The Code For The Higher Developement 96
Category
Bibliography 99
Appendix A Climate Charts Some Of Himalayan Weather Stations 102
Appendix B Analysis Of Comfort Characteristics And Heating Degree 113
Days Of Some Himalayan Weather Stations
Appendix C Heat Gain And Loss Characteristics Through Glazings For 125
5 California Cities
Appendix D Proposal For The Indian Himalayan Building Energy Code 136
V
LIST OF TABLES
Table I Energy consumption at the household level for 3 Himalayan 9
village clusters.
Table II Hierarchy of energy consuming activities in Mukteswar, 9
Khurpatal and Fatehpur.
Table III Energy values of different primary fuels. 13
Table IVa Costs of common fuel forms in the Indian market as of March 3, 15
1994.
Table IVb Comparison of energy consumption figures between California 20
cities and Himalayan village clusters.
Table V Background information of some Himalayan locations. 26
Table VI Equivalent California cities. 62
Table VII Table for internal gain and thermostat schedules. 64
Table VIII Space-conditioning energy use for a simple, one-room building 67
in 5 California cities.
Table IX An Example of the Mahoney tables analysis for Shillong 73
Table X Comfort indices derived for different Himalayan locations. 74
Table XI Climatic indicators of Himalayan towns. 74
Table XII Equivalent climate zones in California in terms of degree days of 77
heating
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
Figure
1. The Himalayan mountain system across the Indian sub-continent. 1
2. Rural settlement clusters along the mountain slopes in the Kulu 5
Valley of the Central Himalayan region.
3. Location map of village clusters studied in relation to the Indian 8
sub-continent.
4. Hierarchy of household energy-consuming activities in the 10
Mukteswar and Khurpatal clusters of Nainital district, according to
Gautam and Satsangi, (1983).
5. Hierarchy of household energy-consuming activities in the 11
Fatehpur cluster of Nainital district, according to Gautam and
Satsangi (1983).
6. Comparison of energy values of different fuel forms in Kbtu/lb 13
(including electricity in Kbtu/kwh.)
7. Comparison of electricity cost and energy value to that of other 16
commercial fuel forms.
8. A probable site for power generation in the Central Himalayas. 17
9. The Himalayan ranges across the Indian sub-continent showing all 23
political divisions within it.
10. An idealized cross-section through the Himalayan ranges showing 24
the general geographical divisions according to elevations.
11. Urbanization levels and population densities of various Himalayan 27
towns and villages (the urbanization levels for Kathmandu and
Pokhara are not given.)
12. Example of rural housing in the Kulu valley of Central Himalaya. 29
13. Plans and section of a typical Ladakhi house. 30
14. Schematic section of a typical rural house in the Kashmir Valley. 32
15 Section and first floor plan of a typical rural house in Kulu valley. 33
vii
Figure 16. Typical rural housing cluster of Central Himalayan Kulu Valley.
Figure 17. Plan, section and elevation of a typical rural house in Meghalaya,
in the North-Eastern Hills.
Figure 18. A street scene from the urban area of Kathmandu, which is said to
be one of the most densely populated places in the world, during a
civic occasion.
Figure 19. The clock tower in Darjeeling, a symbol of its colonial past.
Figure 20. Traditional heavy-weight construction of the Central Himalyan
region, which underwent severe damage during the earthquakes of
1990 and 1992.
Figure 21. Example of timber-frame construction with brick infill in
Darjeeling.
Figure 22. Diagram showing the strategy for compliance in the performance
and prescriptive methods.
Figure 23. Plan and section of row-housing type model.
Figure 24. Plan and section of simple one-room building.
Figure 25. Site and source enrgy use for a simple one-room building in 5
different California climate zones, if the California energy code is
followed.
Figure 26. Energy use of different fuel types for a simple one-room building
in 5 different California climate zones.
Figure 27. Charts showing heating and cooling degree days, and percentage
of hours the ambient temperature floats within the comfort zone
for Himalayan towns and villages.
Figure 28. Results of test on changing infiltration levels.
Figure 29 Results of tests on changing insulation levies on the building
envelope.
Figure 30 Heat loss and gain through glazings for different orientations for
single and double pane in California climate zones 7 and 5.
34
35
37
38
39
40
52
60
61
66
66
75
82
82
85
v iii
Figure 31 Heat loss and gain through glazings for different orientations for 86
single and double pane in California climate zones 3 and 1.
Figure 32 Heat gain and loss values through glazing for different orientations 87
for single and double pane in California climate zone 16.
Figure 31. Organization of different classifications within the code. 96
ix
INTRODUCTION
The Himalayas are a vast and ecologically sensitive chain of mountain ranges
covering 0.6 million square miles of the Indian sub-continent. The importance of this
mountain system to the well-being of the rest of the sub-continent cannot be
understated, since any ecologically damaging activity in these mountains consequently
brings about far-reaching changes in the flood and drought situation, precipitation
patterns, siltation of river beds and changes in their course, and other natural
phenomena in the plains region.
HINDILK
Arabian
Sea
Bengal
Laccadve
Islands
ORTH-
EASTERN
HILLS
Andaman and *
N cobar *
Islands
Fig. 1 - The Himalayan mountain system across the Indian Sub-continent. Source:
Hammond World Atlas.
l
There has been a continuing concern about the environmental degradation of mountain
habitats and the ensuing impoverishment of mountain communities in these ranges for
over a decade now. In the early 1980s, it was felt that an organized and coordinated
intervention was required, and the International Center for Integrated Mountain
Development (ICIMOD) was founded on an international scale in 1983 as a response
to that.
It was recognized that energy plays a primary role in achieving an economically and
ecologically sustainable development in this region, and a strong, decentralized
program for development which is environmentally sound as well as one which will
raise the standards of living in this region calls for a thorough understanding of the
energy situation as well as developing methodologies.
Present research for the betterment of this region includes methodologies for cost-
effective irrigation systems, and the feasibility of passive or low-energy technologies
for the generation of usable energy to reduce the consumption of firewood. Some
architects have also done some pioneering work in passive solar architecture in high
desert areas of Ladakh, Leh and Spiti.
This thesis is strongly influenced by this process of study, understanding and the
consequent development of strategies initiated by the ICIMOD for improving the
2
situation in this region. The main concerns that directly relate to this thesis are
presented below:
• The Indian Himalayas face an energy crisis today - a growing population which
depends primarily on natural forest reserves for their energy needs has led to
massive deforestation and long man-hours spent foraging for fuel. A shift to other
non-commercial energy sources (agro-wastes, dung-cakes) would seem natural,
but in a region where agricultural and livestock resources per capita are very low,
the prime importance of these by-products lie in other areas of sustenance (animal
dung as agricultural fertilizer, agro-wastes as animal fodder). Since the household
sector is the largest consumer of inanimate energy in the rural, under-developed
areas of this region, it is important at this point to identify the problems in this
sector that lead to increased energy use, so that improvements can be made in
living conditions without the environmental penalty of increased energy
consumption.
• The other aspect of growth in this region is the rapidly growing urban centers
within the Himalayan belt. Although it is generally known as a region of under
development, there are many urban centers here that are important tourist basins,
both nationally and internationally. Due to their immense popularity, and the vast
financial potential to local inhabitants, they have grown rapidly, often with very
3
little attention to building by-laws and planning principles, which are almost non
existent at this point. Therefore it is necessary to establish a framework that would
accommodate future growth in all sectors of the physical environment, and yet
have control over the depletion of environmental resources of the region due to
increased energy use by the physical environment. (Within this thesis, we are
considering energy usage only during the post-occupation stage.)
• The Himalayas are a fairly young mountain system and are party to unpredictable
geological activity. In recent times, there have been two major earthquakes (in
1990 and 1992) in the Central Himalayan region that have caused extensive
damage to the traditional heavy-weight construction of the region. Therefore, not
only designers but local inhabitants as well are looking for new lightweight
construction techniques that would withstand seismic activity. The need arises to
establish appropriate building envelope and design values for lightweight as well
as heavyweight construction that would perform well climatically, thus giving
direction to new construction techniques much required in the region.
The result of research on how the built environment relates to the above concerns has
been the formulation of an organized set of guidelines for building for the entire
region that would lead to the conservation of energy within the building, and is
adaptable to any form of construction style or architectural expression that may be
used.
Fig. 2 - Rural settlement clusters along the mountain slopes in the Kulu Valley of the
Central Himalayan region.
5
1. ENERGY USE PATTERNS IN THE INDIAN HIMALAYAS
The domestic sector is the largest inanimate energy-consuming sector in the rural
areas, amounting to about 90% of the total energy consumed, agriculture and
establishments contribute to the remaining 10%. In more urbanized areas,
establishments contribute a larger percentage of the energy consumed, although the
exact data for this is unavailable. A thorough understanding of the energy use patterns
will suggest a method for optimizing and controlling that usage.
1.1 Data Collection For Energy-Use Patterns
Figures are available from various studies and researches on the patterns and forms of
energy consumption at the household level in the Himalayan hill areas. However, the
figures released from micro- and macro-level surveys show certain disparities.
The micro-level surveys taken in various parts of the Central Himalayan region show
a wide range of annual per capita consumption figures within the domestic sector,
ranging from 393 kg CR to 1671 kg CR, which is an equivalent of 7.8 MBtu to 33
MBtu per year, depending on the altitude of the villages covered (assuming that the
energy value for 1 kg of coal is 19800 Btu/kg). According to macro-level study
figures, the National Sample Survey, which picked villages from all over the hill
areas show a per capita annual consumption of 423.44 kg CR, which is 8.4 MBtu.
6
The National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER 1981) which sampled
100 villages of rural North India and gives a weighted average result gives a per
capita annual consumption of 288 kg CR (5.7 Mbtu). [1]
The wide disparities in the studies cited above could be because of 2 main reasons:
• marked differences in altitudes of sample villages studied.
• differences in data collection methods.
One of the micro-level surveys, carried out by Gautam and Satsangi in 1983 on
different clusters of villages at 5 different elevations within the Nainital district of the
Central Himalaya [2] gives a series of figures that are somewhat consistent with
figures for other micro-level surveys at similar elevations. Details from this survey
are also available for the amount of energy used for different household activities and
hierarchy of fuel forms used, both commercial and non-commercial. Therefore, for
reasons of clarity of data and suitability of sample villages to conditions of study
villages in this thesis, data from this survey will be used as reference and for purposes
of target-setting.
1.2 Village Cluster Level Energy Use
From the village clusters studied in the survey, three of the villages at higher
elevations have been looked at below. The first is a high altitude village cluster in the
7
Mukteswar area, which is above 7000’. The second is in Khurpatal, which is a middle
altitude cluster, somewhere between 5000’ and 6000’. The third set of villages belong
to the Fatehpur cluster which is in the Bhabhar region of Nainital district, which is
similar in altitude to the Sivalik region of the Himalayan Belt, i.e. in elevations
between 2000’ and 4000’. The map below shows the location of the sample villages in
the Indian sub-continent.
lower hill region
SCALE
0 10 20 30
1 I I J_ I I ____I miles
Area: 2629 sq miles
- B - H - H -H - Railways • Major towns
Motor roads
Bridle roads H Village clusters surveyed
Fig. 3 - Location map of village clusters studied in relation to the Indian sub
continent. /2J
area intailed
District Nainital
1. Mukteswar
2. Khurpatal
3. Fatehpur
8
The figures from the survey are summarized below in table I, taking energy value of
sub-bituminous coal to be 9000 Btu/lb. or 19800 Btu/kg.
Table I - Energy consumption at the household level for 3 Himalayan village clusters
Village Approx. Annual Average Annual per Annual per
cluster elevation household Familv Size capita energy capita on
energv space heating
Mukteswar above 7000’ 140 MBtu 6.2 persons 22.2 MBtu 4.6 MBtu
Khurpatal 5000’-6000’ 120 MBtu 6.5 persons 18.5 MBtu 2.6 MBtu
Fatehpur 2000’-4000’ 115 MBtu 7.8 persons 14.5 MBtu 1.0 MBtu
According to NCAER studies, the per capita household energy used in the hill regions
of northern India are at least 25-30% more than in the plains. Cited below in table II
is the data regarding the share of different household activities contributing to energy
consumption for the three different village clusters.
Table II - Hierarchy of energy consuming activities as percentage of total household
energy in Mukteswar. Khurpatal and Fatehpur
Tvpe of activitv Mukteswar Khurpatal Fatehpur
Cooking 66.6% 73.15% 87.5%
Lighting 0.2% 2.4% 3.25%
Space-heating 20.2% 14.3% 7.14%
Water-heating 13% 10.15% 2.11%
9
Almost 100% of the fuel for household energy in the higher altitudes and up to 95%
in the lower altitudes of the energy comes from non-commercial sources. Firewood is
the main form of energy used (76%), other forms include agro-wastes (2%), dung
cakes (8%) and charcoal (3%).
The shift from firewood to other sources is more pronounced in lower altitudes. Of
the commercial sources, kerosene is used for lighting purposes in oil lamps in non
electrified areas. (The level of electrification in rural areas is inconsistent along the
Himalayan belt, and depends largely on local government, but most areas in the
Central Himalayas are in the process of being electrified).
Data For Mukteswar @ 7636'
Water-heat'ng (13 0% )
Data For Khurpatal @ 5000'-6000^
Water-heating (1
Space-
Heating (14.7%)
Lighting (23%)
Cooking (73.0%)
Fig. 4 - Hierarchy of household energy consuming activities in Mukteswar and
Khurpatal clusters of the Nainital district according to Gautam and Satsangi (1983).
10
Data For Fatehpur @ 2000,-4000'
Water-besting (2.1 % )
Space-Heating
Lighting (3.3% )
Cooking (87.5% )
Fig. 5 - Hierarchy of household energy consuming activities in the Fatehpur cluster of
Nainital district according to Gautam and Satsangi (1983).
1.3 Urban Level Energy Use
In more urbanized areas, commercial fuel is more widely used for household energy
needs. Non-commercial firewood may still be used by some households, but mostly
illegally, due to the existence of stringent laws against deforestation. (As a note,
deforestation laws also exist in rural areas, but enforcement is lax.) Following are the
kinds of fuel used for different activities in the domestic urban sector:
• Cooking - LPG,
- kerosene ( very limited use).
• Water heating - electricity (most widely used), in the form of electric geysers.
1 1
- firewood (limited use).
• Space heating - electricity, in the form of portable heaters.
- coal and firewood, in fireplaces.
- charcoal in braziers (limited use).
In larger, non-residential buildings, the trend is shifting towards installing central
space-conditioning systems, but the practice is still not wide-spread.
1.4 Fuel Products And Appropriateness Of Use
All bodies or systems in the universe exchange heat with their surroundings as a result
of the thermal energy differential between the bodies or systems and the surroundings
until a state of equilibrium is reached between the thermal energies of all the bodies
undergoing this exchange of energies. This phenomenon of the eventual degeneration
of the potential energy of the system is called entropy. In the context of fuels, this
potential for work is manifested in the calorific content of the fuel form, since a high
calorific content signifies a higher thermal energy potential.
Some “primary” energy sources with their calorific contents are listed below in table
III (where “primary” means that the combustion of these fuel forms would directly
produce thermal energy).
12
Table III - Energy values of different primary fuels
Fuel Tvpe Energv value in Btu
Bituminous coal (Bihar coal) 11000-14000 per lb.
Subbitum coal (Meghalaya coal) 8500-9000 per lb.
Wood (oven dry) 8300-9150 per lb.
Charcoal (air dry) 12850 per lb.
Agro-waste 4500 per lb.
Dung-cake 2700 per lb.
Kerosene 19750 per lb.
Butane (main constituent of LPG) 21180 per lb.
Source: [4]
M ibi\
:H 3 !F r * 8
• " *
^ -£ J .
- H - H - H - K
4 4 2 2 5 2 Z : ;
Bitumin Subbitumin Wood
Fuel fo rm s
Fig. 6 - Comparison of energy values of different fuel forms in KBtu/lb. (including
electricity in KBtu/kwh.)
13
These figures, however, do not reflect the amount of useful energy produced for
multiple end-uses (mechanical work), except for heating purposes. Electricity is of
special significance because it is considered a very high-quality energy form, since it
has the widest possibility of applications. What makes it precious is the fact that it is a
“secondary” energy form in that it is generated either by burning fossil fuels,
typically at efficiencies in the 30%-40% range, or sometimes by converting wind-
energy or water-energy. In thermal power generation, over and above the energy loss
of the system at the generation point, transmission losses are considerable during the
distribution process. Presently, India is negotiating transfer of technology from the
U.S. for higher efficiency electricity generation and lower transmission losses. Its
calorific content is as low as 859.9 kcal/kwh.
Therefore, it is important to recognize at the policy making level that electricity
should be used with discretion, and its use for heating purposes like cooking, water-
heating and space-heating should be curtailed. It is of utmost importance that other
high-energy content and lower quality fuel forms be made available at all levels of
development, which would cause a steering away from the present dangerous trend of
resorting to electricity for various domestic heating needs in the urban areas.
Another step in this direction would be in the development and marketing of efficient,
low-pollution equipment using other fuel forms for the above-mentioned end-uses.
14
Following is comparison of the costs of various fuel forms to that of electricity in the
Indian market. These values are applicable to Guwahati which is a major city in the
north-eastern part of India, as of March 3, 1994.
Table IV - Costs of common fuel forms in the Indian Market as of March 3. 1994.
Item Selling Form Unit Price In Rs.
Firewood
sal wholesale
kg.
6.00
retail
kg.
7.00
non-sal wholesale
kg.
3.75
retail
kg.
5.00
bundles of twigs open market
kg.
2.50
Coal
Bihar wholesale
kg.
7.50
retail
kg.
10.00
Meghalaya wholesale/retail
kg.
3.40
Kerosene public distribution
system (ration) liter 2.45
open market liter 4.00
LPG
Domestic kg.
6.60
Commercial
kg.
15.60
Electricity
Domestic
upto 200 kwh/month kwh 0.80
above 200 kwh/ month kwh 1.00
Commercial kwh 1.50
15
Fig. 7 compares the costs and energy values of some common commercial fuel forms
in the Indian market with that of electricity. All costs shown are for domestic use.
Bfcum in Subbfcumin Wood Kerosene Butane Electricty
Fuel Form s
energy value 1 & & 3 cost
Fig. 7 - Comparison of electricity cost and energy value to that of other commercial
fuel forms.
The cost of electricity is likely to be hiked 2.5 times in a few months. This could
eventually lead to electricity being economically out of reach for the poorer people,
leading to deterioration of living standards if alternative energy infrastructure is not
made available.
1,5 Availability Of Energy Forms
Following are some common forms energy and their status of availability in the
region.
16
1.5.1 Electricity
Electrification of villages is inconsistent in different areas of the Himalayan belt and
depends entirely funds available at the local government level. In urban areas, it is a
high demand energy source, being used as fuel for most household energy needs due
to the lack of distribution infrastructure of other fuel forms. However, the promising
potential for hydroelectric power has been studied in this area, and plans for several
rural linked mmi and microhydel schemes are up for this region [1]. As discussed
earlier, the availability of energy is imperative to the development of a region,
however it is inappropriate for heating end-uses. In Nepal, hydroelectiicity is the
main form of power generation.
Fig. 8 - A probable site for power generation in the Central Himalayas. The potential
for hydroelectric power generation is very high in this region.
17
1.5.2 Petroleum Products
LPG is used in cities to meet cooking energy needs for families with better economic
conditions. Though it is an efficient fuel form, high appliance and distribution costs
make it infeasible for rural areas in difficult terrain.
The use of kerosene is mainly for lighting in non-electrified areas, as mentioned
above. It is also used in some cooking appliances.
1.5.3 Natural Gas
Natural gas is the most common form of domestic heating energy available in the
developed nations. However, no infrastructure for distribution of natural gas exists in
the region or in other parts of India, in spite of the existence of natural gas reserves in
some basins. In some very limited areas of India that have natural gas reserves and
have full drilling operations and production under way, piped distribution is available
to surrounding areas for household use (e.g. Digboi, Duliajan and surrounding areas
in Assam). Small natural gas and crude-oil reserves are present in the Himalayan
foothills and North-Eastern hills. So, one may hope for future availability and
distribution to a small extent, but it would depend on government policy. The energy
value of natural gas is very high, (1025 Btu per gallon) and can be cost-effective if
the necessary infrastructure exists.
1.5.4 Wind Energy
The wind power potential in the Indian Himalaya is almost uncharted, at least as of
1987. However, mountain passes, channels and plateaus are naturally prone to high
speed winds, and many areas in the region may have a fair potential for harnessing
wind energy. Also, fairly attractive terms of payment are available from
manufacturers that makes the use of this unconventional energy form viable in under
developed areas. [3]. Presently in other areas of India, use of wind-power is restricted
to water-lifting and other irrigation needs.
1.5.5 Solar Energy
Solar energy may be tapped for several end-use purposes in areas with relatively clear
skies during the day. Utilization of solar energy is attractive because it can be
incorporated at various levels of sophistication, the simplest of which is an end-use of
space heating by allowing direct gain into the interior space, and this is available to all
wherever glass can be made available. The most sophisticated level of solar energy
utilization is in its conversion to electricity by the use of photovoltaics. This
technology is still far more expensive than thermal power costs and is not yet viable
for the region.
Other end-uses of solar energy are for water-heating and rice-cooking. Cost-effective
appliances for these uses are in the experimentatal stages, and not marketed yet.
19
A commercially viable solution for storage of solar energy is sorely needed before this
form of energy can effectively be used in this region, since supply of solar energy
remains unreliable due to most parts of the ranges having cloudy climates.
1.6 Comparison Of Energy Figures With California Cities
For a comparison of building energy consumption figures in California with the
region under study, a few computer simulated tests were carried out which will be
described in later chapters. The results of the comparison, using the 1992 California
Energy Code are presented below in table IV.
Table IV - Comparison of energy consumption figures between California cities and
Himalayan village clusters
California
City
Natural Gas
Consumed
(MBtu)
Approx. space
conditioning energy
(source)
Himalavan
Station
Annual household
space heating energv
(MBtu)
San Diego 4.55 29 MBtu Fatehpur 8.2
Oakland 10.71 20 MBtu Khurpatal 17.2
Areata 13.50 19 MBtu Mukteswar 28.2
“Source” energy, as opposed to “site” energy, factors the generating efficiency when
including electrical energy. It is to be noted that the source energy figures for the
20
space-conditioning budget in California cities include space-heating as well as space-
cooling, whereas the figures for the foothill towns are only for space-heating.
These figures are expected to increase by 10% for the Himalayan locations by the
year 2001. As mentioned earlier, the energy used in the higher altitudes is at least
30% higher than in the plains region. Considering its lesser level of development and
lower standards of living, the figures clearly show a disproportionately high level of
energy consumption for the Himalayan region, comparing at a range of 1.6 times
higher to 2 times higher than equivalent California climates, which is 38% to 50%
higher than California. If, by applying improved standards in building construction
and space-heating equipment, a general improvement of 25 % is achieved in the space-
heating energy-use, it would indicate an overall decrease of 4% to 5% in the higher
elevations and 1.5% to 2% in the lower elevations. If a 5% to 8% improvement in the
efficiencies of “chullahs” and other cooking equipment can be brought about, it
would indicate a decrease of 10% in the overall household level energy use. This
could have positive and far-reaching consequences in the macro-level energy-use of
the region.
This thesis aims at reducing the per building energy consumption and maintaining the
overall energy consumption during regional expansion in both the rural and urban
areas of this region.
21
1.7 References
[1] Painuly, J. P., Rural Energy Planning In The Indian Himalayas, “Energy
Demand And Supply In The Indian Himalaya,” Vinod Kumar, T. M. and Dilip R.
Ahuja (eds.), 1987, pp. 279-291.
[2] Satsangi, Prem S. and Vinayshil Gautam, Energy And Habitat: Town Planning
And Building Design For Energy Conservation, ch. 5: “Comparative Analysis Of
Rural Energy Patterns In Select Village Clusters Of U. P .,” Gupta, Vinod (ed.),
1984.
[3] Gadgil, Ashok, pages 32-49- Rural Energy Planning In The Indian
Himalayas, “Energy Technologies For Mountain Development,” Vinod Kumar, T.
M. and Dilip R. Ahuja (eds.), 1987, pp. 32-49.
[4] Watson, Donald and Kenneth Labs, Climatic Design, ch.l: “Heat And People,”
1983, p. 23.
22
2. SKETCH OF THE HIMALAYAS
2.1 General Description
The Himalayan ranges stretch along the north-eastern border of India, at
places falling within the political boundaries of Nepal and Bhutan in the
central and the eastern parts as located in the map of the region in figure 9.
Figure 10 shows a typical, idealized cross-section through the Himalayas,
showing the general divisions that are recognized in the ranges according to
elevations.
1. LEH
2. SRINAGAR
3. DALHOUSIE
4. SIMLA
5. MUSSOURIE
6. DEHRADUN
7. MUKTESWAR
8. POKHARA
9. KATHMANDU
10. DARJEELING
11. SHILLONG
F ig. 9 - T h e H im a la y a n ra n g es a cro ss th e In d ia n su b -c o n tin e n t sh o w in g a ll th e
p o litic a l d iv isio n s w ith in it.
j
r \
7s Section shown
5 7?
PAKISTAN
NEPAL HUTAN
BANGLA
DESH ^
ARABIAN
SEA
BAY OF BENGAL
23
NORTH
TMETAN
PLATEAU
region of
permanent
snow
9000'-
4000
TUNDRA
^ ■ -
CHEAT
HIMALAYAS
SOUTH
SUB-TROPICAL
HIMALAYAN
FOOT HILLS
GANG A
VALLEY
l l l l HliliTTT
F ig. 1 0 - A n id e a lize d cro ss-sec tio n th ro u g h th e H im a la y a n ra n g es sh o w in g th e
g e n e ra l g e o g r a p h ic a l d iv isio n s a c c o rd in g to e le v a tio n s. [1]
The Foothills of the Himalayas, or the Sivaliks as they are known, are rounded,
gently sloping hills that run between a height of 2,000 to 4,000 feet (approximately).
This region has a sub-tropical climate that is an upward projection of the monsoonal,
tropical North Indian plains climate. An extremely fertile region, it is the site for rice,
sugar-cane, jute and plantation crops. This is also the region of some significant urban
development.
The Lesser Himalayas abruptly rise from the foothills to a height of between 4,000
and 10,000 feet approximately. It is very difficult to generalize the climatic conditions
of this belt into one broad category, so it is called the Microthermal region.
Sometimes, the ranges drop to elevations lower than 4000’ to form deep valleys. The
Microthermal region is one of intensive farming and a subsistence, agrarian economy.
The chief characteristic of this region are bare south-facing slopes and densely-
24
forested north-facing slopes. A further classification of the micro climatic sub-regions
will later be done from west to east for a more in-depth study.
The Greater Himalayas are a region of permanent snow cover (above 10,000 feet) and
have a tundra-type climate. This region houses some small tribal communities.
2.2 Background Information Of Some Towns And Cities
Below is a table of the different political/administrative zones from east to west within
the micro thermal region, that includes the name of the zone, towns/cities within the
zone for which climatic data is available, elevation above sea-level, humidity and
rainfall, major crops and livestock of the zone (which gives an idea of the
remoteness/topography of the zone as also the similarities between different zones.)
The two special zones that are being studied here which are not a part of the
Microthermal region are:
• the North Kashmir region which is a part of the Great Tibetan Plateau and is a
very good example of a microclimate supporting a tribal economy;
• the Uttar Pradesh Sivaliks, which is a typical example of a flourishing, fertile and
composite Sivalik or Foothill micro climate.
25
Table V - Background information of some Himalayan locations
zone name maior
crons
livestock name of
town
altitude % urban
ization
Domilation
densitv
total
population
North
Kashmir
Himalaya
tribal
economy
Leh 11593’ 7.5 1.09/sq.
km.
South
Kashmir
Himalaya
Maize-
wheat-
orchards
Cattle-
Sheep
Srinagar 5234’ 51.12 274.7/sq.
km.
Himachal
Pradesh
Himalaya
Maize-
wheat-
orchards
Cattle-
sheep
Simla
Dalhousie
7267’
6465
31.82
7.36
153.31/sq.
km.
31.14/sq.
km.
Uttar
Pradesh
Himalaya
Wheat-
barley-
millet
Cattle Mukteswar
Mussuorie
7636’
6980”
22.12
47.06
113.21/sq.
km.
186.94/sq.
km.
Uttar
Pradesh
Sivaliks
Rice-
wheat-
oilseed
Cattle Dehradun 2250’ 47.06 186.94/sq.
km.
Nepal
Himalaya
Maize-
potatoes-
wheat-rice
Cattle Kathmandu
Pokhara
4412’
2729’
183.64/sq.
km
64.28/sq.
km.
500.000
32.000
North
Eastern
Himalaya
Rice-
horticultu
ral crops
Daijeeling 7475’ 23.05 254.21/sq.
km.
Assam
Hills &
Meghalaya
Plateau
Rice-
horticultu
ral crops
Shillong 4950’ 14.54 44.98/sq.
km.
Sources: [2], [3] and [4].
26
z
o
£
ao-
z
<
GO
DC
D
LU
O
iS
z
LU
O
DC
LU
Q _
LEH i MUKTE5WAR DEHRADUN POKHARA
DALHOUSIE WUSSOURIE KATHMANDU DARJEELING
SHILLONG SIMLA
SRINAGAR
% URBANIZATION g g | POPULATION DENSITY
F ig. 11 - U rb a n iza tio n lev e ls a n d p o p u la tio n d e n sitie s o f v a rio u s H im a la y a n to w n s
a n d villa g e s. (T he u rb a n iza tio n lev e ls f o r K a th m a n d u a n d P o k h a ra a re n o t g iv e n .)
2.3 Brief Description Of Agricultural Practices
Most parts of the Himalayan Belt have the highest ratio of farm workers to area of
cultivated land in the nation: over 160 farm workers per 100 hectares of cultivated
land, whereas the national average is about 80 farm-workers per 100 hectares of
cultivated land which is about 50% that of the previous figure. The scenario changes a
little in the north-eastern Himalaya because of the practice of plantation crops, like tea
and jute.
27
The ratio of non-farmers to farmers is around 1:7, except in the Higher Himachal
Pradesh region, where the ratio is 1:2 or 1:3. This is probably because of the
difficulty in the terrain for agriculture, and very low temperatures in winter affecting
seed-germination, and occupations like cattle rearing are more prevalent. Many
villagers also work as casual labor for government projects like road-building during
the winter months.
Wheat is the staple crop of the western region while rice is that of the eastern region.
This shows conditions of higher humidity and precipitation levels. In the wheat-
producing regions, as we go higher, we see wheat substituted by barley, millet and
maize, these being hardier crops on lighter soils.
The North Kashmir region is an example of a High Desert climate, and the vegetation
is mainly Mountain Meadow, which is scrub. It is a region of very low population, as
can be seen from table V above, and supports tribal economies. Cattle-rearing is more
prevalent in this region.
The South Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh Himalayas have Hill and
Submontane soils, or podsolic soils which are good for orchard crops, forest trees,
maize and wheat. This region is a major producer of orchard fruits in the country.
28
The ratio of livestock units to cultivated land is also very high along the Himalayan
Belt (200-250 per 100 hectares of cultivated land), and is understandable in a
mountain environment, where low crop yields result in greater dependence on food
products from livestock. The data in table V above shows a shift from cattle to
smaller species like sheep and goat in higher elevations. [2]
2.4 Vernacular Architecture
Fig. 12 - Example of rural housing in the Kulu valley of Central Himalaya.
The following section covers some of the predominant vernacular building types of
the region. The organization of spaces within the house is presented with a short
description of building materials used for construction and identification of any
additional passive features.
29
2.4.1 Rural house in Leh
I
A —»
X Sew age
coRecti
Cattle I-
room | | Cattle r <
Store Store Cattle room
I
I
A-.J
GROUND FLOOR
□
Mod a n d
straw on
twigs
Unbaked
brick wall
Timber lintel
Stone
masonry
F IR S T FLOOR
Toilet
IQtchen Bedroom
Passage
Bedrooms
SECTION A-A
F ig. 13 - P la n s a n d se c tio n o f a ty p ic a l L a d a k h i ru ra l h o u se . [5]
Materials used for construction:
• Plinth - stone masonry
• Floor - compact earth
30
• Walls - unbumt bricks with mud mortar plaster and cowdung finish
• Roof - timber substructure dried grass blanket covered with mud.
Windows are traditionally fitted with timber shutters, are few and small, and
restricted to the sunny sides of the building. The roofs are flat and accessible, due to
low precipitation levels.
Passive features:
• A smokeless “chullah” (wood-burning stove) is used in the kitchen. This is in the
center of the house and the radiant heat from it is beneficial.
• Heat gain from animals kept on the ground floor is noteworthy.
2.4.2 Rural house in Kashmir Valley
Materials used for construction:
• Walls - timber frame and earth infill.
• Floors/ceilings - timber beams and boarding, covered with earth.
• Roofs - timber boarding, water-proofed with birch leaves and covered with earth.
31
EARTH R O O F SUPPORTED
ON TIM BER BEAMS
EARTH FLOOR SUMMER LIVING
EA RTH W ALLS
W ITH TIM BER FRAME
WINTER LIVING
I II II " ( U
TIM BER FLOOR
F ig . 1 4 - S c h e m a tic se c tio n o f a ty p ic a l ru ra l h o u se in th e K a s h m ir V alley. [6]
The lower living area is completely enclosed with walls and has no windows, to
minimize heat loss. A seasonal shift in living areas, from the lower unventilated space
in winter to the well-ventilated space under the gable in summer, is followed. Typical
temperature ranges in summer are an average monthly minimum of 15°C (59°F) and
maximum of about 30°C (86°F).
Passive features:
• Heat gain from animals and cooking activities.
32
The traditional urban house also uses the same construction materials with the
additional feature of having windows fitted with timber shutters, often with lattice
work. These are covered with translucent oil paper in winter for air-tightness.
2.4.3 Rural house in Kulu Valley (Central Himalaya)
SUM M ER
KITCHEN
WINTER
KITCHEN
B A L C O N Y
TIMBER
STORE
A NIM A LS
SU N N Y
B A L C O N Y
FO D D E R
STORE
W r
U V N G
K TC H EN
PRAYER
R O O M
STO N E WALL
TIMBER B O A R D
F ig. 1 5 - S e c tio n a n d f i r s t f lo o r p la n o f a ty p ic a l ru ra l h o u se in K u lu V alley. [6]
33
Materials used for construction:
• Plinth - rubble stone masonry
• Ground floor - compacted earth
• Walls - wooden frames, infilled with stone and mud.
• Ceiling/raised floor - wood planks covered with a blanket of dried grass and mud
layer
• Roofs - slate on timber substructure.
Passive features:
• The living area is sandwiched between two warm spaces, i.e. the cattle room and
the kitchen.
• The back of the house is generally oriented against the prevalent wind direction.
Fig. 16 - Typical rural housing cluster o f Central Himalayan Kulu Valley.
2.4.4 Rural house in Shillong
SO U TH E L E V A T IO N
r - A
i
•Bamboo mat
plastered
toof overhang
Bedroom
GROUND PLA N
I — A
•Thatch roof
•Bamboo mat plastered
-Burnt brick with mud
mortar
F ig . 1 7 - P la n, s e c tio n a n d e le v a tio n o f a ty p ic a l ru ra l h o u se in M e g h a la y a , in th e
N o r th -E a ste rn H ills. [7]
35
Materials used for construction:
• Plinth - burnt brick with mortar
• Floor - compacted earth with cow-dung finish
• Walls - Bamboo mat, with mud mortar plaster and cow-dung finish on both sides
• Roof - Thatch on bamboo substructure.
Windows are usually fitted with bamboo mat shutters, and may have mud plaster for
additional wind-proofing.
Passive features:
• Extremely low walls and a square plan minimize the wall area and consequently
the heat-loss through walls. The large thatch roof acts as a blanket over the house.
The lightweight nature of this construction is because of the area being a well-
established seismic zone.
2.5 Tourism And Its Effects
Though, traditionally, the micro thermal region has had a subsistence, agrarian
economy, the tourism industry has expanded to a large extent due to the breath-taking
beauty of the region, (and also in part due to the growing popularity of “nature sports”
like mountain-climbing and hiking among the upwardly mobile) and the local
36
populace has begun to depend more and more on its economic benefits.
Unfortunately, in many cases this has not only caused visual pollution, but also
environmental degradation to an irreparable extent. It has also led to the development
of some flourishing urban centers at very high elevations that subsist entirely on the
tourism industry. The Nepal Himalaya has suffered the worst consequences of this,
but it is also true of Simla, Kulu and Manali in the Himachal Pradesh Himalaya,
Mussourie in the U. P. Himalaya, and Daijeeling and Gangtok in the North-Eastern
Himalaya. Srinagar in Kashmir had developed to this stage many years ago, before
the political upheaval of the State had erupted. Katmandu in Nepal is the most major
tourist basin of all the Himalayan stations, and is also home of the only legal casinos
in that part of the continent. (The main urban center of Kathmandu has a population
density of approximately 50,000 persons per sq. mile!) [8]
Fig. 18 - A street scene from the urban area o f Kathmandu, which is said to be one of
the most densely populated places in the world, during a civic occasion. [8/
37
1
Some of these urban centers have the interesting history of being summer
administrative capitals of the British 'raj', some others came about solely as 'hill-
stations5 , which were designed to be resort towns. Both these kinds of towns were an
escape for the British settlers from the severe Indian summers, and house some
historically important buildings.
Fig. 19 - The clock tower in Darjeeling, a symbol of its colonial past.
38
2.6 Cottage Industry
Cottage industry is also an important aspect of the lifestyle and economy, both in the
rural and urbanized areas. At least 15% of the population is engaged in cottage
industry (weaving, jewelry, carpet-weaving etc.) on at least a part-time basis. [9]
2.7 Seismic Activity
The Himalayas are a fairly young range of mountains, geological activity is uncertain.
Many vernacular building types are not geared towards seismic resistance, since until
recently, earthquakes were considered highly irregular in many parts of the
Himalayan Belt. In 1990 and 1992, there was unprecedented seismic activity in the
Central Himalayan region, causing severe damage.
Fig. 20 - Traditional heavy-weight construction o f the Central Himalayan region,
which underwent severe damage during the earthquakes of 1990 and 1992.
39
However, the eastern sector is established as a seismically active zone and local
building techniques have evolved to a stage of sophisticated seismic resistance, though
presently they are applicable only on low-rise, residential type of constructions.
| Fig. 21 - Example of timber-frame construction with brick infill in Darjeeling. This is
a common practice in the North-Eastern Himalaya.
2.8 References
[1] Karan, Pradyumna P., Nepal: a Cultural And Physical Geography, ch. 5:
“Climate, Vegetation And Soil,” 1960, p. 26.
[2] Karan, Pradyumna P., Nepal: a Cultural And Physical Geography, ch. 4:
“Physiography,” 1960, pp. 15-24.
40
[3] Singh, Jasbir, An Agricultural Atlas Of India : A Geographical Analysis, ch.
4: “Utilization Of The Cropped Area And Changing Patterns Of Cropland Use,” 1974,
pp. 151-236.
[4] Singh, Jasbir, An Agricultural Atlas Of India : A Geographical Analysis, ch.
3: “Cultural Constraints, Demographic Factors And Farm-Implements As The Bases
Of Farming,” 1974, pp. 67-100.
[5] Minke, Gemot and R. K. Ban sal, Climatic Zones And Rural Housing In India,
ch. 4: “Climatic Data and Examples of Rural Housing,” 1988, pp. 110-111.
[6] Gupta, Vinod and Ranjit Singh, Rural Energy Planning In The Indian
Himalaya, “Energy Conservation In Traditional Buildings In The Mountains”, Vinod
Kumar, T. M. and Dilip R. Ahuja (eds.), 1987, pp. 14-21.
[7] Minke, Gemot and R. K. Ban sal, Climatic Zones And Rural Housing In India,
ch. 4 “Climatic Data and Examples of Rural Housing,” 1988, pp. 100-101.
[8] Karan, Pradyumna P., Nepal: A Cultural And Physical Geography, ch. 7:
“Population And Settlement,” 1960, pp. 51.
41
[9] Acharya, B. M., Mountain Environment And Development, chapter 3.3
“Interdependence Of Cottage Industry And The Ecological Situation,” Swiss
Association For Technical Assistance In Nepal, 1976.
3. CODES AND THEIR ROLE
This chapter and the ensuing ones are the result of some parallel studies done in
different fields at the same time for developing strategies for this thesis. It sometimes
is difficult to maintain a chronological flow of events while adhering to one topic at
one time. However, for reasons of clarity, one topic has been dealt with at one time
during the writing process. This chapter deals briefly with the issue of control,
methods of enforcement and practices.
3.1 General Description
Codes may be defined as a collection of rules which are a means of control, and
generally exist at a legally enforceable level to protect the community from the
harmful effects of an action (an externality). At the policy-making level, codes have a
certain hierarchy which may be classified as i)standards, which set fixed outcomes
that cannot be exceeded (for example in pollution levels) and are generally decided at
the federal level as a result of cost-benefit analyses. These standards then percolate
down to the state level and very often result in the formulation of the second tier of
codes which are ii) procedures, which are processes that one goes through to meet
the standards (for example, the State of California requires all motor vehicle
manufacturers to install catalytic converters as a measure to reduce air pollution).
An interesting example of the influence of standards in formulating procedures is the
National Environmental Protection Act (NEPA) and California Environmental Quality
Act (CEQA) guidelines, which are very elaborate processes that all building proposals
are required to go through, as a means of controlling all possible types of
environmental degradation that might be set off by the building proposed (loss of
wetlands, generation of traffic, sewage disposal and water supply infrastructure etc.)
3.2 Strategies and Methods of Enforcement
There are several strategies of intervention recognized by policy-makers for control.
No one strategy is suitable for every situation. Various factors like the form, location
and producers of externalities (harmful actions or consequences), the groups being
harmed, and the level of government imposing the regulations, influence the
effectiveness of one strategy over the others. Some of these strategies are discussed
below [1].
3.2.1 Prohibition
Absolute prohibition, in most cases, is not a practical or financially viable solution,
and an optimal solution is more commonly sought. However, prohibition is practiced
in cases where costs of total reduction may be minimal (e.g. in the case of littering,
or in the case of phasing out the manufacture of cool-white fluorescent lamps) or
44
where anything short of total reduction incurs huge costs to society (e.g., prohibition
in the use of CFCs due to depletion of the ozone layer).
3.2.2 Separation
This involves physically separating the cause of the externality from other functions.
Zoning of industrial land-use away from residential land-use in a district level general
plan is the most common example of separation.
3.2.3 Government directives and regulations
Both directives and regulations are similar strategies of control with a difference in
approach. A directive is a command to reduce the externality by a certain amount,
and the method for achieving that reduction is not specified. This method not only
requires extensive policing, but also involves determining optimal reduction levels by
social cost-benefit analyses. A regulation alternative, on the other hand, might require
the use of a certain control device or follow a certain processes to reduce the
externality (e.g., new cars need to be equipped with a catalytic converter to reduce
pollution).
3.2.4 Subsidies
This involves providing financial incentives to producers of the externality. This is
done either by distributing grants for capital equipment (capital subsidy) or by
45
defraying the increase in operating costs resulting from the use of inputs that reduce
the externality (operating subsidy).
3.2.5 Prices or emission changes
This strategy involves changing the producer of the externality a fee depending on the
extent of harm caused. This method also requires extensive policing and cost-benefit
analyses.
3.3 Codes Related to The Built Environment
The built environment is affected by codes at two levels, the first being the planning
code, which makes macro-level decisions on the overall profile of future growth of an
area, and the second being the building standards code, which involves the adherence
of the building construction and details to minimum safety and performance criteria.
In India as well as in the United States, the planning code is in the form of a General
Plan or a Master Plan for a certain region, and includes the following:
• Land-use and zoning.
• Transportation.
• Built-up densities/floor-area-ratios.
• Set-backs/height limitations.
46
The Building Standards Code generally encompasses the following: [2]
• Structural Safety Code, which deals with design for different occupancy loads,
seismic and wind loads, and snow loads.
• Plumbing/Mechanical/Electrical Codes.
• Fire Code, which looks at materials of structure and finishes (for fire resistance),
occupancy and type of building, compartmentation and egress in building in terms
of interior planning, and extinguishing provisions.
• Handicapped Access Code, to facilitate circulation for handicapped persons.
• The Energy Code, which controls the energy used in a building during the post
occupation stage, may or may not exist for a particular building standards code.
The California Building Standards Code is an example of a fully evolved building
standard that has all of the above features and covers additional areas like historical
preservation.
3.4 Planning And Building Codes In India
At present in India, general plans exist for most areas, with the exception of some
remote, backward areas. Most major cities and towns have building by-laws, which
are a collection of requirements for built-up densities, percentage of ground coverage,
floor-area-ratios, set-backs and height limitations, which are enforced by the local
municipal authorities. There is a debate on among various policy-making bodies about
47
the feasibility of having an integral development plan for the mountainous regions.
(Steps have already been initiated by the International Center for Integrated Mountain
Development, which has its head-quarters in Kathmandu, towards this end.) There is
also a national building standard called the National Building Code released by the
Bureau of Indian Standards, which individual states may adopt for enforcement at the
local level. The main components of this code are the following:
• Group 1 - National Building Code for Architects.
• Group 2 - National Building Code - Structural.
• Group 3 - National Building Code for Construction Engineers.
• Group 4 - National Building Code for Building Services Engineers.
• Group 5 - National Building Code for Plumbing.
This thesis will concentrate on developing a building Energy Code solely for the
ecologically sensitive Himalayan region, which aims at controlling the energy
consumed in a building by depletable sources during the post-occupation stage.
3.5 Choosing a Prototype Code
For a careful study of the issues involved in writing an energy code and strategies that
can be adopted within a code, it was necessary to look at a prototype. The California
Energy Code was formulated in an era when the oil crisis and growing awareness
brought about the need to curb wasteful use of energy in a wealthy society, and has
48
progressively become more stringent over the years. The 1992 version is considered
second generation standards and is on par with, if not more stringent than national
standards (ASHRAE 90.1) and is fine-tuned to a high degree. Also, California is a
microcosm of many different climates and terrain, which makes it easier to find
micro-climates similar to the Himalayan region in order to compare annual
temperature ranges, heating or cooling degree days and building energy demands or
heating and cooling peak loads.
So, even though the technological context of the California Energy Code is different
from the Indian situation, it has been chosen as a useful prototype to study and derive
useful figures from for this thesis.
3.6 References
[1] Apgar, William and H. James Brown, Microeconomics And Public Policy, ch.
12: “Externalities,” 1987.
[2] California State Building Standards Commission, California Building Standards
Code, 1992.
49
4. A STUDY OF THE CALIFORNIA ENERGY CODE
The California Energy Code is designed to limit the use of source energy in buildings
from depletable sources during the post-occupancy stage. The codes are re-written for
revised standards every few years. The latest edition, which was released in 1992, has
been studied in depth for this thesis.
4.1 Code Compliance Approaches
The California Energy Code employs the "budget" method for compliance, also called
the performance approach , as well as the “alternative component packages,” also
called the prescriptive method for code compliance.
The performance approach aims at using "no more source energy from depletable
sources than the energy budget." What this basically means is that for a certain
building, depending on its occupancy type, location in California and overall
configuration, mainly in terms of its ratio of conditioned area to conditioned
perimeter, a limit to the energy consumption from depletable sources at the post
occupancy stage is specified that cannot be exceeded. This energy budget can be met
with in any way that the designer/owner chooses as long as the minimum
requirements for all aspects of the building are met with as specified in the codes (
i.e., building envelope, space conditioning, water heating and lighting). This allows
50
for more creativity in the designer/owner to use innovative features and passive solar
methods in the building for energy efficiency. The energy budget of the building is
equal to the energy used by a 'standard' building, where a standard building is one
that meets the minimum level of energy-efficiency as specified by the codes.
Until recently, the energy budget of the standard building was derived from a simple
table that gave the energy budgets for different buildings with different conditioned-
space-to-conditioned -perimeter ratios. Now, the code goes into deeper detail in
defining the minimum insulation values to be used in calculating the heat-loss through
the building envelope for the standard building, the schedules that may be applied in
the building for each occupancy type, and the minimum systems efficiency to be
considered in the standard building.
The biggest disadvantage of this method of compliance is the level of complexity of
the calculations for showing code compliance for the proposed building. The
CALRES and DOE2 programs are two of the computer programs that are certified by
the California Energy Commission to be able to handle this complexity of
calculations.
As an alternative, the prescriptive method gives a set of requirements that can be
applied directly to the building ( depending on its location in California and its
51
interior mass capacity) which would result in a post-occupation energy consumption
equal to or less than the energy budget of that building. The prescriptive method
limits the options of the designer in many ways, but simplifies the calculations
involved and is easier to enforce.
The diagram in fig. 22 gives an idea of the relationship between the performance and
prescriptive approaches.
(PERFORMANCE APPROACH)
T o t a l r irb c y 6 * y i u t 5
C M T K O L S e i T W V * £ Y
H W T W S
H t t A 'T U * *
HM IM UM
tvr&mkx
5 M N M K P & p n r
* w rrM 6 4
^wrviCK T
H A X I M H H
tMfnr-H&tiMfi
AW tolTY/
e*?K4YAtVM tt fN.MVttftt *N .S *Y M fe* PR 4W IM (S fM S*!*** M tPIE & Y A M N M
(PRESCRIPTIVE APPROACH)
F/g. 22 - D ia g r a m s h o w in g th e s tr a te g y f o r c o m p lia n c e in th e p e r fo r m a n c e a n d
p r e s c r ip tiv e m e th o d s .
52
4.2 The Content Of The Codes
The California Energy Code, 1992, is divided into energy-use requirements for three
categories of occupancy types:
1. Non-residential.
2. High-rise residential.
3. Low-rise residential.
The earlier chapters deal with requirements for the first 2 occupancy types and the
later chapters deal with the last occupancy type.
Within each of these occupancy types, requirements are specified for:
1. The building envelope.
2. Space conditioning systems and equipment.
3. Lighting systems and equipment.
4. Service water heating for non-residential and domestic water heating for
residential occupancies.
For each of these components, specifications are given for the manufacturing stage
and the installation stage that have to be met with in the following manner:
• For the building envelope, at the manufacturing stage, certain minimum efficiency
standards have to be met with for building envelope components like doors,
53
windows and fenestration products, and insulation materials. At the installation
stage minimum specifications are provided for exterior joints and openings, and
minimum insulation requirements of various components of the building envelope
- walls, ceiling, slab perimeter, raised floor and glazings. The codes also
encourage the introduction of energy-saving devices, if their effectiveness can be
proved.
• For space conditioning and water heating systems, at the manufacturing level,
appliances, systems and equipment have to meet minimum efficiency standards.
At the installation level controls for space-conditioning systems, to avoid
excessive usage as much as possible, requirements for equipment sizing and other
details like minimum pipe-insulation requirements and efficiency requirements for
ducts and plenums.
• For lighting systems, at the manufacturing level minimum requirements exist for
lighting fixture and control devices. At the installation level, lighting power
densities, minimum efficacy levels for various spaces, lighting controls that must
be installed and requirements for lighting circuiting are specified.
54
4.3 Differences In Thermal Loads Of High-Rise And Low-Rise Residential
Occupancies
The codes for the high-rise residential and non-residential occupancies have a slightly
different emphasis than that of the low-rise residential occupancy type, because of the
differences in the energy usage patterns as well as different kinds of internal loads
generated in the respective occupancy types.
4.3.1 Residential occupancies
The residential, low-rise occupancy type represents the largest number of structures,
but has relatively low occupancy levels, as well as energy consumption. However, the
availability of energy is required at all times. Because of their low occupancy levels,
they are typically envelope-dominated buildings and are more affected by changes in
the outdoor conditions than other occupancy types. Expensive and sophisticated
equipment is not used very much and passive measures involving moderate cost are
attractive to this sector.
High-rise residential buildings are treated as separate from this occupancy type
because of the typical low surface-to-volume ratio characteristic of high-rise
buildings.
55
4.3.2 Non-residential and other occupancies
Commercial and institutional occupancy types have medium to high occupancies, and
relatively higher energy consumption, although these buildings are mostly used only
for part of the day. Large internal loads from equipment and lighting tend to override
heat-loss through the envelope, therefore less attention is paid to high insulation
values, and more on systems efficiency. Dynamic energy conservation measures are
effective for these buildings and have been taken into account in the code and
described in detail.
Though industrial and manufacturing buildings may have the longest operating hours,
the energy consumed in process is overwhelmingly higher than that for environmental
control. Also, environmental comfort conditions in these occupancy types are not a
major consideration, therefore the code does not treat this sector as separate from the
commercial and institutional occupancies.
4.3.3 Differences in energy saving strategies
Due to these differences in the dominant loads of different occupancies, the non-
residential occupancy type lays more stress on measures for space-conditioning and
lighting systems and equipment and goes into greater detail in terms of their
requirements, for example, requirements for lighting (specified lighting power
densities for each function), and space conditioning (power consumption of fans, zone
56
controls etc.). The high-rise residential and hotel/motel occupancy types also have a
similar emphasis on systems, but they are less stringent in that respect due to their
lower occupancy levels. Both these and the previous occupancy types group together
similar climatic zones and give building envelope resistivities for different
standardized construction methods. The low-rise residential occupancy type details out
different building envelope resistivities for different climatic zones and also takes into
account the interior heat capacity of the building. In the areas of lighting and space
conditioning, it only mentions the efficacy requirements for lighting and specifies the
type and minimum efficiencies of space-conditioning equipment that may be used.
4.4 Other Laws And Stipulations That Affect Energy Conservation In Buildings
Over and above the efficiency requirements of the energy code, there are certain
independent laws introduced at the Federal or State level which affect the use of
appliances/equipment for energy efficiency/healthy environments. One well-known
ruling is the ban on the use of CFCs in air-conditioners and refrigerators. Another
ruling makes the cool-white fluorescent light obsolete, due to its poor CRI and its
supposed low effective efficacy. Other energy-conscious drives like the "green lights"
program, which is a drive for promoting environmentally friendly lighting design,
bring about changes in the energy code.
57
5. A DIRECT APPLICATION OF THE CALIFORNIA ENERGY CODE TO
TEST BUILDINGS
For a better understanding of the energy budgets that the codes allow, an experiment
was conducted wherein two simple residential building designs were examined and the
California Energy Codes applied to them.
5.1 Description Of Model Buildings
Both the building types fell within the low-rise residential category. There are two
main reasons for choosing this occupancy type:
• Though there is a lot of building activity in the target region - the Himalayan
foothills - the largest building sector is the residential, or otherwise small-scale,
low-rise buildings, and that is the first building type that this thesis endeavors to
control. Studies in earlier chapters have shown that the domestic sector is the
highest energy-consuming sector, in both the rural as well as the urban areas of
the region.
• Within the California Energy Codes itself, the prescriptive approach for the Low-
rise residential occupancy type describes prescriptive values for the building
envelope at greater length for each climatic zone than the high-rise and non-
58
residential occupancy type. The construction types are not standardized (as is the
case with the other 2 occupancies) and it takes into consideration different interior
heat capacities.
The first building example is a simple row-housing type design, with slab-on-grade
construction, attic, and it shares two of its walls with adjacent development (fig. 23).
This is a version of the common “condominium” in California, and may be used in
the urban areas of the Himalayas.
The second design is an over-simplified, completely detached unit with no partition
walls within, raised floor construction, attic, and windows on all four walls (fig. 24).
This building form is also a simple prototype of the vernacular buildings in the target
region (see figs. 12 and 17) and an informed conjecture as to what may be built in the
future as materials and methods adjust.
5.1.1 Materials used for the model buildings
• Slab-on-grade construction flooring (for row-housing type model) - 4” concrete
slab, 1” cement mortar and 1/2” terrazzo floor finish.
• Flooring in raised-floor construction (one-room building) - 2”x4” timber framing,
16” o/c. with plywood paneling on one side, finished with wall-to-wall carpeting.
59
• External walls - 2x4 timber framing, 24” o/c. with plywood and stucco layer on
the exterior and gypboard panel on the interior.
• External walls adjacent to wet areas (kitchen or bath) - same as above, with
ceramic tiles on the interior.
• Ceiling - 2”x4” timber framing, 24” o/c. with plywood paneling on both sides.
• Roofing - wood shingles on timber battens.
• Glazing - as specified for each climate zone. [1]
• Insulation levels - as specified for each climate zone. [1]
o o
o t >
LIV IN G
D IN IN G B E D R O O M
BATH
KITCHEN
LIV IN G
Climate Zone 14
Ceiling Insulation R38
Wall Insulation R19
Glazing U-value 0.65
F ig . 2 3 - P la n a n d s e c tio n o f r o w -h o u s in g ty p e m o d e l.
60
25 -or
*
R O O M
S3 £ 5: ® 8 8 8 5 5 : 8
8 5 ^ ^ £ 8 :
& '-3r
attic
ROOM
CVC SPACE
Climate Zones 1 3 5 7 16
Ceiling Insulation R30 R30 R30 R30 R38
Wall Insulation R19 R19 R19 R13 R19
Raised -floor Insulation R19 R19 R19 R13 R19
Glazing U-value 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.65
Fig. 24 - Plan and section o f simple one-room building.
The climate zones that were used for this analysis were chosen after the climatic
analysis of the Himalayan stations were done. The California cities used had similar
temperature ranges and heating degree days as those of the Himalayan towns. These
California cities are listed in table VI [2].
d
Table VI - Equivalent California Cities
California Citv Heating Degree Days (°F) Climate Zone
San Diego 1439 7
Santa Maria 2985 5
Oakland 2906 3
Areata 4800 1
Mt. Shasta 5800 16
5.2 Methodology
The methodology applied for each of the cases was as follows:
• A basic calculation to determine the interior mass capacity for each of the
designs was done. According to that figure, the applicable component package
specified in the prescriptive approach method of the codes was applied to the
building.
• After complying with the insulation and glazing control requirements as specified
by the codes, the design was input into the CALRES computer program, which
calculates the space conditioning loads and checks for code compliance.
A point to note is that the CALRES program checks for code compliance with
an earlier CEC version, therefore the estimated building energy load that the
62
proposed building showed was much lower than the acceptable level for the
CALRES standard building, e.g., for Design 1, the standard building showed
space conditioning energy use as 40.8 KBtu/ft^-yr. whereas proposed design
showed space conditioning energy use as 30.33 KBtu/ft^-yr. The CALRES
program was employed to give a ballpark figure for energy use in the building
solely for space-conditioning, and no special attempt was made at fine-tuning the
figures. Also, the version of the program that was available was wired to do
calculations only for California climatic zone 14 weather.
• The designs were then input in DOE2, to get fine-tuned energy-use figures for
different climate zones. The schedules for internal gain, thermostat settings and
infiltration were the same as that used in the CALRES models. The materials
used were also exactly the same , and their U-values and heat-capacities were
also matched with the CALRES models. The climates used for this experiment
were the China Lake climate in zone 14 (for reasons of comparison only) and the
cities listed in table VI.
5.3 Default Settings For Interior Space Conditions In CALRES Program
This section covers all the pre-wired settings of the interior space conditions
including infiltration levels in the CALRES version that was available for testing. The
figures for thermostat settings given in table VII are for winter heating temperature.
63
Table VII - Internal gain and thermostat schedules
Hour of dav Thermostat schedule for winter
heating T fin °F1
Internal gain schedule (where total
int. gain = 15.00 Btu/ft^-dav)
1 60 .024
2 60 .022
3 60 .021
4 60 .021
5 60 .021
6 60 .026
7 60 .038
8 60 .059
9 68 .056
10 68 .060
11 68 .059
12 68 .046
13 68 .045
14 68 .030
15 68 .028
16 68 .031
17 68 .057
18 68 .064
19 68 .064
20 68 .052
21 68 .050
22 68 .055
23 68 .044
24 60 .027
64
5.3.1 Values for thermostat settings for winter and summer
Winter heating temperature = according to winter thermostat schedule
Winter cooling temperature = 78°F
Summer heating temperature = 60°F
Summer cooling temperature = 78°F
5.3.2 Infiltration values
For conditioned space = 0.5 air changes
For CVC space = 0.22 air changes per hour
5.4 Observations On Energy-Use Figures
• For the same climate zone, the energy-use for both buildings were very similar.
The surface-to-volume ratios for Design 1 and Design 2 are 1:2.6 and 1:4
respectively. The source energy use in China Lake for Design 1 and 2 were 70
KBtu/ft2-yr and 65 Kbtu/ft2-yr respectively, whereas the same in Mt. Shasta were
64.5 Kbtu/ft2-yr and 65kbtu/ft2-yr respectively.
• The space-conditioning energy use for the one-room building had comparable site-
energies in different climate zones (fig. 25) with the exception of Climate Zone
16. The source energy uses, however, had variations, showing implications of
higher cooling loads.
65
P erform ance In 5 Climate Z ones
For One-Room Buildng
z o n e 7 z o n e S z o n e 3 z o n e 1
California Climate Zones
z o n e 1 6
S it e E n e r g y S o u r c e E n e r g y B S B u i l d i n g D e m a n d
Fig. 25 - Site and source energy use for a simple one-room building in 5 different
California climate zones, if the California energy code is followed.
Us© Of Fuel T ypes
F o r O n e - R o o m B t i d i n g
2 7
San Diego Santa Maria Oakland Areata M t Shasta
California Cities
p =^ electricity natural gas
Fig. 26 - Energy use o f different fuel types for a simple one-room building in 5
different California climate zones.
66
— i
The space-conditioning energy use figures for all the climates are given in table VIII.
Table VIII - Space-conditioning energy use for a simple, one-room building in 5
California cities
Name of station Electricity (MBUri Natural gas fMBtul Total source energv
San Diego 6.27 4.55 46.8 KBtu/ft2 -yr
Santa Maria 3.12 8.99 37.8 KBtu/ft2 -yr
Oakland 1.54 10.71 31.7 KBtu/ft2 -yr
Areata 0.91 13.48 30.3 KBtu/ft2 -yr
Mt. Shasta 4.12 24.01 64.7 KBtu/ft2 -yr
5.5 Conclusions
From the analysis on the codes done so far, it can be inferred that the performance
method is a logical fist-step towards controlling the energy consumption in a building.
It give the designer an overall limit within which enough flexibility is available for
compliance, for example, either by strictly following the prescriptive method or by
compensating for a less-efficient building envelope by using more efficient space-
conditioning systems/equipment or lighting systems/equipment.
However, a direct translation of this method to the Indian Himalayan context presents
some problems, brought about by the nature of building, lifestyles and technology
available, which are drastically different from that in California.
67
5.5.1 Problems related to controlling the energy budget
• The figures presented are the energy consumed by systems and plant to meet a
certain load demanded by the building for space conditioning. One has to take into
account the differences in efficiency standards of systems and equipment in the
Indian context. Also, a thorough study of energy sources and patterns of
consumption may strengthen some of our assumptions.
• Urban areas may have energy demands which are different from those of rural
areas, e.g., energy consumed for lighting is completely different in the two
situations. The available infrastructure is also very different for the two situations.
• Similar buildings may have widely differing occupancy levels. This conflict can
be resolved by taking the most restrictive case.
• A wider temperature range might be considered acceptable in the Himalayan
region than that in the U.S. therefore decreasing the energy demand of the
building. Thermal comfort indices based on previous research have to be
evaluated.
Over and above specifications, it is most important to raise the awareness among
people about energy-use issues and efficient technologies.
68
5.6 References
[1] California Energy Commission, California Energy Code, 1992.
[2] Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory and Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, DOE-2
Reference Manual: Part 2, Version 2.1C, 1980, pp. A.1.10-A.1.16.
69
6. ANALYSIS OF WEATHER DATA FOR CODE-WRITING
The climatic data for the towns and villages in table V were collected for the
following climatic factors:
1. Monthly average temperature ranges.
2. Monthly relative humidity ranges.
3. Monthly rainfall data.
4. Monthly average wind speeds and general wind directions.
5. Number of cloudy days, or clear days in a month.
6. Average monthly solar radiation - diffuse and global.
6.1 Data Collection
The data was collected from 3 different sources, and therefore in some cases did not
have all the information that was needed. In some cases, certain interpolations had to
be done, and in others we have blank spaces where no data exists. During the data
collection process, it was hoped that an even geographical distribution will be
achieved over the entire Himalayan belt as regards climate analysis, but due to the
non-availability of weather data for some regions, there are places where “holes” may
be observed, which are untouched in this thesis for analysis and code-writing. One
such area is the upper ranges (between the elevations of 8000’ and 10000’) in the
Central and Eastern Himalayas.
70
Appendix A has graphical representations of the climatic data available for the various
stations studied. (Sources - [1], [2] and [3].)
6.2 Analysis
The issues dealt with in the analysis of this data are:
1. The degree days for heating for the different Himalayan stations.
2. The degree days for cooling, if any, for the same.
3. What percentage of the time the temperature floats within the comfort range for
these stations.
The median for degree days for heating was taken as 65° F, in order to standardize
the data with available weather data for California cities. The measure of degree days
was used as a tool for deciding applicable resistivities to the building envelope. The
median for degree days for cooling was taken at 80° F. [4]
There were two parts in measuring the comfort range characteristics for the stations,
the first was in establishing the thermal comfort indices for each location, and the
second was in calculating the number of hours in the comfort range.
71
For establishing the comfort indices, it was recognized that the bioclimatic comfort
zone for each region is different, in contrast to the system used in the U.S. where
comfort zones are standard for the entire nation. For the regions under study, an
overwhelming majority of the population is comprised of the indigenous population,
and in rural economies close to a 100% of the population is indigenous. Even though
the U.S. standard was applied to the measure for degree days, it is primarily a
comparative measure, but the comfort zone measure estimates actual behavior,
therefore it was felt that local climatic conditions needed to be considered, since the
local population would be affected by these conditions and would have adapted to
them.
Comfort limits were decided upon by looking at the annual range of temperatures and
bioclimatic comfort requirements built up as a result of it. The Mahoney tables,
developed by Sean Mahoney for the U.N. Centre for Housing, Building and Planning
was used for this purpose [5]. An example of this analysis is given in table IX.
There are 2 sets of comfort limits that were evolved: one for 'active hours', which is
from 8 :0 0 a.m. to 1 1 :0 0 p.m., the other is for 'retired hours', which is from 12
midnight to 7:00 a.m. We recognize, however, that 'active ' and 'retired' rhythms
may be different for different people. The derived comfort limits are given in table X.
Table IX - An example of the Manhonev tables analysis for Shillong.
Location SHILLONG
Longitude 91°E
Latitude 25°N
Altitude 4950’
Air Temperature: °C J F M A M J J A S O N D mean
Monthly mean max. 15 17 21 24 24 24 24 25 23 22 14 16
Monthly mean min. 3 6 10 14 16 18 18 19 16 13 3 4 16.5
Monthly mean range 12 11 11 10 8 6 6 6 7 9 11 12
Annual high 24
Annual low 3
Annual mean range 11
Relative Humidity: % J F M A M J J A S O N D mean
Monthly mean max. 63 71 57 62 77 84 83 84 89 89 86 85
Monthly mean min. 65 56 44 51 69 81 81 81 79 71 63 64
Average 74 64 51 57 73 83 82 83 84 80 75 75 75.8
Humidity group 4 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
Diagnosis: °C J F M A M J J A S O N D mean
Day comfort: upper 25 28 28 28 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 26
lower 20 21 21 21 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20.25
Night comfort: upper 20 21 21 21 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20.25
lower 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14
Note: All monthly values have been rounded off to the nearest whole number.
73
Table X - Comfort indices derived for different Himalayan locations
Elevation of region upper limit active lower retired lower
Between 2000' and 4000' 80° F ( 27°C) 73°F (22.5°C) 63°F (17.2°C)
Between 4000' and 7000' except
S. Kashmir
80° F (27°C) 69°F (20.5°C) 57°F (14°C)
Above 7000’ 79° F (26°C) 6 6° F (19°C) 54° F (12°C)
South Kashmir (5000’-7000’) 79°F (26°C) 6 6°F (19°C) 54°F (12°C)
Calculations leading to the results shown in table XI are given in appendix B.
Table XI - Climatic indicators of Himalayan towns
Name of citv heating DD fF0 > ) cooling DD (F0) percentage of comfort hours
active retired total
Dehradun 1242 456 28.6 51 36
Pokhara 1349 91 37 48 40.6
Shillong 2161
-
35 52 40.7
Katmandu 2281
-
49.5 45.8 48
Dalhousie 2771
-
30 41.7 34
Mussuorie 3519
- 26.5 44.8 32.6
Daijeeling 3585
- 9.4 45.8 21.5
Simla 3598
-
22.9 44.8 30
Mukteswar 3726 - 18.75 42 26.5
Srinagar 4670 86 25.5 37.5 29.5
Leh 9077
- -
13.5 9
74
Climatic Indicators of Himalayan Towns
D EH R AD U N SHILLONG DALH OUSIE D R E E L I N G MUKTESWAR
POKHARA KATHMANDU M L S S O U R IE SIMLA SRINAG AR
H e a t i n g D e g . D a y s C o o l i n g D e g . D a y s
£Z
c
■S
0 )
o >
d >
Z >
C
v t
Q
% c o m f , h r s a c t i v e % c o m f . h r s r e tir e d % c o m f . h o u r s t o t a l
DEHRADUN SHILLONG DALHOUSIE DARJEELING MUKTESWAR
FOKHARA KATHMANDU M U SSO UR IE SIMLA SRINAGAR
Fig. 27 - Charts showing heating and cooling degree days, and percentage o f hours
the ambient temperature floats within the comfort zone for Himalayan towns and
villages.
6.3 Inferences
• The above analysis shows 6 categories in terms of degree days for heating, but
sub-categories within those from which to infer requirements of solar-shading,
diurnal temperature swings, extent of natural ventilation allowable and whether
heat loss through glazed areas undermine the benefit for direct solar gain.
• Except for the last 2 stations, which show extremely cold climates, the percentage
of comfort hours in the retired period are similar for all stations, but that for the
active period show a vast range.
• Even though the Upper Eastern Himalaya (station 6) and Upper Central Himalaya
(station 7) show very similar degree days for heating, because of higher humidity
and smaller diurnal ranges, the first case remains within the comfort range for a
drastically shorter time than the second. Climate charts also show cloud cover
throughout the year. Therefore expecting gain from excessive glazing may be
questioned, (e.g. North glazing be controlled).
• The South Kashmir Himalaya (station 8) shows extreme swings in temperatures.
Analysis shows certain degree days for cooling as well. If direct solar gain is
76
encouraged, with judicious use of time-lags, a considerable percentage of
nighttime temperatures can be brought up to within the comfort range.
• The need for protection for solar access vs. need for increased thermal capacity by
dense packing of units can be inferred from the above data.
Table XII - Equivalent climate zones in California in terms of degree days of heating
Himalavan Location Equivalent California Climate Zone
Dehradun and Pokhara 7
Shillong and Kathmandu 5
Dalhousie 3
Mussourie, Daijeeling, Simla and
Mukteswar
Resistivities between 3 and 1 are
applicable
Srinagar 1
Leh No match, but 16 comes closest
6.4 References
[1] Minke, Gemot and R. K. Ban sal, Climatic Zones And Rural Housing In India,
ch.4: “Climatic Data And Examples Of Rural Housing, ” 1988.
[2] Seshadri, T. N ., K. R. Rao, M. R. Sharma, G. N. Sarma and Sharafat Ali,
Climatological And Solar Data For India, 1969.
77
[3] Takahashi, K. and H. Arakawa (eds.), World Survey Of Climatology: Vol. 8 ,
1981.
[4] American Society Of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers,
ASHRAE Handbook Of Fundamentals, ch. 27: “Terminology,” 1972, p. 534.
[5] Koenigsberger, O. H., T. G. Ingersoll, Alan Mayhew and S. V. Szokolay,
Manual Of Tropical Housing And Building, Part 1: Climatic Design, ch. 8 .1:
“Forward Analysis Stage,” 1973, pp. 239-245.
78
7. ANALYSIS AND FORMULATION OF THE HIMALAYAN BUILDING
ENERGY CODE
Due to the patterns of energy usage in the region, which lacks a high degree of
distribution infrastructure, and very rarely has in-place space-conditioning systems, it
may be extremely difficult to control the amount of energy usage on the site. Within
the residential sector, a central space-conditioning is rarely installed for a dwelling
unit, and portable heating equipment, which may use a wide variety of fuels from
electricity to charcoal is widely used. Controls within these issues would be more
meaningful in the manufacturing stage. The first logical step at this point in
formulating the Himalayan code would be to control the energy demand of the
building by improving its thermal performance.
7.1 Analysis of Building Envelope Components
In order to come up with a meaningful set of values for the building envelope, it was
important to study the California Energy Code and see what the values specified
therein mean. It was observed there were three main features that affect the thermal
performance of the building that were considered. These are:
1. Thermal insulation of the building envelope, to restrict heat loss through
conduction.
79
2. Thermal capacity of building envelope, where a high-mass envelope would have
low resistivities in order to improve heat flow into the interior.
3. Heat storage within the building due to high interior mass capacities. In such
cases, large south glazings would be encouraged for direct gain and walls would
have normal resistivities to contain the heat within the interior.
In case of the Himalayan region however, there is one more factor that comes into
play in deciding the thermal performance of the building, and that is the heat loss due
to infiltration. In fact, many of the vernacular buildings have excellent passive heating
and other climate conscious features (as discussed in chapter 2 of this thesis), but still
behave poorly because of air leaks in exterior joints, doors and windows. This factor
is more or less ignored in the California energy code, except for fenestration
requirements, because a certain degree of air-tightness is taken for granted in the
construction technology in the developed nations. In fact, infiltration rates in newer
construction in the United States is taken to be between 0.5 and 0.7 air-changes per
hour [1].
Below is a discussion of these factors affecting building thermal performance and
how each factor has been handled within the code.
80
7.1.1 Infiltration
In order to understand the full impact of infiltration on building performance, it was
thought necessary to test the change in thermal performance with a steady increase in
the rate of infiltration. Parametric runs were done on a simple building using the
DOE2 program for the California climatic zones equivalent to the Himalayan climate
zones and results observed for increasing rates of infiltration, with a period of 0.5 air
changes per hour.
Along with these tests, a second set of tests were run for increasing building envelope
resistivities and the improvement in thermal performance as a result of that. These
tests were done to explore the possibility of improving the performance of leaky
buildings by incorporating higher building envelope resistivities. From the results, it
can be concluded that the increase in heat loss with a steady increase in infiltration
levels is a linear progression, whereas the decrease in heat loss with a steady increase
in building envelope resistivity is an inverse geometric progression, and R-values
greater than about R-30 do not give returns of increased building performance for an
equal cost input, and it is nearly impossible to keep up with the heat loss through
infiltration by increased insulation after that point.
The results of both tests are given below in figs. 28 and 29.
81
HEAT LOSS THRU INFILTRATION
PER CUBIC FOOT OF INTERIOR VOLUME
17
LU
ZD
O
h -
S
_l
» —
S
X
3.5 4.5 5 2.5 3 4 1 1.5 2 0.5
AIR CHANGES PER HOUR
-m - ELTORO OAKLAND ARCATA - e - MT. SHASTA
F ig . 2 8 - R e s u lts o f te s t o n c h a n g in g in filtra tio n levels.
HEAT LOSS THRU BUILDING ENVELOPE
PER SQUARE FOOT OF SKIN AREA
1 7
z
CO
CO
o
— I
<
LU
X
R100 R60 R70 R80 R90 R30 R40
BUILDING ENVELOPE RESISTIVITIES
R50 R1 0 R20
-m - ELTORO OAKLAND ARCATA - e - MT. SHASTA
F ig . 2 9 - R e s u lts o f te s ts o n c h a n g in g in su la tio n le v e ls o n th e b u ild in g e n v e lo p e .
82
From the results above, it was found that we can have at the most two different
allowable infiltration levels for a corresponding set of building envelope resistivities,
and may assume a difference of 0.75 to 1 air change per hour between the two
infiltration levels. To be realistic, we take the lower infiltration rate to be
approximately 1 or 1.5 air changes per hour. This turnover rate corresponds to typical
infiltration rates in older, low-income housing in the United States [1].
The rate of infiltration, if measured in air changes per hour, is the number of air
changes that the interior volume of the room makes with outside air per hour when all
fenestration and doors leading to the outside are shut, with calm wind conditions
outside. It is hoped, and for the purpose of this thesis it is assumed that it will be
possible in the future to identify the degree of air-tightness of different construction
techniques, so as to make it easier to choose the applicable component resistivities.
For the present, the code recognizes different commonly used construction techniques
and materials that have different degrees of vulnerability to air-leakage [2], and
classifies them as either higher or lower infiltration level constructions with a
corresponding set of applicable building envelope resistivities.
83
7.1.2 Interior Heat Capacities
The California Energy Code has separate component packages for different levels of
interior heat capacities, depending on different slab thickness and amount of wall-to-
wall carpeting. The Himalayan code takes two main categories of interior heat
capacities, one which is a certain multiple of the south glazing area and the other with
no heat capacity. The intermediate interior heat capacity packages are ignored in the
code because situations with disconnected floors are rare in the region yet.
7.1.3 Direct Gain Through Glazing
A third set of simple simulation tests were run to check suitable glazing types for
different orientations and different climate zones. This was done to check the cost-
effectiveness vs. performance of single and double pane glazing for various climate
zones, since a requirement for double pane glazing may increase cost of glazing up to
4.5 times that of single pane glazing [3] and may not be viable for the Indian
situation. The two types of glazing used were single pane clear, with a U-value of
approximately 1.14 and double pane clear, with a U-value of approximately 0.65.
The same window size was used for all four orientations of due north, east, south and
west, and run for the California climate zones which are equivalent to the Himalayan
climate zones using the DOE2 program. The results of these test are given in graphic
form below in figs. 30, 31 and 32. Further details of monthly losses and gains for
each kind of glazing is given in Appendix C.
84
FOR SAN DIEGO
C T
5 5
c /S
w
o
<
L U
X
350
300
250
200- '
1 5 0
100
LOSS FOR U-VAL=1.1
GAIN FOR U-VAL=1.1
res
LOSS FOR U-VAL=0.65
GAIN FOR U-VAL=0.66
EAST SOUTH W EST NORTH
GLAZING ORIENTATION AND TYPE
FOR SANTA MARIA
350'
EAST SOUTH W EST NORTH
GLAZING ORIENTATION AND TYPE
LOSS FOR U-VAL=1.1
GAIN FOR U-VAL=1.1
553
LOSS FOR U-VAL=0.65
GAIN FOR U-VAL=0.65
Fig. 30 - Heat loss and gain through glazings for different orientation for single and
double pane in California climate zones 7 and 5.
85
FOR OAKLAND
350-1
1 5 0 -
100-
LOSS FOR U-VAL=1.1
GAIN FOR U-VAL=1.1
LOSS FOR U-VAL=0.66
GAIN FOR U-VAL=0.S5
EAST SOUTH W EST NORTH
GLAZING ORIENTATION AND TYPE
FOR ARCATA
o
CO
m
to
to
o
IS
X
350-1
300-
250-
200-
150-
100-
50-
GAlN FOR U-VAL=1.1
LOSS FOR U-VAL=0.65
LOSS FOR U-VAL=1.1
GAIN FOR U-VAL=0 65
EAST SOUTH W EST NORTH
GLAZING ORIENTATION AND TYPE
Fig. 31 - Heat loss and gain through glazings for different orientations for single and
double pane in California climate zones 3 and 1.
8 6
FOR MT. SHASTA
360-1
150-
100 -
EAST SOUTH W EST NORTH
Gl AZING ORIENTATION AND TYPE
LOSS FOR U-VAL=1.1
GAIN FOR U-VAL—1.1
LOSS FOR U-VAL=0 66
GAIN FOR U-VAL=0.66
Fig. 32 - Heat gain and loss values through glazing for different orientations for
single and double pane in California climate zone 16.
The conclusions from these tests are:
• All the 5 climate zones showed lower gain through radiation than loss through
conduction for the north glazings during the winter months. This indicates the
need for restricting north glazing areas in all cases.
• All 5 climate zones show that south orientations perform well in winter and
summer even for single pane glazing. This indicates that large south facing glazing
may be encouraged in all cases.
87
• The heat gain vs. heat loss annual curves show that in many cases special
insulative treatment on the glazing during winter months may greatly improve the
overall performance of the glazing without having to resort to double pane
glazing. Thermal shutters, which are capable of greatly improving the overall
performance of glazings while being cost-effective [4], may be made a mandatory
feature of the code.
• Due to the wide differences in the heat gain characteristics of each orientation, a
commonly occurring special case had to be considered. This is the case of large
buildings that may have smaller rooms within, each with windows facing only one
orientation. In such cases, less conductive glazing may be utilized on the more
vulnerable orientations, without necessarily requiring lower conductance glazing
for the entire building.
7.2 Analysis For Lighting Systems
Any kind of restrictions on energy consumed for lighting purposes can be imposed
only on electrified areas. The most effective and long-term efficiency controls come
in at the manufacturing stage, and it is beyond the scope of this thesis to go into that
area. However, it is possible to look at some recognized optimum lighting power
densities for different functions and include them in the code, where lighting power
density is the lighting watts per square foot of area that is being artificially lit. For the
8 8
purpose of this thesis, the lighting power density values for different space uses given
in the California Energy Code will be looked at and the pertinent values taken from it
and transposed into the Himalayan code.
Lighting control requirements are important, especially for bigger spaces, and the
code will cover that issue. At present, occupant sensor devices are well beyond the
scope of available technology in most parts of India, but many of the control
requirements for stepped systems as specified in the California Energy Code can be
applied to manual switching systems.
7.3 Analysis for Space Conditioning Systems
Within most parts of the Himalayan Belt, with the exception of Climate Zones 1 and
2 , building energy demand for space-cooling is not a critical energy drain, especially
in low-rise residential buildings. But, it is possible for larger, high-rise office
buildings with large internal loads to have considerable space-cooling loads.
Therefore, it is necessary to specify some basic conditions for equipment sizing,
equipment efficiency and thermostat control requirements. It is to be kept in mind,
though, that equipment efficiency requirements are already specified for Indian
conditions by the Bureau of Indian Standards, and the efficiencies specified in the
Himalayan Code are tentative.
89
For space-heating systems, the most important factor for the region is the fuel that
drives the system. Unlike the situation in California and other parts of the U.S., there
is no infrastructure for distribution of natural gas. Petroleum products that are
available in the market and suitable for space heating (LPG, gasoline, kerosene) are
not cost-effective for space-heating purposes and are mainly used for other functions
(LPG and kerosene for cooking, gasoline in the transportation sector). Electricity (in
the form of electric resistant heaters and radiative heaters) is the most commonly used
form of commercial fuel in the urbanized areas for all occupancy types.
Unfortunately, it is rated the most environmentally damaging energy form and is
generated from other sources at efficiencies typically in the 30-40% range. As
mentioned earlier, feasibility studies for the development of hydro-electricity and
wind-farms have given positive results.
Considering the facts presented above, the requirements for space-heating systems
within the code would cover issues like equipment sizing and control requirements,
and also give basic appliance efficiency standards for commonly used fuel-driven
equipment, which is electricity and solid fuels like wood, charcoal and coal. To make
allowances for the future, the code also includes natural gas-driven and oil-driven
(diesel) equipment.
90
Once again, the efficiency requirements of equipment are tentative and would be
governed by existing Indian standards and state-of-the-art.
7.4 Analysis For Domestic Hot Water Budgets
Budgets for domestic water heating are difficult to enforce because water heating
techniques are not standardized. Among methods commonly used are:
1. Electric water heating geysers.
2. Electric immersion rod heaters.
3. Open non-commercial wood fires.
Gas heaters are used in India only in places surrounding natural gas reserves where
government policy for local distribution exists.
Wherever commercial fuel is used, basic DHW appliance efficiency standards are
needed, which are already specified by the Bureau of Indian Standards for Indian
conditions. It is hoped that proper enforcement of laws against illegal deforestation
will restrict the use of non-commercial fuel for domestic hot water.
7.5 Analysis For Energy Use In Cooking
Though cooking is a large energy drain at the macro-level [5], appliance efficiency
standards already exist for commercial appliances, and the high costs of commercial
91
cooking fuels also make the energy use self-regulatory. Therefore, energy
consumption in cooking is considered beyond the scope of this thesis.
7.6 References
[1] American Society Of Heating, Refrigerating And Air-Conditioning Engineers,
ASHRAE Handbook Of Fundamentals, ch. 23: “Infiltration And Ventilation,”
1993, p. 23.10.
[2] American Society Of Heating, Refrigerating And Air-Conditioning Engineers,
ASHRAE Handbook Of Fundamentals, ch. 17: “Infiltration And Natural
Ventilation,” 1972, p. 339.
[3] Hastings, S. Robert and Richard W. Crenshaw, NBS Building Science Series
104: Window Design Strategies To Conserve Energy, ch. 4.1: “Multiple Glazing/
Insulation,” 1977, pp. 4-5.
[4] Shurcliff, William A., Thermal Shutters And Shades, ch. 3: “Economics Of
Shutters And Shades,” 1980, pp. 25-32.
92
[5] Satsangi, P. S. and V. Gautam, Energy And H ab itat: Town Planning And
Building Design For Energy Conservation, ch. 5: “Comparative Analysis Of Rural
Energy Patterns In Selected Village Clusters Of U. P .,” Gupta, Vinod (ed.), 1984.
93
8. STRUCTURE AND OUTLINE OF THE CODE
This chapter is akin to an introduction to the proposal for the Indian Himalayan
Building Energy Code. It discusses the organization of the code and the material that
is covered within the different organizational components, to give an overall idea of
the scope and content of the code.
8.1 General Organization
The volume of the code is divided into two main sections, with some areas of overlap.
This has been done mainly to accommodate two completely different approaches to
implementation and enforcement of the code. The first section is written for regions
where a regulatory environment exists. This section has a target figure for energy
efficiency, and both the performance and prescriptive approaches for compliance are
applicable.
The second section is written for regions where no regulatory environment exists,
i.e., building permits are not required to carry out new construction, therefore there
are no direct methods of enforcement. This section covers most of the
underdeveloped, remote rural areas of the region. It is in the form of a handbook,
with instructions and recommendations on various issues and strategies for achieving
targets.
94
The overlapping sections are for areas that may have a regulatory environment, but
still have widespread use of non-commercial fuels, which makes the control of their
usage very difficult. However, any kind of non-residential construction, even in the
underdeveloped areas would have to follow the standards set by the first section of the
code.
This kind of approach is validated by the very nature of the code, which is primarily
written to accommodate future growth in remote areas of the region, as well as to
give direction to new building methods in rapidly urbanizing areas of the region.
The code also classifies the entire Himalayan Belt into various climate zones, with
different sets of requirements for each, and this classification encompasses the
categorization of development types within the region.
The only differentiation made in occupancy types is in the method for compliance in
the performance approach. All requirements within a climate zone for all occupancy
types otherwise remain the same.
The diagram in fig. 33 graphically explains this organization within the code.
95
THE COPE-
I i 4
CLIMATE 1 CLIMATE-2. CUMATP3
1 ,
^ 1
PEVELOPMENT PEVELOPMENT
LOWER- HICHER.
1 ■
CONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCTION
A &
r1 — i
OCCUPANCY OCCUPANCY _
RE5IPENTIAU NON-RESIPENTIAL
F ig . 3 3 - O rg a n iza tio n o f d iffe r e n t c la ssific a tio n s w ith in th e c o d e .
8.2 Contents Of The Code For The Higher Development Category
The issues dealt with in the first section are as below:
1. Building envelope values for increased efficiency in terms of space conditioning.
2. Criteria for joints in building envelope, windows and doors for infiltration
minimization.
3. Energy efficiency in lighting by considering allowable Lighting Power Densities,
which is the lighting wattage per square foot of conditioned area, and zone control
requirements.
96
4. Basic efficiency criteria for space conditioning equipment if using commercial
fuel, equipment sizing conditions and thermostatic zone control requirements.
Since the code is written for a developing region, even in the higher category areas, it
takes on the form of an instructive handbook in many places. For example, any kind
of insulation requirement would be followed or preceded by a listing of the various
forms of commonly available insulation materials and their conductivity values. These
kinds of instructive lists are a dominant feature of the code.
Budgets for domestic water heating are difficult to enforce as discussed earlier, and
specifying appliance efficiency standards would be redundant in the light of the fact
that they already exist for Indian conditions by the Bureau of Indian Standards.
Energy consumption in cooking will be ignored, as well, in the code.
8.3 Contents Of The Code For The Lower Development Category
The second section is relevant at two levels - one for environmental groups and
organizations involved with policy-making to improve conditions in the region, and
one as an educational tool for the inhabitant for improving living conditions. The
complete methods of implementation are beyond the scope of this thesis, but it is
possible to make suggestions such as to introduce it at the grass-roots government
level (“gram panchayats” etc.). Therein various incentives like subsidized house loans
97
for promoting the prescriptive code, or policing of new constructions for compliance
with the code can be undertaken.
The issues dealt with in the second section are as below:
1. Infiltration reducing techniques for various building components in the form of
instructive sketches.
2. Recommended building envelope resistivities with methods on how to achieve
them.
The proposal put forward here, rather than being a handbook of simple building
instructions, is in the form of a set of guidelines that are needed for developeing self-
help instructions for the different climate zones. The actual method of implementation
or the level of simplicity of instruction is left open. Many of the tabular values which
are useful in this section of the code are cross-referenced from the section for higher
category areas. An attempt has been made to be as graphic and simple as possible.
It is to be noted that some of the representations in this section may be subject to
modification with further research. At the implementation level, it is the method of
translating numerical values which represent thermal behaviour into simple
construction details that is important.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
American Society Of Heating, Refrigerating And Air-Conditioning Engineers.
A S H R A E H a n b o o k O f F u n d a m e n ta ls . New York: 1972 and 1993.
American Society Of Heating, Refrigerating And Air-Conditioning Engineers.
A S H R A E S y ste m s V o lu m e . New York: 1988.
American Society Of Heating, Refrigerating And Air-Conditioning Engineers.
A S H R A E E q u ip m e n t V o lu m e. New York: 1972 and 1991.
Apgar, William and H. James Brown. M ic r o e c o n o m ic s A n d P u b lic P o lic y .
Glenview, IL : Scott Foresman And Company, 1987.
California Building Standards Commission. C a lifo rn ia B u ild in g S ta n d a rd s C o d e.
Sacramento, CA: 1992.
California Energy Commision. T h e C a lifo rn ia E n e rg y C o d e. 1 9 9 2 . International
Conference Of Building, 1992.
Diehl, John R. M a n u a l O f L a th in g A n d P la s te r in g . Mac Publishers Association,
1960.
Gupta, Vinod editor. E n e r g y A n d H a b i t a t : T o w n P la n n in g A n d B u ild in g D e s ig n
F o r E n e r g y C o n s e r v a tio n. New D elhi: Wiley Eastern Limited, 1984.
Hastings, S. Robert and Richard W. Crenshaw. N B S B u ild in g S c ie n c e S e rie s 1 0 4 :
W in d o w D e s ig n S tra te g ie s T o C o n se rv e E n e r g y. Washington : U. S. Government
Printing Office, 1977.
Hawkins, R. E. editor. E n c y c lo p e d ia O f In d ia n N a tu r a l H is to r y . Oxford : Oxford
University Press, 1986.
Karan, Pradyumna P. with collaboration of William M. Jenkins. N e p a l : A
C u ltu ra l A n d P h y s ic a l G e o g r a p h y. Lexington : University Of Kentucky Press,
1960.
Knowles, Ralph. S u n R h y th m F o r m . Cambridge, MA: The MIT press, 1981.
99
Koenigsberger O. H ., T. G. Ingersoll, Alan Mayhew and S. V. Szokolay.
M a n u a l O f T ro p ic a l H o u s in g A n d B u ild in g . P a r t 1 : C lim a tic D e s ig n . Hyderabad
: Orient Longman Ltd., 1973.
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. D O E -2 R e fe m e c e M a n u a l: P a r t 2 . V e rsio n 2 . 1 .
Los Alamos, NM : Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, 1980.
Minke, Gemot and R. K. Bansal. C lim a tic Z o n e s A n d R u r a l H o u s in g In I n d ia .
Julich : Zentralbibliothek, 1988.
Olgyay, Victor. D e s ig n W ith C lim a te . New Jersey : Princeton University Press,
1963.
Seshadri, T. N ., K. R. Rao, M. R. Shanna, G. N. Sanna and Sharafat Ali,
Central Building Research Institue, Roorkee. C lim a to lo g ic a l A n d S o la r D a ta
F o r I n d ia . M eerut: Sarita Prakashan, 1969.
Shurcliff, William A. S u p e r In su la te d H o u s e s A n d D o u b le E n v e lo p e H o u s e s : A
S u r v e y O f P rin c ip le s A n d P r a c tic e . Massachusetts : Brick House Publishing Co.,
Inc., 1981.
Shurcliff, William A. T h e rm a l S h u tte r s A n d S h a d e s. Massachusetts : Brick House
Publishing Co., Inc., 1980.
Singh, Jasbir. A n A g r ic u ltu r a l A tla s O f In d ia : A G e o g ra p h ic a l A n a ly s is .
Kurukshetra : Vishal Publications, 1974.
Steven Winter Associates, under contract to American Institute Of Architects.
A ffo r d a b le M a n u fa c tu re d H o u s in g T h ro u g h E n e r g y C o n s e r v a tio n . Washington,
DC: U. S. Department Of Energy, 1984.
Swiss Association For Technical Assistance in Nepal (SATA), a collection of
papers on the occasion of the 20th anniversary. M o u n ta in E n v ir o n m e n t A n d
D e v e lo p m e n t. Kathmandu : Tribhuvan University Press, 1976.
Takahashi, K. and H. Arakawa editors. W o rld S u rv e y O f C lim a to lo g y : V ol. 8 .
Amsterdam : Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., 1981.
The Economist Newspaper Limited. T h e W o rld In F ig u r e s .
Vinod Kumar, T. M. and Dilip R. Ahuja editors, International Center For
Integrated Mountain Development and Tata Energy Research Institute.
100
R u r a l E n e r g y P la n n in g In T h e In d ia n H im a la y a s : IC IM O D a n d T E R I. New
Delhi: Wiley Eastern Limited, 1987.
Watson, Donald and Kenneth Labs. C lim a tic D e s ig n . McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1983.
Watson, Donald, editor. T h e E n e r g y D e s ig n H a n d b o o k. Washington, DC: The
American Institute Of Architects Press, 1993.
101
APPENDIX A:
CLIMATE CHARTS OF SOME HIMALAYAN
WEATHER STATIONS
102
R E L A T IV E H U M ID J T Y I N % T E M PE R A T U R E N CELSIUS
DALHOUSIE:
Latitude: 32°32’N
Longitude: 75°58’E
Elevation: 6465’
TEM PERATURE DATA FOR DALHOUSIE
MEAN MAX M SM fA N M IN 11.1 RANGE 8 2
WIND DATA FOR DALHOUSIE
GENERAL DIRECTION. NE AND N
JAN FEB MAH APH MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
o
UJ
...I
z
Q
UJ
1 1 1
o.
( / ;
JAN FF.B MAR APR MAY JUN JJL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
HUMIDITY D ATA F O R D A LH O U SIE
AVERAGF RFl ATTVF HUMIDITY 87%
C L E A R N E SS DATA F O R D A LH O U SIE
NO OF CAV S Y V FT H CLOUDS/FOG
.IAN FEB VAR APH MAY JUN IU L AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MON m s
JAN FEB MAH APR MAT JUN JUI. AL'G SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
| ever+ 'p J
) # douJy mofrt-q s | | # ctojcy cve-:iH s
RAINFALL DATA FO R DALH OUSIE
ANNUAt RAINFALl = 9 8
SOLAR RADIATION DATA: DALHOUSIE
ANNUAl GLOBAL RADIAPON 2375 WMVt *q.
mOHAl
.IAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JU I AUG SFP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
JAN FEB WAR AFR M AY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
103
R A .N FA L L I N INCH ES TEW FEBATURE I N CELSIJS
DARJEELING:
Latitude: 27°03’N
Longitude: 88°19’E
Elevation: 7475’
TEM PERATURE DATA FO R DARJEELING
MEAN MAX 164 MEAN VIN:101 R A N C Fa?
W IND DATA FO R DARJEELING
PRFVAI FNT OIRtCnON EAST
^AN FEB MAR APR WAW JJN JUL AUG SEP OCT NO*/ DEC
■ tlean rraoArun
2
H I
UJ
u_
z
Q
UJ
UJ
C L
w
3
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
RAINFALL D A T A F O R D A R JE E L IN G
ANNUAL AVERAGE t o a e
C L E A R N E S S D ATA F O R D AR JEELIN G
NO. OF R A W DAYS; MEAN CLOUD N ESS
JAN FEB VAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
I # RAINY DAYS I MEAN CLOUDINESS
| m
1
i 111
8
I p 1
? i m M » lllll i 111
i,_
.IAN FEB MAR APR MAV JU N JUL AUG SFP O CT NOV DEC
MONETS
104
M F A N CLOUDINESS I N OKjTAS
R A IN F A L L I N INCH ES R E A L T frE H U M ID IT Y I N * TEM PERATURE I N CELSIUS
DEHRADUN:
Latitude: 30°19’N
Longitude: 78°G2’E
Elevation: 2250’
TEM PERATURE DATA FOR DEHRADUN
M EANMAX2/R MEAN MIN :1SB RANGE 12
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL A JG SEP OCT NOV DEC
rrean ma*num ■ ■ nrpan rrtntrrun
HUM IDITY DATA FOR DEHRADUN
LAT.3C L0NC.78 ELEVATION .22S3
WIND DATA FOR DEHRADUN
GFNFRAL WIND DIRFC710N: W
U J
UJ
UJ
z
o
UJ
UJ
a.
in
a
z
I
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
CLEARNESS DATA FOR DEHRADUN
NO. OF C-CUCY DAYS
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
morning H ev e rr ig
B aa # CLOUDY MO TN'NGS m m * CLOUDY EVENINGS
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUI AUG SEP OC1 NOV DEC
MONTHS
RAINFALL DATA FOR DEHRADUN
MEAN ANNUAl HAIM A LL -
SOIAR R A D IA T IO N DATA FOR DEHRADUN
ANN! !A 1 f d OBA1 SOI AH RAT: 2447 kWh/M
1(30
JAN FEB MAH APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
105
APR MAY JUN JUI
MONTHS
R A IN F A L L I N INCH ES T E M PER A TU R E I N CELSIUS
KATHMANDU:
Latitude: 27°42’N
Longitude: 85°12’E
Elevation: 4412’
TE M P E R A T U R E DATA F O R K ATH M A N D U
MEAN MIN tl.6 MEAN M A X 2a8 RANGE
W T JD DATA F O R K ATH M A N D U
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
PREVALENT DIRECTION WEST/SW
%
U
u _
Z
a
UJ
UJ
8 >
i
APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
FES
RAINFALL D A T A F O R K A T H M A N D U
ANNUAL: 66-
m m , m m
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
106
LEH:
Latitude: 34°09’N
Longitude: 77°34’E
Elevation: 11593’
T E M P E R A T U R E DATA F O R LEH
MEAN MAX 124 MEAN MIN -1.4 RANGE:13iB
WIND DATA FOR LEH
GENERAL WIND DIRECTION; S/SW
< / > :
| 2 0 - “ 4
UJ
0 15----- 4-
Z i
u j io—4
1 »-4
cl :
UJ
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL
MONTHS
AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
UJ
£
UJ
UJ
u.
UJ
U J
vn
Q
Z
s
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
H UM IDITY DATA FOR LEH
AVERAGE RELATIVE HUMIDITY: *3%
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
g S S m u * y h evenings
CLEARNESS DATA FOR LEH
NO OF DAYS WITH CLOUDS/FOG
3 0
2fi
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
S 8 » CLOUDY MORNINGS 1 * CLOUDY EVENINGS
RAINFALL DATA FOR LEH
ANNUAL RAINFALL 13-
SOLAR RADIATION DATA F O R LEH
ANNUAL GLOBAL SOLAR RAD 2350 kW FvM M J
3S"f
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JU N JUL AUG SE P O C I NOV DEC
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
107
MUKTESWAR:
Latitude: 29°28’N
Longitude: 79°39’E
Elevation: 7636’
TEM PERATURE DATA FOR M UKTESW AR
35-
3 0-
2 5
20-
8 1 5 - -
| 10- -
i s..
.5 . - f
-15-
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JU L AUG SE P OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
m M niw rtm in ♦ mean rrtnlmufn -3U- avarage
MUSSOURIE:
Latitude: 30°27’N
Longitude: 78°05’E
Elevation: 6980’
TEMPERATURE DATA FOR MUSSOURIE
MEAN M AXiaoM EAN MIN:1d6 RANGE:7.4G
UJ
o
z
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
- m - M E A N M A X — - M E A N M IN A V E R A G E |
108
POKHARA:
Latitude: 28°13’N
Longitude: 84°0’E
Elevation: 2729’
TE M PE R A T U R E DATA F O R PO K H A R A
MEAN MIN I 4.6 MEAN MAX 2SSRANGE.
c o
Z 3
C O
UJ
cr
I
ct
UJ
Q _
2
0
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
mean nr#i •* * average * m ean mac
W IN D DATA F O R P O K H A R A
PREVALENT DIRECTION: E/SE
O
UJ
UJ
UJ
L i_
UJ
UJ
C O
o
z
5
AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL
MONTHS
RAINFALL D A T A F O R PO K H A R A
ANNUAL; 13 1 4 -
i
i
i
JA N FEB MAP APR MAY JU N JU L AUG SEP O CT NOV DEC
109
SHILLONG:
Latitude: 25°34’N
Longitude: 91C 53’E
Elevation: 4950’
TEMPERATURE DATA F O R SHILLONG
MEAN MAX21.2 MEAN MiN:1Z1 RANGES 1
W IND DATA FO R SHILLONG
GENERAL DIRECTION: S/SW
UJ
o
z
UJ
JAN FEB MAR APR M AY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
e
£
■ m a x im u m • a v e r a g e
1 1
MONTHS
H UM IDITY D A TA F O R SH ILLO N G
AVEF1AGE RELATIVE HUMIDITY- 73%
C L E A R N E SS DATA FO R SH ILLO N G
NO OF DAYS'/VITH CLOUDS/FOG
z
q ff)-
5
= 6 0
i I
■ i
5
LU
CL
S
JAN FE 3 MAR APR MAY JUN JJL AUG SE D OCT NOV DEC
25-
u.
o
o
z
JAN FTB MAC APR MAY JLN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
| m ornings |
| # CLOUDY MORNINGS I I # CLOUDY EVENINGS
RAINFALL DATA FO R SHILLONG
ANNUAL RAINFALL: 96"
30-
ui
r
o
z
z
i
z
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
SOLAR RADIATION DATA FO R SHILLONG
ANNUAL GLOBAL SOLAR RAD.; 2S31 kW TVM sq
-5 '-S v > :
“ ■ 100-
JAN FEB MAH APR M AY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
110
SIMLA:
Latitude: 31°06’N
Longitude: 77°10’E
Elevation: 7267’
TEM PERATURE DATA FO R SIMLA
MEAN MAX17.1 MEAN MIN :101 RANGE :7
w
UJ
20 -
o
2
ui
ac
2
£
UJ
FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
WIND DATA FOR SIM LA
G ENERAL WIND DIRECTION: SO U TH (SE /SW )
average -M - nanimurn
Z
o
UJ
C L
z
S c
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
HUMIDITY DATA FO R SIMLA
AVERAGE RELATIVE HUMIDITY.ee%
C L E A R N E S S D A TA F O R SIM LA
NO OF DAYS WITH CLOUDS/FOG
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
| marrings H everhgs
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
CLOUDY MORNINGS H # CLOUDY EVENINGS
RAINFALL D ATA F O R SIMLA
ANNUAL RAINFALL = SB*
SOLAR RADIATION DATA FOR SIMLA
ANNUAL GLOBAL SOLAR RAO.: 2412 kWWM sq
' ■
> - • ,
• & a
JA N FEB MAR APR MAY JU N JUL AUG SE P OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
JAN FEB MAO APR M AY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
111
SRINAGAR:
Latitude: 34°05’N
Longitude: 74°50’E
Elevation: 5234’
TEM PERATURE DATA FO R SRINAGAR
MEAN MAX 1 9 6 MEAN MIN :13.4 RANGE rl 2 3
WIND DATA FO R SRINAGAR
DIRECTION SW (rror^ NE
C /5
-J
3
LU
O
z
UJ
rr
L U
CL
2
-5- ■
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
| madnur average -wt- rrtrtnum
HUM IDITY D A T A F O R S R IN A G A R
AVERAGE RELATIVE HUMIDITY: 68-*-
O 6 - -
JAN FES MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
C L E A R N E S S D A T A F O R S R IN A G A R
NO OF DAYS WITH CLOUDS/FOG
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
RAINFALL D ATA F O R SRIN AG AR
ANNUAL RAINFALL 26-
I # CLOUDY MORNINGS I I # CLOUDY EVENINGS
SO LA R RADIATION DATA F O R SRINA G AR
ANNUAL GLOBAL SOLAR RAD: 2350 kWHM k i
35-
30
t / > 2 5
H i
X
o
z 20-+
Z
1 6 -
JAN FEB MAH APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEF OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
112
APPENDIX B:
ANALYSIS OF COMFORT CHARACTERISTICS
AND HEATING DEGREE DAYS OF SOME
HIMALAYAN WEATHER STATIONS
113
Hourly Temj>eratures And Comfort Characteristics For Dalhousie (in °C)
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP O CT NOV DEC
max.
ave
10.9 13.5 17.7 22.8 25.9 27.9 23.7 22.7 23 21.6 18.5 15.1
range 8.8 9.4 9.7 10.9 10.2 9.8 6.9 6.2 7.6 9.9 10.7 10
1:00 3.244 5.322 9.261 13.317
m m m m m 9 I H m m m mmm 12.987 9.191 6.4
2:00 2.804 4.852 8.776 12.772 m m m i l i l m m mW m mmm m
12.492 8 656 5.9
3:00 2.452 4.476 8.388 12.336 m m m
16 74$ '• 16.704- 12.096 8.228 5.5
4:00 2.188 4.194 8.097 12.009 i l p p m m mliiiip: 11.799 7.907 5.2
5:00 2.1 4.1 8 11.9 t & r .......w t mm m m
1 6 3 1S.4 11.7 7.8 5.1
6:00 2.276 4.288 8.194 12.118 •15304 mmm
I I I ®
11.898 8.014 5.3
7:00 2.716 4.758 8.679 12.663
mmm
fflfflffl
r n m m m ' m m m 12.393 8 549 5.8
8:00 3.508 5.604 9.552 13.644 17.332 19.668 17.90 17.492 16.616 13.284 9.512 6.7
9:00 4.652 6.826 10.813 15.061 18.658
&HN8
18.80 18.298 17.604 14.571 10.903 8
10:00 5.972 8.236 12.268 16.696 20.188 wmm 19.83 19.228 18.744 16.056 12.508 9.5
11:00 7.468 9.834 13.917 18.549
mmmmmm m oo 20.282 20.036 17.739 14.327 11.2
12:00 8.876 11.338 15.469 20.293 mmm m m m m m m 19.323 16.039 12.8
13:00 9.932 12.466 16.633 iM Simmm i ;M i H i I *
17.323 14
14:00 10.636 13.218 17.409 p l i mmm
27.606 m m m 18.179 14.8
15.00 10.9 13.5 17 7 mm m 25# 27.9 w km iiM & i i t 6 18.5 15.1
16:00 10.636 13.218 17.409 mm mmmm w m smmm mmmmmmm 18.179 14.8
17:00 10.02 12.56 16.73 21,71 M m IMi
22:54. iiMl 17.43 14.1
18:00 9.052 11.526 15.663
Mifi mmm mm mmmm 19.521 16.253 13
19:00 7.908 10.304 14.402 19.094 m m mi M & a i
20.416 18.234 14.862 11.7
20:00 6.764 9.082 13.141 17.677 m m m w m m
19.786 19.428 16.947 13.471 10.4
21:00 5.796 8.048 12.074 16.478 19.984 m m m 19.69 19.104 18.592 15.858 12.294 9.3
22:00 4.916 7.108 11.104 15.388 18.964 mmm 19.00 18.484 17.832 14.868 11.224 8.3
23:00 4.212 6.356 10.328 14.516 18.148 18.45 17.988 17.224 14.076 10.368 7.5
24:00 3.684 5.792 9.746 13.862 17,536 V i .19,864 .. m o 4 17,^16 16,766 13.482 9.726 6.9
Heating Degree Days Analysis For Dalhousie (in °C)
1:00 15.056 12.978 9.039 4.983 1.274 0 0.603 0.994 1.912 5.313 9.109 11.9
2.00 15.496 13.448 9.524 5.528 1.784 0 0.948 1.304 2.292 5.808 9.644 12.4
3:00 15.848 13.824 9.912 5.964 2.192 0 1.224 1.552 2.596 6.204 10.072 12.8
4:00 16.112 14.106 10.203 6.291 2.498 0.102 1.431 1.738 2.824 6.501 10.393 13.1
5:00 16.2 14.2 10.3 6.4 2.6 0.2 1.5 1.8 2.9 6.6 10.5 13.2
6:00 16.024 14.012 10.106 6.182 2.396 0 1.362 1.676 2.748 6.402 10.286 13
7:00 15.584 13.542 9.621 5.637 1.886 0 1.017 1.366 2.368 5.907 9.751 12.5
8:00 14.792 12.696 8.748 4.656 0.968 0 0.396 0.808 1.684 5.016 8.788 11.6
9:00 13.648 11.474 7.487 3 239 0 0 0 0.002 0.696 3 729 7.397 10.3
10.00 12.328 10.064 6.032 1.604 0 0 0 0 0 2.244 5.792 8.8
11:00 10.832 8.466 4.383 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.561 3.973 7.1
12:00 9.424 6.962 2.831 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.261 5.5
13:00 8.368 5.834 1.667 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.977 4.3
14:00 7.664 5.082 0.891 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.121 3.5
15:00 7.4 4.8 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.2
16:00 7.664 5.082 0.891 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.121 3.5
17:00 8.28 5.74 1.57 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.87 4.2
18:00 9.248 6.774 2.637 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.047 5.3
19:00 10.392 7.996 3.898 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.066 3.438 6.6
20:00 11.536 9.218 5.159 0.623 0 0 0 0 0 1.353 4.829 7.9
21:00 12 504 10.252 6.226 1.822 0 0 0 0 0 2.442 6.006 9
22:00 13.384 11.192 7.196 2 9 1 2 0 0 0 0 0.468 3 432 7.076 10
23:00 14.088 11.944 7.972 3.784 0.152 0 0 0.312 1.076 4.224 7.932 10.8
24:00 14.616 12.508 8.554 4.438 0.764 0 0.258 0.684 1.532 4.818 8.574 11.4
total 296.488 242.19 145.44 64.063 16.514 0.302 8.739 12.236 23.096 70.62 139.95 211.9
total
HDD
370.61 302.74 181.80 80.078 20.642 0.3776 10.92 15.295 28.87 88.275 174.94 264.87
114
Hourly Temperatures And Comfort Characteristics For Darjeeling (in °C)
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
max
ave
9.25 11.1 14.85 18 18.55 19.3 19.8 198 19 95 18.65 15.25 11.85
range 6.3 7.1 7.1 7.2 5.7 4.6 4.4 4.4 5.3 7.1 7.9 7.5
1 00 3.769 4.923 8.673 11.736
M M ii i i m m mmmm w m m 8 377 5.325
2:00 3.454 4.568 8.318 11.376 I p p i i immm 7.982 4.95
3:00 3.202 4.284 8.034 11.088 i i & f c ; w m M 11.834 7 666 4.65
4 00 3.013 4.071 7.821 10,872 iliiit m m ipp s i 11.621 7.429 4.425
5 ’00 2.95 4 7.75 10.8 m m miiW :mmmii$ i£ 11.55 7.35 4.35
6 00 3.076 4.142 7 892 10 944 mmm m m m blip iliii 1 1.692 7.508 4.5
7:00 3.391 4.497 8.247 11.304
ill*! iii* mm m 12.047 7.903 4.875
8 00 3.958 5.136 8.886 11.952 13.762 15.43 16.10 16.104 1549 12.686 8.614 5.55
9:00 4.777 6.059 9.809 12.888 14.503 16.03 16.67 16.676 16.18 13.609 9.641 6.525
10:00 5.722 7.124 10.874 13968 15.358 16.72 17.33 17.336 16 98 14.674 10.826 7.65
11:00 6793 8.331 12.081 15,192 16 327 17.50 18.08 18.084 17.88 15.881 12.169 8.925
12.00 7.801 9.467 13.217 16 344 17.239 18.24 18.78 18.788 18.73 17.017 13.433 10.125
13:00 8 557 10 31 14.069 17.208 17.923 18.79 m m m w m M 17.869 14.381 11.025
14:00 9.061 10.88 14.637 17.784 18.379
IHf
18.437 15.013 11 S25
15:00 9.25 11.1 14.85 18 18 55 iii®iliii uni iliii 18.65 15.25 11.85
16.00 r 9 061 10.88 14.637 17.784 18 379 S t o s sp U B i
m M m liip
18.437 15.013 11 525
17 00 I 8.62 10.39 14.14 17.28 17.98 13.84 liiii i n M ill 17.S4 14.46 11.1
18:00 7 S271 9.609 13.359 16.488 17.353 18.33 18.37 18.878 18 83 17.159 13.591 10 275
19:00 7.108 8.686 12.436 15.552 16.612 17.73 18 30 18.304 18.14 16 236 12.564 9.3
20:00 6.289 7.763 11.513 14.616 15.871 17.13 17 73 17 732 1745 15.313 11.537 8 325
21.00 5.5S6 6.982 10.732 13 824 15.244 16.63 17 24 17248 16.87 14 532 10.663 7,5
22:00 4.966 6.272 10.022 13.104 14.674 16.17 16.80 16.808 16.34 13.822 9.878 6.75
23 00 4.462 5.7041 9.454 12.528 14.218 15.80 16.45 16.456 15.92 13.254 9.246 6.15
24:00 4.084 5.278 9,028 im m ifpii m M m mm m
8.772 5.7
Heating Degree Day Analysis For Dai eeling (in °C)
1 00 14.53 13.37 9 627 6.564 4.709 3.002 2.328 2 328 2.961 5 827 9 923 12 975
2 00 14.84 13.73 9.982 6.924 4.994 3.232 2 548 2.548 3.226 6.182 10.318 13.35
3:00 15.09 14.01 10.266 7,212 5 222 3 416 2.724 2 7 2 4 3.438 6.466 10 634 13.65
4:00 15.28 14.22 10.479 7.428 5.393 3.554 2.856 2 856 3.597 6.879 10.871 13.875
5:00 15.35 14.3 10.55 7.5 5.45 3.6 2.9 2.S 3.65 6 75 10.95 13.95
6:00 15.22 14.15 10,408 7.356 5.336 3.508 2.812 2.812 3.544 6.608 10 7 9 2 1 13.3
7:00 14.90 13.80 10.053 6.996 5 051 3.278 2.592 2.592 3.279 6.253 10 397 13.425
8 0 0 14.34 13.16 9.414 6.3481 4 538 2.364 2.196 2196 2.802 5.614 9 686 12.75
9 00 13.52 12.24 8.491 5.412 3.797 2.266 1.624 1.624 2.113 4 691 8.659 11.775
1000 12.57 11.17 7.426 4.332 2.942 1.576 0 964 0 964 1.318 3.6261 7 4 7 4 10.65
11 00 11.50 9.969 6.219 3.108 1 973 0.794 0.216 0.2161 0.417 2 419 6.131 9.375
12:00 10.49 8.833 5.083 1.956 1.061 0 058 0 0 0 1 283 4.367 8.175
13:00 9 743 I 7.981 4.231 1 092 0.377 0 0 0 0 0.431 3.919 7.275
14:00 9.239 7.413 3.663 0.516 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.287 6.675
15.00 3.05 7.2 3.45 0.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.05 6.45
1600 9 2 3 9 7.413 3.663 0.516 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 287 6.675
17:00 9.68 7.91 4.16 1.02 0.32 0 0 0 0 0.38 3 8 4 7.2
18:00 10.37 8.691 4.941 1 812 0 947 0 0 0 0 1.141 4.709 8.025
19 00 11.19 9.614 5.864 2.748 1 688 0 564 -0 004 -0.004 0.152 2.064 5.736 9
20 00 1201 10 53, 6.787 3 684 2.429 1.162 0 568 0.568 0841 2 987 6.763 9.975
21:00 12.70 11.31 7.568 4.476 3.056 1.668 1 052 1,052 1 424 3.768 7.832 10.8
22 00 13,33 12 02 8 278 5.196 3626 2.128 1 492 1,492 1 954 4478 8.422 11.55
23:00 13 83 12.59 8846 5.772 4.082 2.496 1 844 1.844 2.378 5.048 9.054 12.15
24:00 14.21 13 02 9.272 6.204 4.424 2.772 2.108 2.108 2.696 5.472 9.528 12.6
total 302.3 268 7 178.72 104.47 71.415 41.93 30 82 30.82 39.79 88.145 179 92 256.12
total
HDD
377.8 335.9 223.40 130.59 89.268 52.42 38.52 38.525 49.73 110.18 224.91 320.15
115
Hour y Temperatures And Comfort C laracteri sties For Dehradun (in °C)
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
max
ave
19.1 21.4 26.4 321 36.2 35.3 30.4 29.5 29.6 28.2 24.7 20.9
range 13 13,2 14 15.1 14.7 11.7 7.3 6.8 8.3 12.1 14.4 13.9
1:00 7.79 9.916 1422 H i i m m m iiiii ■ 1 m m m itei Emm 12.172 8.807
2:00 7.14 9.256 13.52
H i p p ip 17.068 11.452 8.112
3:00 6.62 8.728 12.96 m m m m M M Mmm m iliii 16.584 10.876 7.556
4:00 6.23 8.332 1254
lǤlp iil i i p
16 221 10.444 7.139
5:00 6.1 8.2 12.4 17
Mmm
PM
16.1 10.3 7
5:00 6.36 8 464 12.68 ifr $ m p i p w imam
I R K
ppp mmm 16.342 10.588 7.278
7:00 7.01 j 9 1 2 4 13.38
i n
M U S Im» r n mmm M M Miiiii 16.947 11 308 7 973
8:00 8.18 10.31 14.64 19416 p p tiiflip
§m m
U M p
18.036 12 604 9.224
9:00 9.87 12.02 1646 21.379 m m m W i l i ; mmm 19.609 14 476 11.031
10:00 11.82 14.00 18.56 te w 27.968 28.74 fppp§pp! 21.424 16.636 13.116
11:00 14.03 16.25 20 94 M W 30.467 30.73 27.55 M M M m m mii& iilii 19.084 15.479
12:00 16.11 18.36
pm
28.627 32.819 32.60 28 72 27.936 27.69 21 388 17.703
13:00 17.67 19.94 I p i f S 30.439 34.583 34.01 29.59 28.752 28.68 Miii 19.371
14:00 1871 21.00
m m m
31.647 35.759 34.94 3018 29.296 29 35 27.837 p m r n m 20.483
15:00 19.1 21 4 iiiii 32.1 36.2 35.3 30.4 29.5 2 9 6 28 2 iilill: 20.9
16:00 18.71 21.00
m m m
31.647 35.759 34.94 3018 29.296 29.35 27.837 ippi 20 483
17:00 17.8 20.08 § iii$ 30.59 34.73 34.13 29 67 28.82 28.77 iMiii 19.51
18:00 16.37 18.52
it iiH
28.929 33.113 32.84 28.86 28 072 27.85 21 676 17 981
19.00 14.68 16.91 21.64 m m m 31.202 31.32 27.91 27 188
m o m
19.804 16.174
20:00 12.99 15.19 19.82 ip® 29.291 29.80 f P P P ji p § i m m 17 932 14 367
21:00 11.56 13.74 18.28 27.674 28.51 w M M M 21.182 16 348 12.838
2 2 0 0 10.26 12.42 16.88 21.832 mmm 27.34
mmM
ipp- 19.972 14.908 11 448
23 00 9 22 11.36 15 76 20 624 liiiilI« f M M liiiiil i i i 19.004 13.756 10.336
24:00 8.44 10.57 14.92
H i i
l l i i i i i ; :
M m m im
12.892 9 502
Heating Degree Day Analysis or Dehradun (in °C)
1:00 9 41 7.284 2 98 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5,028 8 393
2:00 10.06 7 944 3 68 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.132 5.748 9 088
3:00 1058 8.47? 4.24 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.616 6 324 9 644
4:00 10.97 8.868 4.66 0.049 0 0 0 0 0 0.979 __S. 756 10.061
5:00 11.1 9 4.8 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 1.1 6.9 10.2
6:00 10.84 8.736 4.52 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.858 6.612 9.922
7:00 10 19 8.076 3 82 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.253 i 5 892 9 227
8:00 14 62 12.48 8.16 3.384 0 0 0 0 0.172 4.764 10.196 13.576
9:00 12.93 10 77 6.34 1 421 0 0 0 0 0 3.191 8.324 11.769
10.001 10.98 8.792 4.24 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.376 6.164j 9.684
11:00 8 7 7 6.548 1.86 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.716 7.321
12:00 6.69J 4.436 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.412 5.097
1300 5 1 3 2 852 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.429
14:00 4.09 1 796 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.317
15:00 3.7 1.4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.9
16:00 4.09 1.796 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.317
17:00 5 2.72 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.29
18:00 6.43 4.172 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.124 4.819
19:00 8.12 5,888 1.16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.996 6 626
20:00 9.81 7.604 2.98 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.2871 4.868 8.433
21:00 11.24 9.056 4.52 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.618 6.452 9.962
22:00 12.54 10.37 5 9 2 0.968 0 0 0 0 0 2.828 7 892 11 352
23.00 13.58 11.43 7.04 2.176 0 0 0 0 0 3 796 9.044 12.464
24:00 8 76 6.624 2.28 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1.078 4.308 7 698
total 219 6 167 1 73.2 8.198 0 0 0 0 C 172 20.72 109.75 188.58
total
HDD
274.5 208.9 91.5 10.247 0 0 0 0 0.215 25.9 137.19 235.73
1 1 6
Hourly Temperatures And Com fort Characteristics For Kathmandu (in °C)
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
max
ave
16.6 19.1 23.7 26.8 27.7 27.4 27 27.2 25.9 24.6 21.3 18.3
range 14.4 15.8 1 6 2 15 2 1 2 .2 8.4 7.2 7.6 7.1 1 1 .2 1 4 4 16.2
1:00 4.072 5.354 9 606 13.576
mmmB W M mmmU l l t e 8.772 4.206
2:00 3.352 4.564 8 796 12.816
I P X I p p
p p p i i i l l f ® 8.052 3.396
3 00 2.776 3 932 8.148 12.208 n i H i i i i i i l i i i i i l i i i i i i l i i i 13.848 7.476 2.748
4:00 2.344 3.458 7 662 11.752
M M
m m mmm mmmm i p & i 13.512 7.044 2.262
5:00 2 .2 3.3 7.5 11.6 1m m mi i i W : m m l i i i i i l i i i i i 13.4 6 9 2 .1
6:00 2.488 3.616 7 824 11 904 m m ml l l s i M i p
mm m
13 624 7.188 2 424
7:00 3.208 4.406 8 634 12 664 mmm m m ml l l l t e i l i i i t e I i i i i
14.184 7 908 3.234
8:00 4.504 5.828 10 092 14.032 17.452
K M M
19.93 15.192 9 204 4692
9:00 6.376 7.882 12.198 16 008 19.038 h mm ;iiiiiii& l i i i i i 16.648 11.076 6.798
10:00 8.536 10.25 14.628 18.288
S P P R
M M l i i i p
H W K
18.328 13.236 9.228
11 00 10.93 12.93 17 382 w f m m i S i mm mHH mm m 15 684 11.982
12:00 13.28 15.46 19.974 i p i m m m .mm mH i lippl i i i i i 17.988 14.574
13 00 15.01 17.36
mmm m m M l i i i i i 19.716 16518
14 00 16.16 18.62 l i i i i i
W pi
27.334 27 14
mmm mmm mmm 17.814
15 00 16 6 19.1 mmm l i i i i i 27.7 2 7 4 « i H i 27.2 183
16 00 16.16 18.62
; p M I I p i i l 27.334 27.14
m m Ip iS & l i i i l l i i i 17.814
17:00 15.16 17.52 liiiiiiiiiiiH i m mmmiiiii H i
19 86 1668
18:00 13.57 15.78
l i i i i i | i p p
m m m
ipplip i£ iiipiiPB
M p w
18.276 14.898
19:00 11.70 13.72 18.192 l i i i i i liiiiiiiiiiliiiiiiH iilii i i i M i ii i i l i i 16 404 12.792
20:00 i 9.832 11 67 16.086 19.656
m m
M p g m m m
ipiif 19 336 14 532 10.686
21:00 8.248 9.936 14 304 17.984 iisiiM i m M
18.104 12.948 3.904
22:00 6.808 8.356 12.684 16.464 19.404
iiiHlift
ipii 16.934 11.508 7.284
23:00 5.656 7.092 11.368 15.248 18.428 m m mmmmmmmiii*
16.088 10 356 5.988
24:00 4.792 6144 10.416 ,,li4 336
! | P H S w M mIM immmmu!IH§ 9.492 5.016
Heating Degree Day Analysis For Kathmanc u (in c > C )
1:00 14.22 12.94 8.694 4.724 1.214 0 0 0 0 3.444 9 528 14.094
2:00 14.94 13 73 9.504 5.484 1.824 0 0 0 0 4.004 10.248 14.904
3:00 15.52 1436 10.152 6.092 2.312 0 0 0 0 4.452 10 824 15.552
4:00 15.95 1484 10 638 6.548 2.678 0 0 0 0 4.788 11 256 16.038
5:00 16.1 15 108 6.7 2.8 0 0 0 0 4 9 11.4 16 2
6.00 15.81 1468 10.476 6.396 2 556 0 0 0 0 4 676 11.112 15.376
7:00 15.09 13 89 9 666 5.636 1.946 0 0 0 0 4.116 10.392 15.066
8:00 13.79 12.47 8.208 4.268 0 848 0 0 0 0 3.108 9.096 13.608
9.00 11 92 10.41 6,102 2.292 0 0 0 0 0 1 652 7.224 11.502
10:00 9.764 8.048 3.672 0.012 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.064 9.072
11:00 7 3 1 6 5.362 0.918 0 O1 0 0 0 0 0 2.616 6.318
12:00 5.012 2.834 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.312 3.726
13:00 3.284 0 938 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.782
14:00 2.132 -0.326 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.486
15.00 1.7 -0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ~0 0
1 600 2.132 -0 326 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.486
17:00 3.14 0.73 o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.62
1800 4.724 2.518 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.024 3.402
19:00 r 6.596 4.572 0.108 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.896 5 508
20 00 8 468 6.626 2.214 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 768 7.614
21:00 10.05 8.364 3.996 0.316 0 0 0 0 0 0.196 5 3 5 2 9 396
22 00 11.49 9.944 5 616 1.836 0 G 0 0 0 1.316 6 792 11.016
23 00 1264 11.20 6.912 3.052 0 0 0 0 0 2.212 7 9 4 4 12312
24.00 13.50 12.15 7.884 3 964 0 604 0 0 0 0 2.884 8 808 13 284
total 235.3 194.2 115.56 57.32 16.782 0 0 0 0 41.748 133.65 218 86
total
HDD
294.1 242.8 144.45 71.65 20.977 0 0 0 0 52.185 167.07 273.57
117
Hourly Temperatures And Comfort Characteristics For Leh (in °C)
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
max
ave
-2 8 1 0.8 6.4 12.4 17.1 21.1 24.7 24.2 20.9 14.2 7 8 1 6
range 11.2 12.6 12.7 136 143 14 4 14.5 14.6 15.5 15.1 14.4 12.7
1:00 -12.54 -10.16 -4.649 0.568 4.659 8.572 12.08 11 498 7 415 1 063 -4.728 -9 449
2.00 -13.10 -10.79 -5.284 -0.112 3.944 7.852 11.36 10.768 6.64 0 308 -5 448 -10 084
3:00 -13.55 -11.29 -5.792 -0.656 3.372 7,276 10.78 10.184 6.02 -0 296 -6 024 -10.592
4:001 -13.38 -11.67 •6.173 -1.064 2.943 6.844 10.34 9.746 5 555 -0.749 -6 456 -10 973
5 0 0 -14 -11.8 -6.3 -1.2 2.8 6.7 10.2 9.6 5.4 -0.9 -6.6 -11.1
6:00 -13.77 -11.54 -6.046 -0.928 3 086 6 988 10.49 9.892 5.71 -0.598 -6 312 -10.846
7:00 -13.21 -10.91 -5.411 -0.248 3.801 7.708 11.21 10 622 6.485 0.157 -5 592 -10.211
8:00 -12.20 -9.784 -4.268 0.978 5.088 9.004 12.52 11.936 7.88 1,516 -4 296 -9 068
9:00 -10.75 “8.146 : -2.617 2.744 6.947 10.87 14.40 13.834 9.895 3 479 -2.424 -7.417
10:00 -9.072 -6.256 -0.712 4.784 9.092 13.03 16.58 16.024 12.22 5.744 -0.264 -5 512
11 00 -7168 -4.114 1 447 7.096 11.523 15.48 mm m 18.506 14.85 8 311 2.184 -3.353
12:00 -5.378 -2.098 3.479 9.272 13.811 17.78 p i | i &
fP M
17.33 10.727 4 488 -1.321
13:00 -4.032 -0.586 5.003 10.904 15.527 m m m pH mm m 12.539 6 216 0.203
14:00 -3.136 0.422 6.019 11.992 16 671 piii
H i iP i
13.747 7 368 1.219
15:00 -2 8 0 8 6 4 12.4 17.1 iii! m m mliiiiiiiiii
14 2 7.8 1.6
16:00 -3 136 0.422 6.019 11 992 16.671
PM
m mm 13 747 7 368 1 219
17.00 -3.92 -0.46 5.13 11.04 15.67 m m mm m i l M l Siii* 12.69 6.36 0.33
18:00 -5.152 -1.846 3.733 9,544 14.097 18.07
u r n s
i i i
17.64 11 029 4 776 -1 067
19:00 -6.608 -3.484 2.082 7 776 12.238 1620
m m iM iii 15.63 9.066 2 904 -2.718
20:00 -8.064 -5.122 0.431 6008 10 379 14.33 17.88 17.338 13 61 7.103 1.032 -4 369
21:00 -9.296 -6.508 -0.966 4.512 8.806 12.74 16.29 15.732 11.91 5.442 -0.552 -5.766
22:00 -10.41 -7.768 -2.236 3.152 7.376 11 30 14.84 14.272 10.36 3 932 -1.992 -7.036
23:00 -11.31 -8.776 -3.252 2.064 6.232 10.15 13.68 13.104 9.12 2.724 -3.144 -8.052
2400 -11.98 -9.532 -4 014 1.248 5.374 9 292
t i $ P $ P S M g 8 1 9 1 818 -4 008 -8.814
Heating Degree Day Ana ysis For Leh (in °C)
1:00 30.84 28.46 22.943 17 732 13.641 9.728 6.215 6.802 10.88 17.237 23 028 27.749
2:00 31.40 29 09 23 584 18.412 14-358 10,44 6.94 7 532 11 66 17,992 23748 28 384
3:00 31.85 29.59 24.092 18.956 14.928 11.02 7.52 8.116 12.28 18.596 24 324 28 892
4:00 32.18 29.97 24.473 19.364 15.357 11.45 7.955 8.554 12.74 19.049 24.756 29.273
5:00 32.3 301 2 4 6 19.5 15.5 11.6 8.1 8.7 12.9 1 9 2 24.9 29.4
6.00 32.07 29 84 24.346 19.228 15.214 11.31 7 81 8.408 12.59 18.898 24 612 29.146
7 00 31.51 29.21 23 711 18 548 14.499 10.59 7 085 7 678 11.81 18.143 23 892 28 511
8:00 30.50 28.08 22 568 17.324 13.212 9 296 5.78 6 364 10.42 16.784 22 596 27 368
9:00 29.05 26.44 20.917 15.558 11.353 7.424 3.895 4.466 8.405 14.821 20 724 25.717
10:00 27.37 24.55 19.012 13.518 9.20S 5,264 1 72 2276 6.08 12.556 18 564 23.312
11,00 25.46 2241 16.853 11.204 6.777 2816 0 0 3445 9.989 16.116 21.653
12 00 23.67 20.391 14.821 9.028 4.489 0.512 0 0 0 965 7.573 13 812 19 621
13:00 22 33 18.88 13.297 7.396 2.773 0 0 0 0 5.761 12.084 18.097
14:00 21.43 17.87 12.281 6.308 1.629 0 0 0 0 4553 10 932 17.081
15:00 21.1 17 5 11.9 5.9 1.2 0 0 O 1 0 41 10.5 16 7
16:00 21.43 17 87 12 281 6 308 1 629 0 0 0 0 4 553 10.932 17 081
17:00 22.22 18.76 13.17 7.26 2.63 0 0 0 0 561 11 94 17.97
1800 23.45 20.14 14.567 8756 4 203 0.224 0 0 0 655 7.271 13 524 19.367
19:00 24 90 21 78 16.218 10.524 6062 2.096 0 0 2.67 9 234 15.396 21.018
20:00 26.36 23.42 17.869 12 292 7921 3 968 0.415 0.962 4 685 11.197 17.268 22.669
21:00 27.59 24.80 19 266 13.788 9.494 5 552 2.01 2.568 6.39 12.858 18.852 24.066
22 00 28.71 26.06 20 536 15 148 10.924 6.992 3 48 4.028 7.94 14 368 20 292 25.336
23:00 29.61 27.07 21.552 16 236 12.068 8.144 4.62 5.196 9.18 15 576 21.444 26.352
24 00 30.28 27.83 22 314 17 052 12926 9.008 5.49 6.072 10.11 16 482 22.308 27.114
total 657 7 5902 457.17 325.33 221 99 137.4 79.01 87.722 155.8 302.40 446.54 572 37
total
HDD
822.1 737.7 571.47 406.67 277.49 171.8 98.76 109.65 194.7 378.00 558.18 715.47
118
___
Hourly Temperatures And Comfort Characteristics For Mukteswar (in
0
n
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
maxim
um
10 13.1 16 19.1 22.8 24 22 20 18.3 16.6 14.9 12
range 3 9.1 9.6 9.6 9,6 7.7 6 6 5.8 6.9 8.5 8.5
1 00 3 0 4 5.183 7.648 10.748
H i mf a m mam: m w t &iiw
10.597 7.505 4.605
2:00 2.64 4.728 7.168 10.268
p i
mM m Ipii m i M & 10.252 7.08 4.18
3:00 2 3 2 4 364 6.784 9.884
PP-ti m w M i p lili;iliii 9,976 6.74 3.84
4:00 2.08 4.091 6 486 9.596
i p p p j l' ■ m a i m .
I g flp
9.769 6 485 3 585
5:00 2 4 6.4 9.5
p i llili illiltiiiiiii 9 7 6 4 3.5
8.00 2.16 4 182 6.592 9 892
m m mW H H M IW i
Hit
9.838 6.57 3.67
7:00 2.56 4 637 7.072 10.172 mmm liiiii;s i mm#
10.183 6 995 4.095
8.00 3.28 5 456 7.936 11 036 14.736 17.53 16.96 14.96 13 42 10.804 7.76 4 8 6
9:00 4.32 6.639 9.184 12 284 15.984 1853 17.74 15.74 14.18 11.701 8.865 5.965
10:00 5.52 8.004 10.624 13.724 17.424
1 PH
1864 16.64 1505 12.736 10.14 7.24
11:00 6.88 9.551 12.256 15.356 mm. W M M
17.66 16.03 13.909 11 585 8 685
12:00 8.16 11.00 13.792 16 892 I l S S j : 18.62 16.98 15.013 12.945 10.045
13:00 9.12 12.09 14 944 18.044
M M M
mm m
m m
17.66 15.841 13.965 11.065
14:00 9.76 12.82 15.712 18,812
W m ®
2 3 , 7 6
m m m
18.12 16.393 14.645 11.745
15:00 10 13.1 16
! ___. ! & . !p H f p f p i llll® 18.3 166 14.9 12
16:00 9.76 12,82 15.712 18.812
m mi
i w 18.12 16.393 14 645 11.745
17 00 9.2 12.19 15.04 18.14 w m m mm m mM m m 1772 15.91 14.05 11.15
13:00 8.32 11.18 13.984 17 084
M H
18.74 17 08 15.151 13 115 10.215
19:00 7.23 10.00 12.736 15 836 iiiiiiiiiiii M m m 17 96 16 32 14 254 12.01 9.11
20 00 6 24 8.823 11.488 14.588 18.288
B H
17.18 15.57 13.357 10.905 8.005
21 00 5.36 7.822 10.432 13 532 17.232 iiiii 18.52 16.52 14 93 12.598 9.97 7.07
22:00 4.56 6 912 9.472 12.572 16.272 18.76 17 92 15 92 1435 11.908 9.12 6.22
23:00 3.92 6.184 8.704 11 804 15.504 18 14 17.44 15.44 13.89 11.356 8 4 4 5 5 4
24:00 3.44 5.638 8.128 11.228
mmm m m m
i ! H H H ill ■ 10.942 7.93 5.03
Heating Degree Day Analysis For Mulkteswar (in °
c )
1:00 15.26 13 11 10.652 7 552 3.852 0,999 1.52 3.52 5.046 7.703 10.795 13.695
2:00 15.66 13.57 11.132 8 032 4.332 1.384 1.82 3.82 5.336 8.048 11 22 14.12
3:00 15.98 13.93 11.516 8.416 4.716 1.692 2.06 4.06 5.568 8.324 11.56 14.46
4:00 16 22 14.20 11 804 8 704 5.004 1.923 2.24 4.24 5 742 8.531 11.815 14.715
5:00 16.3 14,3 11.9 8 8 5.1 2 2 3 4.3 5.8 8.6 11.9 14.8
6:00 16.14 14.11 11 708 8.608 4.908 1.846 2.18 4.18 5.684 8.462 11 73 14.63
7:QC 15.74 13.66 11.228 8.128 4.428 1.461 1 88 3.88 5 3941 8 117 11 305 14.205
8:00 15.02 12.84 10.364 7.264 3.564 0 768 1.34 3.34 4.872 7.496 10.54 13.44
9:00 13.98 11.66 9.116 6.016 2.316 -0.233 0.56 2.56 4.118 6599 9 435 12 335
10:00 12.78 10.29 7 676 4.576 0.876 -1.38 8 -0.34 1.66 3.248 5.564 8.16 11.06
11:00 11.42 8.749 6.044 2.944 -0.756 -2.697 -1.36 0.64 2 262 4.391 6.715 9.615
12:00 10.14 7.293 4.508 1 408 -2.292 -3.929 0 0 0 3.287 5 355 8.255
13:00 9.18 6 201 3 356 0.256 -3.444 0 0 0 0 2.459 4.335 7,235
14:00 8.54 5.473 2 588 -0.512 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.655 6.555
15:00 8.3 5.2 2.3 -0 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.4 6.3
16:00 8.54 5.473 2.588 -0.512 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.655 6.555
17:00 9.1 6.11 3 2 6 0.16 -3.54 0 0 0 0 2.39 4.25 7.15
18:00 9.981 7,111 4316 1.216 -2.484 0 0 0 0 3.149 5.185 8.085
1900 11.02 8.294 5.564 2.464 -1.236 -3.082 -1 66 0.34 1 972 4 046 6.29 9.19
20:00 12 06 9.477 6 812 3.712 0.012 -2.081 -0.88 1.12 2.726 4 943 7395 10.295
21 00 12 94 10.47 7 868 4.768 1 068 -1.234 -0 22 1 78 3.364 5.702 8 3 3 11.23
22:00 13.74 11 38 3 828 5 728 2.028 -0.464 0.38 2.38 3 944 6.392 9.18 12 08
23:00 14.38 12.11 9.596 6.496 2.796 0.152 0.86 2.86 4.408 6 944 9 86 12.76
24:00 14.86 1266 10.172 7.072 3.372 0 614 1.22 3.22 4.756 7 358 10 37 13.27
total 307.2 2 4 7 7 184 89 110.49 34.62 -2.269 13 9 47 9 74 24 128.50 196.43 266 03
total
HDD
384.1 309.6 231.12 138.12 43.275 -2.836 17.37 59.875 92.8 160.63 245.54 332.54
119
Hourly Temperatures And Comfort Characteristics For Mussourie (in c ’C)
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
max
ave
9.7 12.5 16.6 20.8 24.7 26 23 20.1 18 16.5 15.3 13
range 7.3 7 8.6 9 6 9.9 8 6 4.6 5 6.5 8 4 8.5
1:00 3.349 6.41 9 118 m m m m m m w m m m ■ i i i 10.845 7.992 5 605
2:00 2.984 6.06 8.688
m m m l i i i i i ! i p l & p : ■ l i p
i i i i i
10.52 7.572 5.18
3:00 2.692 5.78 8.344 11 584 I i i i i t i i i l I l i i i l :
.:
10.26 7.236 4 84
4:00 2.473 5.57 8 086 11.296
m m m p l W : m m m
i M M
iiti& iii 10.065 6 984 4 585
5:00 2.4 5.5 8 11 2
■ M l
m m m m m m m m m 10 6.9 4 5
6:00 2.546 5.64 8.172 11.392
M M
m m m
M M
m s m k
m s ' i I 10.13 7.068 4.67
7:00 2.911 5.99 8.602 11.872 Ml! m m m m m m M M
M M
10.455 7.488 5 095
8.00 3.588 6.62 9.376 12.736 18.384
M M
17.96 16.236 13.8 11.04 8.244 5 8 6
9:00 4.517 7.53 10.494 13.984 17.671 m m m 18.74 16.834 14.45 11.885 9336 6.965
10:00 5 612 8.58 11 784 15.424 r m i a s
P P P f
17.524 15.2 12.86 10.596 8.24
11:00 6.853 9 7 7 13 246 17 056 m m m w m M
18 3061 16.05 13.965 12.024 9 685
12:00 8.021 10 89 14.622 18.592 iiiiii 16.85 15.005 13.368 11 045
13:00 8.897 11 73 15 654 m m m S3-J611 liiiii m m m iiiliii 17.45 15.785 14.376 12.065
14:00 9.481 12 29 16 342 lit® -25,76
iiiii
17.85 16.305 15.048 12.745
15:00 9.7 12.5 16.6 ■iii = 04,7 18 16.5 15.3 13
16:00 9.481 12.29 16.342 m m m m s^ m m k m m
m i
' m m m
17.85 16.305 15.048 12.745
17:00 8.97 11 8 15.74
■iii iii m m m m m
17.5 15.35 14.46 12.15
18:00 8.167 11 03 14.794 18 784
» p i l m m m 1695 15.135 13 536 11.215
19:00 7.218 10.12 13.676 17.536 liiiii m i l : M U
18.5361 16.3 14.29 12.444 10.11
20:00 6.289 9.21 12.558 16.288
H M M
iipii 17.938 15 65 13.445 11 352 9 005
21:00 5466 8 4 4 11 612 15.232 18.958 iiiii 17.432 15.1 12 73 10 428 8 07
22:00 4.736 7.74 10.752 14.272 17.968
w m M
18.92 16.972 14.6 12.08 9 588 7.22
23:00 4.152 7.18 10.064 13.504 17.176 lifci 18.44 16.604 14.2 11.56 8.918 6.54
2 400 3.714 6 76 9.548
m m m
i 19.44 H H i
Iliii
11.17 8.412 6 03
Heating Degree Day Analysis For Mussourie (in °C)
1:00 14.95 11 89 9.182 5.852 2.213 -0.74 0.52 2.202 4.65 7.455 10.308 12.695
2:00 15.31 12.24 9.612 6.332 2.708 -0.34 0.82 2.432 4.9 7.78 10.728 13.12
3:00 15.60 12.52 9.956 6.716 3.104 -0.02 1.06 2.616 5.1 8.04 11.064 13.46
4:00 15.82 12.73 10.214 7.004 3.401 0 22 1.24 2.754 5.25 8 235 11.316 13.715
5:00 15.9 12.8 10.3 7.1 3.5 0.3 1.3 2.3 5.3 8.3 11.4 13.8
6:00 15.75 12.66 10.128 6.908 3.302 0.14 1.18 2.708 5.2 8.17 11.232 13.63
7:00 15 38 12.31 9.698 6.428 2.807 -0.26 0.88 2.478 4.95 7.845 10.812 13.205
8:00 14.73 11 68 8.924 5.564 1.916 -0 98 0 3 4 2.064 4.5 7.26 10.056 12.44
9:00 13.78 10.77 7 806 4.316 0 629 -2.02 -0 44 1.466 3 8 5 6.415 8 964 11 335
10:00 12.68 9.72 6 516 2.876 -0.856 -3.22 -1.34 0 776 3.1 5.44 7.704 10.06
11:00 11 44 8 53 5.054 1.244 -2.539 -4.58 -2.36 -0.006 2.25 4.335 6 2 7 6 8.615
12:00 10.27 7.41 3.678 -0.292 -4.123 -5.86 0 0 0 3.295 4.932 7.255
13:00 9403 6.57 2.646 -1.444 -5.311 0 0 0 0 2.515 3.924 6.235
14:00 8819 6.01 1 9581 -2.212 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 252 5.555
15:00 3.6 5 8 1.7 -2.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 5.3
16:00 8 819 6.01 1 958 -2.212 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 252 5.555
17:00 9.33 6.5 2.56 -1.54 -5.41 0 0 0 0 2.45 3.84 6 1 5
18:00 10.13 7.27 3 506 -0 484 -4.321 0 0 0 0 3.165 4 764 7 085
19:00 11.08 8.18 4.624 0.764 -3.034 -4.98 -2.66 -0 2 3 6 1 2 4.01 5.856 8.19
20:00 12 03 9.09 5.742 2.012 -1.747 -3.94 -1 88 0.362 2.65 4.855 6.948 9 295
21 00 12.83 9.86 6 688 3.068 -0.658 -3.06 -1.22 0.868 3.2 5.57 7.872 10.23
22:00 1356 1056 7.548 4.028 0.332 -2.26 -0.62 1 323 3.7 6.22 8 712 11.08
23:00 14.14 11.12 8.236 4.796 1.124 -1 62 -0.14 1.696 4.1 6 74 9.384 11.76
24:00 14.58 11.54 8.752 5.372 1 718 -1.14 0.22 1.972 4.4 7.13 9 888 12 27
total 305.0 233.7 156.98 69.696 -1.245 -34.36 -3.1 28.28 69.1 125.22 185.48 242.03
total
HDD
381.2 292.2 196.23 87.12 -1.SS62 -42.95 -3.875 35.35 86.37 156.53 231.85 302.54
120
Hourly Temperatures And Com brt Characteristics For Pokhara (in °C)
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
max
ave
18.8 21.2 26.4 29.8 29.6 29.6 29.1 29 27.8 25.6 22.8 19.5
range 12.4 15.2 14.4 14.4 11.6 9.6 8.2 8 7.6 8,8 12 12.4
1:00 8.012 7.976 13.872 17.272 m m m m m m m m m . m m m ■ i f # 44 12 36 8.712
2 0 0 7.392 7.216 13.152 16 552
I p p p f p l i l l p i i p i p p M i m
l i f p i 11.76 8.092
3 0 0 6.896 6.608 12 576 15 976
i l i i i l § i i i i i i i i i i i * l l l l i & i 11.28 7.596
4 0 0 6.524 6.152 12.144 15.544
p if iiii
30,09 I M i i i 1 M i l i i i i i 16.888 10 92 7 224
5 0 0 6.4 o 12 15.4
m m m m m m m m m m m m i i i i i 16.8 10.8 7.1
6 00 6.648 8.304 12.288 15.688 I p m m
i i p i
m m m ip iii:i i i i i 16.976 11.04 7348
7 0 0 7 268 7.064 13.008 16 408
■M m m m i i i i i .'2 1 i i i H i i i i i i
11 64 7.963
8:00 8.384 8.432 14 304 17.704 19.856 21.53 i p i i ipH
21.41 18.208 12.72 9.084
9 00 9.996 1040 16.176 19 576 21 364 m m m m m 19 352 14.28 10 696
10:00 11.85 12 68 18 336 21 736
§ § i i & p H pip
20.672 16.08 12.556
11:00 13 96 15.27 20.784 m m m k m m liiiiiI i i h i m M 18.12 14.664
1200 15.94 17 70 w m m m iii®
27.39 27.21 2 7 1 6
S #P
:|p p i 20.04 16.648
13 00 17.43 19.52 niiiii 28.216 28.324 28.54 28.19 28.12
IM t m m m
21.48 18.136
14:00 18 42 20 74 m m m 29 368 29.252 29 31 28.85 28.76 27.57 i s & s p I f l i p 19.128
15 00 18.8 21.2 29 8 29,6 29.6 29.1 29 27.8
m m m .l l l l i l : 19.5
1600 18 42 20.74 i i i i i i l 29 368 29.252 29.31 28.85 28.76 27.57 m ^ m 19.123
17 00 1756 19.38 liiiii 28.36 28.44 28.64 28.28 28.2 i i i i i i i i i l i 21 6 13.26
18:00 16.19 18.00 S 1 I I M M i
27164 27.58 27.37 27.32 lillli 20.28 16.896
19:00 14 58 16.03 21 504 iiS i m m m m m m ii® m m m iiiii w m $ m . 18.72 15.284
20:00 12.97 14.05 19 632 liiiii I p i p m m m it p p i
ipii 2 1 404 17.16 13 672
21 00 11 60 12.38 18.048 21.448 m m iilll iliii iiiii 20.496 1584 12 308
22:00 10.36 10.86 16.608 20 008 21.712 M|| m m m
m m m
litii 19.616 1464 11.068
23 00 9.376 9.648 15 456 18 856 20 784 22,30 m m m iiiii $ iil§ 18.912 13 68 10.076
24 00 8.632 8.736 14.592
liM ii w m m iiiii iSllippiil i i i i i
12.96 9.332
Heating Degree Day Analysis For Pokhara (in °C)
1:00 10.28 10,32 4.428 1.028 0 0 0 0 0 0.356 5.94 9.588
2:00 10.90 11.08 5.148 1.748 0 0 0 0 o 0.796 6.54 10.208
3 0 0 11 40 11.69 5.724 2 324 0 0 0 0 cP 1.148 7 0 2 10.704
4 00 11 77 12.14 6.156 2 756 0.184 0 0 0 0 1 412 7.38 11 076
5 0 0 11.9 12.3 6.3 2.9 0.3 0 0 0 0 1.5 7.5 11.2
6 0 0 11.65 11 99 6.012 2 612 0.068 0 0 0 0 1 324 7.26 10.952
7:00 11.03 11.23 5.292 1 892 0 0 0 0 0 0 884 6 66 10.332
8 0 0 9.916 9 868 3,996 0.596 0 0 0 0 0 0.092 5.58 9.216
9 00 3.304 7.892 2.124 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.02 7.604
10 00 6.444 5 6 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 22 5.744
11 00 4.336 3.028 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.18 3.636
12 00 2.352 0 596 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.652
1300 0.864 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.164
14:00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
15:00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
16 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
17:00 0.74 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
0 0.04
18 00 2.104 0 292 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 404
19:00 3.716 2.268 0 0 0 0 0 0 I P 0 0 3.016
20 00 5.328 4.244 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.14 4.628
21.00 6.692 5.916 0.252 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.46 5.992
22 00 7.932 7 436 1.692 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.66 7 232
23.00 8.924 8.652 2.844 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4.62 8.224
2 4 0 0 9.668 9.564 3 708 0 308 0 0 0 0 0 0 5.34 8 968
total 156.2 146.1 53 676 18.164 0.552 0 0 0 0 7.512 77.52 141.58
total
HDD
195.3 182.6 67.095 20.205 0.69 0 0 0 0 9.39 96.9 176.97
121
Hourly Temperatures And Comfort Characteristics For S lilloni? (in °C)
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
max
ave
15.5 17.1 21.5 23.8 23.7 23.7 24.1 24.1 23 6 21.8 18.9 1 6 4
range 11.9 10.7 11 9.7 8.2 6.3 6 6.3 7 8.9 11.2 11.9
1:00 5147 7791 11 93
m m m .iiM mmmM M m m m ® m m mwm sm
9.156 6.047
2:00 4.552 7.256 11 38
I f s p i t i IpiiSpii
iliiei 17.18 13.612 8.596 5.452
3 0 0 4 076 > 828 1094 Iilll#i i i i i m liiiiii i P # :liiiiiM M
13.256 8.148 4.976
4:00 37191 6.507 10.61 Ipiii iipp
iiiii
I n pip
12.989 7.812 4.619
5:00 3.8 6.4 10.5 iilillliiiii* I ; * * :iiiili: 12.9 7.7 4.5
6:00 3.838 6 614 10.72 lip p : Ipii 13.078 7.924 4.738
7:00 4.433 7.149 11.27
iH il m m m .w ® mmmm Mmm
13.523 8.484 5.333
8:00 5 504 8.112 12.26 15.652 16 812 18.40 19.06 18.808 17.72 14.324 9.492 6 404
9:00 7051 9.503 13.69 16.913 17.878 19.22 19.84 19.627 18 63 15 481 10.948 7 951
10:00 8 836 11.10 15.34 18.368 19.108 20.17 19.68 16.816 12.628 9 736
11:00 10 85 12 92 17.21 20.017
Mm m m m m mm m 18.329 14.532 11.759
12:00 12.76 14.63 18 97
M N f fPS*P P & : 19.753 16.324 13.563
13:00 14.19 15.92 20.29 H li mmmM M M M m m mmmm 17.668 15.091
14:00 15.14 16.77
m m mmm m m m M mmm \
18.564 16 043
15:00 15.5 17.1 I m m mliiiii Im m mM m ®H HHW mmm 18.9 16.4
1600 15.14 16.77 mm m p itam m m P P B
ip$iiii* 18.564 16.043
17:00 14.31 16.03 2 0 4 I liiP Iliiiiiliiiii:iiwimmm liiiii 17 78 15.21
18:00 13.00 14.85 19 19 I p p piippi
i i g i p i :
Ippi
19.931 16.548 13.901
1900 11 45 13.46 17.76 l iii& i■ iii mm miiiii mmm 18 774 15.092 12.354
20:00 9907 12.07 1633 19.241 19846 l i i i k ;mwMimmm 20 31 17 617 13.636 10.807
21:00 8.598 10.89 15 12 18.174 18 944 20.04 w m £ 20 446 19.54 16 638 12.404 9.498
22:00 7 408 9.624 1402 17.204 18.124 19 41 20.02 19816 18.84 15.748 11.284 8.308
23:00 6.456 8.968 13 14 16.428 17 463 18.91 19 54 19.312 18.23 15 036 10.388 7.356
24:00 5.742 8.323 12.48
■ m i m m m
f t w fW e linn U M I
5 1 R S
9.716 5 642
Healing Degree Day Analysis For Shillong (in °C
10 0 13.15 10.50 6.37 2 939 1 734 0.081 0 0 0 79 4.243 9.144 12.253
2:00 13.74 11.04 6.92 3.424 2.144 0.396 0 -0.004 1.14 4.688 9.704 12.848
3:00 14.22 11.47 7 36 3.812 2 472 0.648 -0.04 0 248 1.42 5.044 10.152 13.324
4:00 14.58 11 79 7.69 4.103 2.718 0.837 0.14 0 437 1.63 5.311 10.488 13 681
5:00 14.7 11.9 7.6 4.2 2 8 0.9 0 2 0.5 1.7 5.4 10.6 13.8
5:00 14.46 11.68 7 58 4 006 2 636 0.774 0.08 0 374 1.56 5.222 10.376 13.562
7:00 13.86 11.15 7.03 3.521 2226 0.459 0 0 059 1.21 4.777 9816 12.967
5:00 12 79 10.18 6 04 2.648 1 488 0 0 0 0.58 3.976 8.808 11.896
9:00 11.24 8.797 4.61 1.367 0.422 0 0 0 0 2 819 7.352 10.349
10:00 9 464 7.192 2.96 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.484 5.672 8.564
11 00 7.441 5.373 1.09 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.768 6.541
12:00 5 537 3.661 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 976 4.637
13:00 4.109 2.377 O1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.632 3.209
14:00 3.157 1.521 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.257
15:00 2.8 1.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.9
15:00 3.157 1.521 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.257
17:00 3.99 2.27 0 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 0 0.52 3 09
18:00 5 299 3447 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.752 4 399
19:00 6 846 4.838 0.54 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 208 5.946
20:00 8 393 6 229 1.97 0 0 0 0 0 0 0683 4.664 7.493
21:00 9 702 7 406 3.18 0.126 0 0 0 0 0 1.662 5.896 8.802
22:00 10.89 8 476 4.28 1 096 0.176 0 0 0 0 2.552 7,016 9.992
23.00 11.84 9.332 5.16 1 872 0.832 0 0 0 0 02 3.264 7.912 10.944
24:00 12 55 9.974 5.82 2.454 1.324 0 o1 0 0.44 3.798 8.584 11.658
total 227 9 173 3 86.4 35.583 20.972 4.095 0 3 8 1.614 10.49 54.923 138.04 206 36
total
HDD
284.9 216.6 108 44 485 26.21S 5.118 0.475 2.0175 13.11 68.653 172.55 257.96
122
Hourly Temperatures And Comfort Characteristics For Simla (in °C)
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
max
ave
8.5 10.3 14.4 19.2 23 4 24.3 21 20.1 20 17.9 15 11.3
range 6.6 7.2 7.6 8 8.4 81 5.4 4.9 6.2 7.1 7.7 7.1
1:00 2.758 4.036 7.788
iM & immmliliM Im m mmmm m m 11.723 8.301 5.123
2:00 2 428 3 676 7 408 11 84
P iP f f P
m m m iiiii 11.368 7.916 4.768
3:00 2.164 3.388 7.104 11.52 mmm m m m ® mmmliiiii 11 084 7 608 4 4 8 4
4:00 1.366 3.172 6.876 11.28 ml Mk ii i& p ijp i i 10.871 7 377 4.271
5 0 0 1 9 3.1 6.8 11.2 [ ' " m
mmm
liiiii liiiii 10.8 7.3 4 2
6:0(f 2 0 3 2 3.244 6.952 11 36 mmm
w m i M t
lisii; 10.942 7.454 4 342
7:00 2 362 3.604 7.332 11 76 illliijm m m liiiii 11.297 7.839 4.697
8.00J 2.956 4.252 8.016 12.48 16.344 17.49 1646 15.984 14 79 11.936 8.5321 5 3 3 6
9 0 0 3.814 5.188 9.004 13 52 17.436 18.54 17.16 16.621 15 59 12.859 9.533 6.259
10:00 4.804 [ 6 268 10144 14.72 18.696 17.97 17.356 16.52 13.924 10.688 7.324
11:00 5.926 7.492 11.436 16 08
n i l 18.89 18.189 17 58 15.131 11.997 8.531
12:00 6 982 8.644 12.652 1736
Iii® ::WMpill-
18.973 18.57 16.267 13.229 9.667
13:00 7.774 9508 13 564 18.32 mmm iiiiis iimmm m m m 17.119 14.153 10.519
14 00 8 302 10.08 14.172
w m
wmim ipiisi; 17.687 14.769 11 087
15:00 8.5 10.3 14.4 illp S & 4mmmliiiii I ii pm 17.9 15 11.3
16:00 8.302 10 08 14.172
m m m M M lip iiiiii 17.687 14.769 11.087
17:00 7.84 9.58 13.64 18 4 mmmiiitiiiim m m mm m 17.19 14.23 10.59
18:00 7.114 8.788 12 804 17.52 n 21836 2289
fflSm
18 69 16.409 13.383 9.809
19:00 6.256 7 8 5 2 11 316 16.43 iiHiiitlilil 18.434 17 89 15.486 12.382 8.886
20:00 5.398 6.916 10.828 15.44 mmm 18.46 17.797 17.08 14.563 11.381 7 963
21:00 4.672 6.124 9.992 14.56 18.528 liiiii 17.86 17.258 16.40 13.782 10.534 7.182
22 00 4.012 5.404 9.232 13.76 17 688 18.79 17.32 16.768 15 78 13.072 9.764 6.472
23:00 3 484 4.828 8.624 13.12 17.016 18 14 16 89 16.376 15 28 12.504 9.148 5.904
24:00 3.088 4.396 3.168 Iiiii
iiiii!
n n m
fllill
in m 8.686 5 478
Heating Degree Day Analysis For Simla (in °C)
1:00 15.54 14 26 10.512 6.06 2 208 1.047 1.998 2.463 3.694 6.577 9.999 13.177
2.00 15.87 14 62 10.892 6 4 6 2.628 1.452 2.268 2.708 4.004 6.932 10.384 13.532
3:00 16.13 14.91 11.196 6.78 2 964 1.776 2.484 2.904 4.252 7.216 10.692 13.816
4:001 16.33 15.12 11.424 7 02 3 216 2.019 2.646 3.051 4 438 7 429 10.923 14.029
5:00 16.4 15.2 11.5 7.1 3.3 2.1 2.7 3.1 4.5 7.5 11 14.1
6:00 16.26 15.05 11.348 6.94 3.132 1.938 2.592 3 002 4 376 7 358 10.846 13.958
7:00 15.93 14.69 10.968 6.54 2.712 1.533 2.322 2.757 4.066 7.003 10 461 13 603
8.00 15.34 14.04 10.284 5.82 1.956 0.804 1.336 2.316 3.508 6.364 9.788 12.964
9:00 14.48 13.11 9.296 4.78 0.864 -0.249 1.134 1.679 2.702 5.441 8.767 12 041
10:00 13.49 12 03 8.156 3.58 -0.396 -1.464 0.324 0.944 1.772 4.376 7.612 10.976
11:00 12.37 10 80 6.864 2 2 2 -1 824 -2.841 -0.594 0.111 0.718 3.169 6.303 9.769
12:00 11.31 9.656 5.648 0.94 -3.168 -4.137 0 0 0 2.033 5.071 8.633
13:00 10 52 8.792 4.736 -0.02 -4.176 0 0 0 l_ Q 1.181 4.147 7.781
14.00 9.998 8.216 4.128 -0.66 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.531 7.213
1500 9 8 8 3.9 -0.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.3 7
1600 9.998 8.216 4.128 -0 66 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.531 7.213
17 00 10.46 8.72 4.66 -0.1 -4.26 0 0 0 0 1.11 4.07 7.71
18:66^ 11.18 9.512 5.496 0.78 -3.336 0 0 0 0 1.891 4 917 8 491
19 00 12.04 10.44 6 484j 1.82 -2,244 -3246 -0.864 -0.134 0 408 2 814 5 918 9 414
20 00 12.90 11.38 7.472 2.86 -1.152 -2.193 -0.162 osdT 1.214 3 737 6.919 10.337
21:00 13.62 12.17 8.308 3.74 -0 228 -1.302 0 432 1.042 1 896 4.518 7.766 11.118
22.00 14.28 12.89 9.068 4 5 4 0.612 -0.492 0.972 1.532 2.516 5.228 8.536 11.828
23:00 14.81 13.47 9.676 5.18 1.284 0.156 1.404 1.924 3.012 5.796 9.152 12.396
24:00 15.21 13.90 10.132 5.66 1 788 0.642 1.728 2.218 3.384 6 222 9 614 12.822
total 324 3 289.2 196.27 86 48 5.88 -2.457 23.22 32 12 50 46 103.89 183.22 263,92
total
HDD
405.4 361,5 245.34 108.1 7.35 -3.071 29.02 40.15 63.07 129.86 229.03 329.90
1 2 3
Hourly Temperatures And Comfort Characteristics For Srinagar (in °C)
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
max
ave
4.4 7.9 13.4 19.3 24.6 29 30.8 29.9 28.3 22.6 15.5 8 8
range 6.7 7.1 9.9 11.9 13.4 14.6 12.4 12 15.6 16.9 15.6 9.8
1:00 -1.429 1 723 4787 8.947
m
i
m
m m i l K l
a m m m m 7.897 1.928 0.274
2:00 -1.764 1 368 4.292 8 3 5 2 l i i i i i I M
i i p i i 7 052 1.148 -0.216
3 0 0 -2.032 1 084 3 896 7 876 11.736 i i i i i i l i l ! i l i i i i 6.376 0.524 -0.608
4:00 -2.233 0.871 3.599 7.519 11 334
M M
18.52 5869 0.056 -0.902
5:00 -2.3 0 8 3 5 7,4
11.2 '" 'i i* ' 12,7 5.7 -0.1 -1
6.00 -2.166 0.942 3.698 7 638 11.468
S f P P i f e i i
6.038; 0.212 -0.804
7 0 0 -1.831 1.297 4.193 8.233 M W l i l t ® i i i i i i i i i i l l i f l i i 6 883 0.992 -0.314
8:00 -1.228 1 936 5.084 9.304 13.344 16.73
H U J
15.19 8 404 2.396 0 568
9:00 -0.357 2359 8 371 10.851 15.086 18 63
■ I m i l
17.22 10.601 4.424 1.842
10:00 0.648 3.924 7.856 12.636 17.096 i - l i t : W m M f n B p P i
13.136 6.764 3.312
11 00 1.787 5.131 9.5391 14.659 mmm • mm m m mM i m m l i i i i i 16,009 9416 4.978
12.00 2.859 6.267 11.123 16.563 i j i i i i 27 94 27.14
Iiiii
18.713 11.912 6.546
13:00 3.663 7.119 12.311 17.991 l i M ® 27.39 29 43 28.58 26 58 I W i i l j 13.784 7.722
14:00 4.199 7.687 13.103
■ M i mmm
28.56 30.42 29.54 27.83
p p i i
15 032 8.506
1500 4.4 7.9 13.4 l i l : 2 4 , 6 29 3 0 8 29.9 28.3 i i i i i i 15.5 8.8
16:00 4.199 7.687 13.103 S i i 9 : 4 3 - : l i l l l i 28.56 30 42 29.54 27 83
i i i l i i
15.032 8.506
17:00 3.73 7 1 9 12 41 18.11 l i i i i i 27.54 29.56 28.7 26.74 1394 7.82
18:00 2.993 6.409 11 321 16.801
! i M S $ m m 28.19 27.38 12.224 6.742
19:00 2.122 5.486 10 034 15.254
mmmm M m m m mmmmm m m 16.354 10.196 5.468
20:00 1.251 4.563 8.747 13.707 iiiii;
M i
l i i i i i ; 14.657 8.168 4.194
21 00 0.514 3 782 7.658 12.3981 16.828 i l i i i i liiiii 12.798 6.452 3.116
22.00 -0.156 3072 8.668 11.208 15.43d liiiiiPPPP I p i i l i 17.69 11.108 4.892 2 136
23:00 -0.692 2,504 5.876 10.256 14418 17.90 IK 20,78 16.44 9.756 3.644 1.352
24:00 -1.094 2.078 5.282 9.542 mmm i i m I i i i i M i l v w m 8.742 2.708 0.764
Heating Dej?ree Day Analysis For Srinagar (in °C)
100 19.72 16.57 13.513 9.353 5.358 2.002 -1.712 -1.16 3.572 10.403 16.372 18.026
2:00 20.06 16 93 14 008 9.948 6.028 2.732 -1.092 -0.56 4.352 11.248 17.152 18.518
3 0 0 20.33 17.21 14.404 10.424 6.564 3.316 -C.59S -0.08 4.976 11.924 17 776 18 9081
4:00 20.53 17.42 14.701 10.781 6.956 3.754 -0.224 0.28 5.444 12.431 18.244 19.202
5:00 2 0 3 17.5 14.8 1 0 9 7.1 3.9 -0.1 0.4 5.6 12.6 18.4 19.3
6:00 20.46 17.35 14.602 10 662 6.832 3.608 -0.348 0.16 5.288 12.262 18.088 19.104
7 0 0 20.13 17.00 14.107 10.067 6.162 2.878 -0.968 -0.44 4.508 11.417 17.308 18614
8:00 19.52 16.36 13216 8.996 4.956 1.564 -2.084 -1.52 3.104 9.896 15.904 17.732
9.00 18.65 15.44 11.929 7.449 3.214 -0.334 -3.696 -3.08 1.076 7.699 13 876 16.458
10 00 17.65 14.37 10444 5.664 1 204 -2.524 -5.556 -4 88 -1.264 5 164 11 536 14 988
11:00 16.51 13.16 8.761 3.S41 -1.074 -5.006 -7.664 -6.92 -3.916 2.291 8.884 13 322
12:00 15.44 12.03 7.177 1.737 -3.218 -7.342 0 0 0 -0.413 6.388 11.754
13:00 14.83 11.18 5 989 0.309 -4.826 0 0 0 0 -2.441 4.516 10 578
14:00 14.10 10.61 5.197 -0.643 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.268 9.794
15.00 13.9 10.4 4.9 -1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.8 9.5
16.00 14.10 10.61 5.197 -0.643 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.268 9.794
17:00 14.57 11.11 5 89 0 19 -4 96 0 0 0 0 -2.61 4.36' 10.48
18:00 15.30 11.89 6 979 1 499 -3 486 0 0 0 0 -0.751 6.076 11 558
19:00 16.17 12.81 8.266 3.046 -1.744 -5.736 -8.284 -7.52 -4.696 1.446 8.104 12.832
20.00 17.04 13.73 9.553 4.593 -0.002 -3.838 -6.672 -5.96 -2 668 3.643 10.132 14.106
21.00 17.78 14.51 10.642 5.902 1.472 -2.232 -5.308 -4.64 -0.952 5.502 11.848 15.184
22 00 18.45 15.22 11.632 7.092 2.812 -0.772 -4 068 -3 44 0.608 7.192 13 408 16.164
23:00 18 99 1579 12 424 8.044 3 884 0.396 -3 076 -2 48 1.856 8 544 14.656 16.948
24:00 19.39 16.22 13.018 8.758 4.688 1.272 -2.332 -1 76 2.792 9.558 15.592 17.536
total 424.1 345.5 251 34 136.76 47.93 -2.362 -53.78 -43.6 29.68 137.00 277 95 360 39
total
HDD
530.1 431.9 314.18 170.96 59.912 -2.952 -67.22 -54.5 37.1 171.25 347.44 450.49
124
APPENDIX C:
HEAT GAIN AND LOSS THROUGH GLAZINGS
FOR 5 CALIFORNIA CITIES
125
HEAT LOSS THRU GLAZING FOR ARCATA
NORTH & EAST GLAZINGS - SINGLE PANE
c o
CO
CO
o
2 5
x
1 ooo
900-.....
8 0 0
7 0 0 --
6 0 0
500-----
200- ............
100- - - -
JAN FEB MAR APR M AY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
heat gain N — heat loss N heat gain E Q heat loss E
m
z
HEAT LOSS THRU GLAZING FOR ARCATA
SOUTH & WEST GLAZINGS - SINGLE PANE
1000-
800----
700- -
600-.......
1
3
6 0 0 --
300----
200— •
100- —
JAN FEB M AR APR M A Y JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
heat gain S heat loss S heat gain W -H - heat b ss W
126
HEAT LOSS THRU GLAZING FOR ARCATA
NORTH & EAST GLAZINGS - DOUBLE PANE
B
m
z
C O
CO
o
1 0 0 0 -
900-.......
000-....
700- -
I
5
300-.......
200- - —
100---
JAN FEB M AR APR M A Y JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
heat gain N heat loss N heat gain E heat lose E
B
to
Z
CO
CO
o
HEAT LOSS THRU GLAZING FOR ARCATA
SOUTH & WEST GLAZINGS - DOUBLE PANE
1000
900-......
4... 0 0 0-...
700-......
-8
5 0 0 --
3
400- -v
300-......
200- -
100-
JAN FEB M AR APR M A Y JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
heat gain S heat loss S heat gain W heat loss W
127
HEAT LOSS THRU GLAZING FOR MT. SHASTA
NORTH & EAST GLAZINGS - SINGLE PANE
CD
<
ID
I
100&
900----
800----
700----
2 0 0 — j
100 -
JAN FEB M AR APR M A Y JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
» heat gain N heat loss N heat gain E - o — heat loss E
HEAT LOSS THRU GLAZING FOR MT. SHASTA
SOUTH & WEST GLAZINGS - SINGLE PANE
1000-
800- -
700- -
? ....
S
§ 500-— »
£ 400-.......
300---
200- -
10o- -J -
JAN FEB MAR APR M A Y JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
heat gain S heat loss S heat gain W - e - heat loss W
128
HEAT LOSS THRU GLAZING FOR MT. SHASTA
NORTH & EAST GLAZINGS - DOUBLE PANE
1 0 0 0 -
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
heat gain N heat loss N -» *- heat gain E - h - heat loss E
HEAT LOSS THRU GLAZING FOR MT. SHASTA
SOUTH & WEST GLAZINGS - DOUBLE PANE
900-
800-
700-
600-
500-
400-
300-
200-
100-
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
heat gain S heat loss S heat gain W - e - heat loss W
HEAT LOSS THRU GLAZING FOR OAKLAND
NORTH & EAST GLAZINGS - SINGLE PANE
1 0 00
900
600- -
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
heat gain N heat loss N ->#- heat gain E - a — heat loss E
HEAT LOSS THRU GLAZING FOR OAKLAND
SOUTH & WEST GLAZINGS - SINGLE PANE
1000
700-.........
600
400
300- -
200- .................
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
heat gain S heat loss S heat gain W - a - heat loss W
HEAT LOSS THRU GLAZING FOR OAKLAND
NORTH & EAST GLAZINGS - DOUBLE PANE
900-
I
5
100—i
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
» heat gain N heat loss N -* * - heat gain E - s - heat loss E
HEAT LOSS THRU GLAZING FOR OAKLAND
SOUTH & WEST GLAZINGS - DOUBLE PANE
£
m
c n
o
$
1000-
900-
700--
f 6 0 0 - -
&
§ 500---
400- -
2 0 0 - — I
100 !
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
» heat gain S heat loss S heat gain W - b - heat loss W
131
HEAT LOSS THRU GLAZING FOR SANTA MARIA
NORTH & EAST GLAZINGS • SINGLE PANE
£
m
c o
o
a
X
1 0 0 0 -
900-.......
700-......
600-
-8
400-
300-......
2 0 0
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
heat gain N heat loss N heat gain E heat loss E
HEAT LOSS THRU GLAZING FOR SANTA MARIA
SOUTH & WEST GLAZINGS - SINGLE PANE
to
z
C O
C O
o
a
X
1000-
700-
600----
500
400— - .
300- - -
200- .................
100- -
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
heat gainS heat loss S heat gain W heat loss W
132
HEAT LOSS THRU GLAZING FOR SANTA MARIA
NORTH & EAST GLAZINGS - DOUBLE PANE
3
> -
5
X
1 0 0 0 -
800-
-8
100--
JAN FEB M AR APR M A Y JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
heat gain N heat loss N heat gain E - b - heat loss E
HEAT LOSS THRU GLAZING FOR SANTA MARIA
SOUTH 8l WEST GLAZINGS - DOUBLE PANE
£
to
Z
C / 3
O
a
X
1000-
900- -
HP...
700-
^ 600 j -
S
g soo— I -
400- - I -
ioo- - j -
JAN FEB M AR APR M A Y JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
heart gain S heat loss S -»#— heat gain W - b - heat loss W
133
HEAT LOSS THRU GLAZING FOR SAN DIEGO
NORTH & EAST GLAZINGS - SINGLE PANE
1000-
900-
700
400-
300
200-
100-
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
- heat gain N heat loss N -* * - heat gain E - b - heat loss E
HEAT LOSS THRU GLAZING FOR S A N DIEGO
SOUTH & WEST GLAZINGS • SINGLE PANE
1000-
900-
800-
700-
500—
400-
300
2 0 0
100-
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
» heat gain S heat loss S heat gain W - b - heat loss W
HEAT LOSS THRU GLAZING FOR SAN DIEGO
NORTH & EAST GLAZINGS - DOUBLE PANE
£
CD
1 0 0 0 -
1
3
! . 400-
300- •
100- -
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
MONTHS
heat gain N heat loss N -* * - heat gain E - b - heat loss E
135
APPENDIX D:
PROPOSAL FOR THE INDIAN HIMALAYAN
BUILDING ENERGY CODE
136
CONTENTS
Chapter D l. Classification Of Climate Zones 141
section 1. Description of Climate Zones 141
Chapter D2. Classification Of Development Types 146
section 2 . Description Of Categories 146
Chapter D3. Lighting Control Requirements For All Occupancies (for
category 1 and 2 A)
148
section 3. Lighting Control Requirements For All Occupancies 148
Chapter D4. Mandatory Features For Controls For Space-Conditioning
Systems (for category 1)
150
section 4. Thermostatic Controls For Each Zone 150
section 5. Criteria for zonal thermostatic controls 150
Chapter D5. Mandatory Features For Space-Conditioning Equipment 152
section 6 . Efficiency Measurements For Space-Heating Equipment 152
section 7. Efficiency Standards For Space-Heating Equipment 152
section 8 . Efficiency Measurements For Space-Cooling Equipment 152
section 9. Efficiency Standards For Space-Cooling Equipment 155
Chapter D6 . Mandatory Requirements For Exterior Doors, Windows and
Fenestration Products (for category 1 and 2A)
156
section 10. Requirements For Manufactured Doors And Windows 156
137
156
157
160
160
162
162
164
167
167
167
169
171
171
172
175
175
138
Installation Of Site-Constructed Doors, Skylights And
Windows
Common Forms Of Weather-Stripping
Mandatory Requirements For Joints and Other Openings
(for category 1 and 2A)
Requirements For Weather-Stripping Of Different
Construction Types
Mandatory Requirements For Insulation For All Occupancy
Types
Mandatory Requirements For Insulation For All Building
Components
Thermal Properties Of Materials.
Mandatory Features Of Grade A and Grade B Construction
Preface
Features Of Grade A Construction.
Features Of Grade B Construction.
Performance And Prescriptive Methods Of Compliance
Prescriptive Method Of Compliance
Performance Method Of Compliance
Prescriptive Requirements For Lighting For All Occupancy
Types (for category 1 and 2A)
Preface
175
176
178
179
179
180
182
182
193
193
194
195
196
197
197
198
199
139
Compliance Requirements
Calculation Of Allowed Lighting Power Density
Requirements For Hotel Guest-Rooms And Residential
Quarters
Prescriptive Requirements For Space-Conditioning
Equipment For All Occupancy Types (for category 1)
Compliance Requirements
Equipment sizing
Prescriptive Requirements For Building Envelope For All
Occupancy Types (for category 1 and 2 A)
Compliance Requirements
Mandatory Requirements For Glazing As Specified In The
Alternative Component Packages
Explanation For Shading And Penetration Angles
Explanation For Glazing U-Values
Additional Requirements For Metal-Frame Windows
Additional Notes On Glazing Requirements In The
Alternative Component Packages
Requirements For Thermal Shutters
Explanation For Requirements in the Alternative Component
Packages
Mandatory Features
Description Of Thermal Shutters
Chapter D16. Recommendations For Category 2A And 3 Areas 201
section 33. Recommendations For Building Enveleope Components 201
section 34. Recommendations For Windows And Doors 203
section 35. Recommendations For Lighting For Category 2A Areas. 204
References 205
140
D l. CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATE ZONES
Sec. 1. Description Of Climate Zones
Sec. 1. (a) Climate Zone 1 (Sivalik Region)
This zone encompasses the Sivalik region, or foothill region, as shown in the
schematic cross-section in fig. dl, and includes areas between the elevations of 2 0 0 0 ’
and 4000’, between the latitudes of 33°N and 27°N and longitudes of 76°E and 92°E.
It is also applicable to valley areas within the Outer Himalayas which descend to
elevations between 2000’ and 4000’, between the latitudes of 27°N and 33°N and
longitudes of 76°E and 92°E. This climate zone also encompasses regions within the
North-Eastern Hills at similar elevations.
The typical range of heating degree days for this climate zone is 1000°F to 1600°F.
NORTH
SOUTH
G R E A T
HIM ALAYA S
TIBETAN
PLATEAU
10000’
4 0 0 0 '
2000’
OUTER
H IM ALAYAS
H IM A LA Y A N
FOOTHILLS
G A N G A
VALLEY
F ig . d l - S c h e m a tic c ro ss-se c tio n s h o w in g re la tio n sh ip o f th e fo o th ills to th e e n tire
m o u n ta in sy ste m .
141
Sec. 1. (b) Climate Zone 2 (Lower Microthermal)
This climate zone is applied to all elevations within the Outer Himalayan belt and the
North-Eastern Hills, between the elevations of 4000* and 5500*, as shown in the
schematic section in fig.d2, with a western limit at 76°E longitude and a Northern
limit at 33°N latitude.
The typical range of heating degree days for this climate zone is 1700°F to 2500°F.
NORTH
SOUTH
G R EA T
HIM ALAYA S
T IB E T A N
PLATEAU
10000*
4000*
OUTER
HIM ALAYA S
H IM A LA Y A N
FOOTHILLS
G A N G A
VALLEY
F ig . d 2 - S c h e m a tic c ro ss-se c tio n sh o w in g re la tio n sh ip o f th e O u te r H im a la y a s to th e
e n tir e m o u n ta in sy ste m .
Sec. 1. (c) Climate Zone 3 (Middle Microthermal)
This climate zone is applicable to all elevations between 5500’ and 7000’ within the
Outer Himalayan belt (fig. d2) and the North-Eastern Hills, with a western limit at
76°E longitude and a northern limit at 33°N latitude. The typical range of degree days
for heating for this climate zone are 2500°F to 3300°F.
142
Sec. 1, (d) Climate Zone 4 (Higher Eastern Microthermal)
This climate zone is applicable to all elevations between 7000’ and 8500’ within the
Outer Himalayan belt (fig. d2), with a western limit at 8 8°E latitude. The typical
range of heating degree days for this climate zone is 3500°F to 4200°F. The special
characteristic of this zone is high average relative humidities of +75% and average
sky cover of 4 oktas or more (50%).
Sec. 1. (el Climate Zone 5 (Higher Western Microthermal)
This climate zone is applicable to all elevations between 7000’ and 85000’ within the
Outer Himalayan belt (fig. d2), with a western limit at 76°E latitude, eastern limit at
8 8°E latitude, and northern limit at 33°N latitude. The typical range of heating degree
days for this climate zone is 3500°F to 4200°F.
Sec. 1. (f> Climate Zone 6 (South Kashmir)
This climate zone encompasses the South Kashmir Himalaya (between 34.5°N and
33°N latitudes) for elevations between 5000’ and 7000’. Typical range of degree days
for heating for this climate zone is 4000°F to 5000°F.
The South Kashmir Valley has special climate characteristics in that the heating
degree days are much higher than for other areas of the Outer Himalayas at similar
elevations.
143
Sec. 1. (g) Climate Zone 7 (Upper Outer Ranges)
This climate zone includes all elevations between 8500’ and 10000’ within the Outer
Himalayan belt (fig. d2). The typical range of degree days for heating for this climate
zone is 5000°F to 7000°F.
This is a tentative climate zone in that the weather-data has not been analysed for any
locations within these elevations, and therefore no codes have been written for this
climate zone.
N O R T H
S O U T H
GREAT
HIMALAYAS
TIBETAN
PLATEAU
16000'
10000'
4000'
OUTER
HIMALAYAS
HIMALAYAN
FO O TH ILLS
GANGA
VALLEY
F ig . d 3 - S c h e m a tic se c tio n sh o w in g th e re a ltio n sh ip o f th e in h a b ite d e le v a tio n s
w ith in th e G r e a te r H im a la y a n b e lt to th e e n tire m o u n ta in sy ste m .
Sec. 1. (h) Climate Zone 8 (Higher North-Western )
This climate zone includes all inhabited areas above the elevation of 10000’ in the
Himalayan region (fig. d3). The upper limit of this zone has not been determined as
yet, but is approximately 16000’. The eastern limit of this zone is at 79°E latitude.
144
The typical range of heating degree days for this climate zone is 7000°F to 10000°F.
N o te : C lim a te z o n e 7, w h ic h is th e U p p e r O u te r R a n g e s , h a s o n ly b e e n c la s s ifie d in to
a c lim a te z o n e , b u t th e c o d e h a s n o t s p e c ifie d a n y r e q u ire m e n ts f o r it, d u e to th e n o n
a v a ila b ility o f d a ta .
36”
36°
China
TIBETAN
PLATEAU 32°
IALAYAS
Pakistan
28"_________
Nepal Bhutan A
~nsip^qjBASTEig
r 24° 24*
India
Bangla
desh N 2 0 * 20*
BAY OF BENGAL ARABIAN
w.SEA
12”
12"
76” 80* 84* 72” 96* 88* 92°
F ig . d 4 - M a p o f In d ia sh o w in g p e r tin e n t la titu d e s , lo n g itu d e s a n d p o litic a l d iv isio n s.
145
D2. CLASSIFICATION OF DEVELOPMENT TYPES
Preface
The code is written to accommodate building sites in both rural and urban areas and
takes into account the vast disparities in their stages of development from region to
region. The requirements have therefore been classified according to the energy
infrastructure available at the site and also the level of local government available for
the purpose of enforcing the code. The four categories of development thus derived
are described below in sec. 2 (a) through sec. 2 (d).
Sec. 2. Description Of Categories
Sec. 2. (a) Description Of Category 1
All lighting needs are met by electricity.
Space-conditioning needs are at least partly by commercial fuels.
Water-heating and cooking needs are met by commercial fuel.
Building permits are required by authorizing body for new construction or
additions/alterations of existing construction.
Sec. 2. (b) Description Of Category 2A
All lighting needs are met by electricity.
Space-heating utilizes non-commercial fuel (above 75%.)
146
Water-heating and cooking needs are met by non-commercial fuel.
Building permits are required by authorizing body for new construction or
additions/alterations of existing construction.
Sec. 2. (c) Description Of Category 2B
All lighting needs are met by electricity.
Space-heating and cooking utilizes non-commercial fuel (above 75%.)
No regulatory body exists for issuing permits for new construction.
Sec, (d) Description Of Category 3
No electrical energy is available on site.
Cooking and space-heating utilizes atleast 90% non-commercial fuels.
No regulatory body exists for issuing permits for new construction.
It is assumed that when a lower category area is provided with the necessary
infrastructure and attains the level of local government to be upgraded to a higher
category of development, the code requirements for the higher category of
development will be adopted.
147
D3. LIGHTING CONTROL REQUIREMENTS FOR ALL OCCUPANCIES (for
category 1 and 2A)
Sec. 3. Lighting Control Requirements For All Occupancies
Sec. 3. (a) Each area enclosed by ceiling-high partitions shall have an independent
switching or control device, which is readily accessible at the entrance to the space. It
shall be located so that a person using the device can see the lights or the area
controlled by that switch.
Sec. 3. (b) An enclosed area larger than 150 sq. feet and with two or more
entrance/exit points to the space shall have light switch panels at both entrance/exit
points, unless one of the exit points leads to a contained balcony or similar space.
Sec. 3. (c) An enclosed space that is larger than 100 sq. feet, has a lighting load that
exceeds 1 .2 watts/sq. ft. and has more than one luminaire shall meet one or more of
the following features:
1. Dimmers for controlling all lamps or luminaires.
2. Dual switching of alternate lamps, luminaires or rows of luminaires.
3. Switching each luminaire or lamp.
148
Sec. 3. (d) A daylit area in an enclosed space which is either greater than 250 sq. ft.
in area or greater than 15 feet in depth, shall either meet one of the requirements of
Sec. 3(c) or have a separate control for luminaires in the daylit area.
149
D4. MANDATORY FEATURES FOR CONTROLS FOR SPACE
CONDITIONING SYSTEMS (For Category 1)
Preface
The following requirements in sec. 4 through sec. 5 are for all occupancy types in
Category 1 of development that install space conditioning systems or equipment
within the building for comfort heating or comfort cooling.
Sec, 4. Thermostatic controls for each zone
The supply of heating and cooling energy for each conditioned zone within a building
shall be controlled by an individual thermostatic control that responds to the
temperature within the zone. Dwelling units smaller than 1500 sq. feet may have one
thermostat control for the entire unit.
E x c e p tio n to se c. 4. is a n in d e p e n d e n t p e r im e te r h e a tin g o r c o o lin g s y ste m se rv in g
m o r e th a n o n e z o n e w ith o u t in d iv id u a l th e r m o sta t c o n tro ls i f th e p e r im e te r s y ste m is
d e s ig n e d s o le ly to o ffs e t e n v e lo p e h e a t lo sse s o r g a in s a n d is c o n tr o lle d b y a t le a st o n e
th e r m o sta t lo c a te d in o n e o f th e z o n e s s e rv e d b y th e sy ste m .
Sec. 5. Criteria for zonal thermostatic controls
The criteria specified in subsections 5(a) through 5(e) shall be met with.
150
Sec. 5. (a) Where used to control space heating, the thermostats shall be capable of
being set down to 55°F or lower (12.5° C.)
Sec. 5. (b) Where used to control space cooling, the thermostats shall be capable of
being set up to at least 85° or higher (29.5°C).
Sec. 5. (cl Where used for both heating and cooling, the thermostat controls shall
meet the above requirements and shall be capable of providing a temperature range or
dead band of at least 5°F (3°C) within which the supply of heating and cooling energy
to the zone is shut off or reduced to a minimum. A n e x c e p tio n to th is r e q u ir e m e n t is a
sy ste m th a t re q u ire s m a n u a l c h a n g e -o v e r b e tw e e n h e a tin g a n d c o o lin g m o d e s.
Sec. 5. (d) Hotel guest room thermostats shall have setpoint stops (accessible to
authorized personnel only) to restrict overheating and overcooling, if a central air-
conditioning system is installed in the building.
Sec. 5. (e) Climate zones 3, 4, 5, 6 , 7 and 8 shall have provision for setback
thermostats for heating temperatures for periods when the conditioned space is not in
use. All climate zones shall have provision for setback thermostats for cooling
temperatures for periods when the conditioned space is not in use.
151
D5. MANDATORY FEATURES FOR SPACE CONDITIONING EQUIPMENT
Sec. 6 . Efficiency Measurements For Space-Heating Equipment
Within this code, efficiency for space-heating equipment shall be rated in terms of
Steady State Efficiency (S.S.E). The S.S.E. for equipment and systems shall be
measured by the following relationship:
Hr = A-B
E = Hr/A
where A = total heat of fuel used
B = heat loss in flue gases
Hr = net heat delivered to the room
e = unit efficiency
T h e n e e d f o r s u p p ly , m a r k e tin g a n d d is tr ib u tio n o f f u e l s lik e n a tu r a l g a s a n d
e q u ip m e n t u s in g th e s e f u e l s , a s w e ll a s e q u ip m e n t u s in g o th e r h ig h -e ffic ie n c y f u e l
fo r m s lik e d ie s e l, k e r o s e n e a n d L P G e x is t in th e r e g io n , to c u r ta il th e in a p p r o p r ia te
u se o f e le c tr ic ity f o r s p a c e -h e a tin g . T h e r e fo r e , e ffic ie n c y r e q u ir e m e n ts f o r s u c h
e q u ip m e n t h a v e b e e n in c lu d e d in s e c . 7 (a ).
Sec. 7. Efficiency Standards For Space-Heating Equipment
Sec. 7. (a) Efficiency standards for fluid-fuel and electricity-driven space-heating
equipment
The minimum efficiency requirements for space-heating equipment using various fuel
forms and various capacities are given below in table dIA.
152
TABLE dIA - Minimum Efficiency Requirements For Space-Heating Equipment
Equipment Tvpe Size Cateeorv Steadv State Efficiency
Gas fired _> 225,O C X ) Btu/hr 77%
_> 20,000 Btu/hr 75%
< 20,000 Btu/hr 70%
Oil fired All sizes 75%
Electric All sizes 98%
Source: [1], [2]
Additional requirements for oil-fired equipment:
1. All oil-fired equipment shall have ease of operation of controls.
2. There shall be ease of cleaning of burner.
3. They shall pass the smoke test according to I.S.I requirements.
S e c . 7 . (b) E f f i c i e n c y r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r s o l i d f u e l i n - p l a c e s p a c e - h e a t i n g
e q u i p m e n t
If a new construction is installed with a wood-burning fire-place for space-heating,
there shall be at least another auxiliary heating device installed in the building which
uses another form of fuel for providing heating energy, unless the fireplace is an
airtight stove, or any other high efficiency wood-heater that meets the minimum
efficiency requirement of 40%, as given in table dIB. Other allowable forms of wood-
burning space-heating equipment that may be installed in conjuction with another
153
auxiliary heating device are included in table dIB. These figures also apply to coal-
burning equipment.
TABLE dIB - Efficiency Characteristics Of Solid-Fuel Space-Heating Equipment
Tvne of Solid Fuel Scace Heater Min. Efficiency Tvne Of Air-Intake Auxiliary Heating
High Efficiency fireplaces 25% Inside Required
Box stoves 20% Inside Required
Air-tight Stoves 40% Outside Not required
High Efficiency wood stoves 65% Inside/outside Not required
Source: [3]
F ro m ta b le d IB , s in c e th e m in im u m e ffic ie n c y r e q u ir e m e n t f o r s o lid - fu e l s p a c e -h e a te r s
is 20% , s im p le fir e - p la c e s (u su a lly h a v in g e ffic ie n c ie s o f 1 0 % o r le s s ) a r e p r o h ib ite d
b y th e c o d e .
Further details for-space heating equipment and appliances shall meet with the I.S.I.
standards and the Mechanical section of the National Building Code for India.
S e c . 8 . E f f i c i e n c y Measurement For S p a c e C o o l i n g Equipment
Space-cooling equipment and systems are not a critical energy drain for this region,
however, some basic efficiency requirements for space-cooling equipment are given
below in table dll.
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The efficiency for space-cooling equipment shall be rated in terms of the Energy
Efficiency Ratio (EER), which is measured by the relationship given below:
EER = capacity in Btu/hr
electrical input in watts
S e c . 9 . E f f i c i e n c y S t a n d a r d s For S p a c e - C o o l i n g Equipment
The minimum allowable EERs for different types of systems are given below in table
dll.
Table dll - Minimum Efficiency Ratio For Single Package And Split Systems
TvDe Of Svstem EER
Single package system 9.7
Split system 10
Source: [4]
Further details of space-conditioning equipment, i.e., fan efficiency, compressor
efficiency etc., shall follow the I.S.I. standards and the mechanical section of the
National Building Code.
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D6 . MANDATORY REQUIREMENTS FOR EXTERIOR DOORS, WINDOWS
AND FENESTRATION PRODUCTS (for category 1 and 2A)
Sec. 10. Requirements For Manufactured Doors and Windows
All manufactured doors and windows shall have minimum infiltration rates as shown
in the table below when measured at a pressure differential of 0 .1 inches of water
across the window, door or fenestration product. The rate is given in cfm per linear
foot of sash crack.
Windows Residential Doors Other Doors Other Doors
Type all swinging, sliding sliding, swinging single doors swinging double doors
Rate 0.45 0.45 0.45 1.0
Source: [5]
Sec. 11. Installation of Site Constructed Doors. Skylights and Windows
Site constructed doors, skylights and windows shall be caulked between the door,
skylight or window frame and the building, and all movable parts shall be weather-
stripped using methods discussed in sec. 1 2.
E x c e p tio n to S e c. 1 1 - T im b e r w in d o w s m a y b e e x e m p t fr o m th e a b o v e r e q u ir e m e n ts in
s e c . 11 o n ly in c lim a te z o n e s 1 a n d 2 i f p r o v e n to m e e t th e r e q u ir e m e n ts o f s a s h -c r a c k
a n d c le a r a n c e g iv e n in f i g . d 5 . T im b e r w in d o w s th a t f a i l to m e e t th is r e q u ir e m e n t
s h a ll b e r e tr o f it te d w ith g e n e r ic w e a th e r -s tr ip p in g a s d is c u s s e d in s e c tio n 1 2 .
156
Crack width = S - 1/16" Clearance = St - F ^ 3/64"
F ig . d 5 - A llo w a b le c r a c k -w id th a n d c le a r a n c e f o r tim b e r w in d o w s in c lim a te z o n e s 1
a n d 2 [6J.
S e c . 1 2 . Common Forms Of W e a t h e r - S t r i p p i n g
The generic types of weather-stripping given in table dIV may be incorporated into
site-installed doors, skylights and windows, according to their suitability of use.
Table dIV - Generic types of weather-stripping and their suitability of use
Type Material For
Window
Sash
For
Doorslip
For
Jambs
For
Sliding
Window
Flat metal strip Brass, bronze or aluminum - X X -
Tubular gasket Vinyl or rubber, foam
filled
X X X
Vinyl or rubber, hollow - X X X
Reinforced gasket Aluminum and vinyl - X X X
Reinforced felt Felt and aluminum X X X X
Non-reinforced felt X X X X
Rigid strip Aluminum and vinyl - X X -
Wood and foam - X X -
Foam strip Neoprene or rubber X X X X
Vinyl X X X X
Polyurethane X X X X
Source: [7]
157
2. 4. 6.
F ig . d 6 - S o m e e x a m p le s o f w e a th e r -s tr ip p in g th a t m a y b e u s e d a t d o o r o r w in d o w
ja m b s : - 1 ) R o lle d v in y l tu b e s s e c u r e d b y m e ta l fla n g e ; 2 ) F o a m s e c u r e d b y m e ta l
fla n g e ; 3 ) F o a m a p p lie d to fr a m e o r ja m b ; 4 ) S p r in g m e ta l a p p lie d to ja m b ; 5 ) R o lle d
v in y l tu b e s e c u r e d b y m e ta l fla n g e a p p lie d to d o o r o r w in d o w ; 6 ) In te r lo c k in g m e ta l
c h a n n e ls in s ta lle d o n b o th fr a m e a n d d o o r o r w in d o w [ 8 ] .
F ig . d 6 -A n e x a m p le o f a w e a th e r -s tr ip p in g te c h n iq u e th a t m a y b e u s e d w ith s lid in g
s a s h [9 ].
Pile c h a n n e l
w e a th e r-s trip
Sliding s a s h
W in d o w f r a m e
Rigid vinyl in sert
158
F ig . d 7 - S o m e e x a m p le s o f w e a th e r -s tr ip p in g th a t m a y b e u s e d a t th e d o o r -s lip :- 1 )
S w e e p s a tta c h e d to th e d o o r ; 2 ) In te r lo c k in g m e ta l th r e s h o ld ; 3 ) D o o r s h o e (ru b b e r
p a d ) a tta c h e d to d o o r ; 4 ) V in y l g a s k e t th r e s h o ld [8J.
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D7. MANDATORY REQUIREMENTS FOR JOINTS AND OTHER OPENINGS
(for category 1 and 2 A)
Sec. 13. Requirements For Weather-Stripping Of Different Construction Types
Due to the monolithic nature of concrete or brick construction with R.C.C. floors,
such constructions may be exempt from weather-stripping if all the internal walls are
plastered, as described in section 16 in chapter D9 for requirements for Grade A and
Grade B construction. In such cases, only the doors, windows and other fenestration
shall be taken into account for weather-stripping.
The conventional form of construction in the Central Himalaya, which uses wood
beams in combination with stone masonry, has to be treated carefully for air
tightness. The details used for weather-stripping may be the same as the details used
in sealing the joints between sill-plate and foundation wall for wood-frame
construction.
Joints and other openings in the building envelope that are potential sources of air
leakage into the building, as listed below, shall be caulked, gasketed, weather-
stripped, or otherwise sealed to limit infiltration and exfiltration.
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Sec. 13. (a) Building Components To Be Sealed
1. Crack between sill-plate and foundation in wood-frame buildings, and between
wood-beams and masonry in conventional Central Himalayan building.
2. Crack between interior wall and floor board, in wood-frame buildings. This may
be eliminated if a continuous vapor barrier is installed below the floor boards and
inside wall panels.
3. Cracks above and below sills.
4. Holes for electrical outlets and electrical wires.
5. Plumbing penetrations.
6 . Drop ceilings that are a component of the building envelope, including those
between conditioned and unconditioned space that create a vented attic space.
7. Trap door to attic space.
Fireplaces shall be made resistant to air-leakage by the installation of either chimney
caps, dampers or glass doors which have weather-stripping at the sash crack.
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D 8 . MANDATORY REQUIREMENTS FOR INSULATION FOR ALL
OCCUPANCY TYPES ( f o r c a t e g o r y 1 and 2 A )
S e c , 1 4 , Mandatory R e q u i r e m e n t s For I n s u l a t i o n For B u i l d i n g Components
S e c . 1 4 . ( a ) Minimum r e q u i r e m e n t f o r w a l l s
The requirements given in tables dX through table dXVI for alternative component
packages shall be met with if using the prescriptive method for compliance. The re
values specified are the installed thermal resistances for the entire wall assembly, and
includes the effects of framing members in frame-construction (wood or steel).
If using the performance approach for compliance, the following are the minimum
required installed thermal resistance levels for different wall types separating
conditioned space from unconditioned space.
1. Lightweight wall* - R13
2. “Light Mass” walls** - R3.5
* If the wall weight does not exceed 60 psf and the heat capacity of the wall assembly does not
exceed 2.5 Btu/°F-ft2.
** If the wall weight does not exceed 60 psf and the heat capacity of die wall assembly is atleast
2.5 Btu/F°-ft2.
S e c . 1 4 . ( b ) Minimum r e q u i r e m e n t f o r c e i l i n g s
The requirement given in tables dX through table dXVI for alternative component
packages shall be met with, if using the prescriptive method for compliance. The R
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values specified are the minimum installed thermal resistance of false ceilings which
separate conditioned space from unconditioned, inaccessible attic space as well as
ceilings which separate conditioned space from unconditioned but accessible attic
space and take into account the effect of framing members.
For the performance method of compliance, the minimum installed thermal resistance
requirement for ceilings is R13, and includes the effect of framing members.
S e c . 1 4 . ( c ) Minimum r e q u i r e m e n t f o r r o o f s
Insulation requirement for roofs is only specified in the case of a roof which protects
conditioned space from the outside. For lightweight roofs, the same R-value as the
ceiling requirement given in table dX through table dXVI shall be followed, if using
the prescriptive method of compliance.
For the performance method of compliance, the minimum insulation requirement is as
follows:
1. Lightweight roof* - R19
2. “Light Mass” roofs** - R8
3. “Heavy” roofs*** - R5
* If the roof weight does not exceed 60 psf and the heat capacity of the roof assembly does not
exceed 2.5 Btu/°F-ft2.
** If the roof weight does not exceed 60 psf and the heat capacity of the roof assembly is atleast 2.5
Btu/F°-ft2.
***If roof weight exceeds 60 psf.
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Sec. 14. (d) Minimum requirement for raised floors
The installed thermal resistance for raised floor shall be met with as specified in table
dX through table dXVI, if using the prescriptive method for compliance. The R-value
takes into account the effect of framing members.
If using the performance method of compliance, the minimum installed thermal
resitance of the raised floor construction shall be as follows:
1. Raised concrete floor over unconditioned space - R8
2. All other raised floors over conditioned space - R13
Sec. 15. Thermal Properties Of Materials
Sec. 15. (a) Given below in table dV are some common forms of construction used in
the region with their typical U-values and suggestions on where insulation can be
incorporated in the assembly.
TABLE dV - U-Values Of Commonly Practiced Construction Methods
T vdc Of Construction U-Value Insulation Incorooratine Method
Walls
Brick, solid, 9” thk., without or with
plaster
0.47/0.43 3/4” insulative plaster on the inside with
vermiculite, perlite or acoustical plasters.
Rigid board insulation on battens on the
inside.
Lightweight concrete blocks on the inside
skin.
Furring and plaster board.
Brick with air cavity in between 0.3 Loose-fill or rigid insulation in cavity
Concrete cast in place 0.76 / 0.68 Same as for solid brick.
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Tvoe Of Construction U-Value Insulation Incorooratine Method
Hollow concrete blocks, heavywt, 8”
thk., without/with plaster
0.5 3 /0 .4 9 Cores filled with loose-fill insulation or
lightweight aggregate.
Ferrocement panels on steel / wood
frame
1.4 Rigid insulation on the inside.
Loose-fill insulation, with plywood or
equivalent panels on the inside.
Double skin ferrocement wall with loose-
fill or rigid insulation in between.
Roof and ceiline assemblies
Corrugated galvanized iron (CGI)
sheets on timber or steel purlins,
fiberboard false ceiling under rafters
0.3 Add aluminum foil over fiberboard, fixed
under rafters.
Additional rigid or loose-fill insulation
above fiberboard false ceiling.
Add thatch or other insulative material on
roof surface.
Corrugated aluminum sheets on
timber or steel purlins with
fiberboard false ceiling
0.24 Same as for CGI roofing.
Clay tile or slate tile on battens on
rafters with fiberboard false ceiling
0.2 Same as for CGI roofing.
Reinforced concrete slab, 4” thk.,
with 1.5 to 2.5” screed, 3 layers of
bituminous felt
0.6 Use lightweight concrete slab.
Use lightweight screed in lieu of normal
screed.
Rigid or loose-fill insulation on the screed.
Floors
Concrete on ground or hardcore fill 0.2 Rigid or loosefill insulation along edge,
installed to at least 18” below grade.
Timber board on joists, underfloor
space ventilated
0.4 Rigid insulation or insulative blankets
under boarding, (see fig._ for installation
of insulative blankets).
Source: [10]
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Sec. 15. (b) Below in table dVI are given some recognized and commonly used forms
of insulation. Actual use of these materials would depend on local availabilty and
certification from the Indian Standards Institute.
TABLE dVI - Insulation Materials And Their Properties
Material or Tvoe Form Conductance in Btu - Ft/ Hr-ft2-°F
Airspace 0.015
Aluminium Foil foil
Cork
natural sheet, slab 0.026
regranulalted and baked sheet, slab 0.023
Eel Grass blanket 0.025
Glass Wool loose fill, blanket 0.025
Hardboard - medium density rigid board 0.054
Mineral aggregate rigid board 0.024
Mineral Fibre blankets, rigid board, loose-fill 0.025
Particle Board
low density rigid board 0.045
medium density rigid board 0.078
Perlite, vermiculite loose fill 0.03
Polysterene Foam
expanded rigid board, molded 0.02
extruded rigid board, extruded 0.017
Polyurethane rigid board and field applied 0.013
Polyisocyanurate rigid board and field applied 0.011
Strawboard rigid board 0.055
Urea Formaldehyde foam 0.02
WoodWool
light rigid board 0.05
dense rigid board 0.07
Wood Chipboard rigid board 0.065
Source: [11], [12], [13]
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D9. MANDATORY FEATURES OF GRADE A AND GRADE B
CONSTRUCTION
Preface
The requirements for building envelope components have been divided in the code into
two categories with respect to the type of construction of the building. This kind of
division has been done considering that the degree of air-tightness achieved in a
building can vary considerably depending on workmanship and construction type, and
the code compensates for a poorer construction by specifying higher thermal resistance
values.
The first category, called grade A construction, encompasses construction types that
involve very few joints in the envelope, and may also include construction types that
have a number of exterior joints, but employ careful workmanship in sealing of those
joints.
Sec. 16. Features Of Grade A Construction
Sec. 16(a) through sec. 16(e) list the construction types or practices that may be
included in Grade A construction.
Sec. 16. (a) Conventional modem construction that employs:
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1. Any kind of masonry work, provided that at least one side is plastered.
2. R.C.C. slab roof that rests on concrete beams.
3. Concrete slab-on-grade floor with floor finish, including skirting.
Steel-frame buildings, with the same wall, floor and roofing material as described
above, may also be included in this category.
Sec, 16. (b) Conventional rural construction consisting of stone masonry with wood
framing members may be included in this category only if a compressible fibrous pad
is inserted at every interface between stone and wood, and some method of anchoring
the wood beams to the masonry wall is employed. Joints between roof-slab and wood
beams shall be treated in the same manner.
Sec. 16. (c) Any form of wood-frame construction may be allowed in this category if
wall, floor and ceiling assemblies are double-skinned (i.e. with an outer sheathing and
an inner sheathing covering the framework) and there is a continuous vapor barrier
along the inner sheathing that covers all internal construction cracks. All susceptible
exterior joints, as listed in sec. 13(a) in chapter D8 for mandatory requirements for
exterior joints, shall be sealed, and holes plugged with putty or equivalent.
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Sec. 16. (d) Timber boarding for walls, roofing or flooring may be included if
properly jointed between adjacent boards and with at least another layer above or
below it of cementitious material, water-proofing material, or any other kind of
continuous surface finish (with the exception of paint) that has no joints or a limited
number of sealed joints.
Sec. 16. (e) Doors, windows, skylights and fenestration products shall comply with
sec. 10 and sec. 11 of chapter D6 for mandatory requirements for doors, windows,
skylights and fenestration products.
Sec. 17. Features Of Grade B Construction
Sec. 17(a) through sec. 17(e) give the construction types or practices included in
Grade B construction.
Sec. 17. (a) Masonry work that is not plastered on either side.
Sec. 17. (b) Conventional rural construction using stone masonry with wood framing
members, if all the interior surfaces are plastered, and wood beams are anchored to the
masonry work using hold-fasts or other such connectors.
169
Sec. 17. (c) All wood-frame constructions, single-skinned or double-skinned, are
included in this category if there is no continuous vapor barrier within the envelope.
Requirements for sealing of external joints shall be fulfilled, according to sec. 13 in
chapter D7 for mandatory requirements for exterior joints.
Sec. 17. (d) Doors, windows, skylights and fenestration products shall comply with
sec. 10 and sec. 11 of chapter D6 for mandatory requirements for doors, windows,
skylights and fenestration products.
Sec. 17. (e) Connections between the door, window or skylight frame and the
building, if not caulked, shall at least be filled with cementitious material.
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DIO. PERFORMANCE AND PRESCRIPTIVE METHOD OF COMPLIANCE
Preface
A building may comply with the code by following on of the two methods described
in section 18 or section 19 below.
Sec. 18. Prescriptive Method Of Compliance
Sec 18. (a) For Category 1 (all occupancies) and Category 2a (non-residential
occupancies)
A proposed building of one of these occupancy types complies with the code if it
meets with the requirements of
1. Section 20, chapter D ll for prescriptive requirements for lighting,
2. Section 23, chapter D12 for prescritive requirements for space-conditioning
equipment
3. Section 25, chapter D13 for prescriptive requirements for building envelope.
Sec. 18. (b) For Category 2a (residential occupancies)
A proposed building of this occupancy type complies with the code if it meets with
the requirements of
1. Section 20, chapter D ll for prescriptive requirements for lighting and
2. Section 25,chapter D13 for prescriptive requirements for the building envelope.
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S e c . 1 9 . P e r f o r m a n c e Method Of C o m p l i a n c e
S e c . 1 9 . ( a ) For C a t e g o r y 1 ( n o n - r e s i d e n t i a l o c c u p a n c i e s )
A proposed building of this occupancy type complies with the code if it can
demonstrate that it uses equal or less source energy than the standard building, where
the standard building is similar to the proposed building in its architectural design, but
meets the requirements of
1. Section 20, chapter D ll for prescriptive requirements for lighting,
2. Section 23, chapter D 12 for prescritive requirements for space-conditioning
equipment,
3. Section 25, chapter D13 for prescriptive requirements for building envelope.
For the calculation of energy used in space-heating, it shall be assumed that the
standard building is installed with fluid-driven space-heating equipment as described
in subsection 7(a) in chapter D5 for mandatory features for space-conditioning
equipment.
S e c . 1 9 . ( b ) F or C a t e g o r y 1 ( r e s i d e n t i a l o c c u p a n c i e s )
A proposed building of this occupancy type complies with the code if
1. It can demonstrate that the total heat loss through the building envelope of the
proposed building is less than or equal to the total heat loss of the standard
building, where the standard building is similar to the proposed buidling in its
172
architectural design, but meets the requirements of section 25, chapter D13 for
prescriptive requirements for building envelope,
2. It meets with the requirements in subsection 23(c), chapter D 12 for prescriptive
requirements for space-conditioning equipment,
3. It meets with the requirements in section 22, chapter D ll for prescriptive
requirements for lighting.
The total heat loss through the building envelope shall be calculated using the method
described in subsection 25(a), chapter D13.
S e c . 1 9 . ( c ) For C a t e g o r y 2 a ( n o n - r e s i d e n t i a l o c c u p a n c i e s )
A proposed building of this occupancy type complies with the code if it can
demonstrate that it uses equal or less source energy than the standard building, where
the standard building is similar to the proposed buidling in its architectural design, but
meets the requirements of
1. Section 20, chapter D ll for prescriptive requirements for lighting, and
2. Section 25, chapter D13 for prescriptive requirements for building envelope.
S e c . 1 9 . ( d ) For C a t e g o r y 2 a ( r e s i d e n t i a l o c c u p a n c i e s )
A proposed building of this occupancy type complies with the code if
173
1. It can demonstrate that the total heat loss through the building envelope of the
proposed building is less than or equal to the total heat loss of the standard
building, where the standard building is similar to the proposed buidling in its
architectural design, but meets the requirements of section 25, chapter D13 for
prescriptive requirements for building envelope,
2. It meets with the requirements in section 22, chapter D ll for prescriptive
requirements for lighting.
The total heat loss through the building envelope shall be calculated using the method
described in subsection 25(a), chapter D13.
174
D ll. PRESCRIPTIVE REQUIREMENTS FOR LIGHTING FOR ALL
OCCUPANCY TYPES (for category 1 and 2A)
Preface
This chapter of the code summarizes the basic requirements for energy efficiency in
lighting design. For further details on the issues of lighting efficiency in the Indian
context, please refer to USC MBS thesis “A Proposal For The Indian National
Lighting Code” by Kanchan Puri, 1994. For details on lighting fixture requirements,
please refer to USC MBS thesis “A Proposal For The Indian National Lighting Code”
by Kanchan Puri, 1994.
Sec. 20. Compliance Requirements
A building complies with this chapter of the energy code if all control requirements
comply with sec. 3(a) through sec. 3(d) in chapter D3 of lighting control requirements
and if the actual lighting power density of the building is less than or equal to the
allowed lighting power density, depending on the occupancy type. The actual lighting
power density of the building is the total watts of all planned, permanent lighting
systems, including track lighting, lighting in-built with modular or movable furniture,
and internally illuminated cases for task or display purposes.
E x c e p tio n s to th e c a lc u la tio n o f th e lig h tin g p o w e r d e n s ity o f th e b u ild in g :
1 . In m e d ic a l b u ild in g s, e x a m in a tio n a n d s u r g ic a l lig h ts, lo w -le v e l n ig h t lig h ts .
175
2 . I n r e s ta u r a n ts, lig h tin g f o r fo o d -w a r m in g o r fo o d -p r e p a r a tio n .
3 . L ig h tin g f o r e x it s ig n s w ith a n e ffic a c y o f a t le a s t 4 0 lu m e n s /w a tt.
4 . I n te r io r lig h tin g in r e fr ig e r a te d c a s e s .
5 . I n h o te ls, lig h tin g in g u e s t ro o m s.
6 . In r e s id e n tia l b u ild in g s, lig h tin g in th e liv in g q u a r te r s .
7. L ig h tin g f o r e x h ib itio n s o r liv e p e r fo r m a n c e s, i f lig h tin g is in a d d itio n to a g e n e r a l
lig h tin g s y s te m . T h is a ls o in c lu d e s lig h tin g f o r s p e c ia l e ffe c ts in d a n c e flo o r s .
S e c . 2 1 . C a l c u l a t i o n Of A l l o w e d L i g h t i n g Power D e n s i t y
The allowed lighting power density can be calculated by following one of the two
methods described below in section 21(a) and section 21(b).
S e c . 2 1 . ( a ) The C o m p l e t e B u i l d i n g Method
To be used only on projects involving the entire building. Hotels and residential
buildings shall not use this method. Allowable LPDs are given below for various
building types in table dVII.
S e c . 2 1 . ( b ) Area C a t e g o r y Method
The total allowable lighting power density of the building is the sum of the allowable
lighting power densities for all areas in the building, as given in table dVIII. Floor
space occupied by interior partitions shall not be included in the area.
176
TABLE dVII - Allowable L. P. D.s For Buildings (Complete Building Method)
Tvoe Of Use Allowed Lighting Power
Densitv
General industrial work buildings 1.2
Schools, grocery, retail and wholesale stores 1.8
Storage 0.8
Medical clinics, offices, theaters, restaurants 1.5
Religious buildings, auditoria, convention centers 2.0
Source: [14]
TABLE dVIII - Allowable L. P. D.s For Different Areas (Area Category Method!
Tvoe Of Use Watts/sa. ft.
Auditorium 1.8*
Medical and clinical care 1.8
Classrooms 2.0
Office, convention, conference, meeting 1.6
Corridors, restrooms, service areas 0.8
Dining 1.2
Retail 2.2
Exhibition 2.3
Industrial 1.3
Grocery 2.0
Storage 0.6
Kitchen 2.2
Hotel lobbies 2.3*
Main entry lobbies 1.6*
Arcades, atria 1.2*
Precision industrial 2.0
Religious 2.0*
Movie theaters 1.0
* The smaller of the following values may be added to the allowed lighting power for chandeliers and
sconces, if they are circuited on separate switches from other general lighting:
a. 20 watts/cubic ft. x volume of the chandelier or sconce.
b. 1 watt/ft. sq. x area of space the chandelier or sconce is in.
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Sec. 22. Requirements for Hotel Guest Rooms and Residential Quarters
Sec. 22. (a) Luminaires for general lighting in kitchens shall have lamps with an
efficacy of not less than 40 lumens/watt. A luminaire which is the only light source
will be considered general lighting.
Sec. 22. (b) General lighting shall be controlled by the most accessible switches at the
entrance of a space.
Sec. 22. (c) W.C.s shall have at least one luminaire with lamps having an efficacy of
not less than 40 lumens/watt. If there is more than one luminaire in the room, the
high-efficacy luminaire shall be switched at the entrance.
Sec. 22. (d) Luminaires installed to meet above requirements shall be on separate
switches from additional incandescent lighting.
Sec. 22. (e) The total L.P.D. of all installed permanent lighting in the living quarters
shall not exceed 1.5w/ft2.
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D12. PRESCRIPTIVE REQUIRMENTS FOR SPACE CONDITIONING
EQUIPMENT FOR ALL OCCUPANCY TYPES (for category 1 Areas)
Sec. 23. Compliance Requirements
A building complies with this section of the code if all space conditioning systems
and equipment meet the mandatory requirements listed in sec. 6 . through sec. 9. in
chapter D5 for mandatory requirements of space-conditioning equipment.
Furthermore, the following requirements specified in section 23(a) through section
23(c) and section 24 shall be met with.
Sec. 23. (a) Controls for space-conditioning equipment shall be installed as per the
requirements specified in sec. 4. through sec. 5. in chapter D4. for mandatory
requirements for controls of space conditioning equipment.
Sec. 23. (b) Residential buildings must meet with the mandatory requirements for
space-conditioning equipment, if any in-place heating or cooling equipment is
installed in the building. Thermal loads of the building shall be correlated with the
sizing of equipment, which shall be sized according to requirements given in sec. 24.
Sec. 23. (c) All equipment included in the design of space-conditioning systems in
non-residential buildings shall meet the mandatory requirements for space-
179
conditioning equipment. Space-conditoning systems shall be designed to meet the
thermal load of the building, for comfort heating and comfort cooling, and shall be
sized according to the requirements given below in the section 27(b) for equipment
sizing.
Sec. 24. Equipment Sizing
Subsections 24(a) and 24(b) give the design conditions to be taken for calculations
related to equipment sizing for space-heating and space-cooling.
Sec. 24. (a) Indoor design conditions
For heating purposes, the design indoor temperature shall be taken as 6 8 °F db ( 20°C
db).
For cooling purposes, the design temperature shall be taken as 80° F db, 67° F wb
(26.67° C, 19.5° C wb).
Sec. 24. (B) Outdoor Design Conditions
The design external temperature will be taken as per climatic data published by the
Indian Weather Bureau, however, design data for a few stations are given below in
table dIX. If the data published here is in conflict with the data published by the
180
Indian Weather Bureau, the latter shall take precedence for calculations involving
equipment sizing.
TABLE dIX - Outdoor Design Dav Data For Some Himalayan Towns.
Name of Station Climate Zone Design cooling
outdoor T. db
Design cooling
outdoor T. wb
Design heating
outdoor T
Dehradun 1 40°C (104°F) 32.8°C (91°F) 2°C (36°F)
Pokhara 2 35°C (95°F) 30.5°C (87°F) 2°C (36°F)
Kathmandu 3 32°C (90°F) 28.3°C (83°F) -2°C (28°F)
Shillong 3 27°C (80.5°F) 25° C (77°F) 0°C (32°F)
Dalhousie 4 30°C (86°F) 24.4°C (76°F) -2°C (28°F)
Daijeeling 5 24°C (75°F) 20.5°C (69°F) 0°C (32°F)
Simla 6 27°C (80.5°F) 21.1°C (70°F) -2°C (28°F)
Mukteswar 6 27°C (80.5°F) 21.1°C (70°F) -2°C (28°F)
Mussourie 6 30°C (86°F) 24.8°C (75°F) -2°C (28°F)
Srinagar 7 34°C (93°F) 31.1°C (88°F) -7°C (28°F)
Leh 8 30°C (86°F) 22.7°C (73°F) -20°C (-4°F)
Sources: [15], [16] and [17]
181
D13. PRESCRIPTIVE REQUIREMENTS FOR BUILDING ENVELOPE FOR
ALL OCCUPANCY TYPES (for category 1 and 2A)
Sec. 25. Compliance Requirements
The prescriptive requirements for the building envelope for different climate zones are
specified in tables dX through dXVI. A building complies with this section of the
code if it follows the specified requirements for all the building components, or if the
total heat loss through the building envelope is equal to or less than that of a similar
building using the specified building envelope values.
Sec. 25. (a) The total heat loss of the building envelope shall be calculated using the
following relationship:
HL = (Aw xUw ) + (AfxUf) + (AjXU,.) + (Ag xUg ) + (As xUs)
where HL= total heat loss of building envelope
A *, = area of wall
Uw = U-value of wall assembly
Af = area of raised floor
Uf = U-value of raised floor
A, = area of ceiling or roof, whichever is applicable {see sec. 14(c)}
Ur = U-value of cieling or roof, whichever is applicable.
Ag = area of glazing
Ug = U-value of glazing
A, = area of slab-floor perimeter, if using slab-on-grade construction.
Ug = U-value of slab-floor perimter.
Sec. 25. (b) All components of the building envelope shall meet with the minimum
requirements specified in the particular chapter for that component, for example:
182
All constructions shall meet either the requirements of sec. 16 or sec. 17 of
chapter D9 for the features of Grade A and B constructions.
All installed insulation shall meet the requirements of section 14 and section 15 of
chapter D8 for requirements for insulation.
All installed glazings shall meet the requirements of section 27 through section 29
of chapter D14 for requiremnts for glazing.
All installed thermal shutters shall meet the requirements of section 27 and section
28 of chapter D15 for requirements for thermal shutters.
Table dX - ALTERNATIVE COMPONENT PACKAGE FOR CLIMATE ZONE 1
COMPONENT I II
Buildine Envelope for Grade A:
Ceiling R19 R30
W all1 R13 R13
“Heavy Walls” (R1.7) R1.4)
“Light Mass” Walls [R4.0J [R3.5]
Slab floor perimeter NR R7
Raised floor insulation R13 R13
High mass roof 2 R2 R2.5
Building Envelooe for Grade B:
Ceiling R30 R38
W all1 R24 R24
“Heavy Walls” (R3.5) (R2.5)
“Light Mass” Walls [R7.5] [R6.5]
Slab floor perimeter NR R7
Raised floor insulation R24 R24
High mass roof 2 R2 R2.5
Glazing
Glass type overall6 Single [1.14] Single [1.14]
North glass type Single Double
West glass type Single Single
East glass type Single Single
South glass type Single Sinle
Max. total area5 NR 14%
Max. area on N orientation 2.4% W. A. NR
Max area on W orientation 3.6% W.A. NR
Max. area on E orientation 3.6% W. A. NR
Min. area on S prientation 6.4% W.A. NR
Thermal Shutters 9 NR NR
Shading Angle 7
South 70°V 70°V
East NR NR
West 70°V and 75°H 70°V and 75°H
North 70°H 70°H
Penetration Angle 7
South 20°V 20°V
East NR NR
West 20C V and -15°H 20°V and -15°H
North 20°H 20°H
Thermal Mass3 REQ NR
Solar access from 11a.m. to 1p.m. Dec.218
184
Table dXI - ALTERNATIVE COMPONENT PACKAGE FOR CLIMATE ZONE 2
COMPONENT I II
Building Envelooe for Grade A:
Ceiling R30 R30
W all1 R13 R19
“Heavy Walls” (R2.4) (R2.3)
“Light Mass” Walls [R4.5J [R4.5]
Slab floor perimeter R7 R7
Raised floor insulation R13 R19
High mass roof 2 R3.8 R3.8
Building Envelooe for Grade B:
Ceiling R38 R38
W all1 R24 R30
“Heavy Walls” (R4.0) (R4.0)
“Light Mass” Walls [R7.0] [R7.0]
Slab floor perimeter R7 R7
Raised floor insulation R24 R30
High mass roof 2 R3.8 R3.8
Glazing
Glass type overall6 Single [0.65] Single [0.65]
North glass type Double Double
West glass type Single Single
East glass type Single Double
South glass type Single Single
Max. total area5 NR 16%
Max. area on N orientations 2.4% W.A. 2.4% W.A.
Max. area on W orientations 3.6% W.A. NR
Max. area on E orientation 3.6% W.A. NR
Min. area on S orientation 6.4% W.A. NR
Thermal Shutters 9 R0.7 R0.7
Shading Angle NR NR
Penetration Angle NA NA
Thermal Mass3 REQ NR
Solar access from 11 a.m. to 1 p.m., Dec.218
185
Table dXII - ALTERNATIVE COMPONENT PACKAGE FOR CLIMATE ZONE 3
COMPONENT I II
Building Envelope for Grade A:
Ceiling R30 R30
W all1 R13 R19
“Heavy Walls” (R4.5) (R3.5)
“Light Mass” Walls [R5.0] [R5.0]
Slab floor perimeter R7 R7
Raised floor insulation R13 R19
High mass roof 2 R5.5 R5.5
Building Envelope for Grade B:
Ceiling R38 R38
W all1 R24 R30
“Heavy Walls” (R7.0) (R5.5)
“Light Mass” Walls [R8.0] [R8.0]
Slab floor perimeter R7 R7
Raised floor insulation R24 R30
High mass roof 2 R5.5 R5.5
Glazine
Glass type overall6 Single [0.4] Single [0.4]
North glass type Double Double
West glass type Single Single
East glass type Single Double
South glass type Single Single
Max. total area5 NR 16%
Max. area on N orientations 2.4% W.A. 2.4% W.A.
Max. area on W orientations 4.8% W.A. NR
Max. area on E orientation 2.4% W.A. NR
Min. area on S orientation 6.4% W.A. NR
Thermal Shutters 9 R1.0 R1.0
Shading Angle NR NR
Penetration Angle NA NA
Thermal Mass 3 REQ NR
Solar access from 10 a.m. to 2 p.m., Dec.218
186
Table dXIII - ALTERNATIVE COMPONENT PACKAGE FOR CLIMATE ZONE 4
COMPONENT I II
Building Envelooe for Grade A:
Ceiling R30 R30
W all1 R19 R19
“Heavy Walls” NA NA
“Light Mass” Walls [R5.0] [R5.0]
Slab floor perimeter R7 R7
Raised floor insulation R19 R19
High mass roof 2 NA NA
Building Envelooe for Grade B:
Ceiling R48 R48
W all1 R38 R38
“Heavy Walls” NA NA
“Light Mass” Walls [R10.0] [R10.0]
Slab floor perimeter R7 R7
Raised floor insulation R32 R32
High mass roof 2 NA NA
Glazing
Glass type overall6 Double [0.4] Double [0.4]
North glass type Double pane Double pane
West glass type Single pane Single pane
East glass type Double pane Double pane
South glass type Single pane Single pane
Max. total area5 16% 16%
Max. area on N orientation 2.4% W.A. 2.4% W.A.
Max. area on W orientation NR NR
Max. area on E orientation NR NR
Min. area on S orientation NR NR
Thermal Shutters 9 R1.0 R1.0
Shading Angle NR NR
Penetration Angle NA NA
Thermal Mass3 NR NR
Solar access from 10 a.m. to 3 p.m., Dec.21 8
187
Table dXIV - ALTERNATIVE COMPONENT PACKAGE FOR CLIMATE ZONE 5
COMPONENT I II
Building Envelope for Grade A:
Ceiling R30 R30
W all1 R13 R19
“Heavy Walls” (R4.5) (R3.5)
“Light Mass” Walls [R5.0] [R5.0]
Slab floor perimeter R7 R7
Raised floor insulation R13 R19
High mass roof 2 R5.5 R5.5
Buildine Envelooe for Grade B:
Ceiling R48 R48
W all1 R30 R38
“Heavy Walls” (R10.0) (R7.0)
“Light Mass” Walls [R12.0] [R10.0]
Slab floor perimeter R7 R7
Raised floor insulation R30 R38
High mass roof 2 R5.5 R5.5
Glazing
Glass type overall6 Single Double [0.4]
North glass type Double Double pane
West glass type Single Single pane
East glass type Double Double pane
South glass type Single Single pane
Max. total area 5 NR 16%
Max. area on N orientation 2.4 % W.A 2.4% W.A.
Max. area on W orientation 4.8% W.A. NR
Max. area on E orientation 2.4%% W.A. NR
Min. area on S orientation 6.4% W.A. NR
Thermal Shutters 9 R1.5 R1.0
Shading Angle NR NR
Penetration Angle NA NA
Thermal Mass3 REQ NR
Solar access from 10 a.m. to 3 p.m., Dec.218
188
Table dXV - ALTERNATIVE COMPONENT PACKAGE FOR CLIMATE ZONE 6
COMPONENT I H
Building Envelope for Grade A:
Ceiling R30 R30
W all1 R19 R19
“Heavy Walls” (R8.5) (R5.0)
“Light Mass” Walls [R8.5] [R6.0]
Slab floor perimeter R7 R7
Raised floor insulation R19 R19
High mass roof 2 R8 R8
Building Envelooe for Grade B:
Ceiling R48 R48
W all1 R38 R38
“Heavy Walls” (R17.0) (R10.0)
“Light Mass” Walls [R17.0] [R12.0]
Slab floor perimeter R7 R7
Raised floor insulation R38 R38
High mass roof 2 R8 R8
Glazing
Glass type overall6 Double pane [0.34] Double pane [0.34]
North glass type Double pane Double pane
West glass type Single pane Double pane
East glass type Double pane Double pane
South glass type Single pane Single pane
Max. total area5 NR 14%
Max. area on N orientation 2.4% W.A 2.4% W.A.
Max. area on W orientation 3.6% W.A. NR
Max. area on E orientation 3.6% W.A. NR
Min. area on S orientation 6.4% W.A. NR
Thermal Shutters 9 R1.5 R1.5
Shading Angle NR NR
Penetration Angle NA NA
Thermal Mass3 REQ NR
Solar access from 9 a.m. to 3 p.m., Dec.218
189
Table dXVI - ALTERNATIVE COMPONENT PACKAGE FOR CLIMATE ZONE 8
COMPONENT I II
Buildine Envelope for Grade A:
Ceiling R30 R38
W all1 R19 R24
“Heavy Walls” (R9.5) (R7.0)
“Light Mass” Walls [R9.5] [R7.5]
Slab floor perimeter R7 R7
Raised floor insulation R19 R30
High mass roof 2 R ll R ll
Building Envelone for Grade B:
Ceiling R48 R48
W all1 R38 R48
“Heavy Walls” (R19)
(R15)
“Light Mass” Walls [R19]
[R15]
Slab floor perimeter R7 R7
Raised floor insulation R38 R38
High mass roof 2 R ll R ll
Glazing
Glass type overall6 Double pane [0.28] Double pane [0.28]
North glass type Double pane Double pane
West glass type Double pane Double pane
East glass type Double pane Double pane
South glass type Single pane Single pane
Max. total area5 NR 14%
Max. area on N orientation 2.4% W.A. NR
Max. area on W orientation 3.6% W.A. NR
Max. area on E orientation 3.6% W.A. NR
Min. area on S orientation 6.4% W.A. NR
Thermal Shutters 9 R2 R2
Shading Angle NR NR
Penetration Angle NA NA
Thermal Mass3 REQ NR
Source: [19], [20]
Solar access: from 2 hours after sunrise to 1 hour before sunset Dec. 2 1 s
190
Notes on Alternative Component Tables:
1. The value in parenthesis is the minimum R-value for the entire wall assembly if
the wall weight exceeds 60 pounds per square foot. The value in brackets is the
minimum R-value for the entire assembly if the heat capacity of the wall meets or
exceeds the result of multiplying the bracketed value by 0.65. The exterior wall
used to meet the R-value in parenthesis cannot be used to meet the interior
thermal mass requirement.
2. The requirement for high mass roofs is applicable to roof assemblies that exceed
60 psf, and which directly separateare conditioned space from the outside.
3. If the package requires interior thermal mass, it shall be met with in the manner
shown in table dXVII.
TABLE dXVII - Interior Heat Capacities
PACKAGE MINIMUM INTERIOR MASS CAPACITY
I
n
35.9 x South glazing area
Not Required
Source: [19]
The interior mass capacity of the building shall be calculated using the relationship:
IMC = (AlxUIMCl)+(A2xUIMC2)......................-f(AnxUIMCn)
where An = area of mass material n.
UIMCn= unit interior mass capacity of material n.
4. The R-values specified are for the entire wall, ceiling or floor assembly,
including framing members.
191
5. Maximum glazing areas will be measured as a percentage of the entire wall area
of the building, as % W.A.
6 . For details on complying with requirements of glass types, see section 27 through
section 29 of chapter D14 of mandatory requirements for glazing. The value in
parenthesis is the maximum U-value for the entire window installation along with
the thermal shutter. The individual glass types specified for each orientation are
applicable only in the case of larger buildings, wherein each room has windows on
only one wall. In such cases, the glazing area shall be a minimum of 10% of the
floor area of the room, as required by national building standards.
7. If shading and penetration angles are required for fenestrations in the alternative
component package, they will be designed as explained in section 26 in chapter
D14 for manadatory requirements for glazings.
8 . The requirement for solar access is a recommendation that can be incorporated in
the planning code of the region.
9. Requirement for thermal shutters shall be met according to sections 30 through 32
of chapter D15 for requirements for thermal shutters.
192
D14. MANDATORY REQUIREMENTS FOR GLAZING AS SPECIFIED IN
THE ALTERNATIVE COMPONENT PACKAGES
Sec.. 26. Explanation For Shading And Penetration Angles
1
For vertical angles:-
x = shading angle
y = penetration angle
VC
For horizontal angles: -
x, -x = shading angles
y, -y = penetration angles
F ig . d 9 - U se o f s h a d in g a n d p e n e tr a tio n a n g le s in th e d e s ig n o f s h a d in g d e v ic e s .
193
Sec. 27. Explanation For Glazing U-Values
The maximum U-value of any glazing material to be installed in any part of the
building envelope shall be at least 1.14 Btu/ft2 °F, which is equivalent to the U-value
for a 1/4” thk. clear sheet glass.
Wherever double pane glass is specified, the maximum U-value of the glass
installation shall be 0.65 Btu/ft2oF.
The requirement for single or double pane glass in the alternative component packages
for the different climate zones may be met by using the products/materials listed in
table dXVIII.
Table dXVIII. - U-Values Of Some Glazing Products
Glazing TvDe Winter U-value Overall R
Single Pane
Single sheet glass. minimum 1.14 0.88
Single plastic sheet. same as above -
Double Panes or Equivalent
1/8” with 3/16” to 5/8” air space (approx.) 0.62 1.6
Storm window, 1” to 4” air space 0.56 1.78
Glass block 6 x 6 x 4 ” (using mortar of minimum 0.60 1.7
R-value of 1.5)
Source: [20]
The U-values and R-values given are for air-to-air in Btu/ft2 -°F.
Double pane shutters must be sealed and made air-tight at the joints between glass sheet and sash frame
to meet the thermal performance requirement.
194
Sec. 28. Additional Requirements For Metal Frame Windows
T h is r e q u ir e m e n t a p p lie s o n ly to w in d o w s w ith d o u b le p a n e s. Metal window frames
(aluminum or steel) shall be provided with a thermal break that would separate the
inside of the frame from the outside of the frame. This requirement may be overlooked
in Climate Zones 1 and 2. The thermal break may be achieved by following one of the
two methods listed below, or by any other method that can be proven equally
effective:
1. By pouring poly-urethane in a slot in the metal frame, and then sawing away the
metal bridging the slot after the polyurethane has bonded and set (fig. d6).
2. By providing two separate frames linked with a rigid vinyl insert.
For manufactured window frames, the overall U-value of the frame shall be equal to
0.65 or less.
R u b b er
g a s k e ts
(OPERATIONAL)
F ig . d l O - E x a m p le s o f th e r m a l b r e a k s in s ta lle d o n m e ta l w in d o w fr a m e s [2 1 J .
195
Sec. 29. Additional Notes on Glazing Requirements In the Alternative Component
Packages
The values given in parenthesis for the glazing type in the alternative component
packages are the U-value of the overall window including the insulative effect of
thermal shutters. The overall U-value for the glazing including thermal panels or
shutters may be derived from the following relationship, if the R-value of the thermal
panel or shutter is known:
Uoverall [ l^U glazing -^thermal!
The U-value for the entire window holds good only in case of buildings where the
same glass type is installed in all the windows. For buildings having different glass
types for different orientations, the R-value specified in the requirement for thermal
shutters shall be followed, and the permissible U-value for the entire window shall be
derived by using the above relationship.
196
D15. REQUIREMENTS FOR THERMAL SHUTTERS
Sec. 30. Explanation Of Requirement In Alternative Component Packages
The requirement for thermal shutters as specified in the alternative component
packages can be met with either by installing a thermal shutter or panel that has an R-
value equal to or more than the R-value specified in the alternative component
packages, or by using a glazing material or a combination of glazing and insulative
material that has an overall U-value equal to or less than the value specified in
parenthesis in the glazing type requirement in table dX through table XVI in the
alternative component packages.
Sec. 30. (a) Some generic examples of thermal shutters that may be used to meet the
thermal shutter requirement specified in table dX through table XVI are:
1. Overhead roller shades.
2. Sliding, hinged or detachable panels or shutters.
3. Unfolding accordion shades.
4. Tight-fitting heavy draperies.
5. Interior storm windows.
6 . Exterior storm windows.
7. External insulating shades and shutters.
197
Sec. 31. Mandatory Features
The features listed in sec. 29(a) through sec. 29(e) shall be met with in the design of
the thermal shutters.
Sec. 31. (a) All shutters, transparent or opaque, interior or exterior, shall meet with
the stipulated R-value when in the rolled down or shut position.
Sec. 31. (b) In the case of external thermal devices, the panel or shutter shall be well-
fitted with the frame, track or rail to prevent draughty joints.
Sec. 31. (cl In the case of interior thermal devices, the panel or shutter shall be sealed
or made air-tight between the slats or panels and the tracks or rails to minimize air-
leakage through from the interior of the building to the air-gap between the thermal
device and the glazing surface.
Sec. 31. (d) If opaque, the shutter should have ease of operation from the interior of
the building to allow solar radiation into the building during daylight hours.
Sec. 31. (e) Material used for external thermal devices shall be made weather-resistant
and water-proof to avoid water leakage into the inside surface of the shutter.
Sec. 32. Description Of Thermal Shutters
The requirement for thermal shutters may be met with by using one of the products
listed in the table dXIX below taking into consideration suitable R-values. The
methods of installation shown in fig. d ll may be used.
Table dXIX - Some Materials That May Be Used As Thermal Shutters
Insulating Device Unit R Winter U (In
Combination With
Single Glazing!
Overall R
Draoerv (interior device!
Window blanket 2.0 depends on sealing depends on
sealing
Panel Tvpe (interior or exterior!
Cellular glass 2.5/in. depends on position
and sealing.
depends on
position and
sealing
Rigid fiberglass board 4.5/in.
Expanded polyurethane 6.25/in.
Expanded polystyrene, extruded 5.3/in.
Expanded polystyrene, beadborad 3.6/in.
Roll Down Shades
Interior vinyl roller shades with edge
tracks or seals, if joints are air tight. 1.12 0.5 2.0
Exterior roll down slats in timber or
vinyl, 1/2” thk x 2” wide. 1.58 0.405 2.46
Source: [20]
199
D u e to c a r e fu l w o rk m a n s h ip a n d h ig h c o s ts in v o lv e d in s e a lin g o f jo in ts in in te r io r
th e r m a l d e v ic e s, a n d th e r e la tiv e ly lo w te c h n o lo g y in v o lv e d in m a n u fa c tu r in g e x te r io r
th e r m a l d e v ic e s, it is a d v is a b le to u se e x te r n a l th e r m a l d e v ic e s in th e H im a la y a n
r e g io n . C a re m u s t b e ta k e n , h o w e v e r, to m a k e th e p a n e ls r e s is ta n t to r a in a n d o th e r
w e a th e r e le m e n ts .
4. 5.
F ig . d l l - E x a m p le s o f th e r m a l s h u tte r s : 1 ) H e a v y d r a p e s w ith w e ig h ts in th e h e m ;
2 )Q u ilte d r o m a n s h a d e s w ith s e a ls a t th e s id e a n d b o tto m ; 3 ) R o ll-u p s h a d e s w ith s id e
a n d b o tto m tr a c k s ; 4 ) R ig id in s u la tio n b o a r d s h u tte r s (in te r io r a n d e x te r io r ); 5 ) S la tte d
s h a d e s m o u n te d in tr a c k s (in te r io r a n d e x te r io r ) [2 3 ].
2 0 0
D16. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CATEGORY 2A AND 3 AREAS
Preface
The recommendations in this chapter are put forward as guidelines for developing self-
help building instructions to be introduced at the rural level. The implementation of
these guidelines may vary according to local enforcement policies.
Sec. 33. Recommendations For Building Envelope Components
Sec. 33. (a) For walls, raised floors and ceilings or roofs, whichever is applicable
according to subsections 14(b) and 14(c), for all occupancy types, installed thermal
resistances of the buidling component shall be equal to the values given in tables dX
through dXVI for the alternative component packages for the different climate zones.
The following thumb-rules shall be applied:
1. For all raised-floor construction, or multi-floor constructions wherein the main
living quarters are contained on the upper floors, values from package I from the
alternative component packages shall be followed.
2. For all on-grade constructions, or constructions which may have attics or similar
upper floors, but wherein the main living quarters are restricted to the ground
floor, values from package II from the Alternative Component Packages shall be
followed.
2 0 1
3. For all residential occupancies, values for Grade B constructions shall be
applicable. [N o te : T h is s ta n d a r d s h a ll b e fo llo w e d b e c a u se o f p o o r s ta n d a r d s o f
e x is tin g p r a c tic e s in d e ta ilin g f o r a ir -tig h tn e s s o f w in d o w s , d o o r s a n d o th e r
fe n e s tr a tio n . W ith th e in c o r p o r a tio n o f im p r o v e d p r a c tic e s in w e a th e r -s tr ip p in g ,
th is r u le m a y b e e v e n tu a lly c h a n g e d to fo llo w n o r m a l r e q u ir e m e n ts o g G ra d e A a n d
G ra d e B c o n s tr u c tio n s a t th e d is c r e tio n o f lo c a l b u ild in g a u th o r itie s.]
4. For non-residential occupancies, values from either Grade A or Grade B
constructions shall be followed, according to what is applicable (see sections 16
and 17 for compliance).
5. All internal surfaces shall be finished with plaster (either cement mortar, lime or
mud with fibre bonding)
Sec. 33. (b) The installed thermal resistance of components shall be calculated using
the following relationship:
R = b^k! + b2/k2 + b3/k3.............. + bn /k„
where bn = thickness of material n
kn = conductance of material n.
Thermal resistance values of common construction methods and insulation materials
shall be applied according to tables dV and dVI of chapter D8 for mandatory
requirements for insulation.
2 0 2
Sec. 33. (c) Thermal insulation in heavyweight constructions may be installed using
one of the methods described below in fig. d l2 .
<5* v s/ s*
V / A
Brick cavity wall with
insulation in cavity.
U-value that may be
achieved = 0.06
(approx.)
Brick and lightweight
concrete block cavity
wall, insulation board
on the inside face of
wall, finished with
gypsum board or
plaster board. U-value
that may be achieved
= 0.07
Solid brick wall, 1/2”
insulation board
sheathing, wood stud
framing, batt
insulation, finished
with gypboard or
plaster board. U-value
= 0.075 with R ll
insulation.
1
Masonry cavity wall
with vermiculite, or
other lightweight
aggregate insulating
fill. U-value that may
be achieved = 0.103
F ig . d l l - In s u la tio n s tr a te g ie s f o r h e a v y -w e ig h t c o n s tr u c tio n s [2 3 ].
Sec. 34. Recommendations For Windows And Doors
Sec. 34. (a) The use of glazing materials shall be promoted and made available
wherever possible.
203
Sec. 34. (b) Thermal shutters shall be installed according to requirements in table X
through XVI in the alternative component packages for different climate zones.
Methods and materials to be used for thermal shutters shall be according to table dXIX
and fig. d ll in chapter D15 for requirements for thermal shutters.
Sec. 34. (c) Weather-stripping details shall be incorporated at window and door-jambs
and door-slips as per figure d6 and fig. d8 in chapter D6 for mandatory requirements
for doors and windows.
Sec. 35. Recommmedations for Lighting For Category 2A Areas
Sec. 35. (a) For residential occupacy types, efficacy requirements for kitchen and WC
areas shall be as per subsections 2 2 (a) and 2 2 (c) of chapter d ll for prescriptive
requirements for lighting.
Sec. 35. (b) For non-residential occupancy types, values from table dVII and table
dVni shall be used in determining the allowable L.P.D. values.
Sec. 35. (c) For all occupancy types, lighting control requirements given in
subsections 3(a) through 3(d) in chapter D3 for lighting control requirements shall be
followed.
204
REFERENCES
[1] California Energy Commision, The California Energy Code, 1992, p. 25.
[2] American Society Of Heating, Refrigerating And Air-Conditioning Engineers,
ASHRAE Equipment Volume, 1975.
[3] American Society Of Heating, Refrigerating And Air-Conditioning Engineers,
ASHRAE Equipment Volume, 1988.
[4] California Energy Commision, The California Energy Code, 1992, pp. 83-106.
[5] California Energy Commision, The California Energy Code, 1992, p. 30.
[6] American Society Of Heating, Refrigerating And Air-Conditioning Engineers,
ASHRAE Handbook Of Fundamentals, 1972, p. 337.
[7] Watson, Donald and Kenneth Labs, Climatic Design, 1983, p. 183.
[8] Steven Winter Associates, Affordable Manufactured Housing Through Energy
Conservation, 1984, p. 22.
[9] Hastings, S. Robert and Richard W. Crenshaw, NBS Building Science Series
104: Window Design Strategies To Conserve Energy, 1977, p. 3-10.
[10] Koenigsberger O. H., T. G. Ingersoll, Alan Mayhew and S. V. Szokolay,
Manual Of Tropical Housing And Building, Part 1 : Climatic Design, 1973, pp.
285-312.
[11] California Energy Commision, The California Energy Code, 1992, p. 31.
[12] Diehl, John R., Manual Of Lathing And Plastering, 1960, pp. 266-267.
[13] Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, DOE-2 Reference Manual: Part 2, Version
2.1, 1980.
[14] California Energy Commision, The California Energy Code, 1992, pp. 64-65.
[15] Minke, Gernot and R. K. Bansal, Climatic Zones And Rural Housing In
India, 1988.
205
[16] Seshadri, T. N., and others, Climatological And Solar Data For India, 1969.
[17] Takahashi, K. and H. Arakawa (eds) World Survey Of Climatology: Vol. 8,
1981.
[18] Watson, Donald, (ed), The Energy Design Handbook, 1993, p. 62.
[19] California Energy Commision, The California Energy Code, 1992, p. 81.
[20] Watson, Donald and Kenneth Labs, Climatic Design, 1983, p. 182.
[21] Steven Winter Associates, Affordable Manufactured Housing Through
Energy Conservation, 1984, p. 31.
[22] Steven Winter Associates, Affordable Manufactured Housing Through
Energy Conservation, 1984, pp. 44-46.
[23] Watson, Donald, (ed), The Energy Design Handbook, 1993, pp. 50-52.
206
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Bharali, Sharmila
(author)
Core Title
The Indian Himalayan building energy code as a step towards energy conservation
Degree
Master of Building Science
Degree Program
Building Science
Publisher
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Tag
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Language
English
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committee chair
), Banerjee, Tridib (
committee member
), Schierle, Gotthilf Goetz (
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