University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

An investigation of factors influencing choice of occupation as revealed in ninety-five selected biographies and autobiographies of Americans published 1925 to 1930

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An investigation of factors influencing choice of occupation as revealed in ninety-five selected biographies and autobiographies of Americans published 1925 to 1930

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Content A J S r INVESTIGATION OP FACTORS INFLUENCING CHOICE OF OCCUPATION AS REVEALED IN NINETY-FIVE SELECTED BIOGRAPHIES AND AUTOBIOGRAPHIES OF AMERICANS PUBLISHED 19S5 TO 1930 A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the Department of Sociology University of Southern California In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts hy Margaret Macgowan August 1934 UMI Number: EP68149 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oissgftaiibn Ratelistog UMI EP68149 Published by ProQuest LLC (2015). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 This thesis, w ritte n under the direction of the candidate^s F aculty Committee and app7^oved by a ll its members, has been presented to and ac cepted by the C ouncil on Graduate Study and Research in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t of the require ments fo r the degree of Master of Arts ’tary Dean Faculty Committee nrman TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM, REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE, AND METHODS OF PROCEDURE.......... 1 The problem 1 Review of related literature . . . . . . 2 Methods of procedure .......... . . . . . . 6 Organization of the remainder of the thesis . . 11 II. SOCIAL SERVICE PROFESSIONS ..... ............ 12 Ministers ..................... 12 Physician .......... . . . . . . . . . 21 Reformers ....... ........ . .......... 25 Social Workers ........ ... 30 Teachers .... .............. ........ 34 Summary......................... 43 III. BUSINESS MEN AND WOMEN, LABOR LEADERS, LAWYERS, AND POLITICIANS......... 46 Business men and women . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Labor leaders ........ ......... 63 Lawyer................. »... 69 Politicians ....... ................ •• 73 Siimmary ............................ 91 IV. CREATIVE WORKERS, PART 1 ........ 93 Actors ........... 93 Ill CHAPTER PAGE IV* Artists ........................ 115 Musicians and composers • ......... ...... 124 Scientists ........... 154 Miscellaneous entertainers ................... 144 Summary ................... 153 V. CREATIVE WORKERS, PART 2: WRITERS......... . . 165 Summary............................ 260 VI. ADVENTURERS AND OTHERS.......... 262 Aviators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Soldiers . . . . . .. . .. . . .. 271 Criminals . . . . . . . . . .......... 277 Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290 Summary ................... 294 VII. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS........... 297 BIBLIOGRAPHY ....... SOI INDEX TO NAMES ............................... 312 CHAPTER I STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM, REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE, AND METHODS OF PROCEDURE The choice of the best occupation for the individual concerned is a problem of major importance for the individual and for society, but one, however, which has been dealt with scientifically only during recent years. In spite of apparent ly haphazard methods of choice, some have attained success, or, at least, prominence in the fields chosen. 1. THE PROBLEM Statement of the problem. The title of this thesis is: An Investigation of Factors Influencing Choice of Occupation as Revealed in Ninetv-Five Selected Biographies and Autobiog raphies of Americans Published 1925 to 1930. So far as this investigator has been able to discover, no study has previously been made to ascertain the reasons why a selected group of Americans who have attained prominence in their particular lines of endeavor chose those lines for their principal occupations. It seemed that information of value as to the actual factors which had influenced some prominent Amer icans in their choice of occupation might be obtained from a study of biographies and autobiographies of an impartially selected group of such Americans. What were the influences 2 which led to their selection of fields in which they attained prominence, a certain measure of success, or merely notoriety, as the case may he? For this purpose ninety-five biographies and autobiog raphies of Americans were studied, together with letters re ceived from thirty-six of those still living. These biogra phies were all published during the years 1925 to 1930. The persons concerned all were born during or after the year I860. 2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A group which came to maturity during this period could be but little affected by the vocational guidance movement, which has been a development of recent years. Therefore, the statements of writers in regard to influences on choice of oc cupation aside from scientific vocational guidance are of interest. William Martin Proctor, Professor of Education at Stan ford University, mentions natural interests, acquired interests, physical aptitudes, mental ability, social ability, and char acter traits as important factors.^ Lewis M. Smith and Gideon L. Blough state: Most men are following a career into which they were ^ William Martin Proctor, Vocations, the World * s Work and Its Workers (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., cl929), pp. 17- 27. s led by accident, pressure, or opportunity. The minority are engaged in pursuits which they deliberately chose wgile young and for which they specially prepared themselves. Franklin Stev/art Harris says that the choice of occupa tion by accident is very common. He also remarks that unim portant considerations too often exert great pressure, ’ ’like the opportunity for living on trains which commercial travel * 2 gives— really a disadvantage.’ ” He feels, too, that the mone tary returns bear too much weight rather than too little. "Men can be induced to do most any kind of work provided they receive enough money James Bartlett Edmonson and Arthur Dondineau mention the fact that relatives often help young people to obtain their 5 first jobs. According to Samuel H. Ziegler, few people deliberately choose their occupations. He says: If you will ask several of your older acquaintances who are employed how they happen to be doing what they are, you will get some interesting answers. You will find that most of them took the best jobs that they could get when they were ready to go to work. Those who were raised on farms 2 Lewis M. Smith and Gideon L. Blough, Planning a Career, a Vocational Civics (New York: American Book Co., cl929), p. 407. 3 Franklin Stewart Harris, The Young Mau and His Voca tion (Boston: Richard G. Badger, cl916), pT 132. Ibid.. p. 135. 5 James Bartlett Edmonson and Arthur Dondineau, Occupa tions through Problems (New York: The Macmillan Co., cl931), p. 5. became farmers, if farming was the most profitable work to be had. Many who were raised in the city took the first job they learned about and stuck pretty closely to that kind of work. Others whose parents sent them to school to learn certain occupations worked at those occupations. Very few, you will find, deliberately chose their occupa tions . William Rosengarten, of the Technical and Industrial Department of the William L. Dickinson High School, Jersey City, mentions crude magic, fortune telling, clairvoyance, phrenology, and physiognomy as methods which have been extensively used in determining a person’s fitness for various occupations. "There is no question that many people still believe in the efficacy of horoscopes, palmistry, and clairvoyance as a final judge of 7 what their life work should be." Alanson H. Edgerton, Professor of Industrial Education at the University of Wisconsin, expresses the opinion that "in the majority of cases entrance into life work is too often the g result of blind selection, rather than of intelligent choice." Harry Dexter Kitson gives the results of questions put to men applying for help at a Bureau of Vocational Guidance: Out of 500 men who applied at a Bureau of Vocational ® Samuel H. Ziegler and Helen Jaquette, Choosing an Oc cupation: Vocational Civics (Philadelphia: John C. Winston Co., C1924J, p. 15. 7 William Rosengarten, Choosing Your Life Work (second edition; New York: McGraw Hill Co., cl924), p. 5. g Alanson H. Edgerton, Vocational Guidance and Coun seling (New York: The Macmillan Co., cl926), p. 6. Guidance for help in finding a more suitable vocation, only 50 per cent had exercised any choice in entering their vocation; 30 per cent gpve "chance" as a reason; 10 per cent necessity and other reasons; 9 per cent inheri tance of a business; 1 ger cent parents* wishes. All of them were dissatisfied. The Department of Personnel Study of Yale University, in its study Choice of an Occupation, advances the theory that monetary prospects generally receive too much weight when an 10 occupational choice is made. This same study gives a formula for success in one’s occupation: Both ability— either demonstrated or potential— and interest are factors important for success in any calling, and the most successful individuals in general combine the highest capacity for the task in hand with the greatest en thusiasm in its performance. According to P. P. Brainard, it was expected in former times that the boys would follow their fathers’ occupations and the girls get married, and this is sometimes true even now. Also, the parents sometimes dedicate the children at birth to 12 special callings, as the ministry, law, or medicine. ^ Harry Dexter Kitson, I Find My Vocation (New York: McGraw Hill Co., cl93l), pp. 8-9. Yale University, Department of Personnel Study, Choice of an Occupation (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1932), p. 7. Ibid.. p. 4, 1P P. P. Brainard, "Making a living and a life; how par ents can help their boys and girls to the right choice of a vocation," Parents Magazine. V (June, 1930), 54. 6 George 8. Counts has brought out that the social status of various occupations has strong influence on the choice of boys and girls. The fact that a very large proportion of chil dren in high schools hope to enter the professions indicates that they feel the importance of the intangible rewards of the 13 social prestige attached to these professions. In the following chapters of this study the investiga tor hopes to show to what extent the factors mentioned by these writer^ and other factors, have actually operated in the choice of occupation of the ninety-five Americans concerned. 3. METHODS OF PROCEDURE Procedure used in obtaining list of biographies and autobiographies for study. It was desired to avoid all per- i sonal bias in the selection of the list of biographies and autobiographies to be studied. Therefore, the following method was used: The Book Review Digest, which indexes reviews of all books reviewed in more than fifty English and American period icals, and is the only inclusive list published in the United States which is classified as to form of literature reviewed, was used to obtain the titles of biographies and autobiographies 1 George S. Counts, "Social status of occupations, a problem in vocational guidance," School Review. XXXIII (Janu ary, 1925), 26-27. 7 published during the years 1925 to 1950, inclusive. The sub jects who were known not to be Americans were eliminated at once. This first list contained about 1,050 titles. Collections of letters only, though classified as biog raphy by the Book Review Digest, were eliminated, as they were considered unlikely to give the information needed. The list was restricted to individual biographies, and collections of brief biographies were eliminated. Next, all biographies whose subjects were found to be neither native-born nor naturalized American citizens were elim inated. In many cases, where the subject had not achieved suf ficient prominence so that his nationality was a matter com mon knowledge, a considerable amount of research was necessary to determine whether he could be considered an American citizen. For this research the Encyclopedia Britannica. Americana Ency clopedia. New International Encyclopedia. Dictionary of National Biography. Dictionary of American Biography. Who’s Who. Who Was Who, and Who’s Who in America were consulted. In some cases, it was necessary to consult the biographies themselves in order to determine the nationalities. During the years 1925 to 1930 many biographies and auto biographies of colonial Americans were published. However, it was decided to limit the list for this study to individuals born during the year 1860, or after, in order to try to deter mine what factors influenced the choice of occupation of per 8 sons who attained sufficient prominence during the "machine age" to have a biography published. Conditions before this era were very different. Several economists consulted speak of the machine age as beginning after the Civil War in the United States. W. W, Jennings says that the Civil War inaugu rated an industrial revolution comparable to that in England Lte 15 14 one hundred years earlier. T. W. Van Metre states that the stage of large scale production began after 1873. It was then necessary to limit the list to those biog raphies which could be obtained at the Los Angeles Public Library and the Library of the University of Southern Califor nia. Miss Ott, the head of the History and Biography Depart ment of the Los Angeles Public Library, was consulted by the investigator as to the basis used by that department in the selection of biographies for purchase. She stated that during the years 1925 to 1930 the appropriation of that department for the purchase of books had not been cut; in fact, it was steadily increasing during those years. The biographies from most of the standard publishers are sent to her department au tomatically as soon as published. These are reviewed by her staff, and those retained for purchase which either have liter- W. W. Jennings, History of Economic Progress in the United States (New York; The Thomas Y. Crowell Co., cl926), p. 422. l5 T. W. Van Metre, Economic History of the United States (New York: Henry Holt and Co., cl92l), p. 415. g ary merit or deal with persons of importance, even if the treatment has little literary merit. Of the biographies not received automatically, reviews and lists are studied by the staff. One copy, at least, of every biography which could be considered to have value according to the standards above men tioned was purchased during the years 1925 to 1950. Since the cutting of the book budget which began in 1951, the same bases of selection do not apply as formerly, and many must be omit ted which would formerly have been purchased. Miss Dick, Acting Librarian of the University of South ern California Library, wras also consulted as to her basis for purchase of biographies. She stated that their book appropria tion Y/as small, and that, therefore, the biographies bought were almost alv/ays those requested by the university profes sors who wished to use them in connection with their courses. In some cases, several biographies of the same person were published during this period. In these instances, the biography which Yras thought to be written by the best author ity was chosen. Where there were both biographies and auto biographies of the same person, the autobiography was selected. In a few cases, the biographies published during these years gave almost nothing on the early life of the subjects. In these cases, it was necessary to consult earlier biographies also. For instance, Ludwig Lewisohn’s Mid-Channel gave no in formation about his childhood or youth; therefore, his earlier 10 autobiography. Upstream, published first in 1922, was used. The final list was thus comprised of the biographies or autobiographies of ninety-five different Americans, born during the year 1860 or after, who attained sufficient dis tinction or importance to influence publishers to publish their lives, one or more of fifty-ddd book-reviewing periodicals to publish reviews of them, and either the Los Angeles Public Library or the University of Southern California Library to purchase them. As is evident, there Viras no selection according to character or occupation of the subjects. There are criminals on the list and social reformers, musicians, writers, aviators, and others of many varied occupations. Method used in the study of each life. Each biography or autobiography was read carefully up to the point where the individual began on his principal occupation. In the case of Henry Ford, for example, his life was followed through various occupations up to the time that he began the manufacture of automobiles for sale. Notes were taken, with page references, on all the factors which seemed to have influenced his choice of occupation— inherited gifts, parental influence, environ mental influences, health or physical disabilities, economic necessity, family tradition, special interests, education or lack of it, chance, and any other special factors which could 11 possibly have been of -iipportance. In addition, a letter was sent to each individual on the list who was still living in October, 1933, (with the ex ception of Alphonse Capone, who is serving a sentence in a federal penitentiary) asking for information as to just what were the circumstances or influences which he believed deter mined his choice of occupation. Of the sixty-five persons who were sent letters, thirty six replied; twenty-six did not reply. Three letters were returned to the investigator marked "Address unknown." Some valuable information was secured from the replies. 4. ORGANIZATION OF THE REMAINDER OF THE THESIS For discussion, the subjects of these biographies will be divided into five main groups: Chapter II will deal with those whose principal occupations may be considered of social service, including ministers, physicians, social reformers, social workers, and teachers. Chapter III will discuss business men, labor leaders, lawyers, and politicians. Chapter IV will discuss creative workers, with the exception of writers, includ ing actors, artists, musicians and composers, scientists, and miscellaneous entertainers. Chapter V will deal with the writ ers, including journalists and editors. Chapter VÎ will take up adventurers, as aviators, soldiers, and criminals, also one other, a medium, who was difficult to classify with any group. Chapter VII will give some general conclusions drawn from the study. CHAPTER II SOCIAL SERVICE PROFESSIONS In this chapter will be discussed the factors influenc ing the choice of occupation of those individuals in the group studied who may be considered to have engaged in occupations for the service of society, namely: the ministry, medicine, social reform, social work, and teaching. 1. MINISTERS Aimee Semple McPherson. The childhood of this evangel ist was spent on a Canadian farm. Her parents were deeply religious people, who dedicated her to God before her birth. Her earliest recollections were of Bible stories and hymns. She writes: parents told me they had prayed the Lord would send a baby girl who would some day preach the Gospel— a girl who some day, some way, somewhere out beyond those rolling farm lands, was to bring in sheaves of human hearts to the garner of the Heavenly Kingdom. During high school days she was much interested in elo cution and the stage, and developed a talent for writing short plays and recitations for church and school programs. She was a good deal disturbed at this time by evolutionary teaching in 16 Aimee Semple McPherson, In the Service pf the King (New York: Boni and Liveright, cl927), p. 61. IS the high school which she attended, and was beset by doubts. However, when she was eighteen she met Robert Semple, a tall, handsome young evangelist, at a revival meeting, and his preaching restored her mind to complete orthodoxy. "I conse- 17 crated my life to Christ then and there," she says. She felt she was clearly called to be a winner of souls. At another meeting with Mr. Semple, he persuaded her to marry him and accompany him as a missionary to China. They had hardly begun their mission work when fc. Semple died of fever, leaving her with a baby daughter. The child was so delicate that Mrs. Semple felt it necessary to return at once to the United States. On the ship she was asked to conduct services, and "the captain of the liner said he had never seen a minister 18 receive such attention on board or so hold the crowds." This would seem to indicate that even at this time she gave evidence of the magnetic power which has since made her famous. On her arrival in the United States, she entered evangelistic work, and has continued in it to the present time. According to the evidence of this autobiography, the choice of occupation of this evangelist was influenced by: (1) the strongly religious environment of her childhood; Ibid.. p. 79. Ibid., p. 156, 14 (2) suggestion, through the expressed Y/ish of her parents; (5) the social life of the community centering around the church; (4) her marriage to a missionary; (5) special aptitude for this calling, as shown hy her interest in elocution during high school days* Lyman P. Powell* After a year at Dickinson College, Powell went to Johns Hopkins University. He found his work under Herbert B. Adams, historian, stimulating, and remained to take his Ph. D. in history. Then he went with Richard T. Ely to Madison, Wisconsin, to help with the university exten sion work starting there. Some years were spent in lecturing, teaching in various institutions, and v/riting. During the war he studied educational conditions in Europe. Powell had been brought up in a home where there was not much talk about religion, though much living of it* They all conformed to the technique of Methodism at that time, but he later entered the Episcopal church. His mother used to say; "Religion seems to me just doing things for people," and this saying has dogged his conscience all his life.^^ He always tried to attend Sunday church and Wednesday evening prayer 19 Lyman P. Powell, The Human Touch. Memories of Men and Things (New York; G. P. Putnam’s Sons, cl925), pp. 92-93. 15 meeting wherever he might he...Going from educational lectur ing to the ministry seemed to him more a transfer than à break. He finally decided to attend the Philadelphia Divinity School. When asked by his bishop why he wished to come into the ministry at all, he answered that he wished to spend all 20 his time "just doing things for people." A quotation from his letter to the investigator expresses much the same idea: "To keep alive the inner life it has to be expressed in ser- 21 vice." His first charge was at Ambler, near Philadelphia. Here the important factors were: (1) strong religious influences from childhood on; (2) experience in public speaking; (3) desire for service; (4) desire for new experience. William Austin Smith. The biographer of this clergyman was a close friend, vàiich enables him to speak with some au thority of the factors which caused Smith’s entry into the ministry. The boy was of New England stock, though born and brought up in St. Paul. He went to church with his parents, who were Congregationalists, but heard many preachers, among Ibid.. p. 95. P I Personal Correspondence of the Investigator, letter from Lyman P. Powell, October, 1933. 16 them Dr. Crothers. He seems to have been much interested in religion from early years, seeking religious help in many ways. He had a sensitive nature, gentle manners, a ready wit. Mr. Slattery expresses the opinion that an illness of childhood may have strongly influenced his life: As a schoolboy he was threatened with tuberculosis. He was already, as a boy, filled with ambitious dreams of ser vice; but this insidious disease made him think that he could not live to manhood........I have always thought that in this early facing of the deepest problem, he took account of the chief values in life; and the beginning of an inevitable process, leading to his call to the ministry, came in this rude awakening to the depth of human need. ^ After three years at the University of Minnesota, he had two years at Harvard, graduating in 1895. While at Harvard, he was confused by religious aspirations and doubts, but had an insistent longing to enter the ministry. Having heard Dean Hodges preach, he went to him for counsel, receiving much en couragement. Dean Hodges "saw the fineness and honour and devotion in Smith, and held out a welcoming hand." His con firmation in Dr. Hodges* chapel fixed his decision to be a minister, as well as his choice of denomination. "He had 24 clearly received his call." He attended the Seabury Divinity School, and taught at the Shattuck School for Boys during his pp Charles L. Slattery, William Austin Smith, a Sketdh (New York: E. -P. Dutton and Co., Inc., cl925), pp. 3-4. Ibid.. pp. 4-5. P4 Ibid.. p. 5. 17 course. Soon after graduation from divinity school, he se cured a curacy in St. John*s. Providence. In this case important influences on the choice of the ministry were: (1) special aptitude; (2) physical disability during boyhood causing compara tive isolation, thus increasing interest in religion; (3) stimulation through contact with religious leaders; (4) encouragement from leading ministers during college days. Charles Stelzle. In his autobiography, Mr. Stelzle states that he wgs born on the East Side of New York City, where his parents had lived since childhood. His father was a brewer who died leaving his widow with no money and several children. They lived in extreme poverty for a good many years. At eleven Charles left school and went to work at various odd jobs. He was always a great reader, perusing the Bible with especial enjoyment. A considerable knowledge of the Bible was acquired one summer while convalescing from an illness. He at tended Sunday School regularly and joined the church. He had an ambition to run a newspaper, and, thinking there was some connection, at least, with newspaper work, he began at sixteen a five years* apprenticeship with a large printing-press manufacturer. At the end of this time he 18 received a diploma giving him a rating of "superior workman." He then spent three years as a journeyman. All these years he studied outside of working hours, because he had a strong desire to go to college. He was tu tored by two different clergymen, and attended night schools, but he never got to college. He says that when he decided to become a preacher, he received absolutely no encouragement from anybody.He had been conducting a little mission for some 26 time. Several attempts to get into theological seminaries were unsuccessful, but he finally was admitted to the Moody Institute in Chicago. After his course there, he was given charge of a mission chapel in Minneapolis, and later was in vited to return to New York to become the pastor of the same chapel in which he had been brought up. The letter received from Mr. Stelzle perhaps gives a clearer expression of his rea sons for entering the ministry than his autobiography: When I was a young machinist, working in a shop which employed 2000 men, I was impressed by the fact that while comparatively few of my fellow-workmen attended Church, they were instinctively religious, even though their re ligion was not expressed in the accepted, orthodox fashion. I had been active in the work of the Church for some years, but there was the consciousness that the Church, as I knew it, ignored some of the most fundamental human elements which dominated industrial workers. I decided to become ^ Charles Stelzle, A Son of the Bowery; the Life Story of an East Side American (New York: George H. Doran Co., cl926), p. 53. Ibid.. p. 54. 19 a preacher with the hope that I might organize a church which would appeal to workingmen— an organization which would be more concerned about building up the people, than it would be about building up the Church. In this I was measurably successful, the most conspicuous illustration being found in the organization of Labor Temple in lower New York, in a district which was the most densely popu lated in the world, and in which I was born and lived for twenty years.^ The most important factors here were: (1) native intelligence; (2) a social situation involving poverty and life in the slums; (5) special aptitude for church work; (4) stimulation through his experiences in industry; (5) desire for service. Parker Vanamee. This biography was written by Vanamee’s wife. The neighbours and friends of Parker * s boyhood in New burgh on the Hudson have told her many stories of his joyfulness, 28 intelligence, and determination. As boy and man, he was al ways extremely active and sociable, with a natural human inter est in people. His father was an able lawyer; his mother the daughter of a doctor. Parker read some, but learned more by doing. Always he felt entirely competent to do vfhat any one 27 Personal Correspondence of the Investigator, letter from Charles Stelzle, October, 1933. Mary Conger Vanamee, Vanamee (New York: Hareourt. Brace and Co., cl930), p. 18. 20 else was doing. He was sent to various public and private schools, none of which seemed to be just suited to him. "Par ker never let schoolmasters interfere with his mental growth; he carried to school an independent mind and accepted only such 29 information as interested him." When sixteen years old, he suddenly announced that he had decided to become a clergyman, which surprised and amused all his family greatly. They told him the requirements of the profession, but this did not seem to discourage him much. How ever, he tried several other occupations before the ministry. While at Princeton Preparatory School he began to attend the Episcopal Church regularly. He had decided that he wanted to live a clean life, and found prayer was a power. "His ap- 30 proach to religion was thus a practical one." Moreover, his religion was a personal discovery. As a child he had had al most no religious instruction, because of the difficulty in getting him to Sunday School. After a brief period at Trinity College, which ended by his being hurt in football and sent home, he read law in his father’s office for a time; worked as a sailor for several months; then as a reporter on various papers. He did very well in newspaper work. He had given up for the time being his idea Ibid.. p. 38. Ibid.. p. 38. 21 of entering the ministry, as the inevitable formality of the life did not appeal to him at that age. After he became en gaged to be married, he returned to the idea of becoming a clergyman. ^Probably that would offer the best way of express- 31 ing gratitude, of sharing his happiness.* He entered the General Theological Seminary, really studied for the first time in his life, and here was considered a brilliant student. ^He 32 was eager to learn how to help people.* Even before his graduation he secured a parish, and all his talents and methods turned out to be very useful at his new job. Important factors influencing this choice of the ministry were: (1) personality traits showing marked activity and friendliness, typically extrovertive; (2) special aptitude for social contacts; (3) inherited intelligence; (4) desire for service. 2. PHYSICIAN John Rathbone Oliver. This man had numerous well-known ancestors, amrmg them Robert Gould Shaw, his great-grandfather. As a boy, he was especially fascinated by his Great-uncle Henry, Sl Ibid.. p. 78. 32 Ibid.. p. 80. 22 who had been many kinds of a man, not satisfied to do just one thing; he had done many, and had done them all well. He had been a business man, a scholar and a teacher, a soldier, ad jutant-general, and an executive. At various times, too, he was Mayor of Salem. Dr. Oliver says: *I often feel that the varied contacts of my own life with the world around me have been, somehow, the result of the influence of my Great-uncle t r *35 Henry.* The boy was emotionally religious and brought up in a home of church interests, where the bishop and the dean were 34 frequent guests. At thirteen he was sent to a famous church school. While travelling in Europe before going to the uni versity, an impressive church service in London decided him to become a priest. After graduating from an American university, he tried to teach Latin and Greek for two years. A visit to Rome nearly decided him to study for the priesthood there, but he returned home and entered an Episcopalian seminary. Three years of what he considered a very worldly life in a big, well- to-do parish caused him to rebel; he went to Rome a second time, and entered the Catholic Church. He studied for the Roman priesthood at an Austrian university, but information of past •zg John Rathbone Oliver, Foursquare: the Story of ^ Fourfold Life (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1929), pp. 8-9, ^ Ibid.. p. 867. 25 mistakes caused his bishop to prevent his being ordained until 55 some years afterward. After two years more in Austria writ ing books which no one would publish, he suddenly decided that the one thing he really wanted to do was to study medicine. Five years at the University of Innsbruck gave him his degree in medicine, then the war came, and he served with the Austrian army medical corps for a year. Illness sent him back to New York. Soon he was offered a place on the house staff of Henry Phipp* s Psychiatric Clinic of the Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, where he worked for ÿwo years under Professor Adolf Meyer. The medico-legal service which he gradually developed had its beginnings at this time. Dr. Meyer was anxious that the mental dispensary should help in whatever way possible for the mental health of the city. The magistrate from the police station near the hospital used to refer some cases to them for diagnosis and often dropped in to discuss them. Out of this grew the custom of Dr. Oliver's sitting beside the magistrate in court when he was hearing cases. He had had good training in legal medicine at the University of Innsbruck, which was 56 very useful in this work. When he went into private practice, he had a good deal of free time during the first year or two. 55 Ibid.. p. 276. Ibid.. p. 15. 24 and he spent this time in the criminal courts. At first he served the court without any compensation, later was appointed a bailiff and drew a bailiff's salary for some years, until a bill was passed by the legislature appropriating $5,000 a year 37 for his work. A letter from Dr. Oliver says: I was ordained to the priesthood in 1900 because I be lieved that I had a vocation to that office. Later on in life I studied medicine because I wanted to know more about the physical and mental reactions of my fellows. Both medi cine and the priesthood have been to me real vocations and I feel that I^would not have been happy in any other types of activity. This man has several occupations, but probably medico legal work may be considered the principal one. The factors here were: (1) high intelligence; (2) unusually fine education; (s) conflict situation with the Roman Catholic Church which turned him to medicine; (4) intellectual curiosity; (5) stimulation of the social situation in Baltimore courts; (6) desire for service. Doc. cit. •ZQ Personal Correspondence of the Investigator, letter from John Rathbone Oliver, October 31, 1933. 25 3. REFORMERS Frederic Howe. There was nothing in his inheritance, Mr. Howe says, to make him want the world any different. Nei ther of his parents had any interest in reform. "They did not want the world changed. It was a comfortable little world. Republican in politics, careful in conduct, Methodist in reli gion. His father ran a small furniture factory in Me ad ville, Pennsylvania, and Frederic worked here during vacations from Allegheny College. In these years he was merely interested in getting a job and wanted to make a financial success. He was much afraid of being pushed into the ministry,, which was urged 40 on him by maiden aunts and Sunday School teachers. After his junior year at college, he went to Chautauqua Lake where he met John Finley, a student at Johns Hopkins and an editorial writer on the Chautauquan. Fired by ambition to be an editorial writer on a city newspaper, he decided to work for the Ph. D. degree at Johns Hopkins as preparation, studying economics, history, and politics. He did acquire this degree, working his way through the university by writing sports news for the newspapers, also some articles on popular economics. Frederic C. Howe, The Confessions of ^ Reformer (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, cl925), p. 10. Ibid.. p. 4. 26 He says that his life really began at Johns Hopkins: "Under the influence of Richard T. Ely, Woodrow Wilson, Albert Shaw, James Bryce, I came alive. I felt a sense of responsibility 41 to the world. I wanted to change things." Mr. Bryce talked about the spoils system and the corruption of cities. Howe wanted to be an editor and writer like Dr. Albert Shaw, another 42 of Johns Hopkins lecturers, and to help create beautiful cities. Finding it impossible to get a start in newspaper work during the depression of 1892, the winter after his graduation, he finally decided to study law, which seemed to offer more se curity than journalism with its uncertainties. He hoped, too, to get into reform work through the law. After great finan cial difficulties, he passed his bar examinations, settled in Cleveland, and started as a clerk in the office of Garfidld and Garfield. Ultimately he was taken into the firm. He moved into a settlement house. "Here was my oppor tunity to justify my training, my sense of responsibility to the world.Soon he was asked to make speeches on politics and cleaning up the city. While serving as secretary of the Municipal Association, an organization active in discovering corruption in the city administration, he was asked to run for ^ Ibid.. p. 1. Ibid.. pp. 5-8, ^ Ibid.. p. 75. 27 the city council the better to carry on the fight against corruption. He consented, was elected, and continued the fight. The important factors in this choice were: (1) the stimulation of the environment at Chautauqua and later contacts with ÿreat minds at Johns Hopkins; (2) further stimulus of political and social conditions in Cleveland; (3) desire for service. Wayne Bidwell Wheeler. This famous temperance worker was born in 1869 at Brookfield, Ohio, of New England stock. He was the only boy of four children. His father was a dealer in cattle and sheep, not much concerned in the temperance agi- 44 tation of his time. During his years at country school and at the high school at Sharon, Pennsylvania, Wayne worked hard on the farm at home, and worked at a butcher shop during his lunch hour. He developed a rugged constitution. After his graduation from high school, his parents did not see why he should wish for higher education, but he finally persuaded his father to allow him to work his way through college. "The only member of the family who seemed to understand his craving 44 Justin Steuart, Wavne Wheeler. Dry Boss, an Uncen sored Biography of Wayne B. Wheeler (New York: Fleming H. Re vel! and Co., cl928), p. 16. 28 for wider fields of action than those afforded by the farm, 45 was his sister Claudia." Having obtained a teacher's certificate, he taught two years at a country school to earn the money to start at college. Here he had occasion to observe at first hand the effect of 46 alcoholism upon the families of drinkers. Wheeler chose Oberlin because of its nearness, its rela- 47 tive cheapness and its reputation for piety and earnestness. So far he had no definite plan for a profession, but wanted an education. He worked as a janitor, sold books, and did various other jobs to earn his way. In spite of this, he entered into every phase of college life, and was usually on college pro grams as an orator or debater or in some capacity. His energy seemed boundless. 48 "Oberlin was a hotbed of temperance people." Wheeler was soon drawn into work with the Anti-Saloon League, organized by the Rev. Howard Hyde Russell, and made a good many public addresses during his last years at college. The business world had always attracted him, and as graduation drew near he agreed to continue as agent and sales-manager for one of the concerns ^ Ibid.. p. 80. ^ Ibid.. p. 22. Loc. clt. ^ Ibid.. p. 24. 29 which had employed him during vacations. Hovfever. Dr. Russell was looking for a manager and organizer for the Dayton District of the Anti-Saloon League. The Oberlin faculty unanimously re commended Wheeler for the position. After some hesitation, Wheeler finally accepted, when it was pointed out to him that a man to fill the other position could be much more easily 49 found than one for "this complex and strenuous service." He agreed to do it at the beginning for only one year, but, as Dr. Russell says: "Wayne began his task so eagerly, so intel ligently, in such a spirit of loyal service and with such mo mentum of body and soul that he has never been able nor willing to stop."^^ Wheeler's biographer says that he was absolutely sincere, he loved the limelight, and he loved power. He was a great man, 51 and would have made his mark regardless of the field chosen. Important factors in this case were: (1) strongly extrovertive personality traits; (2) intelligence; (3) emotional drive and physical energy; (4) special aptitude for public speaking; (5) stimulation due to the environment of Oberlin, where 49 Ibid.. p. 41. Ibid.. p. 42. Ibid., pp. 13-14. so there was mucb emphasis on temperance work; (6) desire for service, stimulated by Dr. Russell's offer of a position with the Anti-Saloon League. 4. SOCIAL WORKERS Rebekah Bettelheim Kohut. The Bettelheims are a Hun garian family. In the Jewish branch the sons for centuries have usually been either physicians or rabbis. Some of the women have also been noted for intellectual attainments, Mrs. Kohut's mother being the first Jewess to become a school teach- eo er in Hungary. Her father was both rabbi and physician, though he did not study medicine until after he brought his family to the United States in search of religious freedom. He conducted a rabbina,te in Richmond, Virginia, for seven years, then was called to San Francisco. He found time to write a good deal and made countless friendships. "He loved human con- 53 tacts and was happiest when he was helping others." Rabbi Bettelheim wanted each of his children to have a university training. Rebekah went to Normal School ib San Francisco, then had two years at the University of California, specializing in English literature and history. She read 52 , Rebekah Bettelheim Kohut, ^ Portion (An Autobiogra phy) (New York: Thomas Seltzer, Inc., cl925), p. 8. 53 Ibid.. p. 36. SI widely aside from her studies. One of her teachers in normal school, who had great influence on her development, she says, pointed out to her the work that was waiting to be done in 54 behalf of the Jews. At this time she was active in work for woman's suffrage. She refused an offer of marriage from a young San Franciscan, because she was looking for a career of service and felt a desire to do some useful and significant work. After an illness, an ocean voyage was prescribed for her. In New York she met and married Alexander Kohut, a . rabbi, and a widower with eight children. Her family opposed this marriage, but she felt it would be a career of service. Be sides carrying on her home duties, .she became active in various civic organizations and in work with Jewish working girls. She did considerable writing as well. Mrs. Kohut*s letter is of significance: My volunteer social service work, my career as a mili tant Jewess, and my humble record as an authoress were in stilled in me by my forebears. They were rabbis and writers and my memory of our home has always been that of a sort of Settlement House into which people came and went. All races and creeds and all trades and professions were represented among those who came for advice and help. My father, how ever, was directly responsible for my educational and spir itual development.^ 54 Ibid.. pp. 65-66. ^ Personal Correspondence of the Investigator, letter from Rebekah Bettelheim Kohut, October, 1935. 32 The factors influencing choice here were: (1) inherited keen intelligence; (2) stimulation through the home environment of many contacts, stressing service to others; (S) good education; (4) interest in problems of her own race, stimulated by words of a teacher; (5) desire for service; (6) marriage to a rabbi; (7) social conditions in New York City. Leah Morton Stern. This social worker is also Jewish, though her parents were from Russia. Her grandfather was a scholar, as well as her father, who became a teacher at the 56 age of seventeen. Lea.h and her four brothers and sisters were brought up in an Ohio city, where her father was a rabbi. They were very poor; in fact, sometimes had not enough to eat. After she was twelve years old she never played, but worked hard at home and at school, spending any leisure time in read ing. She says she lived only for books, reading right through 57 the public library without stopping. Leah Morton Stern, 1 to a Woman and a Jew (New York: J. H. Sears and Co., cl926), pp. 7-8. 57 Ibid.. p. 16. S3 Her father was opposed to her going to high school; he said it was time for her to think of marrying a pious man. Here may be seen one of the familiar conflicts between the standards of the immigrant and the American-born. Hov/ever, her mother arranged that she should go, and later to college. Ear ly in her college career, she worked in the evening at a settle ment house, in charge of one of the clubs. "My girls v/ere nearly of my age, and many of them lived in streets near my home, for we did not move from the Ghetto of our city to which 58 my father had come when first he arrived as an immigrant." At the settlement house she met a young medical student and became engaged to him. She planned at this time to be a doctor, because that was what her fiancé wished, but as soon as she broke her engagement realized that she really wanted to be a 59 writer. An unrequited love for her English teacher, who had told her she had the makings of a poet, caused her to determine to forget that she ever wanted to write,— another conflict situation, coming to a crisis, and solved by a withdrawal from the unhappy atmosphere. Social work seemed to her an opportunity to give herself to an ideal, and she decided to attend the School for Social Work in New York City, though this meant breaking all her ties ^ Ibid.. p. 20. Ibid.. p. 26. 34 at home. Her relatives were still insisting that it was time for her to marry. She says: Here was a place where one could go to learn how to dedicate one's self to something beautiful, something as beautiful as charity; that was where I might go, then. I decided in that instant on my career, as a young mission ary of another faith might have chosen to give her life to work among the poor and unenlightened in a distant land.^^ After graduation from the school for social work, she found her first position in a settlement house. Important factors here were: (1) high intelligence; (2) good education; (3) environment of poverty during childhood and unfavor able living conditions; (4) mental conflict due to a disappointment in love, turning her from her special aptitude for writing; (5) desire for service. 5. TEACHERS James Mark Baldwin. The parents of this teacher came from old Puritan stock in Connecticut, but his father was sent to the South before the Civil War on account of a bronchial affection. James was born in 1861 at Columbia, South Carolina, where his father was engaged in business. Theirs was a typical religious household of the strict Presbyterian variety. James attended private schools as a young boy, then 35 spent three years at Salem Collegiate Institute at Salem, New Jersey, which prepared him to enter the sophomore class at Princeton in 1881. A quickened religious faith acquired at Salem, based still on example and convention rather than on conviction, "took form in the resolution .... to enter the Christian ministry toward which the course at Princeton was to be a necessary stage.Princeton at that time offered only two courses of study, the scientific and the academic. Since he had the ministry in view, he chose the academic. The course which interested him most at this time was that on Theism given by Dr. F. 0. Patton. This opened his mind to many debatable points. Baldwin stood high in his studies, receiving various prizes, in spite of rather poor health. He says that his interest began to concentrate itself in his senior year upon 62 the topics treated in the philosophical courses. Therefore, he tried for the Chancellor Green Fellowship in Mental Science, which gave him a year of study abroad. This year was spent at three German universities, studying philosophy and psychology, one semester at each. He became enthusiastic about the new psychology. By the time of his graduation from Princeton in 1884, fil James Mark Baldwin, Between Two Wars. 1861-1921. Being Memories. Opinions, and Letters Received (2 vols.; Boston: The Stratford Co., cl926), vol. 1, p. 17. Ibid.. p. 31. 36 a physical defect had revealed itself which he says was a fac tor of first importance in his subsequent decision to take up 63 teaching rather than the ministry. He says: Even so short a stay in Germany gave to me, as to so many American graduate students in the 'GO'S, a distinct advantage in the professorial race at-home. .... Ger man scholarship had become a fetich. Returning to Princeton in 1885, he served as an instruc tor in French and German, also taking a special course in the Theological Seminary. However, he never qualified for the ministry, as he explains: A call to Lake Forest University served to fix the future career definitely in the lines of psychology and philosophy. It may be ungracious to say it, but the truth was that had there been any hesitation as to this step at that time in my mind, the rigid and intolerant theology held in favor _in Princeton Seminary would not have served to remove it.®® The deciding factors in this case were: (1) fine mental gifts; (2) stimulation of interest in philosophy and psychology by courses at Princeton and study in Europe; (3) physical disability, turning him from the ministry; (4) offer of teaching position in philosophy and psy chology. Loc. clt. G4 Ibid.. p. 55. Ibid.. p. 39. 37 Rufus M. Jones. This college professor comes from a Quaker family in a Maine village. Religion played a very im portant part in the life of his immediate family, and their house was one of the headquarters of travelling Quaker minis- 00 ters. They all benefited from the contact with the outside world thus brought into their rural neighborhood. Rufus began to attend a one-room school soon after his fourth birthday. When he was twelve, he joined of his own volition the village library association, thus greatly increas ing his choice of reading matter. At sixteen he was given a scholarship in the famous Friends School in Providence, Rhode Island— now the Moses Brown School— where he had some remark able teachers. He feels that the study of Latin and Greek begun here was one of the great formative forces of his entire life. "Through these two languages and literatures I came into intimate first hand contact with the culture of two of the 67 greatest civilizations of human history." In this school he entered with enthusiasm into religious exercises, taking his turn at leading meetings. At this time he had only a very dim 68 notion of what his life work was to be. ® Rufus M. Jones. Finding the Trail of Life (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1926;, p. 23. Ibid.. p. 136. Ibid.. p. 147. 38 He chose Haverford College in Pennsylvania, a Quaker college, because a cousin of whom he was fond was a student there, and because Haverford offered him a scholarship cover ing tuition and living expenses, which he later paid back. The teacher at Haverford who had the strongest influence on him was Pliny Earle Chase, professor of philosophy, a truly 89 great man. This man became a close friend as well as teacher. When the time came for Jones to decide in what field he would do intensive work for the master's degree, he would have chosen philosophy if he had followed his main intellectual interest, but he had for about four years been planning to make law his profession, and he felt that a careful study of American history 70 and politics would be more useful. However, he was not des tined to be a lawyer. Although a well-to-do and generous friend offered him sufficient funds to put him through law school and get him started in life, a night's vigil of thought on the problem decided him that law was not the best profession for him, though he was not exactly sure v/hv it was not. Nevertheless, his work in history has been useful to him in all his teaching and writing. The writing of a graduating thesis on Mysticism and Its Exponents awakened his interest in mysti- Rufus M. Jones, The Trail of Life in College (New York: The Macmillan Co., cl929), p. 39. Ibid.. pp. 125-126. Ibid.. pp. 129-130. 59 cism. He says that here he found the field of his life work. "Hereafter all my reading and thinking and research work bore 72 directly or indirectly on some phase of mysticism." Soon after his return to his home from Haverford College, he was offered a graduate fellowship in history from the Uni versity of Pennsylvania, and almost at the same time a position as teacher at Oakwood Seminary, a Quaker boarding school in New York State, at a very small salary. It was a difficult de cision to make, but he finally decided on the teaching position, influenced strongly by his Aunt Peace, who wished him to have 75 the religious experiende of teaching in a Quaker school. Dur ing the year he was there, he taught Greek, Latin, German, sur veying, astronomy, and zoology. He learned how to teach effec tively, and, moreover, his higher spiritual interests were quickened. His eyes were giving him great difficulty at this time, and he finally decided to rest them by a year abroad. A gener ous friend loaned him the money. While in Heidelberg, he took some courses on philosophy with Professor Kuno Fischer, one of Germany's foremost scholars. "These lectures settled for good 74 and all my allegiance to philosophy." His next position was Ibid.. p. 135. Ibid.. p. 148. Ibid.. p. 166. 40 as teacher in the school in Providence which he himself had attended* For the next six years he was a schoolmaster, but was constantly studying philosophy, and looking forward to further university work in it. In 1890 he was "recorded" a minister in the Society of Friends, and did some preaching thereafter besides his other work. In 1893 he was called to be an instructor in philosophy at Haverford College and also to be editor of the Friends 75 Review in Philadelphia. He continued his studies at the University of Pennsylvania, at Harvard, and various other universities. He has been teaching philosophy at Haverford and writing ever since. Important factors in this choice were: (1) high intelligence; (2) stimulation of interest in spiritual matters begun during childhood in a Quaker family; (3) deepening of interest in philosophy through contact with outstanding teachers of the subject at college and in Europe; (4) offer of a teaching position. William Ellery Leonard. Leonard's family came from old 75 Ibid.. p. 198 41 colonial New England stock* Both his parents had been to higher schools. His father was sometimes a minister, sometimes a newspaper editor. Both parents read a great deal and wrote 76 much, his father editorials, his mother poetry. His mother was much interested in the scientific education of early child hood, and read Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and Froebel. Her diary notes that her son very early began to en^oy using big words correctly. Leonard suggests that possibly the embryo of phi- 77 lologist and poet was apparent here. In high school he was active in the literary society, and won prizes for essays. The study of Latin begun here de veloped into a strong interest in the classics. His letter gives his view of some of the factors in fluencing him during this period: In a word, my backgrounds (father and mother and other older kindred, as well as the group of older folk in the home town) were cultured, intellectual people, often col lege bred. I had a set toward scholarship and college teaching from boyhood thro this environment, as well as some inherited intelligence and curiosity. These things were stimulated by a good high school .... especially by the Latin course and the interest my father and mother took in my work. I had stated to the Superintendent of the Public Schools (when asked what I intended to become), "I want to be a college professor." I was then 14.^° He read tremendously. He says that he had no instinct 76 William Ellery Leonard, The Locomotive-God (New York: The Century Co., cl927), p. 19. Ibid.. p. 38. Personal Correspondence of the Investigator, letter from William Ellery Leonard, October 30, 1933. 42 for money-making or job-hunting. His father's move to a New England village with no high school meant that he had to leave high school in the middle of his course, but he fitted himself for college by intensive study alone. His parents were unable to help him much financially, but he obtained a scholarship at Boston University and earned some money by literary hack-work and other jobs. He had quite a varied course at Boston Uni versity, making an excellent record. Afjber receiving his B. A. here, he took an M. A. at Harvard, studying more Latin, Shake speare, Anglo-Saxon, Elizabethan drama, apd metaphysics. At the same time, he did substitute teaching in Latin nine hours a week at Boston University. , , After teaching various subjects for two years in high schools, a fellowship from Boston University enabled him to study in Germany and Italy. It was in Europe that he surren dered the idea of teaching Latin, feeling that he was not a sufficiently fine scholar in it, and decided on English and 79 Germanic philology. Then a fellowship in English at Colum bia gave him his Ph. D. degree. After various teaching jobs in high schools and work as a reporter, he secured a position as instructor in English at the State University of Wisconsin, where he has been ever since. He has done considerable writing William Ellery Leonard, The Locomotive-God. p. 225. 45 as well as teaching. According to the evidence, deciding factors in this case were: (1) inherited high intelligence and literary ability; (2) stimulation through a scholarly environment at home and in his town; (5) emotional drive, forcing him forvmrd in spite of poverty; (4) stimulation through an excellent education in Ameri can and European universities. 6. SUMMARY (1) Among the five ministers in the group the following factors stood out as important in influencing their choice of the ministry, although not all of these were present in every case: (a) religious environment of childhood; (b) suggestion in wishes of parents or other rela tives; (c) special aptitudes for service to others; (d) experience in public speaking; (e) comparative isolation due to physical disability, increasing interest in religion; (f) stimulation through contacts with religious leaders; 44 (g) stimulation through experiences in industry; (h) desire for service. (2) With the physician specializing in medico-legal work, we find important: (a) education; (b) a conflict situation which turned him from the priesthood to medicine; (c) intellectual curiosity; (d) stimulus of the social situation in the courts of his city; (e) desire for service. (3) With the two social reformers there were apparent: (a) stimulus of educational environment at college; (b) stimulus of political and social conditions in their locality; (c) desire for service; (d) special aptitude for public speaking, in Wheeler's case; (e) desire for recognition, and love of the lime light, in Wheeler's case. (4) With the two social workers were found important: (a) high intelligence; (b) good education; 45 (c) stimulus of home environment during childhood; (d) desire for service; (e) social conditions of locality; (f) mental conflict due to disappointment in love turning her from her special aptitude for writing, in the case of Leah Morton Stern. (5) With the three teachers, the following were out standing factors: (a) inherited high intelligence; (b) fine education; (c) stimulus of the scholarly environment at home and in his town, in Leonard's case; (d) physical disability turning him from the ministry, in Baldwin's case; (e) stimulation of special interests through courses at college; (f) stimulation of special interests through study in Europe; (g) offer of a teaching position. CHAPTER III BUSINESS MEN AND WOMEN, LABOR LEADERS, LAWYERS, AND POLITICIANS In this chapter will be discussed the factors influenc ing the choice of occupation of individuals engaged in the occupations mentioned in the chapter heading. 1. BUSINESS MEN AND WOMEN Henry Ford. The first seventeen years of this man’s life were spent on a farm in Michigan, where he was born. He was impressed at that time with the fact that ’ ’there was too much 80 hard hand labour on our own and all other farms.% From an early age he showed a strong interest in everything mechanical, and also ability to deal with it. As a small boy, his chief recreations were taking apart watches and putting them together again. Much time was also spent hanging around the local blacksmith shop, and he was inspired to start a workshop on his father’s farm, where he carried out various experiments. On one occasion a forge was built. On another occasion plans were laid for a barnyard gate that could be opened without dismounting from a wagon. On still another occa sion there was talk of fitting an engine to a tricycle Charles Merz, And Then Came Ford (Garden City, N. Y. : Doubleday, Doran Co., cl9S9), p. 17. 47 belonging to a young neighbour What Ford describes as *the biggest event of those early years’ ’ came when he was twelve years old. It was meet ing on the road, when driving with his father, an engine for driving threshing machines and sawmills, equipped with a chain that connected the power unit with the rear wheels so that it could travel under its own steam. Immediately Henry jumped from his father’s wagon to besiege the engineer with questions. This experience made a profound impression on him. By 1880, manufacturing was rapidly developing in Detroit, and in that year, when he was seventeen, Henry Ford was irre sistibly drawn to that city. This was much against the wishes and advice of his father, who felt that farm life was more re- 82 munerative and more wholesome. But young Ford wanted mechan ical work. He found such work immediately in a general machinists’ workshop, at two dollars and a half a week, which he supplemented by repairing watches and clocks for a jeweler at night. Then he worked for several years with various com panies which repaired, made, and installed steam motors. He returned to his father’s farm for about three years after this, but was drawn back to the city once more. All this time he had had an idea in the back of his mind Ibid.. p. 34. Ibid.. p. 39. 48 based on his interest in engines, the idea of an engine mounted on four wheels. This was a time when there was a tremendous need for the development of rapid transit, and his idea "was as logical a product of the times as Ford’s own 83 gravitation to the city." When Ford came to Detroit the second time, he had aban doned the idea of steam, and put his faith in the gas engine. He was now twenty-seven. He found work as an engineer and machinist with the Detroit Electric Company at forty-five dol lars a month, and spent his evenings and Sundays working in his own workshop, building his engine mounted on four wheels. In spite of all the discouragement which his old friends in Dearborn and his neighbours in Detroit could give him, he worked steadily on, and on an April night in 1893 drove a motor car out of his workshop, to the end of the street and back. It was ten years after this before Ford was able to begin the manufacture of motor cars for sale. Then he induced a coal man, Alexander Malcolm son, to go into business with him, 84 and the Ford Motor Company was organized. The following were deciding factors in Ford’s choice Ibid.. pp. 44-45. Ibid.. p. 59. 49 of occupation: (1) a strong special aptitude for all mechanical ap pliances and ability to deal with them, which led him to leave the farm in spite of the opposition of his family and neigh bours; (2) emotional drive, which kept him working on his invention in spite of poverty and discouragements; (S) the rapid industrial developments of the times; (4) the social necessity for the manufacture of such a means of transportation. William Randolph Hearst. The father of William, George Hearst, was a multimillionaire and became a United States Senator. It was only to be expected that so jovial, open-hearted a man should be drawn into politics. Though with no pre tensions to scholarship, statesmanship, or oratory, "Uncle George" was possessed of great natural sagacity. He waSo- a Democrat and called himself a "Jeffersonial Democrat." William’s mother was a highly cultivated woman, a leader in education and philanthropy. Though a quiet child, William was looked upon as a leader by his playmates, even in grammar school days in San Francisco. He showed a marked interest in American history and geography John K. Winkler, W. R. Hearst. an American Phenomenon (New York: Simon and Schuster, cl^S), pp. 36-37. 50 at this time. Mathematics he ignored. After grammar school, he spent some time at St. Paul’s School in Hev/ Hampshire to prepare for Harvard, which his mother was eager to have him attend, and which he entered in 1882. Here he showed himself an indifferent student and no Qg athlete, hut still a natural leader. In his junior year he was made business editor of the college comic paper, the Lam poon. which he managed so well that he piled up large profits for the publication. He did little, if any, writing for the paper. Before his ultimate expulsion from Harvard, he was sus pended once for pranks, and joined his family in Washington, D. C. Thrilled by the political scene, Hearst began to read American and world history intensively. By the time he re turned to Harvard, he had become genuinely interested in national affairs. A real interest in journalism was developing at this time, too. "Some desire to attract attention on a big scale was stirring in him. He wanted a larger audience than he could gain merely by force of his quiet, provocative personal- 87 ity." He began to study at first hand the workings of Boston’s newspapers, talking with every one from oilers to Ibid.. p. 48. 87 Ibid.. p. 55. 51 to owners, and thus gained some working knowledge of how news papers are made. He was interested in every phase of newspaper production. After his expulsion from Harvard for a practical joke, he went at once to New York to study the work of Joseph Pulit zer, who was running the New York World, and whose methods Hearst admired intensely. He had determined definitely to go into journalism, feeling that it was the "most interesting" 88 pursuit he could take up. He said he did not want to go into any business which would take a long, dull preparation. So in March, 1887, not quite twenty-four years of age, he told his father he had some ideas on how to run a newspaper, and asked to be allowed to take over the San Francisco Examiner. This paper had been taken over for debt by George Hearst seven years before. He had not found it of much value, and was quite willing that his son should experiment with it. Thus began Hearst’s career as a newspaper owner. His biographer points out that but for his father’s immense wealth "it is doubtful if William Randolph Hearst would ever have been able to establish himself in national journalism." There were numerous factors involved in the choice of Ibid.. p. 62. 8® Ibid.. pp. 52-34, 52 Hearst’s occupation: (1) a special aptitude for leadership probably inherit ed from both parents, and fostered by all the advantages which wealth could give; (2) an interest in politics acquired during a stay in Washington during his college days; (S) an interest in journalism begun during his business editorship of the Lampoon: (4) a fundamental desire for recognition, to attract attention on a large scale; (5) wealth, which gave him the initial opportunity to take over and run a newspaper. Clarence H. Howard. The father of Clarence Howard was a machinist and locomotive engineer by trade; all his special ability lay along mechanical lines. In 1871 he was appointed division master mechanic of the Union Pacific railroad, and located at Grand Island, Nebraska. Clarence went to school at Grand Island, where he ex celled only in mathematics as far as his studies were con cerned, though his biographer says that he was a natural leader in school and out. Albert Field Gilmore, Fellowship, the Biography of Clarence H. Howard. ^ Man and a Business (Boston: The Stratford Co., 1930j, p. 124. 53 Grand Island was a railroad town, in which the boys growing up naturally entered on some phase of railroading, then developing rapidly. Clarence’s older brother found employment with the Union Pacific at Omaha, and by the time Clarence was fourteen he had become thoroughly imbued with the idea of ob taining work in the shops of the Union Pacific at North Platte. He had a love for all things mechanical, and also wished to follow in his brother’s footsteps. His goal at this time was 91 to become a master mechanic. The boy’s father thought he should have more schooling before going to work, but finally agreed that the boy should go, if he could find himself a job, which he promptly did. His first work was cleaning car trucks of grease, but his boss soon set him at repair work, for which he showed great aptitude. Clarence shortly began to feel the need for technical training to supplement his practical experience. Soon after completing his apprenticeship, he heard of the Manual Training School of Washington University in St. Louis, and decided to attend it. He did very well here, showing much skill as a 92 draughtsman and a fertile mentality. Even in these years he manifested an ability to make friends, many of them leaders. Finding it necessary to obtain work in order to complete 91 Ibid., p. 128I Ibid.. p. 135. 54 the course, he secured a position in the mechanical department of the Union Pacific Railway at Omaha. From there he went to be assistant foreman of the Missouri Pacific machine shops, and in less than a year was promoted to the position of fore man. He was now only twenty-one. From there he v/ent, suc cessively, to be: assistant superintendent of the shops of the Missouri Car and Foundry Company at Cambridge City, Indiana; assistant master mechanic with the Missouri Pacific; superin- tjendent of the Scarritt Car Seat Company; manager of the same company; assistant general manager of the St. Charles, Missouri, Car Company; secretary of the Safety Car Heating and Lighting Company, and later its western manager. While still in the last-named position, he became in terested in the manufacture of a double body bolster for passenger cars, and was one of the incorporators of the American Steel Double Body Bolster Company, with a capital stock of 03 $550,000. Thus began his career as an industrialist. Various factors were of importance in his choice of occupation and development into a manufacturer: (1) special aptitude for mechanics, inherited from his father; (2) early ambition to become a master mechanic; (5) suggestion-imitation which led to his obtaining 93 Ibid., p. 141. 55 work in the railroad shops at an early age; (4) personality traits and social traits which enabled him to make influential friends and become a leader; (5) energy and emotional drive which kept him going forward. Alice Foote MacDougall. This business woman vms born in Washington Square, New York City, in 1867. Her grandfather, Stephen Allen, was mayor of New York from 1821 to 1824. She feels that to him, to her father’s father, and to her own father, Emerson Foote, she owes whatever she has of business 94 ability. Her childhood was spent in comfortable, even luxurious, surroundings in New fork City. She had governesses and school ing, but none of her education had any reference at all to a business career; in fact, there was no expectation that she would ever have such a career. Her father had a genius for finance, and had made a large fortune in business in New York. Suddenly, he lost everything, and was never able to get really started again. At twenty, Alice married Allan MacDougall, a man four teen years older than she, a successful jobber in the coffee 94 Alice Foote MacDougall, Alice Foote MacDougall. the Autobiography of a Business Woman (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., C1928 phy 01 a /7 P* 3. 56 business of lower Wall Street. However, not very long after their marriage, he developed serious illness. They had three small children, and itrs. MacDougall soon realized that it would be necessary for her to support them all. She tried various expedients for several years,— sewing, singing, anything that would bring in a little money— but by the time she was forty she had become aware that it was perfectly impossible for her to earn nearly enough for her family in this way, and she de cided to enter the coffee business. She had had no business training of any kind, and her entire capital was thirty-eight dollars. She says: Why, then, did I choose business instead of a salaried position? To begin with, I was not trained in anything that v/ould enable me to hold even a poorly paid position; and secondly, I believed in grappling with problems, not avoiding them. If I was successful in business, I could care adequately for my children. If I was not, they would be no worse off than they would be with me in a minor posi tion, poorly paid. I took my gamble, for I was always a gambler with fate, with chance, with good and bad fortune, using as currency only my own imagination, the force of my own temperament, and my determination to v/in.^^ Her husband and all his family had been in the green coffee business, but her husband had roasted small quantities of delicious South American and Central American coffees for their own use, and she determined to sell roasted coffee, using samples of her husband’s blends. Ibid.. p. 53. 57 She rented a small office on Front Street, and a friend loaned her $500 so that she could make her first purchase of coffee. From these humble beginnings, she built up a fairly good business, which later developed into a chain of very lu crative coffee shops. Here the follov/ing factors were influential: (1) some inherited aptitude for business, but no training; (2) suggestion, due to some familiarity with the coffee business, which had been her husband’s occupation; (5) economic necessity of earning a living for her fami ly; (4) fundamental urge for security, which seemed more likely of attainment through setting up in business than through the only sort of odd jobs she could obtain otherwise. Helen Woodward. The family of this advertising expert were poor working people, her mother German, her father Polish, who made enormous sacrifices so that she might remain at school 96 as long as possible. They considered her a model of intel ligence. The days of her early childhood were spent in New York Helen Y/oodward, Through Many Y/indov/s (New York: Harper and Bros., cl926),-p. 2. 58 City. As soon as she reached the age of thirteen, she obtained a library card, and for the next six years lived with her head buried in a book. Soon after the acquisition of the library card, the family moved to Bostcai, where she attended the Girls’ Latin School, which specialized in the classics as a prepara tion for college. Since she could not go to college, the course here was v/ithout much practical value to her. She says: "My preparation for earning a living was a little knowledge of 97 Latin, Greek, French, mathematics, and literature." She had a certain quickness of mind and common sense, but did not realize these were her assets at that time. No one gave her any advice, and she had nothing definite for sale. A friend of her father’s, who ran a small fur shop, gave her her first job keeping a set of single-entry books, but had to discharge her at the end of the first week, because she was not only absolutely unable to keep the books, but had ruined his ledgers completely. After this she hunted futilely for work for nine months. Finally she realized that it would be necessary for her to learn something that was definitely needed in business in order to procure a job, so she taught herself stenography and typewriting. After this, her first position involved some office work and some demonstrating and selling of graphophones, which Ibid.. p. 5. 69 were the forerunners of dictaphones. She delighted in making people buy the contraptions.^^ However, her employer was so disagreeable that she finally left this position. She then answered an advertisement for a typist to operate a grapho- phone, and thus obtained a position as stenographer to the assistant advertising manager of a firm selling subscription sets of books. Soon she was bored with taking letters on the dictating machine, and asked if she might write her own. The result was that she was soon handling this sort of mail by herself. Next she longed to write an advertisement herself, wrote some secretly, and finally asked her boss to let her try writing a few for a long series he was doing. He willing ly consented, and used a little of what she wrote. "To a 99 starving ambition this seemed real food." However, about this time, that department of the business ceased to exist, and she looked for a new job, as she did not care to be in any other department. For a brief time she had a clerical job in an advertising agency. The advertising business fascinated her, and she determined to be a copy writer. Then an acquain tance wrote her of a place he thought she should have as assistant to the advertising manager of a publishing house, and she got it. From then on her work was mainly connected with Ibid.. p. 26. Ibid.. p. 92. 60 advertising. The following factors apparently operated in the choice here: (1) good intelligence; (2) fair general education; (3) a social situation which involved poverty, parents who believed in education but did not know what sort would be useful to her, and economic necessity; (4) chance, which led her to take a position in an advertising department, thus revealing to her her aptitude for advertising work. Adolnh Zukor. This motion picture producer came from a class of small tradesmen in Hungary. His parents died while he was small, and an uncle, a rabbi, took him and his brother to live with him. The boys attended the common school, where Arthur, the older, was considered the more brilliant. Adolph told a sympathetic school teacher that he did not feel fitted to become a rabbi, there was no money to give him a medical education, and he did not want the only other alternative which seemed possible,— to become a country notary. He wanted to do something practical and active, but did not know exactly what. His uncle was disappointed, but apprenticed him to a merchant in Szanto for three years. Adolph showed such indus- 61 try and intelligence here that the merchant asked him to re main when his apprenticeship was over, but, in the meantime, he had read many American dime novels, and had made, up his mind to emigrate to America. He realized that that part of Hungary was hopeless for a man of ambition; no one rose above 100 his father’s level in society. After considerable difficulty, he persuaded his uncle and guardian to let him use his share of his parents’ tiny estate to go to America. Arrived in New York, he was found a job as errand boy at a fur factory by a Hungarian friend. Gradually he learned the fur trade, and next began the manu facture of fur novelties on his own account, later going into partnership with Morris Kohn. In 1896 he was naturalized. The moving picture was beginning to develop quite rapid ly about this time. "When in 1894 and 1895 Edison began general distribution of his peep-show-in-a-box, the ’kineto- scope parlours’ grew into ’nickodeons.’ The machines were operated on the slot principle.In 1903 Kohn and Zukor were both persuaded to invest money in a penny arcade in South Union Square. It paid from the beginning, and began to absorb Will Irwin, The House That Shadows Built (Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, Doran and Co., Inc., cl928), p. 19. ^0^ Ibid.. p. 90. 62 their attention and interest. It was the blood working in them. Every Hungarian is either a peasant or an artist; often both. And every Hungarian, be his origin Magyar or Semitic, has something of the showman. Zukor managed the penny arcade for awhile, but the other partners combined against him, and he sold his interest. He was now thirty-two, had a fluid working capital of about $200,000, and began to look around for a good opening in the showmanship business, which he liked. He started by going into business with William A. Brady in exhibiting Hale’s Tours on the Atlantic Coast, then managed four theatres in differ ent eities, running vaudeville with the moving pictures. He felt that there was a great future in the moving picture busi ness, but thought that producers must give the public some thing better. He began to spend a good deal of time watching the old Biograph Company work, trying to learn the business in all its departments, and also experimented with turning his old favorites of classical literature into scenarios. Mr. Zu kor ’s letter says: Many years ago, before motion pictures had achieved wide popularity it occurred to me that the motion picture art could be developed extensively if famous artists ap peared in famous plays on the screen, and that the enjoy ment of the drama could be made possible through this Ibid.. p. 92. 63 medium to hundreds of thousands of people throughout the world who otherwise would not have the opportunity.^®^ He did not yet dare to think of producing pictures him self, but tried without success to get other producers inter ested in his plan of longer and better pictures. Finally, he talked to Daniel Frohman about the proposition, and Frohman agreed to lend his name and influence, though he could not put in any money. Zukor sold most of his outside enterprises to raise thé necessary capital, gathered a staff, and began to produce pictures. In this case, numerous influences operated as factors in the choice of final occupation: (1) native intelligence, industry, and ambition; (2) desires for new experience, for recognition, and for security, which led him to emigrate to America; (s) rapid development of the moving picture at this time; (4) special aptitude for and interest in the show business, which many Hungarians have; (5) desire to improve the quality of the moving picture, 2. LABOR LEADERS William D. Havwood. Haywood’s father was from an old Personal Correspondence of the Investigator, letter from Adolph Zukor, October, 1933. 64 American family, and was a Pony Express rider as a boy. His mother was of Scotch-Irish parentage. Bill Haywood was born in Salt Lake City in 1869. Shortly after his third birthday his father died, and a few years after that his mother married again. They went to live in a mining camp called Ophir, and here Bill had a little schooling, though not very much. When nine years old, he did his first work in a mine, helping his stepfather, who was engaged in assessment work. His next schooling was at the Sisters* Academy of the Sacred Heart in Salt Lake City* For some years, he had various jobs of short duration,— on a farm, in a small store, running a fruit stand, as a messenger, as a bellboy. When he was fif teen, his stepfather decided he could use him in the mine where he was working as superintendent of the Ohio Mine and Milling Company in Humboldt County, Nevada. In Nevada Bill began to do a good deal of reading. All the miners owned some books and passed them around to each other. At this time the assayer took a liking to him, and taught him something of assaying, which he found fascinating. He felt that he would like to become a mining engineer, and even wrote to the Houghton School of Mines and the Columbia School of Mines to learn their requirements for entrance, but he never was able to enter either of these schools. William D. Haywood, Bill Haywood* s Book, the Auto biography of William D. Haywood (New York: International Publi shers Co.,~Tnic., cl929), p. 24. 66 As a boy. Bill formed a close friendship with an old Irishman, Pat Reynolds. Pat was a member of the Knights of 105 Labor, and gave Bill his first lessons in unionism. He had never previously heard of the need of workingmen* s organiz ing for mutual protection. After reading the details of the Haymarket Riot in 1886, he told Pat that he would like to join the Knights of Labor. Although there was no opportunity to join this organization, he was a member in the making. After his marriage. Bill did some assessment work, then ranching and surveying, but finally went back to mining at Silver City, Idaho. It was here that some one told him the story of the Molly Maguires, which made a great impression on him. The next August Edward Boyce, President of the Western Federation of Miners, came to Silver City to organize the miners there. Haywood attended the meetings, was greatly in terested, and was one of several hundred charter members of the Silver City Miners* Union that was formed. He was elected a member of the finance committee, and filled the different offices of the union at various times. He says that he never missed a meeting of the union while he was in Silver City ex cept when working on the night shift, and always took an active 105 Ibid.. p. 30. 66 106 part in the work of the organization. The miners of Idaho were beginning to be interested in putting an eight-hour law through the legislature. Haywood was elected a delegate from the Silver City Miners’ Union to the convention of the Western Federation of Miners which was held in 1898 in Salt Lake City, and thus began his career as a labor leader. There was a natural development here into labor leader ship through; (1) economic necessity for working from childhood on: (2) class consciousness first developed through the teachings of a miner friend, and increased by reading of con flicts between capital and labor; (3) attitudes developed through the activities of a miners’ union organizer, and through his own part in the sub sequent union meetings; (4) confidence in his judgment shov/n by his election to represent his local union at a convention. Mever London. It was into the East Side of the early nineties that Meyer London came from Russia at the age of twenty. At this time there were many thousands of East Euro pean Jews in that part of the city, who had come for safety Ibid.. p. 64. 67 and the hope of freedom and equality. But, his biographer says: Those were the palmy days of the tenement house and the sweat-shop, of the boarder and the cadet, of the white plague and of lung blocks• It was then that the tailor labored a day and a half to complete one day’s task, for which he was paid two dollars in wages. It was a time when the East side was a byword all over the country, a synonym for human degradation and suffering.-®^ Meyer’s father, who had preceded him to America, was a Talmudic scholar, but revolutionary in politics. He started a little paper in Yiddish on the East Side. He had intended Meyer for an intellectual career, as from childhood Meyer was a thoughtful student and voracious reader. In Russia he studied literature, history, ancient Hebrew, the Talmud. He had been interested in revolutionary ideas before leaving Rus sia, and when he and the rest of the family joined his father in New York, he found that his father had become a Socialist 108 of the extreme left. They were very poor, so Meyer hunted for work to help him continue his education. A position in a circulating library gave him time to study law, and besides law he read everything he could find on English and American history and politics. However, he still found time to attend radical meetings, and participated in the debates on current problems. "It was probably his love of debate, combined with Harry Rogoff, ^ East Side Epic. the Hife and Work of Meyer London (New York: Vanguard Press, cl950), p. 3. Ibid.. p. 9. 68 his lively interest in public affairs, that made him choose the legal profession for his career.He entered the law school of New York University in 1896 and was admitted to the bar in 1898. At this time Eugene V. Debs was organizing the party called Social Democracy of America, and Meyer London immediate ly threw himself into the work of this party, which was a move ment of American workers led by an American idealist. Shortly after London had begun practice as an attorney, he was called upon to act as legal adviser for Jewish unions and other working class organizations on the East Side. "He eagerly responded to the call, and thus pledged his whole fu ture to Jewish labor and socialist work. He specialized in labor cases, representing trade unions, fighting injunctions. It was suggested that perhaps one reason London paid so little attention to his law practice was because of his conviction that the poor man is not protected by the law, and is discrimi- 111 nated against in court. Here was a rather complex social situation, in which the following elements influenced the choice of work with the unions as the chief occupation of this man: 109 Ibid., P* 11 110 Ibid., P* 18 111 Ibid.. P# 28 69 (1) inherited keen intelligence; (2) the environment of his childhood in Russia, where Jews have ever been unwelcome and discriminated against, de veloping strong class consciousness as a Jew; (5) radical utterances and activities of his father; (4) special aptitude for debate; (5) interest in public affairs; (G) class consciousness as a worker, intensified by the social conditions of the East Side in New York: (7) interest aroused by the Socialist activities of Eugene V. Debs. 3. LAÎVYER Dwight Whitney Morrow. Although in later life Morrow entered with marked success into various lines of activity, including banking and diplomacy, the investigator believed it fair to consider him as a lawyer, since fundamentally law was his occupation, the calling for which he was trained. The Morrow line runs back into the period before the American Revolution, when Alexander Morrow came over from Ire land and settled in the Panhandle district of Virginia. Dwight’s father, James Morrow, was born on the farm here, but early showed an aptitude for learning, and a way was found for him to go to Jefferson College. He had thought of the law as a career, but after the Civil War he married, took up teaching 70 as a quicker way to earn a living, and never went back to the law. His wife, Clara Johnson, was an intelligent woman, who in early life was considered remarkable because she had read so many books. Though James Morrow was a teacher all his life, and never earned more than a moderate salary, he helped'all his five children to acquire good educations. Dwight was not impressive looking as a boy, being pale and undersized, but there was something about him which made every one sure that he would succeed in life. They usually decided that it was his voice which made him seem smart— that, and the way he "looked out of his eyesl" Anyway, it was generally thought that the Morrow’s second boy was going to be a public speaker some day, and Pater dreamed that at last there might be a lawyer in the family. The boy’s favorite recreation was reading. He would remain motionless for hours with his nose in a book. He always went about with older, bigger boys, and finished high school at fourteen, the youngest in his class. He knew he was too small and young to enter any college for awhile, so found a job in the county treasurer’s office at four dollars a week, and studied with his father at night. His father had hoped his older son. Jay, would become a lawyer, but he had decided to attend West Point. Dwight, admiring his big brother intense ly and wishing to do whatever he did, decided he, too, would Mary Margaret McBride, The Story of Dwight W. Mor row (New York: Farrar and Rinehart, Inc., cl930), pp. 29-30. 71 be a soldier. At seventeen, he took the examinations, making first place, but his Congressman would not appoint him because there was another Morrow still at West Point. Dwight was much disappointed. He was determined to have a college education, however. He had saved a little money from his small wage, and the family were willing to scrimp to help him. In 1891 he entered Amherst College. From the first it was obvious that he was to be a leader here, as he was liked by all types of students, both the serious and the frivolous. Morrow* s teachers had a high regard for his mind and 113 character. He was influenced most by Anson Morse, professor of history, Charles Garman, professor of philosophy, and George D. Olds, professor of mathematics. "President Olds has said that Morrow had the best mathematical mind of any man who ever 114 attended Amherst." He was one of the four highest men in his graduating class, and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa. Every year he won prizes, including, in his senior year, the Bond Speaking Prize and the Hardy Award for extemporaneous speaking. His classmates voted him the brightest man in his class, also the best-liked and the most likely to succeed. By this time. Morrow had decided to study law, probably Ibid., p. 42. Ibid.. p. 43. 72 influenced partly by his father* s strong desire to have a lawyer in the family, as well as by his own gifts. After a short time of reading law in an office in Pittsburgh, he be came convinced that he needed to attend law school, and in 1896 enrolled at Columbia University Law School. He worked his way through by tutoring other students. As at Amherst, Morrow* s teachers at Columbia marveled at his keen, vigorous mind. "Law v/as his element. He loved discussion, and his classes afforded him endless opportunity for that favorite sport." After his graduation in 1899, he entered the offices of Reed, Simpson, Thacher and Barnum, a distinguished Hew York law firm, as a clerk at sixty dollars a month. Needless to say. Morrow soon proved his worth here, and a few years later was taken into the firm. The important factors influencing the choice of the law appear to have been: (1) inherited keen intelligence; (2) favorable social environment in childhood, includ ing scholarly background and family interest in education; (3) special aptitude for public speaking; (4) suggestion and influence of his father, who had Ibid.. p. 54. 73 always desired a lawyer in the family. 4. POLITICIANS William Jennings Bryan. The earlier branches of the Bryan family had originated in Virginia, then pushed westward into Kentucky and Illinois. None of the family connection ever became very rich, or extremely poor. Many of them have been farmers, others lawyers, physicians, and merchants.William Jennings Bryan*s father. Judge Silas L. Bryan, had made a con siderable success in the law, was a leader in the community of Salem, Illinois, and owned a five-hundred-acre farm. Part of the early years of the boy were spent on this farm. The schools of Salem vfere not remarkable, and William did not show any particular brilliance as a small boy. How ever, evidence of the budding politician might have been dis cerned in the fact that, at the age of fourteen, he left the struggling Baptist congregation to which his father belonged, and joined the Cumberland Presbyterian Church. "Young William preferred to ally himself with a group which was the more nu- 117 merous and more influential." The Bryans meant that their son should have every advan tage. At the age of fifteen, he was sent to Whipple Academy 116 John Cuthbert Long, Bryan, the Great Commoner (New York: D. Appleton and Co., cl928)V p. 22• Ibid.. p. 26. 74 at Jacksonville to prepare for Illinois College. It was planned that he should attend Oxford for post-graduate work. At Illinois College, William began to show his special aptitudes. was elected vice-president of his class, won a second prize in Latin and a second in oratory during his fresh man year, an essay-writing contest in his soj^iomore year, and was valedictorian of his class at commencement time. He was looking forward to a successful career in the law, and was in terested in politics. But when his father died in 1880, during William* s junior year at Illinois College, the Oxford plan had to he given up on account of finances. Bryan*s biographer feels that his career was materially altered by this circumstance. He says: Is it fair to say that had he become William ^ennings Bryan, Oxon., he would never have been a champion of Ne— braskanism? It does seem safe at least to assert that he would never have put on the alpaca coat, and, if one may judge ty other instances, it seems more than likely that he would have become the polite, distinguished, eloquent lawyer,,establishing his residence in the wicked city of Gotham. Realizing that he now had his own way to make, Bryan entered more vigorously than ever into, his college activities. He spent part of his limited allowance for additional lessons in public speaking. After graduation, he enterëd the Union pp. 21-S2. 75 College of Law at Chicago, and earned part of his expenses hy work in the office of Judge Lyman Trumbull. Completing his law course in June, 1883, he hung out his shingle at Jacksonville, and in 1884 married Mary Baird. She was a young woman of intellectual attainments, and the young couple agreed to spend most of their spare time studying railroad legislation, political economy, and other aspects of government. Soon Bryan found that he was not progressing very fast as a lawyer or in politics in Jacksonville, where the social order was pretty well established. After a business trip to Iowa and Kansas, he stopped over in Lincoln, Nebraska, to visit a friend, and decided that this was the sort of new western city where a bri^t young man could get ahead and where his talents could develop. In 1887 he moved to Lincoln and es tablished his law practice there. Nebraska had never been Democratic, but Bryan was soon on the inside of what Democratic operations there were. "Though a newcomer to the city, he was elected in 1888 as a delegate from his county to the Democratic State Convention and 119 made his first political speech in the spring of that year." Bryan was good-looking, greatly enjoyed personal ac quaintanceship, and had a gift for remembering faces and Ibid.. p. 44. 76 incidents* Moreover, he continued his studies of history, economics, and politics assiduously, soon acquiring the repu tation of being an authority. Bryan campaigned vigorously for J* Sterling Morton, Democrat, when he ran for Congress in 1888, but he was defeated, Nebraska still was strongly Republican and Populist. Never theless, Bryan addressed the Democratic State Convention with tremendous enthusiasm and vigor two years later, and the dele gates decided that Bryan himself might as well be the candidate for Congress, since he was in that fighting mood. He turned on all his oratorical powers, and when the votes were counted, Bryan had been elected, and Nebraska was sending a Democratic IBO Congressman to Washington for the first time. In this case, the important factors in the choice of a political career were: (1) inherited intelligence; (2) suggestion-imitation, because of his father*s pro fession being the law; (S) favorable social environment during youth, including educational advantages; (4) special aptitude for public speaking; (5) personality traits, including good looks and a friendly manner; Ibid.. p. 52. 77 (6) favorable political environment in the new city of Lincoln, Nebraska. Calvin Coolidge. There might well be some question as to whether Coolldge should be classed as a lawyer or a poli tician. Although he practiced law for a good many years, be achieved his prominence in political life. Born in Plymouth, Vermont, in 1872, he came from Puritan stock. His family was in moderate circumstances, his father running the general store at a profit of about one hundred dol lars a month. Besides this occupation, his father was nearly all his life a constable or a deputy sheriff, sometimes both, with power to serve civil and criminal process. Before him, Calvin*s grandfather had held the same positions. As a child, Calvin often accompanied his father when he went before the local justices or to the opening session of the County Court. He says: By reason of T#at I saw and heard in ay early life, I came to have a good working knowledge of the practical side of government. I understood that it consisted of restraints Wiich the people had imposed.ugon themselves in order to promote the common welfare. Nhen Calvin was a baby, his father was elected to the state legislature, and reelected twice. 121 Calvin Coolldge, s£. Sflgja i^ge (New York: Cosmopolitan Book Corp., cl929j, p. 25. 78 Calvin* s grandfather wanted him to stay on the land. As a boy, Calvin* s wish was to keep store, as his father had, and it was his father in later years vho wished him to enter the law. From the time he was five until be was thirteen, he at tended the local schools, then entered the Black River Acadeny at Ludlow. Herhe says, he was attracted to the study of civil government. Although only thirteen, the Constitution of the United States interested him tremendously, and he continued to 123 study it as long as he lived. Coolldge entered Amherst in 1891, graduating cum laude in 1895. By this time he had decided to enter the law. He says that he felt the duties would be congenial and the oppor- 124 tunities for service large. He expected to attend a law school, but a classmate wrote him of an opportunity to go into Hie office of Hammond and Field at Northampton, he applied for it, and was accepted. For the next twenty months he spent about ten hours a day studying law and helping prepare writs, deeds, wills, and other documents. In June, 1897, he was ad mitted to the bar of Massachusetts, and opened an office in ifeid., p. 17. Ibid.. p. 40. 124 , p. 84. 79 Northampton, where he practiced for twenty-one years. At this time, he says, he fully expected to become a 125 country lawyer, with perhaps a final place on the bench. He evidently had no political ambitions then, but entered politics through the law, as so many others have done. His public career began two years later with his election to the city council of NorHiampton. The deciding factors in this case were: (1) keen intelligence; (2) social environment of childhood, the close connec tion of his father and grandfather with legal matters, although neither was a lawyer, and with state politics; (3) good education; (4) wish of his father that he enter the law; (5) desire for congenial duties and opportunities for service; (6) an opportunity for a political career opened to him through the local government of Northampton. Charles Curtis. This man also entered politics through the law. He, too, came from old New England stock on the father * s side. Oren A. Curtis, his father, had taken an active part in the events leading up to the Civil War, and, when Charles ^ Ibid.. p. 79. 80 was three years old, went to fight on the side of the North. Though he later returned, he does not seem to have had much part in his son»s upbringing. Charles* mother was of Indian and French extraction, descended from a line of leaders in two Indian nations. She had had a rudimentary education at a Catholic School. As the Indian side of her character predominated, she brought up her baby as an Indian during the time that Hie lived after his birth, which was not quite four years. For several years after this, Charles lived with his Grandfather and Grandmother Curtis, who had come to Kansas a short time before. The grandfather had founded a town and built a hotel, but the hotel was not considered a suitable home for little Charles, so at the age of six he was sent for a visit to his Grandmother Pappan of the Kaw Indians. Charles greatly enjoyed his three years of Indian life, though he was not allowed to run wild and had to attend a Quaker school. At nine years of age, he carried a message to Topeka for help against the Cheyennes, fifty-seven miles on foot. This feat decidéd his Grandmother Curtis that she would keep the boy with her and give him a better chance than he would have kith the Indians. Charles did not welcome the idea of 126 Don C, Seitz, From Kaw Teegee ^ Capitol, thg Life Story of Chaples Curtis. Indian. gas Msen to High Estate (New York: Frederick A. Stokes Co., cl928), p. 28. 81 leaving the Kaws, but submitted. He was an attractive boy with an intelligent face, made friends easily, and when he entered school at North Topeka, his teacher found that he learned very fast and remembered what he learned. His grandfather had several fast horses, and it was not long before Charles was riding in horse races. "At ten he had a state-wide reputation as a jockey and was known as »The 127 Indian Boy.*" For the time being, riding was his ambition. He rode up to the year 1875, and had planned to go to New Or leans and Philadelphia as a rider, but his Grandmother Curtis persuaded him to give up this idea and begin to think more about his education and his future. In 1876 he entered the Topeka High School, and support ed himself while there by driving a hack, picking up items for thé North Topeka Times, and other odd jobs. In this school an excellent teacher took an interest in him and gave him special help which enabled him to stand well in his class in spite of handicaps. He delivered the commencement oration so well that he attracted the attention of the wife of the leading attorney in Topeka, A. H, Case. Charles was now nineteen years old, and decided to study law. Mr. Curtis* letter states his rea son for this choice: "I took up the practice of law when I Ibid.. p. 128. 82 was a young man because I thought it had better advantages for 128 the future than any other profession, at the time." He confided his ambition to Mrs. Case, who advised the boy to see her husband. As a result, he studied law in Mr. Case*s office in return for making himself generally useful; in 1881 was ad mitted to the bar, and soon went into practice for himself. When he had been practicing for three years, he was elected Prosecuting Attorney for Shawnee County, and did a splendid job of cleaning up saloons and speakeasies. Where upon, he was reelected for another two years. Every young lawyer of spirit used to think he would like to be a member of Congress. This was especially true in the West, and particularly in Kansas and Nebraska, born twins in a fierce political storm. ^ In 1889, Charles Curtis became a candidate for a vacan cy in the Fourth Congressional District, but was defeated. Again in 1892 he ran, and this time he was elected. The factors leading up to choice of this man*s occupa tion are not quite so obvious as in some of the other cases. It seems, however, that there were; (1) good mental equipment; (2) salutary influence of his grandmother, his father*s mother; 128 Personal Correspondence of the Investigator, letter from Charles Curtis, October, 1935. Don C. Seitz, gp. cit.. p. 157. 85 (5) physical energy and emotional drive, #iich enabled him to overcome economic obstacles; (4) educational help from teachers and friends; (5) political situation of the time and place, which gave him a good opening in politics. Alfred Ë. Smith. The case of this politician is quite different from any previously discussed. Smith*s father was a boss truckman in New York City. He died in 1886, udien Al- fred was thirteen years old. Alfred* s mother then purchased a small candy store to try to earn a living for the family. As a small boy, Alfred sold newspapers in the afternoons and helped in the store after dinner. He was attending St. James Parochial School at this time. "There was keen rivalry among 150 the parochial schools for medals for elocution," he says. When Alfred was eleven years old, he won the junior medal in the elocution contest between parochial schools. When not quite fifteen years old, it was necessary, on account of family finances, for him to leave school altogether and find full time work. For the next few years he held jobs of various sorts: as a truck chaser at three dollars a week; assistant shipping clerk in an oil establishment at eight dol- Alfred E. Smith, Up. to Now, an Autobiography (New York: Viking Press, Inc., c1929J7 p. 39. 84 lars a week; assistant bookkeeper with a wholesale commission house in the Fulton Fish Market; shipping clerk for the Davison Pump Works in Brooklyn. His statement of the general attitude toward politics at that time is of interests In my boyhood all men, young and old, leaned quite naturally toward politics. They might never hold a poli tical position of any kind, but they nevertheless took an interest in what was going on. My father, for instance, never held any political office, but wqs always deeply in terested in what was going on. Young men were prompted to be active for the purpose of securing political preferment, which then and in those neighborhoods really meant some thing. Men often sought public office because of the salary. .... Political appointment gave them an income greater than they could earn for similar work in private occupations^, and it also gave them prestige among their neighbors . Young men who hoped for political advancement spent their evenings at the Tammany clubs. However, young Smith at tended his first pSlitlcal meeting at the Oriental Club in December, 1894, a meeting in the interest of the Hon. Timothy J. Campbell. Smith made speeches for him and for the anti- Tammany ticket, and was rewarded in January, 1895, by his first political appointment, as a process server in the office 132 of the commissioner of jurors. Mr. Smith says that he had a fondness for politics, liked the excitement of public life, and also took much satisfaction in being able to help his Ibid.. p. 26. Ibid.. pp. 54-55. 85 many friends. Becoming interested in amateur theatricals while a small child, he later took prominent parts in the dramatic performances given by the St. James Dramatic Society. He has always felt that his prominence in amateur theatricals was a great help in bringing him to the attention of the people of his neighborhood, which, of course, was very useful later when 134 he came up for election. It was not until the Foley-Divver fight for the leader ship of the district in 1901 that Smith became an active mem ber of Tammany Hall and an active election-district leader. In the fall of 1903 he received his first nomination as a member of the assembly, and conducted his campaign entire ly from the end of a truck. He says that he was gifted with a loud voice and a good pair of lungs, and was told that he 135 could be heard a block away, over the rattle of the horse cars. The election went to him by a substantial majority over four other candidates. The chief factors in Mr. Smith*s choice of politics evidently were: (1) the general interest in politics of the time and place; Ibid.. p. 56. Ibid., p. 43. 135 IJjJ^., p. 67. 86 (2) special aptitude for dramatics and public speaking; (S) prominence achieved through participation in ama teur theatricals; (4) liking for the excitement of public life; (5) lack of education idiich might have fitted him for good non-political positions; (6) favorable personality traits and social traits; (7) desire for security; (8) desire for recognition. William Hale Thompson. Thompson* s father was bom in New Hampshire, but moved to Chicago after the Civil War, where he bought many pieces of real estate which made him a substan tial fortune. He also served in the state legislature, and interested himself in civic affairs. William Hale Thompson, Jr., was born in 1869. His 136 biographer says that his virtues are not of the intellect. Nevertheless, he did well in his dnidies at grammar school, then was sent to the Fessenden Preparatory School to prepare for Yale. However, at fifteen he decided he didn*t want to go to Yale; he wanted to go west to become a cowboy. His father and mother quite naturally did not approve of this plan, but 136 John Bright, Hizzoner Big gl3,3, Thompson, an Idyll of Chicago (New York: Cape and Smith, cl950), p. 5. 87 finally consented to it, on condition that he return home each winter for additional schooling. As a matter of fact, however, apparently the only formal education he did obtain from this time on was at the Metropolitan Business College. Arriving in Cheyenne, TRÿoming, he started as a cook with a cattle outfit, but soon got a job as a cow-puncher. Thereafter he devoted his winters to acting as brakeman for the Union Pacific Railroad. Having learned the cow business, he did some buying and selling of cattle on his own account, and by the time he was twenty-one was worth $30,000 and was 137 manager and part-owner of 6,000 head of cattle in Nebraska. When his father died in 1391, young William was com pelled to return home to manage the large estate. This he has done so well that the fortune has increased from year to year. "When Bill decided upon Public Service, he was able to boast, with Andrew Mellon, that the most benign altruism actuated 138 his entrance into politics, so rich was he." Thompson* s personality is not at all complex, but it is the sort which appeals to the public. He is jovial, really likes people, is loyal to his friends, a good sport and a good spender. The ward in which he lived contained the residences of 137 Ibid.. p. 11. Ibid.. pp. 11-12. 66 many millionaires, bat also a section of colored folk and poor. Thompson was well liked in this section. Frequently urged by numerous friends to enter politics, he did not want to, and would not, until some of his friends made a bet that Bill was afraid to enter the aldermanlc race. "Bill Thompson strode into the fray as an adventurer, because 139 a friend told him he did not dare." He found it hard work, as there was a strong candidate running against him, but what helped more than anything else to put him over was his marshal ing of the negro vote, which gave him a plurality of 403 votes In this case, the chief factors in the choice of poli tics were: (1) economic security because of inherited wealth, which left him free to choose any occupation he wished; (2) extrovertive personality traits; (3) favorable social traits; (4) fact that his father had taken part in politics to some extent; (5) desire for new experience; (6) desire for recognition. John Wingate Weeks. Weeks came from a long line of New England ancestors, many of them important in the army and 139 ;^bid.. p. 14. 89 in civil and political positions. He was born on his father*s farm in Lancaster, New Hampshire, in 1860. As usual on New England farms, the family had to live with the strictest econ omy. John went to the district school, did chores around the farm, and in the spring helped with his Uncle James* maple sugar crop. "He taught one term in the district school, and 140 was well fitted intellectually and physically for the task." When he was about sixteen, the Congregational minister of the town obtained an appointment for John to the Naval Acad emy at Annapolis. His only doubt was whether his father could spare him from the farm; however, it was decided that he should go, and he entered in 1877. At the Academy he did not show himself conspicuously brilliant, but worked very hard, and ranked the highest in his class at graduation. He was fond of social pleasures, too, made many friends, and often acted as a peacemaker and adjuster of differences. "He was regarded by the Midshipmen and by the 141 Academy officials as the *best-balanced* man in the class." After serving in the Navy until 1883, he and some others were legislated out of the service because of a surplus of of ficers. He then spent some time surveying land in Florida, Charles G. Washburn, The Life of John W. Weeks (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 019287, p. 7. IÈM-» p. 8. 90 and here met the woman he married* As the climate of Florida did not agree with Mrs. Weeks, they decided to make a change, and he formed a partnership with Mr. Henry Hornhlower, of Bos ton, to take over the banking and brokerage business of Horn- blower and Page. Thereafter for some years Mr. Weeks was en gaged in the banking business in Boston. He made his home in West Newton, near Boston. At this time all sorts of civic improvements were being made around Boston and the Newtons, there was much interest in civic af fairs, and public-spirited citizens were called upon to participate in the government of the city. "It is not sur prising that Captain Weeks, with characteristic public spirit, should respond to such an appeal. Nor is it surprising that, although relatively a newcomer, he was chosen as Alderman-at- 142 large without opposition." After three years as an alder man, he was persuaded to run for mayor, and was elected. Then in 1904 he was elected to Congress. Important factors in this choice were: (1) a social background of public service in his family; (2) keen intelligence; (S) no need for his services as a naval officer; (4) fine personality traits; Ibid.. p. 85. 91 (5) desire to serve; (6) a social situation in bis city calling on him for political service. 5. SUMMARY (1) Quite a wide variety of factors operated in the occupational choice of the six business men and women dealt with in this chapter. Important among them were: (a) special aptitudes, sometimes discovered by chance, sometimes apparent from early life; (b) desire for security; (c) desire for recognition; (d) desire for new experience; (e) social and economic conditions of the time and place; (f) suggestion-imitation, because of occupations of members of the family and of friends; (g) chance. (2) With the two labor leaders, importait factors were: (a) poverty; (b) class consciousness developed by teachings of others and by the social situation; (c) conflict between capital and labor; (d) desire for service; 92 (e) special aptitude for publie speaking, in the case of Meyer London. (s) With the lawyer, most important were: (a) keen intelligence; (b) special aptitude for public speaking; (c) suggestion on Hie part of his father. (4) With the six politicians, outstanding factors were the following, though not all occurred in each case: (a) special aptitude for public speaking; (b) personality traits, — friendliness and joviality; (c) legal training (three of the six practiced law before entering politics); (d) connection of relatives with politics; (e) desire for recognition; (f) desire for new experience; (g) desire for service; (h) stimulus of the favorable political situation. CHAPTER IV CREATIVE WORKERS, PART 1 In this chapter will be discussed the factors found to have influenced the choice of occupation of individuals in this group engaged in creative work of various kinds, with the exclusion of writers. That is, it will deal with the actors, artists, musicians and composers, scientists, and entertainers of different sorts. The following chapter. Creative Workers. Part 2, will discuss the writers. 1. ACTORS John Barrymore. This actor*s family background is a matter of common knowledge, as he comes from a long line of famous actors. His mother* s brother was John Drew, and his father Maurice Barrymore. However, in his autobiography Mr. Barrymore states that although he went on the stage at an early age, he did not want to be an actor. He says: I was there merely because it was supposed that any member of a theater family ought to have something in him that would carry him through a crisis on the stage; at least he might be es^ected to possess a certain adapta bility to the medium.^ * 1 . John Barrymore, Confessions of an Actor (Indiana polis: Bobbs-Merrill Co., cl926), pi3. He attended the Notre Dame Ccmvent ia Philadelphia vften a small boy# Once after throwing a bardboiled egg at a schoolmate in a fight, he was forced by one of the sisters, as a supposed punishment, to look at a copy of Dante*s Inferno# illustrated by Dor#. The pictures so captured his imagination that they made a lasting impression upon him. Some years later, when he followed his own bent and took up drawing, he 144 tried to produce work like Doré*s. The discussions of acting which he often heard in his grandmother * s house #ien a boy did not seem to mean much to him. Be left the stage to study at art schools, because he really wanted to be a painter. "I only went back," he says, "because there is hope— at least money— for the bad actor. The indifferent painter usually starves."^^^ He has nearly always enjoyed the rehearsal period of any play, because there is more opportunity for real creative work in rehearsals, and he has always had the urge to be a 146 creative artist. In spite of his attitude toward the stage, it hardly needs to be said that he has attained a notable measure of Ibid.. p. 18. i^jd.. p. 0. “• ■ - p. IS. m success as an actor. The factors operating in this actor* s choice seem quite clearly to have been: (1) special aptitude Tot acting; (2) suggestion-imitation, because of family tradition; (3) desire for security, more easily attained by him through acting than through art. Eddie Cantor. This singing comedian was born on the East Side of New York City, of Russian parents. His father was a musician idio never kept a job for any length of time. %ile Eddie was still a baby, both his parents died, and he was brought up by his maternal grandmother. She supported him as best she could by conducting a humble sort of employment 147 agency for servants. Eddie grew up on the sidewalks of New ïork. Even at six years of age he had a strong voice and could carry a tune fairly well. He often stayed out late at 148 night with his gsffig singing on doorsteps. He had no sys tematic musical training. At public school, he soon showed ability in elocution. "Teachers loaned me to one another to serve as a general 147 Eddie Cantor, gy Life in Your Hands, as Told to David Freedman (New York: Harper and Bros., cl928), p. 15. Ibid.. p. 22. 96 149 reciter in the assembly*^ MiiXe still a small boy, he was a sufficiently good entertainer so that his stay at a free vacation camp was prolonged for several weeks in order that he might serve as an entertainer. No matter what he did, he always wanted to do it before an audience# At the age of fourteen, he had begun to make political speeches from soap boxes, and one of his first speeches was for Alfred E. Smith, %ho was running for the As- 15G sembly. He had several jobs as office boy and one as a stock clerk, which he pr<aaptly lost, because he tried to entertain other employees. He didn’t seem to fit in. Mr. Cantor says: In reality, I was unconsciously trying to inject humor into the cheap melodrama of life around me. Poverty, drudgery, ignorance, petty struggles, all of these entan gled me in a mesh of disappointment and bewilderment. But fortunately, when everything failed, I still returned to acting. He and # friend formed an amateur team which played at private affairs, such as weddings, bar mitzvahs, socials and local theatricals, but his partner soon took a job in an of fice, and again Eddie was looking for a job. After winning several amateur contests at theatres, he was encouraged to Ibid.. p. 86. Ibid.. p. 43. 151 IMâ-, p. 75. decide that he would he an actor. His first real ment was with Frank B. Carr’s hurlesque review at fifteen dollars a week. The factors in this choice were: (1) inherited musical ability; (2) special aptitude for entertaining; (3) inadaptability to business; (4) desire for recognition; (5) desire for response; (6) desire for security; (7) social environment in the slums of New York City, which allowed him rather free expression of his special gifts. George M. Cohan. Mr. Cohan’s letter laconically states: •Just bom in the theatre. This is almost literally true, for all his family were actors, and almost from the time he was born he traveled with them. At the age of seven, he was shipped to Providence and placed in the 1. Street School, but 154 stayed only six weeks. *My school days were over,” he says. He had some violin lessons, but not many. Ibid.. p. 87. 153 Personal Correspondence of the Investigator, letter from George M. Cohan, October, 1933. George M. Cohan, Twenty Years ofi Broadway. ai;d the Years It Took to Get (New York: Harper and Bros., cl925), p. 8. His mother, father, and sister played in vaudeville for the most part. When George was eight, they were given parts in a western melodrama called Daniel Bopne on the Trail, and the manager agreed to pay George’s expenses provided he would ride the donkey on parade, play second fiddle in the orchestra, 155 and sell song books in the lobby. This was the first con tract the Four Cohans ever received. At the age of thirteen, he was given his first really 156 good part, as Henry Peck, in Peck’s Bad Boy. The factors in Mr. Cohan’s choice of acting as a pro fession quite clearly were: (1) inherited special aptitude; (2) suggestion-imitation, because of occupation of the other members of his family; (3) opportunities to act offered him at an early age. William S. Hart. Hart was the eldest of a large family of children. His father was a miller, and the family moved from place to place, the father starting flour^mills. Hart’s early years were largely spent in the West, in sparsely popu- 157 lated places. He had very little formal education. For Ibid.. p. 11. Ibid.. p. gS. 157 William S, Hart, Dife East and West (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., cl929), p. 3. 99 awhile, however, they lived la the suburbs of New York City, and here he had some good schooling. His father wanted him to become a miller, so that they 158 might have their own mill together. As a boy. Hart had a sweet, strong singing voice, which attracted the attention of a representative of Barnum’s Circus and brought him an offer to go on the road with the circus to sing, but his father would not allow him to go. The economic situation of the family made it necessary for him to go to work at an early age, and he held various of the sort of jobs the untrained can obtain: as errand boy for a butcher, helper on an express wagon, ice-wagon helper, and as messenger boy for two hotels. In return for errands done for the hotel clerks and bartenders, they quite frequently gave him passes for theaters. When he had no pass, he often went anyway and sat in the highest gallery for fifteen or twenty cents. He saw many celebrities in this way, and many 159 of them stayed at the hotels for which he worked. Becoming interested in athletics as an outlet for his youthful energy, he won many walking races, and spent a good deal of time hanging around athletic clubs. Ibid.. p. 77. 159 Ibid ». p. 82. 100 In regard to his ambitions, Mr. Hart says: I never had bat two ambitions. One, to go to West Point; the other, to go on the stage. The desire to be come a United States Arnqr officer was probably born of my western life. Soldiers and forts were a part of the West. The stage idea just came, always remained, and will be with me when the final curtain is rung down.^®® When he talked to his father about his ambitions, his father, who seems to have been a man of sagacity, told him that with his limited education it was most improbable that he could pass an examination for West Point without a great deal more study. In regard to the stage, he thought that his son had a chance. ”Being a good ’ jawsmith’ ran in the fami- 161 ly.» However, for this career, too, more education was needed. His father advised him to take fencing and dancing lessons, and to go to England to see what had been done there with the arts. After a few more months, urged by his father, he did work his way to England. Here he won several races, which brought him in a little money, and also saw several fine ac tors, including ^enry Irving and ^len Terry. Having worked his way home again, he took and passed a civil service examination for a clerkship in the general post office. Soon he was earning one hundred dollars a month. 160 Ibid.. p. 87. 161 ^ hoc. Pit. 101 but frittered away most of it. Again his father talked to him about his future, ad vised him to save all his money for six months, go to Europe, and try to get started on a stage career. The boy was relieved of contributing to household expenses by his father’s obtain- 162 ing a position where rent was included. Soon Hart sailed for England again, and immediately upon his arrival in London began a course of lessons from a dramatic instructor. After his return home, he continued his study TTith F. F, Maekey, a very fine teacher, who helped him a great deal. Finally, after answering many advertisements without result, he obtained an acting engagement. He says: ”Again I was fortunate, most fortunate I Daniel E. Bandmann was the star .... and a better master to break in young actors _163 never lived.” This case is not so simple as the three preceding. The factors which apparently influenced ^r. Hart’s choice of the stage were: (1) special aptitudes, including a good voice and a gift for expression; ^6® Ibid.. p. 100. 163 Ibid.. p. 103. 102 (2) stimulation probably received from frequent atten dance at the theater, where he saw many great actors; though 164 he says ”the idea just came”; - (S) encouragement from his father, who gave up his own plan of his eldest son’s going into the milling business with him, and urged him to obtain training for a stage career; (4) good dramatic instruction. Harold Lloyd. Mr. Lloyd’s ancestors went to Nebraska in pioneer times from Pennsylvania. There his grandfather opened a general store in Bur chard. Lloyd’s father had some capital to begin with, but it gradually decreased. He carried on various occupations from photography to clerking in a shoe store, moving very often. In spite of the various moves, Harold managed to acquire a high school education. He says that he was exceptional in 166 only two things— «freckles and a single-tracked ambition.” As far back as his memory goes, and to the exclusion of all other ambitions, he felt the strong desire to go on the stage. His autobiography states that this began before he ever saw a play, and that there were no actors, so far as they knew, in IMâ-, p. 87. 165 Harold Lloyd, ^ American Comedy. Apt^ej^ by Harold Lloyd, Directed by Weslev W. Stout [New York: Longmans, Green and Co., C1928), p. 2. Ibid.. p. 6. 103 either his father’s or his mother’s family. However, in a letter from Mr. Lloyd’s secretary, giving information which the secretary indicated might be accepted as coming from Mr. Lloyd, the statement was made that each of his parents «was very much interested in amateur theatricals, and participated in numerous performances in their home towns in the Middle 167 West.” This may have been the initial stimulus to his in terest in acting. As a..very small child, he began playing theater, and played it by the hour. His father encouraged him in this, building small stages for him in the basements of various homes. Another hobby was magic ; in fact, he once thought of 168 taking this up professionally. Once, too, he thought ser iously of taking up fighting professionally, but his mother 169 forbade this firmly. As a boy, he had many summer and part-time jobs around theaters and elsewhere, including; ushering, selling candy, acting as call boy, assistant electrician, or stage hand, being a telegraph messenger boy, apprenticing in a blueprint shop, working in a bird store, end others. 167 Personal Correspondence of the Investigator, letter from Harold Lloyd’s secretary, December 5, 1933. 168 Harold LlByd, op. cit.. p. 16. 16Q Ibid.. p. 30. 104 Both his autobiography and his secretary’s letter speak of John Lane Connor’s connection with Mr. Lloyd’s first real part on the stage. The letter says; More directly, however, Mr. Lloyd’s entrance into the theatrical field at the age of twelve can be attributed to his meeting with John Lane Connor, who at that time was leading man with the Burwood Stock Company in Omaha. Mr. Connor lived with the Lloyds for some Months while he was leading man at the Burwood, and he took a great interest in the boy because of his inclination to theatricals. He gave Harold his first chance #ien, at the age of twelve, he had him engaged to play «Little Abe” in «Tess of the D’ürbervilles.”^”^ This was quite a large part, and the critics praised Harold’s work in it. Soon after that his voice began to change; he was no longer fitted for child parts, yet too young for juveniles, so there was an interval of about four years when he was not on the stage. In 1911, the Lloyds moved to San Diego, ^ere Mr. Lloyd set up a pool hall and lunch counter. Connor was running a dramatic school here, and Harold at once began assisting him in the school, and in putting on lodge and club entertainments. He also played leads in high school theatricals, played charac ter parts in four local stock companies, ^d was assistant 171 manager of one. When the stock companies closed in the late 170 Personal Correspondence of the Investigator, letter from Harold Lloyd’s secretary, December 5, 1933. Harold Lloyd, on. cit.. pp. 57-58. 105 spring, Connor organized a circuit stock company to play sur rounding territory, and in this Harold was stage manager and played better parts* His first experience in moving pictures was as an extra 172 with the Edison Company in San Diego. The deciding factors in this case were: (1) special aptitude for acting; (2) probable initial stimulus through participation of his parents in amateur theatricals when Harold was a small child; (3) stimulation through encouragement from his father during childhood; (4) interest and help of John Lane Connor, an actor; (5) stimulation through various kinds of work around theaters. Julia Marlowe. This actress was born Sarah Prances Frost, one of four children. Her father kept a small general store in the village of Caldbeck, England. Mistakenly believ ing that he had knocked out the eye of a friend, he fled from England to America, where he changed his name to John Brough, 173 Brough being the maiden name of his mother. He sent for 17? Ibid.. p. 67. 173 Charles Edward Russell, Julia Marlowe. Her Life and Art (New York: D. Appleton and Co., cl926), P* 12. 106 his family, and they settled for a time in Portsmouth, Ohio, The father seemed to feel very little responsibility for his family, however, absenting himself for long periods of time. Mrs. Brough kept a boarding house, and the children went to school when they could. Years later, Mrs. Brough made inquiries to ascertain whether any of the ancestors on either side had had any con nection with the stage, but was unable to find any evidence of the sort. Next the Brough family moved on to Cincinnati, where Mrs, Brough opened a small hotel. It was here that Fanny began to show a passion for reading of all sorts. She delighted to learn poetry by heart. She was always near the head of her class in school and usually the youngest member of it. Unlike nearly all of her classmates, she enjoyed taking part in the 174 Friday afternoon declamations and dialogues. Her mother constantly reminded her children that there were many opportunities to make something of themselves in their new country. Fanny, indeed, began to feel ambition. Vihen she was barely eleven, she saw an advertisement in the newspaper calling for children to sing and act in a juvenile performance of Pinafore. Saying nothing to her family, she Ibid.. p. 18. 107 applied, and obtained a place in the chorus at seven dollats a week. She traveled with this ^ow for some time, and did well enough so that she was promoted to the role of Sir Joseph Porter# The next production of the company was The Chimps o^ Normpndy. in which Fanny played Suzanne# The musical director of this company. Carlo Torrlgnani, noticed her work and came 175 to the conclusion that she had the possibility of great things. Fanny began to be much interested in stories of the careers of famous actresses whose pictures adorned the walls of various dressing-rooms# They captured her imagination, and she determined on a stage career for herself. After the juvenile company disbanded, Fanny tried work ing at various occupations,— in a cracker factory, studying telegraphy, studying dress designing— but was not successful at any of them# At this time she tried to see all the noted actors end actresses of the day as they came to Cincinnati, and was often engaged herself as a supernumerary at fifty cents a night. She began to study diligently a copy of Shakespeare’s plays #iich she had bougit on installments, «^alespeare, idien she came now to study him, to dwell upon him, to follow his plots with imaginary pictures of how the scenes would look Ibid.. pp. 25-26 loa 176 on the stage, took possession of her.” k letter from Marlowe’s secretary also mentions 177 this preoccupation with Shakespeare. In 1883, Miss F^any Dow, an actress #io had long shown an interest in Fanny Brough, was chosen to play in Josephine Reilly’s company, and she secured a place for Fanny Brough to play several juvenile parts. Miss Dow was more and more fa vorably impressed with Fsupny’s ability. It was evident that 178 this young thing had gifts of the first order. She now proposed to take charge of Fanny, support her, supervise her training until she should be ready for leading rôles, and then have a share in her earnings. Miss Dow’s plan was carried out, and three years of intensive study were spent in New York. This was the last of Fanny Brough, as she chose Julia Marlowe for her stage name, and made her debut as a leading lady In New London, Connecticut, under that name. Important factors in this choice of occupation were: (l) keen intelligence; (g) special aptitude for elocution; (3) stimulation through words of an ambitious mother; J J j i â . » p . 177 Personal Correspondence of the Investigator, letter from Julia Marlowe’s secretary, October 31, 1933. 178 Charles Edward Russell, pga* pit., p. 44. 109 (4) early experience in juvenile performances on the stage; (5) economic pressure, resulting in her looking for work at an early age; (6) failure at various other kinds of employment; (7) desire for recognition; (8) suggestion-imitatiôn due to stories of famous ac tresses whom she decided to emulate; (9) Interest in Shakespeare’s plsys; (lO) stimulation through interest and help of Miss Dow, and other stage friends. Paul Robeson. Paul Robeson’s father, the Reverend William D. Robeson, was the son of slaves. In 1860, when he was about fifteen, he escaped to the North, worked his way through Lincoln University, and prepared himself for the min istry. He was a man greatly loved by all his congregation. His wife, Louisa Bus till, was a teacher and came from a family of teachers, who for years taught in the public schools of 179 Philadelphia and cities near it. Paul, born in 1898 in Princeton, New Jersey, was the youngest of eight children born to this highly intelligent negro couple. When he was six, his mother died, and he was 179 Eslanda Goode Robeson, Paul Robeson. Negro (New York: Harper and Bros., cl9S0), p. 11. brôu^t up by his father# The two were congenial. The father helped Paul with his lessons in the evenings, urging the hoy to work for perfection. When he was older, Paul was superin tendent of the Sunday School, helped his father with the ser vices, and led the singing with his beautiful voice. Paul was one of the very few negroes in the vdiite school He was friendly and intelligent, modest and refined, and soon 180 became the most popular boy in school. The highest type of White children accepted him as their friend, and tiieir parents invited him to their homes# fie also played with negro children and went to their homes. It should, perhaps, be born in mind in evaluating these statements about Paul’s relations with his schoolmates, that the statements were made by his wife, the author of his biog raphy. Paul won a state scholarship to Rutgers University in New Brunswick, New Jersey, and was only the third negro to enter this university. Here he distinguished himself in var ious forms of athletics, made very high grades, and was an important member of the debating team, often representing Rutgers in intercollegiate debate s .I n 1919, he was gradu- Ibid.. p. 24. Ibid.. p. 34. Ill ated, receiving a Phi Beta Kappa key and various other high honors# Immediately following his graduation, he settled in Harlem, his father having died at the end of his junior year in college, and attended Columbia University Daw School. «He 182 soon became Harlem’s special favorite, and is so still#” He married a Harlem girl. On his graduation from Columbia Law School, various political jobs were offered to him, but he did not feel able to acdept any of them, because of the many enforced allegiances 183 involved. After some months, a very successful lawyer, who was a trustee of Rutgers, offered Paul an opening in his office, This was a firm handling important cases, and gave him some good experience. He enjoyed his work, and did very well, but it was not long before ”the clerks and other members of the firm objected to the constant presence of so conspicuous a 184 Negro in the office, and Paul felt obliged to withdraw.” His friend with the firm suggested that he open an uptown branch of the office and take charge of it, but Paul declined. It was not long before something quite different tumSd up in the form of an invitation to play the leading roles in Ibid.. p. 69. IBS Xbid.# p. 73. 184 Ibid.. p# 75. 112 Eugene O’Neill’s M.1 God’s Chillun Got Wings and The Emperor Jones at the Provincetown Theater. "The Province town Players were really responsible for Paul’s choice of the stage as a career. They form one of the most intelligent, sincere, and 185 non-commercial of the artistic groups in America*” Paul had a real understanding pf^ the characters he was portraying, and his success as an actor was immediate. The critics gave him the highest praise. He himself was convinced that he was on the right road. The letter from Mr. Robeson’s wife is of interests Of course it is all very complicated,--his choosing of his career, but perhaps I can suggest the reason by the following short paragraph: Being a Negro, in America, and having been educated by a fond father for the law, he was confronted with the problem, after graduation from Columbia Law School, with his limitations as a Negro, as a lawyer, no matter if he proved to be the finest lawyer in Christendom. We pre ferred not to climb a ladder, idien we knew before starting to climb, that he could only reach the lower rungs (no mattèr how fine a lawyer he might be), and turned our at tention to other fields, where we would be faced with n& such limits. We found such fields in music, and the thea tre, and he has climbed high.' The deciding factors in this situation were: (1) keen intelligence; (2) special aptitudes for acting, including fine voice ibia.. p. 76, 186 Personal Correspondence of the Investigator, letter from Mrs. Paul Robeson, October, 1933. 113 and appearance and ability in elocution; (S) favorable personality traits; (4) race conflict situation in the law firm where he went to work, turning him from the law as a profession; (5) dislike of political jobs offered him; (6) opportunity offered him to portray roles with the Provincetown Players: (7) stimulus of high praise from critics* 2. ARTISTS Marietta Minnegerode Andrews. The parents of this art ist came from aristocratic old southern families on each side. Her father «was artistic and poetic, though these noble gifts 187 ran to caricature." In his boyhood he played all sorts of pranks with pen and pencil, but did no serious work in either verse or art. Marietta was one of a large family of children. During most of her childhood and youth they were very poor. Up to her eleventh year, she spent much of her time with her grand mother at Oakley, a beautiful old southern home. She had al ways a passionate fondness for beauty, and while still a small child she attempted to make images of God, out of wood, or 187 Marietta Minnigerode Andrews, Memoirs of s i Poor Re lation. Being the Storv of a Post-War Southern Girl and Her Battle with Destiny (Hew York: E. P. Dutton and Co., cl92*^, p. 29. 114 183 whatever medium was handy* She also attempted to illus trate the whole Bible* Her father had much sympathy for these activities, but her mother none* When she was eleven, she was taken from her grandmother’s, and went with her family to New Orleans, where her father set up in business. Here she had her first regulab schooling in small private schools. Early in her teens, her mother decided that she and her next youngest sister had talents. "She selected music to be my sister’s talent and art to be mine. • • • • These talents 189 having been assigned to us, we must cultivate them . . . .« Marietta was started on drawing lessons from the local painter and the local sculptor, but they kept her so long drawing an 190 ear from Michelangelo’s David that she was heartily sick of it. HVhen she was fifteen, her father failed in business, and she began to earn money for the family by painting birds and flowers on palm-leaf fans and selling them at one of the largest stores in New Orleans. Their next move was to Alexandria, Virginia. Here she went to school to a cousin, who did foster a love of poetry and UîM., p. 131. 189 Ibid.. p. 210. 190 Xbld., p. 211. 116 art in her mind, though the teaching ran to a smattering of many subjects.^^^ About this time, her godmother left her a little money, out of which she was taken for her first visit to the Corcoran Gallery of Art in Washington. Soon after that, her relatives decided that she should have lessons at the school there. Her father had been in poor health for some time, and now committed suicide, leaving the family almost destitute. Marietta opened a drawing class in Alexandria, keeping on with her own lessons at the Corcoran Art School, where the director, Mr. Andrews, took a great interest in her work and her problems. She felt her preparation for teaching to be quite inadequate, but their friends in Alexandria were very kind and many who could ill afford it began to take lessons from her. Soon she was appointed assistant to Mr. Andrews to do clerical work and instruct thé classes in drawing from the antique. This greatly increased her prestige, so that her private class enlarged and 192 she had more opportunities for commissions and private pupils. Some time later she married Mr. Andrews, and continued with her art work. The important factors in this choice of occupation were: (l) inherited special aptitude for art; Ibia.. p. 2 192 p. 334. 116 (s) economic necessity for helping support her family at an early age; (3) encouragement from relatives and friends; (4) stimulation through lessons at Corcoran Art School; (5) encouragement of art teachers. Joseph l^ennell. The ancestry of this artist was Ameri can and Quaker on both sides. None of the ancestors achieved much prominence, but were quiet, respectable people. Joseph’s father taught school for awhile, then for years worked in a shipping office. Joseph was rather a delicate boy, happiest idien playing by himself, making up his own amusements, which were nearly always concerned with drawing, such as inventing stories and making drawings to illustrate them. His wife says: I have sheets of these early drawings in pencil, in water colour, in coloured Chalks, on odd scraps of paper, bits of old letters, envelopes, books of unused cheques his father brought home— on anything he could find.^^ Even these childish illustrations showed enthusiasm and power of observation. In 1870 his family moved to Germant0 1 m, where Joseph was entered in the Germantown Friends’ School. He was not much interested in his classes here, and most of his teachers were Elizabeth Robins Pennell, The D$fe and Letters of Joseph Pennell (2 vols.; Boston: Little, Brown and Co., cl929), vol. 1, p. 12. 117 not sympathetic with his interest in drawing, the only work 194 he ever wanted to do. Often when he ought to have been studying, he was drawing. "His drawing was treated as insub ordination or a childish failing to be scolded or laughed out 195 of him." However, a drawing dass, quite an innovation, was started in the school. Three of the drawing teachers were above the average, and one of them, James R. Lambdin, gave the 196 boy real help by teaching him to use eyes, brain, and memory. After he was graduated from the Friends’ School in 1876 with honors, his own plans for his life were definite. "He never doubted that he was created to be an artist, an illustra- 197 tor, and his energy was devoted to fulfilling his destiny." However, his relatives and friends decidedly disapproved. Qua kers disapproved of art on general principles. Moreover, it was considered the duty of a young man of that time, who could not afford to go to college, to begin at once to earn money. There was a distinct conflict between his ideals and those of his relatives and friends. Still, he did manage to have a brief interval before going into an office. He bought a few books, magazines, and 194 Ibid.. pp. 13-19. 195 Ibid.. p. 19. 196 Ibid., p. 20. 197 Ibid.. p. 24. 118 casts of hands and feet, and all through the summer after his graduation worked in a hot upstairs room under the roof. He was working for admission to the Pennsylvania Academy School at Philadelphia, hut when he submitted his summer’s work there, it was rejected. He therefore accepted a clerkship in the office of the Heading Goal and Iron Company at seven dollars a week, and did the work to the best of his ability, though he found it most distasteful. When he sutaitted his pen and chalk drawings to the Pennsylvania School of Industrial Art just opened, he was admitted there and attended classes in the evenings. At this time he was much influenced by Stephen Perris, an artist who helped to found the New York Etching Club and 198 the Philadelphia Society of Etchers. Finally gaining admittance to the Pennsylvania Academy, he gave up his clerical position, which was a great blow to his family. However, he was given his first serious commission at this time, receiving twenty dollars for two drawings of a beau tiful old house. After some months of stud^ at the Academy, commissions began to come in quite rapidly, so he left the art school and took a studio. «By the end of 1880 he was well X . ^ «199 launched.” jMâ., p. 3 1. 199 Ibid.. p. SB. 119 The deciding factors in this situation were: (1) strong special aptitude for art, though difficult to trace through any inheritance; (2) strong emotional drive, ishich carried him on in the face of adverse criticism from teachers and conflict with the ideals of family and friends; {3) stimulation through contact with drawing teachers at the Friends’ School, the Pennsylvania School of Industrial Art and the Pennsylvania Academy School; (4) influence of a well-known etcher, Stephen Ferris. Edward Steichen. This artist, who made a specialty of photography, was horn in Hancock, Michigan, where his father worked in the copper mines. His mother made hats and ran a hat store for women. As a small hoy, Edward bought himself a camera from the proceeds of vegetables, newspapers, and maga zines sold from door to door, and made good use of it. His mother was ambitious for him; she wanted him to have advantages. So, at nine years of age, he was sent to Milwaukee to the Pio None College preparatory school. Since he began to show signs of artistic ability at this time, his mother and others decided he must be an artist. The family moved to Milwaukee. "The boy had an eye for the latest devices of applied science,® his biogra^er says, «asking eagerly, ’How does it 120 work? What makes it go? Why is this? And why is that?’”' He made all kinds of mechanical experiments. At fifteen, he was signed up as a four-year apprentice with the American Lithographing Company of Milwaukee. His wages were very small, but he made some extra money by outside work. He earned twenty-five dollars for designing a program cover; painted water-eolors of Indian heads, busts and headd of women, and sold them. He also took many photographs for profit, snapshots and photo portraits. Steichen was ambitious. He organized the Milwaukee Art Students League and was elected president. They hired a hall; employed instructors and models, and put on exhibit s. At the lithographing compsmy he was promotéd to the drafting room at twenty-five dollars a week, which soon went up to fifty. He was designing posters now, good ones. One of them, idiich was used for Casearet advertising, gained re nown from coast to coast. A career as a poster designer and commercial illustrator was open to him, but he was really in terested in something else. For years he had been playing with the camera, but with serious purpose. Carl Sandburg, Steichen. the P^oto^rrapher (Hew York; Harcourt, Brace and Co., cl^9), p. 11. IMâ.» p. 12. 121 It interested him that sometimes painters looking at a print would say, “What a swell painting that would make I® As though if well made it might not he far superior to a painting. # . Steichen was constantly experimenting and looking for hotter suhjects. Be decided he must_ go to New York and to Europe to study, and continued to save his money. By 1898, the Philadelphia Photographic Salon and other important exhlhits were showing his photographs# Such master photographers as Alfred Stiegllts and Clarence H. White urged 205 him to go on wlt^ his camera work. He did go abroad to study, and put on axi exhihit in London in 1901. Some critics were very enthusiastic, among them Bernard Shaw. His time was now divided between photography and paint ing, hut he finally gave up painting almost altogether. In 1902 he returned to Hew York and established himself in a little room on Flf^ Avenue, which later became the head quarters of the Photo-Secession Movement. The magazines Camera Work and Centm^ began to buy his photographs. Later he hecsaae photographic editor of Vanity Fal^r and Vogue at a large salary, 204 and is considered a master of photographic art# Here the factors which influenced the choice of occupa- , p. 14. IÎM-* p. 17. Ib^^d •, p. 51. 122 tion weres (1) special aptitude for art; (2) interest in mechanical devices; (5) stimulation through his hobby, the use of the camera; (4) stimulation through encouragement from an ambitious mother; (5) encouragement from master photographers and critics; (6) the development of greater interest in advertising art and in photography on the part of the general public. Arthur young. This cartoonist grew up on a Wisconsin farm. His father hoped that one of his three boys would look after the farm when he was grown, but none of them did, as they all had other ambitions. Mr. Young says: And it was my ambition to go to the big city and see if I could make hqt way drawing for publications. I would have sharpened pencils for Hast or Keppler— anything to be near creative .work and to look on and earn a little by my own efforts. From his early years, he wanted to spend most of his time drawing, and achieved considerable local success in school and in his home town. He was only sixteen when he drew the first cartoon to get him into trouble. A political campaign Art Young, 0^ My Way. B^ing the Bopk Young in Text and Picture (New York: Horace Liveright, Inc., cl928), p. 25r 12S was going on in his town, and the cartoon concerned the candi- 206 date for district attorney. Before he left home, he worked on the farm and clerked in his father^s store for awhile, hat was a complete failure at both, as he was interested only in drawing. In the store he preferrëd to watch customers and sketch them rather than weigh out and tie up groceries. Young went first to Chicago and found work to do for a trade paper called the Nimble Nickel, and occasionally other papers. At the same time, he studied at the Art Institute. From there he went to New York for study at the Art League, 207 and the next year to the Académie Julian in Paris. After a long enforced vacation on the farm because of illness, he started for New York again. However, he stopped off in Chicago to see his friends, and here was offered the position of cartoonist on the Chicago Inter-Ocean, which he accepted. He says: “I think I was the first cartoonist in 208 the United States to draw a daily political cartoon.® IÊT. Young * s letter confirms the impressions of his auto biography: “Early in life I knew that I had a distinct talent Ibid.. p. 44. 207 Ibid.. p. 59. 208 Ibi.d.. p. 61. for pictorial ^pression,~what could I do but follow this 209 talent regardless of con sequence s?“ The influences here quite clearly were; (1) strong special aptitude for art, which won out in spite of conflict with his father^s wishes; (2) stimulation through study at art schools; {3) inability to do satisfactorily the work of his father*s farm or store# 3# MUSICIANS AND COMPOSERS Reginald de Koven. In the biography of this composer by his wife, she says that all the deKoven family possessed 210 qualities of marked individuality• Reginald*s father was a clergyman, «ho later became professor of homiletics in the theological seminary at Middletown. Here Reginald was born. %hen he was eleven years old, his father was compelled by ill health to give up his position, and the whole family went to Europe. Here Reginald spent the next twelve years. His prep aration for Oxford was begun with his father, then came a year of study at Stuttgart, for the boy had already composed songs Personal Correspondence of the Investigator, letter from Art Young, October, 1933. Mrs. Reginald de Koven, A Musician jang Hip Wife (New York: Harper and Bros., cl926), p. 88. 126 211 and shown marked musical talent* After some tutoring, he had four years at Oxford, taking honors in history. Again he studied music at Stuttgart, then went to Florence, where his father had decided to live. His father advised him to give 212 up music as a career. Reginald then decided to return to America, where he thought he would have better opportunities for some sort of career. His uncle, Mr. John de ^oven, gave him a position in his bank in Chicago, and here he met and married his wife. After a honeymoon in Europe, the question of Mr. de Koven*s occupation again had to be settled. His father-in-law gave him employment in his large wholesale dry-goods business, but no very definite position. Young de Koven was not at all in terested in this business, and was very unhappy. Music was ever in his thoughts, and it was on this that he spent his time out of business hours. He had written two operas, the first rather amateurish. He felt the second, en titled The Begum, was worthy of production, but he had not been able to find a manager udio would put it on . In 1886, the only company in America which produced comic opera was that under the management of Colonel McCaull, and he had produced only French and Viennese light operas. However, when Colonel Ibid.. p. 98. Ibid., p. 98. 126 McCaull came to Chicago, Mr, de Koven persuaded him to pro- 215 duce The Begum, This was a real success. Feeling that he needed further ins taction in orches tration, Mr. de Koven decided to go to Vienna for study with Richard Genet. He and his wife were there about six months. On their return to Chicago, Mr. de Koven continued to work with his father-in-law* s company for another winter, be fore devoting himself entirely to music. His Don Quixote and Robin Hood were ably performed by the Boston company called “The Bostonians,® and his career was well started. The important factors in this choice were: (1) strong special aptitude for music; (2) stimulation through good musical education and travel abroad; (S) conflict situation between business duties and his real interests, finally deciding him to choose music definite ly as his life work. Emma Eames. Though, of American parentage, this opera singer was born in Shanghai. Her father was a lawyer. Her mother came from a musical family, all the members of which 214 sang. Emma herself sang almost continuously at her play Ibid.. p. 124. 214 Emma Eames, Some Memories and Reflections (New York: D. Appleton and Co., cl92V), p. 2. when a child, though not conscious of her voice. In those days, it was the theater which captured her imagination, and playing theater was one of her favorite games. She was extremely sensitive, and always loved beauty intensely. “Every impression of any kind always aroused an 215 intense reaction. “ As a girl and young woman, she had an unusual capacity for physical activity, though an accident «hich occurred in her twenty-fifth year damaged her health greatly. As a child, she had some instruction in the piano from her mother and her aunt, but her fingers were not strong enough for piano work, and nothing ever came of it. It was when she was about fifteen that her mother began to be aware that Emma*s voice was rather unusual. Soon after that, a relative who lived in Paris and had heard nearly all the great musical artists of the time, heard &ma sing in church, and said that her voice “was so unusual and of such a very beautiful and touching quality that he thought it would 216 be wicked if it were not cultivated.® %hen the idea of opera was suggested to Emma, she real ized that it was drama with music, and very near to her child hood dream of the theater. P15 Ibid.. p. 11. p. 85. 128 She began to take singing lessons first from her mother, then at seventeen went to Boston to study. Here she eqslly found singing engagements in churches and some concert engage ments, attracting much favorable attention and interest. Her vocal teacher in Boston was Miss Clara Manger, who had studied abroad herself, and who brought out her voice carefully. Also, she studied the Dels arte system of gesture and devitalization with another very fine teacher. Mr. Wilhelm Gericke, director of the Boston Symphony Orchestra, was one of the important people who became inter ested in her voice. He strongly advised her going to Paris to study under Madame Marches!, and this she did, her mother borrowing the mohey to pay for this study. While in Paris, the music publisher, Heugel, arranged a hearing for her at the Opera Gomioue. She was offered a contract by the Oner f t Comioue and by the Paris Opera at the same time, and chose to make her 217 debat as Juliette at the Paris Opera. Important factors influencing this choice were: (1) inherited fecial aptitude for singing; (2) extreme sensitivity to beauty; (3) unusually good health; (4) stimulation through encouragement and assistance Ibid.. p. 67. 129 fr^xn relatives and friends; (5) excellent instruction in America and Europe. Ernestine Schumann-Helnk. This famous contralto is the daughter of an Austrian army officer. Though he had not much education, her mother had been well educated in an Italian convent. In addition, her mother had a beautiful contralto voice, and sang operatic arias at her work. By the time she was three years old, Ernestine was sing ing the same arias as her mother, dancing, and acting, too, 218 though she never entered a theater until she was fourteen. While she was still a small child, her grandmother in Prague prophesied that she had genius, that i^e would be an actress or a singer. Her father*s pay was very small and his family large. They had a hard struggle, and Ernestine was often hungry. He was constantly being transferred from one place to another. Ernestine attended various convents, among them the Ursuline Convent at Prague. She says: “It was there, study ing the Mass, that Mother Bernardine— she is long since dead 219 _ „ now— first discovered my voice.® Then she sent for Ernes— #ry Lawton, SchnmatiB-Hej.nlE. the Last sL Tlj;aAS rX3o,, (Hew York: The Macmillan Co., cl926), p. 4. lÈiâ*» P* 17. 130 tine* s mother and told her that her child was blessed with a great voice, that she should not be neglected as she would probably be a great singer. Howgver, her father expressed him self as much opposed to the idea that any child of his might go on the stage. Soon after this, a woman who had been a great prima donna heard Ernestine singing at mass, and arranged for her to have some lessons, but it was not for long, as her family was soon transferred to Graz. At Graz she took lessons from another retired opera singer, who pro^Èiesied that Ernestine would be 220 one of the first contraltos of the world. This teacher in sisted that she have piano lessons also. It was in Graz that Ernestine heard her first opera, II Trovatore. with Marianna Brandt, which gave her an ambition to be an opera singer. Several famous singers and directors heard her sing, but told her that though her voice was fine, 221 she was far too homely for opera. She was undemourished and very poorly dressed at this time, which, of course, de tracted from her appearance. Finally, a Jewish agent told Ernestine*s teacher that he had an opportunity for Ernestine to be heard at the Dresden Ibid.. p. 82. 221 Ibid.. pp. 40-42, 131 Royal Opera. A friend loaned her the money for some clothes, so that she dould make a better appearance, but she had to lie to her father in order to be allowed to go. Ihis time she was ggjg successful, and began her career at the Dresden Royal Opera. Important factors in this choice of career were: (1) inherited special aptitude for singing; (2) stimulation through her mother*s singing at home from earliest childhood; (3) interest and help from various singers and teachers; (4) emotional drive which carried her on in spite of conflict with the ideas of her father; (5) stimulation due to hearing her first opera; (6) desire for security; (7) desire for recognition. Hubert Prior Vallée (Rudv Vallée). This singer, saxo phone player, and orchestra leader was brought up in Westbrook, Maine. He says that his father was a druggist all his life, but was associated with several theaters in small business ways, and a dream of the theater was always at the back of 223 young Vallée*s head. His idea of perfect happiness was to pop Ibid.. p. 50. 223 Hubert Prior Vallée, Vagabond Dreams Come True (New York: E. P. Dutton and Co., cl93b), p. 142. 132 be the manager of a moving picture theater. Beginning with his last years in grammar school, he helped his father in his drug store. He did very well here, but did not like it, as there was little romance in the work. For a time, however, his father sold Victor phonograph records, and Vallée had a chance to demonstrate these records to possi ble purchasers. Playing these records over and over he greatly enjoyed, and feels that the effect of this upon him was pro- . 224 found. Then he found a job as assistant operator at the small movie theater in his town, and liked it very much. His father disapproved of this, but finally agreed to his doing it instead of working in the drug store. All his life he had a great desire to play some sort of musical instrument. He started with drums, then went to clari net, trumpet, and saxophone. During his senior year at high school, he began playing with a small dance orchestra in a Pythian Temple building, which led to engagements with various 225 other dance orchestras. He was much impressed by the saxophone playing of Rudy Wiedoeft, as he heard It from phonograph records; began to Ibid.. p. 144. 225 Ibid.. pp. 165-166. 135 Imitate his methods, and to practice many hours every day to perfect himself. His first experience as a soloist was on an Elks Club program, where he made a considerable success. After this, he was asked to play at the Htrand Theater at Portland, which gave him quite a good deal of prestige as a musician, and also changed his father*s opinion of his musical work. He says: “Up to this time he had always called me a •cheap faker* and had been comparatively unwilling to help me with my instru- ment8.® After one year at the University of Maine, he trans ferred to Yale, «diere he was nearer the advant^es of New York. While at Yale, he played at the dining-hall, at country clubs, golf clubs, and parties with an orchestra. Then he accepted an offer to play and make records in London for ten months. It was in 1924 that he first did a little singing, and met with favor. In the fall of 1927, he went to Boston, where he played with several bands. He was looking for larger fields, however, so went on to New York, and here his career as an orchestra leader was begun. Important influences here were: (l) special aptitude for music; lÈiâ*» p. 174. 134 (2) stimulation of further interest in music through selling phonograph records in his father*s drug store; (S) interest in everything connected with theaters, perhaps begun by his father*s business connection with several; (4) emotional drive, which carried him on in his music, in spite of his father * s disapproval; (5) stimulation from records of Rudy Wiedoeft, and de sire to emulate him; (6) opportunities which his life at college opened up; (7) desire for recognition. 4. SCIENTISTS fiynest Harold Bavnes. The parents of this naturalist were English. He was bom in Calcutta, where his father was engaged in the shipping business. When three or four years old, Ernest was sent to England, and at six he entered board ing-school there. Even at this time he was showing great 227 interest in natural history. In 1875, Ernest* s parents emigrated to America, where his father believed he could find more scope for his inventive talents. He did make numerous important inventions, among them celluloid photographic films and a gold etching photographic Raymond Gorges, Ernest Harold Bavnes. Naturalist and Crusader (Boston; Houghton Mifflin Co., cl928), p. 5. 135 process. He also wrote and lectured on American art* Wien Ernest was eleven, he joined his parents in Ameri ca, and lived there for the rest of his life* The investigator has been unable, after diligent search, to discover whether Baynes was ever naturalized, but decided to consider him an American, and include him in the group for study, since he lived in the United States from the age of eleven to his death* The Baynes* home was in the country then, now called Bronx Park* Ernest*s interest in nature was encouraged by his father, who took the children on long tramps in the country. With his father^s help and his own keen eyes, Ernest soon learned to knew a good deal about birds and beasts. At seventeen, before he had finished high school, Er nest felt that he must begin to earn money, so obtained a posi tion in a lawyer * s office for the summer, copying documents. However, he realized that this wais a blind alley, and returned to high school for his final year, graduating as valedictorian of his class* He then entered the College of the City of New York in 1837. His biographer does not state what studies he pursued here, but he was active in athletics. After leaving college, he worked as a reporter on the staff of the New York Times for about a year, but then fell Ibid.. p. 7. 156 111 with muscular rheumatism. On his recovery, he acted as his father*s assistant in his Inventive work for several years. But he still retained his love of out-of-doors and of nature, and spent every spare minute in the fields and woods around Stamford, Connecticut, idiere his father had bought a home. A notebook was started at this time, in which he kept careful records of his observations. By 1899, it had become evident that Mr. Baynes would not be able to organize a company as he had hoped, and his son determined to make nature study his life work. Business was distasteful to him, he was not interested in making money, and “above all things he was an out-of-doors man, with trained eye, 250 supple muscles, and a heart in accord with nature.® He was invited to organize nature classes, which proved very popular. He also sold a few articles to magazines and papers. However, his income from these sources was so meager, that for a short time he turned to reporting, this time on the Boston Post. This proved so uncongenial that inside of a few weeks he was back at his nature study. _ At this time he began to write nature stories, which sold easily. At first his articles and stories appeared singly Ibid.. p. 14. Ibid.. p. 18. 157 in newspapers and magazines, but later be organized a syndicate and supplied an article a week to ntaaerous newspapers in dif- 251 ferent parts of the country. The deciding factors in this choice were: (1) special aptitudes, both physical and mental, for nature study, inherited, in part, from his father; (2) stimulation through encouragement and help from his father during childhood; (5) stimulation through country environment of his child hood, surrounded by the beauties of nature; (4) distaste for business and indifference to money; (5) failure of his father*s efforts to organize a eont- paiqr, which left his son comparatively free to follow nature study as his life work. Herbert Hoover, mining eng3.neer. Although perhaps not, strictly speaking, a creative worker, as a mining engineer Mrl Hoover xeemed more logically classified with scientists than with any of the other groups. Like Dwight Morrow, Hoover is famous for various achievemaats, but fundamentally he is an engineer. Hoover*s colonial ancestors were Quakers, and their descendants emigrated to Iowa. His grandfather, Eli Hoover, , p. SS. 158 was a farmer, tout had a strong mechanical bent as well. His third son, Jesse, Herbert’s father, also had this mechanical bent; established himself as a blacksmith, and took over an 252 agency for agricultural machineryé The grandfather on his mother’s side was known as a bookish farmer. He gave all his children the best education he could, and Herbert’s mother finished at a young ladies’ 255 seminary, which was rather unusual in those days* Herbert’s father died when he was six, his mother when he was ten, and he went to live with an uncle, Allan Hoover. In his little boyhood, no (me observed anything remarkable 254 about him. The parents had left very little money, but the relatives were determined that he and his brother should have a good education if they wanted it. While Herbert was living with his Uncle Allan, there were two episodes which might indicate his special aptitudes. First, inspired by a new mowing-machine of his uncle’s, he and his cousin made a mowing-machine out of some old pieces of dis carded machinery, which worked after a fashion. Second, he constructed a sort of sorghum mill which made a few spoonfuls Will Irwin, Herbert Hppyer (New York; Century Co., cl928), p. 5. ^ Ibid.. p. 6. 2S4 TMd-. . p. SO. 2 m of molasses out of cane. When Herbert was eleven, he was sent to Newberg, Oregon, to attend a Quaker Academy run by his mother’s brother, Dr. John Minthorn. Now, for the first time, his relatives noticed that he had an unusual mind and a remarkable memory. He read a great deal aside from his school work. When Herbert was about fifteen. Dr. Minthorn moved to Salem, Oregon, to take charge of the offices of the Oregon Land Company, and Herbert went along as his office boy. While lis tening to conversation in the office between directors and customers of the company who were interested in mines, Herbert became rather interested in mines also. One day an engineer, engaged to develop one of these mines, asked him why he did not go in for engineering. He told Herbert that Senator Stan ford was going to open a new university in California the next year, that tuition would be free, and that John Branner; one of the best men available, would be head of the mining and geology department.By the time this engineer had left the office, Herbert had determined to follow his suggestion, which brought to a focus his rather vague ideas of what he wanted to do. After overcoming some difficulties with the entrance Ibid.. pp. 24-26. 236 Ibid.. pp. 31-%. 140 requirements, he entered Stanford in 1891. Here it was neces sary for him to earn his living, keep up with his studies, and make up five or six entrance credits. He registered in the mining engineering course, and took geology under Branner, also working as Branner’s secretary. He was a natural leader, and very prominent in student government affairs at Stanford. " During several summer vacations he worked for the D. S. Geological Survey in California, under Waldemar Lindgren. After his graduation in 1895, he worked another summer with the U. S* Geological Survey, then went to San Francisco and asked Louis Janin, a famous engineer, for a job. He was set to working around the office without pay for a time, then started on engineering missions to mines in California and Nevada. The factors influencing choice of occupation here were: (l) keen intelligence; (S) special mechanical aptitude, partly inherited; (3) stimulation of interest in mines and geology through conversations heard in his uncle’s office as a young boy; (4) suggestion from a mining engineer that he study mining engineering under Branner at Stanford University; (5) opportunities for excellent engineering training Ibid.. p. 57. 141 at Stanford, of vhlch he took full advantage. Charles Proteus Stelnmetz. This electrical engineer and inventor was of Polish and German descent, born in Breslau in 1365. He was gifted with an unusual brain, but had a badly deformed body, only a little over four feet tall. His father was a lithographer by trade, employed at the railroad offices in Breslau. He had always admired inventors 258 and scientists. As a very small child, Carl (as he was christened) showed a fondness for mechanical toys and games. He began school at five, and, while at first he seemed rather lazy about using his mind, he soon began to do much better, and became one of the brightest pupils in the school. He showed a strong special aptitude for all forms of mathematics. At eight years of age he entered the classical gymnasium of St. John’s in Breslau. Here one of his instructors was Professor Fechner, a lecturer on philosophy, who taught Carl a method of acquiring knowledge which he used in his work all his life. This was: not to take anything for granted or accept any one elsé’s statements, but to work everything out for him- 259 self. 258 John Winthrop Hammond, A Magician ^ Science, the Bov# Life of Steinmetz (New York: Century Co., cl926), p. 15, Ibid.. p. 20. 142 Carl’s father was proud of him and encouraged him in all his endeavors. At eighteen he was graduated from the gym nasium, and went to the University of Breslau. Here it was necessary for him to do tutoring to pay-his university expenses. All the time he was at school and at the university, his favor ite studies continued to he mathematics, hut he was interested in many other subjects, too, and for this reason was given the student name of Proteus, meaning “one who changes.® Later, he discarded his two middle names and became Charles Proteus Steinmetz. About this time, the University of Breslau adding to its offerings a short course in electrical engineering, Carl enrolled, and became much interested. He predicted then that 240 electricity would transform the world. So little was known about this science at that time, that Carl soon learned all that his professors could teach him, and then in his own crude little laboratory at home began to do some electrical experi ments. However, he had not at this period any expectation that electrical engineering would be his life work; he had hazy thoughts about becoming a professor of mathematics. IBhile still a student at Breslau, Steinmetz became in volved in some political difficulties with the tyrannical German 240 Ibid.. p. 58 145 government. His friend^ hearing that he was about to be ar rested, warned him to leave the city. He went to Zurich, where he studied mechanical engineering in the Polytechnic School for six months. Then a friend «ho was going to America persuaded Steinmetz to join him, and paid his passage. Another friend, the editor of a German electrical publication, for whom Stein metz had written articles, gave him a letter to Rudolf Eicke- 241 meyer, \idio had an electrical establishment in Yonkers, New York. On his arrival in America, Steinmetz looked up Mr. Eicke- meyer, who was at once impressed with the young fellow’s fine technical education. He put Steinmetz to work as a draftsman at twelve dollars a week. Here Steinmetz found himself engaged in electrical work, which became extremely fascinating to him, so that he performed original investigations in it. At the end of five years he became a naturalized Ameri can citizen. In that time, too, he had begun his valuable services to electrical engineering through mathematical inves- 242 tigations. In this case the important factors which influenced choice of occupation were: (l) strong special aptitude for mathematics and other sciences; Jiiâ., p* 59. Ibid.. p. 69. X44 (2) stisïalation through instruction from Professor Fechner of the gymnasium, «ho taught him the value of experi mentation; (5) encouragement from his father; (4) stimulation through a short course in electrical engineering at the University of Breslau and in mechanical engineering at Zurich; (5) necessity of leaving Breslau because of political conditions; (6) help from friends, who paid his passage to America and gave him a letter to a man running an electrical business; (7) stimulation of working in this electrical establish ment. 5. MISCELLANEOUS ENTERTAINERS James J. Corbett. prize fighter. James’ parents were both Irish. His father kept a livery stable, «hich brought in barely enough money to care for his ten children. Both parents had hoped that James would become a priest, though apparently 243 he never had any very serious intentions of that sort himself. As a boy, James attended St. Ignatius College in San James J. Corbett, The Roar of the Crowd, the True Tale of the Rise ^d Fall of a ^amnion (New York: G. P. Put nam’s Sons, cl925;, p. 19. 145 Francisco. He was always large for his age, so preferred t& play with boys older than he. His first fight occurred when he was twelve years old, and a larger boy started it. This fight was stopped by an adult, but James had done well enough to impress the big boys, «ho made a fuss over him the next day. However, he and his opponent were both expelled from the col lege. He had had no boxing lessons up to this time, though he had watched his older brother box, and remembered a few of his tricks. Mr. Corbett says: “From that fight I learned a lesson that has lasted me all my life— that the size of a man does not count, and that by using my head and feet I could 244 lick a man much stronger than myself.® The next year he attended the Sacred Heart College, but was expelled from this school also, because of a little diffi culty with one of the teachers. A customer of his father’s now found work for James as messenger boy in the Nevada Bank of San Francisco, where he worked for six years, and rose to the position of assistant 245 receiving teller. All this time he used to box frequently in the evenings ^ Ibid.. p. 7. 245 Ibid.. p. 9. 146 with the boys of the neighborhood* One of his special friends noticed special ability in James, such as quickness of eye and feet and a natural understanding of the game, and began taking James to places where he had to box with rather tough charac ters for the practice* He never lost a bout at this time, though he still had had no real boxing instruction* He joined the Olympic Club, and decided to take some boxing lessons* The instructor predicted great things for him, ^His confidence somehow seemed to stimulate me as no other ^46 words had ever done,^^ Mr* Corbett says* He began to prac tice in every spare moment, and after about six months of training, knocked out the man who was middleweight champion of the club. Hext he was called in to meet professionals, though he himself was still an amateur* The original Jack Dempsey, at that time considered the greatest middleweight in the world, needing some one to practice on, James gave him such a severe workout that Dempsey prophesied he would go far* This commendation had considerable influence later on his choice of a career, Mr* Corbett felt* At a time when he was badly in need of money, he an swered an advertisement giving a challenge to a pugilist, won Ibid... p. 16 24V Ibid.. p. S3 147 the match, and made $460. His parents were opposed to his becoming a prize fighter, and urged him not to leave the bank. However, he was offered a chance to go to New Orleans to box during Mardi Gras week against the famous Kilrain. He was now only twenty-one, but he won the fight with Kilrain, and was established as a pro fessional. His father recovered from his disappointment at James^ leaving the bank, and seemed to feel pride in his son’s success as a fighter. In this case important factors influencing choice were: (1) special aptitude, including good physique and agility; (2) suggestion-imitation, through watching his older brother box; (S) stimulation through success in his first fight with an older boy at school, and the commendation of the other boys; (4) stimulation through encouraging predictions of box ing instructors, professional fighters, and his friends; (5) desire for recognition; (6) desire for security; (7) oppor^kunities offered him to fight professionals and become a professional himself. Isadora Duncan, dancer. Isadora’s mother was a musi cian, and, as she divorced her husband while Isadora was a 148 baby. It was necessary for her to teach music to make a liv ing for her children, of whom Isadora was the youngest. She gave her lessons at the homes of her pupils, and since she could not afford servants or governesses for her children, they were free after school hours to do what they pleased. Miss Duncan says: *It is to this fact that I owe the spon taneous life which I had the opportunity to express as a child 248 and never lost.* Isadora entered public school in San Francisco at five, but she found it entirely uninteresting. She had already be gun to dance in her own way. She felt that her real education came during the evenings when her mother played to them by the hour, or read poetry aloud to them. There were no set hours for rising or going to bed, and very little discipline of any kind in their lives. *It was owing to my mother that, as children, our entire lives were permeated with music and poet- 249 ry,® she says. When Isadora was about six years old, she one day col lected half a dozen babies of the neighborhood, all too young to walk, arranged them on the floor in front of her, and began to teach them to wave their arms, informing her mother that 248 Isadora Duncan, Life (New York; Boni and Live- right, cl927), p. 10. Ibid.. p. 18. 149 it was her school of the dance* The little school thus begun continued and became very popular* Soon parents of the little girls of the neighborhood paid Isadora a small sum to teach them dancing. By the time that she was ten, the classes had become so large that she persuaded her mother that she should stog school, as it was only a waste of time when she could be making money. She was very tall for her age, so put up her hair, and said she was sixteen. Her sister Elizabeth joined in teaching the classes. There was great demand for their services,. and they taught in some of the wealthiest homes in 250 San Francisco. There was no real system in her teaching. She impro vised, teaching anything that came into her head, sometimes reciting a poem and showing the children how to follow its 251 meaning in movement. Friends who saw her began to prophesy that she would be a great dancer, which stirred her ambitions. Their father made some money and gave his former wife and his children a large house with a barn. Here Isadora’s brother Augustin opened a sort of little theater, in which all the family performed, and vdiich became popular in the neighborhood. When Isadora was twelve and the others a little Ibld.f p. 14. 251 Ibid.. p. 21. 160 older, they made a tour with their little group down the coast to Santa Clara, Santa Rosa, and other coast cities, which was very successful. Isadora now became anxious to leave San Francisco and go abroad to stu^. Finally, she and her mother left for Chi cago with very little money. After many hardships and disap pointments, she obtained a pantomime part with Augustin Daly and went to New York. Then she danced in Midsummer Night* s Dream, and next gave concerts with Ethelbert Nevin, interpret ing his music. This was just the beginning of a long and very successful career as a dancer. Important factors here were: (1) special aptitude for expression through the dance, shown from early childhood; (2) freedom to develop her art in her own way; (S) stimulation through the music and poetry with which their mother surrounded them; (4) economic necessity for earning money; (5) stimulation through encouragement of relatives and friends; (6) desire for recognition. /hmie pakley. trick shooter. Annie was one of eight children, of whom only one was a boy. After her father’s hotel burned to the ground, the family moved into a part of Ohio 151 which was sparsely settled at that time. Here they eked out an existence upon some leased land, and had a very hard time. #hile the children were still small, the father was killed in a blizzard, Annie was always something of a tomboy, and was the con- 252 stant companion of her one brother. Soon she began to trap game for the family’s food; then persuaded her brother to teach her to shoot the big Kentucky rifle udiich hung over the fire place. Annie had very little schooling. After her mother’s third marriage, the family moved to a new farm, where the same struggle for existence went on. Annie continued to use her rifle to cope with the financial difficulties. A good market for wild game of all sorts had now developed, and the hotels of Cincinnati and other cities were willing to pay good prices for it. A stage line ran near the new home of Annie Oakley, 1%r which she arranged to ship hampers of the quail, rabbits, squirrels, and pheasants which she killed to a store, which purchased them and resold to the city hotels. Many kinds of game abounded in that part of the country, and Annie now spent all her time hunting, ^ e de veloped a very lucrative businessi became physically hardened, and learned to be expert at difficult shots. To vary the 252 Courtney Ryley Cooper, Annie paklev. Wo^n at Arms (New York: Doffield and Green, Inc., cl927), p. 21. 152 monotor^, she began to try trick shots. Soon word began to spread about her shooting ability. She was now about thirteen. Almost every one could shoot in those days, not long after the Civil War. It was thought to be a high accomplishment, and, too, people were still much afraid of Indian uprisings. But Annie Oakley’s shooting stood out from that of others. She began to enter the shooting matches, which were the principal amusement of the asall town near which she lived, and usually managed to win the prize. Next she was invited to come to the city to shoot in a match against Frank Butler, a well-known trick shooter, who did a shooting act on the stage. Annie won this match, and also won Frank Butler as a husband, though it was some months before they were married. In the meantime, she began to visu alize herself in costume, shooting on the stage, and to prac tice the sort of trick shooting she had seen Butler do there. After their marriage, she became Butler’s partner, and the act 255 was called *Butler and Oakley.* In this case, important factors were: (1) skill in shooting, developed throogh the economic necessity of hunting for food for a large family; (2) general interest in shooting and shooting matches 253 ., p. 70. 153 In Ohio at that time, which stimulated her to learn trick shooting, and gained her a reputation as a crack shot while she was still a small girl; (3) an opportunity to shoot in a match with a profes sional, which she won; (4) desire for recognition; (5) marriage to a professional, which brought her to the stage as his partner in a shooting act. Joseuhlng DeMptt Robinson, circus rider. From earliest childhood, this woman lived under a circus tent. She came from a family of circus stars, her grandmother and grandfather on her mother’s side, her great-uncle, her father and mother, and 254 many others of her family having been circus performers. Her people, like all the early circus riders, came from wander ing troups of players, who, after getting their training by working hard in this way for a good many years, finally ar rived at some famous Paris circus. Her grandfather had such a company, and her grandmother was a famous rider, the first 255 woman to balance herself on one foot on a horse. Though Josephine’s mother rode, she did not really like Josephine DeMott Robinson, The GjLpcus Lady (New York: The Thomas Y. Crowell Co., cl925), p. 1. 255 - , p. 3. 154 It, and only went into the ring so that she might not he sepa rated from her husband. For a time Mr. DeMott had a circus of his own. On account of heavy financial losses, he was obliged to send all his eight children into the ring sooner than he really wished to. Josephine was like her grandmother rather than her 256 mother, and "born with a love of the ring.* As a tiny child, she kept begging for a chance to ride, and was allowed to try first when between three and four years of age. She grew into her profession. Often she heard her father say that he wished he could take his whole family to a farm far away from any circus and keep them there, but the circus world was the one they had been trained in, they could make a good living in it, and they 257 stayed. The important factors in this case clearly were: (1) special aptitude for circus riding, which many mem bers of her family had; (2) suggestion-imitation, because of family tradition and living and traveling with circuses from earliest childhood; (3) desire for security, which she could attain most 256 ^ 25. Ibid.. p. 56. 155 easily through circus riding, the profession into which she had been born. Howard Thurston. magicjLan. The early childhood of this magician was spent in Columbus, Ohio, where his father was a carriage maker and an inventor of some skill. He says: There was the curling iron— still in use today; a fire escape for hotels; roller skates with two single wheels. .... Invention has always been my hobby, and my first recollections are of sitting at my.father’ s bench at night as he worked out his inventions When a small boy,— his autobiography says he was seven years old, but his letter to the investigator, ten— Howard at tended a performance of magic given in the Columbus City Hall by Alexandre ^ermann, and was completely fascinated by it. He immediately decided to become a magician, and began to practice little tricks of his own invention. Mr. Thurston’s letter says: When I was ten years old, I saw Alexandre Hermann, the greatest of all magicians, give a magical performance in the Town Hall, and there I determined to become a magi cian. But many long, hard and toilsome years were to pass before ^ realized that ambition. Magic, from that time, has been the great passion of my life. I do not suppose that anyone can miii the goal if he tried long enough and wants to hard enough, and is-willing to pay the price. The curious fact is, that I am just as much enamored of my profession tp=day as when I was a boy in the top gallery at Columbus. Howard Thurston, gv Life of Magic (Philadelphia: Dorrance and Co., Inc., 01929%, p. 18. S59 Personal Correspondence of the Investigator, letter from Howard Thurston, October, 1933. 156 Various other occupations intervened, however, before he took up magic as a profession. In the panic of 1873 his father failed, losing everything, including his home. After this the father became ill, and Howard and his brother went to work selling beefsteak—pounders, one of the father’s inven tions. At nine Howard became a bellboy in a Columbus hotel, and at twelve a newsboy on a train running between Columbus and Akron. Then he ran away from home with a friend to become a jockey, and the next five yeeirs were spent drifting around, working as a jockey, selling papers or programs, and sometimes as just a tramp. His old love for magic never left him, though, during these years, and he constantly practiced his tricks of magic. At sixteen he went home for a few months, but soon left to sell programs at the races. In Hoboken he was sick and left stranded with no money, and here he was introduced to a Mr. Round, a philanthropist, who got him interested in mission work. A friend of Mr. Round’s then sent Howard to the Moody School at Mr. Hermon, Massachusetts. Here he took the regular Bible course, and says that he intended to become a medical 260 missionary. However, he still dreamed and talked of magic and practiced sleight of hand diligently. It is rather diffi- 260 Howard Thurston, pp*. cit.. pp. 49-50. 157 cult to understand how he even considered the career of a med ical missionary. No doubt it was because of the influence of Mr. Round and his friends. It was at the Mt. Hermon School that Howard gave his first performance of magic. During his fourth year at Mt. Hermon he prepared him self to enter the University of Pennsylvania, there to continue his preparation for medical missionary work, but instead went to the Burnham Industrial Farm, where Mr. Round was director, and worked for eighteen months. Again he started for the uni versity, but at Albany saw a lithograph of Hermann the Great, which caused him to leave the train and rush to the hall where 261 Hermann vms playing." Here he felt once more all the thrills that he had as a small boy in Columbus. H@ determined that he could not become a medical missionary, and bought a ticket for Detroit, intending to spend the winter with his father and to prepare himself for a career of magic* Here he practiced magic continually for some time. Then one day, after talking with a vender of potato peelers, he conceived the idea of combining magic with the selling of potato peelers. He made one hundred of the peelers, and started out on the road with these and all the magical Ibid.. p. 54, 158 apparatus v&iioh he possessed— a pack of cards and some rubber balls. He gathered a crowd by doing tricks, then sold his potato peelers, and did fairly well at it. At Cleveland, he was given an opportunity to work as a magician with Sells Brothers Circus for six dollars a week with board, and accepted with alacrity. They gave him the 262 name of "Anderson, Wizard of the North." In this case, important factors were: (1) intense interest in magic stimulabd by a perform ance which he witnessed as a small boy; (2) special aptitude, probably in part through inventive ability inherited from his father; (3) emotional drive vdiich kept him constantly practic ing magic no matter what his occupation might be temporarily; (4) suggestion, which again overwhelmed him with the desire to become a magician, when he saw a picture of the ma gician who had first charmed him, though he was then on the way to be trained for medical missionary work; (5) desire for recognition. 6. SÜMMAHÏ (l) With the seven actors in this group of creative Ibid.. p. 60. 159 workers, the following factors were found to be of importance in influencing their choice of profession, though not all the factors appeared in each case: (a) special aptitude, which was apparent in every case; (b) suggestion-imitation, due to occupation of other members of the family; (c) suggestion-imitation, due to stories of famous actors and actresses; (d) good voice for speaking and siigLng; (e) desire for response; (f) desire for recognition; (g) desire for security; (h) stimulation through seeing many plays; (i) encouragement from parents, actors, and others; (j) unexpected offer of opportunity to act, as in the case of Paul Robeson; (k) race conflict, turning him from the profession of the law, for whifh he was trained, in the case of Paul Robeson; (1) great interest in Shakespeare’s plays, in the case of Miss Marlowe; (S) With the four artists, the important factors were: (a) special aptitude, which again was apparent in 160 every case; (b) encouragement from relatives, teachers, or other artists; (c) stimulation through contact with art teachers and artists; (d) desire for security; (e) strong emotional drive carrying them forward in spite of the wishes of relatives, in the cases of Pennell and Young; (f) spread of interest in advertising art, in the case of Steichen. (5) With the four musicians, important factors were: (a) special aptitude in every case; (b) stimulation through musical environment at home; (c) good musical education; (d) encouragement and assistance from relatives and friends; (e) desire for security; (f) desire for recognition; (g) stimulation through hearing the performances of others; (h) emotional drive carrying them forward in spite of their fathers’ wishes, in the cases of Schumann-Heink and Vallée; 161 (i) conflict situation between business duties and interest in music, finally deciding him to choose music defi nitely, in the case of de Koven. (4) In the cases of the three scientists, the follow ing factors were important; (a) special scientific aptitudes, in each case, including scientific curiosity; (b) stimulation through encouragement of relatives and friends; (c) stimulation through technical education in the cases of Hoover and Steinmetz; (d) stimulation through beauties of nature in his childhood environment in Baynes’ case; (e) distaste for business in Baynes’ case; (f) stimulation of interest in mines and geology through conversations heard as a young boy in Hoover’s case; (g) political conditions which caused him to leave Breslau and finally brought him to America, where he found work in an electrical establishment, in Steinmetz’ case. (5) With the five entertainers— a prize fighter, a dancer, a trick shooter, a circus rider, and a magician— the following factors were important, though not all in each case: (a) special aptitude in each ease; (b) desire for recognition in each case; 162 (c) desire for security in each case; (d) encouragement of relatives, teachers, and friends; (e) success in first fight with a larger, older hoy in the case of James Corbett; (f) stimulation through music and poetry with which she was surrounded at home in Isàdora Duncan’s case; (g) practice in shooting gained when hunting for food, and stimulation through the general interest in shooting skill in Ohio in her girlhood in, Annie Oakley’s case; (h) marriage to a professional trick shooter in Annie Oakley’s case; (i) suggestion-imitation, because of family tradi tion and circus environment of childhood in Josephine Robinson’s case; (3) suggestion-imitation through witnessing a pro fessional performance of magic as a small boy in Thurston’s case. CHAPTER V CREATIVE WORKERS, PART 2: WRITERS This chapter will discuss the writers in this group, including those whose work was mainly of a journalistic or an editorial nature* Mo attempt has been made to segregate these writers by the form of their work, as many of them have pro duced literature in several different forms. The cases are arranged alphabetically by surname. Margaret Anderson. Since the autobiography of this writer and editor is rather vague in its wording, it was dif ficult to sift out the facts. However, apparently her child hood and girlhood were spent in comfortable circumstances with her family in Columbus, Indiana. Her special interests were literature and music, with which her parents had not much sympathy. She says that college meant one thing to her chief ly: pianos. By special permis site, she was allowed to study 265 the piano instead of Greek." By the time she was about nineteen, she had made up her mind to escape from her surroundings and conquer the world. She says: "I already knew that the great thing to learn about Margaret Anderson, Thirty Years’ War; an Auto biography (New York: Covici, Friede, Inc., cl9S0), p. 8. 164 life is, first, not to do what you don’t want to do, and, 264 second, to do what you do want to do.* Noticing one day that Clara E. Laughlin was running a department of advice to young girls in Good Housekeeping. Margaret wrote her a long letter, telling all her troubles, and asking for advice as to how she could leave home. Miss Laughlin replied sympathetically, asking Margaret to come to see her in Chicago, idiich she immediately did. Among other activities. Miss Laughlin was literary editor of a religious weekly called the Interior. She knew a great many literary people and much literary gossip. Margaret had several long talks with her, and was fascinated. "Here was an atmosphere in which I could live and breathe," she says. "I saw no rea son why I should continue to live in Columbus, Indiana, and 265 not breathe." She returned home for the time being, but was soon fol lowed by a letter from Miss Laughlin to her parents, saying that Margaret was an unusually interesting girl, that she had read more than any one of her age that Miss Laughlin had ever met, and should be given an opportunity. Miss Laughlin of fered to take her under her wing, and said she could arrange Ibid.. p. 11. Ibid.. p. 16. for Margaret to earn her own living by interviews with stage 266 celebrities for a beginning. After quite a struggle with her parents, Margaret was finally allowed to go to Chicago. There being no stage cele brities in town at that moment. Miss taughlin started her on reviewing books, and was much pleased with the result, though Margaret had had no previous experience with this sort of work Next she obtained a position as a book clerk in a shop which was connected with the offices of the Dial, a literary review. She was soon taken on the staff of the Dial, and here learned a great deal about running a magazine, which was of help to her later when she started one of her own. She was then offered a position as literary editor of the Continent. which she accepted with alacrity, as this meant going to New York to interview all the publishers about their 267 forthcoming Woks. She soon felt that she was not allowed to make real literary judgments, however, and determined to start a review of her own, which she did, calling it the Lit tle Review. She was now twenty-one years old. The decisive factors in this case were: (1) special aptitude for writing; (2) stimulation through extensive reading; Ibia.. p. 17. Ibid.. p. 31. 166 conflict between her ideals and interests and those of the rest of her family, coming to a crisis in her writing to Miss Laughlin for advice; desire for new experience; opportunity offered her by Miss Laughlin to come to Chicago to work, thus beginning her career as reviewer and editor. Sherwood Anderson. The ancestry of this man is uncer tain, except that his father was Irwin Anderson, the son of 268 some broken southern family. Irwin Anderson was a drifter, seldom at h<xae, a great talker and story teller. Sherwood was born in Ohio in 1876, one of five children. As a small Wy he went to school some, but preferred to spend his time around bar-rooms, stores, and livery stables. His mother died when he was fourteen; the family broke up, md Sherwood began to wander around "as a laborer, race-track follower, tramp and 269 factory hand." He enlisted in the Spanish American War for the excite ment, but on his return to his home town found himself greeted as a hero. This seemed to be a sort of turning point in his life, after idiich he married, settled down, and went into 263 Cleveland B. Chase, Sherwood Anderson (Hew York: Robert M. McBride and Co., cl927), pp. 6-7. Ibid.. p. 7. 167 business, where he was very successful. In a few years, he became the president of a paint manufacturing concern in Elyria, Ohio. However, he found no satisfaction in his business suc cess. His real interests were in the realm of the imagination, which was not given sufficient opportunity for expression in his business career. For some time he had been reading rather widely, and began to wonder if he could not write himself. Then he tried setting down some of his own experiences, thoughts, observations, imaginings, as an escape from the dreariness of 270 his business life. He began to feel more confidence in his writing ability, and finally decided to devote his whole time to it. In 1910 he left Elyria, his family, and his business, and went to Chicago for this purpose. His biographer quotes from Anderson’s own book, 4 Storv Teller’s Storv; It came with a rush, the feeling that I must quit buy ing and selling, the overwhelming feeling of uncleanliness. I was in my whole nature a taleteller. The taleteller can not bother with buying and selling. To do so will destroy him.*^ ^ Here the following factors were important in the choice: (1) special aptitude for writing, apparently latent until middle life, probably partially based on inheritance from Ibid.. pp. 10-11. 271 lÈiâ-, p. 9. 168 his story-telling father; (2) stimulation through extensive reading; (5) stimulation through many varieties of experience in childhood and early manhood; (4) conflict of his real interests with his business life, which seemed to stifle his imagination, leading to his abandonment of business altogether. (5) desire for new experience. Edward W* Bok. The father of this editor was of pure Dutch descent, one of a long line of jurists. His mother was 272 of English and New England blood. There were no journal ists on either side. The family came to the United States from the Netherlands, when Edward was seven and his brother eight and a half years old, and settled in Brooklyn. The boys started in at the public schools, doing all sorts of odd jobs out of school hours. At an early age Ed ward had the idea of writing up an account of a party he at tended, and selling it to the Brooklyn Eagle. The editor offered him three dollars a coluim for these reports, and Edward soon got all his friends to hand in to him accounts of every party they attended. 272 Edward W. Bok, Twice -Thirty. Some Short and Simple Annals of the Road (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, cl925), p. 17. 169 When he was a little older, the father of one of his friends was an editor, and he often called upon this girl just to talk with her father about editorial methods, his editorial ambitions being increased thereby. His family was having a hard struggle financially. The father, though he had had an excellent education in Europe, could not adjust himself very well to American ways. At thir teen, Edward finally decided that he must leave school and go to work. His father was working as a translator at the Western Union Telegraph Company, and Edward found work there as an of fice boy in the electricians’ department. In the-evenings, he began to read about the lives of successful Americans, and from that began writing to some of these people. He received most interesting replies from many of them. The newspapers hearing of this, referred to Edward 274 as "the well-known Brooklyn autograph collector." Some of the famous people invited Edward to call on them, and whenever possible he did so, thus making many friends who were to be of the greatest help to him later on. His first editorial work came about through his sugges- Edward W. Bok, The Americanization of Edward Bok (New York; Charles Scribner’s Sons, cl920), p. 14. 274 JkîdLâ*» P* 170 tion to the Knapp Lithographic Company, which made the pic tures given away in packages of cigarettes, that it v/ould he interesting to print brief biographies of these famous people on the back of the pictures. He was given the job of writing several hundred at ten dollars apiece, and he hired other boys to write some of them, paying them half of what he received. Thus, he early decided that it was more profitable to edit 275 than to write. Soon after he became an office boy, Edward realized that he would have more chance for advancement if he knew shorthand, so he studied it in a night class at the Y. M. C. A, Thereafter, he had some assignments from the Brooklyn Eagle, including news of the theaters. A friend of Edward’s introduced him into a debating society, and the next activity was publishing an organ for the society, with Edward as editor. They gradually made the peri odical more general and literary in charœ ter, and changed the name to the Brooklyn Magazine. Then they absorbed another periodical called the Plymouth Pulpit, which gave reports of Mr. Beecher’s sermons. Edward then went to each of the noted persons he had met through his autograph collecting and soli cited contributions, thus keeping the literary contents on a Ibid.. p. 28 171 high plane* All this time Edward was working as a stenographer and clerk with the Western Union Telegram Company in the daytime, He was now private stenographer to Mr. Gary, attorney of the company, hut decided it would be best for his future to make a change* After talking the matter over with Mr. Cary, the latter promised to find him a position such as he wanted, a promise vhich he fulfilled by getting Edward an opportunity with Henry Holt, the publisher. Thus Edward ^associated him self with the publishing business in which he had correctly 276 divined that his future lay**? Important factors in this choice were: (1) inherited keen intelligence; (2) inventive imagination, which enabled him to see possibilities of development and gainful activity from early childhood on; (S) desire for security, stimulated by poverty; (4) stimulation through life in a large city with its varied activities; (5) desire for recognition, which led him to read and study in his few spare moments outside of working hours; (6) decision to devote his whole time to the sort of Ibid.. p, 76. 172 editorial activities which he carried on as an avocation; (7) assistance from his employer in obtaining a posi tion with a publishing company* George Cram Cook. This writer was born in Iowa, where his people had lived for several generations. His father was a corporation lawyerj his mother a woman of intellect* George went to the preparatory school of Griswold Col lege in Davenport. He did not do well there, so had private teaching for a time from an intelligent German woman, which enabled him to enter the Davenport High School* After a year here, he entered Griswold College* At fifteen, he entered the state university at Iowa City. At seventeen, he was engaged to be married* He said: 277 **A girl and Wordsworth made me a poet.® While a senior at Iowa, he was in the English class of Professor Melville B. Anderson, vho, he said, first awoke in him the love of letters 278 and thus shaped his life. He was class poet at Iowa State* In 1895 he entered Harvard as a senior* Here he studied with Barrett Weddell, and felt that he was really learning to write. Contact with two friends here made him ashamed of his 277 , Susan Glaspell, The Road to the Temple (New York: Frederick A. Stokes Co., cl92?), p. 41* 278 Ibid.. p. 43. ITS shallow scholarship, and he determined to learn something about Old English, Gothic, and Old Saxon. He felt that he must write, but decided to prepare himself for university 2 T9 teaching, too. After Harvard, he went to Germany for a year of hard study. Stimulated by German scholarship, he often worked six- 280 teen hours a day at philology, with brilliant results. After his return from Europe, he taught English at the University of Iowa for a time, but gave this up to write Rode rick Taliaferro, a romance about Mexico. Next he taught English at Leland Stanford University. However, he had come to see that university life was not what he wanted, that teaching was not a good way to support oneself for writing, as it used the same faculties too much. His read ing of Tolstoi and Kropotkin made him think that farming would be better for that, so he went back to the old place in Iowa to try it. Here he had Floyd Dell, a boy of seventeen, as a farmhand. The two were mentally stimulating to each other. However, the novel Cook wrote here was declined by a publisher, Later Floyd went to Chicago and became associate to Francis Hackett in editing the Friday Review. Then Dell be- Ibid.. p. 63. Ibid.. p. 72. 174 came editor, and sent for Cook to be his associate. The Irish Players were important in Chicago just then, and Cook was much interested. *Quite possibly there would have been no Provineetown Players had there not been Irish 281 Players.® His first two marriages had ended in divorce. In 1915 he married Susan Glaspell, and went to Province town, Massachu setts, where he began writing stories and magazine articles in earnest. Their winters were spent in Greenwich Village. Dis appointed in the type of plays being shown in New York, Cook and Glaspell determined to write some of their own. At first they produced them themselves in Province town, and thus the 282 Provincetown Players were started. Important factors in this case were: (1) keen intelligence; (2) special aptitude for writing; (5) stimulation through contact with an English teacher at the University of Iowa, who aroused his interest in litera ture and writing; (4) stimulation through contacts with teachers and other students at Harvard and in Germany; 281 Ibid.. p. 218. 282 ^ p. 251. 175 (5) experience as a university teacher convincing him that that was not a good way to support oneself for writing; (6) opportunity to go to Chicago as a literary editor; (7) stimulation through contact with the Irish Players in Chicago; (8) marriage to Susan Glaspell, a writer; (9) disappointment with plays seen in New York, result ing in determination to write better ones. James Oliver Curvfood. The ancestors of this writer were all ordinary people, he says, with the exception of two. One of his Dutch ancestors married a beautiful Mohawk girl, and Curwood feels that it is her blood which has urged him to isolate himself in the wilderness at times all through his life. Then, one of his great-uncles was Capt. Frederick Mar ry at, a naval officer and a famous teller of thrilling accounts of adventure^ and Curwood thinks his story-telling propensities 285 may have come indirectly from this great-uncle. James was one of several children, bom in Owosso, Michigan. %ile he was still quite small, his father failed in business, and bought a farm in Ohio, where the family lived in poverty but contentment. Here Curwood developed the love of James Oliver Curwood, Sop of the Forests (Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, Doran and Co., clSSO), pp. 3-4. 176 nature which was to play so large a part in his life. He early began to write childish romances. His married sister, who came to visit them from Michigan, was the first to show an interest in his story writing. She advised and en couraged him, and also aroused an interest in James on the part of a young man who was then writing juvenile serials for Golden Days. Fired by his example, lames definitely determined at this time to become a writer, but it was long before he sold any manuscripts. He says that the encouragement of his sister at this period of his life was of tremendous importance to 284 him. His mother persuaded his father to move to Wakeman jand set up a cobbling shop, so that James could have somewhat bet ter schooling than at the little country school he had been attending. At Wakeman he used to haunt a small shop which dis played a stock of magazines} pore over them; and read with beating heart the names of the authors who had written the 285 stories. Then for a time he lived with his married sister in Owosso, and attended school there. He had developed a great love of the out-of-doors, and spent much time exploring the woods and streams. Ibid.. p. S2. Ibid.. pp. 60-61. 177 His father bought him a second-hand typewriter, and made a stand for it, thus showing the development of his parents* interest in his chosen work. James continued to send stories out to the magazines persistently, starting them out again as soon as returned. Often an editor would send a word of encouragement with them. At eighteen, he sold a story &r the first time, receiving five dollars for it. Interested friends began to urge him to go to college, telling him that he could not hope to reach the top rank among story writers without a college education, so he began earning and saving all he could with the intention of attending the University of Michigan. His scholastic record at high school had not been good, but by hard study he managed to enter the university by examination, without a high school diploma. The fact that he had read a great deal helped him in this. One of his teachers at the university advised him to try for newspaper work to help pay his expenses, idilch he did, earning fair sums while at the university by writing feature stories for various newspapers. During his junior year, he left college to take a posi tion on the Detroit News. Thereafter he worked on newspapers for some time, but began selling a good many articles and stories to magazines as well. The following factors were of importance in this choices (1) special aptitude for writing; 178 (2) stimulation through encouragement from relatives, especially from an older sister, and from friends; (3) encouraging words from editors who returned manu scripts; (4) stimulation through the example of a writer friend; (5) experiences gained exploring woods and streams, which he wove into Rories; (6) fair education; (7) desire for recognition. Anne Ellis. This woman never wrote anything for publi cation until she was nearly fifty. Since that time, she has written several books and many magazine articles. Her mother never went to school, and could neither read 286 nor write. Her father must have had some education, for he taught a term of school at Silver Cliff, Colorado, when Anne was a little girl. Soon after this, he made a few hundred dol lars from the sale of a mine, and deserted his family perma- 287 nently. Later her mother married again; there were numerous half brothers and sisters, and a continuous struggle with poverty. The greater part of Anne*s life has been spent in Anne Ellis, The Life of an Ordinary Woman- (Bos ton : Houghton Mifflin Co., cl929Î, p. S. Ibid.. p. 13. 179 and around mining camps. At six and a half Anne started to school in one of the mining camps, hut her schooling was very meager and intermit tent. She did a good deal of reading, however. She says: ®The greatest influence in my life has been -books, good books, bad books, and indifferent ones. I startéd in by reading what we called *Nlck Carters* everything, of course, borrowed.® Some of the men she borrowed from had Dickens, Scott, and other good writers, and she came to enjoy this kind of reading most. Mrs. Ellis* life has been filled with hardships. She was married several times in her youth, and had several chil dren. %e father of the children died when the children were > , small, so their support fell on her. She has sewed, cooked, and washed for a living; run boarding-houses; and run a coun try switchboard. Although she had a good many interesting experiences around mining camps, she never thought of writing them up herself at the time. > During middle age she became very ill, and had to go to a sanitarium. While there, some friends suggested that she write the recollections of her experiences! A quotation from Mrs. Ellis* letter explains: Ibid.. p. 122 180 I was crowding fifty, broke in both health and pocket- book and very troubled what to do— when one evening a friend suggested 1 try to write, so next morning, without any preparation and handicapped by the lack of education— except that gained from living— I started ®The life of An Ordinary Woman.® Up to date I*ve written four books and numerous maga zine articles and am veiy happy in my work.”®^ important factors in this case were: (1) stimulation through love of reading developed during childhood, when she borrowed all the books she could find; (2) stimulation through a life full of vital experiences, many of them difficult; (S) some special aptitude for writing; (4) economic pressure; (5) suggestion from friends that she try writing. Robert Frost. The ancestors of Robert Frost were set tled in England before the Norman Conquest. Some of them migrated to New England with the Puritans early in the seven teenth century. Robert* s grandfather, William Prescott Frost, was an overseer in a mill at Lawrence, Massachusetts. His son, the first of the line to receive college training, was sent to Harvard, with the hope that he would become a lawyer. Later the grandfather had the same hope for his grandson. Personal Correspondence of the Investigator, letter from Anne Ellis, October, 1933. 181 Robert, but to no avail. Robert* s father "was a variant from the temperamental 290 conservatism of his family line.® He left New England and started west. In Lewiston, Pennsylvania, he met and married a young Scotch school teacher. They went on to San Francisco, where Frost went to work on a newspaper, the Bulletin, and here Robert Frost was born in 1875. Of Robert*s mother, his biographer says: She was an occasional versifier and reviewed books for her husband*s newspaper. In religion she was a Sweden borg! an, and these facts are sufficient to suggest that she probably awakened an emotional area in her son that the father left untouched, that area that was later fructify into a new contribution to American poetry. When Robert was ten, his father died of tuberculosis, and it was necessary for the boy and his mother to join his grandparents in Lawrence. Here Robert went to school, leading his class in high school. As a small boy he had begun a serial story. At fourteen he began to read a great deal of poetry, and at fifteen he was beginning to write verse himself. Butterfly, a poem for which the editor of the Independent paid him fifteen dollars, was written when he_was seventeen. pQQ Gorham B. Munson, Robert Frost. ^ Study in Sensi bility and Good Sense (Garden City, N. Y. : Doubleday, Doran Co., cl92f), p. 20. ^91 Ibid.. p. 26. 182 In 1892 he went to Dartmouth College for a few months, because his grandfather wished it, but college did not inter est him. Next he worked for a time as a bobbin boy in a mill; taught Latin for awhile in his mother*s little school; made shoes; and acted as reporter-editor of the Lawrence Sentinel. but none of these activities really appealed to him. Though he married at the age of twenty, he still did not seem to be much concémed about making a living. With some thought of preparation, he again tried college, spending two years at Harvard, where he enjoyed Latin, Greek, and philo sophy, but did not stay to graduate. When Robert was twenty-five, "his grandfather was still pondering, perhaps more than Robert, on what was to be the 292 career of his grandson.® Finally, in 1900, he bought a farm for Robert at Derry, New Hampshire, and here the young man moved with his wife and two small children. He was not a very successful farmer, but wrote a good deal of good verse during his years there. In 1905, he secured a position as a teçicher at Pinker ton Academy, where he proved to be quite successful and a favorite with the students. In 1911, he went to the Hew Hamp shire State Normal School to teach, at Plymouth. About this Ibid.. p. 35. 1B3 time he was beginning to be recognized widely by the literary public, but he has continued to do a little farming, some teaching, and some writing ever since. In the case of this poet, the following factors were important : (1) strong special aptitude, probably due to inheri tance from both parents; (2) stimulation through his mother*s interest in the mystical; (3) keen intelligence; (4) stimulation through wide reading, especially poetry. Hamlin Garland. The biographical work by this author published in 1929, Back Trailers from the Middle Border, gives almost nothing of his early life, so his Son of the Middle porder. published earlier, was used to obtain the information. Garland came to writing through various other occupa- 294 tions. He says that his father was a vivid story-teller. 295 All his mother*s family showed a vein of poetry. ^ His Grand mother Garland, who came from Boston, had a distinctly literary influence upon her grandchildren, teaching them poetry and Ibid.. p. 56. Hamlin Garland, A Son of title Middle Border (New York: The Macmillan Co., cl914), p. 8. Ibid.. p. 23. 184 telling them stories. Hamlin*s father was a Wisconsin farmer, and Hamlin had to do a great deal of hard farm labor during his boyhood. In fact, his schooling was considerably interrupted by the work on the farm which his father required. There were very few books in their house, but every scrap of print which came their way was read and reread eagerly, and everything which their neighbors had was borrowèd. McGuf- fey*s Readers. with their selection of really fine literature, made a profound impression on Hamlin. When his father went to be official grain-buyer for the county, the family moved hear to town, and Hamlin was able to attend the seminary there, though his course was still inter rupted by intervals of work on the farm. His attendance at the seminary increased his interest in reading and education tremendously. He was able to keep among the highest in his class except in mathematics, but distinguished himself most 297 in the oral exercises of Friday afternoons. He was also prominent in the debating society. Hamlin* s father was not very sympathetic with his at tempts to obtain an education, but his mother did all she could Ibid.. p. 89. IMâ., p. 197. 298 to help him. For a time, Hamlin thought of studying law. However, the warning words of a friend of his, then a law student, "Don*t become a lawyer*s hack," decided him definitely against pQQ it. " W the time he had finished his course at the seminary, he was hoping to become a professor of literature eventually. In the meantime, he wandered around for some time searching for a school to teach, doing carpentering, and other odd jobs. He taught school in Ohio for awhile. He was in Dakota, where his father was now located, but very discouraged, udien a minister from Maine advised him to go to Boston to study. Mortgaging the land claim which he had taken up, with the two hundred dollars received he went to Boston. Here he took a cheap room; spent his days in the li brary reading, and his evenings attending the free lectures and in cheap seats at the theaters. He was greatly stimulated by the atmosphere of Boston. Finally, the principal of a school of oratory became interested in him, and allowed him to work for his tuition at the school. Soon impressed by Garland*s knowledge of litera ture, he started him at teaching literature. The teaching paid his expenses, leaving him some time free for study and Ibid.. p. 209. PQQ Ibid.. p. 228. 186 the writing he was now beginning to do. Me says; entrance into print came about through my good friend, Mr. Hurd, the book reviewer of the Transcrint. For him I began to write an 300 occasional critical article or poem just to try my hand.® From this he turned to writing stories, and sold them. The following factors were important in this choices (1) special aptitude, partly through inheritance from both his father*s and his mother*s families; (2) stimulation throi^h contact with his grandmother, who aroused his first interest in literature; (3) stimulation through much reading, and through con tacts at the seminary he attended as a youth; (4) encouragement from his mother in obtaining an edu cation, in spite of his father* s lack of sympathy; (5) advice from a law student friend, which turned him from the thought of studying law; C . 6 ) advice from a New England man, who told him to go to Boston to study; (7) stimulation through the literary atmosphere of Boston; (8) teaching position which gave him time to write; (9) opportunity to write articles for the Transcrint. given him by a friend. Ibid.. p. 347. 187 Norman Haogood.. . This journalist was brought up in Alton, Illinois. The schools here were not very good, and there was very little interest in intellectual matters in the town. For talk about books and anything related to the life 301 of the intellect, they were dependent mainly on their home. For about ten years, his father * s business affairs were in very bad shape, but he later became comparatively well off as owner of a plow factory. As a boy, Norman* s father had him learn the work of the office, and by the time he was fifteen he had become quite ef ficient at it. After Norman had graduated from the schools of Alton, his father told him he might choose his college himself. Har vard was selected, but more study was necessary to prepare him for it, and for this he had a woman college graduate as a tutor. She awakened in him an enthusiasm for study which he had not had before, especially for literature.^^^ At Harvard, he was greatly stimulated intellectually by contact with the teachers and with other students. Dr. Eliot was the president, and Hapgood had courses with Santa yana and William James, among other powerful personalities. Norman Hapgood, The Changing Years. Remintscences of Norman Hapgood (New York: Farrar and Rinehart, Incl, cl9S0), p. 26. SOS „ . pp^ 34-55. 188 The young poet, William Vaughn Moody, was an intimate friend of Hapgoocte, and they passed many hours in discussion, with an emphasis on literature. Hapgood was elected to the Phi Beta Kpppa. The idea of going into business with his father was repugnant to him, though it seemed the natural thing for him to do, as he had learned a good deal about his father*s fac tory, and neither he nor his father believed he could earn a living by writing. However, his father was willing to help him to do whatever he chose. A trip to Europe at the end of his junior year intensified his unwillingness to go into busi 303 ness. He discovered art here, he says. Since he still was not sure just what he wanted to do, it was decided that he should begin with an experiment of one year in j.aw school. He did very well the first year, but during the second and third years, his thoughts were turning more and more to literature. However, he started in a law office in Chicago, but even in office hours put much of his attention on literature, and during evenings and Sundays concentrated on reading and writing An article about Margaret Puller was sent to 39® Ibid.. p. 89. Ibid.. p. 100 109 Charles Dudley Warner for criticism. Mr. Warner praised the article highly, and told Hapgood he should be able to write for the magazines, just to try sending some of his articles out. This he did, but it was to English publications that he sold his first work, to American magazines later. When the senior partner of the law firm for which Hap good worked saw how strongly he wished to try journalism, he found a position for him with the Chicago Evening Post. Mr. Hapgood*s letter further corroborates these state ments: ®I chose the occupation of journalism because what I most enjoyed was writing, and journalism combines writing with 306 a favorable opportunity of making a living.® In this choice these factors were important: (1) keen intelligence; (2) stimulating environment of the home; (3) interest in study, especially of literature, aroused by the tutor who prepared him for Harvard; (4) highly stimulating atmosphere of Harvard, with its contacts with powerful personalities; (5) sympathetic attitude of his father, allowing him to follow his own bent, in spite of his desire that his son Doc. cit. 306 Personal Correspondence of the Investigator, let ter from Norman Hapgood, October, 1933. 190 should go into business with him; (6) stimulation through a trip to Europe, fmfcher arousing his interest in the arts; (7) conflict of his work in the law office with his interest in writing, solved ty his going into newspaper work. Corra Harris. Born on what had been a famous planta tion about eighty miles from Augusta, this writer* s earliest education was from the Bible. Her mother was a very religious woman. Corra felt closer to her father, as they were both 307 highly sensitive emotionally. He was strongly imaginative, too. Mrs. Harris says that the only Indication she showed of literary sense from the beginning was a distaste for the 308 study of grammar. She was in and out of school until she was seventeen. Toward the end of this time, she was allowed to choose her own books for study from her father's library, which was a good one. Though her father was a great reader, her mother was not. Corra was not allowed to read fiction. However, her mother seemed to think that all poetry was suita ble for her, and she read a good deal of that. At seventeen, she married a preacher eleven years older 307 Corra Harris, ^ â Wnman Thinks (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., cl925), p. 31. Ibid.. p. 43. 191 thmi herself. She loved him very much, and for the first ten years of her married life was guided and influenced entirely 309 by his mind, a very brilliant one. For some time, her husband held the chaiir of Greek in Emory College; then he gradually-developed a mental disorder, melancholia, taking the form of religious mania, and finally died. Mrs. Harris says that nothing was further from her plans than to become a writer, and she does not remember ever having craved a career. "For me the career of an author was 310 purely accidental and resulted from a desperate emergency." The inference is that it was necessary for her to earn money in some way during her husband*^s illness and after his death. Her first book was A Circuit Rider*s Wife, and was intended as a tribute to her husband. Mrs. Harris* letter says: I did not "choose" my profession. I became a writer from force of circumstances. Never longed for "self- expression." Never imagined I had "a message for the world." I took to writing as a little boy takes to fly ing a kite in windy weather. I had a lot of windy weather in my younger years. Had to become the grief stricken martyr of misfortune or the heroine of adversity. Easiest way was with a pen. I created my own world and have lived happily in it a long time.^ Ibid.. p. 79. Ibid.. p. 311 Personal Correspondence of the Investigator, let ter from Corra Harris, October, 1933. 192 The following factors were of importance here: (1) special aptitude for writing, though apparently dormant until about thirty years of age; (2) stimulation through much reading and through con versation with her father, also a great reader and possessed of imagination; (S) stimulation through contact with her husband* s brilliant mind, and from the academic atmosphere at Emory College; (4) economic pressure, which made it necessary for her to earn money after her husband developed mental illness. George Harvey. This journalist and diplomat was of New England ancestry, born and brought up in Heacham, Vermont. His father kept a store without making a great quantity of money, it may be concluded, since he decided he could not af ford to send all his children to college, and announced that he would not, therefore, send any of them. George was extreme ly disappointed at the time, as he longed to go, but felt that he could not earn enough money to pay his own way. Fortunate ly, the Caledonia County Grammar School in Peacham was a very good school, corresponding to what would now be called a high 312 school, if not a junior college. 312 Willis Fletcher Johnson, George Harvev. "a Pas sionate Patriot” (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., cl929j, p. 7. 193 George was a sensitive and imaginative boy. One of the earliest newspapers in Vermont, the Green Mountain Patriot, was started in Peacham in 1798, and was still 313 in existence in George Harvey’s time. George read this and other local-papers at home and at his father’s store in early childhood, and was fascinated by them. He has since said: "*So far as I can remember, my chief aim in life was to get my 314 fingers into a pot of ink.*" At the age of ten, he pur chased a small printing-press, which printed a page not much larger than a postal caiui/ with a font of type, a pot of ink, and a quire of paper. After a visit in his early teens to the office of the Caledonian in Danville, where he saw a real editor at work and a real newspaper being printed, he returned home with a determination to write and print a paper. This he immediately proceeded to do, but though the printing entailed great diffi culties, he found the selling of the paper really impossible. His determination to become a journalist was not altered, how ever. At the age of fifteen, he began to contribute items of local news to the Caledonian, being paid for them at five cents apiece. Ibid.. p. 11 Loc. clt. 194 During the summer that he was fifteen, he was the whole force of the St. Johnshurv Republican until the owner sold it. Then in the fall he began to send news items to pa pers in the neighboring towns, as well as to the Caledonian, thus starting a sort of news syndicate. When he was sixteen, he began a correspondence with George William Curtis, editor of the Journal of Civilization, a correspondence which lasted for some time. No doubt, this further stimulated his interest in journalism. At eighteen, he finished his course at the Caledonia County Grammar School, and began at once to look for an open ing in journalism. Applying to the Springfield Republican, he was given a position at six dollars a week. With him he took tv/o letters of recommendation, one of them from Oliver Johnson, the colleague of Horace Greeley on the Tribune. in which Mr. Johnson said that Harvey seemed to him to have been bom for the profession to which he aspired, and to have the 316 making of a journalist of the first class. In this choice, the following factors were evidently of importance: (1) special aptitude for journalism; (2) stimulation through local interest in journalism; Ibid.. p. 15. Ibid.. p. 19. 195 (s) reading of numerous newspapers from the time he was a small child; (4) stimulus of a visit to a newspaper office in his early teens; (5) correspondence with George Curtis, noted editor; (6) success in selling news items to local papers while still a boy; (7) inability to attend college, #iere his ambition might have been directed into other lines, so that he went to work at eighteen on the Springfield Republican. James Gibbons Huneker. The biography of this man by DeCasseres was largely critical, and was supplemented by an essay of H. L. Mencken’s. The ancestors of this critic were Hungarian and Irish, but the Hunekers came to America in 1700. James’ mother’s father was James Gibbons, the Irish poet; his father’s father 317 was a composer of church music, and organist at St. Mary’s. It is not difficult to see from whence came '^ames’ interest in music and literature. James was born in Philadelphia in 1860. He was con- 318 sidered a "queei” child, a good deal of a cry-baby. He early 317 Henry Louis Mencken, "James Gibbons Huneker.® A Book of Prefaces (New York: Alfred A. Kn&pf, cl917), pp. 151- 194. 318 Benjamin DeCasseres, James Gibbons Huneker (New York: Joseph Lawren, cl925), p. 25. 196 showed a predilection for music and for scribbling, but still his father planned that he should become a lawyer* James did study for a time at the Philadelphia Law Academy* However, in 1878 he left for Paris to study music, and stayed there un til the middle ^80* s, when he returned to settle in New York* From Paris he began sending home letters to the Phila- delphia Bulletin about the pictures he saw, the books he read, and the music that he heard there. This was the beginning of his critical writing* In New York he continued his study of the piano, and became a teacher himself; in fact, for ten years he was on the S19 staff of the National Conservatory* However, his interest in criticism gradually absorbed more of his attention* In 1886 he joined the Musical Courier ; then went on to a succes sion of other periodicals and newspapers* He has written about nearly all the arts, but more about music than any of the others* The important factors influencing this choice were: (1) special aptitude for music and for writing; (2) emotional drive, which carried him to Paris for study in spite of his father*s intention that he should become a lawyer; (S) stimulation through study in Paris; 319 Henry Louis Mencken, ^ * cit.. p. 167 197 (4) stimulation through environment in New York; (5) opportunities offered him for writing criticism. Will James. This man^s father was a Texas cowboy. His mother came from Southern California. Both parents had died by the time Will was four years old, and from that time until he was twelve, he was cared for by his father^s friend, ®Bopy,® a trapper. For years they traveled together, making camp in some good fur country in the winter, prospecting in the summer. Will was taught to ride at a very early age, and always loved horses passionately. From the time he was a very small child he drew many pictures, usually of horses, beginning with a lump of charcoal and a board, before he ever had paper and pencils. He never went to school, but was taught the elements of reading, writing, and arithmetic by Bopy, whose own educa- 320 tion was very limited. When Will was about twelve, Bopy was drowned, and Will had to look out for himself. Finding his way to a ranch where he and Bopy had stayed years before, he was given a job as a cowboy. From then on, for many years, he worked as a cowboy with different outfits. Frequently he had the job of breaking 3S0 James, Lone Cowboy. My Ljfe Story. Illustrated by the Author (New York: Charles Scribner*s Sons, cl930), p. 63 198 wild horses, and often was injured. He did some reading and a good deal of drawing in his spare time. He says that during this period he had never thou^t of doing any other kind of 321 work than that of a cowboy. A good many interesting experiences came his way, also several short terms in prison for stealing horses and cattle. After a severe injury received while breaking in a horse, it seemed unlikely that he could work as a cowboy again, and it occurred to him that he might become an artist. He says: I^d been told many a time before, and at many an outfit, by many a good cowboy, that I was a daggone fool to waste my time and risk my neck at breaking horses when ^ could draw like I did, but I*d just laughed at that because I didn’t care much^.and I was very satisfied to be in a break ing pen . . . However, as he could not sell any of his drawings, he gave up the idea for a time, and went back to work as a cowboy. After another bad fall, he again took up the idea of art. A mining man, who showed an interest in Will’s drawings, gave him a letter to an editor. While the editor did not buy any of the drawings at once, he did buy a good many later on. Will had been trying to tell stories in his pictures; then began to think of writing the things he wanted to tell, 323 which could not be told in pictures. He was married by this Ibid.. p. 164. 322 Ibid.. p. 277. Ibid.. p. 430. 199 time to the sister o£ one of his cowboy friends, and his wife encouraged him in his ideas of writing. The first story he sent in to a good magazine, illustrated by half a dozen pen- and-ink drawings, was accepted, to his great surprise. He had just written of the sort of things he knew best, horses and riders. Later he learned that it was because the art editor liked his drawings and wanted them that thie first story was accepted. He kept on writing stories, and from then on sold most of them. The following factors were of importance in influencing the choice of the final occupation: (1) special aptitude for story telling, though latent until toward middle age; (2) stimulation through a varied life with many con tacts and rather exciting experiences; (S) inability to tell all he had to say through his pictures; (4) several serious injuries, which made it difficult for him to earn his living as a cowboy; (5) encouragement from his wife in his writing. Robinson Jeffers. The paternal grandfather of this poet came to America from Ireland. H^s father was a scholar H 324 in languages, especially Latin, Greek, ^ebrew, and Arabic. George Sterling, Robinson Jeffers. the Man and the Artist (New York: Boni and Liveright, Inc., cl926), p. 6. 200 Robinson had unusually fine educational advantages. He was taken to Europe first by his parents when five years old, visiting France, Italy, and Switzerland. The next year the family went to England, Scotland, and the continent. Then for several years they lived near Pittsburgh, where Robinson’s father tutored him in the classics. From twelve to fifteen, he attended schools at Vevey, Lausanne, Geneva, Zurich, and Leipzig. At the age of sixteen, be entered #ie University of Western Pennsylvania, but after a year his family moved to Pasadena, California, where Robinson entered Occidental Col lege. He was graduated at the age of eighteen, then took a post-graduate course in English and languages at the Univer sity of Southern California. Again he accompanied his parents to Europe, and entered the University of Zurich, but, dissatisfied with its curricu lum, returned to California to become a student in the medical department of the University of Southern California. ®He had no intention of becoming a practicing physician, but desired the general information, and gave his time mostly to bacterio- 525 logical work.» After two years there, be accompanied his parents to Ibid.. p. 7. 201 Seattle. To have out-of-door occupation, he entered the for estry department of the University of Washington, but returned again to Southern California at the end of a year* At twenty-five, he was made independent by a legacy from an uncle. He went to Hermosa Beach, where he spent some time writing verses and swimming. In 1915 he married, and set tled in Carmel, California, which has been his home ever since. Jeffers began to write poetry at ten, and at fourteen won a prize in a Youth’s Companion competition for a poem. Later on, he sent poems to various magazines for about a year, and when they were returned, stopped sending them permanently. However, a good many volumes of his verse have been published. ”Editors now desiring work from his hand will have to request 526 it.a Mr. Jeffers’ letter is significant: Poetry was forced on me as a ’'principal occupation,” not chosen. I studied literature— medicine— forestry— losing interest in each successively as an occupation, while the interest in poetry remained and increased. So by elimination .... But I dp. not know why the one in terest wax permanyit, and could only guess why the others were transient. In the case of this poet, the following factors were probably important: (l) special aptitude for poetry; Ibid.. p. 9. 527 Personal Correspondence of the Investigator, letter from Robinson ''effers, October, 1955. 202 (s) stimulation through much travel and study abroad in childhood and youth; (3) influence of his father’s teaching in the classics; (4) excellent and varied educational experiences; (5) economic security through inheritance, which left him free to choose an occupation which probably would hot be lucrative . Carl Christian Jensen. Born in Denmark, of peasant stock, this man was one of a large family of children. His childhood was spent near the sea front, where his father was a longshoreman. From the window of the school which he attend ed, he could see the #iole harbor. When he was twelve, he stowed away on a Swedish schooner and was gone several months, though his parents did not wish him to be a sailor. H^g father had become a telephone line man, and at fourteen Carl began helping him. However, the sea was calling, and at sixteen he shipped as a stoker. Having read of America, and had glimpses of it on shore leaves, he determined to go there. In Brooklyn he joined a public night school to study English, and began to learn the trade of electrician. For a long time he worked hard and had almost no friends; then he found the girl who was later to be his wife, working in a 528 boarding-house, and she made him a social being. After three years of working as an apprentice electri cian and attending Cooper Union Night School, they were mar ried, and he found a position in Chicago as an electrical draftsman. However, he was not contented to continue doing this very long. He says: "Above all else my desire for higher 529 learning drove me out.” He planned on electrical engineer ing at that time. Then a nurse in a hospital where their little boy was sick got him interested in "Doomsday" teaching, that Doomsday was close at hand. Jensen began to peddle Doomsday books through the West, and planned to become a Doomsday missionary. The whole family left for a Doomsday seminary located in Minne sota. Fortunately, his wife persuaded him to join the regular high school classes rather than the Doomsday short course for missionaries. Gradually he lost interest in the Doomsday teachings, but was determined to become a medical missionary. He per suaded the registrar to give him a trial at the University of Minnesota, where he managed to eabn a living for his family as well as keep up with his studies. Before he graduated he Carl Christian Jensen, ^ American Sajta (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., cl926), p. 95. Ibid.. p. 128. 204 became a citizen. While at the university, he became interested in ex pressing himself in language. A college periodical published his themes, and he won membership in the Kawa Club of writers. A writing seminar where he worked at poems, plays, and stories gave him much joy. But he felt that he could not afford to take up writ ing as a life work at that time, and chose sociology, "a sup ple compromise between the literary arts and the medical mis- 530 si on field, both of udiich still pull at my heart." He had not the money to study medicine. He became a social worker and a special officer of the law. Then a fellowship gave him a year of post-graduate study in New York. He went south with a staff of scientists to study the convict in the swamps along the Gulf, and mailed his wife an account of the expedition every day, which she sent to the At lantic labnthlv without his knowledge. Thus began his career as a writer. Mr. Jensen answered the investigator’s letter in rather flippant style: "You ask me why ^ choose to beccane a writer. Be- 331 cause I am a super-simean Ipicj, of course. I like to chatter." 330 Ibid.. p. 159. Personal Correspondence of the Investigator, let ter from Carl Jensen, November 1, 1935. 205 The important factors idiich finally brought this man to writing were: (1) special aptitude, though latent until university days; (2) desire for new experience, which brought him to America, and kept him trying one occupation after the other and striving for an education; (S) stimulation through university life and contacts, which developed an interest in expressing himself in writing; (4) stimulation through interesting experiences in social work, which he began to put into writing, and which his wife sent to a magazine. Helen Keller. The facts concerning the early life of this writer and lecturer are so well known that they will be passed over very briefly here. It was necessary to consult her earlier book. The Story of My Life, as well as Midstream. She was born in Tuscumbia, Alabama, in 1880. Her father was a captain in the Confederate army. The family was evidently one of considerable cultivation and some financial resources. Miss Keller says that she has been told that while a baby, before the illness which destroyed her hearing and eye sight, she showed signs of an eager, self-assertive disposi 206 332 tion. If the statement that at six months she could say "How d’ye" is authentic, she probably showed precocity. She walked the day she was one year old. Then at nineteen months came the fever which left her totally blind and deaf. The years from that time until she was seven were spent in a darkness and silence very hard to bear. She could not communicate with any one, except by a few crude signs, and her urge to express herself took the form of mischief and temper. Here the effects of isolation are apparent. Finally, her par ents found a specially trained teacher. Miss Anne Sullivan, who helped Helen by teaching her an alphabet spelled by the hand into the hand. Thus she was brou^at into communication with the world of thought and with her fellowmen. From the beginning of her teacher’s work with her, Helen showed a keen mind and a tremendous eagerness to learn. She always showed somewhat less interest in mechanical pursuits than in intellectual exercises. Miss Sullivan read to her a great deal, always fine things, and constantly increasing in complexity. It was natural that Helen should be especially interested in literature, for she was inevitably shut off from most of the other arts. Helen Keller, The Story of My Life, with her let ters (1887-1901) and a Supplementary Account of Her Education, Including Passages from the Reports and Letters of Her Teacher, Anne Mansfield Sullivan, by John Albert Macy (London: Hodder and Stoughton, pref. 1903), p. 6. 207 As a small child, she was taught to write on the type writer, and did a good deal of writing from then on. Miss Sul livan made her do compositions and letters over and over until they were exactly right. However, Helen came to write with much greater beauty of style than Miss Sullivan ever achieved, which would indicate that there must have been an aptitude here 333 which was developed by teaching, but not wholly imparted. "Language was her liberator, and from the first she cherished After surmounting innumerable difficulties, Helen was prepared for Radcliffe College, and in 1900 she entered. Miss Sullivan, of course, attended all her classes with her, re peating the lectures into her hand, and reading to her those assignments which could not be obtained in Braille. Her course dealt largely with languages and literature. While living in Boston, she made the acquaintance of many literary people, who were very kind to her, among them Oliver Wendell Holmes, John Greenleaf Whittier, Mark Twain, and Charles Dudley Warner. Professor Charles Copeland helped her greatly to her composition courses at college; moreover, he endouraged her. 333 Ibid.. p. 396 John A. Macy, in Keller, on. cit., pp. 394-395. 334 208 It was while she was at Radcliffe, that Mr. William Alexander of the Ladies’ Home Journal called upon her and asked her for the privilege of publishing in that magazine the story of her life, which had already been written in part as themes for Professor Copeland’s course. She had previously had no idea of publishing them, but signed an agreement to furnish the Ladies’ Home Journal with monthly installments of The Story S55 of My Life for three thousand dollars. In 1904 she was graduated from Radcliffe, and moved to Wrentham shortly afterward. Soon she was asked to write a series of essays for the Century about her ideas of the world around her. Important factors here were: (1) keen intelligence; (2) special aptitude for writing, which began to show itself soon after she was taught means of communication with others; (3) stimulation through extensive reading; (4) interest in literature especially strongly devel oped because of almost complete isolation from other stimuli, due to total blindness and deafness; (5) stimulation through courses in literature and com- Helen Keller, Midstream: Mv Latep L^fe (Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, Doran and Co., cl92^, p. 4. 209 position at Radcliffe; (6) stimulation through contacts with many literary personages who were interested in her and her problems; (7) offer of opportunity to contribute articles to magazines, partly because of her peculiar affliction. Alfred Krevmborg. This poet’s father and mother were both of German birth. The father was a cigar-packer in New York City, and also had a small tobacco store of Ms own, in back of which the family lived. Here Alfred was born in 1883. He was a "queer, frail, incomprehensible, self-centred child." He was not understood by father, mother, or brother, but his mother was the most sympathetic of the three. He sought the society of people older than himself. While still a very small boy, he watched his father and friends playing chess and wished to learn, but they rëfused to teach him. Whereupon, he proceeded to teach himself by watch ing the players evening after evening, and soon was able to defeat his father. A friend gave Ollie, as he was called in childhood, an old mandolin, on which he taught himself to play. He always loved music. Alfred Kreymborg, Troubadour : an Autobiography (New York: Boni and Liveright, cl925), p. 19. 210 At an early age, too, he began reading omnlvorously. He had a few relatives who understood him and his in terests better than his immediate family did. The one who influenced Ollie most was his Aunt Isabelle, who introduced him to the compositions of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven; dis cussed his reading with him; advised him what to read, and 337 read poetry of Keats, Shelley, or Byron aloud to him. At the age of fourteen, Ollie graduated from grammar school, fie had done only fairly well here, as the curriculum contained almost nothing which interested him. A family coun cil was now called to decide what to do with Ollie next. His father and brother thought he should go to work immediately; his mother and Aunt Isabelle that he should go to high school. Finally, it was decided that such a boy could only earn two or three dollars a week anyway, and there was no telling what he might be deprived of if his education were cut off, so Ollie 338 was sent to high school." His father, however, insisted that he should take the commercial course and learn something useful. At the end of his second year at high school, Ollie failed; was taken from school, and started on a dreary search for work. For the next two or three years, he held about Ibid.. pp. 57-59. I,bid.. p. 72. 211 twenty different jobs in succession, most of them in offices, and failed in them all. He abhorred business* However, he finally found work toich was congenial and at which he was a success— demonstrating music rolls for piano las and orchestrelies at Aeolian Hall. Here he stayed for several years while his salary was increased several times. When there were no customers, he studied and wrote about music, and also read novels, drama, poetry, and philosophy. Always, from childhood on, he played a good deal of chess in the even ings. Some of his friends began to rent studios and go in for careers, which made him envious. Finally, one young man, work ing at Aeolian Hall, who also wrote poetry, left the Hall to take a studio, and persuaded Kreymborg to do so. For a long period then, he had a very hard time financially, as his income was largely from chess prizes and chess lessons* Though he worked very hard at his writing, for a long time he received only rejection slips, then polite notes. Hutchins Hapgood told him that his future lay in the direction of his prose poems. He held two editorial positions for short periods. Then Guido Bruno devoted three of his Chapbooks to Kreymborg’5 poems, and these brought him some prominence. Ibid.. p. 134 212 though many people laughed at them. With this poet the important factors were: (1) special aptitude for writing; (2) stimulation through reading and music; (5) stimulation through advice and help on literature and music from an aunt; (4) stimulation through his work of demonstrating music rolls; (5) suggestion, the influence of a friend, who pre vailed upon him to give up his work demonstrating music rolls and devote himself to writing; (6) proficiency at chess, which enabled him to earn a meager living while he tried to make a beginning in literature. Ludwig Lewisohn. It was necessary to consult an ear lier biography of this writer. Upstream, originally published in 1922, as Mid-Channel did not give information about his childhood. Lewisohn’s ancestors were all Jews-.who had lived in Germany for generations. His father was interested in lite rature and philosophy; his mother was musical and poetic. Ludwig was born in Berlin, where his father was in business. He was always a sensitive and imaginative child. As soon as his grandmother had taught him his letters, he preferred read ing to all other occupations. 213 When Ludwig was ei^it years old, his father failed in business, losing almost everything. The family decided to emigrate to America, where an uncle was said to have prospered, In the village of St. Mark’s, South Carolina, Ludwig’s father opened a store. There were no public schools here, so the boy attended some rather primitive private schools; then his mother prepared him herself for the Queenshaven High School. About this time, a sudden strong impulse to write seized Ludwig. He made himself a little desk and wrote and wrote, both verse and prose, for some weeks; then the impulse 340 died out temporarily. He was persuaded by neighbors to attend church and Sunday-school, and became a Christian. His father’s store was not a success, and they moved to Queenshaven, the nearest city of any size> where his father found work selling furniture. Here Ludwig entered the Queenshaven High School, which was a good one. He was taught to study with thoroughness and obtained the foundations of a good knowledge of Latin and French. His Latin teacher impressed him with the beauty of Latin poetry; told Ludwig that he had a natural ear for verse. Ludwig Lewisohn, Up Stre^* an American Chronicle (Hew York: The Modern Library, cl926), pp. 50-51. 214 and would go far. Suddenly realizing that he had a gift for literature, he determined to he a scholar and a man of let ters, probably a professor of English literature. His parents 341 shared his ambition. At the College of Queenshaven, he was much influenced by a young English teacher, Ferris, who noticed his ambition and talent, and helped him generously with real criticism. Lewisohn wrote for the college magazine, contributed to the Queenshaven Courier. and majored in English, taking several special courses with Ferris. Ferris and several other pro fessors encouraged him in his ambition to become a teacher of English, and never spoke of any difficulties he might encoun- 342 ter. After his graduation from Queenshaven, some friends made up a loan of $350 for him, and he went to Columbia to the graduate school. Though he was Anglo-American in all his sym pathies, his name and physiognomy were characteristically Jewish, but still no one discouraged him as yet. Lewisohn was rather disappointed in the offerings at Columbia, as he wanted critical and philosophical ideas, where as information was doled out, of a sort he had already acquired In the spring of his second year there, all his friends were ^ Ibid.. p. 88. Ibid.. p. 104. 215 finding positions, but nothing was done for him. Finally one of his professors told him that it was going to be extremely difficult for a man of his birth to get a good teaching posi tion. LeHisohn was terribly crushed, after all his high hopes; failed to revise his dissertation, and left Columbia without his doctor’s degree. He had received his master’s degree at the end of his first year there. One of his English professors found him a position on the editorial staff of a compilation set, but this did not last long. Then he wrote some articles for Review of Reviews and for the Times. Finally, however, he had to go home because of lack of funds. It seemed to him that he would have to give up the idea of teaching, that he would have to write prose 345 fiction, as the only thing at which he could earn a living. He studied the work of Henry James as a model, then wrote some stories, vhich were rejected by the Atlantic Monthly, but ac cepted by the Smart SeJ, with a request for more. In time, a friend obtained a position for him as an instructor of German at Monroe, and since then he has done some teaching and some writing. The important factors in this case were: (l) special aptitude for writing; Ibid.. p. 155. 216 (2) keen intelligence; (3) stimulation through home environment, where his mother was musical and poetic, and his father interested in literature and philosophy; (4) stimulation through extensive reading; (5) influence of his Latin teacher at high school, who made him aware of his gift for literature; (6) influence of professors at the College of Queens haven, too encouraged him and gave him helpful criticism; (7) crushing blow from a Columbia professor who told him that it would be very difficult for a Jew to get a good teaching position, which caused him to leave the university without his doctor’s degree; (8) belief that he could make a living by writing fiction. Henry Louip Mencken. The Menckens come from a very old and illustrious German family. In 1848, Burkhardt Ludwig Mencken, grandfather of the journalist, landed at Baltimore and engaged in the tobacco business, wherein he prospered. His eldest son was August Mencken, who set up in the tobacco business for himself at the age of twenty-one, though he had earlier thought of becoming an engineer. August was à shrewd business man and made a good deal of money. He was also a reader, and played badly upon the fiddle. 217 Henry Louis, the eldest son of August, was born in Baltimore in 1880. At the age of eight, he showed his first interest in journalism after a visit to the Ellicott City 344 Times during his summer vacation. The following Christmas he demanded a printing press, and immediately began to print a paper of his own. At six he entered the private school of Friedrich Knapp, a very good school, where Henry did well, excelling in English and drawing. About this same time, he became an omnivorous reader, devouring a mass of miscellaneous material, some of it of a high order. From Knapp’s Institute, Henry went to the Baltimore Polytechnic. Perhaps his father’s interest in engineering had something to do with this, as this school was supposed to pre pare students for that occupation. Henry did not feel that most of the teachers here were equal in calibre to those at Knapp’s Institute. However, it was from one of his English 345 _ teachers that he learned to appreciate English prose. In spite of the fact that such subjects as physics, electricity, and steam engineering bored young Henry, he made a very good record at the Polytechnic, and in the final examinations made an average of 96 per cent, which broke all the records for the Isaac Goldberg, The Man Mencken, a Biographical and Critical Survey (New York: Simon and Schuster, Inc., cl925), p. 64. p. 78. 218 school. Outside of school, he was engaged in various more in teresting pursuits. He made his first attempt at newspaper reporting, describing a baseball game between professional teams. He was also experimenting with photography and chemis try. Since his twelfth year, he had been trying seriously to write,— comic operas, short stories, debates, essays, and poetry. Before he was fifteen, ^e <£ his poems appeared in 546 the Baltimore American. He composed some music, too, which was not without mebit. By the time, of his graduation from Polytechnic, Henry had formed a definite ambition to become a journalist. The elder brother of his closest friend was a reporter on the Baltimore Morning Herald, and Henry and the younger brother planned to try for positions there. But Henry’s father ob jected to this. Ng suggested the University of Maryland Law School or the Johns Hopkins Undergraduate School for the boy, who was even then only sixteen. However, Henry had made up his mind firmly that if he was going into business, he would not go to college first. He felt that he could learn more through his own efforts anyway. The result of all the discus sion was that Henry went immediately into his father’s cigar ^ Ibid.. p. 84. 219 factory. Here he was fairly contented so long as he worked at a bench, but when he was promoted to the office, he hated it and planned rebellion. However, after about three years, his father died; the tobacco business was disposed of to the sur viving partner, and young Mencken was soon free to enter jour nalism. In a few months, he was given a position as reporter 347 on the Baltimore Morning Herald at eight dollars a week. Important factors in Mencken’s choice were: (1) special aptitude for writing; (2) keen intelligence; (3) interest in journalism stimulated by a visit to a newspaper office when a small child; (4) stimulation through much varied reading; (5) emotional drive which brought him to his goal eventually, in spite of a conflict with his father which turned him aside temporarily. Kathleen Nordis. The father of this novelist was from a Boston family. He settled in San Francisco and went into banking. His wife was quiet, musical, and extremely religious. Both were Roman Catholics, ^athleen was the second of seven children. 347 Ibid.. p. 96. 220 The parents feared too much schooling for their chil dren, since they themselves had been over-schooled in a way which injured their health. When Kathleen was about eight, the family moved onto two acres of redwoods just below Tamal- pais Mountain, where they enjoyed nature, music, and much reading, but had very little formal education. Their father loved to discuss books with them. When Kathleen was about sixteen, it became a custom for her to tell original stories to the two youngest members 548 of the family after dinner every night. When she was about eighteen.and the oldest brother twenty, both parents died suddenly, leaving the seven chil dren with practically nothing. They took a flat in San Fran cisco, and all those who were old enough immediately found jobs of some sort. Kathleen started work in a hardware estab lishment at thirty dollars a month. Needless to say, they had a very hard struggle for some years. Mrs. Norris says of her own activities during this period: In those years I was a bookkeeper, a saleswoman, a com panion, a school teacher, a librarian, I superintended children’s parties, read to invalids, sat with practising little girls, catalogued books, and did half a dozen other Kathleen Norris, Noon, an Autobiographical Sketch (Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, Page Co., 1925), p. 14. 221 things by fits and starts. Sometimes illness kept me at home, illness of a child or my annt. But I went on tell? ing the children stories, and despite all the other make shifts it became gradually clear that I was to be a writ- er.^49 She took a two months* story-writing course at the University of California, where the teacher was very encourag ing about her work. For a time she was employed as a reporter on the San Francisco Call, enjoying it thoroughly. Then in 1908 she met Charles Norris, and in the course of three meetings they decided to be married, to live in New York, and to write books. Mr. Norris was at that time working on a railroad magazine called Sunset. They did move to New York, where ^^r. Norris found em ployment with the American Magazine. For awhile, Mps. Norris was absorbed in keeping house, but presently took up her wriifc- ing again. She sent two stories to the Telegram, and was paid twenty-five dollars for the two. Her husband was delight ed, as he had believed in her work ever since they met. He now sent out to the Atlantic a story she had written some years before, whereupon it was purchased for seventy-five dollars. Thus was her writing career really begun. The following factors were of influence in this case; (l) special aptitude for writing; Ibid.. p. 18. 222 (2) stimulation through much reading and conversation with a father who loved books; (3) experience in story-telling to her younger brothers and sisters; (4) a brief story-writing course, where she was en couraged by her teacher; (5) some experience in newspaper work; (6) encouragement of her husband, also a writer. Eugene 0*Neill. Born in a Broadway hotel in 1888, this dramatist is the son of James 0*Neill, the actor. His mother was not an actress, nor even much; interested in the stage; however, she accompanied her husband on his tours, and for the first seven years of his life Eugene traveled with them. %en he attended Catholic boarding-schools and Betts Academy at Stamford. He spent the year 1906-07 at Princeton, but was suspended before the final examinations because of some prank. Though he could have returned later, college no longer inter- 550 ested him. His first job was as secretary of a mail order firm in New York, but he did not stay long at this. Then began his wanderings of about three years, during which he shipped as a Barrett H. Clark, Eugene 0*Neill (New York: Robert M. McBride and Co., 1926), p. 7. 225 sailor; worked at odd jobs in various parts of South America; and sometimes was just a tramp* He drank a good deal during this period* However, he was gathering experience and impres sions Tfihich he has used in his writings, though he probably had no thought of so using them at that time. His favorite writers of fiction during this period were Jack London, Conrad, 551 and Kipling. Even during these years he went often to the theater. After a tour in 1912 playing a part in his father*s vaudeville version of Monte Cris to. he worked for a time as a reporter on the New London, Connecticut, Telegraph. His em ployer, Frederick P. Latimer, liked him; believed he had some thing to say, and encouraged him to write. In December of that year, he developed tuberculosis, which necessitated his spending six months in a sardtorium. Here he had time to think things over, and the urge to write grew upon him. Dp to that time he had never had any definite idea what he wanted to do, but this enforced rest marked a 352 turning point in his life* After his discharge as an ar rested case, he spent a year on Long Island Sound reading, resting, exercising, and writing. He wrote thirteen plays and Ibid.. p. 8. 352 Ibid.. p. 12. 224 some verses, drawing on his fund of experiences. By this time he felt that he needed some technical advice, so he went to Harvard for Professor Baker * s well-known *47* playwriting class. Baker encouraged him to go on with his writing. The summer of 1916 was spent at Provincetown, where 0*Neill met the founders of the Provineetown Players,— George Cram Cook, Susan Glaspell, and others. They encouraged him, 355 and produced all his early and many of his later plays. This dramatist* s choice of occupation was evidently influenced hy the following factors; (1) special aptitude for writing; (2) stimulation through contact with the theater be cause of his father *s occupation and through his own experience on both sides of the footlights; (3) stimulation through his varied experiences during years of wandering and adventure; (4) stimulation through wide reading; (5) a period of illness when he was forced to think about his future and what he wanted to do with it; (6) encouragement from Mr. Latimer of the Telegraph. Professor Baker, the Provincetown Players, and others. 35S Ibia.. p. so. 225 Josephine Preston Peabody. The grandfather of this poetess was musical, literary, and artistic. Her father had an absorbing interest in poetry and the theater; the mother had a keen eye for beauty. Both she and Josephine* s father saw all the great plays and great actors, and the children 354 loved to hear them discuss these critically. Their mother was very careful in her selection of lite rature for the children when they were small. They had Shake speare, Dickens, and Scott, arranged for children, Hawthorne*s Tales, mythologies, and tbebest fairy tales. The first eight years of Josephine* s life were spent in New York City; then her father died and their circumstances became cramped financially. They moved to Dorchester, Massa chusetts, where the children attended public school. Josephine did not care for the required studies here, and tried to make up for them by her work outside of school,— reading, and writ ing verse, stories, and plays. She was much happier at the Girls* Latin School, but was unable to finish her last two years there because her health gave out. In 1894 she went to Radcliffe as a special student, taking miscellaneous courses for two years. She was especially 354 Josephine Preston Peabody, Dlarv and Letters of Josephine Freston Peabodv. Selected and Edited by Christina Hopkinson Baker (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., cl925), p. 4. 226 inspired by Elizabethan drama and the old Miracle and Morality 355 plays. During these years she read quantities of books— philosophy, history, novels, poetry, essays, and drama. In her preface the. editor says: Satisfaction of her youthful desire for gaiety and adventure, and gratification of her keenly sensitive in tellectual and artistic tastes were restricted at first by very limited means. In her early youth she found few to share her interests. Mrs. Peabody herself says that her writing was a soli tary growth.However, in 1894 Mr. Horace Scudder first accepted a poem of hers for the Atlantic Monthly, and there after gave her much advice and help about her writing. By the time she was twenty-three, she had written one hundred and sixty-eight poems, some of which had been published in good magazines. The best of these were published in book X. 358 form. The Wayfarers, in 1898. She also wrote dramas and dramas in verse. Important factors here were: (1) special aptitude for expression and keen sensi tivity to beauty; (2) stimulation through a home environment of absorp tion in literature and other arts; Ibid.. p. 5. Ibid.. editor*s preface. Ibid.. p. 6 Ibid.. p. 8 227 (3) stimulation through extensive reading of many sorts of books; (4) stimulation through litersiry courses at Radcliffe; (5) partial isolation due to poverty, which turned her even more strongly toward literary expression. Gene Stratton-Porter. Gene Stratton*s father was a minister, lecturer, and scholar. He was a great lover of books, and his daughter remembers his saying that he would rather see a child of his the author of a book of which he 359 could be proud than on the throne of England. Gene (christened Geneva) was born on a beautiful Indi ana farm, one of twelve children. Her childhood was surround ed by beauty and love. She early showed an unusual interest in all outdoor life, in î\hich her father encouraged her. As a child she had very few books of her own, but what she had were of high quality and she loved them. Later she had access to her father * s library and that of her brother-in-law. She could read quite well before she started to school, where she was a very good pupil. Even as a child, she showed a desire for expression In various ways,— writing, drawing, and music. Her first literary effort v/as entitled Ode t;o the Jeannette Porter Meehan, The Ladv of the Limber- lost. the Life and Letters of Gene Stratton-Porter^Toarden City, k. Y.: Doubleday, Doran And Co., 01928), p. 5. 228 Moon, and was printed on the hack of an old grammar. At this time she had really no idea what an ode was, except that she had heard her family discussing it as a form of poetic expres- 360 Sion. When Geneva was eleven years old, the family left the farm so that the children might have better schooling than the country schools could give. Geneva entered high school in 1879* Here she did well in everything but mathematics. During her third year, when assigned to write a paper on mathematical law, to be read aloud, she decided that it was absolutely im possible for her to write on this subject, but determined to do something really good on a subject she felt she could write on. Whereupon she wrote a review of Saintine*s Picciola which was so excellent that the Superintendent of Schools was called 361 from his office to hear it read aloud. Encouraged by this, her desire to write grew tremen dously, so that she neglected everything else for a time and wrote verses and novels, ^t is not recorded that she tried to have anything published at this time. She had to leave high school three months before the end of her senior year, on account of the illness of her sister. Ibid.. p. SO. Ibid.. p. SO. 229 She never graduated, nor went to any school after that, but studied the things which interested her most in her brother * s library and in the libraries of the school and town. She felt that this was the very best kind of education for her, as it preserved her individual point of view and method of expres ses Sion. Her father encouraged and helped her with her efforts to write, and also arranged for her to have painting and violin lessons. Hg always firmly believed that she was going to do something good for Hie world # In 1886 she married Mr. Charles Porter, a dentist. They had one daughter, the author of Mrs. Porter*s biography. It was after they built and moved into Limber lost Cabin, near the Limberlost Swamp, that she returned to her intensive study of nature; mastered the art of photography; and spent many hours in writing. She began selling her material by sending photographs and natural history hints to magazines, and was paid at first in photographic materials. Next, she was given a place in the natural history department of Outing. Soon she decided to try short stories, and they sold. Her interest in music, painting, and other matters declined as she became ab sorbed in her literary work. Ibia.. p. 35. 230 Importent factors in this case were: (1) inherited keen intelligence; (2) special aptitudes for writing, music, and paint ing, that for writing apparently the strongest; (3) stimulation through the beauties of nature which surrounded her from early childhood; (4) encouragement from relatives and friends, especially her father; (5) stimulation through reading good books; (6) finding a market for her writing on natural history subjects, which concentrated her efforts on writing, Herbert Quick, This man has been a teacher and lawyer, but is known principally by his reputatidn as a writer. His ancestors came to America in colonial times. Most of them were Dutch, but there was a strain of Irish on his mother*s side, with artistic and poetic tendencies. His par ents crossed the plains in ox-carts from the East, and Herbert was born in Iowa in 1861. His father could read, but never did. His mother had had only three months of schooling, but she did the reading for the family until Herbert began to do it. He says: *#iatever of the artist I possess in feeling, 363 or the ability to do, I get from my mother, I am sure.* Herbert Quick, One Man*s Life; an Autobiography (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Co., cl925), p. 28. 231 When about two years old, Herbert had poliomyelitis. This did not affect his brain, apparently, nor prevent his growing to be six feet one in height, nor his doing his full share of the farm work, but it affected his feet and his walk to some extent, and prevented his getting into West Point later. Mr. Quick says; *And it made the world of the intel lect the only realm in which I had any chance. It set me off in a class by myself in our community, in which books were my 364 companions— when I could find any.* Starting to school at four, he had finished the Fourth Reader by the end of the first six months* term. He learned by heart the lessons of the classes in advance of him by lis tening, and was considered quite a wonder. One of his teachers in this little school started him on the life of books and reading which became so important to him. They had almost no books at home, and there was a general coldness toward all forms of art in the community in which they lived. He feels that he owes a debt to the McGuffev Readers, which gave him 365 his first taste of good literature. A former Mississippi River steamboat captain sent their family a few books and maga zines, which were eagerly devoured by Herbert, as well as Ibid.. p. 51. 565 Ibid., p. 156. 232 anything he could find in any of the neighbours* houses, what ever its character. When nine years old, Herbert showed his ability to hold other boys fascinated by telling stories. About this time he was given a book called Getting On in the World. by William Mathews, a professor of literature, idiich was designed to urge young men on to success of a liter ary or professional character, Mr, Quick says: I am sure that this book had a powerful directive ef fect upon me, for I kept it and read and reread it. It did not aid me in being contentai» that walk of life for which Providence had called me. By the time he was twelve or fourteen, he began to feel that he must get some real education and be somebody. He had one teacher who was a man of education and experience, and who encouraged Herbert*s ambitions. At fifteen, he attended a teachers* institute in the summer, and received a teacher*s certificate, whereupon he began teaching a country school, and taught for a good many years. At seventeen, he thought he could earn his way through college, but his father said he needed Herbert*s wages, and he could not go. Mr, Quick feels that if he had been allowed to go to college, he-would probably have become a college profes- 367 sor. All his dreams for a long time had been of becoming Ibid.. p, 180. 367 Ibid.. p. 259. 233 a writer, but since he could not obtain a college education, he thought of going to West Point, with the idea of becoming a war correspondent. Howeyer, he was rejected here on account of physical defects. For some time he taught at Mason City, Iowa, where he met and mingled with a good many people of considerable educa tion, and had access to their libraries. He was made the principal of the school at Wesley, but was always hoping to get out of teaching, because he felt that he had not suffi cient education to really make a success of it. Finally, he decided to study law; studied in a law office for some years, teaching at the same time to earn his living, and received his certificate to practice in Iowa. All this time he did some writing, too,— essays, poems, and short stories, some of which were printed in the Mason City Times. Later he began writing successful novels. Important factors here were: (1) keen intelligence; (2) special aptitude for literary expression, perhaps from his mother*s poetic Irish ancestors; (3) physical defects resulting from poliomyelitis, which turned his attention to intellectual effort; (4) stimulation through some good reading; (5) stimulation through the encouragement of a few teachers and friends; 234 (6) inability to obtain a college education on account of his father* s poverty, which he feels probably prevented his becoming a college professor; (7) inability to enter West Point, on account of physi cal defects. Nellie Revell. The autobiography of this newspaper writer and press agent published in 1925, Fightin* Through. gives nothing about her reasons for taking up newspaper work, but is merely a discussion of her experiences during a long illness. Therefore, the investigator consulted Right Off the Chest, a biographical work published in 1923* Even this gave little about her early years. Mrs. Revell*s letter to the investigator said simply: 368 **My father owned a string of newspapers in the Middle West.* Her father was a successful writer and publisher. She says that since earliest childhood she has been interested in the newspaper and the amusement businesses. * Journalism beck oned and a magnetic force drew me into the newspaper office, where I covered every kind of story from pink teas to murder 369 trials.* 368 Personal Correspondence of the Investigator, let ter from Nellie Revell, October, 1933. 369 Nellie Revell, Rlgl^t Off the Chest (New York: George H. Doran Co., cl92S), pp. 21-22. 235 She went to work early, and before she was twenty was a mother and a widow, the sole support of a family. Her fi nancial needs were now greater than she could meet with her reporter* s salary. She had always loved the romance and color of the theater, and the idea occurred to her of combining news paper work and the theater and becoming a ^publicist,* which 370 would bring in more money. Thus she became the first woman publicity agent in this country. She says that she has never regretted her choice, and has always been in love with her 371 work. In this case the factors influencing choice were: (1) special aptitude, probably in part through inheri tance from her father, who was a writer and owner of a chain of newspapers; (2) suggestion-imitation, because of her father * s oc cupation; (3) financial needs, whtch turned her to the work of a theatrical press agent. Edwin Arlington Robinson. Although numerous volumes of criticism have been written about the work of this poet. Ibid.. p. 24. 371 Ibid.. p. 236. 236 there is very little information available about his early life. Mark Van Boren says: The few details of his life that we possess have had to be dug out of the past by patient inquiry; and he has said almost nothing about his books themselves— how they came to be written, whatgthey mean tè him, what their several qualities are. Robinson*s father was a dealer in grain in the pic turesque Maine village of Head Tide, where the poet was born in 1869. The father being offered a directorship in the bank at Gardiner, a somewhat larger town, the family moved to that 373 place when the boy was but a year old. Here he grew up, attending grammar school and high school. Mr. Van Boren says that Robinson has spoken of recit ing poetry to his mother while he sat as a child on the kitchen floor, and once said that some of his own early poems had been 374 composed in his father*s barn. After graduating from the high school at Gardiner, he attended Harvard University from 1891 to 1893, but left with out his degree, on account of the necessity for his beginning at once to earn his living. What Robinson may have learned Mark Van Boren, Edwin Arlington Robinson (New York: Literary Guild of America, cl927), p. 12. Ben Ray Redman, Edwin Arlington Robinson (New York: Robert M. McBride and Co., cl926), p. 22. 374 Mark Van Boren, cit.. p. 14. SS7 at Harvard, Mr. Redman says, is a matter of conjecture, but If his masters pointed out ways whereby he might satisfy his obvious passion for biography, for knowledge of his fellow men, they^did their part. In any event, he had scant need of them. The next ten years, while he was developing his art, are obscure; he has not talked about them very much. But we do know that he went to New York City, and earned his living part of the time in inspecting work on the subways, and in working at the New York Custom House. In 1896 he issued his first volume of verse. The Tor rent and the Night Before. published at his own expense, and dedicated *To any man, woman, or critic who will cut the edges 376 of it. I have done the top.* This volume was reviewed in the Bookman in 1897, but it was to be some ten years before his work began to receive the notice it deserved. Meanwhile, he worked for his living, read, wrote, and enjoyed music in 377 his spare time. Robinson was not influenced by the poetic activity which came during the second decade of this century; he had already made his beginning at the end of the nineteenth, in 378 what is now spoken of as a barren period. He is now con- ggjj Ray Redman, cit.. p. 25. Mark Van Doren, cit.. p. 16. Ibid.. p. 17. 378 Ben Ray Redman, £p. cit.. p. 31. 2S8 . sidered our greatest living poet, *some would call him the 379 greatest poet that this country has produced.* In this case there are only two factors influencing the choice of occupation, of which one may speak with any degree of certainty: (1) special aptitude for writing; (2) interest in studying his fellow man. Lere Sage. This boy*s father was a member of the Rob ber *s Roost gang of southeastern Utah, a horse thief and a cattle rustler. Lee was born in a log shack, one of their hiding places. -He says that the first thing he can remember was his admiration for his cattle-rustling father, quick in 380 brain and action. When Lee was about four, his family moved two hundred miles northwest into a country inhabited by the Hte Indians, and close to a great stock range, where rustling was easy. Lee* s mother used to tell the children stories of life in peace and civilization, and wish that she were home again, but this did not appeal to the boy. He wanted to follow the life of his father. When the father sent his family to stay with his wife*s Ibid.. p. 8. • 2QQ Lee Sage, The Last Rustler: the Autobiography of Lee Sage (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., cl930), p. 4. 239 people for a winter, they persuaded her to give up her hus band. She, too, was anxious that her children should not grow up to follow their father*s wild ways. Lee, however, hated the life of the village, the prayers, and his grand mother* s talk. He longed for his father. For a short time he went to school. *I quituated off the flyleaf of the primer 381 but I hain*t quit learning yeti* he says. They were very poor, and his mother had to go out to work to support the children. When Lee was about ten years old, he found work herding cows out in the foothills for his clothes, board, and twenty-five cents a day, but soon ran away to live with the Ute Indians. Here he spent many days and nights in the hills, watching wild animals and learning their nature. After about three years with the Indians, he left and went to work for some people idio ran a Navajo trading store and kept cattle and horses. Lee did considerable cattle rust ling on the side, making extra money, also some trapping for furs. He drifted from outfit to outfit for years, herding cattle, breaking horses, and rustling for himself. For a time, too, he ran a still and sold moonshine Tdiiskey. During this time he married a girl who wanted to get •Z O T Ibid.. p. 52 240 away* from an unhappy home, but never really loved her. Since they could not get alon#, he finally left home with the deci sion to stay away and send his earnings to his children. In the foreword to Sage*s book, Harvey Ferguson says: I first met Lee Sage in Salt Lake City in the summer of 1927. At that time he was trying to adjust himself to a settled life by acting as the manager of a riding school It had never occurred to him that he might become a writer He and I had many long talks and I was deeply impressed with his ability as a rwonteur. Before leaving Salt Lake I suggested that he dictate the story of his adventures, little expecting that he would do so. About six months later I was surprised to receive from him a bulky manu script which, with a little pruning and correcting, but without any rewriting, became *The Last Rustler.*” ^ Mr. Ferguson goes on to explain that all the western pioneers made an art of story-telling. Since they usually had no books, they created a literature of their own around their camp-fires, and The Last Rustler is a product of experience in this sort of story-telling. Important factors in this case were: (1) probably some special aptitude for story-telling; (2) stimulation through the varied experiences which his drifting and adventurous way of living had brought to him from childhood; (S) suggestion received, udiile engaged in uncongenial employment, that he write out the story of his adventures; p . 1 • Harvey Fergusson, foreword in Lee Sage, cit.. 241 (4) experience in camp-fire story-telling. Stuart 2* Sherman. Although a distinguished profes sor of literature, this man was perhaps even better known as a writer and critic. He came of English ancestors, who emigrated to New England between 1633 and 1640. His grandfather, Ezra Wright Sherman, graduated from Middlebury College with Rii Beta Kappa rank; then combined law and farming. His wife was fond of writing verses, *and the strong literary bent in her children and grandchildren was no doubt in part an inheritance from 385 _ her.* Their son, John Sherman, Stuart * s father, was an omnivorous reader and lover of poetry, though he did not write it. He started as a druggist; then turned to farming in Iowa, where his two elder children, Persis and Stuart, were born. John Sherman* s sister Ellen, who was the first member of the family to adopt literature as a profession, has published essays and verse. Stuart thus inherited the love of books from both sides of the family. Both his grandfathers were scholars, in different fashion; his father, though not a scholar, was a great reader; and in the two preceding generations of his father* s family the desire to write had shown itself. Jacob ZOitlin and Homer Edwards Woodbridge, Life and Letters of Stuart £. Sherman (2 vols.; New York: Farrar and Rinehart, Inc., 19^9), volume I, p. 4. Ibid.. p, 7. 242 After a few years of farming, John Sherman developed tuberculosis, and the family moved to Los Angeles, where Mr# Sherman finally died# His family was left with almost nothing. When Sherman was twelve, it was necessary for his family to return to Dorset, Vermont, where their relatives lived. Here Stuart attended the village school; then in 1895 was sent to the Troy Conference Academy at Poultney. Latin and Greek were the only subjects really well taught at this school at that time, but Stuart did not intend to go to col lege then, and did not take any courses in the classics here. He made a very good record, though he was somewhat scornful of some of his teachers. More valuable training was received from his work with the Trojan Literary Society, into which he entered with enthusiasm. His grandfather wrote at about this time: *Stuart brings in some of his school papers at my request. He 585 seems to have the pen of a ready writer.* Stuart was now thinking of teaching as a career, unless he could get into newspaper work. In 1897 Mrs. Sherman moved to Williamstown, so that her sons might profit by the educational advantages available there, and Stuart entered the junior class of the Williamstown High School. The teaching here 7/as of high quality, especially Ibid.. p. 47. 243 in the classics and in English. One of Stuart*s aunts had persuaded him that he ought to plan to go to college, so he now began the study of Latin. His years at the Williamstown High School were important in their influence on his later development. Especially important was a course in English literature which he took in his senior year from Grosvenor B. 386 Hill, an admirable teacher and fine scholar. Mr. Hill guided Stuart into doing a great deal of fine reading besides that of the regular course. The notebook which the boy kept f©om the age of seventeen to nineteen shows the beginning of his literary ambitions. Stuart entered Williams College in 1900 as a sophomore, and here almost all his elected courses were in languages and literature. By his junior year, he had made up his mind that he would prefer to teach English, though he also had serious thoughts of Latin. His college record was a brilliant one, and he was elected to Phi Beta Kappa at the end of his junior year. He contributed a good deal of verse to the Williams Literary Monthly, of which he was editor-in-chief for a year. **It was a matter of course that he should be chosen to deliver 38? the class poem at graduation.** Ibid.. p. 55. p. 78. 244 Through the influence of one of Stuart* s professors at Williams, he received a Thompson scholarship, which gave him three years of graduate study at Harvard. Here he studied under Dean Briggs, Professor Kittredge, and Professor Baker, among other noted scholars. At the end of this three years, he was offered positions as instructor at both Harvard and Northwestern, and accepted that at Northwestern, to leave there at the end of a year for a better position at the University of Illinois. He did some writing during all the period that he was teaching. A letter which he wrote to the Nation on the gradu ate schools was the piece of his writing which first attracted 388 general attention. Hammond Lament, the editor of the Na tion. then invited him to contribute articles, and shortly after that he was asked to fill a vacancy on the editorial staff of the New York Evening Post for the summer. He con tinued sending in reviews and critical essays to these peri odicals, besides doing other writing. In this case important factors in the choice of occu pation were: (1) keen intelligence; (2) special aptitude for literary expression, partly Ibid.. p. 174. 245 through inheritance; (S) stimulation through work with the literary society of the Troy Academy; (4) encouragement and interest of relatives, who per suaded him to plan for college; (5) stimulation through contact with teachers at Wil liamstown High School, Williams College, and Harvard University; (6) invitation to contribute articles to the Nation and the New York Evening Post. Upton Sinclair. The father of this writer was one of the Norfolk Sinclairs, and his mother one of the Baltimore Har dens. There had always been naval officers in the Sinclair family, even before they came to America. After the Civil War, which ruined the fortunes of the Sinclairs, Upton*s father en gaged in the Tfeolesale liquor business, but his efforts still left his family in a poverty which depressed him greatly, and drove him to the use of too much liquor. Upton was born in Baltimore in 1878, and spent the first ten years of his life there. His mother hated drunkenness and any form of indulgence. Bhe hoped to see her son go into the ministry. At six, Upton*s ambition was to go into the navy, 389 and become a hero like his grandfather. 389 p2.oyd Bell, Upton Sinclair; a Study in Social—Pro test (New York: George H. Boran Co., cl927), p. 22. 246 Upton taught himself to read early in childhood and showed precocity in other ways. However, he was rather deli cate, and was, therefore, kept out of school until the age of ten to develop better health. He studied by himself, and did become more robust. Wealthy relatives who were fond of the boy would have been glad to take him into their homes and give him an education, but Upton chose to remain with his family in poverty. His fathet obtaining a position as a traveling sales man in the hat business in New York, all the family moved to that city, where the boy entered school for the first time. By the age of twelve, he had fini shed-grammar school. Although he played with his schoolmates, he had no reallÿ close friends. Books were his real companions, as they had always been. was sensitive and had always shut himself away from ugliness with his books and his dreams. At thirteen, he read straight through Milton and Shakespeare with the greatest of enjoyment. He had decided on a college education, and entered the College of the City of New York in 1892, though still so young that he lied about his age to gain entrance. He received his A. B. at eighteen.However, his college work was not suf ficiently difficult to keep him really interested. By the time he was fifteen, he had found that he had the knack of Ibid.. p. 34, 247 writing verses, jokes, and poems which pleased others and which he could sell. He made four or five dollars a week writing these things in odd moments. He spoke at this time of becoming a lawyer, "but this was more than anything else a mask to hide, even from himself, 691 his rash and beautiful dream of becoming a poet." His fa ther 's income was uncertain at this time, and it was necessary for Upton to contribute to the support of his mother, as well as to earn his own living. He started by hack-work, wrlÿing boys* stories, tales of adventure, and serials for such cheap magazines as the Areosv. For this sort of work he received about seventy dollars a week. "At the age of twenty, he was 392 turning out more than two million words a year." This was only the beginning of his writing career, of course, and he was later to do much better things. Mr. Sinclair*s letter says: "The reason I became a writer was because I developed an overwhelming interest in literature and could not be interested in any other way to 393 earn a living." Ibid.. p. 42. 392 Ibid.. p. 47. 3d3 Personal Correspondence of the Investigator, let ter from Upton Sinclair, October 30, 1953. 248 Here the following factors were apparent: (1) keen intelligence; (2) special aptitude for writing; (3) absorption in literature at an early age, due to partial isolation because of delicate health, and as a with drawal from the ugliness of poverty; (4) stimulation through much reading of fine literature; (5) economic necessity for earning a living at an early age. Edward James Stacknole. Mr, Stackpole says that an uncle of his who died in the Civil War was a printer, and several other relatives have been in newspaper work, as well as the un- 394 cle, Edmund Conrad, with whom he started in business. His father, however, was a blacksmith. This newspaper editor and owner was born in McVeytown, 395 Pennsylvania, the eldest of eleven children. He attended public school for a time, but went to work at an early age for his uncle, who had started the McVevtown Journal. He was in terested from the start in everything that concerned the Jour nal. .in the mechanical production as well as the writing of Personal Correspondence of the Investigator, let ter from E, J, Stackpole, October 30, 1933. 395 E. J. Stackpole, Behind the Scenes with a Newspa per Man, Fifty Years in the Life of an Editor ( Philad el phi a: J. B, Lippincott Co., cl927>, pp. 5-6. 249 news. He must have shown considerable aptitude, for by the time he was eighteen, he was practically in charge of the pub- 396 lication as a writer and mechanical director. At twenty, he became editor and part owner of the Or- bisonia Dispatch. After about two years in Orbisonia, he looked for a larger and more interesting field for his endea vors, and went to Harrisburg, where he started as an assistant foreman and exchange editor of the Harrisburg Telegraph. Later he took this paper over as owner and editor. Mr. Stackpole says that he has never regretted enter- 397 ing newspaper work, as it has appealed to him from many angles. Important factors here were: (1) economic necessity for beginning work at an early age; (2) suggestion-imitation through the fact that his uncle and other relatives were in newspaper work; (3) opportunity offered him by his uncle to work on his newspaper; (4) aptitude for writing. John M. Stahl. The first Stahl (spelling his name 396 Personal Correspondence of the Investigator, let ter from E, J. Stackpole, October 30, 1933. 397 Loc. cit. 250 Stahal) to come to America came from Berne,- Switzerland, in 1711, because Switzerland made its men serve as soldiers, and his Mennonite faith forbade this. Mr. Stahl says that none of his ancestors since have been of the Mennonite faith, but his father held the belief that man is responsible to a God for 398 the activities which constitute his life work. John Stahl*s father was a maker of fine furniture in his youth, but on ac count of his health left Pennsylvania and went to Illinois to farm. Here the family lived in a log cabin, and worked very hard. John*s mother had not been accustomed to such work, as she had come from a home of considerable wealth in Philadel phia, was well educated, and a great reader. She taught her children to love reading at an early age. John was born delicate, and had poor health all through his early life. In spite of this, he did a good deal of farm work. When he was five, the family moved to a better farm with a nice two-story house on it. The neighbors in the vi cinity of their new home had books and magazines, too, and 399 there was a constant exchange of reading matter among them. John attended the country school, but his schooling 398 Personal Correspondence of the Investigator, let ter from John M. Stahl, November 7, 1933. 399 John Meloy Stahl, Growing with the West; the Story of a Busy. Quiet Life (London; Longmans, Green and Co., clGSOj, p. 57. 251 was broken into a great deal by farm work, sickness, and ac cidents. In 1879 he entered the Quincy, Illinois, High School, and attended this school fifty-one weeks in all, during which time he took the four years* course. Dr. Corbyn, the princi pal of the high school, also an Episcopal rector, had consider able influence on John during his high school course. He was a scholar, and helped to develop the boy*s interest in English literature, especially Shakespeare and the Bible. Mr. Stahl says that Quackenbos* First Lessons in English Composition stimulated his interest in writing, and before he had gone 400 through it, he was writing for the local paper. He wrote some poetry, and also a good deal about farming, which was natural, as he was a farmer boy, and his father subscribed to numerous farm papers, whose contents were largely letters from and articles by farmers. By the time he finished high school, he was writing for a dozen farm papers, and had begun to edit a monthly farm paper published in Quincy. He taught a country district school the next two winters and a summer, reading law in the evenings, and spending his vacations in a law office. All this time he continued his writing for farm papers, but expected to become a lawyer. He accepted a good editorial position in St. Louis, with the intention of finishing his law course in that city. Ibid.. p. 83. 252 At that time. Dr. Corbyn wrote him a long letter in which he said that he thought journalism was Stahl*s calling, which Stahl feels influenced him in his decision. Moreover, it had become plain to him that he could exert a wider influence as a writer than as a lawyer. He admits that the financial side held some consideration also, since he was making at that time as editor and contributor, about $500 a month, but says; In justice to myself I must say that the knowledge that I was benefit ting others who might be numbered by many thousands had much more weight with me than the financial rewards. My pen gave me much wider audience than I could ever hope to have as a-lawyer. I took a serious view of life. I quit the law. His letter speaks of another deciding influence: My parents were responsible by their teaching and life for my giving up the law almost immediately after I was admitted to the bar, that I might make full use of my pen, and which I came to^believe would give me the greatest influence on m^. ^ The evidence in this case shows the following factors to have been important: (1) keen intelligence; (2) reading habits developed early by his mother*s example; (3) interest in writing stimulated by a book on compo sition read as a boy; Ibid.. p. 65. 402 Personal Correspondence of the Investigator, letter from John M. Stahl, November 7, 1933. 253 (4) further stimulation of interest in good literature by his high school principal; (5) interest in writing for farm papers developed by reading them, and by the farm work which he did himself; (6) advice from his former high school principal that journalism was his calling; (7) desire for security, which he felt he could attain more easily through writing and editing than through the law; (s) desire for service, stimulated by his parents* teachings and lives, #iich caused him to give up the law as a profession, as he felt he could benefit a greater number of people through his pen. Albert Pavson Terhune. Dr. Edward Payson Terhune, clergyman and scholar, was this man*s father, and his mother was a writer, who used the pen name of "Marion Harland.” While still a very little boy, Albert began to make up elaborate tales of his own exploits. When he was about six, he started building up a long continued story for his own a- musement after he was sent to his early bed. This story lasted over more than three years, and seemed to come to him without 403 conscious effort on his part. Albert Pay son Terhune, ^ the Best of My Memory (New York: Harper and Bros., clQSoTT P* 34. 254 He was allowed to read what he liked in his father * s library, and before he was ten he had read a great mass of material, which he does not feel he digested very well, includ ing: all of Shakespeare, all of Longfellow, seven of Scott*s novels, Bryant*s translation of the Iliad. Bayard Taylor*s translation of Goethe*s Faust. Percy*s Reliques, much of Gib bon, and a great deal of Tennyson He attended a military institute as a boy, and it must have been that even then he had hopes of becoming a writer, for he speaks of the headmaster*s telling him that he could never hope to become a writer when he grew up.^^^ At home he met many writers who were his parents* friends. His father wanted him to be a clergyman, and his mother from his childhood said that he was to be a lawyer, but Albert was determined to be neither.^^^ From 1889 to 1893, he attended Columbia, where the only subject which interested him was English. His scholastic ree- ord in general was not very good. He took every course that Brander Matthews and George Woodberry gave, enjoying them thoroughly. During his junior year here, he won a prize of fered by the Columbia Spectator for the best short story writ- 404 Ibid.. p. 28 405 Ibid.. p. SO 406 Ibid.. p. 92 255 ten by an undergraduate. This same year he sold a poem to Lippincott*s Magazine for twenty dollars. It was to be two full years before anything else of his was accepted anywhere. After finishing college, he traveled for a time in Eur ope and the Near East. Syria fascinated him, and after his return home he wrote his first book, Syria from the Saddle, which was published by the twelfth publisher to whom he sent it. It never made any money for him or for the publisher. Harper*s Magazine took an article of his, and Harper*s Bazar a story, but it was evident by the time he was twenty-two that he could not make a living then by writing independently. A friend got him a position as a reporter on the New York Even ing World, and here he worked frœi November, 1894, to May, 1916, though he says he never ceased to detest his various jobs 407 _ there and the newspaper game in general. He wrote a good many serials for the paper as a ghost writer. By the time he was thirty-two, he was earning $47.50 a week and was several thousand dollars in debt. He decided he was not getting anywhere through newspaper work, and deter mined to force himself forward as a fiction writer. Thereafter, he began to spend long evenings after his days at the office, writing serials, which soon began to sell for fairly good prices. 407 Ibid., p. 101. 256 The following factors were important in this case: (1) special aptitude for writing; (2) stimulation through literary atmosphez^e at home, where his mother was a writer, his father a clergyman and scholar, and many of their friends writers; (3) stimulation through much reading from early years; (4) stimulation through the literature and composition courses at Columbia, where he had remarkable teachers; (5) stimulation of travel abroad; (6) emotional drive, which kept him working toward his ambition, in spite of Ills parents* efforts to have him become a clergyman or a la^er; (7) opportunity for practice in writing given him by the newspaper position which was found for him by a frieiid ; (8) desire for security, which made him begin to sup plement his poorly paid newspaper work with other writing. Virginia Terhune Van de Water. The autobiographical study of this writer, published in 1927, only covers her life up to thirteen years of age, and is really more of a discus sion of child psychology than biographical material. After a diligent search, the investigator was unable to locate any other biographical facts concerning this writer, either in books or periodicals, except a brief reference in Who* s Who in America for 1932-1933, which stated that she was educated 257 by governesses and in private schools in the United States and in Europe. As most of her work has been rather ephemeral in character, it seems probable that no other biographical material about this writer has been published. However, Virginia Terhune was one of the older sisters of Albert Payson Terhune, whose life has just been discussed, and as such must have been subject to some of the same heredi tary and environmental influences which were important in his development* She says she felt that she was a stupid child, and suffered from the contrast between herself and her more 408 brilliant older sister and younger brother. Mrs. Van de Water*s letter is significant, and supplies evidence not obtainable elsewhere: As my mother, (Marion Harland), was an author, my thoughts turned to writing from my early days. As a child, I wrote little stories which I submitted to my mother for inspection. Gbming, as I did, from a family of readers, books were my constant companions, and the making of them of keen interest to me. I chose my profession because I loved it. Writing was in ray blood. My father was a clergy man and scholar, and I was brought up among writers. These circumstances and the encouragement of my parentSggre some of the reasons that led to my becoming a writer. In this case the following factors were evidently im portant: Virginia Terhune Van de Water, The Heart of a Child: Some Reminiscences of ^ Reticent Childhood (Boston; W. A. Wilde Co., cl927), p. 81. Personal Correspondence of the Investigator, letter from Virginia Terhune Van de Water, October, 1953. 258 (1) special aptitude for writing; (2) stimulation through literary atmosphere at home and among the family friends; (S) stimulation through travel; (4) stimulation through much reading ; (5) encouragement from parents. Edith Wharton. Edith Newhold Jones, who later married Edward Wharton of Boston, was horn in 1862, of a prominent and wealthy New Ëork family. She was brought up in cultivated sur roundings, and had every advantage which wealth could give. Much of her childhood was spent abroad, where she was educated by private tutors, and gained a thorough knowledge of the French, German, and Italian languages, literature, and 410 art. She read widely in these languages, as well as in English. For some time she lived in New York with frequent trips to Europe, but since 1906 has resided in Paris, ^ome of the associations which she made in Europe had important influences on her literary career, such as her friendships with Paul Bour- get and with Henry James. She regarded Henry James as the chief master of English fiction, and has been considered as Robert Morss Lovett. Edith Wharton (New York: Ro bert M. McBride and Co., cl925), pp. 4-5. 259 411 his pupil. Mr. Lovett says; It is not necessary to explain Edith Wharton*s addic tion to literature. With her preoccupation with art and artists it was inevitable that she should seek expression in the forms practised in her own generation. Her first publication, so far as I have been able to discover, was a sonnet. Happiness, in:Scribner * s Magazine for December, 1889. Her first novel was The Greater Inclination, published in her thirty-seventh year.T Important influences here were; (1) special aptitude for writing; (2) stimulation through cultivated surroundings at home and abroad; (S) careful education by tutors in languages, litera ture, and art; (4) stimulation through wide reading in several lan guages; (5) stimulation through contact with important writers living in Europe, especially with Henry James; (6) inherited wealth, which left her free to develop her talents as she chose. 411 Ibid.. p. 6. Ibid.. p. 8. 413 Stanley Thomas Williams, The American Spirit in Letters (New Haven; Yale University Press, cl926), p. 298. 260 SUMMARY Among the thirty-four writers studied in this chapter, the following factors were found to have been important in influencing their choice of occupation, though not all the factors appeared in each case: (1) special aptitude for writing or story-telling, which appeared in each case, though latent in some until mid dle age; (2) stimulation through extensive reading from child hood on, which appeared in nearly every case; (3) stimulation through a great variety of experiences, as with Sherwood Anderson and Eugene 0*Neill, which they felt an urge to express in writing; (4) conflict of hobby for writing with business life, which led to the abandonment of a successful business and of the law, by Sherwood Anderson and Norman Hapgood, respectively; (5) desire for security; (6) desire for recognition; (7) encouragement from relatives, friends, and teachers; (S) stimulation through education, through travel, and through contacts with writers; (9) stimulation of interest in journalism through vis its to newspaper offices as small boys, in the cases of George Harvey and H. L. Mencken; 261 (10) emotional drive holding them to their ambitions, in spite of wishes of parents, as in the cases of James Gib bons Hianeker and Alfred Kreymborg; (11) economic security, giving freedom of choice, as in the cases of Robinson Jeffers and Edith Wharton; (12) interest in literature especially strongly de veloped because of almost complete isolation from other stimu li, due to total blindness and de^ness, in the case of Helen Keller; (13) partial isolation through poverty, increasing the interest in literary expression, as in the cases of Josephine Preston Peabody and Upton Sinclair; (14) physical defects resulting from poliomyelitis, turning attention to intellectual effort, in the case of Herbert Quick; (15) suggestion-imitation, because of father*s owning newspapers, in the case of Nellie Revell; (16) opportunities for writing offered, or suggestion from others that writing be tried, as with Anne Ellis, Lee Sage, and Helen Keller; (17) desire for service through newspaper writing and editing, in the case of John M. Stahl. CHAPTER VI ADVENTURERS AND OTHERS This chapter will deal with the aviators in the group, soldiers, criminals, and one man rather difficult to classify with any other group,— a medium. 1. AVIATORS Richard Evelyn Bvrd. aviator and explorer. It was al most inevitable that this man should become famous. His biog rapher says: On both sides of his family, his blood can be traced through parallel lines of statesmen, merchants, soldiers, seigneurs and gentlemen whose careers have been synonymous with the development of the state and nation. The Byrds have always been mainsprings in the inner workings of Vir- ginia*^^^ Some of his ancestors, too, were adventurers and ex plorers. His father, Richard Evelyn Byrd, Senior, was not of the explorer type, however, but a scholar. Richard was the second son, born in 1888. His two brothers are also prominent men. Richard early showed scholar ly tastes, and at sixteen had read all the classics on his father * s well-stocked shelves. He was especially interested Charles J. V, Murphy, Struggle, the Life and Ex ploits of Commander Richard E. Bvrd (New York; Frederick A. Stokes Co., cl928), p. 2. 263 in history. As a small hoy, his life was that of most of the hoys around him, but at twelve he had his first great adven ture,— a trip around the world alone, starting with a visit to a friend of his father*s in the Philippines. A love of the sea seems to have begun at this time, and he made plans to at- ^15 tend Annapolis for training as a naval officer.^ At the age of fourteen, he set down in his diary that 416 some day he intended to explore the North Pole.^ His father allowed him free rein in the choice of his career, as he did with his other sons. Richard entered Vir ginia Military Institute at fifteen, then after two years went to the University of Virginia, as he was still too young for the Naval Academy. In 1908, he entered Annapolis. At this time, he gave more attention to athletics than to his studies, taking part in almost every sport, which meant that he did not make a brilliant scholastic record. One of his legs was in jured badly several times, and this leg was to give him trouble later. History and the story of explorations were the studies which were most interesting to him, and he was longing for adventures for himself. He was graduated from Annapolis in 1912, and remained 415 Ibid.. p. 34. Ibid.. p. 37. 264 in active service until March, 1916, when he requested retire ment. About 1913 he had his first ride in an airplane, which made a profound impression on him, and he decided at that time to become an aviator. It was, however, some years before this determination was fulfilled. He requested and was granted re tirement from the navy, because his injured leg still incon venienced him, and the promotion he should have received was held up on account of it. He hoped now to explore. However, he was soon asked to return to the navy to act as inspector- ins true tor of the Naval Militia of Rhode Island, and was com missioned a lieutenant, junior grade, the commission antedating 417 his retirement by one day. After his most successful work in Rhode Island, he was transferred to Washington for duty in the Personnel Bureau of the navy. Aviation was developing with great rapidity at this time, and it was inevitable that Byrd*s strong desire for ad venture should bring him into connection with it. From Wash ington, Byrd was finally able to arrange for his transference to the training station for naval aviators at Pensacola. Here his progress in flying was amazing. After six hours of flying time under instruction, he was ready for his first solo flight, and was speedily made an instructor himself. He assigned him Ibid-, p. 51 266 self to the Crash Board, whose duty it was to discover the causes of airplane accidents, and learned as much as possible about flying in every way. He began to dream, too, of flying across the Atlantic to France. Next, he was ordered to Nova Scotia, as Commanding Of ficer of a proposed naval air station there. After a time in Canada, he spent five years in Washington, helping to put through Congress bills which strengthened the navy and avia tion, but he never gave up the idea of exploration by airplane In 1924, he was made a lieutenant commander, on the retired list, by special act of Congress, in recognition of his record This promotion gave him the prestige he needed to begin the preparation of an aerial expedition to the Pole. At this same time, Donald B* MacMillan was getting ready an expedition for the National Geographic Society, and Byrd was instructed by Secretary Wilbur to "accompany and co operate with the 1925 Polar Expedition of Mr. Donald B. Mac- 418 Millan." This was just the beginning of his long series of naval explorations. In the words of his biographer: He is actually a most serious man with a rare capacity for complete absorption in his work. Exploration is the passion of his life, and the airplane in his mind has be Ibid.. p. 131. 266 come an instrument of almost spiritual power in demolish ing the harriers to the unknown. In this case important factors influencing Byrd* s de velopment as an aviator and explorer were: (1) keen intelligence and intellectual curiosity; (2) ancestry which included some adventurers and ex plorers; (5) stimulation through a trip around the world when twelve years old; (4) stimulation through reading the history of explora tion; (5) the rapid development of aviation during his youth, and general interest in it and in exploration by airplane; (6) stimulation through his first trip in an airplane; (7) his immediate success as an aviator and instructor^ (8) desire for new experience; (9) desire for recognition. Charles Augustus Lindbergh. The father of this aviator was born in Sweden, but brought to the United States as an infant. He became a lawyer, and later U. S. Congressman from Minnesota, His mother is a school teacher, the daughter of a dentist and inventor. This maternal grandfather of Lindbergh*s 419 Ibid.. p. IS. 267 was a pioneer in a way, too. He held a number of patents on incandescent grates and furnaces, in addition to several on gold and enamel inlays and other dental processes. H© was one of the first to foresee the possibilities of porcelain in dentistry, and later.became known as "the father of porcelain dental art."^^^ Charles Lindbergh did a good deal of traveling during his school days, due to his family*s moving from place to place. This made his schooling rather irrëgular, but devel oped a desire for travel which still remains with him. His chief interests in high school were along mechani cal and scientific lines, and after graduation he decided to take a course in mechanical engineering at the University of Wisconsin. He says: While I was attending the University I became intensely interested in aviation. Since I saw my first airplane near Washington, D. 0., in 1912, I had been fascinated . with flying, although up to the time I enrolled in a fly ing school in 1922 I had never been near enough to a plane to touch it.^*^"^ He found the long hours of study at the university rather trying, and after finishing three semesters there, de cided to study aeronautics, and if it appeared to have a good future when he became better acquainted with it, to take it Charles A. Lindbergh, "We," the Famous Flier* s Own Story of His Life and His Transatlantic Flight. Together with His Views on the Future of Aviation CHew York: G. P. Putnam*s Sons, c192T7, p. 21. 421 Ibid.. p. 23. 268 up as his life work. He enrolled as a flying student with the Nebraska Aircraft Corporation, and about the end of March, 1922, left the university on his motor-cycle for Lincoln, Ne braska. His first flight as a passenger took place on April 9, 1922, and soon after that his instruction began under I. 0. Biffle, who was known as the most "hard boiled" instructor the 422 army ever had during the war. He spent the next two months getting his flying instruction and in learning what he could around the factory. There was no ground school in connection with tiie course at that time. Before Lindbergh had quite completed his course, the instruction plane was sold to E. G. Bahl, who was planning a barnstorming trip through part of Nebraska. Lindbergh was anxious for experience, so offered to pay his own expenses if allowed to accompany Bahl as mechanic and helper, and barn stormed with him many of the Nebraska towns. He explains that "Barnstorming" means flying about from town to town and taking 425 any one who wishes to go for a short flight. It was while flying with Bahl that he began to do stunts such as walking on the airplane wings, and making parachute jumps. Next, he went on a barnstorming trip over Kansas, Colo rado, and Montana with H. J. Lynch. They gave a good many ex hibitions, including parachute jumps and wing-walking by Lind- Ibid.. p. 26. 423 Ibid.. p. 28. 269 bergh. Since he first began flying at Lincoln, he had been determined to have a plane of his own, and a few months after finishing his trip with Lynch, purchased for five hundred dol lars a wartime training plane which had belonged to the govern ment, fitted with a new Curtis motor and other new equipment. In 1926 he entered the Ü. S. air mail service. His later exploits are a matter of common knowledge to all the world. Important factors influencing this choice were: (1) special aptitudes along mechanical and scientific lines, perhaps inherited in part from his maternal grandfather; (2) stimulation through his first sight of an airplane when a boy of ten; (3) continued interest in aeronautics; (4) lack of interest in his university studies; (5) desire for new experience; (6) courage; (7) stimulation through his experiences at the flying school and on barnstorming tours. Frank Luke, lhat this aviator might have become had he lived, one cannot say, as he had not yet begun on any life work when the United States entered the World War; he was trained as an aviator during the war, and died in service at 270 the age of twenty-one. His biographer speaks of him as "Amer ica* s second ace," and "the most spectacular balloon strafer 424 the World War produced." Luke * s father was born in Prussia and came to Arizona in 1880. His mother was bom in Brooklyn. Frank was one of nine children born to this couple. He began to show courage and leadership in early boyhood, holding his own with his older brothers. Always a fighter, when still a young boy he knocked out a professional pugilist. While attending high school at Phoenix, Arizona, he worked in a copper mine during the summers. When war was declared in April, 1917, Frank*s oldest sister went with the Red Cross as a nurse, and his oldest brother went into training for the field artillery. No evi dence is presented as to whether Frank had previously had any special interest in flying, but when he enlisted at Tucson in September, 1917, he requested immediate assignment to the fly ing branch. He was ordered to duty at the School of Military Aeronautics at Austin, Texas, and after being graduated from the ground school there, completed his flying course at Rock well Field, San Diego. He wrote home that he found flying 425 "real snort." 424 Norman Shannon Hall, The Balloon Buster; Frank Luke of Arizona (Garden City, N. Y. : Doubleday, Dorqn and Co., cl928), p. 1. Ibiai. p. 25. S71 On January 23, 1918, he was commissioned a second lieutenant in the Aviation Section, Signal Officers Reserve Corps. Another letter says: **One thing will not happen. 1*11 never be taken prisoner. I*m going over as a combat 426 pilot, and you* 11 hear of me before I*m through.** He craved leadership, recognition, and a high place among his fellows. In France he had some further courses to perfect him for combat service, and in July, 1918, received his assignment to a combat unit. About three weeks from that time he brought down his first enemy plane,— the first of many. The factors which led this boy to military aviation were: (1) physical courage; (S) desire for recognition; (3) desire for service; (4) desire for new experience; (5) opportunities offered him by the entrance of the United States into the World War. 2. SOLDIERS Samuel Woodfill. The ancestors of this soldier dame to America from Wales before the American Revolution. Their Ibid.. p. S5. 272 descendants settled In Kentucky and Indiana, and were still living the hard life of the pioneers in the 1870*s, when c . , ^ 427 Samuel was born. Woodfill says that he was not born with a silver spoon in his mouth, but he did come near to being born with a gun in his hands.The first things he can remember were stories about war and shooting. His father and most of the farmers who lived in the neighborhood had fought in the Civil War, and they used to exchange war stories in the evening s around the stove, while the children sat spellbound. Samuel*s father had fought through the Mexican War as a first lieutenant, and through the Civil War as a captain in the Fifth Indiana Volunteers. Samuel was fascinated by the old flintlock musket kept on a shelf behind the kitchen clock, which his father had carried all through the Civil War. Oc casionally, it was taken down to show the boys how it worked. * * * When I grow up I*m goin* to be a soldier, too,* I 429 would pipe up,** Mr. Woodfill says. He was only a tiny child #inn his father showed him how to shoot, which more than ever fixed his ambition to be a 427 Samuel Woodfill, Woodfill of the Regulars. a True Story of Adventure from the Arctic to the Argonne (Garden City, M. Y. :"n[?oubleday, Doran and Co., cl929), p. 9. Doc. cit. Ibid.. p. 12. 275 soldier. He attended the country school with the other children, hut since most of the pioneer settlers in that part of Ohio did not think much of ”book learnin*,** he did not get much 450 schooling• Samuel never cared much for games, as shooting was al ways his special interest from the time he was a small child. His father died when he was still a small hoy, and he began doing a man* s work with his brothers,— cutting spoke timber and cordwood. After the sinking of the Maine, Samuel determined that this was his chance to be a soldier, hut the recruiting offi cer turned him down this time, because he was not yet eighteen, However , the Filipino insurrection soon came along ; the army called for volunteers again, and since he was now past eight een, he was accepted. **Xn jig time they had me rigged out in fightin* togs and on a train to Frisco and the Philippines,** 451 he says. The regular army has held him ever since, but it was his exploits in the World War which brought Woodfill to fame, and caused his biography to be written. Ibid.. p. 19. 431 Ibid.. p. 20. 274 In this casé the factors influencing the choice of oc cupation were simple; (1) suggestion-imitation, as his father and many neigh bors had been soldiers; (2) stimulation through the constant conversation which he heard from earliest childhood about war and shooting; (3) lack of educational stimuli vhich might have turned his attention to other kinds of activity; (4) desire for new experience; (5) opportunity presented to him when barely eighteen to join the army for service in the Philippines. Alvin C.. York. Before and after his activities in the Argonne which brought him to fame, Alvin C. York was a farmer and woodsman in the Tennessee mountains, but since it was as a soldier only that he achieved the prominence which caused this biography to be written, the investigator has classified him as a soldier. Alvin was bom of good pioneer stock in Pall Mall, Fen tress County, Tennessee, ^e was one of eleven children, whom their parents reared by exceedingly hard work. His father was a blacksmith, farmer, and hun|ter. His mother hired out to do washing, spinning, weaving, or any sort of work she could get, at about $wenty-five cents a day. Since all the mountain people were very poor, there 275 was only money enough for the school to run about two and a half months of the year. Alvin learned to read and write. He says he thinks he had what amounts to about a second grade education, but is doubtful if he could have passed the second ^ 432 grade. Almost as soon as he could walk, he began to work, helping with the younger children, bringing in wood and water. Before he was six, he was helping his father in the field. He liked best to go hunting with his father; learned to shoot very early; became a crack shot, and later won many prizes in turkey shoots and other contests. In 1911 his father died, and Alvin had to help with the support of his mother and the younger children. He grew to be the biggest of the York family, standing over six feet in 433 height,, and weighing more than two hundred pounds. After his father*s death, he lived rather a wild life for a few years, drinking, gambling, and fighting. Then he Mgot religion** seriously; gave up all his bad habits, includ ing even smoking; became a singing elder, and prominent in 434 church work. Alvin C. York, Sergeant York; His Own Story and War Diary. Edited by Tom Skeyhiïï (Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, Doran and Co., cl928), p. 123. 433 Ibid.. preface, p. xv. Ibid.. pp. 143-146. 276 His religion forbade all fighting, so when he was drafted during the World War, he immediately claimed exemption as a conscientious objector, and a long correspondence was car ried on with the War Department about the matter. However, exemption was finally refused him. After he entered the army, 435 he became convinced that he was fighting in a righteous cause. His famous exploit in the Argonne, in which he broke up German machine-gun nests and took many German prisoners, is a matter of common knowledge, since it brought him world-wide renown as a hero. Of course, after his return to the United States, all sorts of lucrative opportunities were offered to him to go on the stage and into the moving pictures, write newspaper sto ries, and sign advertisements, but he felt that would be corn- 436 „ mercializing his uniform and his service as a soldier. He only wanted to go back to his Tennessee mountains, and that is what he did. The Rotary ^lub of his state purchased a large farm for him, and here he settled down with the girl he had loved before he went to war. However, the contact with civilization, which he had during his service with the army, brought him a realization of the absolutely uneducated state Ibid.. p. 153. 436 Ibid.. pp. 299-300. 277 in which he and his neighbors in the isolated districts of the Tennessee mountains were living, and he determined to work for good schools and good roads for his part of the country. He has been able to accomplish a good deal along these lines. The factors which brought Alvin C, York into promi nence as a soldier were: (1) physique. Including height and weight above average and the hardness acquired through his life in the Tennessee mountains; (2) courage; (S) skill in shooting, acquired by much practice as a hunter; (4) the draft during the World War, which forced him into the army against his conscientious objections to war. 3. CRIMINALS Jack Black. The parents of this burglar apparently were decent, hard-working people, living in the Middle West. Jack* s mother died when he was ten, and after her death his father sold their cottage and furniture and moved into the only hotel in the little town. For about a year Jack played around the hotel during the day without going to school; then his father sent him to a Sisters* Convent boarding school for three years. His father was kind, but did not seem to know 278 just how to care for the boy. Mr. Black says: I am not lugging in the fact that I was left motherless at the age of ten to alibi myself away from anything. Neverless I think a fellow has the right to ask himself if things might not have been different. My mother died be fore I got very well acquainted with her— I doubt if any child gives its parents much thought before the age of twelve or thirteen.^^* He found his years at the convent pleasant enough, though there was too much studying and praying and not enough of the rough outdoor sports so necessary to boys in their teens. One of his chores was to go for the newspapers, and in this way he began to read them without the sisters* knowledge. This was just at the time that Jesse James was killed, and he read the story of the James boys with eager interest. **I finished the story entirely and wholly in sympathy with the James boys, 438 and all other hunted, outlawed, and outraged men,** he says. He then turned to other crime stories, reading nothing in the papers but stories of burglaries, robberies, and murders. Al ways in sympathy with the criminals, he began to picture him self taking part in these exciting adventures. At fourteen, he returned to his father at the hotel, and started in at the district school. After school hours, as he had no chores to do, he used to hang around the hotel Jack Black, You Can*t Win (New York: The Macmillan Co., cl925), p. 3. 438 Ibid.. p. 11. 279 office and bar, watching and listening to the men. He read many dime novels. The man vAio kept the hotel bar, a small politician and town fixer, was one of Jack* s heroes at this period. Cy, as he was called, gave Jack a job working argund the bar after school at three dollars a week. Then his father was transferred to Kansas City, Jack went with him, and it was decided that he should get a full time job and give up school. In his new work, his father had to travel a great deal, and often left the boy alone at the boarding -house for weeks or months at a time. After some searching. Jack finally found a job at a cigar counter, which was really a blind for a gambling place in the rear of it. He found his work interesting, as he came to know the poker players, crap shooters, and dice sharks, who frequented the place, and watched them playing. His father was disgusted with Jack* s associates; gave the boy a lecture; then washed his hands of him. He never 439 saw his father again. Soon tiring of his work and his life at the boarding house, Jack started west in search of further adventure, beat ing his way on trains. At Denver he was arrested and givôn Ibid.. p. 63. 280 a sentence of fifteen days as a vagrant. He joined forces with his cellmate in the jail, Smiler, when they were released, and this experienced criminal took him to rob a house for clothing, food, and money. This was Jack*s first experience in robbery, but it fascinated him. Next, he and Smiler robbed a jewelry store, and Jack was well started on his career as a criminal. A good many years later he reformed and became a re spectable citizen, after which he wrote this autobiography. The factors in this social situation which brought the boy to a career of crime evidently were: (1) a home broken by the death of his mother; (2) lack of. suitable outlets for his physical energy during boyhood, either at the hotel or at the convent school; (S) ignorance on his father * s part of the way to care for a growing boy; (4) stimulation of interest in crime and adventure through reading many newspaper crime stories and dime novels; (5) influence of conversation he heard while hanging around the hotel office and bar; (6) long periods of time when his father left him en tirely to his own devices after they moved to Kansas City, finally leaving him altogether; (7) his work at a gambling place and association with gamblers; 281 (8) desire for new experience, which started him out as a tramp; led to his being jailed as a vagrant, and joining forces with an experienced burglar. Ernest Booth. This boy had quite a different start from that of Jack Black, though the situation later developed some of the same elements. He was born in Oakland, California, next to the young est of four boys. He says: I had the most adorable mother that ever lived, and my father was comfortably situated financially. There was, apparently, no reason for my leaving a pleasant home and the love and attention of parents who sought only to edu cate me, willingly to clothe and feed me, and to prepare me adequately for the time when I should have to win my own food and clothes. Ernest read a good many of Horatio Alger*s books, in which he was assured that he would come out all right if he only met enough trouble to combat. He was worried because he had no troubles. Poring over Oliver Twist, too, he longed to 441 know the miseries which befell little Oliver. One day when he was about ten years old, Ernest and a friend of the same age started out to be tramps. After using up most of the groceries with which they had provided them- Ernest Booth, Stealing through Life (Hew York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., cl927), pT 4. 441 Ibid.. p. 5. 282 selves before leaving home, they broke a window in a grocery store and stole some. Ernest was arrested and put in jail for the night. His father had him released the next norning, whereupon the police captain delivered a long lecture predict ing for him a lifetime of crime and dishonor, which would probably end in murder and hanging. Ernest later came to be lieve that that scene was probably arranged betvæen his father and the policeman to teach him a lesson, but it had quite a different effect. He says: Instead, they awoke a lively inquisitiveness. There I was— a confirmed criminal, and not yet eleven years of age. I became impressed with a sense of inward betrayal; there was some portion of me which others could see— some char acteristic aggressively criminal— and I had lived all those years in total ignorance of my possession of itl^^S His father then sent him to live with his uncle*s family in Mendocino County, and here he stayed for about four years. His uncle took him deer-hunting during the closed season, ex plaining that the game laws were made for city people, not for those who killed for meat to eat. Ernest was impressed by this distinction, as his uncle was known as a law-abiding cit- 445 izen. On this hunting trip, Ernest became angry at a man who accompanied them; shot and injured him, but the matter was hushed up. 442 Ibid.. p. 55. 443 Ibid.. p. 44. 283 On his return to the city, hè: found his father and mother had separated because of ^incompatibility.** The boys all lived with their mother in a flat, though the father con tinued to provide for them. School and his studies occupied only a small part of Ernest* s time, and he began hanging about the streets, staying downtown until late at night, attending shows and playing pool. His mother remonstrated with him to no avail. His schoolmates seemed much too juvenile for his taste, and he sought compan ions several years older than himself. One of these companions. Red, took him to a poolroom frequented by thieves and "petty sharks." Here they met Fred, a man of twenty-five, who had already served a term in a reform-sehool and a year at San Quentin. These three soon formed a trio, and Ernest was much flattered by their acceptance of him-as one of themselves. At Fred* s suggestion, they bought three revolvers, and proceeded to steal a car and hold up two young men. Thus was Ernest started on his career as a burglar. The important factors in this case were: (1) strong desire for new experience, partially induced by reading as a child such books as Horatio Alger*s; (2) probably unstable emotional nature, as evidenced by his shooting a man who angered him when he was about fifteen years old; 284 (s) possible suggestion in words of the police captain, predicting a career of crime for him after a boyish prank; (4) home broken by divorce, followed by Jack of whole some restraints; (5) insufficient useful activity to fill his time and keep him interested, so that he began to spend his free time around street-corners and poolrooms; (6) suggestion-imitation through companionship with thieves and other undesirable characters begun in these places; (7) desire for recogniticm from these companions as an accepted thief. Alphonse Caodne. Not a great deal is known about Ca pone’s life before he was twenty. It is known, however, that he was born in Brooklyn of Italian parents; that he lived in the slums; left school in the fourth grade; prowled the streets and alleys pillaging vegetable carts and taking part in other 444 mischief; and developed into a good fighter and fast thinker. He served with the A. E. F. overseas in the World War at a very early age, and learned there to use machine guns. Before he was summoned to Chicago by Torrio, "Big Jim" Colosimo’s right-hand man, he had become a lieutenant in the 444 Fred D. Pasley, ^ Capone: the Biography of a Self- Made Man (New York: Ives Washburn, Inc., 1930), pp. 17-18. 285 notorious Five Points gang of New York City. "He was a demon 445 in action, whether with fists or gat." Already he had been questioned by the New York police in connection with two mur ders. At the age of twenty, he began his career in Chicago 446 as "vratch boy" in a brothel. At this time he was six feet tall; weighed two hundred pounds; was alert and ambitious. His duties here were to"watch the peephole at times when the police administration was being vigilant, to solicit trade along the sidewalk when the police were negligent, and to run errands for the inmates of the house. He was so efficient at this, that by the time he was twenty-one he had been advanced to the management of the syndicate’s most profitable brothel, 447 "The Four Deuces." After Colosimo was murdered in 1920, Torrio needed help in bringing the criminal element of Chicago under unified control, and he selected A1 Capone as the only likely candi- 448 date for the job. Torrio and Capone then took over Colo simo* s vice scheme, and organized the bootleg industry. By 445 Ibid.. p. 18. Lewis W. Hunt, **Rise of a racketeer." Outlook. CLVI (December 10, 1950), pp. 574-576. 447 ^ Loc. cit. 448 ^ _ Pasley, loc. cit. 286 1927, Capone "emerged supreme and unchallenged as Chicago’s bootleg boss," and by 1929, "he was estimated by attachés of 449 the internal revenue service to be worth $20,000,000." Here the important factors evidently were: (1) poverty; (2) intelligence; (s) lack of education; (4) social conditions in slums of New York, and asso ciation with other youthful hoodlums; (5) experiences during the World War; (6) powerful physique and fighting ability; (7) desire for economic security; (8) desire for recognition; (9) experiences in the Five Points Gang of New York; (10) underworld opening offered him by Torrio of Chica go; (11) opportunities opened to him by the situation in Chicago, and by the demand for bootleg liquor. Judd Gray. This man was by occupation a corset sales man, not a criminal, but since it was through a notorious mur der that he reached the public gaze and came to write his autobiography while in the death house, the investigator has 449 Ibid.. p. 9. 287 classified him with the criminals* The ancestors of Gray came to America from England in 1650. Judd’s father owned a jewelry factory in New Jersey. His family life was happy and normal, and his boyhood average, except that he was sick a good deal. He says: Luckily I managed to keep up to grade in school, re gardless of the fact that I was out nearly half the terms due to all manner of contagious diseases barring smallpox and scarlet fever. Perhaps in one of these illnesses was born my dream of becoming a doctor.^"^ His sister and he always went to Sunday-school and church. He had dancing and piano lessons; belonged to a Boys’ Brigade; and at high school was taken into a fraternity. He took the college preparatory course, as he still hoped to be come a doctor, and entered into sports actively. However, about this time his sister was married; Judd had already met Isabel, and determined that he wanted to marry her. Giving up his ambition to become a doctor, he left high school, and went to work in his father’s jewelry factory, with the inten- 451 tion of getting married as soon as possible. Later he was given an opportunity to travel for the firm, and eagerly grasped it. He did not care for work inside the factory, and Henry Judd Gray, Doomed Ship: the Autobiography. , of Judd Gray. Prepared for Publication by his Sister, Margaret üraÿ (New York: Horace Liveright, Inc., cl928), p. 14. 451 P* 34, 288 selling would pay him better, so that he could marry sooner. Then his grandfather, who was in the corset business, died; Judd was offered the opportunity to take over some of his territory, and did so. In 1915, he was married to Isabel, and for a time they were happy, though he was on the road a good deal. Soon he was offered a better position with another company. It was a part of the policy of this company for its salesmen to en tertain buyers elaborately. After this Gray began to drink a good deal; often he felt he had to, in order to keep up with his work and the constant entertaining required of him. In the meantime, he and his wife were growing apart somev/hat. He was away a good deal, and when at home almost every moment was filled with prearranged entertainments. He never seemed to get very well acquainted with his little girl either. About this time, he was introduced to Mrs. Ruth Snyder in New York, and found her most attractive. She said she was unhappily married. Soon they were meeting often, and their illicit relationship began, though he had at that time no thought of separating from his wife. Mrs. Snyder talked a great deal about her husband’s neglect. She wished to put her little daughter in a convent, so that she herself could 452 go into business. Many times Gray vowed to himself that Ibid.. p. 86. 289 he would give Mrs. Snyder up, but never could hold himself to his vow. Finally, Mrs. Snyder began to suggest the desir ability of getting rid of her husband; said that he would not give her a divorce. She told of his threatening her with a 453 gun on one occasion. Then she threatened to kill herself. The outcome, finally, was that between them they murdered ^r. Snyder, and both were executed for it. This autobiography, of course, gives only the point of view of the man. It is difficult to know to just what extent he was urged to this deed by the woman, and how much was his own idea, but he definitely lays the blame on her for the plan. Important factors which brought this man to the r^le of a criminal apparently were: (1) early marriage and incomplete education; (2) life as a traveling salesman, which kept him away from home influences a good deal; (3) increasing use of liquor due to the necessity of constant entertainment of buyers; (4) infatuation with Mrs. Snyder, a beautiful woman, unhappily married; (5) extreme suggestibility due to this infatuation and to her complaints of her husband’s ill-treatment, which final ly led to the murder; Ibid.. p. 182, 290 (6) possible desire to aid Mrs. Snyder, aroused by her unhappiness. 4. MISCELLANEOUS George Wehner. medium. In the discussion of this case, the investigator will present the facts much as Mr. Wehner does in his autobiography, without attempting to pass on their authenticity. Mr. Wehner says: I was born with certain faculties, which in most people sleep, but which in me were awakened. These faculties have made of me throughout my life a veritable radio-re- ceiving-station. Because of this my life has been a cu rious one. The first psychic experience he can remember came to him when he was still in his mother’s arms, ^e used to see what he called the "Man-with-Feathers," an Indian with a feather headdress. He did not know until years later that this was his guardian. White Cloud, "now familiarly known to hundreds of people as a patient, sincere telephone operator 455 between two worlds." In his early childhood he lived with his parents in ^34 G0orge Wehner, A Curious Life, with an Introduction by Talbot Mundy (New York: Horace Liveright, Inc., cl929), p. 17. Ibid.. p. 19. 291 Detroit, Michigan. All this region of the Great Lakes is known to be a great psychic center, he says, and has given to the world several noted psychics. His grandmother and several of his aunts were psychic, though it was not until many years afterward that his grand mother told him that she had always known that he was a psy chic, because his father was strongly opposed to any discus sion of such subjects. His father believed that death ended 457 all, and psychic phenomena were all trickery and delusion. Under his father’s influence, his mother came to share the same views. After he moved away from Detroit, George used to love to go back to visit his grandmother and aunts. They talked a good deal about the spirits they saw and heard, and listened attentively and sympathetically when he told of his own ex periences. However, none of his family seemed at this time to connect his experiences or their own with mediumship.^^^ As a child he saw fairies on many occasions, both in doors and out. When he tried to tell his playmates about thèse things, they usually laughed and ran away, so he became 456 Ibid.. p. 20. 457 Ibid.. p. 59. Ibid.. pp. 63-69 292 , 459 rather a solitary child. His father was a sculptor, and anxious that his son should follow in his footsteps. Sometimes he tried to force the hoy to model with clay, hut George could never accomplish anything at these times, which made his father furiously angry. However, when he went into the studio alone, he would model beautiful things very quickly as if by inspiration, but the mood never lasted long, and he could do nothing after it had 460 passed. He also heard melodies inspirationally, and wrote them down. He showed so much musical ability in this way, that he was given a scholarship at the Michigan Conservatory of Music, where he made good progress. When about sixteen, he began giving piano lessons to the two little sons of Mr. and Mrs. Herbert Burgess, an English couple, and "these people," he says, "were the means of chang ing the whole course of my life."^^^ They later told him that from the first day they met they knew that he was a medi um from the way he acted and by intuitional things that he 459 Ibid., pp. 25-26. 460 Ibid., pp. 55-56. 461 Ibid.. pp. 83-84. 462 Ibid.. p. 88. 293 said* They finally persuaded him to go with them to a ser vice conducted by a well-known medium, Mrs* Marion Carpenter, an ordained minister of the church* At this service he saw many spirits. He says: Suddenly the experiences of the spirit-sights of my childhood rushed through my mind and I realized then and there that I was such as she! In that instant much that I had never been able to understand was explained. If this woman was what was called a medium then I was a medi um. I realized now why I had been considered a strange child. My soul seemed to awake. The thought thrilled me through and through. And in that brief instant a fleetinfe clairvoyant vision was revealed to me of a strange yet won- derfg^gfutnre for me filled with a work directed by spir- This was what the Burgesses had wanted him to discover. They encouraged him to give sittings himself; he found that he could receive messages from spirits for others, and thus 464 began his life work as a medium. It seems fair to say of this case that some factors influencing choice of occupation were: (1) extreme natural sensitivity to impressions, amount ing, perhaps, to a special aptitude for mediumship; (2) stimulation through the conversations of his grand mother and aunts during his childhood; (3) suggestion-imitation, due to his being persuaded to Ibid.. p. 90. 464 Ibid.. pp. 91-92, 294 attend a meeting held by a medium. 6. SUMMARY (l) With the three aviators studied in this chapter, the following were important factors influencing choice of occupation: (a) rapid development of aviation during the period of their youth; (b) desire for new experience; (c) desire for recognition; (d) stimulus of first sight of an airplane in child hood; (e) stimulus of first ride in an airplane; (f) plan for exploration by airplane, in Byrd’s case; (g) special aptitudes along mechanical and scienti fic lines, as in Lindbergh’s case; (h) opportunities offered for training and service by the entry of the United States into the World War, in the case of Frank Luke. (2) With the two soldiers, the following were found important: (a) opportunities for service due to war; (b) desire for new experience; 295 (c) suggest!on-imitation in case of Woodfill, because of Civil War stories he heard as a child, and his father’s war record; (d) the draft, in York’s case. (S) With the four criminals the following were important factors; (a) broken homes; (b) stimulation through crime stories in newspapers and elsewhere; (c) lack of suitable activities to occupy their time and energy in childhood and youth; (d) desire for new experience; (e) suggestion-imitation through frequenting places with experienced criminals; (f) desire for recognition from criminals; (g) emotional instability, as in case of Booth; (h) poverty, as with Al Capone; (i) lack of education; (j) social conditions in the slums of New York, where childhood was spent, as in the case of Al Capone; (k) war experience, in case of Capone; (l) physique and fighting ability; (m) opportunities offered by the underworld, as to Capone; 296 (n) irregular life of a traveling salesman, in the case of Judd Gray; (o) use of liquor to excess; (p) infatuation with a woman, in Gray*s case; (q) extreme suggestibility. (4) With the medium: (a) extreme sensitivity to unseen influence, possi bly inherited; (b) suggestion-imitation through attending a meet ing conducted by a medium. CHAPTER VII GENERAL CONCLUSIONS A study of the summaries for Chapters II to Vi, inclu sive, seemed to justify the following general conclusions concerning the factors influencing the choice of occupation of the ninety-five prominent Americans comprising this group: 1. With this group *^chance,*^ ^accident,** and ^blind selection” did not play so great a part as with the groups studied by writers quoted in Chapter I. Although all, with the possible exceptions of Lind bergh and Vallée, grew up before the days of scientific voca tional guidance, these individuals who achieved prominence almost all had a definite plan for their lives, usually based on some special aptitude or special interest. Even in the autobiographies of Lindbergh and Vallée, there is no mention of anything #iich might be called vocational guidance. 2. Special aptitudes were of great importance in influencing the members of this selected group. With the creative workers, they were apparent in every case. 3. Keen intelligence was obvious in almost every case with these ninety-five persons who achieved prominence, either favorable prominence or otherwise. 4. A good education v/as an important asset in reaching 298 their goals, though some achieved great success in their pro fessions with very little education, for example, Isadora Duncan. 5. Suggestion was an important influence in all the classes of work, both through example and through advice. A few words of advice from a friend, relative, or teacher, in some cases brought abopt decisions which changed the whole course of lives, as with Hamlin Garland. 6. The desire for security was a strong influence with almost all of these people. Three, however, William Thompson, Robinson Jeffers, and Edith Wharton, were possessed of private means which left them free to choose their work without monetary considerations. 7. The desire for recognition was an important factor with all except those engaged in the social service profes sions, and was apparent even in some of those cases. It was especially strong with the creative workers. 8. Encouragement from relatives, friends, and teachers was an important stimulus to effort, especially with the crea tive workers. In some cases, talents which might have died still-born were brought to development through encouragement at the right moment. 9. On the other hand, in some cases with very strong special aptitudes accompanied by strong emotional drive, the 299 individuals achieved prominence in their chosen fields in suite of discouragements, conflicts, and strong pressure brought to bear by parents and others, for example, Alfred Kreymborg and Joseph Pennell. 10. In individuals choosing the social service pro fessions, there weise in nearly every case keen intelligence, desire for service, and stimulation through an environment where need for ^service was apparent. 11. Social and economic conditions of the time and place were important influences on the choice of the business men and women. 12. With four of the, six politicians, extrovertive personality traits were important. 13. Three of the politicians had had legal training. 14. Among the creative workers, special aptitudes usually became apparent in childhood, though in a few cases did not appear until middle age. 15. The writers, in nearly every case, were omnivo rous readers from childhood on. 16. Some of the writers v/ere stimulated to write by lives filled with varied and interesting experiences, for example, Sherwood Anderson and Eugene 0*Neill. 17. As might be expected, those of the group engaged in adventurous occupations nearly all were influenced by a 300 strong desire for new experience. 18. With the three aviators, the rapid development of aviation during the period of their youth was influential. 19. With the criminals, the desire for recognition from experienced criminals was a strong influence, as well as a broken home, undirected youthful energies, hewspaper crime stories and dime novels, and desire for new experience. BIBLIOGRAPHY A. REFERENCES ON THESIS WRITING Almack, John C., Research and Thesis Writing : a Textbook on the Principles and Technique of Thesis Construction for the Use of Graduate Students in Universities and Colleges. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, cl930. 310 pp. Bogardus, Emory Stephen, Making Social Science Studies. Third revised edition; Los Angd.es: J. R. Miller, 1925. 103 pp. Campbell, William G., A Form Book for Thesis Writing. Los Angeles: University of Southern California Press, cl933. 145 pp. Reeder, Ward G., How to Write a Thesis. Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1925. 136 pp. Rice, Stuart A., editor. Methods in Social Science, a Case Book. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1931. 822 pp. SeBoyar, Gerald Edwin, Manual for Report and Thesis Writing. New York: F. 8. Crofts and Company, 1929. 57 pp. B. LITERATURE RELATED TO SUBJECT Brainard, P. P., ^Making a living and a life; how parents can help their boys and girls to the right choice of a voca tion.” Parents Magazine. V (June, 1930), 19, 54. Counts, George S., ”Social status of occupations, a problem in vocational guidance.” School Review. XXXIII (January, 1925), 16-27. Edgerton, Alanson H., Vocational Guidance and Counseling. New York: The Macmillan Company, cl926. 213 pp. Edmonson, James Bartlett, and Dondineau, Arthur, Occupations through Problems. New York: The Macmillan Company, cl931. 214 pp. Harris, Franklin Stewart, The Young Man and His Vocation. Boston: Richard G. Badger, cl916. 204 pp. 302 Jennings, Walter W., History of Economic Progress in the United States. New York: The Thomas Y. Crowell Company, cl926. 819 pp. Kitson, Harry Dexter, 1 Find My Vocation. New York: McGrww- Hill Book Company, cl931. 216 pp. Proctor, William M., Vocations, the World*s Work and Its Workers. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company,.cl929. 382 pp. Rosengarten, Wmiam^ Choosing Your Life Work. Second edition; New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, cl924. 523 pp. Sandiford, Peter, ”Paternal occupations and intelligence of offspring.” School and Society. XXIII (January 23, 1926), 117-119. Smith, Lewis M., and Blough, Gideon L., Planning a Career, a Vocational Civics. New York: American Book Company, cl929. 470 pp. Van Metre, T. W., Economic History of the United States. New York: Henry Holt and Company, cl921. 672 pp. Yale University, Department of Personnel Study, Choice of an Occupation. Albert B. Crawford and Stuart Holmes Clement, editors; New Haven: Yale University Press, 1932. 495 pp. Ziegler, Samuel H., and Jaquette, Helen, Choosing an Occupa tion: Vocational Civics. Philadelphia: John C. Winston Company, cl924. 344 pp. C. REFERENCE BOOKS USED TO DETERMINE NATIONALITY AND DATES OF BIRTH AND DEATH . Dictionary of American Biography, under the Auspices of the American Council of Learned Societies. Allen Johnson, editor; New York: Charles Scribner*s Sons, 1928- Dictionary of National Biography. Leslie Stephen and Sidney Lee, editors; 22 vols.; New York: The Macmillan Company, 1908-1909. Encyclopedia Americana: a Library of Universal Knowledge. 30 vols.; New York: Americana Corporation, 1926. 303 The Encyclopaedia Britannica. Fourteenth edition, 24 vols.; London: Encyclopaedia Britannica Company, cl930. New International Encyclopedia. Second edition, 24 vols.; New ïork: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1920-1922, Who Was Who, a Companion to Who*s Who. Containing the Biogra phies of Those Who Died during the Period 1897-1916. London: A. and C. Black, Ltd., 1919. 788 pp. Who*s Who, an Annual Biographical Dictionary. London: A. and C. Black, Ltd., 1849- Who* s Who in America: a Biographical Dictionary of Notable Living"^en and Women of the bnited States. Chicago: Al- bert Nelson Marquis, 1899- D. BIOGRAPHIES AND AUTOBIOGRAPHIES STUDIED Anderson, Margaret C., ggr Thirty Years War. New York: Covici, Friéde, Inc., 1950. 274 pp. Andrews, Marietta Minnigerode. Memoirs of a Poor Relation. Being the Story of a Post-War Southern Girl and Her Battle with Destiny. New York: E, p. Dutton and Company, 1927. 455 pp. Baldwin, James Mark, Between:'Two Wars. 1861-1921. 2 vols.; Boston: The Stratford Company, 1927. 358 pp. Barrymore, John, Confessions of an Actor. Indianapolis: Bobbs- Merrill Company, cl926. 138 pp. Black, Jack, You Can*t Win. New York: The Macmillan Company, cl925. 394 pp. Bok, Edward, The Americanization of Edward Bok. New York: Charles Scribner*s Sons, cl920. 462 pp. # * * , Twice %irtv: Some Short and Simple Annals of the Road. New xork: Charles Scribner*s Sons, cl925. 539 pp. Booth, Ernest, Stealing through Life. New York: Alfred A. Knàpf, Inc., cl927. 308 pp. Bright, John, Hizzoner Big Bill Thompson: an Idyll of Chicago New York: Cape and Smith, 1930. 302 pp. 304 - Cantor, Eddie, Hy Ljfe Is in Your Hands; as Told to David Freedman. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1929. 300 pp. Chase, Cleveland Bruce, Sherwood Anderson. New York: Robert M. McBride and Company, cl927. 84 pp. Clark, Barrett H., Eugene 0*Neill. New York: Robert M. Mc Bride and Company, 1926. 110 pp. Cohan, George Michael, Twenty Years on Broadway. and the Years It Took to Get There : the True Story of a Trouper* s Life from the Cradle to the Closed Shop. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1925. 264 pp. Coolldge, Calvin, Autobiography. New York: Cosmopolitan Book Corporation, 1929. 247 pp. Cooper, Courtney Ryley, Annie Oakley. Woman at Arms, a Biog raphy. New York: Duffield and Green, Inc., 1927. 270 pp. Corbett, James John, Roar of the Crowd. New York: G. P. Put nam* s Sons, 1925. 329 pp. Curwood, James Oliver, Son of the Forests; an Autobiography As Completed by Dorothea A. Bryant. Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, Doran and Company, 1930. 340 pp. DeCasseres, Benjamin, James Gibbons Huneker. New York: Joseph Lawren, 1925. 221 pp. DeKoven, Anna, Musician and His Wife. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1926. 259 pp. Dell, Floyd, Upton Sinclair: a Study in Social Protest. New York: George Ë, Doran Company, cl927. 194 pp. Duncan, Isadora, My. Life. New York: Boni and Liveright, 1927. 359 pp. Eames, Emma, Some Memories and Reflections. New York: D. Ap pleton and Company, 1927. 311 pp. Ellis, Anne, Life of an Ordinary Woman. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1929. 300 pp. Garland, Hamlin, Back-Trailers from the Middle Border. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1929. 379 pp. . . ., Son of the Middle Border. New York: The Macmillan Company, cl914. 467 pp. 305 Gilmore, Alb.erjt Field, Fellowship, the Biography of Clarence H. Howard. a Man and a Business. Boston: The Stratford Company, 1930. 287 pp. Glaspell, Susan, Road to the Temple. New York: Frederick A. Stokes Company, 1927. 445 pp. Goldberg, Isaac;-%e Man Mencken, a Biographical and Critical Survey. New York: Simon and Schuster, Inc., cl926. s88 pp Gorges, Raymond, Ernest Harold Bavnes. Naturalist and Crusader. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1928. 255 pp. Gray, Henry Judd, Doomed Ship; the Autobiography Judd Gray; Prepared for Publication by His Sister, Margaret Gray. New York: Horace Liveright, Inc., cl928. 191 pp. Hall, Norman Shannon, Balloon Buster; Frank Luke of Arizona. Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, Doran and Company, cl928. 191 pp. Hammond, John Winthrop, Magician of Science; the Boys* Life of Steinmetz. New York: Century Co., 1927. 210 pp. Hapgood, Norman, Changing Years. New York: Farrar and Rine hart, Inc., 1930. 321 pp. Harris, Corra May, ^ a Woman Thinks. Boston: Houghton Mif flin Company, 1925. 313 pp. Hart, William Surrey., My Life East and West. Boston: Hough ton Mifflin Company, 1929. 363 pp. Haywood, William Dudley, Bill Haywood* s Book. New York: In ternational Publisher^ Company, 1929. 368 pp. Howe, Frederic Clemson, Confessions of a Reformer. New York: Charles Scribner*s Sons, 1925. 352 pp. Hunt, Lewis W., ”Rise of a racketeer.” Outlook. CLVI (Decem ber 10, 1930), 574-6. Irwin, William H., Herbert Hoover; a Reminiscent Biography. New York: Century Co., 1928. 135 pp. . . . ., House That Shadows Buklt (Storv of Adolph Zukor). Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, Doran and Company, cl928. 293 pp. 306 James, Will, Lone Cowboy. My Life Story. New York; Charles Scribner*s Sons, 1930. 433 pp. Jensen, Carl Christian, ^ American Saga. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, cl926. 219 pp. Johnson, Willis Fletcher, George Harvey. a ^Passionate Patriot.” Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1929. 436 pp. Jones, Rufus Matthew, Finding the Trail of Life. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1926. 148 pp^ . . ., The Trail of Life in College. New York: The Macmil lan Company, cl929. 130 pp. Keller, Helen Adams, Midstream: Mv Later Life. Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, Doran and Company, cl929. 362 pp. . . . ., The Story of My Life, with Her Letters (1887-1901) and a Supplementary Account of Her Education, Including Passages from the Reports and Letters of Her Teacher, Anne Mansfield Sullivan, by John Albert Macy. London: Rodder and Stoughton, pref. 1903. 441 pp. Kohut, Mrs. Rebekah Bettelheim, gy Portion: an Autobiography. New York: Thomas Seltzer, Inc., 1925. 301 pp. Kreymborg, Alfred, Troubadour: an Autobiography. New York: Boni and Liveright, 1925. 415 pp. Lawton, Mary, Schumann-Heink. the Last of the Titans. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1929. 390 pp. Leonard, William Ellery, Locomotive-God. New York: The Cen tury Company, 1927. 434 pp. Lewisohn, Ludwig, Mid-Channel. an American Chronicle. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1929. 310 pp. . . . , Upstream, an American Chronicle. New York: The Mod- Libr^ry, 1926. 299 pp. Lindbergh, Charles Augustus, ”We,” the Famous Flier*s Own Story of His Life and His Transatlantic Flight. Together with His Views on the Future of Aviation. New York: G. P. Putnam*s Sons, cl927. 318 pp. 307 Lloyd, Harold Clayton, American Comedy. Acted by Harold Lloyd. Directed by Wesley W. Stout. New York: Longmans,. Green and Company, 1929. 214 pp. Long, John Cuthbert, Bryan, the Great Commoner. New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1928. 421 pp. Lovett, Robert Morss, Edith Wharton. New York: Robert M. McBride and Company, cl925. 91 pp. McBride, Mary Margaret, The Story of Dwight W. Morrow. New York: Farrar and Rinehart, Inc., cl930. 183 pp. MacDougall, Alice Foote, Alice Foote MacDougall. the Autobiog raphy of a Business Woman. Boston: Little, Brown and Com pany, 1928. 205 pp. McPherson, Aimee Semple, In the Service of the King, the Storv of My Life. New York: Boni and Liveright, cl927. 316 pp. Meehan, Jeannette Porter, Lady of the Limberlost: the Life and Letters of Gene Stratton-Porter. Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, Doran and Company, 1928. 369 pp. Mencken, Henry Louis, ”James Gibbons Huneker.” A Book of Prefaces. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, cl917. pp. 151-194. Merz, Charles, And Then Came Ford. Garden City, N. Y.: Dou bleday, Doran and Company, cl929. 321 pp. Munson, Gorham B,, Robert Frost, a Study in Sensibility and Good Sense. Garden City, N. 7.: Doubleday, Doran and Com pany, C1927. 135 pp. Murphy, Charles J. V,, Struggle : the Life and Exploits of Com mander Richard E. Byrd. New York: Frederick A. Stokes Com pany, Cl928. 368 pp. Norris, Kathleen, Noon, an Autobiographical Sketch. Garden City, N. Y.: Doubleday. Page Company, 1925. 86 pp. Oliver, John Rathbone, Foursquare: the Story of a. Fourfold Life. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1930. 305 pp. Pasley, Fred D., ^ Capone: the Biography of a Self-Made Man. New York: Ives Washburn, Inc., 1930. 355 pp. Peabody, Josephine Preston, Diary and Letters. Selected and Edited by Christina H. Baker. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, cl925. 346 pp. 308 Pennell, Elizabeth Robins, Life and Letters of Joseph Pennell. Two volumes.; Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1930. 349; 368 pp. Powell, Lyman P., Human Touch: Memories of Men and Things. New York: G. P. Putnam*s Sons, 1925. 193 pp. Quick, Herbert, One Man* s Life: an Autobiography. Indiana polis: Bobbs-Merrill Company, cl925. 408 pp. Redman, Ben Ray, Edwin Arlington Robinson. New York: Robert M. McBride and Company, cl926. 96 pp. Revell, Nellie, Fightin* Through. New York: George H. Doran Company, cl925. 157 pp. . . . ., Right Off the Chest. New York: George H. Doran Com pany, 1923. 337 pp. Robeson, Eslanda Cardoza Goode, Paul Robeson. Negro. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1930. 178 pp. Robinson, Josephine DeMott, Circus Lady. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, cl925. 304 pp. Rogoff, Harry, East side Epio: the Life and Work of Meyer Lon- don. New York: Vanguard Press, 1930. 311 pp. Russell, Charles Edward, Julia Marlowe: Her Ljfe and Art. New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1926. 582 pp. Sage, Lee, The Last Rustler: the Autobiography of Lee Sage. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, cl930. 303 pp. Sandburg, Carl, Steichen. the Photographer. New York: Har- court. Brace and Company, Inc., 1930. 280 pp. Seitz, Don Carlos, From Kaw Teepee to Capital: the Life Story of Charles Curtis. Indian Who Has Risen to High Estate. New York: Frederick A. Stokes Company, 1929. 223 pp. Slattery, Charles Lewis, William Austin Smith. ^ Sketch. New York: E. p. Dutton and Company, Inc., 1925. 244 pp. Smith, Alfred Emanuel, üjq to Now: an Autobiography. New York: Viking Press, Inc., 1929. 434 pp. 309 Stackpole, Edward James, Behind the Scenes with a Newspaper Man. Fifty Years in the Life of an Editor. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippineott Company, cl927. 326 pp. Stahl, John Meloy, Growing with the West: the Story of a Busy. Quiet Life. London: Longmans, Green and Company, cl930. 515 pp. Stelzle, Charles, Son of the Bowery: the Life Story of An East Side American. New York: George H. Doran Company, 1927. 355 pp. Sterling, George, Robinson Jeffers: the Man and the Artist. New York: Boni and Liveright, cl926. 40 pp. Stern, Elizabeth Gertrude Levin, X & Woman— and a Jew. New York: Sears Publishing Company, Inc., 1927. 362 pp. Steuart, Thomas Justin, Wayne Wheeler. Dry Boss, an Uncensored Biography of Wayne B. Wheeler. New York: Fleming H. Rey ell and Company, 1928. 304 pp. Terhune, Albert Payson, To the Best of My Memory. New York: Harper and Brothers, cl930. 272 pp. Thurston, Howard, My Life of Magic. Philadelphia: Dorranee and Company, Inc., cl929. 273 pp. Vallée, Hubert Prior, Vagabond Dreams Come True. New York: E. P. Dutton and Company, 1930. 262 pp. Vanamee, Mary Conger, Vanamee. New York: Hareourt. Brace and Company, Inc., 1930. 307 pp. Van De Water, Virginia Terhune, The Heart of a Child: Some Reminiscences of a Reticent Childhood. Boston: W* A. Wilde Company, cl927. 225 pp. Van Doren, Mark, Edwin Arlington Robinson. New York: Literary Guild of America, cl927. 93 pp. Washburn, Charles Grenfill, Life of John W. Weeks. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1928. 349 pp. Wehner, George B., A Curious Life, with an Introduction by Talbot Mundy. New York: Horace Liveright, cl929. 402 pp. Williams, Stanley Thomas, The American Spirit in Letters. New Haven: Yale University Press, cl926. 329 pp. 310 Winkler, John Kennedy, William Randolph Hearst; an American Phenomenon. New York: Simon and Schuster, Inc., 1928. 354 pp. Woodfill, Samuel, Wpodfill of the Regulars ; a True Story of Adventure from the Arctic to the Areonne. Garden City, N. Y. 2 Double dayDor an and Company, cl929. 325 pp. Woodward, Helen, Through Many Windows. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1926. 387 pp. York, Alvin C., Sergeant York: His Own Life Storv and War Diary. Edited by Tom Skeyhill. Garden City, N. Y.: Dou bleday, Doran and Company, cl928. 309 pp. Young, Arthur, On My Wav. Being His Book in Text and Picture. New York: Horace Liveright, Inc., 1928. 303 pp. Zeitlin, Jacob, and Homer Edwards Woodbridge, Life and Letters of Stuart £. Sherman. Two volumes; New York: Farrar and Rinehart, Inc., 1929. 880 pp. E. PERSONAL CORRESPONDENCE OF THE INVESTIGATOR Personal Correspondence of the Investigator, letter from George M. Cohan, October, 1933. letter from Charles Curtis, October, 1933. letter from Anne Ellis, October, 1933. letter from Norman Hapgood, October, 1933. letter from Corra Harris, October, 1933. letter from Robinson Jeffers, October, 1933. letter from Carl Jensen, October, 1933, letter from Rebekah Bettelheim Kohut, October, 1933. letter from William Ellery Leonard, October, 1933. letter from Harold Lloyd*a secretary, December 5, 1933. letter from Julia Marlowe*s secretary, October 31, 1933. su Personal Correspondence of the Investigator, letter from John RathbonB Oliver, October 31, 1933. ., letter from Lyman P. Powell, October, 1933. ., letter from Nellie Revell, October, 1933. ., letter from Eslanda Goode Robeson (Mrs. Paul Robeson), October, 1933. ., letter from Upton Sinclair, October 30, 1933. ., letter from E. J. Stackpole, October 30, 1933. ., letter from John M. Stahl, November 7, 1933. ., letter from Charles Stelzle, October, 1933. ., letter from Howard Thurston, October, 1933. ., letter.from Virginia Terhune Van de Water, October, 1933. ., letter from Art Young, October, 1933. ., letter from Adèlph Zukor, October, 1933. INDEX TO NAMES PAGE Anderson, Margaret C............ . . . . . .. 163 Anderson, Sherwood .................... .. 166 Andrews, Marietta Minnigerode ............. 113 Baldwin, James Mark........... 34 Barrymore, John ........ . . . . . . . . . . 93 Baynes, Ernest Harold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Black, Jack ............... 277 Bok,. Edward 168 Booth, Ernest ........................ ........ 281 Bryan, William Jennings............. 73 Byrd, Richard Evelyn......... 262 Cantor, Eddie ........... 95 Capone, Alphonse .................. ......... 284 Cohan, George M.......... 97 Cook, George Cram ........................... . 172 Coolidge, Calvin ... .......... .......... 77 Corbett, James J . ......... 144 Curtis, Charles ............ 79 Curwood, James Oliver ... ....... 175 De Koven, Reginals ...... 124 Duncan, Isadora ................................. 147 Eames, Emma ......... 1^6 513 PAGE Anne Ellis.......... 178 Ford, Henry .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Frost, Robert . ................. 180 Garland, Hamlin ........ .......... ..... 183 Gray, Judd......... 286 Hapgood, Norman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Harris, Corra M. ..... 190 Hart, William S . . . . ............... 98 Harvey, George ..... ............ . . . . . . . 192 Haywood, William D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Hearst, William Randolph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Hoover, Herbert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Howard, Clarence H. ............. 52 Howe, Frederick C. . . . . . . . . ....... . 25 Huneker, James Gibbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 James, Will .............................. 197 Jeffers, Robinson ....... ...... 199 Jensen, Carl Christian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Jones, Rufus Matthew...................... 37 Keller, Helen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Kohut, Rebekah Bettelheim ......... . 30 Kreymborg, Alfred ....................... 209 Leonard, William Ellery ....................... 40 514 PAGE Lewisohn, Ludwig ......... 212 Lindbergh, Charles Augustus .... ........ 266 Lloyd, Harold « ............... 102 London, Meyer . . . . . . . . . . .......... ... 66 Luke, Frank ....... ......... 269 MacDougall, Alice Foote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 McPherson, Aimee Semple ......... ........... 12 Marlowe, Julia........... 105 Mencken, Henry Louis ........................ ..... 216 Morrow, Dwight %hitney ..... ........ ....... 69 Norris, Kathleen........................... 219 Oakley, Annie ...... ..................... 150 Oliver, John Rathbone .................... ...... 21 0*Neill, Eugene ........ 222 Peabody, Josephine Preston ... .. . . . . . . . . . . 225 Pennell, Joseph .... .......... .......... 116 Porter, Gene Stratton- ............ ........ 227 Powell, Lyman P. . . . . ......... 14 Quick, Herbert ..... ....... 230 Revell, Nellie ......................... 234 Robeson, Paul . ............ .. ........... 109 Robinson, Edwin Arlington........... 235 Robinson, Josephine DeMott . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 315 PAGE Sage, Lee .......... 238 Schumann-Heink, Ernestine .... ...... 129 Sherman, Stuart P. ............... 241 Sinclair, Upton ................. 245 Smith, Alfred Emanuel......................... .. 83 Smith, William Austin . . . .. . .. . .. 15 Stackpole, Edward James............................. 248 Stahl, John M............ . ..........................249 Steichen, Edward .......... 119 Steinmetz, Charles .......... .............. 141 Stelzle, Charles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Stern, Elizabeth Gertrude Levin .... 32 Terhune, Albert Payson ........... 253 Thompson, William Hale ........... .......... 86 Thurston, Howard • .............. .......... 155 Vallée, Hubert Prior (Rudy Vallée). . . . . . . . . 131 Vanamee, Parker .............................. 19 Van de Water, Virginia Terhune ........... . 256 Weeks, John Wingate ............... 88 Wehner, George B................ . .............. 290 Wharton, Edith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 Wheeler, Wayne B..................................... 27 Woodfill, Sanrael .......... 271 Woodward, Helen .......... ......... .... . 57 316 PAGE York, Alvin C. ................. 274 Young, Arthur ............... 122 Zukor, Adolph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

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Creator Macgowan, Margaret (author)

Core Title An investigation of factors influencing choice of occupation as revealed in ninety-five selected biographies and autobiographies of Americans published 1925 to 1930

School Department of Sociology

Degree Master of Arts

Degree Program Sociology

Degree Conferral Date 1934-08

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag language, literature and linguistics,OAI-PMH Harvest,social sciences

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-27578

Unique identifier UC11260362

Identifier EP68149.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-27578 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier EP68149.pdf

Dmrecord 27578

Document Type Thesis

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Rights Macgowan, Margaret

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA