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A longitudinal study of women in law enforcement

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A longitudinal study of women in law enforcement

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Content LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF WOMEN IN LAW ENFORCEMENT
by
Kevin Matthew Flynn
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(Education)
June 1977
UMI Number: DP24196
All rights reserved
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UMI DP24196
Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author.
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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
T H E G R A D U A T E S C H O O L
U N I V E R S I T Y P A R K
L O S A N G E L E S , C A L I F O R N I A 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, w ritten by
Kevin Matthew Elynn
under the direction of hSH?... Dissertation C o m
mittee, and approved by a ll its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Graduate
School, in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t of requirements of
the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
Date March 3, 19 77.
DISSERT ATIOM^COMM ITTEE
C hair n ^ i n
DEDICATION
To Ma and Pa whose wisdom., support, and
courage made everything possible.
i i
CONTENTS
Page
DEDICATION........................................... ii
LIST OF TABLES...................................... v
LIST OF FIGURES.................................... vi
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION ................................ 1
Statement of the Problem
Importance of the Problem
Methodology of the Study
Assumptions
Limitations
Delimitations
Measurement Instrument
Organization of the Remainder
of Dissertation.
II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE.................... 11
Psychological Stress
Self-Image of Police Personnel
Null Hypotheses
III. DESIGN OF THE STUDY.......................... 34
Subj ects
Personality Measures
Procedure
Statistical Analysis
IV. RESULTS....................................... 45
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, FINDINGS, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS ............................ 64
Summary
Conclusions
Findings
Recommendations
111
BIBLIOGRAPHY ..............................
APPENDICES ................................
A. Reliability Data on. the Basic Scales
B. Questionnaire ................... .
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Means for Significant Effects of Pre-
vs. Post-Scores.............................. 47
2. Means of Significant Effects of Specified
Demographic Variables ....................... 48
3. Means for Significant Dependent Variables
in Discriminant Function. Analysis
of Marital Status............................ 50
4. Predictive Accuracy of Discriminant Function
Analysis for Marital Status ................. 51
5. Means of Significant Dependent Variables in
Discriminant Function Analysis
of Educational Group ....................... 54
6. Predictive Accuracy of Discriminant Func
tion Analysis for Education ................. 57
7. Means of Significant Dependent Variables in.
Discriminant Function Analysis for
a Combination, of Marital Status
and Education Groups ....................... 58
8. Predictive Accuracy of Discriminant Func
tion Analysis for the Combination
of Marital Status and Education.............. 6l
9. Significant Differences from. Student's
t T e s t ...................................... 63
v
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1. Age and Marital Status........................ 49
2. Educational Level and A g e .................... 53
3. Marital Status,. Education, and A g e ........... 56
vi
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A major theme of the psychology and sociology of
occupations is the effect of an individual's work on his
or her outlook on the world. Lawyers^ clerks^ psycholo
gists j and industrial workerss to name a few., develop dis
tinctive ways of perceiving and responding to their environ
ment (Wilinsky^ 1964; Hughes3 1958; Becker & Strauss *
1956). No other activity commands so much of our time as
does our occupations. According to Wesley (1953)*
The technical demands of a man's work tend to specify
the kinds of social relationships In which he will be
Involved and to select the groups with whom these rela
tionships are to be maintained. . . . A man's occupa
tion. Is a major determining factor of his conduct and
social Identity. One must discover the occupationally
derived definitions of self and conduct which arise in
the involvements of technical demands., social relation
ships between colleagues and with the public * status^
and self conception. To understand these definitions.,
one must track them back to the occupational problems
in which they have their genesis. (p. 28)
Walther (1964) pointed out that persons bring cer
tain personal characteristics to the job and at the same
time operate in a work environment that is usually unique
within the general culture of society. A psychological
climate Is developed on the job as a result of persons
having similar values and behavioral norms.
1
2
Due to their unique relationship to the public.,
the unusual stresses experienced in the course of their
activities, and the responsibilities--which include the
safety of the citizenry entrusted to thern--the personality
of law enforcement personnel is of crucial importance and
has been studied at some length. The police (some 420., 000
people working for approximately 40,000 separate agencies)
are a part of the criminal justice system that is in direct
daily contact both with crime and with the public. Through
out the history of law enforcement there has been an
increasing awareness of the need to select emotionally
stable individuals to fill the police ranks (Baehr, Furcon,
& Froemel, 1968; Blum, i960). The focus on selection is of
vital importance. However it is shortsighted to assume
that the individual placed in. a position laden with the
power, pressure, and dangers of the police officer would
not undergo considerable change as a response to these
unique stresses.
Until 1972, the term "police" was synonymous with
policeman. Recently women have been taking a more active
and equitable role in all functions of the society and this
is reflected in the increasing numbers of women being
recruited for law enforcement duties. Studies in the past
that have focused on the effects of being in law enforce
ment have focused exclusively on men. There is a need for
research into a much neglected segment of law enforcement,
the policewoman.
Women have served as police officers since first
appointed to the Los Angeles Police Department in 1911.
In spite of this long history, they have never been, fully
integrated within any American police force until recently
In Washington, D.C. In March 1972, Title VII of the Civil
Rights Act which prohibits discrimination by employers on
the basis of race, creed, color, sex, and national origin
was amended and Its provisions extended to cover public as
well as private employers. Under the provisions of the
Act and of the Equal Opportunity Commission guidelines, a
police department which did not hire or assign women on
the same basis as men would be required to prove that sex
Is a "bona fide occupational qualification." The above
legislation has required a nationwide reexamination of
recruitment and selection procedures.
As reflected in the report of the President's Com
mission on Law Enforcement (1967)* it is clearly Important
to determine the personality factors which are an asset
and/or a liability to police work and to define what char
acteristics are identified with the classification "a good
police officer." Unfortunately, psychologists and social
scientists have overlooked a crucial area, namely the
effect of police work on the personality of the individual
4
officer. Oglesby (1958) stated:
No evaluation of the personality of the police officer
after several months or years is in existence today.
The policeman's job is unusual in terms of psychologi
cal pressures. Men are constantly associating with
the seamy side of life and are given a uniform and a
gun and considerable authority to wield over their
fellow man. Whether or not these pressures have a
negative effect on the personality of the police
officer is a subject of conjecture among police offi
cials and educators. For this reason it is vital that
this topic be scientifically explored. (p. 50)
Kroes and Hurrell (1975) commented that "The negative
effect of police work on personality is something those of
us close to the field take for granted; unfortunately few
have undertaken the task of systematically documenting the
exact effects" (p. 86). Additionally, a number of research
ers including Kroes and Hurrell (1975) and Eisenberg (1975)
have observed that women in law enforcement encounter
unique pressures not experienced by their male counterparts
and this undoubtedly has considerable effect.
Statement of the Problem
What is the relationship, if any, between law
enforcement as an occupation and personality change among
female deputy sheriffs? The purpose of the study was three
fold :
1. To determine if there is any significant person
ality change among female deputy sheriffs after
having been employed for three, four, or five
years with the Sheriff's Department.
2. To determine the direction of such personality
changes after three,, four., or five years with
the Sheriff's Department.
3. To determine the relationship between the degree
and direction of personality changes and speci
fied demographic variables.
Importance of the Problem
If the impact of law upon the citizenry is impor
tant (Becker., 1969; Duster., 1970) , then the reciprocal
question of the effects of enforcing the law on those who
are empowered to enforce it is no less crucial (KerMuir,
n.d.; Kelling & Pate, 1975). Researchers have clearly
shown that law enforcement is one of the most stressful
occupations in our society and that there is a positive
correlation between, stress and physical and emotional
problems. In the years that this author has been involved
in direct and indirect services to law enforcement person
nel, there has been ample opportunity to experience first
hand the negative effects of the job on personality, mari
tal relationships, family relationships, and general phys
ical and psychological well-being. The significance of
this problem is startling.
The suicide rate alone which is significantly
higher than the general population would warrant an exten
sive investigation into the personality and other factors
associated with the police officer. If in the course of
the present study, demographic and personality variables
can be identified which will allow researchers to predict
the positive and negative effects of the job on the person
ality of law enforcement personnel then it follows that
programs can be initiated which will reduce the negative
effects and enhance the positive. In this area, it is
first necessary to determine that measurable personality
change does occur and to make a discrimination as to the
direction of change and contributing factors. Finally, It
is important to apply this research to women, due to the
increasingly complex and equal role being played by women
in this field.
Methodology of the Study
During the period extending from June 1971 to
November 1973^ all female applicants who had successfully
completed all other phases of the applicant screening pro
gram were psychologically evaluated. The major instrument
used was the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
(MMPl). Four of the 103 applicants were disqualified. In
June 1973^ 87 subjects were still employed by the Sheriff'
Department, and they were reexamined.
7
Assumptions
Several assumptions are basic to the present study.
They include the following:
1. The MMPI is a valid means of personality assess
ment .
2. The MMPI is a valid means of assessing personal
ity change in longitudinal studies.
3. Los Angeles County being a metropolitan area might
be seen as representative of other metropolitan
areas.
Limitations
The following may limit generalizability:
1. The variety of the deputy's law enforcement
experience will have some effect on the uniform
ity of the changes in personality.
2. Certain individuals or subgroups may drop out of
the study thereby reducing the confidence of
statements generalizing to populations which
are more heterogeneous.
Delimitations
Generalizability may be affected by the following
1. The subjects in the study were chosen in a non-
random fashion and are all members of the Los
Angeles County Sheriff's Department. The possi-
bility that this is a unique group among women in
law enforcement leads to a cautiousness in gener
alizability .
2. Although the sample size is large,, some of the
categories may contain too few subjects.
3. The measures used to determine law enforcement
effects may reflect influences other than the law
enforcement experience itself* such as the move
ment towards full equality for women.
4. The time limits chosen for evaluating the change
may not reflect the general pattern. It is con
ceivable that significant change may have occurred
during the Academy training or during the first
year on the job. By studying the third to the
sixth year, changes at the beginning of the sub
jects ' career are not examined.
Measurement Instrument
The MMPI* a personality assessment instrument
developed by Hathaway and McKinley (1967) was utilized to
measure specified personality traits. A myriad of studies
(Dahlsrom* Welsh* & Dahlstrom* 1975) have confirmed the
reliability* validity* and standardization, of the MMPI
scales. More research in the area of personality assess
ment has employed the MMPI than any other personality
instrument devised. Dahlstrom and Welsh (i960) reported
9
that from its original publication in 19^3 by the Univer
sity of Minnesota Press, up to i960, its use in research
has grown to the point where no less than 213 scales had
been, developed including the original nine clinical and
three validity scales. Further, they included in the
"MMPI Handbook” approximately 1,000 references. The annual
outpouring of studies and research using the MMPI continues
up to the present.
In addition to the three validity scales and 10
clinical scales, the following experimental scales were
utilized as additional, secondary measures:
Hy2
Need for Affection Harris and Lingoes
(1955)
Hb
Inhibition of Aggression Harris and Lingoes
(1955)
Scla
Social Alienation Harris and Lingoes
(1955)
Sclb
Emotional Alienation Harris and Lingoes
(1955)
V
Eigidity Cervin (1957)
Organization of Remainder
of Dissertation
This chapter introduced the study by discussing
the background of the problem, stating the nature of the
problem, establishing the importance of the problem, out
lining the study, and listing the questions to be answered,
the assumptions, limitations, and delimitations of the
s t udy.
10
Chapter II reviews the literature in the areas of
the psychology of occupations, effects of stress, and the
nature of law enforcement.
Chapter III explicates the methodology used In this
study: Instruments, methods, and procedures.
Chapter IV presents the findings of this study
together with a summary and interpretations.
Chapter V, besides presenting a summary of the
procedures and a summary of the findings, offers conclu
sions and recommendations.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Throughout the history of this country, women have
played a marginal role in law enforcement. In particular,
women have rarely been assigned to regular patrol opera
tions. A smattering of women have worked in most major
police departments performing duties limited to clerical
work, matron tasks, and work with special classes of
offenders (i.e., women and children). The President's
Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Jus
tice (1967) recommended an increasing use of women in the
American police service. The commission stated:
Policewomen can. be an invaluable asset to modern law
enforcement and their present role should be broad
ened. Women should be utilized in such important
service units as planning and research, training,
intelligence, inspection, public Information, commu
nity relations, and as legal advisors. Women could
also serve in such units as computer programing and
laboratory analysis, and communications. Their value
should not be considered as limited to staff functions
or police work with juveniles; women should also serve
regularly in patrol, vice, and investigative divisions.
Finally, as more and more well qualified women enter
the service, they could assume administrative responsi
bilities. (p. 78)
In 1971 there were fewer than a dozen policewomen
on patrol in the United States; in 197^ there were close to
1,000. In 1971 there were only a few women in police
11
12
supervisory positions; in 197^ there were several hundred
women sergeants^ lieutenants,, and captains supervising male
and female patrol officers and detectives (Milton., 197^0 •
Women are now patroling the streets of Washington* D.C.*
Miami* Peoria., Ann Arbor., Philadelphia* New York* Dallas.,
Indianapolis* and Los Angeles City and County. Addition
ally., the Pennsylvania State Police* FBI., and the California
Highway Patrol currently employ women. Nationally., the
percentage of women in all aspects of law enforcement Is
increasing. Gail Cobb., in September 197^u was the first
United States policewoman to die in the line of duty. Her
death is dramatic evidence of women's new share in law
enforcement.
The Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department* larg
est Sheriff's Department in the world and fifth largest
law enforcement agency In the United States., is one of the
leading law enforcement agencies in the utilization of
female deputies. In 1965 there were 100 women deputies on
the force with 20 percent being assigned outside the jail.
In 1973 there were 431 female deputies with nearly 60 per
cent working in assignments outside the jail. In 1975 there
were 523 women deputies assigned to all eight Divisions
within the Department. The Sheriff's Department employs
more Lady Deputies than any other police agency in the
United States. Ten percent (10$) of the 5^400 sworn per
sonnel are women. Policewomen nationally represent less
13
than two percent (2$) of the force. Sheriff Peter Pitch-
ess has stated:
Women have a definite and growing role in progressive
law enforcement. Our Lady Deputies have proven them
selves to be a positive asset to our line activities
. . . ready,, willing,, and certainly able to complete
the most difficulty as well as the most delicate
assignments. We will continue to expand our Lady
Deputy Program. (Pitchess, Sheriff’s Bulletin #113 ^
1974)
The Los Angeles Police Department has recently
begun its "unisex" program, whereby prospective female
police officers must complete physical and academic
requirements identical to those of male cadets while in
the academy. Following trainingy the female officer is
eligible for all positions open to male officers. The role
of the policewoman has taken on greater importance both
nationally and locally.
The President's Commission on Law Enforcement
(1967) noted that "existing selection requirements and pro
cedures in the majority of departments, aside from physical
requirements, do not screen out the unfit" (p. 14). In
their recent book, Wilson and McLaren (1972) made reference
to the Importance of the selection process and urged that
this area be given top priority. Unfortunately, evidence
from police selection studies indicates that no single
method or instrument has been shown to provide a uniformly
accurate means of Identifying those persons that are most
maladapted for police work, much less those who have high
14
potential for becoming unusually successful. Eisenberg and
Kent (1972) have gone so far as to recommend that current
psychological,, scholastic aptitude., and intelligence tests
not be used in selecting or promoting lav; enforcement
officers. It is true that the pattern of police validity
results has been spotty and inconsistent.
Studies examining the usefulness of psychological
tests suffer from a variety of inadequacies. Most often
investigators have failed to specify or even to study
police job functions., or to develop good measures of the
relative success of policemen. Most police selection, pro
cedures utilize a series of steps to be passed by a police
applicant before he is accepted. Each step acts as a
screen to eliminate applicants from continued consideration,
who fail to reach a certain standard. The most common
selection screens are written achievement or aptitude tests.,
medical and physical examinations, background checks, per
sonality tests, interviews with police selection, boards,
and psychiatric interviews (Lewis & Blum, cited in Blum,
1964; Dubois & Watson, 1950; Frost, 1955; G-rencik, Snibbe,
& Montgomery, 1971; Narrol & Levitt, 1963; Matarazzo,
Allen, Saslow, & Wiens, 1964; O'Connor, 1962; Purdy, 1965;
Richardson, 1966).
While it is clearly Important to determine what
personality factors are an asset and/or liability to police
15
work and while it is also important to define what charac
teristics are identified with the classification "a good
police officer,, " psychologists have overlooked a crucial
area, namely the effect of police work on the personality
of the individual officer. It is not enough to select
emotionally qualified individuals; one must also conduct
longitudinal studies to determine the effects (potentially
adverse effects) of the jot on personality (Kroes & Hurrell.,
1975).
Arthur Niederhoffer (1967) noted that police are
often described as frustrated dictators who are attracted
to the police service in. order to give vent to their
aggressive or neurotic feelings. After an extensive review
of the pertinent literature, he concluded that there was no
evidence to support the view that highly authoritarian peo
ple go into police work, and that insofar as authoritarian
trends do exist in policemen these are more the result of
acculturation on the job than of preexisting personality.
Numerous studies have concluded that successful law
enforcement applicants are superior in both emotional
adjustment and intelligence (Baehr et al., 1968; Gottsman,
1969; Rankin, 1959; Reiser, 1970). Spector (1975) recently
conducted an extensive review of the literature on women in
law enforcement and his observations support this view.
A study by Matarazzo et al. (1964) of successful
police applicants indicates the it they are characterized by
16
high intelligence,, superior personality adjustment, and an
orientation toward social service. Rhead (1968) found that
after giving projective tests and interviews to more than
1,000 applicants that "the picture which unfolds is of an
individual who is more suspicious than the average person,
one who is ready to take risks, and is prone to act on his
impulses" (p. 1579)* Rubin (1972) in a study of police
identity and the police role found that police tended to
be suspicious and cynical, but not to a degree that could
be called paranoid.
The pressures and conflicts experienced by law
enforcement personnel are considerable. With minimal
supervision and little opportunity for research or reflec
tion, he is required to make extremely critical decisions,
to intervene and resolve a variety of human crises. In his
capacity he operates with considerable autonomy and auth
ority (Skolnick, 1966). Police work is a high stress occu
pation which affects, shapes, and also often scares the
individuals and families involved (Reiser, 1973; Stratton,
1975). Some of the typical stresses are related to
environmental work factors such as danger, violence, and
authority (Wilson, 1968).
According to McCann (1970):
In law enforcement we have an extremely high incidence
of emotional and physical problems, and the main cause
of many of these illnesses is frustration. Possibly
the most frustrated group of people in society is the
17
working policeman. The question is then what can
we do to help him as an individual overcome these
frustrations. (p. 15)
Karl Menninger (1965) observed that society demands of the
policeman the talents of a superman to carry out his
responsibilities adequately. Menninger pointed out that
police are expected to suppress the aggression,, destructive
ness, cruelty, and ruthlessness we all share, while demon
strating intelligence, understanding, kindness, patience,
and particularly self-control.
Skolnick (1966) observed that the policeman in
America is overworked, undertrained, underpaid, and under-
educated. His job moreover is increasingly difficult,
forcing him into an almost impossible position of repress
ing deeply felt demands for social and political change.
In his role he is unappreciated and at times despised.
Eisenberg (1975) speculated that police are exposed to a
high degree of occupational stress which has negative con
sequences for their health and social relationships.
Marital discord is seen by Eisenberg as caused in part by
occupational stress. According to G-rencik (in Kroes 5 c
Hurrell, 1975):
Stress Is said to occur when a person perceives that
he is unable to cope with the demands made upon him
and when the consequences of his inability to cope
are threatening. Presumably the Individual can alter
the state of stress by avoiding the consequences, ful
filling the demands, or altering the perception of
demands, of his capabilities, and/or of the conse
quences. (p. 165)
18
The general Adaptation Syndrome proposed by Selye
(1956) attempts to explain how stress may incapacitate an
individual. A wide variety of environmental events or
stressors, produces a pattern of bodily reactions which
prepares the organism for defense. The autonomic nervous
system is aroused, heart rate^ blood pressure,, and muscle
tone are increased, and adrenalin is discharged. These
defensive reactions serve the useful function of preparing
the individual for "fight or flight." However, under con
ditions of prolonged exposure to stressors,, bodily resources
can be depleted. In some cases physical organs may break
down,, emotional instability may occur, or death may ensue.
"Disease of adaptation" (e.g.., cardiovascular disease,
ulcers, arthritis, allergic reactions, etc.) may develop
as a result of the body’s own attempt to adapt to stress.
Recently the Connecticut Supreme Court upheld a law allow
ing monetary rewards to the families of policemen who die
from heart attacks whether at home or on the job. The
court noted an unusually high rate of heart disease and
hypertension and therefore felt that the officers deserved
the benefits (Cobb, 197^)- It has been noted by a number
of researchers in the field such as Eisenberg (1975) that
the female officer is also subject to additional and unique
stressors related to her new position in law enforcement.
Reluctant acceptance, for example, within the police culture
constitutes additional stress.
19
The existing medical strain research on law enforce
ment officers indicates clearly that they are more likely
to develop and/or die from circulatory and digestive dis
orders than those in most other occupational groups
(Richard & Fell,, 1975; Kroes & Hurrell, 1975). Policemen
are the victims of many occupational ailments--arthritis,
rheumatism, sinusitis, varicose veins, ulcers, and heart
trouble. The Patrolmen's Benevolent Association (1961) in
New York has fought to have the State Legislature recognize
heart disease as a disability incurred in the line of duty.
According to Cobb (197^).» individuals subjected to close
personal responsibility for the lives of others run a
higher risk of health problems.
Psychological Stress
An impressive body of research has been accumulating
which indicates that there is a strong relationship between
psychological job stress and ill health. Occupational
stresses contribute to the deterioration of the physical
and mental well-being of many employees. It should also
be noted that researchers such as Stotland and Canon (1972)
have established that people with high self-esteem are
relatively immune to some of the stresses which plague
other people, or are better able to cope with the stress.
20
According to G-rencik (in Kroes & Hurrell,, 1975) the police
men pay a high price for admission to the fraternity of
"supermen." This includes ulcers; headaches,, tension.,
alcoholism* heavy smoking* heart disease* and possibly early
death. In addition* there are the more subtle costs in the
form of growing cynicism* broken communication with family*
feelings of discontent* frustration* and decreased feelings
of concern about people and their needs.
A study by Cobb and Rose (1973) indicated that
police have an incidence of health problems which is some
what greater than other occupations. An analysis of death
certificates data by Cobb and Rose showed that police have
significantly high rates of premature death. Although
research on the emotional strains associated with police
work is just beginning* it is known that suicide is a major
cause of death of police officers (Richard & Fell* 197^)*
Recent reports indicate officers are six and one-half times
more likely to commit suicide than non-law enforcement
citizens (Friedman* 1967).
The author's experience in coordinating counseling
services for a major county agency is consistent with the
observations of Kroes* Margolis* and Hurrell (197^0- They
noted a relatively high frequency of marital problems and
divorce coupled with a general sense of isolation. This
sense of isolation generally leads to a heavy reliance on
21
the "police culture" which further alienates the officers
from the general public.
Self-Image of Police Personnel
According to Rubin (1972)* the young police recruit;
like any beginning professionals enters his career at a
time of life when rapid growths conflicts and crisis are
normal aspects of his personality. After joining the
forces he must work at forming his adult identity at the
same time that he is learning the techniques of his profes
sion. Because his job is not a casual nine-to-five experi
ences his work will become a major pervasive aspect of his
identity as a man. Therefores early experiences on the job
will have important and relatively permanent effects on his
developing adult identity. About two years after entering
the forces he will have settled into a work role that will
determine the kind of man and the kind of policeman he is
to become. Should these years intensify the normal "grow
ing pains" of young manhoods rather than to help resolve
thenis the cadet will fail to achieve the mature psychologi
cal integration necessary for functioning at a professional
level.
The study of the Miami police by Rubin corroborates
recent studies in its findings that those who enter police
work are generally psychologically healthy and competent
young men. However certain ambiguitieSs inconsistenciess
22
and conflicts in the socially and legally sanctioned roles
of the police impede optimal resolution of the identity
struggle that the recruit is experiencing. There is a
conflict between the peace keeping* community service* and
crime fighting roles of the police* as well as between the
policeman's need to be an. individualist and at the same
time to fit into an organization and to accept discipline.
Erikson (1963) wrote that the criterion of moving
from adolescence to adult life is a formation of a secure
identity. This he defined as the relatively enduring self-
image of the individual that coincides with the reflected
view of himself which he receives from those around him.
Erikson thus emphasized how* through work* a man can
express that which is essentially himself* and he can have
confirmation of that self-image from those around him. For
the young policeman* establishing this congruence is par
ticularly difficult. The role expectations of police
amplify rather than reduce identity problems. Given cur
rent police-role conflicts* a young policeman is vulnerable
to settling into a work identity characterized by immatur
ity* lack of discipline* rigidity* and paranoia.
The three generally accepted roles which are a
source of conflict are: peacekeeping* crime fighting* and
community service. Wilson (1968) noted that crime fighting
accounted for 10.3 percent of calls* and Wallach (1970)
23
found that crime-related calls constituted less than one-
fourth of police service calls. Yet in analysis of train
ing programs across the country the main or even total
emphasis is on crime fighting techniques.
Police experience the frustration of both peace
keeping and community service., feeling that the general
public do not support them. Policemen are aware of their
isolation from the community and feel resentful and
resented. According to Skolnick (1966), the elements of
danger and authority connected with the job tend to keep
the policeman isolated from the citizenry which he regards
as symbolically dangerous (e.g.., minority groups)., and also
from the conventional citizenry with whom he identifies.
The element of danger seems to make the policeman espe
cially attentive to signs indicating a potential for law
breaking and violence. As a result., the policeman is gen
erally a "suspicious” person. Furthermore, the character
of the policeman's work makes him less desirable as a
friend. As this isolation becomes more acute, the Force
becomes the focus of the majority of activities, profes
sional and social.
A study by Zimbardo, Haney, and Banks (1973) has
significant implications for law enforcement. In this
study, a homogeneous "normal" sample was chosen after
extensive interviewing and diagnostic testing of a large
group of volunteer male college students. Half of the
24
subjects were randomly assigned to role-play prison guards
for eight hours each day, while the others role-played
prisoners incarcerated for nearly one full week. Neither
group received any specific training in these roles. The
study was terminated after six days due to the adverse
effects upon the subjects. At least a third of the guards
were judged to have become far more aggressive and dehuman
izing toward the prisoners than would ordinarily be pre
dicted in a simulation study.
Kirkharn (1975) using a participant-observer
research model, studied the effects of becoming a police
officer by joining the force. He experienced a radical
shift in attitudes, beliefs, and behavior. He stated that
he became politically conservative, short-tempered, irri
table, and suspicious of almost everybody and everything.
Organizational and role pressures also routinely
impinge on the policeman, contributing to his total stress
load (Neff, 1968; President's Commission, 1967). Symonds
(1969) has identified two categories of stress on police.
The first is stress due to the nature of police work. The
second is stress due to the nature of the police organiza
tion. Considering the severe stress, Symonds is impressed
with the mental health of the average policeman.
Blum (i960, 1961) has outlined numerous conflicts
in police work. They are:
25
1. Conflict in. loyalties
2. Conflict of temptation
3. Conflict over fear versus courage
4. Conflict over use of force
5. Conflict over human misery
6. Conflict over decisions
7. Conflict over beliefs
8. Conflict over change
9. Conflict over public attitudes
towards police
Reiser (1974) in speaking of organizational
stresses on policemen noted that authoritarian management
approaches predominate in the traditional police organiza
tion. Such an approach pays relatively little attention to
individual problems or human factors. A common stress fac
tor is related to the internal discipline structure within
a police department wherein the officer often feels that he
is in double jeopardy in that he is not only liable crimi
nally and civilly for a misdeed,, but in addition faces
punishment within the organization. Reiser further related
that the officer is expected to maintain personal and moral
standards at a level higher than that demanded in the gen
eral community. Additionally,, in serious situations the
officer may be subjected to lengthy interrogations and
other forms of examination.
With reference to the effects of the job on atti-
26
tudes and behavior^ Trajanowicz (1971) noted significant
differences as a function of age. Reiser has observed
what he calls the "John Wayne Syndrome" which the recruit
develops shortly after the training period. The symptoms
of this malady are cynicism., over-seriousness, emotional
withdrawal and coldness, authoritarian attitudes, and the
development of tunnel vision. Niederhoffer and Blumberg
(1970) felt that the syndrome develops as a result of
shaping influences within the organization, particularly
by peer group, and is also part of a developmental process
which helps protect the young officer against his own
emotions as well as outside dangers while he is maturing
and being welded by experience. The syndrome appears to
last for three to four years and during that time a great
deal of stress is placed on the marriage due to the emo
tional distancing on the part of the police officer.
According to Jacobi (1975)
the continual chronic quest for evil, necessitated
by the job, produces very important psychopatholog-
ical consequences. With increasing time spent in
police work, the initial moral idealism of the police
cadet turns into a hardbitten, bitter, and cynical
orientation toward the world where all one sees or
expects to see is evil, filth, and depravity, particu
larly when this is coupled with the policemanrs grow
ing social isolation from civilian society. . . . He
becomes increasingly suspicious, distrusting, isolated,
and finally paranoid as life becomes a chronic cold
war when it is not hot. (p. 93)
Stratton (1975) noted how the role can change the person.
Because of the prohibitions on displays of emotion or on an
27
easing up of the "command presence,, " the officers learn to
become non-emotional robots, stifling all feeling in order
to maintain a certain image in their work. After months
or years it becomes almost impossible to leave the robot
image at the station and it is carried home where the
family must cope with his reduced emotional responsiveness.
Blum (i960) also observed this phenomenon. He
noted that the police officer learns ways of controlling
himself, or of defending against his very human emotional
reactions. In essence, the officer encases himself In a
kind of emotional armour.
Researchers such as Wolfgang (1966) and Rubinstein
(1974) saw the officers as socially isolated, alienated,
and forced to retreat into themselves and become less Iden
tified with the community that seems not to support them.
A study by the Royal Commission on the Police (1962)
pointed to the isolation and difficulties in making social
contacts outside the police force experienced by law
enforcement personnel. Hahn (197^-) spoke of the isolation
of police, public animosity, and the suspicion and distrust
which are perpetuated not only by the personal experience
of policemen but also by the attitudes and beliefs that
prevail in most police departments. Lundgren and Miller
(1965) found that self-esteem among a student population
decreased when public esteem decreased.
28
It is posited by many that police training does
not lead to an Increase in authoritarianism, dogmatism.,
and the like,, but that police experience tends to increase
these attitudinal traits. All available research,, however,,
does not support this view. McNamara stated that the
police job experience subsequent to training tends to pro
mote authoritarianism in police., but the training itself
could have similar effects. Teasley and Wright (1973)
found that recruits tend to become more conservative and
dogmatic as a function of the training experience.
Research by Sterling (1972) concluded that the subject’s
perceptions of people generally shift towards a more unfav
orable dimension of semantic space from the time they enter
police work. McCardel (1970) noted a change in dogmatism
and also a sharp decrease in support of pro-liberal racial
statements after 24 weeks on the job. Reese (1972) noted
a significant worsening of attitudes after the police
recruit had exposure to field conditions. Neiderhoffer
(1967) in a study of cynicism among police found an increase
in. cynicism with years of service. Cynicism was highest
for the unmarried group. It was also high for those in
low status assignments, and those with higher levels of
education. Resse in his study of the police academy
observed that as the recruit became engrained with suspi
cion, distrust, and envy he tended to depersonalize the
citizenry. In turn, his apparent emotional and psycholog-
29
ical isolation from the public made it easier for the
public to stereotype him.
Reiser (1972) in his study of divorce experience in
an urban police department stated that men in. high stress
positions tended to be more susceptible to divorce. He
concluded that the first six years in law enforcement
tended to be the most hazardous with reference to divorce.
Olmsted (1973) in his analysis of the Los Angeles County
Sheriff's Department personnel came to the same conclusion
as the Reiser study. Additionally^ he stated that there
is a greater incidence of divorce among lady deputies than
among the male deputies.
Although agreed by all experts in the field that
law enforcement is a unique and highly stressful position,,
there have been no studies as to the effects of these pres
sures on the individual officer. As noted earlier^ women
in law enforcement are beginning to carry out the full
range of duties expected of policemen and are therefore
susceptible to the emotional and physical hazards of the
job.
Super (1968) in his theory of vocational psychol
ogy,, has dealt with four different stages of development
(growth 0-l4„ exploratory 15-25; maintenance 26-65; decline
66+). The exploratory stage and the maintenance stage are
of particular interest in. this study due to the age range
30
of Sheriff's applicants. It is hypothesized by Super that
individuals in the exploratory stage undergo a greater
degree of change than individuals in the maintenance stage
due to the inherent searching for self-expression through
vocational tasks In the former stage. It would appear that
age and level of development interact with the environment.
Field theorists,, most notably represented by Kurt
Lewin (1935j 1936* 1951) have dealt with the individual in
his environment believing that it is meaningless to study
the individual in abstraction. The idea of "life space”
was fundamental to all of Lewin's theorizing. Utilizing
his basic constructs it Is possible to define an aspect of
an individual's reality and thereby explain and predict his
behavior. "Life space" is described by Lewin (1951) in
the following statement:
One can say behavior and development depend on the
state of the person and his environment* J3=F(P*E).
In this equation the person. (P) and his environment
(E) have to be viewed as variables which are mutually
dependent upon each other. In other words* to under
stand or to predict behavior* the person, and his
environment have to be considered as one constella
tion of Interdependent factors. We call the totality
of these factors the life space (LSp) of that individ
ual* and write B=F(P*E)=F(LSp). The life space*
therefore* includes both the person and his psychologi
cal environment. The task of explaining behavior then
becomes identical with (l) finding a scientific repre
sentation of the life space (LSp) and (2) determining
the function (F) which links the behavior to the life
space. The function (F) is what one usually calls a
law. (pp. 239-240)
The life space of those in law enforcement is fraught with
risk and it is a function of social science to reduce risk
31
indicators and to enhance the quality of life through
research and action. For this reason,, it is particularly
germane at this time to utilize the tools of science to
examine the adaptive and maladaptive interactive processes
of law enforcement personnel.
Null Hypotheses
Ho-^ There is no significant difference between, the
pre- and post-validity scores of the MMPI.
Ho,-, There is no significant difference between the
pre- and post-scores on the "neurotic triad" of
the MMPI.
Ho^ There is no significant difference between the
pre- and post-scores on the Psychopathic Deviate
scale of the MMPI.
Ho^i There is no significant difference between the
pre- and post-scores on the male/female scale
of the MMPI.
Ho^ There is no significant difference between the
pre- and post-scores on those scales measuring
psychotic process.
Ho^ There is no significant difference between the
pre- and post-scores on the neurasthenia scale
of the MMPI.
32
Ho^ There is no significant difference between the
pre- and post-scores on the introversion scale
of the MMPI.
Hog There is no significant difference in. Self-Concept
as measured by the Semantic Differential Technique,,
between Academy training and present assignment.
Hon There is no significant difference between
y
reported level of stress experienced during the
Academy training and during the present assignment
as measured by the Semantic Differential Technique.
H°io There is no significant difference between pre-
and post-scores on the MMPI as a function of
age at entry.
Ho-^ There is no significant difference between pre-
and post-scores on the MMPI as a function of
marital status at entry.
H°i2 There is no significant difference between pre-
and post-scores on the MMPI as a function of
educational level at entry.
Hono There Is no significant difference between pre-
id
and post-scores on the MMPI as a function of
number of years of service.
33
No hypotheses were formulated regarding the following five
secondary measures:
Rigid!ty-Female
Need for Affection
Inhibition of Aggression
Social Alienation
Emotional Alienation
CHAPTER III
DESIGN OF THE STUDY
The Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department has
approximately 5^00 sworn personnel (Deputy Sheriffs).
Women represent 10 percent of the sworn personnel and since
1972 the percentage of women on the force has been increas
ing. In 1971 the Counseling section, of the Occupational
Health Service,, Department of Personnel began a program
designed to psychologically screen all female applicants
for the position of Deputy Sheriff Trainee. Prior to that
time., psychological screening was minimal and consisted of
general questions contained in a subsection of the Cornell
Medical Index. Prior to ±97±y only applicants with a his
tory of psychiatric or psychiatrically related problems
were evaluated by a clinical psychologist. The purpose of
the screening was to determine the emotional stability of
the applicants and to recommend qualification or disqualif
ication for the position of Deputy Sheriff Trainee. Sub
sequent analysis of the data provided an opportunity to
evaluate personality and personality change using a longi
tudinal study format.
All female applicants from mid 1971 through the
end of 1973 were included in the study and were subsequently
34
35
contacted in mid 1976 by a psychologist from the Counseling
section of the Occupational Health Service (the author).
In the initial testing phase,, participation was mandatory,
however in the retest phase, participation was voluntary.
Subj ects
Between June 1971 a^d November 1973 99 female appli
cants were successful in becoming deputy sheriff trainees.
This group was chosen because they were the first female
deputies to be systematically evaluated by staff psycholo
gists of the Occupational Health Service. Additionally,
a review of the literature suggested that the period from
three to six years in law enforcement is particularly
stressful and can result in marked changes in behavior.
Personality Measures
During the initial testing period the Minnesota
Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) was the major
instrument used. However, in a number of cases (c. 10$)
where the MMPI scores were above the range specified by
the Occupational Health Service consulting clinical psy
chologist, further assessment was initiated including
various standard projective techniques and clinical inter
views. In the posttest phase of the study, the MMPI was
administered in addition to a 5~Page questionnaire dealing
36
with major areas of interest. Incorporated into the ques
tionnaire was the Semantic Differential Technique.
In Chapter I there is a brief overview of the
MMPI. The most recent review of the MMPI Handbook, Vols.
1 and 2, 1975; contains over 6*000 references dealing with
all aspects of this instrument. Although originally devel
oped within the general area of psychiatric practice* the
MMPI has expanded into areas beyond medicine and health.
In law enforcement selection it is the most widely utilized
test instrument (Baehr et al. * 1968; Gottesman, 1969). It
is also an effective tool with such diverse groups as nurs
ing students (Hovey* 1953; Beaver., 1953); homeless men
(Brantner, 1958); teacher college students (Lough., 1946)*
students in general (King* 1967); and juvenile delinquents
(Caldwell* 1976). The MMPI Is a useful method of evaluat
ing personality structure. While Hathaway and McKinley
(1967) reported an overall correlation of 60 percent
between clinical diagnosis and the test* they emphasized
that it was not devised primarily for the purpose of diag
nostic classification* but rather to reflect the various
components of personality traits with special reference to
their qualitative and quantitative levels. Modlin (194-7)
reported that the MMPI is an excellent instrument for meas
uring the progress of patients. Pacella* Piotrowski* and
Lewis (1947) have used It effectively to study the effect
37
of therapy on personality. Barron and Leary (1955)
reported its successful use in the study of changes in
Psychoneurotic patients with and without psychotherapy.
Other investigators* such as Kaufmann (1950)* Gallagher
(1953)* Mosak (1950)* and Rashkis and Shaskin (1946)* have
reported observations of MMPI changes following psycho
therapy. More recently the MMPI has been used in the long
term evaluation of change in personality traits among alco
holics (Huber & Danahy* 1975; Chang* Caldwell* & Moss*
1973).
To understand the rationale for the interpretation
of scores on the various MMPI scales a quote from Dahlstrom
et al. (1975) would be helpful:
Although most applications of the MMPI scales have
been based upon the additional assumption that these
scales reflect differential degrees of some attribute*
the narrowest interpretation of a given score on each
of these composite scales making up the basic MMPI
clinical profile is a probabilistic one: the higher the
score the greater the probability that the test subject
belongs in the pathological group and the smaller the
probability that he is a member of the normal group.
(pp. 19-20)
In line with the above* Hovey (1953) stated:
Elevated scores in clinical practice tend to signify
various kinds of maladjustment or potentials for it*
and in. view of this* it may be inferred from our
results that there are some personality assets asso
ciated more with maladjustment potentials as measured
by the MMPI than with relative freedom from such
potentials. (p. 145)
Unlike other areas of measurement* the area of per
sonality testing is subject to greater variability due to
38
the fact that personality itself is highly dynamic and
subject to fluctuation. The study of reliability of per
sonality tests involves some problems which are not present
in the fields of intelligence and achievement testing.
Reliability defined as accuracy of measurement or in terms
of a low standard error of measurement cannot be evaluated
adequately for personality tests. Internal consistency
measures of reliability are not appropriate for scales such
as those In the MMPI (Hathaway & McKinley* 1967). Some of
these scales demonstrate considerable heterogeneity for
they were constructed with the intention of achieving
internal consistency. Thus., although the test-retest
method Is more suitable for assessing reliability* the
temporal changes in. test-retest data make it more desirable
to refer to "stability" rather than reliability (Rosen*
1953)- Holzberg and Alessi (19^9) calculated the relia
bility of the shortened form of the MMPI and found the
range to be from .58 to .93 (see Appendix A). Rosen (1953)
calculated the reliability to range from .56 to .88 (see
Appendix A). Further studies on reliability covering an
interval of one day to three years are also contained in
Appendix A. It would appear that reliability decreases
as a function, of increased time between pre- and posttest.
In addition to the 3 validity and 10 clinical
scales* 5 experimental scales were utilized as secondary
measures. They are:
39
Rg^ Rigidity (females). General tendency towards con
trolled or stereotyped responding (Cervin., 1957) •
The following scales were developed by Harris and Lingoes
(1955):
Hy^ Need for Affection and Reinforcement from Others.
Implied in an (obtuse) denial of a critical or
resentful attitude toward other people; impunitive-
ness; overly protested faith and optimism in. other
people.
Hy^ Inhibition, of Aggression. Expressed by concurrence
with others,, disavowal of violence.
Sc^ Social Alienation. A feeling of lack of rapport
with other people; withdrawal from meaningful rela
tionships with others.
Sc-^B Emotional Alienation. A feeling of lack of rapport
with oneself; experiencing the self as strange;
flattening or distortion of affect; apathy.
The Semantic Differential is a measure developed by
Osgood^ Suci; and Tannenbaum (1957) designed to assess the
meanings of certain concepts to individuals or groups.
This is based on the assumption that certain stimulus pat
terns; what Osgood et al. termed "significates; , T have con
nections with certain, behavior patterns and that in given
40
situations these behaviors can be predicted. In the Seman
tic Differential, words or concepts represent these stimu
lus patterns and individuals are then assessed as to the
meaning of these words to themselves,, their responses rep
resenting some replica of their actual behavior towards
these things. Osgood et al. gave the following reasoning
and explanation:
Given stability of learning experiences within
a particular culture,, also,, meanings of common verbal
signs will be quite similar. . . . On the other hand,
the meanings of many signs will reflect the idiosyn
crasies of individual experience, as, for example,
the meanings of Father, Mother, and Me for individ
uals growing up in a "healthy" vs. "unhealthy" home
environment . . . , thus, the meanings which differ
ent individuals have for the same signs will vary to
the extent that their behaviors toward the things
signified have varied. (p. 9)
Osgood et al. using testings and factor analyses found
their instrument reliable and valid over thousands of con
cepts across three major dimensions--evaluation, potency,
and activity--composed of numerous word pairs of opposites.
Item reliability was shown to be .85 on, test-retest corre
lated across 100 subjects and 40 items. Numerous error of
measurement studies concluded that (l) all three factors--
evaluation, potency, and activity--vary less than one-scale
unit over time, the "evaluative" factor being the most
stable measure; (2) that the longer the time between test
ing, the larger the deviation, which, Osgood et al. argued
is indicative of the Semantic Differential being a sensi-
41
tive measure of change over time and not a measure of
reliability (p. 133)-
Tests of validity rank the Semantic Differential
particularly high on common sense face validity in that
the distinctions it provides correspond with those which
would be made by most observers had the instrument not been
used (pp. l4l-l66). Of particular interest to the present
study, Osgood et al. cited numerous studies illustrating
the Semantic Differential's range of validity as it per
tains to situations involving personality (pp. 217-271);
as a measure of personality traits (pp. 218-219)j as a
measure of change (pp. 220-221); and as a hypothesis test
ing instrument (pp. 239 ff.).
The 5-page questionnaire (see Appendix B) was
designed by the Department of Personnel and Sheriff's
Department psychologists to gather information on areas of
general interest such as marital status and change,, if any.,
in marital status; health problems, smoking and drinking
patterns; reasons for entering and staying in law enforce
ment; hobbies, and attitudes of male deputies towards
female deputies. Additionally, the main thrust of the
questionnaire was to measure self-concept and levels of
stress during the academy training and the present assign
ment .
Procedure
42
During the period extending from June 1971 to
November 1973; all female applicants who had successfully
completed all other phases of the applicant screening pro
gram,, including intelligence testing, medical examination,
agility testing, and background investigation by the
Sheriff’s Department, were psychologically evaluated by the
staff of the Occupational Health Service, Counseling Sec
tion, Los Angeles County Department of Personnel. None of
the 103 subjects evaluated were disqualified as a result of
their scores on the test instrument. Those applicants
whose scores were atypical were interviewed by one or more
staff psychologists. A psychiatrist was also available for
consultation. Additional testing was utilized as warranted
on an individual basis. Four of the 103 applicants were
disqualified as a result of these additional evaluations.
In June 1976, 87 of the original 99 successful
applicants were still employed by the Los Angeles County
Sheriff's Department.
The MMPI was readministered to every female deputy
on an individual basis and each responded to a 5-page
questionnaire after completion of the MMPI. Sixty-seven
of the subjects completed and returned the research mate
rial. Seven subjects indicated that they completed and
returned the material via the County mail, however, this
^3
material never reached the researcher. Five subjects
refused and eight did not return the material after numer
ous requests doth by telephone and in writing over a four-
month period. No attempt was made to retest those subjects
whose material was "lost” so as to maintain uniformity of
administration. The Los Angeles County Communications
Department assigned personnel to locate the lost research
material* however their efforts were not successful.
Statistical Analysis
Multiple Regression appeared to be most suited to
an analysis of the data^ due to the use of continuous and
categorical independent variables (Kerlinger^ 1973; Ker-
linger & Pedhazur^ 1973). Since group membership was of
specific interest,, Multiple Discriminant Function was
utilized. Students' t_ tests were performed on the pre-
and post-scores generated by the measuring instruments.
Additionally^ one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was
employed in the examination of the data. The above sta
tistics were conducted at the University of Southern Cali
fornia Computing Center using the Statistical Package for
the Social Sciences (1970). The criterion variables were
reported in standard score form with a standard score mean
of 50 and a standard deviation of 10.
The assumptions underlying the use of Multiple
Regression Analysis are as follows:
44
1. The Y (MMPl) scores are normally distributed at
each value of X (independent variable).
2. There is no assumption of normality about the
X's (independent variable).
3. The Y (MMPl) scores have equal variances at each
X point.
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS
Comparisons between pre- and post-scores were made
for each of the dependent variables. The significant vari
ables are listed below and the means are presented in Table
1. The term group refers to the total sample.
1. The group was more frank approaching the mean for
the general population (t_ = -1.79* P < • 05).
2. The group was more hypochondrical becoming closer
to the general population mean (t_ = -2.65*
p < . 01) .
3. The group was endorsing items in a more feminine
direction. (t_ = 2.18; p<.05).
4. The group was more introverted becoming closer to
the general population mean (t_ = -2.72; p c.Ol).
5. The group indicated less need for affection;
although scores continued to be greater than
one standard deviation above the population mean
(t = 2.00; p <.05).
6. The group improved in self-concept (evaluative
factor) from the Academy to the present assign
ment {t_ = 2.25; P <.05).
45
7. The group improved in self-concept (potency fac
tor) from the Academy to the present assignment
(t = 3.63, p <.001).
8. The group experienced a reduction, in stress from
the Academy to the present assignment (t_ = 5.49j >
p <.000).
Table 2 presents the means for significant effects
of specified demographic variables. A list of these
effects is provided below:
1. The single group became more rigid,, approaching
the general population mean., while the married
group became less rigid, F (2, 64) = 3*390,,
p <.05.
2. The B.A. (16-17) level of education group became
less hypochondrical while the A.A. level group
became more hypochondrical, becoming closer to
the general population mean, F (2, 64) = 3-887,,
p < . 05 •
3. The B.A. level group became more introverted
while the A.A. level group became slightly less
introverted, becoming closer to the general popu
lation mean., F (2, 64) = 4.655^ P <.05.
4. The married group changed in a more feminine
direction while the single and other groups
47
Means for Significant
Table 1
Effects of Pre- vs. Post-Scores
Variable Pretest Posttest
F rankne s s 48. 1492 49.1791*
Hypochondria 46.7612 48.1940 **
Male/Female 51.4090 49.1492*
Introversion 44.6269 46.8060**
Need for Affection 66.9104 65.1343*
Self-concept
Evaluative
5.2353
4.7667*
Potency 7.6500 6.6500***
Level of Stress U557I+ 3.2459***
*p < .05.
< .01.
***p < .001
48
Table 2
Means of Significant Effects of Specified Demographic Variables
Variable Groups F Value
Single
Married Other
Age 24.1034 26.6316
27.7895
6.875*
Education 14.1724 13.6316
13.1053
3.989*
Rigidity 33.3448 28.3158 30.3684 3.390*
Male/Female 30.0000 23.4737 28.4211 3.858*
12th Grade A.A. B.A.
Hypochondria 31.0000 32.2758 27.6667 3.887*
Introversion 31.9310 29.3103
36.6667 4. 655*
3 Yrs. 4 Yrs. 5 Yrs.
Naive Lying 30.1739 29.1250 24.4167 3.866*
*p < .05.
49
changed slightly or not at all: F (2, 64) =
3.858, p <.05 .
5. Deputies with five years on the force scored
lower in transparent lying (moral guardedness)
while the three- and four-year groups changed
slightly or not at all: F (2, 64) = 3.866,
p < . 05.
Using the discriminant function analysis, an. inde
pendent variable classification of marital status (see
Figure l) was used to examine patterns of difference among
the dependent variables. For this analysis change scores
were computed for each variable and a constant of 30 was
added to each score to eliminate negative values. Table 3
presents the means for variables that the formula identi
fied as helping to discriminate the groups.
Marital Status Mean Age
24.04 Group I Single
Group II Married 26.15
Group III Other (separated, divorced,
■widoved)
27.56
Figure 1. Age and marital status
50
Table 3
Means for Significant Dependent Variables in Discriminant
Function Analysis of Marital Status
Variable Single Married Other
Self-concept
(Activity)
Paranoia
Self-concept
(Evaluat ive)
Age
Male/Female
Rigidity
Defensiveness
1 .0 0 0 0
- 1 .1 3 3 3
- 0 .1 1 1 1
3 0 .0 3 7 0
3 0 .1 3 3 3
3 5 .1 1 1 1
0 .6 6 6 7 - 0 .6 0 0 0 1 .0 5 5 6
2 4 .0 3 7 0
2 6 .1 3 3 3 27.5555
3 0 .7 7 7 8 2 2 .0 6 6 7 2 8 .0 0 0 0
5 5 .3 5 5 5
2 8 .8 0 0 0 3 0 .7 2 2 2
2 9 .9 6 3 0
2 6 .5 3 3 3
3 0 .5 0 0 0
51
Table k
Predictive Accuracy of Discriminant Function Analysis
for Marital Status
Predicted Group Membership
Actual Group No. of Cases Single Married Other
Single 27 22
(8 1. 536)
3
(11.1$) (7 3 #)
Married
15 5
(2 0.0$)
11
(73-31 o)
1
(6.756)
Other 18 k
(22.2$)
2
(11.1$)
12
(66.756)
Note. Percent of "grouped" cases correctly classified: 75$l *
52
The pattern, of results obtained from the analysis
was :
1. On the Paranoia scale, the Other group increased
while the Married and Single groups did not
change.
2. On the Male/Female scale, the Married group
moved in the more feminine direction while the
Other group's score changed moderately in the
same direction and the Single group moved
slightly in. a less feminine direction.
3. The Single group became more rigid, the Other
group remained constant, and the Married group
became less rigid.
4. As reflected by the K scale, the Married group
became less defensive and the Single and Other
groups remained constant.
5. Self-Concept (Evaluative Factor) improved sub
stantially for the Other group, moderately for
the Single group, and decreased moderately for
the Married group.
6. Self-Concept (Activity Factor) improved sub
stantially for the Single group, decreased sub
stantially for the Married group, and remained
constant for the Other group.
The following variables were entered and subsequently
removed from the discriminant function:
53
7. Self-Concept (Potency Factor) improved substan
tially for the Single and Other groups and
increased moderately for the Married group.
8. The Single group became less manic (Mania
Scale) while the Married and Other groups moved
in a slightly more manic direction.
Overall 75 percent of the subjects in the study
were classified into the correct group. The accuracy of
prediction for the Single group (81.5$) superior to
either the Married (73-3$) or the Other (66.7$) groups.
Table 4 presents a summary of the prediction chart obtained
for this analysis.
pendent variable classification of educational level (see
Figure 2) was used to examine patterns of difference among
the dependent variables. For this analysis change scores
were computed for each variable and a constant of 30 was
added to each score to eliminate negative values. Table 5
presents the means for variables that the formula identi
fied as helping to discriminate the groups.
Using the discriminant function analysis^ an inde-
Education Mean Age
26 .69
25.59
24.11
Group I High School
Group II Associate of Arts
Group III Bachelor of Arts
Figure 2. Educational level and age
54
Table 5
Means of Significant Dependent Variables in Discriminant
Function Analysis of Educational Group
Variable High School Associate of Arts Bachelor of Arts
Introversion 32.2917 29.1852
36.6667
Mania 34.3000
27.9259
23. 4444
Depression 29.3750 30.5185
31.4444
Naive Lying 27.1250 29.2222
29.5555
Hypo chondria 31.6250 32. 4444
27.6667
Age
26.1667
25.6296 24.1111
Frankness 31.0000 31.7778 28.6667
55
1. The B.A. level group increased on the Introver
sion scale. The High School level group increased
slightly and the A.A. level group decreased
slightly.
2. The B.A. level group decreased substantially
on the Mania scale while the A.A. group decreased
moderately. The H.S. level group increased.
3. The B.A. level group increased slightly on the
Depression scale. There was a slight decrease
for the H.S. level group and the A.A. level group
remained constant.
4. The B.A. level group decreased on the Hypochon
dria scale whereas the H.S. and A.A. level groups
increased.
5. The B.A. level group became less frank while the
A.A. level group became slightly more frank. The
H.S. level group remained constant.
6. The H.S. group decreased substantially on the Lie
scale becoming less naive in their lying. The
A.A. and B.A. groups decreased slightly.
The following variable was entered and subsequently
removed from the discriminant function formula:
7. There was a slight increase in self-concept
(evaluative factor) for the H.S. and B.A. level
groups. The A.A. level group remained constant.
56
Overall., 75 percent of the subjects in the study
were classified into the correct group. The accuracy of
prediction for the B.A. level group (77-8$) was superior
to either the H.S. level group (75$) of the A.A. level
group (74.1$). Table 6 presents a summary of the predic
tion. chart obtained for this analysis.
pendent variable classification of a combination of educa
tional level and marital status (see Figure 3) was used to
examine patterns of difference among the dependent vari
ables. For this analysis change scores were computed for
each variable and a constant of 30 was added to each score
to eliminate negative values. Table 7 presents the means
for variables that the formula identified as helping to
discriminate the groups. Due to the limited sample size,,
the three educational categories were divided into two
groups:
Additionally., marital status was divided into two groups as
follows: married and not married.
Using the discriminant function analysis,, an inde-
Low education (12 to 15 yrs.)
High education (16 to 17 yrs.)
Marital Status Education Mean Age
Group I
Group II
Group III
Group IV Married
Married
Wot married
Wot married Low education 2 5-7^ -
High education 23.50
Low education 26.00
High education 27.00
Figure 3- Marital status,, education^ and age
57
Table 6
Predictive Accuracy of Discriminant Function Analysis
for Education
Predicted Group Membership
Actual Group No. of Cases High School
Associate
of Arts
Bachelor
of Arts
High School 2k
18
(75-0£)
5
(12.5$)
3
(12.5$)
Associate of
Arts
27
6
(22.2%)
20
(7^.156)
( 3.7p
Bachelor of
Arts
9
2
(22.2%)
0
( 0.0/o)
7
(77-850
Note. Percent of "grouped” cases correctly classified: 75 %•
Table 7
Means of Significant Dependent Variables in Discriminant Function Analysis
for a Combination of Marital Status and Education Groups
Not Married Married
Variable Low Education High Education Low Education High Education
Mania 29-8974 23.0000
35.0769
16.5000
Introversion 29.8205
36.3333
39. 3846 32.5000
Male/Female
29.^359
31.1667 21.7692 24.0000
Self-concept
(Evaluative)
0.8205
O.8333 -O.6923 0.0000
Naive Lying 28.0000 31.1667 28.7692 26.5000
Psychopathic
Deviate
31.6923
32.8333
29.7692 28.0000
Paranoia 33.1282 25.1667
31-3077
22.5000
Self-concept
(Potency)
(Activity)
1.1538
0.5641
1.0000
0.5000
0.4615
-1.3846
1.5000
0.5000
Rigidity 31.7692 35.6667 29.1538 26.5000
Defensiveness 30.1538
30.3333
26.7692 25.0000
Frankness 30.8718 27.1667
33-4615 29.0000
59
1. On the M/F scale the Not Married-High Education
increased slightly. The Not Married-Low Education decreased
slightly. The Married-High and Low Education decreased sub
stantially., moving in a more feminine direction.
2. The Low Education-Married and Not Married groups
became more paranoid. The High Education-Married and Not
Married became less paranoid.
3. The Not Married groups became more rigid with
the greater increase for the High Education level group.
The Married groups became less rigid with the greater
decrease for the High Education level group.
4. The Low Ed.-Married and Not Married groups and
the High Ed.-Married group became more sophisticated in
their lying (decrease on L scale). The High Ed.-Not Mar
ried group became more naive.
5. On Introversion only the Low Ed.-Not Married
group remained constant. The other groups increased with
the High Ed.-Not Married increasing substantially.
6. The Married groups decreased on the Psychopathic
Deviate scale while the Not Married groups increased.
7. The High Ed.-Married and Not Married groups
became less frank ("F" scale decreased) while the Low Ed.-
Not Married group became slightly more frank, and the Low
Ed. Married group became moderately more frank.
8. The Married groups became less defensive and
the Not Married groups remained constant.
60
9. On. the Mania scale the Married-High Ed. group
decreased 13.5 "t'f scores moving in a less manic direction.
The Married-Low Ed. group increased substantially in a more
manic direction. The High Ed.-Not Married group decreased
substantially and the Low Ed.-Not Married group remained
constant,
10. The Not Married groups increased in self-concept
(Evaluative Factor). The Married-Low Ed. group decreased
in self-concept and the Married-High Ed. group remained
constant.
11. The Married-Low Ed. group increased slightly
in self-concept (Potency Factor) while the rest of the
groups increased moderately.
12. The Married-Low Ed. group decreased moderately
in self-concept (Activity Factor) while the rest of the
groups increased slightly.
Overall,, 73-33 percent of the subjects in the study
were classified into the correct group. The accuracy of
prediction for the High Ed.-Married (100$) and Not Married
groups (83.3$) was superior to either the Low Ed.-Married
(69.2$) or Not Married groups (71.8$). Table 8 presents
a summary of the prediction chart obtained for this analy
sis .
During the course of the study,, 67 subjects com
pleted the material,, 7 reported that the material was
Table 8
Predictive Accuracy of Discriminant Function Analysis for the
Combination of Marital Status and Education
Predicted Group Membership
Actual Group Wo. of Cases
Wot
Low Education
Married Married
High Education Low Education High Education
Wot Married
Low Education
39
28
(71.8$)
3
( 7-750
7
(17-950
1
( 2.650
High Education 6
1
(16.7M
5
(83.3/0)
0
( o.o/O 0
• 0
0
Married
Low Education
13
(30.8/)
0
( o.o/O
9
(69.2/)
0
• 0
0
High Education 2
0
( 0.0/0 O
• O
O
O
• O
O
2
(100.0$)
Note. Percent of "grouped" cases correctly classified: 73- 33$-
H
62
completed and returned (lost), g refused, and 8 did not
return the material. Table 9 examines the differences
between these groups on pre-scores of the MMPl.
63
Table 9
Significant Differences from Student’s t Test
Group Means
Variable Respondents Refused Lost No Response t Value
Need for
Affection
66.9
72.8 -3. 25**
Frankness 48.15 45.50 2.77*
Psychopathic
Deviate
52.57
58.50
-2 . 53*
*p < .05.
**p < .01.
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, FINDINGS,
AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
This research attempted to determine whether women
involved In law enforcement experienced any change in per
sonality and self-concept over the various years of their
employment. A substantial portion of the literature in
law enforcement is devoted to the hazards of such an occu
pation. It was therefore reasonable to inquire as to
whether a relatively new group (in numbers and variety of
assignments) did experience a change In personality and if
so the direction of such change. Of specific Interest was
the Identification of subgroups within the large groups
which might be particularly vulnerable or resistant to the
unique pressures of law enforcement.
Female applicants for the position of Deputy
Sheriff Trainee with the Los Angeles County Sheriff's
Department between June 1971 an^ November 1973 were psy
chologically evaluated to determine their fitness for the
position. During the period June to September 1976 those
applicants who were still employed by the Sheriff's Depart-
64
65
rnent were retested on a voluntary basis. The MMPl and the
Semantic Differential Technique were employed in the study.
Additionally, a 5-page questionnaire was completed by each
subj ect.
Conclusions
The following results relevant to the hypothesis
were obtained:
Ho-^ was rejected. Lying, frankness, and defensive
ness increased or decreased as a function of sub
group membership.
HOg was partially rejected. Hypochondriasis and
depression increased or decreased as a function of
subgroup membership.
Ho^ was rejected. Sociopathy increased or decreased
as a function of subgroup membership.
Ho^ was rejected for the group as a whole. There
was an increase in femininity.
Ho^ was partially rejected. Paranoia and mania
increased or decreased as a function of subgroup
membership.
Ho^ was not rejected.
66
Ho^ was rejected. In general,, the group became more
introverted.
HOg was partially rejected. Self-concept improved.
Hon was rejected. Subjects reported a reduction in
y
stress.
H°io was rejected. Age at entry was a relevant vari
able in that differential personality changes occurred
as a function of this variable.
H°n was rejected. Marital Status at entry was a
relevant variable in that differential personality
changes occurred as a function of this variable.
H°i2 was rejected. Due to the relevance of educa
tional level at entry in that differential^ person
ality changes occurred as a function of this variable.
Ho^g was rejected. Number of years of service was
relevant in that differential personality changes
occurred as a function of this variable.
Prior to discussing the major personality changes
it is important to note that although the number of years
of service was a relevant factor in the change scores on
the naive lying scale,, this finding is probably more the
result of chance than of any systematic variance. An
67
acceptable interpretation of the data is that there is no
significant difference in change scores as a function of
three., four, or five years in law enforcement. It is
hypothesized by a number of researchers in the field that
the most significant changes occur during the first year.
It is probable that by the third year the Deputy had
adjusted to the new occupation and further significant
changes will not occur during this next time period. As a
whole, the group became more frank, Introverted, hypochon-
drical, and endorsed Items in. a more feminine direction.
Additionally, self-concept improved in the areas reflected
by the evaluative (good-bad) and potency (strong-weak)
factors of the semantic differential technique.
Subjects reported less of a need for affection;
however, scores continued to be greater than one standard
deviation above the mean for the general population.
Frankness, introversion, and hypochondriasis
increased, approaching the mean for the general population,
thereby suggesting that the group as a whole is within the
normal range on these measures. The data lend themselves
to an interpretation of normality for the group. It is
reasonable to suggest that the group was more willing to
recognize and admit to unusual feelings, and to feelings
about the body, thereby contributing to increased scores on
frankness and hypochondriasis. Given this interpretation
the overall profile is more healthy than the entry level
profile. Overalls reported self-concept is positive,, which
suggests that the group noted an improvement in self-worth
over time. Literature in the field often focuses on the
stresses inherent in law enforcement. However,, for this
group there appear to be no reported debilitating effects.
The reduction in need for affection or reinforcement from
others suggests that although this scale is still elevated
above the norm., the subjects demonstrate a more healthy
level of independence than at entry. Furthermore, the
female deputies report a reduction in stress, which the
literature associates with a positive self-concept.
In general, the results point to a healthy adjust
ment on the part of the female deputies on a group basis.
Increases in introversion and hypochondriasis were in the
direction of the general population mean and not thereby a
reflection of behavior or preoccupations which would dis
tinguish this group from the population at large.
Findings
Subgroups
To examine the data for the group as a whole can be
informative. However, to treat the subjects and the experi
ence of law enforcement as a monolith is to distort the
unique individual and subgroup contributions.
There are a number of significant findings related
to marital status. The single group is the youngest and
the most highly educated. The main elements of change for
this group are an improved self-concept (evaluative,
potency, activity), a decrease in mania (still slightly
elevated above the mean for the general population), and an
increase in rigidity (approaching the mean for the general
population). Rigidity reflects a general tendency towards
controlled or stereotyped responding; therefore, it is rea
sonable to hypothesize that as rigidity increases, mania,
which involves as one of its dimensions a restlessness or
impulsiveness, will decrease. Additionally, naive lying
decreased approaching the mean. In general, the single
group changed or reported a change in positive direction.
The married group moved in a more feminine direc
tion, were less rigid (moving towards one standard devia
tion below the population mean), less defensive (although
still greater than one standard deviation above the popula
tion mean), and improved in self-concept (potency factor).
Additionally, there was a decrease in reported self-concept
(evaluative and activity factors) and the group became more
manic. It would seem that the manic activity may be a com
pensation for reduced self-concept and the probable associ
ated depression. The married group reported a decrease in
self-worth, and in degree of activity. They reported feel
ing less valuable (valued?) and less active. They do, how
70
ever., feel stronger, more potent.
The separated, divorced, and widowed group (other)
became more manic and more paranoid (both measures above
the mean). At entry they have the lowest level of educa
tion and are the oldest of the three groups. Self-concept
as reflected by the evaluative and potency factors of the
semantic differential improved. One hypothesis associated
with the above is that the subjects become more outwardly
focused and report an improved self-concept because the job
allows for such a focus.
The educational groupings add light to the person
ality change of the subjects. The high school level group
became less depressed (slightly below the population mean)
and more manic (one-half standard deviation above the popu
lation mean). They also increased slightly in introversion,
and became more hypochondrical (both approaching the mean).
The inverse association between depression and mania is a
relatively common phenomenon suggesting in this case the
possibility that the high school level group compensates
for feelings of depression with manic activity to enable
them to continue a constant level of effectiveness.
Increase in hypochondriasis may also be a defense against
depression in that the individual expresses his or her
psychological and emotional conflicts through somatic chan
nels .
71
The A.A. level group,, contrary to the High School
(H.S.) group,, became less introverted (below the population
mean) and less manic (approaching the population mean).
This group went contrary to the general trend on introver
sion. One hypothesis to consider would be to view the H.S.
and B.A. levels as discreet finished Gestalts^ whereas the
A.A. level group joined the Department in the middle of
their education and therefore over the past years have been
involved in the academic setting with its potential for
reducing feelings of isolation. This group appeared to
have adjusted rather well to their position.
The B.A. level group approached the posttesting in
a less frank manner: below the population mean. They
reflect an increase in depression to the population mean,
coupled with a decrease in the mania approaching the popu
lation mean. Introversion, (approaching the population mean)
increased and hypochondriasis decreased (below the popula
tion mean). This group, unlike the H.S. and A.A. level
groups,, did not use hypochondriasis as a defense against
depression. They^ therefore^ appear more depressed, but
this seems to be acceptable to them as reflected by the
reduced score on the frankness scale, which is interpreted
by some clinicians as a measure of "requesting help."
Depression in this instance may reflect dissatisfaction^
frustration^ and failure in achievement. The B.A. level
Deputies may have had higher expectations in terms of
72
career or career advancement and evaluate their present
position negatively. Interestingly,, the decrease in
frankness suggests that while they report an increased
depression, they separate the events (distress) from the
personal meaning of the events. Generally, as depression
increases, frankness increases reflecting a subjective
disturbance and request for help. In essence, they are
not bothered by the depression.
Marital Status and Education Combined
When the various groups are combined on the dimen
sion of marital status and education, It Is noted that the
high education-married group moves substantially in a more
desirable direction. They became more feminine, and had
reduced scores on the following scales: paranoia, rigidity,
naive lying, psychopathic deviate, defensiveness, and
mania. Additionally, they reported an increase In self-
concept (activity and potency). They did become more
Introverted (or less gregarious) although much less so
than their high education counterparts who were not married.
This suggests that the marital relationship reduces the
tendency towards introversion noted in the group as a
whole and addressed in the literature as isolation. The
married-lower education group became more paranoid, intro
verted, and manic. Additionally, they reported a decrease
In self-concept on the evaluative and activity factors of
73
the semantic differential technique. It is interesting to
note that this is the only group that reported a decreased
self-concept. On the positive side,, there was an increase
in. frankness with a concomitant decrease in defensiveness
and naive lying. Femininity increased and sociopathy
decreased. Rigidity also decreased. This group also
experienced an increase in self-concept in the area of
potency.
The not married groups increased in self-coneept,
sociopathy^ and rigidity; however., all other changes were
In opposite directions as a function of educational level.
The not married-higher education group became much more
Introverted, more naive, and less frank. On the positive
side, they also became less manic, more feminine., and less
paranoid. The low education-not married group became more
paranoid and less feminine. Balancing the above findings,,
was an increased frankness and a reduction in naive lying.
Integration of the Findings
The main pattern which seems to emerge from the
data Is the general positive, stable personalities and
perceived improved self-concept of the female Deputies.
As a group they exhibit characteristics which are consid
ered well within the norm for the general population.
Additionally, self-concept and level of stress are reported
to have changed In a positive direction. Those scales which
74
are elevated above one standard deviation., namely need for
affection and defensiveness, change in the direction of
the norm, and are seen as a positive movement.
Within the clearly specified parameters of "normal
ity, " one can examine patterns of change; however, identi
fied trends for specific subgroups must be interpreted in
the light of this guideline. Those subjects who entered
law enforcement when they were single appear to have
changed in the most positive direction. It is noted that
this group is also younger and more educated than their
fellow female deputies.
The higher the level of education at entry, the
more favorable are the scores on the personality and self-
concept measures. Those Deputies (with low levels of educa
tion) who were married before they entered law enforcement
(c. 50^ were subsequently separated or divorced) reported
a decreased self-concept and an increase in paranoia and
mania. This group appeared to be "at hazard" in that high
scores on mania have been associated with increased accident
risk (Marsh, 1962), and through self-report they were the
only group to experience a reduced self-concept. If this
trend continues, one would expect to see this group having
a disproportionate number of accidents, personal problems,
and difficulties on the job. Lastly, although the separated,
divorced, and widowed group reported a good self-concept,
75
two changes are somewhat alarming and require further
inquiry. This group became more manic and more paranoid,
two of three scales dealing with psychotic process. This
group possesses the lowest level of education and are the
oldest of the three groups. In generalizing it is impor
tant to recognize the limitations of the study. It would
be absurd to generalize the results to all police due to
the fact that the vast majority of police are men. Society
has different expectations of men and women. For example,
in the area of displaying one's emotions or asking for
affection and nurturance, women are generally encouraged
to develop these areas, whereas men are reproached if they
"turn soft.” These women, under a great deal of continuous
pressure, generally displayed a positive and healthy
adjustment. It may be that support, caring, and the fre
quent opportunity for emotional discharge had a neutraliz
ing effect on the stress. In the overall picture we see a
group of successful female deputy sheriffs that are emotion
ally healthy at entry and also after years of exposure to
one of the most stressful positions in society. Reports
on police being emotionally unhealthy either at entry, or
after being on the job a number of years, or both, were not
borne out by the study. Quite the contrary, the author was
impressed with the emotional well-being of the subjects as
reflected by MMPI scores throughout the period of the study.
76
As women increase in numbers in law enforcement and become
more active in all phases of police work,, questions will
be raised as to whether they are emotionally equipped for
the rigors experienced daily. Taking this group as a
representative sample of Los Angeles County female Deputies,
and generalizing to women in law enforcement nationally,
it can be concluded that women are qualified for all
aspects of law enforcement.
Re c o mm endations
The main point which the data clearly demonstrate
is that women in law enforcement cannot be treated as a
monolithic group. Personality changes do occur and often
in opposite directions as a function of a number of demo
graphic variables. Researchers that focus on police as a
group are often misleading in that they are not sensitive
to subgroup opposing trends which in. the larger group tend
to nullify each other.
The individuals in the study brought to the posi
tion and maintained a stable personality configuration, as
reflected by the MMPI. A number of subgroups, which
naturally overlap, stand out and require further study.
Although the negative trends which developed over the
past three to five years have not gone beyond the parameter
of normality, they should be evaluated to determine the
77
progression, of potentially maladaptive patterns. Fifty
percent of the married subjects were separated or divorced
during the course of the study. The present research is
limited to reporting such a phenomenon, with the hope that
these new data might be evaluated in the future. Certainly
the lower educated-married female deputies require further
study because of the apparent negative changes.
One fruitful area of research would be the degree
of support exhibited by the spouse. The author has been
impressed with the importance of such support in general
and particularly for those individuals experiencing a high
degree of stress. Another area of interest is the degree
of role dissonance experienced by the deputy at home and
in a male-dominated profession. There may exist radically
opposing expectations at home and on the job and this could
create additional stress which may lead to medical prob
lems., negative personality changes, leaving the force, or
divorce.
Another field of inquiry deals with critical time
periods wherein the Deputy is exposed to maximum stress,
such as at the Academy, or perhaps at the start of his/her
first assignment. It is a criticism of the present study
that these time frames were not evaluated. However, cer
tain limits were drawn in order to keep the study within
manageable parameters.
78
Certainly the quality of our lives is influenced
by our occupations. Few activities define us so emphati
cally and become the nucleus around which our interests.,
loves , and free time,, to name a few., revolve. Stress in
police work has been, documented but let us not as scien
tists become blind to the subjective effects of stress.
They are adverse, potentially becoming more destructive
with time, and are detrimental to the individual in all
aspects of his life. Too long in the author's experience
has the society r r burned out" the conscientious and sensi
tive, and then looked with a critical eye on the hardened,
bureaucratic product of their insensitivity.
Only in recent times has society looked at the pres
sures experienced by law enforcement personnel and their
families. Programs have been initiated utilizing the tools
of social science to identify and counteract the negative
aspects of the job in response to a critical demand. The
subjects in this study are fortunate to have had available
to them a staff of psychologists who have devised programs,
consulted with all levels of management, and offered psy
chotherapy at no expense to the individual. Such programs
have worth and contribute to the reduction of stress and
hopefully, to an improvement in the quality of the offi
cer's life.
79
It is hoped that this study will stimulate further
research not only In the area of law enforcement but in all
occupations where stress Is a major factor.
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APPENDICES
90
APPENDIX A
RELIABILITY DATA ON THE BASIC SCALES
91
Table 1A
Means Standard Deviations., and Retest Coefficients
from Male College Students (N=28) with a
One-Day Interval between Tests
Scale
First Test Second Test
r Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
L
95
6. 14 45 5.51+
•73
F 62
17.33
60 16.25
•97
K 52 7.81 52 9.82
.89
1
51 9.03 52 8.85 .49
2 6o 15.41 58 II.63 .88
9 59
8.51 56 9.10 .81
i f
65
13.84 60
13-57 -95
5
68 11.14
67
11.04
.91
6 62 12.70 62 14.44
.89
7
64 10.08 6l 11.85
•93
8 66 14.12
63 16.35 • 95
9 65 12.55 63
13.60 . 96
0 52 11.10 52 12.42 .94
Source: Dahlstrom., Welsh and Dahlstrom (1975)-
Table 2A
Means., Standard Deviations., and Retest Coefficients
from Female College Students (N=33) with a
One-Day Interval between Tests
First Test Second Test
Scale Mean S.D. Mean S.D. r
L 46 7.24 46 6.58 .85
F
59
12.60 60 15.40 .82
K 48 8.56
51
9.21
.87
1 52 11.40 52 11.54 .92
2
59 1V39 57
14.98 .96
3
58 12.12
57
IO.69
.85
4
59
17.01 62
17.9^ .91
5 47
8.94 47 7.52 -77
6 60 11.10 62 11.07
-71
7 59
11.01 61 10.42
-93
8
63
14.04 64 i4.18
-95
9 59 9.87 63
8.64
.85
0
57
13.34 58 15.88 . 96
Source: Dahlstrom^ Welsh., and Dahlstrom (1975)-
92
Table 3A
Means, Standard Deviations, and Retest Coefficients
from Male College Students (N=72) with a
One- to Two-Week Interval between Tests
First Test Second Test
Scale Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
r
L 77 6.03
^3
5.36 66
F
59 7.76 6l 12.63 87
K
51
8.00
51 7.70 78
1
51
6.99 78 6.62 65
2 57 10.85
51
9.28 69
3
56 8.03
55
6.28 63
7 6l
10.55
62 13.07
77
5
61 9.70 60 10.60 72
6
55 7.63 55
10.60 79
7
62 9.25 60 11.12 77
8
63
11.02
63
12.62
79
9
66 9.27 65 10.23
63
0
51
11.17 52 11.06
83
Source: Dahlstrom, Welsh, and Dahlstrom (1975>
.
Table 7a
Means, Standard Deviations, and Retest Coefficients
from Female College Students (N=55) with a
One-Week Interval between Tests
First Test Second Test
Scale Mean
S.D.
Mean
S.D. r
L 78.32
5-73
78.76 6.17 79
F 79.28
5-45
79.12 7.83 62
K
58.91 8.53
61.11 9.01 92
1 71.91
3.31
71.00
3-57 73
2
75.51
7.87 77.20 7.27 87
3
50.18 7.01 50.00
7.76 71
7 79.85 7A7
78.55
8.11 87
5
. • • . • . . • • • • • • •
6 50.72 7.62
51.91
8.43 81
7
77.72 6.98 43.13
6.76 92
8 75.83
5-99
75.18 5-54 82
9
57.7o 9.34 57.00 9.74
79
0
Source: Dahlstrom, Welsh, and Dahlstrom (1975)-
Table 5A
Means, Standard Deviations, and Retest Coefficients
from Male College Students (N=20l) -with an
Eight-Month Interval between Tests
Scale
First Test Second Test
r Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
L 47.2
7-3
^-7.1
7-7
. 64
F
53-9
9.8 5U 5 10.5 .61
K
52.7
8.1 54.2 8.0
.67
1 53-2 7.8 51.6 7-6 • 50
2 52. 4 11.6 50.0 10.5
•57
3
51.k 7.6
56.5 7-7 • 5^
59-1
10.4 58.0 10.9 . 61
5
63.1 10.1 62 .1 10.1
.63
6
56.5
8.8
56.7 9-1
.44
7
62.7 10. 4 60.8 10.4
• 55
8 63.8 11.9
63.7
13.2
■ 57
9
59-2 10.1 61.4 10.9
• 59
0
53-3 9-1 50.9
8.9
• 73
Source: Dahlstrom, Welsh, and Dahlstrom (1975)*
Table 6A
Means, Standard Deviations, and Retest Coefficients
from Female College Students (N=289) with an
Eight-Month Interval between Tests
Scale
First Test Second Test
r Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
L 48.0
9-9
47.2 8.2 .58
F 54.1 9.4 52.2
9-7 •51
K
55-3
8.4 58.1 8.8 . 64
1 49.4 7.0 48.1
6-3
.49
2 50.1
8.7
48.1 8.0 .56
3
54.2
7-7 53A 7-3
.52
4 56.0
9-1 55-7
9.2
•53
5
46.0
8.7
45.4 9.6 • 58
6
55-8
8.1
53-9 8-5
.42
7
58.1
8.5 56.3 7-3
. 46
8 58.1 8.2 57*0
7-5 • 51
9
58.4 10.1
59-5
10.0 . 64
0 56.2
9.9 53V
9.4 .76
Source: Dahlstrom, Welsh, and Dahlstrom (1975)-
Table 7A
Means,, Standard Deviations,, and Retest Coefficients
from Male Adolescents (N=1922) with a Three-Year
Interval between Tests
Scale
First Test Second Test
r Mean S.D. Mean S.D.
L 50 8.0 48
9.3 •39
F 58 11.0 54 8.8 .45
K
53
9.6
55
9.8 .52
1
51 8.7 51
8.1 .34
2 52 10.1
51
10.0 .38
3
52 8.0 54
7-9 •37
1 + 58
9.9 59 10.7
.36
5 51
8.8 52 9.4
•45
6 56 10.2 54 8.8
•32
7
58 10.1+
57
9.8
•37
8 62 12.7 58 11.0
•37
9
58 10.6
57
10.8
•47
0 54 8.1+
47
9.0 •54
Source: Dahlstrom,, Welsh,, and Dahlstrom (1975) •
Table 8A
Means,, Standard Deviations,, and Retest Coefficients
from Female Adolescents (N=2054) with a Three-Year
Interval between Tests
Scale
First Test Second Test
r Mean S.D. Mean
S.D.
L 50
7-7
48
7-3
.50
F
55 9.3
52
7-5
.49
K
53
9.4
55
9.6 •56
1 48
7-5
49 6.9 .41
2
49
8.9 49
8.7
.47
3 51 8.3 54 7-8 .44
4
57
10.0
57
10.0
•38
5 53
9.0
51
9.0
• 43
6
55
10.0 54 9.0
.36
7
56 8.5 55 8.5 • 50
8 58 9.7
56 8.6 .42
9
56 11.3 54 10.7
• 45
0 54 8.9 52
9-5
.61
Source: Dahlstrom,, Welsh,, and Dahlstrom (1975)-
Table 9A
Comparison of the Rosen (1953) Study with the
Holzberg and Alessi (1949) Study
(Test-Retest Stability Coefficients for MMPI Scales)
Scale
Rosen
Study
(n=4o)
Holzberg 8s
Alessi
(N=30)
L .62 00
vn
F .81
•93
K
•65
Hs
.85 .67
Hs + .5 K .86
D .80 .80
Hy .88 00
Pd .88 • 52
Pd + .4 K
.87
Mf
. 64 .76
Pa
• 75
.78
Pt .80 .72
Pt + 1.0 K .88
Sc
.83 .89
Sc + 1.0 K .86
Ma .56
CO
LP\
Ma + .2 K
• 55
Si
.83
Note. Coefficients of . 31 and .36 are significantly
different from zero at the .05 level, for N
of 40 and ^0, respectively.
Source: Rosen (1953)*
APPENDIX B
QUESTIONNAIRE
97
NAME _____________________ DATE OF BIRTH_____ DATE
In general, during ray academy -training, which was frcn. _______________
-to_________ I would describe myself as: (please circle number)
Valuable 1 2 3 4 5
6 Worthless
Dirty 1 2
3
4
5
6 Clean
Good 1 2 3 4
5 6 Bad
Weak 1 2 3 4 5 6 Strong
Deep 1 2 3 4
5 6 Shallow
Small 1 2 3 4 5 6 Large
Active 1 2 3 4
5 6 Passive
Slow 1 2 3 4 5 6 Fast
Hot 1 2 3 4 5 6 Cold
Overall, I feel that -the academy experience was: (please circle number)
Good 1 2
3
4
5
6 Bad
Harmful 1 2 3 4 5 6 Beneficial
Pleasant 1 2 3 4 5 6 Unpleasant
Stressful 1 2 3 4 5 6 Not Stressful
During ~the Above Period (Academy):
Ky health was: Good 0 Fair 0 Poor 0
Weight: Loss 0 Gain 0 None 0 How Much
Did you take any of the following: Yes No
a) Tranquilizers..........................-....Q 0
Barbiturates such as phenobarbital,..seconal.... 0 0
c) Cortisone-...-............................ 0 0
d) Sleeping Pills 0 0
e) Amphetamines................... -.... 0 Q
f) Asthma Medication................... ....... 0 0
g) Medication for High/Low blood pressure,.... 0 0
98
99
In general, duri.ng ny current assigns?ent which was fron
to the present, I would describe myseIf as (please circle number)
Valuable 1 2 3 4 5 6 Worthless
Dirty 1 2 3 4 5
6 Clean
Good 1 2 3 4 5
6 Bad
Weak 1 2 3 4 5
6 Strong
Deep 1 2 3 4 5 6 Shallow
Small 1 2
3 4 5
6 Large
Active 1 2 3 4 5 6 Passive
Slow 1 2 3 4 5 6 Fast
Hot 1 2 3 4 5 6 Cold
Cverall, I feel
(please circle n
that the
umber)
current assi,
o-
experience was:
Good 1 2 3 4 5
6 Bad
Harmful 1 2 3 4 5 6 Beneficial
Pleasant 1 2 3 4 5 6 Unpleasant
Stressful 1 2 3 4 5 6 Not Stress
During the Above Period (current assignment):
My health was: Good □ Fair d
Weight: Loss □ Gain [J
Poor
□
None CZ3 How Much
Did you take any of the following: Yes No
a) Tranquilizers...............................
□ □
b) Barbiturates such as phenobarbital, seconal. . .
□ □
c)
Cortisone...................................
□ □
d) Sleeping Pills ............................. □ □
e)
Amphetamines ............. ...............
□ □
f)
Asthma Medication...........................
□ □
s)
Medication for high/low blood pressure .......
□ □
100
Marital Status at entry into law enforcement;
Single 0 Married 0 Separated 0
Change in Marital Status:
I was married 0
I was separated □
I was divorced O
I was remarried 0
Date_
Date_
Date_
Date
Current Marital Status:
Single □ Married
Age and sex of children:
□
Divorced 0
During which assigment_
During which assignnent_
During which assign-ent_
During which assignment
Separated 0 Divorced O
Current living arrangement of children:
With you and husband 0 With you
Other 0 Please explain_____
0 With former husband 0
Please lis~ Hobbies
Interests (including athletic)
Are you attending school yes 0 no 01
If so, what is your goal or purpose_________
Specify area(s) of academic interest__________
Do you usually take more than 2 alcoholic drinks a day? Yes 0 No 0
If "yes", are these drinks usually: beer 0 wine 0 hard liquor 0
Do you smoke cigarettes? Yes 0 No 0
If you have ever smoked, give year you started, indicate below how
much you smoked, and if you have stopped, in what year.
year started year shopped
(Check) over 2 packs a day. 0 about 1 pack a day 0
more than 1 and less than 2 packs 0
less than 1 pack a day 0
Have you ever had any claim for an industrial accident? Yes 0 No 0
101
Number of Close Friends ____________
Occupation of people you call close friends and number of close
friends in that occupation:
Police Q #____ , Business Q #____ , Students Q #____ ,
Law Enforcement related( D.A., Probation, Etc.) □ #____ ,
Medical Q #____, Other □ #_________________________
Do you have friends now who are in different occupations than were
the people who were your friends when you began police work? ____
If yes, what were the occupations of your friends in the past?
Have you changed residence since being in law enforcement?
Yes □ No Q
If yes, how often, and why______________________________
How do your childrens' friends feel about you being a policewoman:
Like □ No opinion Q Dislike Q
Have your children had any:
a) School problems yes
□
no
□
b)
Difficulties sleeping yes
□
no
□
c) Problems with other children yes
□
no
□
d) Other
becoming a policewoman, do people relate to you differently?
□
o
S 3
□
If yes, people , are more(please circle numb;
Friendly 1 2
3 4 5 6 Unfriendly
Distant 1 2 3 4 5 6 Close
Open 1 2 3 4 5 6 Secretive
Tense 1 2 3 4 5 6 Relaxed
Do you relate to people differently? Yes □ No □
102
If yes: You are more (please circle number)
Friendly 1 2 3 4 5 6 Unfriendly
Distant 1 2 3 4 5 6 Close
Open 1 2 3 4 5 6 Secretive
Tense 1 2 3 4 5 6 Relaxed
Male Deputie*s attitudes towards policewomen:
Negative 1 2 3 4 5 6 Positive
Friendly 1 2 3 4 5 6 Unfriendly
Distant 1 2 3 4 5 6 Close
Open 1 2 3 4 5 6 Secretive
Tense 1 2 3 4 5 6 Relaxed
Family attitude towards your career when first started:
Approve 1 2 3 4 5 6 Disapprove
Now:
Aprove 1 2 3 4 5 6 Disapprove
Unusual Experiences:
You shot at a suspect..................... yes 0 no O
A suspect shot at you..................... yes Q no Q
Attacked (physically)..................... yes Q no 0
Major injury/death of fellow officer........yes Q no 0
Major injury/death of innate...............yes Q no 0
Homosexual advances................... yes 0 no 0
Complaint filed against you................yes 0 no 0
If yes, nature of complaint______________________________
My most important reason for entering law enforcement was_
My second most important reason for entering law enforcement
My most important reason for staying in law enforcement now is
My second most important reason for staying in law enforcement now is

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Asset Metadata

Creator Flynn, Kevin Matthew (author)

Core Title A longitudinal study of women in law enforcement

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,sociology, criminology and penology,women's studies

Language English

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-454175

Unique identifier UC11247057

Identifier usctheses-c26-454175 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP24196.pdf

Dmrecord 454175

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Flynn, Kevin Matthew

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA