University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The focus of therapy and development of androgyny in clients of androgynous and non-androgynous therapists

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The focus of therapy and development of androgyny in clients of androgynous and non-androgynous therapists

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Content THE FO C U S O F THERAPY AN D DEVELOPM ENT O F A N D R O G YN Y IN CLIENTS O F A N D R O G YN O U S A N D NO N-ANDRO G YNO US THERAPISTS by Susan Alice Webster A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY O F THE G R A D U A TE S C H O O L UNIVERSITY O F SO U THERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree D O C TO R O F PHILOSOPHY (Education) June 1981 Copyright by Susan Alice Webster, 1981 UMI Number: DP24809 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMI DP24809 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA T H E G R A D U A T E S C H O O L U N IV E R S IT Y P A R K L O S A N G E L E S . C A L IF O R N IA 9 0 0 0 7 5« £ d . ‘81 v m i- This dissertation, written by Susan Alice Webster M under the direction of h$X.... Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Graduate School, in partial fulfillment of requirements of the degree of D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y Dean NATION COMMITTEE Chairman ACKNOW LEDGM ENTS I am very grateful to those who stood by m e throughout this long journey. Thank you to m y sister Joan for encouragement and suggestions, to Bette Harrell w ho not only was there for m e but showed m e what humanistic existential therapy is all about, and to Barbara Hoffman for her unfailing support and unconditional love. I would also like to gratefully acknowledge m y committee members w ho gave their time and energies in support of this dissertation: Chairperson Don Schrader for his help, support, and willingness to take a chance, and committee members Dennis Hocevar, who was incredibly patient and available, and M ilt Wolpin, w ho encouraged m e and helped m e keep perspective by making m e laugh. Thank you also to Barry Bachelor for his help with the computer programming and to all the therapists and clients w ho willingly participated in the research. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page A C K N O W LED G M EN TS .................................................................................................. ii LIST O F TABLES.................................................................................................. vi ABSTRACT vi i Chapter I. THE PROBLEM.......................................................................................... 1 Background of the Problem ......................................................... 1 Statement of the Problem ......................................................... 4 Purpose of the S t u d y ................................................................. 5 Research Questions to be Answered ......................................... 6 Theoretical Framework ............................................................. . 6 Assumptions of the Study ......................................................... 9 Research Hypotheses . 9 Delimitations of the Study ..................................................... 9 Definition of Terms.................... 9 Outline of Remainder of Dissertation* ................................. 10 I I . REVIEW O F THE LITERATURE........................ 12 Measurement of Androgyny ......................................................... 13 Correlates of Androgyny: Interpersonal Flexib ility . . 15 Correlates of Androgyny: Personality Traits .................. 17 Correlates of Androgyny: Self-Esteem .................................. 19 Correlates of Androgyny: Self-Actualization .................. 22 i i i Page Antecedents of Androgyny................................ 23 Androgyny in Therapists ............................................................. 26 Development of Androgyny in Clients ..................................... 27 Summary.............................................................................................. 29 I I I . METHODOLOGY.......................................................................................... 31 Research Design-............................................................................. 31 Selection of Sample . ................................................................. 32 Instrumentation ............................................. 32 B ern Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) (Bern, 1974, 1976) . . . 32 Therapist Focus Questionnaire (TFQ) (Webster, 1980) . 33 Procedures and Data C o lle c tio n ............................................. 34 Data A nalysis................................................................. 35 Limitations of the S t u d y ......................................................... 36 Summary................................................ 36 IV. RESULTS.................................................................................................. 38 Findings Regarding Hypothesis One ........................................ 38 Findings Regarding Hypothesis Two ........................................ 42 Summary of Findings..................................................................... 43 V. SUM M ARY, CONCLUSIONS, A N D RECO M M ENDATIO NS ............................. 45 Summary of Procedures ................................................................. 47 Sum mary of M ethods..................................................................... 48 Sum mary of R e s u lt s ..................................................................... 48 Discussion . .............................................................................. 49 Conclusions and Recommendations ........................................ 53 iv Page REFERENCE L I S T ................................................................................................. 56 APPENDIXES.......................................................................................................... 65 A. INSTRUMENT DEVELOPM ENT QUESTIONNAIRE ...................................... 66 B. B E M SEX R O LE INVENTORY (THERAPISTS).......................................... 67 C. B E M SEX R O LE INVENTORY (CLIEN TS).............................................. 69 D. THERAPIST FO C U S QUESTIONNAIRE ...................................................... 71 E. ITEMS O N THE MASCULINITY, FEMININITY, AND SOCIAL DESIRABILITY SCALE O F THE B S R I................................................. 72 v LIST O F TABLES Page 1. CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS O F LEVEL O F A N D R O G YN Y FO R THERAPISTS A N D CLIENTS.................... 39 2. M E A N S A N D STA ND A RD DEVIATIONS FO R CLIENT'S AGE, CLIENT'S YEAR S O F THERAPY WITH CURRENT THERAPIST, A N D CLIENT'S YEAR S O F THERAPY W ITH PREVIOUS THERAPIST FO R A N D R O G YN O U S A N D NO N -AN D RO G YN O U S CLIENTS.............................. . . ................................................................ 40 3. CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS O F THE EFFECT O F CLIENT SEX O N THE CLIENT'S LEVEL O F ANDROGYNY................................................. 40 4. M E A N S A N D STA ND A RD DEVIATIONS F O R THERAPISTS' MASCULINITY A N D FEMININITY SCO R ES A N D CLIENTS' MASCULINITY A N D FEMININITY SCO R ES ................................. . . . . . 41 5. CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS O F THE EFFECT O F N U M B E R O F YEAR S THERAPIST W A S LICENSED WITH CLIENT'S LEVEL OF ANDROGYNY.................................................................................. 41 6. REGRESSION RESULTS O F FO C U S O N SEX R O LE ISSUES W ITH DEM O G RAPHIC VARIABLES A N D A N D R O G YN Y LEVELS O F CLIENTS A N D THERAPISTS .......................................... 43 vi ABSTRACT THE FO C U S O F THERAPY A N D DEVELO PM ENT O F A N D R O G YN Y IN CLIENTS O F A N D R O G YN O U S A N D N O N-AN DR O G YN O US THERAPISTS The purpose of this study was to investigate specifically whether androgynous therapists develop androgynous clients to a significantly greater extent than non-androgynous therapists and whether androgynous therapists focus on sex role issues to a significantly greater extent than non-androgynous therapists. Thirty-six licensed therapists were utilized as well as 56 of their clients w ho were between the ages of 20-60 and who had received therapy for at least six months. Each therapist and client completed the B ern Sex Role Inventory in order to measure sex-role type, and each therapist completed the Therapist Focus Questionnaire designed to measure focus of therapy. This study utilized a Post-test Only Control Group Design. Upon performing chi-square analysis, i t was found there was no significant difference in the proportion of androgynous clients of androgynous therapists compared to that of non-androgynous therapists, t Tests and chi-square analysis showed no significant difference between demographic variables and level of client androgyny. vi i Upon performing multiple regression procedures, i t was found that androgynous therapists do not focus on sex role issues to a greater extent than non-androgynous therapists. The only demographic variable correlated with focus on sex role issues was the number of years the therapist was licensed, F = 7.137, p = <.05. Less experienced therapists, regardless of sex role orientation, focus on sex role issues to a significantly greater extent than more experienced therapists. However, less experienced therapists did not develop androgynous clients to a significantly greater degree than more experienced therapists. A t test was utilized to test the significance of the difference between the means for the therapist's masculinity and femininity scores and the means for the client's masculinity and femininity scores, and the difference was found to be significant, t (90) = p <.01. This shows that clients, regardless of sex role orientation, have an expected larger split between their masculinity and femininity than do therapists. The conclusions to be drawn from this study are that clients of androgynous therapists do not m ove toward a position of androgyny to a significantly greater extent than clients of non-androgynous therapists, and that androgynous therapists do not focus on sex role issues to a greater degree than non-androgynous therapists. Since the literature suggests that the state of androgyny m ay be developed by training, modeling, or stronger ego development, even i f androgynous therapists did not focus on sex role issues more, one would s till expect androgynous therapists to develop androgynous clients. However, this was not the case, perhaps because a minimum of six v iii months of therapy is not a long enough treatment period to influence as complex a state as androgyny. I f i t is important for therapists to help their clients attain the positive correlates of the state of androgyny, i t is also important to discover if androgyny level can be changed after it is formed and i f so, how that change occurs. Therefore, i t is recommended that this study be replicated utilizing a longer treatment period and using other instruments for measuring androgyny and the focus of therapy. CHAPTER I THE PR O B LE M Recently there has been a flurry of research on the positive correlates of the psychological state of androgyny. However, even though som e research shows that the development of androgyny can be influenced by parental personality tra its , modeling, training and/or ego development, there has been no research on the effects of androgynous and non-androgynous therapists on their clients. The purpose of this study is to investigate whether the development of androgyny in clients is influenced by the level of androgyny of the therapist and whether androgynous and non-androgynous therapists differ in therapeutic focus. Background of the Problem Traditional personality theories have defined sex role as a bipolar continuum at which an individual fa lls near one end or the other, either masculine or feminine. With defined sex roles no longer necessary for survival, the emergence of the women's movement has contributed to a stronger interest'in sex role issues, and traditional views regarding sex role characteristics of the healthy personality have been challenged. Recently, som e theorists have proposed viewing masculinity and femininity as orthogonal dimensions which can therefore be measured independently in the same individual (Bern, 1974; Berzins, 1 1975; Constantinople, 1973; Heilbrun, 1976; Spence, Helmreich, & Stapp, 1975). Persons are categorized as sex-typed masculine or feminine i f they have developed a relatively high degree of one set of characteristics over the other, and undifferentiated i f there is a low degree of both masculine and feminine characteristics. A n androgynous person (lite ra lly male-female) has developed a high and relatively equivalent number of masculine and feminine traits (Bern, 1974, 1976; Berzins, 1975). The androgyny model has generated several new scales which measure masculine and feminine characteristics independently as well as a great deal of research relating androgyny to its antecedents and correlates. The concept of androgyny has also greatly affected the theoretical connection between adjustment and sex role. Traditional personality theories suggest the desirability of adopting sex roles appropriate to the individual's masculine or feminine gender, and deviations from these culturally approved norms were thought to be not only undesirability but maladaptive for the individual (Kagan, 1964; Kohl berg, 1966). In contrast, the androgyny model suggests that a high and relatively equivalent number of masculine and feminine traits m ay allow for greater interpersonal fle x ib ility and personality integration and enhance mental health (Bern, 1974; Berzins, 1975). The majority of research tends to support this theory. Androgynous persons have been found to achieve greater interpersonal fle x ib ility (Bern, 1975; 2 B e rn & Lenney, 1976; Bern, Martyna, & Watson, 1976; Christian, 1978; Jones, 1978; Kelley, 1976; Orlofsky & Windle, 1978) and skill (Berzins, Welling, & Wetter, 1975; Falbo, 1977; Kelley, 1978; Woods, 1975). Individuals with an androgynous orientation have been shown to have a higher self-concept than sex-typed or undifferentiated individuals (Allen-Kee, 1980; Evanoski, 1978; Larson, 1977; Nevill, 1977; O'Connor, 1978; Orlofsky, 1977; Puglisi, 1978; Schiff, 1978; Schoech, 1977; Spence, 1975, 1978). Androgynous persons also are more self-actualizing (Christall & Dean, 1976; C ristall, 1979; Harris, 1977; Simms, 1979), attain higher personality integration (Orlofsky & Windle, 1978), and achieve higher psychological health than non-androgynous persons (Baucom, 1976; Murray, 1976). The current focus on androgyny m ay be a transitional state as we m ove from a s tric tly defined sexual dichotomy which was once important in the preservation of our culture to a new freedom to define and develop our hum an potential without being restricted by arbitrary sex roles. A healthy sense of one's maleness or femaleness becomes all the more possible when the a rtific ia l constraints of cultural sex roles are eliminated and one i f fin a lly free to be one's ow n unique blend of temperament and behavior. (Bern, 1976, p. 15) In her prescriptions for a liberated sexual identity, B ern (1976) adds: Let sexual preferences be ignored; Let sex roles be abolished; and Let gender m ove from figure to ground. 3 Statement of the Problem In the last few years there has been a great deal of research on the antecedents and correlates of androgyny. The development of androgyny has been shown to be influenced by such variables as parental warmth, acceptance, and achievement orientation (Block, 1973; DiSabatino, 1977; Kelley & Worrell, 1977), and i t has also been shown that androgynous parents tend to produce androgynous children (Block, 1973; Blunt, 1977; Herlong, 1977). At least two researchers discuss modeling as an influence in the development of androgyny (Eisonstock, 1979; Robinson, 1979), and others show that training can increase the level of androgyny (Gulanik, 1979; Westbrook, 1979). Jakoubek (1979) states that sex role development is related to ego development, which has been shown to change during the course of therapy. Therapy often incorporates these facets that researchers feel m ay contribute to increased level of androgyny: parental warmth, acceptance, and achievement orientation, modeling, training, and stronger ego. Therefore, perhaps the development of androgyny in clients is influenced by the level of androgyny of the therapist. Since the literature also suggests that therapist values influence client's values (Beutler, Pollack, & Jobe, 1978; DuBois, 1978; Rosenthal, 1955), perhaps androgynous therapists place a greater value on sex role issues in therapy and focus on them more. Side issues to be investigated are whether the focus of therapy and development of androgyny in clients are influenced by the ongoing therapeutic theme of the client or by demographic variables, such as client's age or sex, therapist sex, number of years of therapy client 4 has participated in, number of years therapist has been licensed, or type of license therapist has. Since androgyny has been shown to be a psychological state worth pursuing and reinforcing and since i t appears likely that the sex role orientation of the therapist m ay affect the client, further research investigating the effects on clients of androgynous and non-androgynous therapists is warranted. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to investigate specifically whether androgynous therapists tend to develop androgynous clients to a significantly greater extent than non-androgynous therapists and whether androgynous therapists focus on sex role issues to a greater extent than non-androgynous therapists. This research is important, fir s t of a ll, because therapists need to become aware of their client's sex role orientation as well as their ow n due to the personality and mental health correlates associated with being androgynous, sex-typed masculine or feminine, or undifferentiated. Second, i t would seem important for therapists and their clients to become more androgynous because of the association with greater fle x ib ility , personality integration, and enhanced mental health as discussed in the review of the literature. Thirdly, it has been shown that therapists function as role models for their clients and that a therapist's sex role orientation influences their values and thus their focus in therapy. Therefore, i t is worthwhile to investigate whether androgynous therapists tend to develop androgynous clients to a significantly greater extent than non-androgynous therapists and __________________________________________________ • __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________5 whether androgynous therapists focus on sex role issues to a greater extent than non-androgynous therapists. Research Questions to be Answered 1. D o androgynous therapists tend to develop androgynous clients to a significantly greater extent than non-androgynous therapists? 2. D o androgynous therapists focus on sex role issues to a significantly greater extent than non-androgynous therapists? 3. D o demographic variables or the client's ongoing therapeutic theme influence the focus of therapy or the development of androgyny in clients? Theoretical Framework Even before the word "androgynous" was being used, many theorists have described the major task of therapy as integrating the masculine and feminine polarities (Bakan, 1966; Block, 1973; Jung, 1951) and researchers have described the competent therapist as blending masculine and feminine tra its . As early as 1969, Carkhuff has described the competent therapist as offering warmth and understanding integrated with action-oriented activities, a combination which blends feminine and masculine tra its , and thus can be considered androgynous. The extensive research of Truax (1968) has shown that warmth and empathy are known to produce client self-exploration and growth and Rice and Rice (1973) have urged therapists to integrate those qua!ities with action and assertiveness, again combining the feminine with the masculine. 6 Humphrey (1975) has stated that fa c ilita tiv e conditions in therapy must have both the sensitivity and warmth of the healthy female and the action and assertiveness of the healthy male, and that therapists should move toward achieving those androgynous qualities within themselves. The profusion of research in the review of the literature supports the benefits of the state of psychological androgyny for people in general but most of it does not speak to the specific issue of therapists and clients. Baum (1977), Donelson (1977), and Maffeo (1978) have all shown that androgynous therapists are less biased toward individuals who have chosen non-traditional sex roles than are non-androgynous therapists. Watts (1976) has found that androgynous counselor trainees are more effective than non-androgynous trainees. Eigen (1979) gives examples of rapid client progress occurring after the therapist became more androgynous. Therefore, the review of the literature clearly supports the benefits of psychological androgyny for people in general, and there is som e research on the benefits of an androgynous orientation for therapists and clients. I f i t is important for therapists to help their clients become more androgynous, it is also important to discover i f androgyny level can be changed after i t is formed and i f so, how that change occurs. Evans (1979), Gulanik (1979), Gucinotta (1978), and Westbrook (1979) have shown that androgyny level can be increased by two completely different types of treatment: assertion and vocational training. Jakoubek (1979) has shown that sex role development is related to ego ________________________ 7 developments which has been shown to change in the course of therapy. However, the only study investigating androgyny level changes in clients was done by Frel (1977), who found that, contrary to expectations, the use of male and female co-counselors did not promote a trend of change toward androgyny in clients. However, Frel admitted that the length of her study (eight weeks) m ay have been insufficient to create enough impact to perceive measurable change in the client's level of androgyny* Therefore, i t is unclear at this time whether androgynous therapists can influence the development of androgyny in their clients. Research does show us, however, that androgynous parents develop androgynous children (Block, 1973; Blunt, 1977; Herlong, 1977) and that the development of androgyny has been shown to be influenced by variables which also occur in the therapeutic process such as parental warmth, acceptance, and achievement orientation (Block, 1973; DiSabatino, 1977; Kelley & Warrell, 1977). Many researchers compare the therapist to an ideal parent (Kaplan, 1976; Patterson, 1979) and others show that clients w ho are considered improved have often taken on their therapist's value system (Barrett, Berg, Easton, & Pomeroy, 1974; Gunther, 1977). Rosenthal (1955) states that moral values are particularly susceptible to the therapeutic learning of new responses. Therefore, i t seems likely that therapist's level of androgyny m ay influence the client's level of androgyny and what the therapist focuses on in the therapeutic focus. This makes it worthwhile to 8 investigate whether androgynous therapists develop androgynous clients to a greater extent than non-androgynous therapists and whether androgynous therapists focus on sex role issues to a greater extent than non-androgynous therapists. Assumptions of the Study 1. The test instruments are valid for the purposes of the study. 2. The research design is appropriate for the purposes of the study. Research Hypotheses The following hypotheses were formulated: 1. Androgynous therapists focus on sex role issues to a greater extent than non-androgynous therapists. 2. Clients of androgynous therapists tend to move toward a position of androgyny to a significantly greater extent than clients of non-androgynous therapists. Delimitations of the Study 1. The population tested was a limited one. 2. The duration of the experimental period was a minimum of six months, which was considered to be adequate in length to indicate changes, i f any. Definition of Terms Androgyny: (a) A psychological state wherein a person has full fle x ib ility , regardless of gender, to embrace, express, and integrate all of the positive personality traits of traditional masculinity and ____________________________________________________________________ 9 femininity; and (b) a relative strength and balance of masculine and feminine traits within an individual as defined by a score which falls above the median on both masculinity and femininity on the B ern Sex Role Inventory. Sex Typed: (a) possessing characteristics that are traditionally considered masculine or feminine, regardless of gender, e.g., a male m ay be considered sex-typed feminine i f he is nurturant, warm, supportive, and compassionate (traditionally feminine characteristics) rather than assertive, competent, forceful, and independent (traditionally masculine characteristics); and (b) possessing a strength of masculine or feminine traits as defined by a score which falls above the median in either masculinity or femininity on the B e rn Sex Role Inventory. Undifferentiated: (a) possessing less pronounced masculine and feminine tra its , and (b) an individual who scores below the median on both masculinity and femininity on the B e rn Sex Role Inventory. Outline of Remainder of Dissertation This chapter has introduced the study by discussing the background of the problem, the statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, the research questions to be answered, and the theoretical framework. Also included in this chapter are the assumptions of the study, the research hypotheses, the delimitations of the study and the definitions of terms. Chapter I I reviews the literature by discussing measurement of androgyny, correlates of androgyny, such as interpersonal fle x ib ility , 10 personality tra its , self-esteem, and self-actualization, antecedents of androgyny and androgyny in therapists and clients. Chapter I I I details the research design, selection of sample, instrumentation, data collection and procedures, data analysis, and limitations of the study along with a summary. Chapter IV presents the findings of this study together with interpretations. Chapter V presents a summary of procedures, summary of findings, discussion, and recommendations for further study. 11 CHAPTER II REVIEW O F THE LITERATURE Traditional personality theories such as Freudian (Freud, 1905), social learning (Mischel, 1966) and cognitive developmental (Kohlberg, 1966) look upon sex role as a bipolar continuum at which an individual fa lls near one end or the other, either masculine or feminine. Recently, theorists have suggested and the majority of research has supported the idea that the healthy personality includes and integrates both masculine and feminine characteristics. As Moulton (1971) points out, society now has time to examine and redefine traditional values passed on from a time when clearly defined sex roles were necessary for survival. One of the earliest proponents of the concept of androgyny was Jung (1951),who fe lt that animus, or woman's masculine side, and anima, a man's feminine side, became integrated consciously as the adult passed through the developmental phase of individuation. Bakan (1966) later pointed out the importance of the integration of both agency (the male principle involved with self-assertion, mastery, and the establishment of separations) and communion (the female principle involved with relationships to others, such as cooperation, contact, and union) in each individual. Block (1973) has also observed the importance of integrating opposing tendencies of the personality, including masculine and feminine characteristics. 12 Measurement of Androgyny B e rn (1974), w ho developed the fir s t scale (Bern Sex Role Inventory--BSRI) to measure masculine and feminine characteristics independently, has been a major advocate of androgyny as characterizing the healthy personality. She states that an androgynous individual is capable of being adaptive, flexible, and more effective in interpersonal relationships (Bern, 1972). A n individual with an androgynous orientation can be both instrumental (assertive, competent, forceful, independent) and expressive (nurturant, warm, supportive, and compassionate) according to what is required in the situation (Bern, 1975a, 1975b, 1976). Spence's research (1975) added to Bern's definition of androgyny as a balance between masculine and feminine tra its . She and her associates suggested that androgyny included strength of masculinity and femininity scores as well as a relative balance. This created four categories: those who score above the median in masculine traits are considered masculine, those who score above the median in feminine traits are considered feminine, those who score above the median in both are considered androgynous, and those who score below the median in both are undifferentiated. The usefulness of this four-quadrant scoring system was shown in the correlations between Spence's androgyny scale, the Personal Attribute Quotient (PAQ), and an instrument measuring self-esteem. W hen both response strength as well as relative balance of scores was utilized, androgynous persons received the highest scores in self esteem, but when Spence et a l . (1975) rescored the sam e data utilizing ______________________________________________________________________ 13 balance only (Bern, 1974), persons with an androgynous orientation scored only moderately in self-esteem. This led B e rn (1976) to revise her scoring method in order to u tilize the four-quadrant system, as did the next three developers of sex role inventories (Baucom, 1976; Berzins et a l., 1978; Heilbrun, 1976). Controversy regarding scoring methods s till exists, and som e researchers continue to use a balance, rather than relative strength, definition of androgyny (Jones et a l., 1978; Wiggins & Holzmuller, 1978). The issue of whether sex role development is bipolar or multidimensional is not totally settled either. Although most researchers support the multidimensional viewpoint (Bern, 1974; Constantinople, 1973; Heilbrun, 1976), Sines and Russell (1978) have recently defended sex role as being bipolar and then shifted their position a few months later (Russell & Sines, 1978) to state that sex role is both bipolar and multidimensional. Som e researchers c ritic ize the two most frequently used sex role scales (BSRI and PAQ) for confining their attribute to positive characteristics, since negative self-attribution may be significant to sex role categorization (Kelly & Worrell, 1977). Androgynous persons m ade less negative self-statements, but androgynous males also reported more problem drinking and social introversion (Jones et a l., 1978; Kelly et a l ., 1977; Wiggins & Holzmuller, 1978). The research findings concerning androgyny and negative self-attribution are inconsistent and inconclusive at this time. The findings just discussed show that concept of androgyny is relatively new compared to the concept of traditional sex role 14 and thus many aspects of the measurement of androgyny are s t ill in a state of flux. Correlates of Androgyny: Interpersonal Flexib ility The research on the correlates of androgyny consistently support that an androgynous individual enjoys greater personality integration and enhanced mental health through greater interpersonal fle x ib ility , more positive personality tra its , higher self-esteem, and greater self-actualization. This section w ill discuss the research on greater interpersonal fle x ib ility , which was the firs t correlate B ern and her associates discovered when they began research on androgyny. In several of her fir s t studies B ern found that persons of either gender who are sex-typed masculine or feminine m ay restrict cross-sex behaviors in order to avoid discomfort from disapproval (self or others), even when the choices are self-defeating and result in monetary loss (Bern, 1975; B ern & Lenney, 1976; B ern, Martyna, & Watson, 1976). Kelly et a l . (1976) found similar results when she and her associates asked college students to role play a nurturing, warm social role and then an assertive role. Androgynous subjects were superior, undifferentiated were highly inept, and sex-typed subjects were in between. Baucom (1979) also found androgynous persons to have attained greater interpersonal fle x ib ility in his research with learned helplessness involving 160 college students. Orlofsky and Windle (1978) discovered similar results in their research with 111 college students and fle x ib ility with tasks, as did Christian (1978). 15 Cohen (1979) reported the sam e results to be true for m en later in life . H e stated that the traditional male role requires m en to act strong, aggressive, unemotional and tough. These characteristics do not fa c ilita te m en in coping with midlife crises which m ay involve bodily decline, career stagnation, and drastic changes within the family unit. Cohen suggested that "greater male involvement in androgynous personality and value structures m ay aid resolution of the midlife crisis" (p. 470). Two research studies reported conflicting findings with the above studies. In studying a sample of 1,404 people, Jones et a l. (1978) found that fle x ib ility and adjustment were generally associated with masculinity as well as androgyny. Heilbrun and Pitman (1979) discovered that in relatively private situations androgynous females were flexible but androgynous males were not, and the reverse was true under conditions of face-to-face transactions. However, the majority of research supports the concept that androgynous persons attain greater interpersonal fle x ib ility . Recently there has even been a study which extends sex role from the psychological into the physiological realm and strengthens the association of androgyny with fle x ib ility (Maratta, 1979). Patterns of electrocortical and electromuscular activities were examined in 30 male and 30 female subjects classified as masculine, feminine, or androgynous under three arousal conditions: receptive, instrumental, and relaxation. Androgynous subjects demonstrated greater condition congruent adjustment time and faster reaction time latency. F lexib ility of feminine-typed subjects, regardless of sex, was minimal 16 and for masculine males was overly activated. Conclusions were that the state of androgyny is not only correlated with psychological fle x ib ility , which others have associated with greater mental health, but physiological fle x ib ility . In conclusion, the majority of research confirms that androgynous persons attain higher interpersonal fle x ib ility and one study even extends this fle x ib ility into the physiological realm. Correlates of Androgyny: Personality Traits The next section will review the literature pertaining to personality traits of androgynous individuals. Using their ow n instrument, the PRF Andro Scale, Berzins et a l . (1975) correlated levels of sex role to personality variables. They found that androgynous individuals scored higher than non-androgynous in social poise and intellectuality. Berzins et a l. (1976) later administered the PRF Andro Scale to 682 high school students with Leary's Interpersonal Check List (Leary, 1957). Androgynous individuals fe ll into the friendly, dominant quadrant, feminine individuals were in the friendly, submissive quadrant, masculine in the hostile, dominant quadrant, and undifferentiated in the hostile, submissive quadrant. Correlating sex role categories with other factors for 1,050 college students, W oods (1975) found that androgynous individuals are higher in social maturity and poise, and masculine and androgynous individuals have higher academic aspirations, more extra-curricular activities, and greater interest in cultural and literary pursuits. 17 Examining 60 subjects, Falbo (1977) found that regardless of the individual's sex, masculine and androgynous persons received more positive peer evaluations than feminine persons. Radlove (1976) examined the relationship between androgyny and sexual functioning in married w om en between the ages of 20 and 40. Results suggest that androgynous w om en achieve orgasm more often than sex-typed feminine women, take more responsibility for their own biophysical stimulation, and perceive sex-related behaviors as equally appropriate for both sexes. I t was also found that androgynous w om en are more egalitarian in attitudes than feminine wom en and more self actualized. They are also more likely to report a childhood desire to emulate their fathers. The relationship between androgyny and fear of success for 128 female undergraduates who were administered the BSRI and a 28-item self-report fear of success scale was studied (Gayton, 1978). Androgynous and sex-reverse females manifested significantly less fear of success than either sex-typed or undifferentiated females. Andersen (1978) investigated the relationship of sex role typing with self-acceptance, acceptance of others, and sexist attitudes towards women. Feminine typed males and masculine typed females showed least self-acceptance am ong the six groups, while androgynous subjects showed highest self-acceptance. Masculine typed males were least accepting of others and scored highest in discriminatory attitudes toward women. In summary, the research cited shows that androgynous persons possess positive personality tra its , such as social poise, higher 18 self-acceptance, higher sexual functioning and less fear of success than non-androgynous people. Correlates of Androgyny: Self-Esteem This next section will review the literature pertaining to androgynous persons attaining higher self-esteem. Spence et a l. (1975) related sex role category to self-esteem using their own instrument, the PAQ . The tests were administered to 430 college students. Androgynous subjects of both sexes showed the highest self-esteem, were less i l l in childhood, and received more honors. This study was later replicated using a middle-aged upper-middle class sample (O'Donnor et a l ., 1978). The earlier findings were largely replicated. Self-esteem scores for the m en were substantially higher than those found by Spence, but the other findings were supported. In a later study Spence and Helmreich (1978) found that androgynous individuals make more money out of college, are high in work and mastery, are low in competitiveness, and high in self-esteem. They conclude that androgynous people are "the happiest in the worl d .1 1 Schiff (1978) examined the relationship of women's sex role identity to self-esteem and ego development for 153 female undergraduate students. Results of the self-esteem analysis supported previous findings that androgynous w om en possess a higher degree of self-esteem than stereotypically feminine wom en and undifferentiated woman, but revealed no significant difference in self-esteem between . ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ androgynous and masculine wom en* In contrast, the level of ego development of androgynous w om en was not significantly higher than that of masculine women. Overall results support the theory that a combination of masculine and feminine characteristics is beneficial for w om en in terms of both self-esteem and ego development. Schoech (1977) studied 19 successful middle-aged (40-60 year old women) and found that a high positive correlation exists between androgyny and both self-concept and self-satisfaction. She also outlined five essential elements in the androgynous process: (a) development of masculinity, (b) integration of the feminine and masculine with the individual, (c) synthesis of feminine and masculine qualities within the individual, (d) autonomy, and (e) positive self- regard. Allen-Kee (1980) investigated the relationship between the state of androgyny and the self-esteem and life satisfaction of 70 adult, married women. Her findings showed that career w om en tended to be androgynous and masculine and home-oriented w om en tended to be feminine. I t was also found that androgynous w om en had significantly higher self-esteem than feminine women. The researcher concludes that since androgyny is associated with self-esteem, clinicians should encourage it rather than attempt to adjust clients to sex-typed behavior. Families and schools should be encouraged to foster androgyny in children instead of ridiculing cross-sex behavior. Larson (1977) studied the relationships am ong three components of sexual identity and self-concept in 160 male and female homosexuals and heterosexuals. Androgynous persons, regardless of 20^ sex-preference, had the most positive self-concept and undifferentiated had the least positive self-concept. In studying 111 college m en and women, Orolofsky (1977) found that an androgynous orientation is conducive to identity achievement and high self-esteem. In contrast, undifferentiated sex role orientation was associated with uniformly low self-esteem and a lack of personal integration (identity diffusion). Sex typing was most often associated with premature identity commitments and a lack of personality differentiation (identity foreclosure) and with high self-esteem in males but low self-esteem in females. Cross-sex-typing was associated with high levels of self-esteem and identity achievement in females but with somewhat lower self-esteem in males and either unsuccessful (diffusion) or transitional (moratorium) levels of identity resolution. Evanoski (1978) investigated the relationship of sex-role and self-esteem and inner-directedness in 207 female and 181 male students. A s hypothesized, androgyny was positively related to the effectively functioning personality as assessed by self-esteem and inner- directedness. Gonzales (1978) reports similar results in his study of 180 Mexican-American college women. Puglisi (1978) examined sex role identity and self-esteem in a cross-sectional sample of 2,069 adults. M en and w om en showed parallel patterns of sex role identification with both sexes displaying peak levels of masculinity in the middle years, while levels of femininity remained constant over the age range studied (17 to 89). Androgynous subjects, regardless of sex, showed the highest levels of self-esteem, 21 followed by masculine, feminine, and undifferentiated types, respectively. All of the research cited shows that the psychological state of androgyny is correlated with high self-esteem across all types of populations and age groups. Correlates of Androgyny: Self-Actualization The next section w ill review the literature pertaining to androgynous persons and self-actualization. Christall and Dean (1976) administered the BSRI with Shostrum's Personal Orientation Inventory (POI) to 64 graduate students. A significant correlation was found between androgynous and self-actualized subjects. However, these results were not replicated with 58 graduate students measured by Hogan et a l. (1978). Harris (1977) found that both androgynous and masculine w om en had higher levels of self-actualization and internal locus of control, and feminine and undifferentiated w om en tended to have lower degrees of self-actualization and external locus of control. Sim m s (1979) studied 30 androgynous and 40 traditional husbands and wives by administering measures of overall marital satisfaction, daily marital satisfaction, levels of communication and understanding, degree of self-actualization, and level of neurosis. He found that androgynous wives had higher levels of self-actualizing values than traditional wives. The other results did not significantly support or challenge the experimental hypotheses. 22 In a large-scale study involving 1,000 students stratified by sex and socioeconomic status, Nevill (1977) reported that androgynous people were not only more self-actualizing but also had higher self- concepts than non-androgynous people. Cristall (1979) compared self-actualization, demographic factors, and sex roles for two groups of battered women: those w ho had le ft their spouses and those who stayed. W om en w ho le ft their spouses were both more androgynous and more self-actualizing than w om en w ho stayed. W om en w ho le ft also were more likely to be employed and to have com e from less violent families. The majority of studies cited support androgynous individuals as being more self-actualizing than non-androgynous individuals. Antecedents of Androgyny Recently, there has been some research on the antecedents of an androgynous orientation. Block et a l . (1973) found that androgynous people had parents w ho were androgynous and offered their children a wide choice of attitudes and behaviors. Their mothers were achievement oriented, their parents' relationship was good, and they were taught tolerance, consideration for others, and shared responsibilities. In a similar study Blunt (1977) also found that androgynous w om en tended to have androgynous parents. Herlong (1977) investigated the influence of parental androgyny upon sex role stereotyping of 36 kindergarten children. There was a significant correspondence between a child's sex role orientation and that of his or her parents. ____________________________________________________________________________ 23] W oods (1975) gave a parent behavior recall test to 1,050 college students and both sexes who were androgynous reported warmth from both their parents, which non-androgynous students did not report. In her study of 100 androgynous and non-androgynous clients, Gunther (1977) found that age, educational level, and warmth from father correlated with androgyny. Kelly and Worell (1977) gave college students the PRF Andro Scale along with a measure of recalled parental behavior. They found that androgynous males had warmth from both parents and were like their fathers. Androgynous females had parents w ho encouraged intellectual curiosity and were deeply involved. The relationship between children's sex role orientation and parents' perceived behaviors was studied by DiSabatino (1977). Only one factor, mother's acceptance, was significantly related to children's sex role orientation. Androgynous individuals perceived the highest mother's acceptance, followed by feminine, undifferentiated, and masculine individuals. None of the father's perceived behavior factors were significant. In studying the relationship between maternal employment and the development of androgyny in college-age females, Hansson, Chernovetz, and Jones (1977) found that androgynous subjects had the largest proportion of working mothers. In their book of correlates to sex role, Spence and Helmreich (1978) stated that important relationships occur between students' instrumental (traditionally masculine) and expressive (traditionally feminine) domains, and characteristics they perceived in their parents. ________________________ 24 Hom es where both parents were perceived as androgynous were most likely to be healthy. Children could develop socially desirable character istics to function effectively and to incur self-esteem. The hom es had warmth, democracy, and family harmony. Students of androgynous parents got the highest self-esteem scores. These parents had high expectations for their children but, at the sam e time, respected their needs and wishes. Vogelson (1979) investigated whether parents who are more egalitarian will have children w ho are more androgynous in activity choices and perceptions of adult roles and w ho have higher self-esteem and gender satisfaction. Boys were significantly more sex typed in activities and perceptions of future roles and were more satisfied with their gender than girls. Egalitarian parents had sons with less stereotyped perceptions of adult roles. Stereotyped fathers had sons with high self-esteem and daughters who were more stereotyped in activity choices and perceptions of adult roles. Girls whose parents strongly stereotyped had lowered self-esteem and gender dissatisfaction. At least two researchers discuss modeling as an influence in whether children become androgynous. Robinson (1979) argues for the recruitment of androgynous males to work in early education to counterbalance the not only feminized environment but the stereotype perpetuated in the educational literature and media that males are only valued for their macho image. The male caregivers in the studies cited believed i t is equally important to provide children with images of m en in warm, nurturant, and intimate roles. 25 Eisenstock (1979) studied 289 fourth, fifth , and sixth graders from different ethnic backgrounds and found that outmoded occupational stereotypes on television are more of a hindrance for developing career awareness am ong masculine sex-typed children than am ong feminine sex- typed children, regardless of sex. This is because masculine children more rigidly adhere to traditional sex role standards. Although the results are inconclusive at this time, the research cited shows there are antecedents that influence the development of androgyny, such as parental warmth, acceptance, and achievement orientation. Several studies show that androgynous parents tend to produce androgynous children (Block, 1973; Blunt, 1977; Herlong, 1977). At least two researchers discuss modeling as an influence in the development of androgyny. Androgyny in Therapists Researchers are just beginning to look at possible advantages of androgynous therapists. Donelson (1977) and Maffeo (1978) have both pointed out that androgynous therapists m ay be less biased towards individuals who have chosen non-traditional sex roles. The American Psychological Association's task force on sex bias and sex role stereotyping (Asher, 1975) reported instances of therapists fostering traditional sex roles, such as discouraging wom en from pursuing careers and encouraging w om en to accept economic dependence upon a male. Maffeo states that on the more positive side are the failures at replication of Broverman's (1970) in itia l demonstration of sex bias 26 am ong both male and female clinicians (Abramowitz, 1976; Lewittes, Moselle, & Simmons, 1973). More recently Baum (1977) found that when 24 male clinicians were asked to rate the psychological disturbance of tapes of two female intake interviews, the androgynous therapists saw the w om en in the non-traditional condition as less severely disturbed than w om en in the traditional condition and found both groups of w om en less severely disturbed than did the masculine therapists. Eigen (1979) pointed out another possible advantage of androgynous therapists. He reported that as a therapist became more androgynous, several of his d iffic u lt long-term female patients made rapid progress. Watts (1976) found that androgynous counselor trainees were more effective than non-androgynous trainees and recommended that an androgynous sex role orientation be emphasized in counselor training programs. In summary, there is very l i t t l e research on androgynous and non-androgynous therapists. However, several researchers have pointed out that androgynous therapists m ay be less biased and more effective than non-androgynous therapists. Development of Androgyny in Clients Gulanik, Howard, and Moreland (1979) have shown that the state of androgyny can be increased with treatment. She studied the effective ness of a group treatment program to increase androgyny in feminine w om en using principles of assertiveness and consciousness raising. At posttest, the treatment group was more assertive and androgynous than a- 27 discussion-oriented (DO) treatment and a wait lis t (WL) control group and was higher than the W L attainment of individual goals. B y the two- month follow-up, the treatment group was more androgynous than the W L group while the differences in assertiveness and personal goal attainment has dissipated. At one year follow-up, the treatment group was superior to the W L group in androgyny, assertiveness, and personal goal attainment. In his research with 33 women, -Cueinotta (1979) also found that assertion training produced higher levels of androgyny in women, and so did Evans (1979). Westbrook (1979) showed that androgyny level can be increased through a completely different type of treatment. In working with 35 senior college students, he found that vocational training increased both the students' androgyny levels and career commitment. After investigating 89 women, Jakoubek (1979) concluded that sex role development and thus level of androgyny is related to ego development, which has been shown to change in the course of therapy. Frel (1977) reported that, contrary to expectations, the use of male and female co-counselors for short-term group therapy did not promote a trend of changes toward androgyny. Gunther (1977) investigated the demographic and non-verbal correlates of 100 androgynous and non-androgynous clients. She found there were definite non-verbal movements correlated with androgyny, such as gesticulation, shrugging shoulders, and touching the body. She noted that i f androgynous clients behave differently from non-androgynous, then i t is important for clinicians to know what these behaviors are. 28 Another important reason for therapists to be aware of the androgyny level of clients is argued by Schwartz (1979), who states that truly fu lfillin g sexual, loving relationships require the development of androgyny in both partners. This is because the maturist form of intimacy involves the capacity to both identify with and positively value the aspects of self that have traditionally been labeled masculine or feminine. This, in turn, allows for a more complete empathic connection with those aspects of the love partner. This greater intimacy is a major therapeutic goal for many clients. In summary, several researchers correlate androgyny development for clients with ego development or training. However, one investigator (Frel, 1977) found that using male and female co-counselors for short term group therapy did not develop androgynous clients. Others argue the benefits of therapists recognizing the androgyny level of clients and developing i t further. Sum mary B ern (1974) was the fir s t researcher to challenge traditional sex role theory and state that the healthy personality is androgynous and integrates both masculine and feminine characteristics. She also developed the fir s t scale to measure androgyny, which was later revised to include Spence’s definition that androgyny was not only a strength but a balance of masculinity and femininity. The concept of androgyny is relatively new and its measurement is s t ill in a state of flux. A great deal of research has correlated androgyny with personality integration and enhanced mental health through greater interpersonal __________________________________________________________________ 29 fle x ib ility , positive personality tra its , higher self-esteem, and self-actuali zati on. Although the results are inconclusive at this time, the research cited shows there are antecedents that influence the development of androgyny, such as parental warmth, acceptance, and achievement orientation. Several studies show that androgynous parents tend to produce androgynous children, and at least two researchers discuss modeling as an influence in the development of androgyny. There is very l i t t l e research on androgynous and non-androgynous therapists. Several researchers have pointed out that androgynous therapists m ay be less biased and more effective than non-androgynous therapists. Som e research has also correlated androgyny development for clients with training or ego development. One investigator found that using male and female co-counselors for short-term group therapy did not tend to develop androgynous clients. Others argue the benefits of therapists recognizing the androgyny level of clients and developing i t further. There appear to be many advantages for therapists and clients to attain the psychological state of androgyny, and there has been no conclusive evidence of how androgyny develops. Therefore, further research investigating the effects on clients of androgynous and non-androgynous therapists and their therapeutic focus is warranted. 30 CHAPTER I I I M ETH O D O LO G Y This chapter presents the methodology and research design under the following headings: (a) research design, (b) selection of sample, (c) instrumentation, (d) procedures and data collection, (e) data analysis, (f) limitations, and (g) summary. Research Design This study was conducted using the Post-test Only Control Group Design described by Campbell and Stanley (1963). It was thus a true experimental design. R X 0 -j R = Randomly selected sample X = Treatment (independent variable) R O 2 0 = Outcome measure (dependent variable) The independent variable was participation or nonparticipation in therapy with an androgynous therapist. The experimental group received individual therapy once a week for a minimum of six months with an androgynous therapist. The control group received individual therapy once a week for a minimum of six months with a non-androgynous therapist. The dependent variable of the clients' level of androgyny or non-androgyny was measured using a posttest administered to both the 31 experimental and control group after a minimum of six months of weekly individual therapy. The second dependent variable, focus of therapy, was measured by a self-report type questionnaire completed by the therapists. Selection of Sample Therapist subjects were 36 volunteers willing to participate in this study selected from three clinics where clients are randomly assigned to therapists. The therapists included 14 licensed clinical social workers, 13 marriage and family counselors, 5 clinical psychologists, and 4 psychiatrists. There were 15 male therapists and 21 female therapists. Nine other therapists volunteered to participate in the research but did not return all three questionnaires (two for each therapist and one for each client) and so were not used in the study. The 56 client subjects were clients of these therapists who were between the ages of 20-60, w ho had received therapy for a minimum of six months, and who were willing to participate in the research. There were 14 male clients and 42 female clients. Instrumentation B e rn Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) (Bern, 1974, 1976) The BSRI consists of 20 masculine personality characteristics (e.g ., ambitious, s elf-relian t, independent, assertive) and 20 feminine personality characteristics (e.g ., affectionate, gentle, understanding, sensitive to the needs of others)* These characteristics were chosen 32 because they were all rated by both males and females as being significantly more desirable in American society for one sex than for the other. The BSRI also contains 20 f i l l e r items which are neutral characteristics (e.g ., truthful, happy, conceited, unsystematic). The subject is asked to indicate on a scale from one ("never") to seven ("always") how well each characteristic describes himself or herself. Using the revised scoring method (Bern, 1976), masculine scores are added and the sum divided by 20 to get an arithmatic mean; female scores are treated the sam e way. The BSRI has been administered to 2,000 college undergraduates and is internally consistent (a = .86) and reliable (r = .93). It has received more experimental attention and validation than the other three most widely used androgynous scales. Therapist Focus Questionnaire (TFQ) (Webster, 1980) The TFQ contains 48 items: 12 related to masculine sex role issues (e.g ., assertion), 12 related to feminine sex role issues (e.g., receptivity), 12 related to other non-sex-role therapeutic issues (e.g ., loss) and 12 f il le r items (e.g ., truthfulness). These items were obtained from instrument development which involved asking licensed therapists to give their input on sex role issues and other therapeutic issues which emerge in therapy. Thirty therapists were polled, and 22 returned the questionnaire. (See Appendix A .) Items from the BSRI and the most often chosen items from the instrument development study were combined to represent the masculine and feminine sex role issues. The other therapeutic issues were | _______________________________________________________________________33 determined by those most frequently mentioned by therapists participating in the instrument development study, and the f i l l e r items were chosen from non-sex-role related, non-therapeutic ( f ille r ) items from the BSRI. (See Appendix C.) The TFQ also asks the therapist to indicate a persistent therapeutic theme pertaining to that particular client. These themes were later grouped into the following categories: trust/risktaking, boundaries/limits, intimacy, expression of feelings, separation, self-concept, conflict over dependency needs, power/control, and other miscellaneous issues that were not reported frequently enough to have a separate category. W hen the TFQ was analyzed statistically using coefficient Alpha, the re lia b ility for the masculine focus issues was a = .78, for feminine issues a = .81, and for other therapeutic issues a = .79. The full-scale re lia b ility for the TFQ was a = .92, indicating high r e lia b ility . Procedures and Data Collection Directors of three clinics were contacted and permission obtained to attend their staff meetings during the fa ll of 1980 to explain the research and ask for volunteer therapists. Each volunteer therapist received a packet containing the B ern Sex Role Inventory and the Therapist Focus Questionnaire which were completed anonymously and mailed to the researcher. (See Appendix B and C.) The packet also contained a copy of the B e rn Sex Role Inventory for each volunteer 34 client to complete anonymously and mail directly to the researcher, thus ensuring confidentiality. (See Appendix D.) Data Analysis The data from the B ern Sex Role Inventory and the Therapist Focus Questionnaire were coded and prepared for input to the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences programs (Nie, Hull, Jenkins, Steinbrenner, Bent, 1970) at the University of Southern California Computer Center. The following null hypotheses were examined: 1. There is no significant difference in the level of androgyny for clients of androgynous and non-androgynous therapists. 2. There is no significant difference for focus of therapy for androgynous and non-androgynous therapists. Research hypothesis one was tested by chi-square analysis. This determined whether clients of androgynous therapists tend to m ove toward a position of androgyny to a significantly greater extent than clients of non-androgynous therapists. In order to perform the statistical analysis, each therapist had to be counted once for each client. Thus, a therapist with two clients was counted twice, making a total of 56 therapists. Beni's norms for measuring androgyny (4.89 for masculinity and 4.76 for femininity) were lowered .04 to 4.85 for masculinity and .01 to 4.75 for femininity to insure that the numbers of androgynous and non-androgynous therapists were equal. 35 t Tests and chi-square analysis were utilized to test the relationship of demographic data with the level of androgyny in clients. A t test was also performed to test the significance of the difference between the means for the therapists' masculinity and femininity scores and the difference between the means for the clients' masculinity and femininity scores. Research hypothesis two was tested by multiple regression procedures. This determined whether therapists focus on sex role issues to a greater extent than non-androgynous therapists. Limitations of the Study 1. The therapist and client subjects were limited to those associated with the three clinics utilized. 2. The therapist subjects were not randomly chosen. 3. The therapist and client subjects were volunteers and there is no way of ascertaining i f there are differences between them and those who did not choose to volunteer. Summary This study utilized a Post-test Only Control Group Design to test the following hypotheses: 1. Clients of androgynous therapists tend to move toward a position of androgyny to a significantly greater extent than clients of non-androgynous therapists. 2. Androgynous therapists focus on sex role issues to a greater extent than non-androgynous therapists. 36 A total of 36 therapists and 56 clients who had received therapy for a minimum of six months were used as subjects during the fa ll of 1980. The B ern Sex Role Inventory was utilized to assess the state of androgyny or non-androgyny for the therapists and clients. The focus of therapy (sex role issues vs. other therapeutic issues) was measured by the Therapist Focus Questionnaire. Chi-square analysis was utilized to test the fir s t hypothesis and multiple regression procedures were used to test the second, t Tests and chi-square analysis were utilized to determine the effects, i f any, of various demographic variables on level of androgyny in clients. A t test was used in order to test the significance of the difference between the means for the therapists' masculinity and femininity scores and the means for the clients' masculinity and femininity scores. 37 CHAPTER IV RESULTS The purpose of this chapter is to report the results of the statistical procedures used in the analysis of the data. This analysis determined whether androgynous therapists develop androgynous clients and i f androgynous and non-androgynous therapists d iffer in therapeutic focus. This chapter will include the following: (a) findings regarding hypothesis one, (b) findings regarding hypothesis two, and (c) summary of findings. Findings Regarding Hypothesis One Research hypothesis one stated: Clients of androgynous therapists tend to move toward a position of androgyny to a significantly greater extent than clients of non-androgynous therapists. This hypothesis was tested by chi-square analysis. The 27 androgynous therapists in the experimental group had 25 clients, of which 6 were androgynous and 19 were non-androgynous. The 29 non-androgynous therapists in the control group had 31 clients, 9 of which were androgynous and 22 were non-androgynous. Therefore, hypothesis one that clients of androgynous therapists tend to move toward a position of androgyny to a significantly greater extent than 38 2 clients of non-androgynous therapists was not substantiated, x .(1) = .20, p > .05. (See Table 1.) Table 1 CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS O F LEVEL O F A N D R O G YN Y FO R THERAPISTS AND CLIENTS Clients Therapists Androgynous Non-Androgynous Androgynous 6 21 Non-Androgynous 9 20 t Tests were utilized in order to test the significance of the differences between the means for androgynous and non-androgynous clients for the variables of client age, time in therapy with current therapist, and time in therapy with previous therapists. N o significant difference was found. (See Table 2.) The effect of client sex on the clients' level of androgyny was tested u tilizing chi-square analysis and was also found not to be significant. (See Table 3.) A t test was utilized in order to test the significance of the absolute value of the difference between the means for the therapists' masculinity and femininity scores and the absolute value of the difference between the clients' masculinity and femininity scores. The difference was found to be significant, t (90) = p < .01. (See Table 4 .) 39 Table 2 M E A N S A ND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FO R CLIENT'S AGE, CLIENT'S YEA R S O F THERAPY WITH CURR EN T THERAPIST, A N D CLIENT'S YEARS O F THERAPY W ITH PREVIOUS THERAPIST FO R A N D R O G YN O U S A N D N O N -ANDRO G YNO US CLIENTS Mean Standard Deviation Client' s Age Androgynous 2.133 .915 Non-Androgynous 2.268 .807 Client's Years of Therapy with Current Therapist Androgynous 3.667 1.291 Non-Androgynous 3.146 1 .352 Client's Years of Therapy with Previous Therapist Androgynous 2.933 1 .831 Non-Androgynous 2.756 1 .800 Table 3 CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS O F THE EFFECT O F CLIENT SEX O N THE CLIENT S LEVEL O F A N D R O G YN Y Clients Mai e Client Sex Female Androgynous 4 11 Non-Androgynous 10 3 1 40 Table 4 M EA N S A N D STAN DA R D DEVIATIONS FO R THERAPISTS' MASCULINITY A N D FEMININITY SC O R ES A N D CLIENTS' MASCULINITY AN D FEMININITY SC O R ES Standard Mean Deviation Client 1.012 .764 Therapist .533 .452 Therapists who had been licensed 0-4 years were categorized "least experienced" and over four years were categorized "most experienced" so that the effect of number of years therapist was licensed on client level of androgyny could be tested utilizin g chi-square analysis. It was found not to be significant. (See Table 5.) Table 5 CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS O F THE EFFECT O F N U M B E R O F YEA R S THERAPIST W A S LICENSED W ITH CLIENT'S LEVEL O F A N D R O G YN Y Least Most Clients Experienced Experienced Androgynous 4 11 Non-Androgynous 18 23 41 Findings Regarding Hypothesis Two Research hypothesis two stated: Androgynous therapists focus on sex role issue to a greater extent than non-androgynous therapists. Multiple regression procedures were utilized to determine i f focus on sex role issues during the therapy session was correlated with client's masculinity score, client's femininity score, therapist's masculinity score, therapist's femininity score, client's age, client's length of time in therapy with current therapist, client's length of time in therapy with previous therapists, client's sex, therapist's sex, therapist's number of years licensed, the persistent therapeutic theme of the client, type of therapist license, or level of androgyny of the therapist and client. The only significant variable was the number of years the therapist had been licensed, F = 7.137, p < .05. (See Table 6.) Therefore, hypothesis two, that androgynous therapists focus on sex role issues to a greater extent than non-androgynous therapists, was not substantiated. Also, focus on sex role issues was not correlated with any of the demographic data with the exception that least experienced therapists focused on sex role issues to a greater extent than more experienced therapists. There was no correlation with focus on sex role issues with the other demographic data of client's age, client's length of time in therapy with current therapist, client's length of time in therapy with previous therapists, client's sex, therapist's sex, the persistent therapeutic theme of the client or the type of therapist license. 42 Table 6 REGRESSION RESULTS O F FO C U S O N SEX R O LE ISSUES W ITH DEM O G RAPHIC VARIABLES A N D A N D R O G YN Y LEVELS O F CLIENTS A ND THERAPISTS Variable F-Ratios Client's masculinity traits 1.7 Client's femininity traits 1.3 Therapist's masculinity traits <1 Therapist's femininity traits 2.0 Client's age <1 Client's years of therapy with current therapist <1 Client's years of therapy with previous therapist <1 Sex of client 3.86 Sex of therapist <1 Therapist's number of years licensed 7.1 Therapeutic theme of client <T Type of therapist license <1 Client's level of androgyny <1 Therapist's level of androgyny <1 Sum mary of Findings Upon performing chi-square analysis, hypothesis one was not substantiated. It was found there was no significant difference in the proportion of androgynous clients for androgynous therapists compared to that of non-androgynous therapists, t Tests showed no significant difference between the demographic variables of client age, time in 43 therapy with current therapist, and time in therapy with previous therapist for androgynous or non-androgynous clients. Chi-square analysis showed no significant difference for client sex or years therapist was licensed for androgynous or non-androgynous clients. Upon performing multiple regression procedures, hypothesis two was not substantiated. Androgynous therapists do not focus on sex role issues to a greater extent than non-androgynous therapists. The only demographic variable correlated with focus on sex role issues was the number of years the therapist was licensed, F = 7.137, p = <.05. Less experienced therapists, regardless of sex role orientation, focus on sex role issues to a significantly greater extent than more experienced therapists. There was no correlation with focus on sex role issues with the other demographic data of client's age, client's length of time in therapy with current therapist, client's length of time in therapy with previous therapists, client's sex, therapist's sex, the persistent therapeutic theme of the client or the type of therapist 1icense. A t test was utilized to test the significance of the difference between the means for the therapist's masculinity and femininity scores and the means for the clients' masculinity and femininity scores, and the difference was found to be significant, t(90) = p <.01. 44 CHAPTER V SUM M ARY, CONCLUSIONS, A N D RECOM M ENDATIONS Recently there has been a flurry of research on the positive correlates of psychological state of androgyny. However, even though som e research shows that the development of androgyny can be influenced by parental personality tra its , modeling, training and/or ego development, there has been no research on the effects of androgynous and non-androgynous therapists on their clients. The purpose of this study was to investigate specifically whether androgynous therapists develop androgynous clients to a significantly greater extent than non-androgynous therapists and whether androgynous therapists focus on sex role issues to a significantly greater extent than non-androgynous therapists. This study was conducted using the Post-test Only Control Group Design described by Campbell and Stanley (1963). The concept of androgyny has generated several scales which measure masculine and feminine characteristics independently as well as a great deal of research relating androgyny to its antecedents and correlates. The majority of research supports that the state of psychological androgyny correlates with personality integration and enhanced mental health through greater interpersonal fle x ib ility , positive personality tra its , higher self-esteem and self-actualization. 45 Although the results are inconclusive at this time, the research cited shows there are antecedents that influence the development of androgyny, such as parental warmth, acceptance, and achievement orientation. Several studies show that androgynous parents tend to produce androgynous children, and at least two researchers discuss modeling as an influence in the development of androgyny. There is very l i t t l e research on androgynous and non-androgynous therapists. Several researchers have pointed out that androgynous therapists may be less biased and more effective than non-androgynous therapists. Som e research has also correlated androgyny development for clients with training or ego development. One investigator found that using male and female co-counselors for short-term group therapy did not tend to develop androgynous clients. Others argue the benefits of therapists recognizing the androgyny level of clients and developing i t further. There appear to be many advantages for therapists and clients to attain the psychological state of androgyny, and there has been no conclusive evidence of how androgyny develops in clients. Therefore, this study investigated whether androgynous therapists develop androgynous clients to a significantly greater extent than non-androgynous therapists and whether androgynous therapists focus on sex role issues to a significantly greater extent than non-androgynous therapists. This study utilized a Post-test Only Control Group Design to test the following hypotheses: 46 1. Clients of androgynous therapists tend to move toward a position of androgyny to a significantly greater extent than clients of non-androgynous therapists. 2. Androgynous therapists focus on sex role issues to a greater extent than non-androgynous therapists. The independent variable was participation or non-participation in therapy with an androgynous therapist. The experimental group received individual therapy once a week for a minimum of six months with an androgynous therapist. The control group received individual therapy once a week for a minimum of six months with a non-androgynous therapist. The dependent variable of the clients' level of androgyny or non-androgyny was measured using a posttest administered to both the experimental and control group after a minimum of six months of weekly individual therapy. The second dependent variable, focus of therapy, was measured by a self-report-type questionnaire completed by the therapists. Summary of Procedures A total of 36 therapists and 56 clients who had received therapy for a minimum of six months were used as subjects during the fa ll of 1980. The B ern Sex Role Inventory was utilized to assess the state of androgyny or non-androgyny for the therapists and clients. The focus of therapy (sex role issues vs. other therapeutic issues) was measured by the Therapist Focus Questionnaire. 47 Summary of Methods Chi-square analysis was utilized to test the fir s t hypothesis and multiple regression procedures were used to test the second, t Tests and chi-square analysis were utilized to determine the effects, i f any, of various demographic variables on level of androgyny in clients. A t test was used in order to test the significance of the difference between the means for the therapists' masculinity and femininity scores and the means for the clients' masculinity and femininity scores. Summary of Results Upon performing chi-square analysis, hypothesis one was not substantiated. I t was found there was no significant difference in the proportion of androgynous clients for androgynous therapists compared to that of non-androgynous therapists, t Tests showed no significant difference between the demographic variables of client age, time in therapy with current therapist, and time in therapy with previous therapist for androgynous or non-androgynous clients. Chi-square analysis showed no significant difference for client sex or years therapist was licensed for androgynous or non-androgynous clients. Upon performing multiple regression procedures, hypothesis two was not substantiated. Androgynous therapists do not focus on sex role issues to a greater extent than non-androgynous therapists. The only demographic variable correlated with focus on sex role issues was the number of years the therapist was licensed, F = 7.137, p = <.05. Less experienced therapists, regardless of sex role orientation, focus on sex role issues to a significantly greater extent than more experienced 48 therapists. There was no correlation with focus on sex role issues with the other demographic data of client's age, client's length of time in therapy with current therapist, client's length of time in therapy with previous therapists, client's sex, therapist's sex, the persistent therapeutic theme of the client or the type of therapist 1icense. A t test was utilized to test the significance of the difference between the means for the therapist's masculinity and femininity scores and the means for the client's masculinity and femininity scores, and the difference was found to be significant, t(90) = p <.01. Discussion This chapter reported the findings of the statistical analysis of the data in order to determine whether androgynous therapists develop androgynous clients to a significantly greater extent than non-androgynous therapists and whether therapists focus on sex role issues to a significantly greater extent than non-androgynous therapists. Hypothesis one that clients of androgynous therapists tend to move toward a position of androgyny to a significantly greater extent than clients of non-androgynous therapists was not substantiated. The literature on androgyny supports the position that androgynous persons tend to have greater interpersonal fle x ib ility and personality integration and enhanced mental health. One would expect therapists to have attained a higher level of mental health than their clients, which this study supports. Approximately half the therapists _______________________________ 49] were determined to be androgynous and approximately one fourth of the clients were determined to be androgynous. The literature also suggests that the state of androgyny may be developed by training (Cucinatta, 1979; Gulanik, 1979; Westbrook, 1979) or modeling (Eisenstock, 1979; Vogel son, 1979) or stronger ego development (Eigen, 1979). Even i f androgynous therapists did not focus on sex role issues, i t would seem that modeling,informal training, such as assertion training, or stronger ego development might produce i t , but that was not the case in this study. As discussed in the review of the literatu re, Schoech (1977) outlines five essential elements in the development of androgyny. If this is the case, perhaps a minimum of six months of therapy is not a long enough treatment period to influence as complex a state as androgyny. The results of this study support the research done by Frel (1977), who found that the use of male and female co-counselors for short-term group therapy did not promote a trend of change toward androgyny in clients. However, Frel admitted that the length of her study (eight weeks) m ay have been insufficient to create enough impact to perceive measurable change in the clients' level of androgyny. The treatment period of six months for the present study m ay be insufficient for measuring change also. Since the literature shows that parental warmth, acceptance, and achievement orientation m ay contribute to the development of androgyny, perhaps therapist attributes such as these should be investigated to 50 discover whether they contribute to the development of androgyny in clients. Another possibility why androgynous therapists did not develop androgynous clients to a significantly greater extent than non-androgynous therapists is that perhaps even though the clients were randomly assigned to therapists, they m ay not have been equal in level of androgyny before treatment. This would affect the results later when androgyny levels were compared. Hypothesis two, that androgynous therapists focus on sex role issues to a greater extent than non-androgynous therapists, was not substantiated. Several researchers have pointed out that androgynous therapists are not only better role models for clients but are less biased (Donelson, 1977; Maffeo, 1978) and more competent (Baum, 1977) than non-androgynous therapists. I f this is the case, they m ay be less likely to impose their values on their clients and thus they m ay not focus more on sex role issues. However, less experienced therapists, whether androgynous or not, did focus on sex role issues to a significantly greater degree. This m ay indicate that less experienced therapists are more concerned about their own sex role issues and thus, vis a vis projection, focus more on sex role issues for their clients. Less experienced therapists m ay also be more influenced by the obvious split between client's masculinity and femininity and seek to integrate those dualities by focusing more on sex role issues. These dualities were shown to be more polarized for clients than for therapists by the significantly greater sp lit between clients' 51 masculinity and femininity scores than for the therapists' masculinity and femininity scores, regardless of sex role orientation. I t is also interesting to note that even though less experienced therapists focused on sex role issues to a significantly greater degree than more experienced therapists, they did not develop more androgynous clients than non-androgynous therapists. There was no correlation with focus on sex role issues with the other demographic data of client's age, client's length of time in therapy with current therapist, client's length of time in therapy with previous therapists, client's sex, therapist's sex, the persistent therapeutic theme of the client or the type of therapist license. Although the persistent theme of the client did not correlate with focus on sex roles, i t would be worthwhile investigating further what effect this theme might have on focus in therapy. The lack of support for this hypothesis m ay also be an indication that we need more sophisticated instruments to measure androgyny and/or focus of therapy. The review of the literature clearly supports the benefits of psychological andrognyy for people in general, and there is som e research on the benefits of an androgynous orientation for therapists and clients. I f i t is important for therapists to help their clients become more androgynous, i t is also important to discover i f androgyny level can be changed after it is formed and i f so, how that change occurs. 52 While the results of the present study were not significant, i t seems important that the issues dealt with here be addressed by future researchers. Thus i t is highly recommended that this study be replicated. Conclusions and Recommendations The conclusions to be drawn from this study are that clients of androgynous therapists do not move toward a position of androgyny to a significantly greater extent than clients of non-androgynous therapists and that androgynous therapists do not focus on sex role issues to a greater degree than non-androgynous therapists. Less experienced therapists were shown to focus on sex role issues to a significantly greater extent than more experienced therapists, regardless of sex role orientation. This m ay indicate that less experienced therapists are more concerned about their ow n sex role issues and thus, vis a vis projection, focus more on sex role issues for their clients. Less experienced therapists m ay also be more influenced by the obvious sp lit between clients' masculinity and femininity and seek to integrate those dualities by focusing more on sex role issues. These dualities were shown to be more polarized for clients than for therapists by the significantly greater s p lit between clients' masculinity scores than for therapists' masculinity and femininity scores regardless of sex role orientation. Even though less experienced therapists focused on sex role issues to a significantly greater degree than more experienced therapists, they did not develop more androgynous clients than 53 non-androgynous therapists. There was no correlation with focus on sex role issues with the other demographic data of client's age, client's length of time in therapy with current therapist, client's length of time in therapy with previous therapists, client's sex, therapist's sex, the persistent therapeutic theme of the client or the type of therapist license. Since this study was the fir s t to investigate whether androgynous therapists develop androgynous clients to a significantly greater extent than non-androgynous therapists and whether androgynous therapists focus on sex role issues to a significantly greater extent than non-androgynous therapists, it is recommended that i t be replicated. The following research recommendations are suggested: 1. The study should be replicated using other instruments for measuring androgyny and the focus of therapy. 2. The study should be replicated using other populations, such as therapists and clients in private practice. 3. The study should be replicated utilizing a longer treatment period. 4. The study should be replicated using a larger sample size. 5. Additional research should be performed investigating whether direct training, modeling, stronger ego development, or personality attributes of the therapist influence the development of androgyny in clients. 6. Additional research should be performed on the possible effects of the persistent therapeutic theme of the client and other correlates of focus of therapy. ______________________________________________________________________ 54 7. 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The personal attributes questionnaire: A measure of sex role stereotypes and masculinity- femininity. JSAS Catalogue of Selected Documents in Psychology, 1974, 4, 43. 63 Spence, J. T ., Helmreich, R., & Stapp, J. A. Ratings of self and peers on sex-role attributes and their relation to self-esteem and conceptions of masculinity and femininity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1975, 320 ), 29-39. Trenberth, G. Agential-intellectual communion-intuitive aspects of hum an behavior. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology, Los Angeles, California, 1976. Truax, C. B. Therapist interpersonal reinforcement of client self exploration and therapeutic outcome in group psychotherapy. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1968, 15(3), 225-231. Watts, D. L. Levels of selected counseling skills of androgynous and non-androgynous counselor trainees. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland, 1976. Westbrook, M., & Nordhola, L. The impact of vocational training on speech pathology students. Communication Disorders, 1979, 7(1), 24-33. Wiggins, J. S. Personality and prediction: Principles of personality assessment. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1973. Wiggins, J. S., & Holzmuller, A. Psychological androgyny and interpersonal behavior. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1978, 46_, 40-52. Wish, C. W . The relationship of sex-role typing to life satisfaction in older people (Doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University, 1977). Dissertation Abstracts International, 1977, 37^, 11-12B. Woods, M. M. The relation of sex role categories to autobiographical factors. Paper presented at the 83rd Annual APA Meeting, Chicago, 1975. 64 APPENDIXES 65 APPENDIX A INSTRUMENT DEVELO PM ENT QUESTIONNAIRE Susan Webster, M.A. 20846 Hillside Drive Topanga, Calif. 90290 (213) 455-2753,474-6311 June 6, 1980 Dear therapist, I need your thoughts for research on my dissertation. I hope you are willing to fill out this anonymous questionnaire and send it back to me as quickly as possible. I have enclosed a stamped, self-addressed envelope for your convenience. 1. Some characteristics have traditionally been thought to be related to sex role. For example, males are "supposed " to be assertive, ambitious, and competitive and females affectionate, sensitive, and compassionate. Below is a partial list of sex role issues which may emerge during therapy. Please add any other sex role issues on which you might focus. 1.assertion 2.ambition 3.competition 4.independence 5.decision making 6.individualism 7.risk taking 8.nurturing 9.loyalty 10.sensitivity 11.expressiveness 12.flexibility 13.compassion 14.affection 15.warmth 16. 17. 18. 19. 20 . .2. Beside sex role issues there are many other topics that can be focused on in the course of therapy. Below is a partial list of therapeutic issues. Please add any other significant issues on which you might focus during therapy. 1.fears/anxiety 2.communication skills . 3.ego strength/self-concept 4.family antecedents to per sonality development 5.current family member char acteristics and patterns 6.consequences of life choices 7.goals 3.relationships 9.health 10.sexual feelings and exper iences 11.awareness and expression of feelings 12.dreams/fantasies 13.therapeutic relat ionship 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 3,In just a phrase or a sentence, please describe a persistent thane pertaining to one of your clients. Thank you very much. Sincerely, 66 APPENDIX B BEM SEX ROLE INVENTORY (THERAPISTS) Dear therapist., Thank you for your contribution to psychotherapy research being con ducted by psychologists at the University of Southern California. The enclosed questionnaires are anonymous and take most people 5-7 minutes to'complete. You will only need to fill out one Questionnaire A (attached), but vou will need to fill out Questionnaire B (attached to an envelope") for each of your clients who participates in the research. For example, if you have two clients who participate, you fill out one Questionnaire A and two Questionnaire B's. If vou have one client who participates, you fill out one Questionnaire A and one Questionnaire B. Your narticipatiner clients will fill out Questionnaire A (enclosed in the envelopes marked Client). I hope you are willing to complete the questionnaires and return them as quickly as possible. I have enclosed a stamped, self-addressed envelope for your convenience. If you have any questions, feel free to call me at 474-6311. Thank you again. Without your participation this research would not be able to take place. Please check one answer for each auestion. l.Sex: ____ ____ male female 2. Age: ____ ____ ____ ____ 20-29 30-39 40-49 50 3. License: ___ ____ ____ ____ Sincerelv. Susan Webster, M.A, MFCC M.D. Psych. Psych. Soc. Worker 4. Number of years licensed: 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20 QUESTIONNAIRE A The following descriptive adjectives are to be rated as they apply to you on the following scale: 1 Never or almost never true 2 Usually not true 3 Sometimes but infrequently true 4 Occasionally true 5 Often true 6 Usually true 7 Always or almost always true 1. self-reliant__ 31. makes decisions easily 2. yielding___ 32. compassionate___ 3. helpful___ 33. sincere 4. defend your beliefs___ 34. self-sufficient • 5. cheerful 35. eager to soothe hurt feelings_ 6. moody 36. conceited___ 7. independent 37. dominant___ 8. shy___ 38. soft-spoken___ 9. conscient ious___ 39. likeable___ 10. athletic__ 40. masculine___ 11. af f ect ionate___ 41. warm 12. threatrical__ 42. solemn 13. assertive___ 43. willing to take a stand__ 14. flatterable___ 44. tender___ 15. happy 45. friendly 16. strong personality___ 46. aggressive 17. loyal___ 47. gullible 18. unpredictable___ 48. inefficient__ 19. forceful 49. acts as a leader___ 20. feminine 50. childlike___ 21. reliable___ 51. adaptable___ 22. analyt ical___ 52. individualistic___ 23. sympathet ic___ 53. does not use harsh language 24. jealous 54. unsystematic___ 25. has leadership qualities___ 55. compet it ive 26. sensitive to the needs of others 56. loves children___ 27. truthful___ 57. tactful 28. willing to take risks 58. ambitious 29. understanding__ 59. gentle___ 30. secretive 60. convent ional___ 62 APPENDIX C B EM SEX ROLE INVENTORY (CLIENTS) Dear client, Thank you for your contribution to psychotherapy research being conducted by psychologists at the University of Southern California. The enclosed questionnaire is anonymous and takes most people 5-7 minutes to complete. The researchers will not know your identity nor will they share this confidential information with your therapist. I hope you are willing to fill out this short questionnaire and send it back as quickly as possible. I have enclosed a stamped, self-addressed envelope for your convenience. If you have any questions, feel free to call me at 474-6311. Thank you again. 2. Age:___ ________ ______ 20-29 30-39 40-49 50+ 3. Time in therapv with current therapist: 0-6 mo. 6 mo.-l yr. I-l§ yrs. l*-2 yrs. More than 2 yrs. 4. Time in therapy with previous therapists other than current therapist: 0-6 mo. 6 mo.-l yr. 1-1£ yrs. l^^Tyrs. More than 2 yrs. Sincerely, Susan Webster, M.A. Please check one answer for each question. 1. Sex: male female 69 QUESTIONNAIRE A The following descriptive adjectives are the following scale: 1 Never or almost never true 2 Usually not true 3 Sometimes but infrequently true 4 Occasionally true 5 Often true 6 Usually true 7 Always or almost always true 1. self-reliant__ 2. yielding__ 3. helpful___ 4. defend your beliefs___ 5. cheerful___ 6. moody 7. independent__ 8- shy 9. conscientious__ 10. athletic__ 11. affect ionate___ 12. threatrical___ 13. assert ive 14. flatterable___ 15. happy 16. strong personality__ 17. loyal___ 18. unpredictable___ 19. forceful 20. feminine__ 21. reliable___ 22. analyt ical 23. sympathetic___ 24. jealous 25. has leadership qualities___ 26. sensitive to the needs of others___ 27. truthful___ 28. willing to take risks___ 29. understanding__ 30. secretive to be rated as they apply to you on 31. makes decisions easily 32. compassionate___ 33. sincere___ 34. self-sufficient___ 35. eager to soothe hurt feelings_ 36. conceited__ 37. dominant___ 38. soft-spoken___ 39. likeable__ 40. masculine___ 41. warm 42. solemn 43. willing to take a stand__ 44. tender___ 45. friendly___ 46. aggressive___ 47. gullible _ 48. inefficient___ 49. acts as a leader__ 50. childlike___ 51. adaptable___ 52. individualist ic___ 53. does not use harsh language 54. unsystematic___ 55. competitive 56. loves children___ 57. tactful___ 58. ambitious 59. gentle___ 60. convent ional 70 APPENDIX D THERAPIST FO C U S QUESTIONNAIRE QUESTIONNAIRE B (Therapist fills out questionnaire and gives attached envelope to client.) Dear therapist: Below is a partial list of areas on which you may have focused with this client. There are probably other important areas on which you have spent ther apy time, but we are trying to find out only about these particular areas at this time. How much of the therapy time was spent in exploring these areas with the client? 1 Never or almost never 2 Usually not 3 Ocassionally but infrequently 4 Sometimes 5 Often 6 Usually 7 Always or almost always Leadership Decision making__ Affection___ Warmth__ Responsibility___ Secret iveness___ Fears / anxiety___ Reality testing___ Ambition/achievement___ Self-reliance___ Compassion Vulnerability___ Happiness__ Sincerity___ Consequences of choices___ Control/helplessness___ Assert ion/aggression___ Strength__ Nurturing___ Passivity___ Unpredictability___ Friendliness___ Relationships/intimacy___ Self-care Compet it ion___ Risk taking__ Loyalty___ Receptivity___ Reliability___ Efficiency Health/body awareness___ Meaning of life/spirituality___ Independence/dependence__ Competence___ Sensit ivity Softness___ Jealousy Moodiness___ Sexuality___ Loss/death___ Individualism Power___ Shyness___ Express ivenes s___ Truthfulness__ Adaptability___ Awareness and expression of feelings___ Family patterns___ In a phrase or a sentence, please describe a persistent theme pertaining to this client: 71 APPENDIX E ITEM S O N TH E MASCULINITY, FEMININITY, A N D SOCIAL DESIRABILITY SC A LE O F TH E BSRI 49. Acts as a leader 11. Affectionate 51. Adaptable 46. Aggressive 5. Cheerful 36. Conceited 58. Ambitious 50. Childlike 9. Conscientious 22. Analytical 32. Compassionate 60. Conventional 13. Assertive 53. Does not use harsh 45. Friendly 10. Athletic language 15. Happy 55. Competitive 35. Eager to soothe 3. Helpful 4. Defends ow n beliefs hurt feelings 48. Inefficient 37. Dominant 20. Feminine 24. Jealous 19. Forceful 14. Flatterable 39. Likable 25. Has leadership abilities 59. Gentle 6. M oody 7. Independent 47. G ul 1 ible 21. Rel iable 52. Individualistic 56. Loves children 30. Secretive 31. Makes decisions easily 17. Loyal 33. Sincere 40. Masculine 26. Sensitive to the 42. Solemn 1. Self-reliant needs of others 57. Tactful 34. Self-sufficient 8. Shy 12. Theatrical 16. Strong personality 38. Soft spoken 27. Truthful 43. Willing to take a stand 23. Sympathetic 18. Unpredictable 28. Willing to take risks 44. Understanding 41. W arm 2. Yielding Note. The number preceding each item reflects the position of each adjective as it actually appears on the Inventory. r-o

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Asset Metadata

Creator Webster, Susan Alice (author)

Core Title The focus of therapy and development of androgyny in clients of androgynous and non-androgynous therapists

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Psychology, clinical

Language English

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-502947

Unique identifier UC11247050

Identifier usctheses-c26-502947 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP24809.pdf

Dmrecord 502947

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Webster, Susan Alice

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA