Learning to lead: Observational learning of complex, cognitive-affective behavior

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Content LEARNING TO LEAD:
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING OF
COMPLEX, COGNITIVE-AFFECTIVE BEHAVIOR
by
Marcia L. T. Watson
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Education
April 1983
Copyright Marcia L. T. Watson 1983
UMI Number: DP24954
All rights reserved
INFORMATION TO ALL USERS
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and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed,
a note will indicate the deletion.
Olssârtalfen Pubirbmq
UMI DP24954
Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author.
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This dissertation, written by
MARCIA L. T. WATSON
under the direction of h..Bx.. Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Graduate
School, in partial fulfillm ent of requirements of
the degree of
D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y
Dean
...
ATION CO
11
The presence of the person ensures an awakening, a personal process
that Involves an answering engagement with life. (Moustakas)
DR. ROBERT J. CASEY, JR.
and
DR. SARA K. WINTER
Ill
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
If there is one thought that I take away from the experience of
being a dissertation writing doctoral student, it is that any major
accomplishment is not solitary. Support for my work in terms of this
study and the doctoral program has been graciously extended in a
variety of ways. It is time to acknowledge many, though probably not
all, gifts.
Working with Dr. Warren Bennis has been a pleasure and a
challenge. While the association happened serendipitously, I
treasure it. Working with Dr. Rick Carlson has rekindled my
curiosity about abstract thinking, mathematics and science. Both of
these people have had major impacts on my thinking while at U.S.C..
Frozen Leopard Inc. has offered support without which I could not
have completed my graduate education or done this type of a study.
John Wills has opened FLI's doors to me. Paula Browne, Peter
Gastaldi, and Tony Wagner have cheered me up with help and laughter.
Video Systems Network, Inc. offered their video production and
editing facilities. Individuals contributing their expertise at VSN
have included: Gayle Comstock, Dwight Crumb, Don Curran, Rob Daly,
Tim Dickey, and Bob Luckenbach. In addition to being good at what
they do, this group of people have also been alot of fun to work
with.
In the year-and-a-half this study has taken, a number of people
have offered a variety of assistance. Subjects were arranged through
Bill Millerick, Dr. Barbara Bird and Dr. Patricia Riley. Data
gathering was done with the help of Anne Bloomer, Dr. Rhoda Casey,
IV
Adrienne Cors, Nancy Daves, Donna MacKenzie and Marsha Willard,
Statistical consulting was offered by Dr. Skip Eastman of the U.S.C.
Engineering Computer Laboratory.
No secretarial help was used. However, a vote of thanks goes to
everyone in the machine room of U.S.C.*s Engineering Computer
Laboratory for cheerfully responding to the doorbell at odd hours,
finding my printouts, and doing a couple of quick printings. In fact
while I am thinking about it, I also need to acknowledge the faithful
Diablo for not breaking down.
Dawna Steele sat up late a number of evenings with me reading
numbers to be sure the data was correct. Adrienne Cors stuffed
folders a couple of boring nights. Adrienne, Nancy Daves, Pierre
Pelletier, and Greg Woodard assisted in aspects of early production
efforts.
A number of people have helped me along the way. While the nature
of their assistance can remain anonymous, they needn't: Andrea Booth,
Dr. Rhoda Casey, Herb Farmer, Dr. Mahroo Gastaldi, Dr. Fred Knirk,
Dr. Russ McGregor, Mr. MacLain, Dr. Esther Sinofsky, George Wiebe,
Steve Wright and Dr. Kathleen Wulf. I have been buoyed and
challenged by Anne Bloomer, Adrienne Cors, Nancy Daves and Marsha
Willard, current graduate student partners-in-crime.
All of the above people have been part of this dissertation and
graduate school. It is difficult to express their impact on my life.
In closing. I'd like to mention a couple more people. Frances
Miller, Constance L 'Aventure and Kenneth Crump are educators who have
V
been friends and role models. Contributions I am able to make are
due in no small part to them, Lil and A1 Rosenthal cared for me when
I was sick; more importantly they gave me courage to go on when I
didn’t have it.
VI
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES.............................................. viii
LIST OF TABLES.................................................. ix
Chapter Page
I INTRODUCTION.......................................... 1
Statement of the Problem........................... 1
Background of the Problem.......................... 1
Hypotheses........................ 3
Limitations...................... 4
Definition of Terms............ *.....*............ 5
Organization of Research........................... 6
II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE............................ 7
Leadership........................................... 7
Complex, Cognitive-Affective
Information Processing.......................... 11
Observational Learning............................. 17
Observing Leadership........... 23
III RESEARCH DESIGN...................................... 24
Purpose of the Study................................ 24
Experimental Design................................. 24
Test Battery: Independent Variables............... 25
Skills........ 26
Values....... 28
Personality...................................... 30
Observation of Leadership:
Dependent Variables............................. 31
Statistical Program........................ 33
IV ANALYSIS OF DATA.......... 34
Variables......................... 34
Independent Variables....... . 34
Dependent Variables.............. 35
Leadership Recognition Patterns................... 36
Overview of Findings................................ 45
vil
V CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.................... 48
Objectives........................................... 48
Findings............................................. 48
Application of Findings ............ 51
Future Inquiry.................... 55
Concluding Remarks.................................. 55
BIBLIOGRAPHY.................................................. 57
APPENDICES.................................................... 67
A "Traits of Successful Leaders"
Brochure............... 68
B "Conversations on Leadership"
Brochure.......................................... 69
C CONVERSATIONS ON LEADERSHIP
VIDEOTAPE SCRIPT................. 70
D VIDEOTAPE TEST SCRIPT............................... 97
E Videotape Test and Scoring Key..................... 112
F SPSS Statistics Program and Data.................. 125
LIST OF FIGURES
Vlll
Figure Page
Figure 2-1: Cognitive-Affective Processing...... 16
Figure 2-2: Observational Learning Loop.........
Figure
3-1: Test Battery Overview................ ___ 26
Figure 3-2: Sample Item: Videotape Test......... --- 32
Figure 4-1: Single and Composite
Independent Variables............. --- 35
Figure 6-1: Mr. Frank Dale........................
Figure 6-2: Dr. Franklin Murphy.................. --- 77
Figure 6-3: Dr. Warren Bennis.................... 80
Figure 6-4: Dr. Harold Williams.................. --- 87
Figure
Figure
6-5: Scene 1............................. .... 97
6-6: Scene 2................................ .... 98
Figure 6-7: Scene 3................................
Figure 6-8: Scene 4................................
Figure
Figure
6-9: Scene 5............................ .... 102
6-10: Scene 6...............................
Figure 6-11 : Scene 7................... ............
Figure 6-12: Scene 8.......... ...... ..............
Figure 6-13: Scene 9..*.............................
Figure 6-14: Scene 10.................... .......... ___ 108
Figure 6-15: Scene 11....... ......................
Figure 6-16 : Scene 12............ .................
IX
LIST 01’ TABLES
Table Page
Table 4-1 : Leadership Recognition Table. ............. 37
Table 5-1 : Summary Table................................ 49
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION
1.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Leaders are a scarce resource. Given current economic, political
and military uncertainty, leaders with a sense of purpose and the
ability to call it forth in others are keenly needed. Capable
individuals have been slow to emerge. How can a group of such
leaders be developed? How do people learn to lead?
The purpose of this study was to explore ways in which reasoning
and analytical skills, ideal leader and learning style preferences,
and personality factors condition observational learning of
leadership. To do so involved several steps. First, finding a
definition of leadership. Second, finding realistic yet
instructional opportunities for learners to recognize leadership.
Third, finding features in the learner which facilitate as well as
retard recognition.
1.2 BACKGROUND
Recognition is a central step in learning many skills. Learning
often involves development of a clear concept of the skill and then
recognition in lifelike situations. The importance of developing an
appropriate definition of leadership and of recognizing it cannot be
overstated. Learning complex skills involves recursive definition
and recognition. With a strong définition-récognition process in
place, learners have an internal picture of leadership to carry them
through times which offer little outside support.
In this study the work of Dr. Warren Bennis has been chosen to
define leadership. Above all, Bennis^ understanding of leadership
acknowledges and promotes the role of purpose. Purposefulness and
risktaking are seldom factored into concepts of leadership, a
literature which suffers from emotional excision. . .the product of a
desire to develop trustworthy theory. But for leadership as a topic,
such excision threatens the health of the patient.
In conjunction with research on leadershipJ Dr. Bennis videotaped
ten of ninety interviews with CEOs. Initially the tapes were edited
to demonstrate Bennis’ research findings. In watching people watch
the videotapes during research presentations, it seemed that learning
resulted. At the very least, the tapes triggered lively debate.
By way of illustration, Dr. Bennis had taken the videotape used
in this experiment to the Robert Hutchins Center as part of a three
day conference on leadership. Dr. Bennis* research findings and the
tape were presented on the first day. Without prompting, each man
attending discussed his concept of an ideal leader; as the conference
progressed, attendees’ mental images expanded to include leaders on
the Bennis videotape. It seemed that learning had taken place
through observation. In fact, many of the role models the conference
participants referred to (e.g., Patton) were known to them only
through media of one sort or another. Could video be intentionally
used to promote such learning?
The capacity to develop human resources through video is
relatively new— within the last twenty years. Initially, video was
used to broadcast real-time lecturing, followed by dramatization and
documentary. Video’s capability of promoting observational learning
3
was demonstrated as late as the seventies by psychologist Albert
Bandura.
Learning leadership, as with any complex skill, occurs over time.
An individual is helped in this pursuit by proximity to effective
leaders, by having role models to emulate. The ability to recognize
leadership gives a learner control in deciding who to follow and who
to avoid. In this way recognition of leadership promotes potential
for its further learning.
Up to this point, discussion has involved use of the term
"recognition.” According to the American Heritage dictionary (1978)
"recognition" means "to know or be aware of something that has been
perceived before." Our use of the word is akin but not identical to
the vernacular definition:
Recognition = Identification + Valuing
The terms "identification" and "valuing" also are defined in ways
specific to this study. Identification will refer to the
intellectual ability to verbally label something. Valuing will refer
to an emotional responsiveness (positive) to something.
Identification and valuing dimensions of leadership recognition will
be explored separately and in combination.
1.3 HYPOTHESES
With a general understanding of the purpose and background of this
study in mind, we turn to more specific hypotheses being explored.
These hypotheses inquire as to what skill, value or personality
variables condition leadership recognition (identification and
valuing).
Cognitive Hypotheses
1. Subjects* reasoning and analytical skills effect
identification of leadership.
2. Subjects* profiles of ideal leaders and learning style
preferences effect identification of leadership.
3. Subjects* personality characteristics effect
identification of leadership.
Affective Hypotheses
1. Subjects* reasoning and analytical skills effect valuing
of leadership.
2. Subjects* profiles of ideal leaders and learning style
preferences effect valuing of leadership
3. Subjects* personality characteristics effect valuing of
leadership.
While preceding hypotheses are focal points, the exploratory
nature of this study needs to be borne in mind. Its purpose is to
identify questions as well as provide answers.
1.4 LIMITATIONS
Results of this inquiry are bounded by three parameters.
First, the study is limited to recognition of leadership
characteristics. No attention is given to performance.
Second, junior and senior university business students constitute
the subject pool.
Third, models appearing on videotape are **elder statesmen, ' *
Caucasian, male and highly educated. Subjects are young, largely
Caucasian, split between males and females, and university
5
undergraduates. The net effect of similarities and differences
between model and viewer is unclear.
1.5 DEFINITION OF TERMS
As per the earlier discussion of "recognition,” other words are
used idiosyncratically in this study. In an effort to sharpen
communication, pertinent operational definitions follow.
Leadership Defined by Bennis to be: compelling vision,
communication, constancy, positive self regard and
goal-directedness
Full description appears in Appendix A.
Complex cognitive-affective behavior
Multifaceted, interwoven behavior.
Intellectual (cognitive) and emotional (affective)
content.
Skill variables Analytical and reasoning skills
The cognitive ability to identify salient cues and to
appropriately differentiate figure and ground.
Value variables Assessment of subjects’ ideal leader image and
learning style preferences.
Personality variables
Stable but not unchanging collections of behavior
characterizing an individual.
The Wallenda Factor
One of five leadership characteristics described by
Dr. Warren Bennis
Focusing of attention on the task at hand. Goal-
directedness.
Capacity to take negative feedback and not be
destroyed by it.
1.6 ORGANIZATION OF RESEARCH
The remainder of this study will be organized in the following
manner.
Chapter II reviews literature on leadership, complex cognitive-
affective information processing, and observational learning.
Chapter III describes conduct of the experimental portion of this
study. Assessment of skills, values and personality factors is
described. Bennis* definition of leadership, in print and on
videotape, is presented. As is the videotape test of identification
and valuing of leadership. Finally, development of statistical data
is outlined.
Chapter IV presents statistical findings on patterns of leadership
identification and valuing. Skill, ideal leader and learning
preference profiles, and personality factors interacting with (1)
identification, (2) valuing given identification, and (3) valuing
without identification are described. Patterns of leadership
recognition are overviewed.
Chapter V recaps purposes and findings of the study. Applications
are explored. Recommendations for research are advanced.
CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Literature on leadership, complex, cognitive-affective information
processing, and observational learning illuminate orderly qualities
in observational learning of leadership. Cognitive-affective
learning refers to multifaceted and multilayered (complex), rational
(cognitive), and emotional (affective) subject matter. Observational
learning is a process of vicariously acquiring information.
2.1 LEADERSHIP
Whether one's goal be descriptive or operational, defining
leadership is not simple. Though voluminous, leadership literature
is characterized by three foci: leadership as personality, leadership
as style, and leadership as power. Personality continua are
summarized below; much literature is dedicated to an investigation of
one or more of these dimensions (Levinson, 1980).
1. capacity to abstract, conceptualize, organize and
integrate different data into a coherent frame of
reference
2. tolerance for ambiguity; can stand confusion until things
clear
3. intelligence; can be both abstract and practical
4. judgement ; knows when to act
5. authority; has the feeling that he belongs in boss' role
6. activity; takes a vigorous orientation to problems
7. achievement oriented toward organization's success rather
than personal aggrandisement
8. sensitivity; able to perceive subtleties of others'
feelings
9. involvement; sees oneself as participating member of an
organization
10. maturity; has good relationships with authority figures
11. interdependence; accepts appropriate dependency needs of
others as well as of himself
12. articulateness; makes a good impression
13. stamina; has abundant physical energy
14. sense of humor
15. adaptability
16. vision; is clear about progression of self and
organization
17. perseverance; able to stick to a task and see it through
18. integrity; has well established value system tested in
various ways in the past
19. social responsibility and appreciates the need to assume
leadership with respect to it
In literature on leadership as style two concepts are important :
(1) that a variety of leadership styles are needed by an
organization, and (2) that appropriateness of style is situation
specific. Leadership as style is exemplified by characterizing
leadership behavior as "consideration" or "initiation." At one
extreme it is thought that these behaviors are mutually exclusive in
a single individual. Since it is believed both types of leadership
are required for organizational success, executive responsibilities
need to be shared (Fleishman, 1957; Halpin & Winer, 1957). In a
modified view, situations require leaders to operate on a behavioral
continum with "initiation" at one end and "consideration" at the
other (Tannenbaum & Schmidt, 1973).
Finally, leadership as power. Characteristic of this view, French
9
and Raven (1959) identified leadership as control of five kinds of
power.
1. Reward power— based on the capability of distributing
fa VO rs
2. Expert power— based on specialized knowledge
3. Coerceive power— based on the capability to threaten and
punish
4. Legitimate power— based on sanctioned, official power (for
example, the presidency of an organization)
5. Reference power— based on valuing of an individual by
informal networks.
Bennis’ definition focuses on the following questions:
1. On what basis do leaders work with others?
2. How do leaders collect information? Prioritize it?
3. How do leaders decide which problems to attend to, which
to ignore?
4. How do leaders solve problems, technical and human?
Bennis’ definition identifies pivotal points around which concepts
and skills cluster.^
Compelling Vision
Capacity to create a compelling picture of a desired
state of affairs that inspires people to perform
Flair for Communication
Ability to portray the vision clearly and in a way
that enlists the support of constituencies
%ee Appendix A for amplification.
10
Constancy Ability to stay on course regardless of obstacles
encountered
Positive Self-Regard
Knowing one's strengths and weaknesses, maximizing
the former and minimizing the latter
The Wallenda Factor
One of five leadership characteristics described by
Dr. Warren Bennis
Focusing of attention on the task at hand. Goal-
directedness.
Capacity to take negative feedback and not be
destroyed by it.
The nature of Bennis' definition is as important as its content.
As presented the five characteristics take on a disjointed and
misleading quality. Bennis' concept of leadership is an organic whole
involving awareness of problems, creativity, depth and commitment.
At its core, Bennis' concept of leadership describes a process of
excellence, the orchestration of talented and committed individuals
who gather together to creatively respond to a problem and bring
their solution to fruition.
Worth noting about Bennis' definition are its parsimonious and
dynamic qualities; other definitions tend to be elaborate and fixed.
For instance, if personality is the basis of leadership, then
selection of individuals with "right" personalities constitutes
leadership development. If "consideration" and "initiation" behavior
is leadership, then learning is a matter of mastering behavioral and
situational formulae and the best leader is the best political
mathematician.
11
2.2 COMPLEX, COGNITIVE-AFFECTIVE INFORMATION PROCESSING
Mindful of key features of Bennis* definition of leadership, we
turn to a discussion of complex, cognitive-affective information of
which Bennis’ definition is a subset.
As indicated earlier, complex, cognitive-affective behavior is
multifaceted and multilayered (complex), rational (cognitive) and
affective (emotional). While coupling reason and emotion appears
paradoxical to those of us raised in western philosophical tradition
(Tomkins, 1965), educational research is pobing the combination with
provocative results.
Before we review cognitive-affective information processing, we
will examine what is known about processing of complex information,
which has prototypical aspects illumnating cognitive-affective
2
processing. Of greatest value in a model of complex information
processing is its contribution to understanding lifelike learning
which is inherently multisensory in input and selective in attention.
Complex information processing is a relatively new topic in
cognitive and educational psychology. As late as 1971 Neisser would
only discuss complex processing in an avowedly ’ ’speculative" final
chapter. By 1976, however, Neisser had written Cognition and
Reality, a break with the mosiac-like approach to learning and a
comment on general, integrative processes of cognition.
2
The term "processing" is intended as a more precise description
denoting "thinking"— mental action upon data.
12
Neisser describes higher cognitive processes as organizing, or
constructing, an image of an object or person.
Not only reading but also listening, feeling, and looking
are skillful activities that occur over time. All of them
depend upon preexisting structures, here called schemata,
which direct perceptual activity and are modified as it
occurs. . .The schemata that accept information and direct
the search for more of it are not visual or auditory or
tactual, but perceptual. . . We pay attention to objects and
events, not to sensory inputs. (Neisser, 1976, p. 14, 29-30)
Complex cognition cannot be understood wholly as as information
seeking behavior; it is also information excluding behavior.
Perceptual schemata are plans for finding out about
objects and events. . . but . . .because information can be
picked up only if there is a developing format ready to
accept it. Information that does not fit such a format goes
unused. Perception is inherently selective. Neisser, 1976,
p. 55)
We now turn to a subset of complex behavior, namely cognitive-
affective information with interest in interaction of cognition and
affect.
Two studies describe affective impact on cognition; the first
investigates cognitive impact of positive affect, the second the
impact of negative affect. With contrasting first-hand studies as
reference, we will then look at theory seeking to explain such
phenomena.
One of the earliest identifiable cognitive-affective phenomena was
state dependency, a term meaning "that people’s feelings cause
certain environmental stimuli to become more salient, to stand out,
to evoke deeper processing and better memory" (Bower & Cohen, 1982).
13
From this original concept has grown research inquiring into the
nature of the interaction among feelings, perception, processing and
memory,
Isen, Means, Patrick & Nowick (1982) conducted a study on positive
affect and decision-making. Their interest was the effect of
positive affect at everyday levels on decision-making. Positive
affect was induced by arranging for subjects to experience a small
success, find money, or receive some treat. Isen et al. found that
positive affect influences decision-making strategy in that the
person reduces the complexity of the decision or task and engages in
speedy, simplified processing. One of the tasks subjects were given
was to decide which car to buy among six possibilities. With this
task, the positive affect and control group differed on length of
time, strategies and efficiency of decision making. Positive affect
subjects took 11.14 minutes to decide (vs. 19.58 minutes for the
control group), considered 7.09 dimensions in their decision (vs.
8.55 dimensions for the control group), and looked at pieces of
information 1.28 times (vs. 1.94 for the control group).
Thus, summarizing the results of the series of studies,
they tend to support the conclusion that positive affect
results in attempts to simplify the decision situation, which
result in faster and more efficient decision making, but
sometimes biased, incomplete, and incorrect solutions,
depending on the nature of the task and the viability of
subjects' initial hunches (Isen et al, 1982, p. 252)
Messick (1965) investigated the impact of negative affect on
cognition. Subjects were given extensive test batteries the day
after John F. Kennedy's assassination; three months later a second
group was given the same test battery. The impact of negative affect
was found to be specific rather than general. Flexibility of
14
perceptual closure was strongly involved. Affective responsiveness
and graphic expression of experimental subjects was limited in
comparison to that of control subjects. Personality effects of the
assassination included an increase in yielding and conventional
behavior with a concomitant increase in dogmatism and extreme self-
rating, stress-responsive patterns.
It may be that this greater graphic constriction, which is
an expressive characterization of introverts and anxious
extraverts (Wallach & Gahm, I960), indictates, particularly
under conditions of negative affect or anxiety, that
attention has turned inward to a preoccupation with internal
states, with a consequent decrease in affective response to
irrelevant external stimuli and a relatively specific
improverishment of performance on cognitive and perceptual
tests that require an active structuring of the stimulus
field. (Messick, 1965, p. 123)
Negative affect appears to cause persons to spend part of a finite
processing capacity on self, leaving less capacity to attend to and
structure the environment. Positive affect appears to facilitate
ease of attending to and structuring the environment.
We now look at newly developing theory explaining such phenomona.
While it is difficult to synthesize theory and earlier studies in a
tight manner, they complement each other in general terms.
Interaction of mood state and information processing appear specific
and predictable.
We believe that people interpret a situation cognitively
and then appraise that cognitive interpretation in arriving
at the type and level of emotional reaction they will have.
Thus, any model must begin with cognitive "pattern-
recognition” knowledge, which enables it to recognize
objects, people, events, and so on. This "cognitive
interpretation" (C-I) knowledge is applied to material. . .
to arrive at internal symbolic representations of the
external environment. . . The second kind of knowledge
15
assigns an emotional appraisal to the cognitive
interpretations; we call this "emotional interpretation" or
E-I knowledge. . . Third, . . . the intensity of the
emotional reaction . . . is adjusted depending on the |
personal importance of the event. Importance assignment
requires knowledge of the person's goals and basic values.
.For instance, if while pursuing a top-level goal you notice
that a required subgoal is already true in the world, then
you should feel happy. An appropriate production is;
IF a subgoal is discovered to be true,
THEN increase happiness.
Similarly, if a goal is frustrated, the emotion of
frustration or anger results. . . A generalization of the
earlier rule would be:
IF you reduce any difference between your
current state and the goal state,
THEN increase happiness
(Bower & Cohen, 1982, pp. 307-313).
With multisensory input, the object/event as the center of
attention interacts with schemata (affective and cognitive) such that
understanding is constructed in a continuing, dynamic manner. Such
interaction is summarized in Figure 2.1.
It would appear that positive affect facilitates or "warms up"
%
such a constructive process, though high positive affect can lead to
shallow processing or inaccurate processing (if schemata are weak).
It would appear that negative affect fosters processing iteration
rather than recursion, and that less attention is available to
recognize and structure the environment as some attention is
preempted by internal hemostatic needs. Research to date indicates
that positive affect, peppered with negative affect, promotes the
most active processing of complex information.
COMPLEX INFORMATION
COGNITIVE
directs
Figure 2-1: Cognitive-Affactive Processing
EXPLORATION
OBJECT
modifies
AFFECTIVE
17
2.3 OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
We now turn to a major mode of learning— observation. Before
Bandura’s efforts in the ’60s, educational research focused on: (1)
learning from direct experience (trial-and-error behavior shaping)
and, (2) behaviorally expressed learning. Bandura suggested
learning: (1) could take place by observation and, (2) need not be
displayed behaviorally to have taken place. Indeed, cats observing
other cats learning a maze took fewer to no trials to run it
correctly than did cats actually running the maze (Herbert & Harsh,
1944). It is thought that a person’s attention is fragmented when
involved in the trial-and-error situation and an onlooker is
unencumbered by emotional involvment and/or direct punishment/reward.
Traditional theories of learning generally depict behavior
as the product of directly experienced response sequences.
In actuality, virtually all learning phenomena resulting from
direct experiences can occur on a vicarious basis thropgh
observation of other people’s behavior and its consequences
for them. Man’s capacity to learn by observation enables him
to acquire large, integrated units of behavior by example
without having to build up the patterns gradually by tedious
trial and error. / Similarly, emotional responses can be
developed observationally by witnessing the affective
reactions of others undergoing painful or pleasurable
experiences. (Bandura, 1971, p. 2)
Of note is the role of observational learning in social and
emotional development. Within Bennis’ definition of leadership,
persistence, positive self-regard, and Wallenda have affective
components.
Where novel forms of behavior can be conveyed only by
social cues, modeling is an indispensable aspect of learning.
Even in instances where it is possible to establish new
response patterns through other means, the process of
acquisition can be considerably shortened by providing
appropriate models. (Bandura, 1971, p. 5)
18
Simpler forms of behavior are learned by trial-and-error, complex
and integrative behavior learned by modeling (Bandura, 1971).
Conceptual behavior may be best learned vicarously (Berger, 1961;
Hillix & Marx, I960; Rosenbaum & Hewitt, 1966).
While observational learning is an intuitively obvious process,
the range and depth of behavior acquirable in this manner bears
mention. Modeling has been used to alter syntactic code (Bandura &
Harris, 1966; Liebert, Odan, Hall & Huff, 1969; Rosenthal &
Whitebook, 1970), to modify moral judgmental orientations (Bandura &
McDonald, 1963; Cowan, Langer, Heavenrich & Nathanson, 1969), to
delay gratification patterns (Bandura & Mischel, 1963; Stumphauzer,
1972), and to change styles of information seeking (Rosenthal,
Zimmerman & Burning, 1970).
Like surgery, leadership is an activity in which minimization of
error is desirable (even while learning is taking place). However,
learning is an activity in which chances of error are maximized.
Observation is one way to learn while minimizing error.
There are several explanations for modelings* influence on
learning in everyday life. When mistakes are costly or
dangerous, new modes of response can be developed without
needless errors by providing competent models who demonstrate
how the required activities should be performed. Some
complex behaviors, of course, can only be produced through
the influence of models. If children had no opportunity to
hear speech, for example, it would be virtually impossible to
teach them the linguistic skills that constitute a language
(Bandura, 1971, p. 5)
Finally, observation of more than one model produces novel
behavior. Provision of one model fosters something akin to
imprinting. Multiple models avail the observer of several approaches
19
from which s/he selects the most auspicious or blends all into a
unique approach (Bandura, 1971).
Observational learning, conceptualized as a loop, is indicated in
Figure 2.2 which follows.
Figure 2-2: Bandura’s Observational Learning Loop
20
MOTIVATION
1
AHENTION
i
MODELS
LIV E J
V ID E O
I
SYMBOLIC ENCODING
i
COGNITIVE ORGANIZATION
1
PERFORMANCE
C O VERT ■
o v e r t ;
i
REINFORCEMENT
V IC A R IO U S
D IR EC T
21
Much research has focused on early elements in the observational
learning loop: attention, video, symbolic encoding and cognitive
organization. These elements do not stand alone; rather they work
within a milieu influenced by performance, reinforcement and
motivation. Our first efforts will be to understand this milieu.
Performance of a behavior (covert or overt) influences both its
retention and potential for use. Quiet observation in no way infers
lack of rehearsal. Observation involves covert rehearsal of
behavior, the main clue of which is sub-vocal movement (Cacioppo &
Petty, 1979). Overt performance follows less predictably. Behavior
an individual believes will be positively rewarded is performed ;
behavior anticipated to be negatively rewarded is not performed.
Anticipation of type of reinforcement can be direct or vicarious.
Behavior vicariously punished is as unlikely to be performed as
behavior directly punished (Bandura, 1965).
Characteristics of the model and of the observer influence
attention in observational learning. Exposure to a model does not
insure acquisition of behavior. . While models are not equally
attractive to all, some qualities command more attention. Evidence
of coi^etency, status and power make models more effective (Lippitt,
Polansky & Rosen, 1952; Miller & Bollard, 1941 ; Harvey & Rutherford,
I960; Lefkowitz, Blake & Mouton, 1955).
Speech, dress, deportment and wealth are attended to and become
more important in situations where learners do not know or know of
the model.
Power of models over observers has an impact on observational
22
learning whether that power be past, present or future (Flanders,
1968). Aspired status of observers influences attention to role
models. Filmic (observational) memory is clearer and expanded for
role models of status levels learners aspired to (Maccoby & Wilson,
1957).
In the case of this study, the importance of symbols of competence
were intensified. If status and wealth are generally impactful cues,
they are especially so for role models of leadership.
Perceived nurturance and sex of the model as well as whether the
observer likes the model are unclear in their impact on observational
learning (Flanders, 1968),
As a means of role model presentation, video has been shown to be
effective. Bandura, Ross & Ross (1963) "predicted, on the basis of
saliency and similarity of cues, that the more remote the model was
from reality, the weaker would be the tendency for subjects to
imitate the behavior of the model (p. 3)." ^Bandura, Ross & Ross
(1963) found no difference in learning from live, filmed or cartooned
models; Klinger (1967) found no difference in learning from live and
televised presentations; Hill and Liebert (1967) found no difference
in learning from filmed and live presentations. The main difference
between live and mediated role models is endurance over time (Bandura
& Mischel, 1965).
2.4 OBSERVING LEADERSHIP
In summary, current research suggests mood states influence
cognitive processing even at lower, everyday levels. Positive mood
increases individuals’ processing and attendance to environmental
information; negative affect depresses an individual’s ability to
observe and structure environmental information. Information that
has both cognitive and affective dimensions triggers mood states
which in turn influence cognitive processing patterns.
In terms of observational learning, models demonstrating status,
wealth and power are more persuasive. Multiple models foster novel
behavior among observers who also notice more about models whose
status is that which they aspire to. Videotaped role models work
nearly as effectively for observational learning as do live models.
24
CHAPTER III. RESEARCH DESIGN
3.1 PURPOSE OF STUDY
The experimental portion of this study searched for measurable
learner qualities which condition observation of leadership skills.
Skill, value, and personality variables thought to effect
recognition of leadership were identified and a test battery compiled
yielding measurements on those factors. Bennis* definition of
leadership was presented in print and through videotaped interviews
of three role models. Subjects* recognition skill was assessed
viewing twelve interview segments on videotape and indicating
identification and valuing scores for each segment. Skill, value and
personality variables were then regressed with recognition variables.
3.2 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
The research design elected for this study reflects its
exploratory nature. A parsimonious test battery was refined from a
larger, broader one run on a pilot group (n = 20). This test battery
was given during the first half of a three hour session. Next,
Bennis* leadership ^definition was presented to subjects, in two
manners, print and orally (reading of a printed brochure). To
y
provide examples of this definition, a videotape was presented in
which Bennis interviewed three effective CEOs. The material on the
videotape had been edited in such a way as to offer examples of each
leadership characteristic. Then subjects* leadership recognition
skills were assessed both in terms of identification and
responsiveness. Twelve portions of other interviews by Bennis were
presented, separately. Subjects knew that these were men talking to
25
Bennis, but did not know who the individuals were. Subjects were
/asked to indicate which, if any, leadership characteristic appeared
in the segment and the degree of empowerment the interviewee
elicited.
In sum, the experimental administration consisted of one three-
hour session broken into halves. The first half consisted of the
test battery; then a 5 minute break; the second half consisted of the
administrator reading Bennis* definition of leadership as subjects
followed along in their brochure, "Traits of the Successful"; an
introduction of the videotape by the administrator reading
backgrounds of Mr. Dale, Dr. Murphy and Dr. Williams from the
brochure, "Conversations on Leadership"; and finally administration
of the TEST VIDEOTAPE and related materials.^
3.3 TEST BATTERY: INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
Selection of skill, value and personality variables thought to
effect leadership recognition was based on three sources: literature
on leadership, literature on observational learning, and results of a
pilot study.
Research had suggested additional independent variables: locus of
control, tolerance for ambiguity, and verbal reasoning skills
(specifically). These factors were assessed in the pilot group with
one or two tests per factor but were discarded because the test
results correlated strongly (.6 and above) with "must" tests. Pilot
subjects complained about the quality of several of the tests, and
1
Appendices A, B, C, D and E
26
their comments were taken into consideration. The pilot group was
each known to the researcher over a two year period so that test
results could be checked against experience and intuition. Each
pilot subject was debriefed on their experience in taking the tests
and their sense of test validity.
The resulting test battery contained tests which met the following
criteria: face and statistical validity, statistical reliability,
distinctness from other tests in the battery, and measurement of
skill, value and personality variables expected to interact with
leadership recogniton. Figure 3.1 overviews skill, value and
personality variables being assessed and the tests involved. The
reader will find it helpful to refer to Figure 3.1 throughout Chapter
III.
Figure 3-1 : Test Battery Overview
SKILLS: REASONING AND INTELLIGENCE
SRA Pictorial Reasoning Test
Witkin Group Embedded Figures Test
Factor B/Cattell/General Intelligence
Closure Speed
VALUES: LEADER BEHAVIOR AND LEARNING STYLE
Ideal Leader Behavior Questionnaire
Kolb Learning Style Inventory
PERSONALITY FACTORS
Catte11 16PF
3.3.1 SKILLS
Since literature on observational learning concentrated on
cognitive processing and since much of the task of recognizing
leadership on the videotapes seemed analytical, one of sifting out
figure and ground, a number of tests of reasoning and analytical
skills were used.
27
The SRA Pictorial Reasoning Test was an effort to identify
reasoning with as "culture free" a measurement as possible. "Culture
free" is not meant here in an ethnic sense but in terms of
quantitative and verbal skills; often reasoning is tied to verbal or
quantitative mastery. What was desired was measurement of reasoning
separate from interference. The Pictorial Reasoning Test presented
items consisting of five diagrams, four of which were associated with
each other, one of which was not. The subjects* task was to
determine the nature of the bond between, four of the diagrams so as
to identify the unrelated one. The SRA Pictorial Reasoning Test had
80 items; it was administered in a 20 minute period.
The Group Embedded Figures Test (Witkin) was designed to measure
competence at perceptual disembedding. Since information in this
study was presented visually as well as verbally, a visual
measurement was desirable. However, cognitive generalizations
associated with the Witkin test were of greater interest.
Individual differences in EFT performance, however, appear
to relate to more than differences in perceptual
functioning....In brief, cognitive styles are the
characteristic, self-consistent modes of functioning which
individuals show in their perceptual and intellectual
activities. (Witkin et al., 1971, p. 3)
The Group Embedded Figures Test is divided into three sections.
Although subjects were unaware of this fact, the first section (7
items) was unscored and served as practice; the second and third
sections (9 items each) were scored. The subject was instructed that
s/he was to find a simple form within a complex pattern; that the
simple form was the same size, same proportions and faced in the same
direction within the complex figure as when it was demonstrated
28
alone. And that the subject * a task was to trace the simple form
directly over the lines of the complex figure in the diagram.
The Factor B/Cattell 16PF Test is one of 16 factors in a larger
test. More will be said of the Cattell 16PF, but a description of
Factor B is appropriate here. Factor B is not a precise, definitive
measure of intellectual capability but "a rough measure of
intellectual functioning against which to understand the personality
fabric (which is Cattell*s main purpose in the 16PF).” (Krug, 1981,
p. 5)
The Closure Speed Test, like the Group Embedded Figures Test
(Witkin), assesses perceptual abilities and infers cognitive behavior
from those. Closure Speed presents an individual with a partially
drawn diagram to be identified. Twenty-four such items are presented
in a 3 minute period.
j This factor is defined as the ability to perceive an
j apparently disorganized or unrelated group of parts as a
j meaningful whole, i.e., the capacity to construct a whole
' picture from incomplete or limited material. This basic
perceptual capacity may manifest itself at a more general
level as the conceptual ability to grasp and unify a complex
situation. (Thurstone & Jeffrey, p. 1)
3.3.2 VALUES
Ideal Leader Profile
Because pre-existing schemata about an issue seem to influence
acceptance and rejection of information (Neisser, 1976), subjects’
ideal leader profiles were assessed. The Ideal Leader Behavior
Questionnaire was the instrument used for this purpose. This 40 item
instrument provides statements subjects rank on the basis of whether
a leader SHOULD always, often, occasionally, seldom or never do the
29
behavior described in the statement.
Items in the Ideal Leader Behavior Questionnaire are grouped into
those involving "consideration” and "initiation."
Initating Structure refers to the leader’s behavior in
delineating the relationship between himself and the members
of his group, and in endeavoring to establish well-defined
patterns of organization, channels of communication, and ways
of getting the job done. Consideration refers to behavior
indicative of friendship, mutual trust, respect, and warmth
in relationship between the leader and members of the group.
(Halpin, 1957, p. 1)
Additionally, this study tracked total scores ("consideration" +
"initiation") in an effort to consider intensity of expectation about
leaders.
Learning Style Preference
The Kolb Learning Style Inventory was selected to measure learning
style preferences. ' It was thought that an individual with a
proclivity toward Kolb’s "reflective observation" might be inclined
to learn better through observation or that a person who prefers
active experimentation for gathering information might be
disadvantaged observationally.
The Learning Style Inventory is a nine item/four choice ranking
questionnaire. Subjects were asked to rank from 4 (most
characteristic) to 1 (least characteristic) four terms in each item.
Kolb’s conceptualization of learning style involves four basic
types from which two composite scores are developed. The four
learning styles include: active experimentation (doing), abstract
conceptualization (thinking), reflective observation (watching), and
30
concrete experience (feeling). In addition, these scores are
combined to place the individual into one of four learning modes.
The four learning style scores were used for this study.
3.3.3 PERSONALITY
The final area of assessment in this study involved personality
variables, both singly and grouped, for which the Cattell 16PF was
chosen. Not much yield was expected, but since the skill involved
involved the affective domain it was thought that personality
variables should at least be reviewed. Form C of the Cattell 16PF
was utilized with a machine scored report so as to make available
seven additional composite scores. Personality factors assessed
included: warmth (A), intelligence (B), emotional stability (C),
dominance (E), impulsivity (F), conformity (G), boldness (H),
sensitivity (I), suspiciousness (L), imagination (M), shrewdness (N),
insecurity (0), radicalism (Q1), self-sufficiency (Q2), self-
discipline (Q3), and tension (Q4). Composite scores developed on the
basis of the above factors included: extraversion (Qi), anxiety
(Qii), tough poise (Qiii), independence (Qiv), neuroticism (Qv),
leadership (Qvi)^ , creativity (Qvii), distortion scale (Qviii),
analytic-investigative, mechanical, nurturing, procedural-systematic,
venturous-influential, behavior control, and academic achievement.
Cattell test items are three part multiple choice questions of
relatively simple level so as to lessen interference from verbal
factors. There are 105 items. Instructions were to answer questions
2
This is the Cattell definition of leadership and is independent of
the definition used in this study.
31
with what comes to mind first, to answer as many as possible with an
"a" or ”c” response, and to answer all questions.
3.4 OBSERVATION OF LEADERSHIP: DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Materials utilized include: a brochure describing Bennis* concept
of leadership, "Traits of the Successful"; a videotape, CONVERSATIONS
ON LEADERSHIP, with introductory brochure, "Conversations on
Leadership"; and TEST VIDEOTAPE with printed, multiple choice format
test. With the exception of "Traits of the Successful" which was
written for other purposes, all materials were developed for this
q
experiment. Before CONVERSATIONS ON LEADERSHIP was introduced and
shown, subjects had at their disposal and were read "Traits of the
Successful." This brochure is a succinct definition of leadership as
Bennis developed it.
CONVERSATIONS ON LEADERSHIP was introduced by way of a second
brochure ("Conversations on Leadership") which described three
successful leaders whom Bennis interviewed. This brochure was
developed with the goal in mind of establishing credibility of the
interviewees.
CONVERSATIONS ON LEADERSHIP consists of edited interviews by Dr.
Bennis with: Mr. Frank Dale, Publisher of the Los Angeles Herald-
Examiner; Dr. Franklin Murphy, Office of the Chief Executive of
^"Traits of the Successful" is found in Appendix A, "Conversations
on Leadership" in Appendix B, photographs from and the script of
CONVERSATIONS ON LEADERSHIP in Appendix C, photographs from and the
script of TEST VIDEOTAPE in Appendix D, and the Test Form with
scoring key in Appendix E.
32
Times-Mirror, Inc.; and Dr. Harold Williams, President of the Getty
Museum and Foundation. (See Appendix C for a script and photos.) In
general terms these individuals discussed what they do that allows
for their success and what kinds experiences developed such
behaviors. The videotape is 50 minutes long; Mr. Dale is
interviewed for 8 minutes, Dr. Murphy for 20 minutes, and Dr.
Williams for 22 minutes.
The TEST VIDEOTAPE consists of 12 thirty-second to two-minute
sections of interviews between Bennis and other leaders, although as
far as subjects were concerned Bennis could be talking with actors.
Subjects were instructed to watch the videotaped segment and on the
multiple choice Test' Form mark which leadership characteristic they
saw, if any, at what intensity; and secondly to mark an intensity on
the empowerment scale for that segment. (See Figure 3.2.) In cases
where individuals appear more than once, ratings for both recognition
and empowerment were to be specific to the segment.
VISION
COMMUNICATION
CONSTANCY
POSITIVE
SELF-REGARD
WALLENDA
Figure 3-2
2
2
2
2
2
EMPOWERMENT
NONE
Sample Item: Videotape Test
3 4 5 6 7
3 4 5 6 7
3 4 5 6 7
33
3.5 STATISTICAL PROGRAM
Once the preceeding experiment had been run on 100 subjects, tests
were scored and statistics run (See Appendix F). Frequencies,
Pearson correlations, and stepwise multiple regressions with no
missing values were run. Frequencies and Pearson correlations were
run on all variables, independent and dependent, to insure accuracy
of data input. Stepwise multiple regressions were run to identify
relationships among independent and dependent variables. Regressions
were run on each dependent variable first with pure factors only,
then with pure and composite variables to see if composites would
explain what single variables had not. Chapter IV describes the
relationships of skill, value, and personality variables with
recognition of leadership.
34
CHAPTER IV. ANALYSIS OF DATA
The purpose of this study is to explore skill, value and
personality variables conditioning recognition of leadership. This
chapter outlines data generated by regressing measurements of skill,
value and personality on recognition of leadership as measured by
performance on the Videotape Test. Before proceeding to a discussion
of the statistical results, however, independent and dependent
variables will be delineated.
4.1 VARIABLES
4.1.1 INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
Factors regressed against leadership recognition are listed in
Figure 4.1. Skill, value personality factors and gender are included
in the single factor variables. Personality and leadership profiles
are grouped under composite variables.
Composites were called up statistically if single factors did not
show up. All but one of the composites were developed from single
factors of the Cattell 16PF. The Institute for Personality and
Ability Testing, distributors of Cattell 16PF, established formulae
for these composites (Handbook for the 16PF and Interpreting 16PF
Profile Patterns). To arrive at formulae, individuals who were at
either end of composite ranges were assessed for 16PF patterns
(Cattell, pp. 111-131). For example, prototype profiles of
effective leaders were identified to which subjects* profiles were
compared. From those comparisons, scores were generated indicating
the degree to which subjects* matched the leadership formula.
35
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
Single Factor Independents
1
Composite Independents
Gender of Subject
Introversion to Extroversion
SR A P ictorial Reasoning Test
Low to High A n xiety
Closure Speed Test
Tender M inded to Tough Poise
Kolb Learning S ty le Inventory Subdueness to Independence
Concrete E xperience (feeling) N euroticism
R eflective O bservation (w atching ) Leadership
A b stract C o nceptu alizatio n (feeling; C reativity
A ctive E xp erim en tatio n (doing) D istortion Scale
Id eal Leader B ehavior Q uestionnaire
Extroversion O verview
Consideration A n xiety O verview
In itiation
Tough Poise O verview
C attell 16 PF
Independence O verview
W arm th (A) A n a ly tic-in ve stig a tive
Intelligence (B) C reative -S elf-ex p res sive
Em otion S ta b ility (C) M echanical
D om inance (E) N urtu ring -A ltru istic
Im p u lsivity (F) P rocedural-System atic
C onform ity (G) V e n frou s-lnflu en tial
Boldness (H ) B ehavioral Control
S en sitiv ity (1) Academ ic Achievem ent
Suspiciousness (L) Leadership B ehavior Description ‘
im agination (li/1)
Shrew dness (N )
Insecurity (0 )
R adicalism (0 1 )
S elf-s u ffic ien c y (0 2 )
S elf-d iscip lin e (0 3 )
Tension (0 4 )
Consideration and Initiation scores were added together to form a Total Score on the L8DQ. 1
I
Figure 4-1 : Single and Composite Independent Variables
4.1.2 DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Dependent variables were measured by scores on the Videotape Test.
This test was composed of twelve videotape segments of interviews
with unidentified men. Subjects were instructed to identify the
leadership characteristic, if any, present in the segment and to what
intensity. Secondly, subjects were instructed to indicate the
36
intensity of empowerment they experienced vis-a-vis the individual
being interviewed. If interviewees appeared more than once, subjects
were to mark all scores in a segment-specific manner.
Scoring is indicated in Appendix E. In some segments only one
leadership characteristic appeared; for these segments the score
awarded was double the marked intensity (6 segments). In other
segments, two characteristics appeared. These were handled in two
ways. If the characteristics were of equal saliency, the score
awarded was the value of the marked intensity in either of the
correct characteristics. If one characteristic was more salient than
another (4 segments), the salient one was awarded double the
intensity marked and the less prominent one awarded the value of the
marked intensity (2 segments).
4.2 LEADERSHIP RECOGNITION PATTERNS
A number of independent variables were regressed against dependent
variables to arrive at patterns of leadership recognition. The
results will be discussed in the remainder of Chapter IV and are
summarized in the following:Table 4.1— Leadership Recognition Table.
Table 4.1: Leadership Recognition Table
37
N = 1 0 0
Females=42
M al6s~58
TEST TOTALS
VISION
COMMUNICATION
CONSTANCY
POSITIVE SELF-REGARD
WALLENDA
COGNITIVE ,
REGRESSIONS
IDENTIFIED
Gotten B
Less to m ore intelligent
Sig F = .0 0 2
Rsqch = ,0 9 6 1
Corr = + . 3 1 0 0
y Total Rsquare ! = .0 9 6 1 2
' ^
AFFECTIVE -
REGRESSIONS
Cattell L
Trusting to suspicious
S i g F = .021
Rsqcti = .0 5 3 4
Corr = + .2 3 1 0
Total Rsquare = .0 5 3 4
Cattell N
Forttirigiit to stirew d
Sig F = .0 0 2
Rsqcti = .0 9 5 1
Corr = —.3 0 8 4
Cattell M
Practical to im ag in ative
Sig F = .0 2 7
Rsqcti = .0 4 8 6
Corr = - . 2 2 0 5
Cattell H
Siiy to venturesom e
Sig F = .0 0 7
Rsqch = .0 4 8 5
Corr = + .2 0 5 5
_ ^
Total Rsquare = .0 9 7 1 7
VALUED & IDENTIFIED
Cattell B
Less to more intelligent
Sig F = .0 0 8
Rsqch = .0 6 9 4
Corr = + .2 6 3 4
Total Rsquare = .0 6 9 4
VALUED BUT NOT IDENTIFIED
Cattell N
Forthright to shrew d
Sig F = .0 0 7
Rsqch = .0 7 1 5
Corr + .2 6 7 3
Total Rsquare = .0 7 1 5
Cattell 03
U ndisciplined to controlled
F = i .0 2 4
Rsqch = .0 51 1
Corr = - . 2 2 6 0
Cattell E
Fiumble to assertive
Sig F = .0 3 0
Rsqch = .0 4 7 0
Corr = + .2 1 6 7
Total Rsquare = .0 47
Cattell N
(Fo rthright to shrew d ,
Sig F - = .0 0 4
R s q c h ''= ' ■ .0 8 1 8
Corr = - . 2 8 5 9
Total Rsquare = .0 9 5 0 9 Total Rsquare = : .0 8 1 7 6
Cattell Qvii! I
Kolb
D istortion' Scale Reflective Observation
Sig F = .0 4 8 Sig F = .0 2 2
Rsqch = .0 3 9 5 Rsqch = .0 5 2 6
Corr = - . 1 9 8 6 Corr = + .2 2 9 5
Gender
Sig F = .0 0 6
Rsqch = .0 4 6 7
Corr = - . 2 2 1 5
Total Rsquare = .0 3 9 4 6 Total Rsquare = : .0 9 9 3 7
Cattell M
Practical to im aginative
Sig F = .0 1 2
Rsqch = .0 63 1
Corr = — .2 5 1 3
Cattell H
Shy to venturesom e '
Sig F = .0 0 2
Rsqch = .0 5 4 9
Corr = + .2 1 7 5
Cattell B
Less to more intelligent
Sig F = .001
Rsqch = .0 40 1
Corr = + .2 2 8 6
: I Total Rsquare = .1 5 B 15
Total Rsquare = .0511
Cattell G
Expedient to conscientious
Sig F = .011
Rsqch = .0 6 3 6
Corr = — 2521
Cattell C
Feelingful to em otionally stab le
Sig F = .0 0 3
Rsqch = .0 5 1 5
Corr = + .1 6 5 6
Total Rsquare = .1 15 01
Cattell F
Sober to h ap p y -g o -lu ck y
Sig F = .0 1 3
Rsqch = .0 6 1 3
Corr = — .2 4 7 5
Picture Reasoning
Sig F =
Rsqch =
Corr =
.0 0 3
.0 5 4 3
- . 2 2 8 0
Total Rsquare = .1 1 5 5 8
Cattell B
Less to m ore intelligent
Sig F = .0 0 3
Rsqch = .0 8 5 9
Corr = —.2 93 1
Total Rsquare = .0 85 91
Cattel F
So b er-to h ap p y -g o -lu ck y
Sig F = .0 4 0
Rsqch = .0 4 2 2
Corr = + .2 0 5 5
Total Rsquare = .0 42 21
38
It is helpful to keep In mind the meaning of sections in the
table. Variables along the vertical axis involve Bennis* five
leadership characteristics. Variables along the horizontal axis
involve recognition.
The left column is cognitive in nature and represents individuals
who succeeded in identifying leadership characteristic(s). The
middle column (a subset of the left column) represents individuals
able to identify leadership characteristics and who valued them as
well. The right column represents individuals who valued the
leadership characteristic but were unable to identify it. Table 4.1
will be described from the top to bottom of each column, left to
right.
Leadership Identification
The left column represents individuals who identified leadership
characteristics successfully.
The first block in this column represents Total Scores in the
identification process. Cattell B— Less to more intelligent effects
identification of leadership as a whole. The more intelligent one
is, the more likely to successfully identify leadership.
Cattell B is a general intelligence factor rather than a specific
intellectual skill. A brief description follows.
Low mental capacity High general mental capacity
Unable to handle Insightful, fast learning and
abstract problems intellectually adaptable
(Cattell, p. 82)
Because it was anticipated that intellectual functioning would
39
effect identification of leadership, reasoning and analytical ability
were assessed by the SRA Pictorial Reasoning, Witkin Group Embedded
Figures, and Closure Speed tests; none of these effected the ability
to identify leadership as a whole. Apparently such identification
involves a variety of skills..
No variable effects the ability to identify vision.
Cattel L— Trusting to suspicious, described below, conditions
identification of communication.
Accepts personal unimportance Jealous
Pliant to changes Dogmatic
Unsuspecting of hostility Suspicious of interference
Ready to forget Dwelling upon frustrations
difficulties
Understanding and tolerant Tyrannical
Lax over correcting people Demands people accept
responsibility over errors
Conciliatory Irritable
(Cattell, p. 96)
Cattel L*s effect on communications means that the more "suspicious"
a person, the more likely they are to identify communication. The
more "trusting" a person, the less likely to identify communication.^
Identification of constancy is effected by Cattell N— Forthright
to shrewd. A "forthright" individual is more likely to identify
constancy than a "shrewd" one.
Quotations are placed around "trusting" and "suspicious" to
indicate that these terms have a specific meaning akin to but not the
same as the vernacular definition. Quotation marks will be used in
this fashion.
40
Cattell N— Forthright to shrewd
Genuine but socially clumsy
Has vague and
injudicious mind
Gregarious, gets warmly
emotionally involved
Spontaneous, natural
Simple tastes
Lacking self-insight
Unskilled in
analyzing motives
Content with what comes
Blind trust in human nature
(Cattell, p. 99)
Polished, socially aware
Has exact,
calculating
Emotionally detached
and disciplined
Artful
Esthetically fastidious
Insightful regarding self
Insightful regarding others
Ambitious,
possibly insecure
Smart, "cuts corners"
Positive self-regard is the only cognitive regression involving a
composite. Cattell Qviii-Distortion Scale measures an individual’s
tendency to put their best foot forward. A person scoring high on
this scale would be considered a "goody two shoes." An individual
unconcerned about social expectation is more likely to identify
positive self-regard. Individuals who respond to social expectation
are less likely to identify positive self-regard.
Finally, the Wallenda factor is effected by Cattell M-Practical to
imaginative and Cattell H-Shy to venturesome. A "practical" and
"venturesome" individual is more likely to identify the Wallenda
factor, an "imaginative" and "shy" individual less likely.
Descriptions of Cattell M and Cattel H follow.
41
Description of Cattell M— Practical
Alert to practical needs
Concerned with immediate
intérêts and issues
Prosaic, avoids anything
far-fetched
Guided by objective
realities and dependable
in practical judgement
Earnest, concerned or
worried but steady
(Cattell, p. 98)
Description of Cattell H— Shy to venturous
Shy, withdrawn
to imaginative
Absorbed in ideas
Interested in art, theory,
and basic beliefs
Imaginatively enthralled
by inner creations
Fanciful, easily seduced
from practical judgment
Generally enthused,
but occasionally
hysterical swings
of "giving up"
Retiring in face of
opposite sex
Emotionally cautious
Apt to be embittered
Restrained, rule-bound
Restricted interests
Careful, Considerate
Quick to see dangers
(Cattell, p. 91)
Adventurous
Likes meeting people
Active, overt interest
in opposite sex
Responsive, genial
Friendly
Impulsive
Emotional and artistic
Carefree
Doesn't see danger signals
Leadership Valuing— With and Without Identification
The middle and right columns in the Leadership Recognition Table
are affective in nature. Both columns indicate responsiveness to and
valuing of leadership characteristics; people in the middle column
could identify the characteristic, while those in the right column
could not.
At the top of the middle column is a group of individuals who
identify and value leadership as a whole. The more "intelligent" a
person, the more likely to recognize leadership as a whole
(recognition = identification + valuing).
42
No variables effect recognition of vision.
Identification/valuing of communication is effected by Cattell E—
Humble to assertive. An "assertive” individual tends to recognize
communication, a "humble" one does not.
Description of Cattell E— Humble to assertive
Submissive Assertive
Dependent Independent-minded
Considerate, diplomatic Stern, hostile
Expressive Solemn
Conventional, conforming Unconventional, rebellious
Easily upset by authority Headstrong
Humble Admiration demanding
(Cattell, p. 86)
Gender and Reflective Observation (Kolb Inventory) effects
identification and valuing of positive self-regard. Contrary to
anticipation, these variables condition no other dimensions of
leadership recognition.
The Kolb Inventory indicates preferred information gathering
modes, of which reflective observation is one. Descriptors of a
reflective observer include: tentative, watching, observing,
reflecting, and reserved. A contrasting learning style is active
experimentation described as: practical, doing, active, pragmatic,
experimental and responsible. Valuing of an environment of positive
self-regard in conjunction with the ability to identify it is better
done by reflective observers who are females. Less reflective
individuals, particularly males, are less likely to value an
environment of positive self-regard even if it is accurately
identified.
Identification/valuing of Wallenda is effected by Cattell M—
43
Practical to imaginative, Cattel H— Shy to venturesome, sind Cattell
B— Less to more intelligent. A ' ’practical,” "venturesome," and
"intelligent" person is more likely to recognize a Wallenda
enyironment than is an "imaginatiye," "shy," and "less intelligent"
indiyidual.
Responsiyeness to leadership as a whole (the first block in the
right column) is effected by Cattell N— Forthright to shrewd. An
individual who is "shrewd" is more likely to respond to but not
identify leadership as a whole; an individual who is "forthright" is
less likely to respond to or identify leadership in toto.
Responsiyeness to vision, despite an inability to identify it, is
effected by Cattell Q3— Undisciplined to controlled. This variable
is the second of two composites. An individual who is "controlled"
is more likely to respond to vision, an "undisciplined" one is less
likely to either value or identify it.
Description of Cattell 03— Undisciplined to controlled
Uncontrolled, lax Controlled
Follows own urges Exacting will power
Carles8 of social rules Socially precise
Compulsive
Following self image
(Cattell, p. 106)
Communication which is responded to but not identified is effected
by Cattell G— Expedient to conscientious and Cattell C— Feelingful to
emotionally stable. An "expedient" and "emotionally stable"
individual is more likely to value communication and not know what it
is than a "conscientious" and "feelingful" person.
44
Description of Cattell G— Expedient to conscientious
Quitting, fickle Persevering, determined
Frivolous Responsible
Self-indulgent Emotionally disciplined
Slack, indolent Consistently ordered
Undependable Conscientious and
dominated by a sense of duty
Disregards obligations Concerned about moral
to people standards and rules
(Cattell, p. 88)
This factor, particularly in observer ratings, has some
resemblance to the ego strength. Factor C pattern, notably in
their common contribution to self-controlled behavior and
regard for others, as opposed to emotional and impulsive
behavior. The difference lies in the fact that Gi- also
operates in a "drive to do one's best," i.e., in persistence
(which is not characteristic of the almost phlegmatic C+-
behavior). It also brings a strong involvement in moral
concerns of right and wrong. (Cattell, pp. 88-89)
Description of Cattell Ç— Feelingful to emotionally stable
Gets emotional when Emotionally mature
frustrated
Changeable in attitudes Stable, constant
and interests in interests
Easily perturbed Calm
Evasive of responsibility Does not let emotional
and tends to give up needs obscure realities,
and adjusts to facts
Worrying Unruffled
Gets into fights and Shows restraint in
problem situations avoiding difficulties
(Cattell, p. 83)
Cattell F--Sober happy-go-lucky and the SRA Picture Reasoning
Test effect valuing of constancy when it is unrecognized. The
appearance of the SRA Picture Reasoning Test is the only time an
analytical skill shows up. An individual who is "sober" and has
poorer reasoning skills is less likely to value or identify
constancy; an individual who is "happy-go-lucky" and has better
reasoning skills is more likely to value constancy even when s/he
can't identify it.
45
Description of Cattell F— Sober to happy-go-lucky
Silent, introspectiye Talkative
Full of cares Cheerful
Concerned, reflective Happy-go-lucky
Incommunicative and Frank, expressive,
sticks to inner values reflects the group
Slow, cautious Quick and alert
(Cattell, p. 87)
The valuing of positive self-regard is effected by Cattell B— Less
to more intelligent. This is the only time a general intelligence
factor appears as a single interactive variable outside of
leadership-as-a-whole blocks. The "more intelligent" an individual
the more likely to value positive self-regard while failing to "see"
it; the "less intelligent" an individual the less likely to value or
identify it.
The valuing of Wallenda, concomitant with failure to identify it,
is conditioned by Cattell F— Sober to happy-go-lucky. A "happy-go-
lucky" person is more likely to value Wallenda; a "sober" person is
unlikely to value or identify Wallenda.
4.3 OVERVIEW OF FINDINGS
Having examined the Leadership Recognition Table section by
section, it is now possible to take a broader look. What does this
complicated table mean?
1. Do subjects* reasoning and analytical skills effect
identification of leadership?
Referring to the left column, reasoning skills per se do not
condition leadership identification. A general intelligence factor
effects identification of leadership as a whole.
46
2. Do subjects* profiles of ideal leaders and learning style
preferences effect identification of leadership?
Referring to the left column, value profiles (leadership &
learning style) do not condition identification of leadership.
3. Do subjects* personality characteristics effect identification
of leadership? ,
Referring to the left column, personality profiles interact with:
communication, constancy, positive self-regard and Wallenda. On the
whole, personality factors are the main type of interacting variable
with leadership identification.
4. Do subjects* reasoning and analytical skills effect valuing of
leadership?
Referring to the middle and right columns, reasoning skills only
modestly effect valuing of leadership. Picture Reasoning does appear
as a second step regression with valuing/nonidentification of
constancy. Cattell B— Less to more intelligent, a general
intelligence factor, appears the most frequently.
5. Do subjects* profiles of ideal leaders and learning style
preferences effect valuing of leadership?
Ideal leader profiles do not effect affective variables. The Kolb
Reflective Observation learning style conditions
valuing/identification of positive self-regard.
6. Do subjects* personality characteristics effect valuing of
47
leadership?
Appearing in 10 of 12 blocks, personality factors prominently
condition responsiveness to leadership.
The dominance of personality factors conditioning leadership
identification and valuing was unanticipated. It had been expected
that analytical and valuing factors would predominate.
General intelligence effects cognitive and affective aspects of
leadership as a whole. By and large, personality variables effect
individual leadership characteristics. No conditioning variables
were found for vision, identification or recognition.
Among individuals who recognize leadership, the same variables
effected recognition of three characteristics.
By and large, conditioning variables change when leadership is
unsuccessfully identified. Most of the variables in the right column
are not present in columns involving leadership identification.
Conditioning variables were the most varied for positive self-
regard. In most cases where there was variation in conditioners
across columns, they correlated strongly and positively.
In sum, recognition patterns for leadership observation exist.
General intelligence effects recognition of leadership as a whole.
Recognition of individual leadership characteristics is effected most
frequently by personality variables.
48
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 OBJECTIVES
In the largest sense this study seeks to redress a scarcity of
leaders who have a sense of purpose and the ability to call it forth
in others. How can such leaders be developed? How do people learn
to lead? While findings of this study fail to obviate these
questions, they suggest some answers.
Leadership is difficult to define in any sense, much less
dynamically. Warren Bennis has developed a description of leadership
characterized by five points: vision, communication, constancy,
positive self-regard, and goal-directedness (Wallenda). Bennis*
description is best understood as a process of gathering talented
individuals together to create and bring to fruition a mutual goal.
Leadership is a complex skill, learning to lead a complex process.
An important feature of complex learning is observation; recognition
is central to observation. One of the most powerful outcomes of
recognizing leadership is in selecting who to work with so as to
control availability of observational opportunities necessary for
development of leadership skills.
5.2 FINDINGS
Findings Related to Hypotheses
The purpose of the study was to specify skill, value, and
personality factors which condition recognition of leadership.
Hypotheses which were substantiated include:
49
Table 5-1 : Summary Table
N = 1 0 0
Females=42
M ales=58
COGNITIVE
REGRESSIONS
AFFECTIVE
REGRESSIONS
IDENTIFIED VALUED & IDENTIFIED
TEST TOTALS
VISION
COMM UNICATION
CONSTANCY
POSITIVE SELF-REGARD
WALLENDA
Cottell B
Less to more intelligent
C attell L
Trusting to suspicious
C attell N
Forthright to shrew d
C attell Qviii
Less to more distortion
C attell M
Practical to im aginative
C atteii H
Shy to venturesome
C attell B
Less to more intelligent
C attell E
H um ble to assertive
C attell N
Forthright to shrew d
Reflective Observation
Gender ■
Fem ales,' M ales
C attell M
Practical to im ag in ative
C atteii H
Shy to venturesome
C atteii B
Less to more intelligent
VALUED BUT NOT IDENTIFIED
C attell N
Forthright to shrewd
C ateii 03
Undisciplined to controlled
C attell G
Expedient to conscientious
C atteii C
Feeiingfui to emotionally stable
C atteii F
Sober to h ap p y -g o -iu ck y
Picture Reasoning
C atteii B
Less to m ore Intelligent
C atteii F
Sober to happy-go-iucky
1. Personality factors effect leadership identification.
2. Personality factors effect valuing of leadership.
Almost all regressions reported in Table 5.1 involved personality
factors.
Hypotheses which were not substantiated include:
Value Factors
1. Value profiles (ideal leader and learning
preference) effect leadership identification.
style
2. Value profiles (ideal leader and learning style
50
preference) effect valuing of leadership.
Skill Factors
1. Skill factors (reasoning and analysis) effect leadership
identification.
2. Skill factors (reasoning and analysis) effect valuing of
leadership.
By and large, value profiles did not effect identification or
responsiveness to leadership. Ideal leader profiles effected no
aspect of leadership recognition. Learning style preference effected
recognition in one instance; a penchant for reflective observation
conditioned recognition of positive self-regard.
Reasoning and analytical factors modestly conditioned leadership
valuing but did not effect leadership identification. Specifically,
reasoning was a second level regression with constancy (valued/not
recognized).
General intelligence (Cattell B) effected identification and
valuing of leadership as a whole. General intelligence also
conditioned responsiveness to positive self-regard and goal-
directedness (Wallenda).
51
Other Findings
Data revealed information additional to that elicited by the
hypotheses. Cognition apparently has saliency over responsiveness to
leadership. Conditioning factors repeat in the left and middle
columns both of which are based on cognitive success; valuing only
exhibits differing conditioning patterns. To put it another way,
conditioning factors in the left and middle columns are similar;
conditioning factors in the right column differ from those in the
other columns.
There is an absence of conditioning factors for vision. Perhaps
the definition process was not clear, either the brochure and/or the
illustrative videotape inarticulate. Possibly the test battery
overlooked a conditioning factor. Possibly no such factor exists.
Factors conditioning positive self-regard are relatively varied.
Perhaps the explanation and examples were poorly developed. Perhaps
positive self-regard is more difficult to grasp. It ^ difficult to
portray. Perhaps measurements of positive self-regard are
intrinsically tangential.
5.3 APPLICATION OF FINDINGS
Selection and development of leaders are two areas potentially
impacted by this study.
Selection
Since the middle column of Table 5.1 represents recognition,
conditioning factors specified in the middle column profile learner
openness to leadership information. Characteristics which appear to
52
effect openness include:
intelligent
assertive
forthright
practical
venturesome
reflective observer
female
Given the paucity of female leaders, it is interesting that
females are included in the data. Apparently females and males are
equally advantaged at the learning end of leadership. Not until
1971, however, could Harvard Business School put together a large
enough sample of female executives for research (Hennig & Jardim,
1981). What accounts for the disparity in numbers of female leaders
vis-a-vis their equal learning potential? Bandura suggests that
performance of observationally learned behavior is mediated by
anticipated negative reinforcement. Are females in this culture
negatively reinforced for leadership performance (Gordon & Strober,
1975; Hennig & Jardim,* 1981)?
For selection purposes, application of information about
valued/not recognized factors is problematic. Does such information
indicate candidates with or without leadership potential? Are
undisciplined, expedient, emotionally stable, intelligent, happy-go-
lucky reasoners potential leaders? While application of this
information for leader selection is problematical, it might be used
to identify staff.
Development
Assuming potential leaders have been identified, how can their
training be enhanced? Few candidates will be intelligent and
53
assertive and forthright and practical and venturesome and suspicious
and personally honest (females). Even individuals with all these
qualities will exhibit them differentially. Knowledge of recognition
patterns for observational learning of leadership might make it
possible to estimate deeper and shallower informational pools. Areas
of probable depth can be assessed; special attention can be given to
areas of potential shallowness. For instance, if a candidate is
assertive and suspicious, s/he might have acquired information
regarding communication.
Information developed in this study might enhance organizational
teambuilding. Individuals at all levels might be profiled by taking
the test battery. Staff people whose test profiles exhibit
valued/not identified criteria (right column. Table 5.1) could be
well placed. Leaders with left and/or middle column profiles (Table
5.1) might also well placed. Leaders with right column profiles
could be having' trouble. In such cases, assuming responsibilities
cannot be shifted, both cognitive and affective learning can be
offered. A potential leader may be underutilized if a staff person
exhibits a left or middle column profile (Table 5.1).
Taking a step back, findings of this study raise a larger issue.
Can changes in leadership skill be brought about through cognitive
knowledge alone? Are leadership characteristics developed through
direct cognitive concentration or indirectly through affective
experience?
These kinds of questions were asked by Isen, Clark, Shalker and
Karp (1978) in "Affect, accessibility of material in memory and
behavior: a cognitive loop? " Isen et al. suggest replacement of a
54
binary, either/or model with a parallel or intertwined model of
affective and cognitive learning.
On the basis of our studies, we cannot say whether mood
can be identified separately from cognitive processes nor, if
so, which precedes the other; what we can say, however, is
that the processes are not independent of each other— that
what is experienced as emotion and what is seen as cognition
are, if not identities, very much related and interactive.
Case in point: T-groups, a technique for learning affective-
cognitive behavior. Slater (1968) discusses interaction of affect
and cognition in a T-group setting.
At this point (well into in the group's development) a
strange reversal takes place. Whereas earlier in the year
group members tend to prefer case discussions, and are
somewhat nervous about discussing themselves, now it is the
other way around and self-analysis is used defensively, to
avoid talking about cases. . . As one student put it, "if we
keep talking about old problems we won't have to face new
ones, but if we talk about cases we may reveal unresolved
problems."
In "Goals and metagoals of laboratory training," Bennis (1962)
describes the impact of T-group learning on affect and cognition. In
this case, what is meant by meta-goal is: expanded recognition of
choice, a "spirit of inquiry," authenticity in interpersonal
relations and a collaboration view of the authority relationship.
Emphasizing the meta-goals has another importance.
.For they represent what the participant internalizes and
transfers to his organization. "Everything the child learns
in school he forgets," goes an old French maxim, "but the
education remains." Similarly the metagoals remain. These
internalized learnings have profound implications for the
individual and for the organization because they deeply
affect and ' modify the value and motivational commitments
which determine the individual's orientation to his role.
55
5.4 FUTURE INQUIRY
If leaders of the nature Bennis describes are to be developed,
some areas need furthur exploration.
- Is there a factor which effects vision? Is failure to find
such a factor reflective of reality or a measurment
limitation of this study?
- How do the conditioning factors hold up with other groups?
More experienced groups? Do the factors Intensify?
Change?
- Would recognition factors change with female role models?
Would there be a change among men but not women? Among
women but not men?
- Do similar conditioning factors bubble up when print alone
delivers the information? Can print deliver complex,
cognitive-affective information?
- In developing leadership characteristics of the Bennis ilk,
how are cognitive and affective dimensions approached most
effectively? If separately, cognitive or affective first?
If parallel, how? If intertwined, how? Which model
(serial, parallel or intertwined) works best? Are these
models differentially effective among the five leadership
characteristics?
5.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
Information is gathered observationally about leadership in
predictably differential patterns. Vis-a-vis individual leadership
characteristics, personality factors dominate information gathering.
For leadership as a whole, general intelligence dominates information
gathering.
Knowledge of leadership recognition patterns allows for estimation
of knowledge stored and knowledge neglected and may facilitate
selection and development of leadership and staff. While it is not
clear how to structure learning experiences, it is clear that both
56
affective and cognitive learning must take place to acquire
leadership skills.
Antoine de Saint-Exupery*s fox was wise in advising the little
prince:
. . .here is my secret, a very simple secret: It is only
with the heart that one can see rightly; what is essential is
invisible to the eye."
"What is essential is invisible to the eye," the little
prince repeated, so that he would be sure to remember, (de
Saint-Exupery, 1943, p. 70)
57
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: "Traits of Successful Leaders" Brochure
W arren Bennis: Traits o f the Very Successful
68
For the past four years, I have been
kudying what makes leaders really suc
cessful in the US. I studied 90 people: 60
chief executives of the largest corpora
tions, and 30 leaders in government, cul
tural areas and foundations. Their styles
and their strengths are widely diverse. A t
one point, I thought it would be impos
sible to identify any general patterns. But
eventually, I began to see that they
shared five basic characteristics.
COMPELLING VISION
All the leaders kept sight of the
results they wanted. This is not to say
that they had only good intentions.
W hat they had was a constant conscious
ness about the outcome they wanted to
achieve.
FLAIR FOR COMMUNICATION
N ot only did they have clear vision,
but embodied this vision. They had a gift
for communicating their intentions to
others in personal conversations and or
ganizationally and politically through the
use of metaphors and slogans, to get
their message across.
CONSTANCY
Each leader I observed was all of one
piece. All were persistent and had coher
ence in their actions.
To their subordinates, this quality
was seen as reliability^ a highly prized
attribute in a leader. Subordinates always
knew where they stood in relation to the
leader. Research shows that workers
would rather take orders from a boss
with whom they disagree but are sure of
than a boss whom they think they agree
with but are uncertain about Being
quixotic does not go with being a
successful leader.
POSITIVE SELF-REGARD
Positive self-regard is not egotism.
Instead, it is the ability of leaders to see
their strengths clearly and to fit those
strengths to the organization in which
they are working.
Successful leaders are shrewd at
knowing which jobs to take and which
to turn down.
THE WALLENDA FACTOR
Successful leaders focus attention
and energy on the task at hand. They
neither fear nor avoid failure. They
simply don’t pay it much mind. They
achieve this state by maintaining a
certain distance from their successes and
failures. They develop the capacity to
take negative feedback and not be
destroyed by it
Two months before plunging to his
death in 1973, acrobat Carl W allenda
began thinking about falling for the first
time in his career, according to his
family. He did not fall, his family felt, as
long as he did not think about falling.
FINAL POINT
Successful leaders with these five
characteristics radiate a sense of em
powerment People are attracted to them.
Successful leaders give the people who
work for them a sense of significance,
confidence and affirmation, the three
qualities that most workers want from
their job.
Boardroom interviewed Warren Bennis, Dubell Dis
tinguished Professor of Administration, School of Business
Administration, University of Southern California, Los
Angeles 90007. He is the author of More Power to You, which
is a full report on his investigations, to be published by
William Morrow & l C o ., 105 Madison Ave., New York
10016, in 1983.
APPENDIX B; "Conversations on Leadership Brochure"
69
MR. FRANK DALE DR. FRANKLIN MURPHY DR. HAROLD WILLIAMS
EXPEMENCE...
Currently. . .
Publisher,
Los Angeles Herald Examiner
Formerly
United States Ambassador
to the United Nations
Publisher,
Cincinnati Inquirer
President,
Cincinnati Reds
President,
Cincinnati Chamber of
Commerce
Attorney,
Frost and Jacobs
(Cincinnati)
EXPERIENCE...
Currently. . .
Office of the Chief Executive,
Times Mirror Corporation
Formerly. . .
Chairman and
Chief Executive Officer,
Times Mirror Corporation
Chancellor,
University of California,
Los Angeles
Chancellor,
University of Kansas
Dean, School of Medicine
University of Kansas
EXPERIENCE. . .
Currently. . .
President,
J. Paul Getty Museum
and Foundation
Formerly. . .
Chairman,
Securities and Exchange
Commission
Dean,
Graduate School of Management
University of California,
Los Angeles
Chairman of the Board,
Norton Simon Industries
THEMES. . .
Symbolizing new directions (2)
THEMES...
Debate as a communication
tool (2)
Vision of UCLA’s potential (1)
Cultural & competitive
background influences (3,4)
THEMES. . .
Leader as change agent
(12,3,4,5)
Gathering information (2,5)
Value of failure (5)
APPENDIX B: "Conversations on Leadership Brochure"
69
CONVERSATIONS
ON
LEADERSHIP
W arren Bennis
talks with
Frank Dale,
Franklin Murphy,
and
Harold Williams
70
APPENDIX C:
CONVERSATIONS ON LEADERSHIP VIDEO SCRIPT
Dr. Warren Bennis interviews Mr. Frank Dale,
Dr. Franklin Murphy, and Dr. Harold Williams
Mr. Frank Dale
Publisher, Los Angeles Herald Examiner
Frank Dale: When I came to the Herald Examiner it was at the end
of the 10 year strike. Everybody that I found there had lost their
curiosity, they’d lost their cutting edge, there was no interest,
they just hung on— the really bright ones had left and said I can’t
wait for this thing to get settled. I ’ve got to go move on and so it
was a deadening room as you’d walk into the newsroom. That was true
throughout the whole paper and which was understandable— ten years of
siege almost. I had a real problem, a morale problem and problem of
incentive. How do we get those people. . . ^ I don’t want to just
walk through the room and fire everybody. We’ve still got to get the
paper going and to do so would create an impression that these
outsiders had come in and had no interest and didn’t care about our
traditions and all of this and that’s the heart of a newspaper and
you’ve got to be very careful.
Warren Bennis: Traditions.
Frank Dale: So I came upon the thought never to say you’re not
doing the job, you’re not capable of doing the job. I’ve got to have
These transcripts record conversations. Final decisions as to
punctuation have been made on the basis of portraying meaning.
Extended lines of periods demonstrate pauses in conversation rather
than deletions of text.
71
Figure 6-1 : Mr. Frank Dale
better people. Don’t put them down. It’s not necessary. It’s not
their fault or your fault either. Deal with the situation a
different way. I went to these people and I tried to spark their
loyalty, their tradition. I thanked them for preserving what’s left
there so perhaps I could try to build on it, we could try to build on
it. I thanked them for their loyalty and then said:
I’m going to get you some help. We’re going to try to do
some different things and I ’m going to get you some help.
I’m going to bring some people right in alongside of you.
As of now, we have replaced about 400 people. I can count on the
fingers of one hand the number of people who left with a grudge or
disgruntled, because time after time they wold come up to me, come to
the office and in effect say:
72
Is it alright if I left. I don’t want to leave you in the
lurch, but I’m just . . . I see that I’m just not capable of
going the way you all are going and I wish you all the luck
in the world and I don’t want to be in the way. Do you think
it’s alright if I could leave?
It’s amazing that somebody. • . but what happened, which I didn’t
understand at the time, that loyalty and that tradition. Many of
these people had invested ten long, hard years of being put down and
berated and called everything in the world.
Warren Bennis: Did you feel as a new boy coming in in this sort of
Phoenix operation, you know, of resurrecting a newspaper which is
essentially what it was— it’s really a Phoenix operation— did you
feel as a new boy you had to prove yourself pretty quickly or did
you— were you— see, your career is interesting and I didn’t introduce
you fully for alot of reasons. But you served as Ambassador to the
United Nations, you were publisher of the Cincinnati Inquirer, you
were president, as I recall, of the Cincinnati Reds and you also, as
I knew you in Cincinnati, this was also on the side but you were
chairman of the Chamber of Commerce and you were a lawyer with one of
the most prestigeous firms in Cincinnati, Frost and Jacobs, for a
number of years— at least 15 years— so you’ve been around and . . .
Frank Dale: Can’t keep a job. . .
Warren Bennis: Well, it’s been a very distinguished career and
you’ve come out here but you never were a professional newsman, in
that sense, and I wonder then if you . . .
Frank Dale: I went from the law over to the publishership sort of
at the top and I did not have that training, of course.
73
Warren Bennis: What I've discovered and I want to come back to
your plan here because it corroborates my own study of successful
CEO's, Frank, I'm happy to tell you. The perspective, the labeling,
calling something. . . that is, symbolizing your goals.
Frank Dale: I started the pattern the very first hour 1 was there.
A new manager. It so happened that the front door of the building
was barricaded. It had not been opened in 8 years. 1 had to walk
through the back door, have my fingerprints taken, my picture taken,
"welcome aboard boss." 1 went to the newsroom within the first hour
and asked the people who were then working to come and collect around
me so 1 could introduce myself. 1 had no one else. . .
Warren Bennis: You mean you couldn't walk through the front door?
Frank Dale: No. The lobby had been barricaded for over eight
years. There was tremendous strike, people were killed, employees
were killed and indeed, it was eventually some employees who had
never been unionized before or related to any union who simply said
to each other over a beer one night, "We gotta quit shooting each
other." And so on a peace platform they got the employees to vote
for a settlement and eventually got the right to bargain and that was
done.
1 called the people on duty at the time around the desk in an
informal setting, 1 had no one to introduce me, 1 did it myself so
that 1 would be right there. And without any aforethought (sic) at
all 1 said, "Maybe the first thing we ought to do is to open up the
front door." They stood up and cheered and women cried. That was a
symbol, you see, of defeat, of siege and "let the sun shine in" was
74
what I was saying. And then I attempted to introduce myself and
again thanked them for preserving the opportunity that I had been
asked to take advantage of now. Which is really what they did. They
stayed there and took all the abuse and everything else. And then I
took questions.
Warren Bennis: Everybody was there?
Frank Dale: About forty people in just the newsroom. This was
like 9:15 in the morning. Then I did the same thing in every
department of the paper just to let them see me and to take questions
just to let them see me. Because I did not really know what they
were feeling. It was a learning session for me and they expreessed
their frustrations: "What makes you think you can make this thing
go?" Which was a challenging kind of thing, which was great. I
answered, "I don't know yet, but in thirty days I'll come back to you
and tell you what I've found." And I think because I did not come in
with some already decided policy, already decided plan. I came and I
said, "Together we're going to find out where we are." There was
great separation; there was no communication between departments
which often happens in a business that's in trouble. Indeed that may
be the cause. And so I continued that policy throughout the whole
building. Then set the label and then went back to them and outlined
the steps of that program, explained to them that I had not been
given a blank check but I'd been told to come out and do a job and
that the first thing I had to decide was whether it was worth doing.
Is there the opportunity here? And I'd let them know that within
thirty days we would know.
I asked the Hearst Corporation to search their entire chain,
75
magazines as well as newspapers, to give me the best persons they
have in each phase of our business for ten days. We brought the team
in and put them up at the hotel. I told everybody at the paper that
we were going to have a task force here to help us all find out where
we are. I solicited and got their cooperation.
The team came in, worked all day long in their departments
assessing what we had and what we did not have. We met at the end of
the day and discussed it. And I asked each of them to dictate into a
tape recorder their thoughts for that day. At the end of the ten
days we had a final plenary session amongst ourselves. I asked them
to get to me a report within ten days after that. And so . . . and
we started this about ten days after I came so that within thirty
days I had written reports from the best people that this corporation
had to tell me what they had seen and then that became my inventory
list.
76
Dr. Franklin Murphy
Office of the Chief Executive, Times Mirror Inc.
Warren Bennis: If you had to think back to events or experiences,
formative, that shaped you, the way you are, was there. . . does
anything come to your mind about . . .?
Franklin Murphy: Oh yes! I am basically, I think, in terms of all
of my conditioned reflexes and deep down inside the product really of
three people. My mother was a concert pianist. Well, more than
three people. But the family. I was very lucky. My mother was a
concert pianist. I grew up in a house where every Sunday there was
chamber music, fairly high quality. My father was a physician but a
great book lover and book collector and I. . .
Warren Bennis: You mean those were when doctors knew things other
than medicine?
Franklin Murphy: Oh yes, and there may still be a few of them
around. And so I really in the beginning developed a love for books,
books qua books. But then my father was very much older than I. My
mother was gone alot, my father being a physician, was . . .So I was
a very lonely person. And the one habit or hobby I developed early
on was reading. And I've been a voracious reader from the time I was
. . .as long as I can remember. These have been useful inputs.
My only paternal aunt was a painter— professional painter. As a
matter of fact, worked in Paris at the turn of the century, was a
friend of Mary Cassatt, for example. She died prematurely,
unfortunately, but our house was covered with her paintings and
77
objects of art.
Warren Bennis: And the house was in the midwest, Kansas?
Franklin Murphy: Kansas City, I grew up in Kansas City. So I had,
I guess, what you*d say a very fortunate kind of cultural life
although I was not a sissy. I played football. I was active and all
that kind of thing. But I always returned to this kind of an
environment.
Figure 6-2: Dr. Franklin Murphy
1
I
But the leavening. . . you know you can put all the components of
bread together in a dough but you * ve got to put the yeast in. My
father had a brother— an only brother— who was an untutored business
entrepreneur. School was never for him; I^m not even sure he
78
finished high school. I know he didn’t go on to college although he
claims to have gone on to a business school of some kind. In those
days there were these little local business schools. Mostly they
were there to teach girls how to type or something. But he was an
entrepreneur from early on. He had no children; he and his wife were
childless. I was my father and mother’s oldest child and he sort of
latch onto me as a kind of surrogate father because my dad was gone
alot. And he told my father, he said, "You can have Franklin nine
months of the year", to my father and mother, "but I want him for the
summer months." And dad and mother didn’t object to that very much.
So because of Uncle Lee. . . he was determined that I. . . how shall
I put it. . . that I be an entrepreneur or that at least I develop a
side that he felt important.
I remember one summer he put me to work in the oil fields in
Oklahoma. Another summer I worked in the wheat harvest out near
Hutchinson, Kansas. I remember that’s when there was an old Irishman
on those. . . remember how the combines used to go through Texas up
to the Dakotas, and the old Irishman. . . we were around the
campfire, here I was a kid, you know, about 12 years old. I remember
this old Irishman, somebody asked him:
Mike, why did you never marry? Well, I’ve never found the
right woman. What’s your definition of the right woman?
It’s very simple. It’s a woman about 90 years old with a
million dollars and a bad cough.
And it was this kind of rough and tough kind of thing that I grew
up with.
I had to work in the summers. I earned my spending money, that I
spent, in the summers. And this was a rough, tough guy. He, then.
79
f*or several summers had me work in a department store selling in the
home furnishings department, I remember, for Emerybird Thayer which
was a great old store in Kansas City.
Now this brought to my canada, youthful, impressionable period a
way of life and a kind of understanding of what competition meant.
And understanding that if you wanted something you had to go and get
it or you had to at least work for it. And I've always said that the
great fortunate thing was to have this rather cultured and this
sensitive home environment and this very tough uncle of mine to kind
of put the tail on the kite.
Warren Bennis: Would you say that one of your strengths then is
the . . . to be integrative, to bring people together, people and
ideas together. I'm taking you at your face right now, about the
ideas that you hear. You do know a good idea when you hear it,
however?
Franklin Murphy: Well, I think I do. And I guess I do most of the
time. But my way of operating from the beginning, assuming that
there are the kinds of people around me, has been to play the devil's
advocate. Not to call a meeting and say:
Now, gentlemen, we're here this morning to discuss what
we're going to do and this is what we're going to do, and all
I need to know is how you think we ought to do it.
Rather I like to bring a group of people together about an issue
and take what is very often not the position I have and play the
devil's advocate. And, on occasion, but after people that I work
with got to know me, they understood. But in the beginning sometimes
80
I remember people with amazement on their face saying, ”Bv God, I
really won that debate, didn’t I." Well, that’s the theory of .
it’s very important that if you have an idea and you want others
to accept it, it’s very important that they feel they have
participated in the development of that idea. If they feel that they
have a stake in the idea because they participated in its creation,
then they’ll work much harder in a much more dedicated way to bring
it to success.
Figure 6-3: Dr. Warren Bennis
Warren Bennis: Yeah. I think you’re saying that you’re genuine
about it. You’re not simply saying, ”I know what to do and I’m just
going to play around and get people to come around to where I think.”
I mean, you said earlier that you do actually participate with them
in the development of ideas.
81
Franklin Murphy: Oh, absolutely.
Warren Bennis: I*m not trying to put words in your mouth.
Franklin Murphy: No, but that’s true. An illustration of that is,
for example, when I first went down to Times-Mirror after having
spent so many years in academic administration of one kind or
another. I looked around a little bit and realized that, in a sense,
it wasn’t all that different from running the University or managing
the University. There were many things in which I was totally
inexpert. I didn’t know how to make a newspaper; I didn’t know how
to run a television station. I know a little bit more about that
today than I did then. I’m not a lawyer. We were already involving
ourselves or having to be involved with the FCC and FTC, alot of
business decisions had to be based upon what you predicted in one or
more of the government agencies, what they might do at some point
down the road. And it very quickly made me realize that. . . . well,
let me go back. Point one. You manage a university, you’re dealing
with an educational conglomerate. It’s a large, complex university.
You’re dealing with Fine Arts, with Engineering, with the Humanities,
the Social Sciences, Medicine, Law, Dentistry, etc. Well, now
there’s nobody in the world who is expert in all of those fields. So
the name of the game is to identify some people who really are expert
and specialists in those fields who you have confidence in and whose
intellect you have confidence in and you bring them together and, in
effect, you become. . . at least that was always true in my case. .
you become premis interparis. You’ve created the Office of the
Chief Executive as it were. And decisions then are made with alot of
input. Allocation of resources, after all, is one of the major
responsibilities in the hand of a chief executive officer whether
82
it’s in a university or in a business. Does more go for Medicine,
less for Dentistry; does more go for newspapers, less for television?
And so on. Because there is a limited, finite amount of resources to
allocate.
Now, anybody who’s egocentric enough to think that he has the
ultimate wisdom in this complex time to make that decision
unilaterally and without advice is, in my view, headed for deep, deep
trouble. So when I went down to the Times-Mirror Company, the first
thing I did was to create something called the Office of the Chief
Executive in which, parenthetically, I still serve even though I’m no
longer chairman and chief executive officer.
And the theory here is a very simple one. Three people, all of
whom have mutual confidence in each other, neither of whom or none of
whom are competing for a superior position, all of whom are close
enough to be candid one with another, all of whom bring to the
dialogue some special background and some special expertise, sit down
and in the end come up with a final decision on whether you should
spend $129 million for a large cable system.
Well, now what happens if there’s disagreement? If there is
profound disagreement, if one of the three says, this is the
craziest, most stupid thing that we could ever do, then we don’t do
it. Or, at the very least, we go back and reanalyze the whole
problem. We have enough confidence in each other that we say if one
of us feels that deeply and that strongly that we’re making an error,
there may very well be something wrong with the way the other two
have thought it out. But, on the other hand, if there is a
consensus, then we go forward. And I must say, in my experience at
83
least at Times-Mirror, we have consensus nine times out of ten.
Warren Bennis: Do you remember that musical, "The Music Man?"
Professor Harold Hill started that by saying, "You’ve got to know the
territory." Well, what I’m really interested in and what I think
other people would be interested in. Dr. Murphy, is how you size up a
situation.
Franklin Murphy: I like to go into a situation where you feel that
there is a potential to do something really quite creative. When I
came to Los Angeles, and I made several visits, I went away feeling
that this was a city that was about to take off in cultural and
educational terms for a variety of reasons. And secondly, I felt
that UCLA was a university that was about to take off if two things
could happen. And, again, I don’t think I was any genius for having
figured this out after you asked the kind of research questions, you
get answers back. One, if the faculty would let me do it, there’s
the tradition of the strong Academic Senate in the University of
California tradition. Would they have confidence? Did they share
the kind of broad views that I had? I had many meetings with the
Academic Senate leadership and we became mutually convinced that our
views were more or less compatible. The other was a much more iffy
question. Could I cut the Berkeley umbilical cord. . .
Warren Bennis: Yes.
Franklin Murphy: Which had, over the years, been very, very. .
really had held down UCLA in a variety of ways. Well, that was the
risk. I gambled that I could. And as a matter of fact if there is
any one achievement that I managed to pull off while I was there, it
84
was that. That little brother simply said, you know, "you go your
ways and we*11 go ours." And that really then unleashed the pent up
energies and ambitions of a faculty and it excited members of the
Board of Regents. We began to get a much fairer share of the
University resources.
Now, I don* t think that that required alot of genius on my part to
figure out what the problem was. Any thoughtful person would have
been able to do that. The think I had to answer was: could I pull it
off? And at that point I was enough excited. • . and here we get
back to the reward thing. Sure, I knew there was a chance of
failure. I knew that there was a chance that Clark Kerr would fire
me if he could. As indeed he wanted to do once, but couldn*t because
of the Regents. I knew that there was a chance that the faculty
would say, "there*s no way we can beat the Berkeley game." But at
the same time, the potential, the reward, was so great— namely to put
a potentially great university right on the track to real greatness—
that I was willing to take the risk.
85
Dr. Harold Williams
President, Getty Foundation and Museum
Warren Bennis:: One of the reasons among others that I really
looked forward to this interview is your experience in many different
kinds of organizations— Chairman of the Board of Norton Simon, before
that Counselor for them, then Dean of the Graduate School of
Management at UCLA (and in your leadership it clearly became the top
public university's business school in the country, at least it was
my impression; I think it was also the impression of many other
folks), then the SEC Chairmanship, and now starting the Presidency of
the Getty Foundation and Museum.
So I want to talk with you about thinking across these
institutions about innovation. And my question's gonna be a broad
one, but we'll start focusing in. When you think about innovation
and leadership, and I think in a way they can be considered almost
the same thing, but when you consider a leader as an individual who's
gonna bring about change, I wonder if you'd comment on what. . .
maybe think about a specific situation where you felt it was a
moderate success and where you felt it didn't work, and whether it
comes from the UCLA experience or SEC or Norton Simon or whatever. I
wonder if you'd just sort of think about one that worked, maybe
describe it briefly, one that didn't, and maybe we can go on from
there.
And I guess another question underneath that or aside with that,
is the public-private and what impressions you have about those
sectors in terms of innovation. Because the conventional wisdom is
that the public sector is much a more difficult area to innovate in.
86
Harold Williams: I don’t see much of a difference, at least in my
experience, between the private and public sector. Except in terms
of speed. One example that you’re familiar with was the changes we
brought about in management education at UCLA. What I think I
brought to that was an ability to catalyze and unleash and lead in
providing the implementation and breaking down some of the structural
or bureaucratic barriers that existed. The concept that we set about
to implement was latent in the faculty. It was really the faculty
that first summer I was there that brought together the concept of
what it is we ought to do. Now it so happened there were faculty
there who had the vision, and what would have happened if they hadn’t
been there, I don’t know. But it would obviously have taken longer
to find faculty that had it. I had my own view, but I don’t feel as
a leader that I ought to lead with my idiosyncratic view of what the
future ought to hold. I want to test it. I want to know why it
won’t work or why it isn’t right. And if it’s going to be anybody’s
idiosyncratic view it’ll be mine. I mean, if we’re going to run an
organization by the seat of the pants and I’m the leader, we’ll run
it by the seat of my pants. But there has to be better ways to do
things. And a more systematic way to look at alternatives . . .
Also, beyond that in talking about success or failure, there’s a
much greater chance of success if the conceptualization and the
implementation is an institutional one. And really understood by
people beyond the leader himself. The more people that have
internalized it, been part of the process of developing it, and are
there and have a role in the implementation, the more the likelihood
of success. In principle and in depth. That however well the plan
is conceived, the implementation as you’re going downstream and hit
Figure 6-4: Dr. Harold Williams
87
the unexpected, which inevitable happens day to day, the events that
occur that call for minor but in the aggregate very signficant
decisions in terms of implementation and out of which the plan will
succeed or be aborted or end up bearing little resemblance to the
initial objective, and the sensitivity with which people make those
decisions, . . and they can*t be made by the leader because they’re
happening every day out there . . . will determine how successful the
activity is.
So it isn’t a matter at all of I say ’ ’we’ll take that hill” or
whatever. It’s much deeper than that.
Now at the Commission, in several areas that were priority for me
in terms of change, I had to change the leadership before I could get
88
it going. The existing leadership, decent people, not incompetent,
but they had their way of doing things and *twas ever thus, they
believed in it, and they were not prepared to either substantively or
people-wise to do what was needed to be done to change. And even in
the government . . . one can change people. And we did.
In 1937 or *38 or *39, somewhere in there, when William 0. Douglas
resigned as Chairman of the SEC to go on the Supreme Court, he wrote
President Roosevelt a letter in which he reported on what happened at
the SEC under his stewardship and what remained undone. Well, we got
it done in 1979. You had a gap of literally 40 years! During which
that basic inconsistency in the way the two acts are being
interpreted and implemented, the *33 Act and the *34 Act, were
allowed to stand and build up all kinds of baggage and structural and
other kinds of problems to deal with these conceptual
inconsistencies.
Warren Bennis: These unresolved conflicts almost are like
thalidomide babies. They*re orphans anyway of unresolved conflict
and they look grotesque.
Harold Williams: They do. But meanwhile they nurture many people.
Warren Bennis: Is that why they last?
Harold Williams: Sure. There are people in the Commission who
became experts in the interstices or in the conflicts and lawyers out
at the private bar, and you get all kinds of law and cases and
interpretations, and it * s big business. And then it becomes
enormously complex to do what simply ought to be done. That is
89
reconcile them and make the changes that are necessary to . . .
Warren Bennis: Was it tough for you to do that one?
Harold Williams; Not once I got the right people in.
Warren Bennis: What made you take that particular area? I mean
why were you interested in making that change? Was it just so
flagrant?
Harold Williams: It had been apparent to me for so long in my own
experience with financial reporting. And there was something else,
too, that I hoped would happen. It might have been the most
signficant part of the whole development. When that division began
to conceptualize how to go about changing it, and as I thought about
doing it, they realized that if they were to do that they ought to
organize differently, they would have to relate differently to the
private sector, that they would have to approach. . . they would have
to develop their own new internal consistency, in other words, you
have alot of different people issuing interpretations, and there has
to be some way that everybody was seeing the world in at least
compatible ways.
What came out of that whole thing was a renaissance of that
division from being kind of plodding along and doing the same
blooming thing day after day, the morale, the whole attitude of that
division changed. In some ways under the leadership that we brought
it became in a sense almost, they felt themselves to be the elite of
the Commission all of a sudden. And it was magnifcent to see!
90
Warren Bennis: I’d like to ask you how you size up a situation.
Harold Williams: Ask questions; listen; triangulate. You know,
you’ll get different perspectives on the same point. Over time you
begin to understand what’s true and what isn’t true. Explore
inconsistencies that you hear about. Don’t be afraid to be dumb.
When you have the privilege, ask the dumb question. The more
fundamental the question, usually the more insight you get into the
answer. One of my favorite questions when I’d interview a . . . if
I’d go into a company, whether as a member of the Board or when we
were looking at acquisitions when I was with the company, I used to
like to ask managers— senior managers— in effect, what are the
critical variables in your business? You ought to be able to list
them on one sheet of papers. In a sense, the barometric or thermal
measure that tell you on an ongoing basis how your business is doing.
It’s amazing how many managers can’t tell you. But you learn alot.
You don’t have to impress anybody at that. I find I think I
impress more people by being open, willing to talk and letting them
realize I really do want to understand. I want to know them; I want
to understand what they’re about; I want to understand the business;
I want to understand why they do things the way they do. And it’s
really nonthreatening because I’m just giving them a chance to
educate me. And just ask questions. I learned that from a master; I
learned that from Norton Simon. I really ask it of anybody who might
have some perspective on the situation. Why not pick up the phone
and call somebody and ask questions? Over time you get a sense of
the person, you get information that over time begins to fit
together.
91
I don’t know any other way to do it. Let me go at it differently.
One of the things that concerns me about management today— maybe it
goes back to where we started this interview— there are too many
managers who believe that they can manage anything. In a sense I
believe I can manage anything but if you think you can manage
anything because you have a pat management technique, reporting
forms, this kind of stuff. I think the chances of failure are very,
very high.
Part of the problem with much of today’s management is that it
tends to be very much financially oriented and dealing with certain
canned financial measures. That’s what I think leads to short term
thinking and other things. And it also leads to lack of innovation.
Because if you don’t know the business well enough to understand what
really makes it tick, not just what the numbers spit out at you, then
you’re not creating, you’re not being innovative, you’re not creating
an environment that tells people that innovation is important. It
tells them that the bottom line’s what’s important. But you have to
understand the territory and you have to know the business and once
you know it you have a basis for dialogue with your people and you
have a basis for setting a direction and for creating something
that’s worth doing.
Warren Bennis: I notice you talk about talking with people. One
of the impressions I have talking to my CEO friends, including you,
is the reliance on verbal over written stuff. Is that true?
Harold Williams: Oh yes, very much so. Yeah. I spend my day
talking and listening. I should put it the other way at this point,
listening and talking.________________________________________________________
92
I don't really have . . . and it's been true of almost any
position I've been in. I do an enormous amount of reading but I do
that at night and on the weekends and I do my dictating then too.
Warren Bennis: Really? But you come in and you talk to people?
Harold Williams: I talk and listen.
Warren Bennis: Are you reading. . . like in the Getty collection
there are some particular areas you mentioned earlier. Are you
reading anything?
Harold Williams: Yeah, sure. Well, part of what I've done in
every setting is I read very heavily in two areas. One is . . . I'm
always reading philosophy of one type or another just to keep my
scanning mechanism broad and challenging. But I also read very
heavily in any of the publications relating to the field. I've got
to know what people out there are talking about and thinking and
concerned about. At the Commission, if I went to a major city to
give a talk there were two things that were part of my program. One
was if it was a program, I wanted a Q & A session to go with my talk.
If it was a program of, for example, an all day program and I might
be the luncheon speaker, I wanted to spend at least a couple of hours
listening to other people. And I'd call somebody, an old friend in
the community. And I had one. . . I'd usually have one in most every
city, and ask him if he'd host a dinner for a dozen CEO's or a dozen
people out of the Wall Street community. Just so I could talk to
them and find out what's on their mind.
The ability. . . and I see this probably most threateningly in
93
the White House but it happens as importantly in so many corporate
headquarters, is that one tends to get insulated and focused on one's
own sense of the world and one's own definition of the world. And
just loses touch. I found at the Commission, I think in some ways,
the most difficult thing I had to discipline myself about. . . the
most persistent on was to be sure that I didn't get isolated and that
I had a sense of what was going on out there.
Also, ego-wise too, if you're talking on a subject that you care
about and you're trying to make a dent, you need to know whether
you're making a dent or not. I mean, your own sense of . . . you
listen to yourself too much. You've got to get out there and know
whether you're making a difference. When you're writing regulations
or when you're producing and marketing a product, you can count on
things going wrong. We designed a beautiful bottle for Wesson Oil at
one point, a new half-gallon bottle that was . . it looked so
pretty compared to all those jugs that used to be on the . . . half
gallon jugs that were on the shelf. And we were so proud of that
bottle. Well, we got it out there and it wasn't selling. We
couldn't figure out why until we got out there to find out that the
woman who had the half-gallon jug typically put it under the sink and
this one was too high and it wouldn't fit where she used to put it.
Those things always happen. I don't care what you're doing. Whether
you're producing a product. . . anytime you're being innovative. . .
you're going to reach the unexpected. I mean it's going to . . . and
you've got to know when you're there and you've got to find out. But
people tend to get so absorbed with what they're doing and so
convinced that it's right that they stop looking and listening.
Warren Bennis: We have only a few minutes left and I just want to
94
get at two other questions, Harold, that I'd like your reaction to.
You know, you, I'm sure have read in a number of national
publications, business publications and Time magazine as well, the
furor over the MBA, part of which is a success story. You know, when
you were Dean at UCLA I suspect that the MBA wasn't even as high
currency as it is today.
Harold Williams: That's right.
Warren Bennis: And there's alot of criticism about the programs.
I wonder if you would comment on the extent to which these criticisms
are deserved or not deserved and I think you have insight about both
sides of it and what's your reaction to that?
Harold Williams: Well, when I came to the School in 1970 I was
concerned then that much of education had become too quantitative. I
had that same concern about doctoral programs in many fields, for
example, let alone the MBA area or the doctoral program in
management. We've tended too much, I think, to move into
quantification, to lose the qualitative dimension and the . . . it's
a very convenient crutch. It's alot easier to be right or wrong on a
quantitative measure. And that's why the emphasis in the MBA program
when I was there moved very heavily towards the behavioral and an
appreciation for the human side of what happens. That's where it is.
That's what determines, to me, the difference between success and
failure in a management situation. And it's much harder to teach,
it's much harder to get students exposed to. But I think, by and
large, in master's education the emphasis on the quantitative has
continued and it is too pervasive. It really doesn't qualify a
95
person to be a manager and it tends to teach him more about, or her
more about, risk avoidance than it does about risk taking and it
leaves the decision very comfortable to some mechanistic approach.
But you can't make good decisions that way. You can't make the
important decisions that way. You've got to prepare managers to live
with uncertainty, to deal with it effectively and . . . or at least
to recognize if we don't know how to prepare people for it that the
only managers that are going to succeed over time are those who can
and who do.
Warren Bennis: I have a very clear idea, especially after our
talk, about what you do and it also corresponds to my other knowledge
of you, what you do as a leader and as an administrator. What do you
think has been the most important formative experience for you? Just
as. . , .because we only have a few minutes. . . mentors, law school.
. . you mentioned Norton Simon earlier so I thought of a mentor. But
what is there about your. . . what kinds of experience would you like
to give or have other people have that would prepare them for the
kind of life of the leader and administrator?
Harold Williams: It may be that the most important single event in
my life was a time when I thought I was ready to be president of the
company and I was passed over.
And I was very angry about it. And really disappointed at the
obvious stupidity of the people who were involved in making the
choice. And really licking my wounds and feeling sorry for myself.
And happened to have an old friend who I was talking to about it one
day and he asked me what was new and I told him. He looked at me and
he said: "Did you every stop to think why they might be right?" And
96
I couldn’t say I had but I did. And when I could look and I could
start listening, maybe some reasons why they could have been right,
probably the most important learning experience I had because I still
would have obviously made the other decision but by golly . . .
Warren Bennis: You could understand it.
Harold Williams: I could sure as hell understand it . . .
Warren Bennis: And from that, learn what you had to . . .
Harold Williams: That’s right. Next time around, they didn’t pass
me over.
97
APPENDIX D: VIDEOTAPE TEST SCRIPT
SCENE 1
Speaker: The first thing it requires is don't give up because it
ain't gonna happen in a minute. It ain't gonna happen in three
months. It will take between six months and a year-and-a-half before
it begins to penetrate. In that particular size organization, which
was like five-hundred people and in alot bigger organizations like
the Department of Mental Health, it would take years to penetrate.
Figure 5-5 : Scene 1
98
SCENE 2
Speaker: Now what is management? What is management in this new
design, this new architecture of organizational design that we
created which we call networking. It was beautiful, the breakdown
was wonderful, because people didn't know what to do. And so we have
been struggling on how do you manage in a structure of empowerment.
We've come up with a couple of things I want to share with you very
quickly because I think they have to do with the, perhaps the
beginnings of a new paradigm of leadership.
What we've discovered is this. Leaders, managers are often doing
when they're at their best, a coordination of effort so that each
person's effort when added up comes out to the mission accomplished,
the whole.
Figure 6-6 : Scene 2
99
SCENE 3
Speaker*: Maybe I should back up. I think one of the disadvantages
of being a people-oriented company is that you stay with people too
long perhaps and that's what I refer to when I say we didn't have the
mechanism set up. We didn't have the control that said we are going
to lose X dollars and no more and cut off. We just kept rolling the
dice. . . You had faith in that person who was. . . in the person.
The person was a good Jockey but the horse was bad.
Figure 6-7 : Scene 3
100
SCENE 4
Speaker: I happen to know my own limitations fairly well, I think.
And I could only take a company so far organizationally and then I,
it won’t fit my mould and somebody else will have to take it the next
step.
Warren Bennis: How then would you make the company plan to retire
upon your departure, because I know you don’t plan to retire and I
don’t see why one should. But someday you’re not going to be there,
right; you’re mortal like the rest of us. And are you doing anything
to, to, what should I say, get the excitement there? Or is that just
going to be the natural evolution for other people and the Board to
be concerned with?
Speaker: I don’t know. I think the personality of the company
will gradually change in that respect. Which is not bad, by the way,
because really were we running alot smoother I think that there’d be
some deficiencies that would probably show upon the bottom line.
There again. I ’m probably the guy that. . . I live in tomorrow and
these people live in today to a great extent.
Figure 6—8: Scene 4
102
SCENE 5
Speaker: I would search, and I have searched and my associates are
searching, for ways to make it possible for people to be curious and
open and for them to have freedom in order to be productive.
Figure 6-9 : Scene 5
Ï
103
SCENE 6
Speaker: It's rather possible to be your own person by seeing that
this is something for which you can be responsible. In other words,
where I brought something forth in my job in the group as a leader
and the people within the group with whom I'm working are willing to
look at my having brought it forth as an opportunity for them to
bring it forth, then I think that everybody's empowered.
Figure 6-10: Scene 6
104
SCENE 7
Speaker: One of the reasons our company is growing is because
we've found a niche and we've constantly tried to widen that niche in
the marketplace. The best example is when we sent a young MBA, that
had been in the world force for a little while, out in the oil patch
and he lived in the oil patch. He put on hip boots and dressed like
the independent oil drillers out there. And for four months he went
around to the little banks and the independent drillers and he spent
his whole life finding out what it was they needed. As a result of
that study, we've founded the Energy Resources Division of our
company which lends money to independent drillers and all the
peripheral service companies for those drillers. Those people can't
borrow money at their banks because the banks don't have enough
capital. They can't borrow it from the big banks because the banks
don't want to take those kinds of risks. And we've created a very,
very important profit center.
Figure 6-11: Scene 7
»
105
SCENE 8
Speaker: I think that if the, what we try to do if I can answer
your question in a broad way, is to create an atmosphere where
creative people feel comfortable and try to, I think, build an
organization where everyone understands the, you know. We never
resort to, we don't do it this way or we don't resort to "that not
our policy" or we don't resort to "that's not in our budget." We
like to keep an open and flexible mind about what can be done,
whethre it's the music itself or whether it's in the marketing of the
music.
Figure 6-12: Scene 8
106
SCENE 9
Speaker: Patients are not necessarily regarded as a creative force
in an institution, not in the 19^0*s. The 19^0*s were typified by
custodialism and all that— the 30*s and 40*s. Alright. The patients
are unhappy and sent a letter to the Assistant Superintendent saying
what they think is wrong. And the Assistant Superintendent could
treat it in various ways. One option is to say, "no, it isn't wrong"
or "yes, it may be wrong but we're trying to do something about it
and here's what we're trying to do." Instead, the Assistant
Superintendent writes them a lenghy letter. This was not me.
Warren Bennis: You were not the Superintendent then?
Speaker; No, I was the Chief of Research at that time. The
gentleman's name was Robert Hyde, M.D.. Robert wrote to them and
said:
I'm delighted to hear from you. The complaints that you
have made we are going to consider very carefully. This is
what I've done so far but I would like it very much if you
would get together every week at least and keep on telling us
what we could do because we consider the patients as the
greatest inspectors of a hospital we can possible imagine.
And then it all began to pour in. What poured in?
The knob on the door doesn't work. The wastebasket has been
ranoved. We're not getting good therapy. When you enter the
hospital there is too much impersonality. And so on. Just taking
care of those. Every week it rolled in. Pretty soon it was called
on that particular ward where the complaints arise, this was called
ward government.
107
Then other wards hearing about it, it spread throughout the
hospital. Pretty soon there was patient government with delegates
from all the wards.
Well, you just can't imagine what this did for patients.
Figure 6-13: Scene 9
108
SCENE 10
Speaker: They are sometimes the most difficult to deal with
because they're the ones that are most difficult to say, "Yes, that's
right, I'm a Jerk, I made a mistake." It is always, or at least for
the most part in my case. I'm always in the process of correcting my
mistakes, I think. So I want to quickly say, "Well, yes, but .
.I'm handling it." But I'm not always handling it. In fact even
when I'm handling it I'm somethings "handling" it as a way of not
confronting it.
So the valid attacks are very useful in that they are an
opportunity to complete one's relationship with one's own failing by
having it be public, by having it be stuck up in one's face.
Figure 6-14: Scene 10
109
SCENE 11
Speaker: I think that when you have a hierarchial command like you
frequently do in government, industry, armies, and you need a
hierarchial command to make decisions, you can't do it by committee,
leadership can be seduced into being too imperial and inadvertently
and innocently not hearing all sides to an issue before they come
down on a decision.
So I think if a person is in a position of power, leadership,
whether it's a church, government, or business, or an army or any
large institution, they have an additional and extra burden of
setting up the opportunity for their associates fully to express
themselves and have some dissent and creative dissection.
If they don't, they are in the position of accidentally and
inadvertantly killing some ideas.
Figure 6-15: Scene 11
110
SCENE 12
Speaker: I can remember one that did not work.
We acquired a company that manufactured tunnel machines thinking
that . . .
Warren Bennis: These are the machines that made tunnels?
Speaker: Horizontal holes. You see we were drilling vertical and
we said: "Why can't we do it horizontal?." And we built these large
tunnel machines and bid the machines at a very low price in order to
get the cutters because each machine used a tremendous amount of
cutters. Those were the expendables and that was the business that we
understood. We underestimated the construction business which is a
completely different type of busines than what we were used to. So
we thought this was quite an innovation from the razor and the razor
blade concept and we found that we. . .
Warren Bennis: It makes sense.
Speaker: Well, it still does. I just don't know why it didn't
work.
I think generally speaking that we underestimated the market, we
underestimated the type of business that the construction business
is. It was a completely different ballgame. I think that what we
really did is that we didn't have the mechanism set up to say "we've
made a mistake" and turn off the switch.
Figure 6-16: Scene 12
112
APPENDIX E: VIDEOTAPE TEST & SCORING KEY
RECOGNIZING CHARACTERISTICS OF LEADERSHIP
ANSWER SHEET
General Format of the Test
You are about to see several scenes taken from interviews similar
to those you have just seen. After each scene, you will be given
time to respond on this form.
On the portion which has the same number as the scene, mark the
intensity of the characteristic displayed. Some scenes may display
more than one characteristic, but chose only the one characteristic
most strongly displayed. Some scenes may not show any of the
characteristics. If so, circle ”NONE." Remember to mark an intensity
for only one characteristic for each scene.
Specific Steps to Follow
1, DECIDE WHICH IF ANY CHARACTERISTICS ARE SHOWN IN THE SCENE,
then circle the number describing the intensity of that
characteristic. If the characteristic was strongly dis
played, circle a "7". If the characteristic was present
but weak, circle a "1".
2. FOR ALL SCENES, MARK AN INTENSITY FOR THE EMPOWERMENT LINE.
If you feel you could be very productive working with the
individual just shown, mark the "7". If you feel you would
be prevented from being productive working with the person
just shown, mark a "1". If it would not make any difference,
mark a "4".
SCENE 1
113
VISION 1 2 3
4 5 6 7
COMMUNICATION 1 2
3
4 5 6
7
CONSTANCY 1 2
3
4
5 6 7
POSITIVE
SELF-REGARD 1 2 3
4 5 6 7
WALLENDA 1 2
3
4 5 6 7
EMPOWERMENT 1 2
3
4 5 6 7
NONE
SCORING KEY
VISION AND CONSTANCY AT INTENSITY LEVEL
SCENE 2
114
VISION
COMMUNICATION
CONSTANCY
POSITIVE
SELF-REGARD
WALLENDA
EMPOWERMENT
NONE
SCORING KEY
VISION AT INTENSITY AND COMMUNICATION AT 2X INTENSITY
115
SCENE 3
VISION 1 2 3
4 5 6 7
C(M«JNICATION 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
CONSTANCY 1 2
3
4 5 6 7
POSITIVE
SELF-REGARD 1 2
3
4 5 6 7
WALLENDA 1 2
3
4 5 6 7
EMPOWERMENT 1 2
3
4 5 6 7
NONE
SCORING KEY
CONSTANCY AT 2 X INTENSITY
116
VISION
COMMUNICATION
CONSTANCY
POSITIVE
SELF-REGARD
WALLENDA
EMPOWERMENT
SCENE 4
4
4
4
4
4
7
7
7
7
7
NONE
SCORING KEY
VISION AND POSITIVE SELF-REGARD AT INTENSITY
117
SCENE 5
VISION 1 2 3
4 5 6 7
COMMUNICATION 1 2 3
4 5 6 7
CONSTANCY 1 2
3
4 5 6 7
POSITIVE
SELF-REGARD 1 2
3
4 5 6
7
WALLENDA 1 2
3
4 5 6
7
EMPOWERMENT 1 2 3
4 5 6
7
NONE
SCORING KEY
COMMUNICATION AT 2 X INTENSITY
118
SCENE 6
VISION 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
COMMUNICATION 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
CONSTANCY 1 2
3
4 5 6 7
POSITIVE
SELF-REGARD 1 2
3
4 5 6 7
WALLENDA 1 2 3
4 5 6 7
EMPOWERMENT 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
NONE
SCORING KEY
POSITIVE SELF-REGARD AT INTENSITY
AND COMMUNICATION AT 2 X INTENSITY
119
VISION
COMMUNICATION
CONSTANCY
POSITIVE
SELF-REGARD
WALLENDA
EMPOWERMENT
SCENE 7
4
4
4
4
4
NONE
SCORING KEY
VISION AT 2 X INTENSITY
120
SCENE 8
VISION 1 2
3
4 5 6 7
COMMUNICATION 1 2
3
4 5 6 7
CONSTANCY 1 2
3
4 5 6 7
POSITIVE
SELF-REGARD 1 2
3
4 5 6 7
WALLENDA 1 2
3
4 5 6
7
EMPOWERMENT 1 2
3
4 5 6 7
NONE
SCORING KEY
VISION & COMMUNICATION AT INTENSITY
SCENE 9
121
VISION
COMMUNICATION
CONSTANCY
POSITIVE
SELF-REGARD
WALLENDA
EMPOWERMENT
NONE
SCORING KEY
COMMUNICATION AT 2 X INTENSITY
SCENE 10
122
VISION 1 2
3
4 5
6 7
COMMUNICATION 1 2 3
4 5 6 7
CONSTANCY 1 2
3
4 5 6 7
POSITIVE
SELF-REGARD 1 2
3
4 5 6
7
WALLENDA 1 2
3
4 5 6 7
EMPOWERMENT 1 2 3
4 5 6 7
NONE X
SCORING KEY
WALLENDA AT 2 X INTENSITY
SCENE 11
123
VISION
COMMUNICATION
CONSTANCY
POSITIVE
SELF-REGARD
WALLENDA
2
2
2
2
2
EMPOWERMENT
NONE
SCORING KEY
COMMUNICATION AND CONSTANCY AT INTENSITY
124
VISION
CM1ÜNICATIGN
CONSTANCY
POSITIVE
SELF-REGARD
EMPOWERMENT
SCENE 12
4
4
4
NONE
SCORING KEY
WALLENDA AT 2 X INTENSITY
125
appendix F: SPSS STATISTICS PROGRAM AND DATA
RUN NAME LEADERSHIP STUDY
FILE NAME
LDRSTDY LEADERSHIP STUDY STATISTICS
VARIABLE LIST
ID, Outtake, Sex, Witkin, ClosrSpd,
PictReas, KolbCE, KolbRO, KolbAC,
KolbAE, LdrConsd, Ldrlniat, LdrTot,
CattelA, CatteIB, CattelC, CattelE,
CattelF, CattelG, CattelH, Cattell,
CattelL, CattelM, CattelN, CattelO,
CattelQI, CattelQ2, CattelQS, CattelQ4
CattelQi, CatteQii, CattQlii, CatteQiv
CattelQv, CatteQvi, CattQvii, CatQviii
Extrvrsn, Anxiety, TfPoise, Indep,
Analysis, Creative, Mechancl, Nurturng
Procedrl, Ventrous, BehCntl, AcadAoh,
OutTaly, VisTot, VisTaly, CommTot,
CommTaly, ConsTot, ConsTaly, PosTot,
PosTaly, WaleTot, WaleTaly, Bkgd,
EmpowTot, EmpowVis, EmpowCom, EmpowCon
EmpowPos, EmpowWa1, WgEmpVi s,
WgEmpCom, WgEmpCon, WgEmpPos, WgEmpWal
MrEmpTot, MrEmpVis, MrEmpCom, MrEmpCon
MrEmpPos, MrEmpWal, ToEmpVis, ToEmpCom
ToEmpCon, ToEmpPos, ToEmpWal, WgEmpNon
WgEmpTot
INPUT MEDIUM CARD
N OF CASES 100
INPUT FORMAT
FIXED (F3.0,4X,F3.0,4X,F1.0,4X,F2.0,4X,
F2.0,4X,F2.0,4X,F2.0,1X,F2.0,IX,
F2.0,1X,F2.0,4X,F2.0,1X,F2.0,1X/
F3.0,4X,16F2.0,1X/8F3.1,1X,4F1.0,
1X,8F3.1/4X,F2.0,1X,2F2.0,1X,2F2.0,
1X,2F2.0,1X,2F2.0,1X,2F2.0,4X,F1.0/
B4X,F2.0,1X,5F2.0,1X/5F2.0,1X,6F3.0,1X,
F2.0,1X,F2.0,1X,F2,0)
VAR LABELS
ID,SUBJECT IDENTIFICATION NUMBERS
Outtake,VIDEO QUIZ 0-140 /
100-600 /
126
Sex,GENDER OF SUBJECT 0-F,1-M /
Witkin, WITKIN EMBEDDED FIGURES TEST 0-18 /
ClosrSpd,CLOSURE SPEED TEST 0-24
KolbRO,LSI-REFLECTIVE OBSERVATION 6-22 /
KolbAE,LSI-ACTIVE EXPERIMENTATION 7-24 /
KolbAC,LSI-ABSTRACT CONCEPTUALIZATION/
KolbAC,LSI-ABSTRACT CONCEPTUALIZATION 8-24 /
LdrConsd,IDEAL LEADER-CONSIDERATION 0-80 /
LdrTot, IDEAL LEADER-TOTAL SCORE 0-160 /
CattelA,RESERVED TO WARMHEARTED 1-10 /
CattelC,FEELINGFUL TO EMOTIONALLY STABLE 1-10 /
CattelE,HUMBLE TO ASSERTIVE 1-10
CattelF,SOBER TO HAPPY-GO-LUCKY 1-10 /
CattelG,EXPEDIENT TO CONSCIENTIOUS 1-10 /
CattelH,SHY TO VENTURESOME 1-10 /
Cattell,NO NONSENSE TO SENSITIVE 1-10 /
CattelL,TRUSTING TO SUSPICIOUS 1-10 /
CattelM,PRACTICAL TO IMAGINATIVE 1-10 /
CattelN,FORTHRIGHT TO SHREWD 1-10 /
CattelO,UNPRETURBED TO APPREHENSIVE 1-10 /
CattelQi,CONSERVATIVE TO EXPERIMENTING 1-10 /
CattelQ2,GROUP TO SELF ORIENTED 1-10 /
CattelQ3,UNDISCIPLINED TO CONTROLLED 1-10 /
CattelQ4,RELAXED TO TENSE 1-10 /
CattelQi,INTROVERSION TO EXTROVERSION 1-10 /
CatteQii,LOW TO HIGH ANXIETY 1-10 /
CattQiii,TENDER MINDED TO TOUGH POISE 1-10 /
CatteQiv,SUBDUENESS TO INDEPENDENCE 1-10 /
CattelQv,NEUROTICISM 1-10 /
CatteQvi,LEADERSHIP 1-10 /
CattQvii,CREATIVITY 1-10 /
CatQviii,DISTORTION SCALE 1-10 /
Extrvrsn,EXTROVERSION OVERVIEW 1-3 /
Anxiety,ANXIETY OVERVIEW 1-3 /
TfPoise,TOUGH POISE OVERVIEW 1-3 /
Indep,INDEPENDENCE OVERVIEW 1-3 /
Analysis,ANALYTIC-INVESTIGATIVE 1-10 /
Creative,CREATIVE-SELF-EXPRESSIVE 1-10 /
Mechancl,MECHANICAL 1-10 /
Nurturng,NURTURING-ALTRUISTIC 1-10 /
Procedrl,PROCEDURAL-SYSTEMATIC 1-10 /
Ventrous,VENTUROUS-INFLUENTIAL 1-10 /
BehCntl,BEHAVIOR CONTROL 1-10 /
AcadAch,ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 1-10 /
OutTaly,OUTTAKE TALLY 0-12 /
VisTot,VISION TOTAL 0-42 /
VisTaly,VISION TALLY 0-5 /
CommTot,COMMUNICATION TOTAL 0-70 /
CommTaly,COMMUNICATION TALLY 0-6 /
ConsTot,CONSTANCY TOTAL 0-28 /
ConsTaly,CONSTANCY TALLY 0-1 /____________________
127
PosTot,POSITIVE SLF-REG TOTAL 0-14 /
PosTaly,POSITIVE SLF-REG TALLY 0-2 /
WaleTot,WALLENDA TOTAL 0-28 /
WaleTaly,WALLENDA TALLY 0-2 /
Bkgd,BACKGROUND 1-4 /
EmpowTot,EMPOWERMENT TOTAL/
EmpowVis, EMPOWERMENT VISION/
EmpowCom,EMPOWERMENT COMMUNICATION/
EmpowCon,EMPOWERMENT CONSTANCY/
EmpowPos,EMPOWERMENT + SELF REGARD/
EmpowWal,EMPOWERMENT WALLENDA/
WgEmpVis,WRONG VISION-EMPOWERMENT/
WgEmpCom,WRONG COMMUNICATE-EMPOWERMENT/
WgEmpCon,WRONG CONSTANCY-EMPOWERMENT/
WgEmpPos,WRONG + SLF REGARD-EMPOWERMENT/
WgEmpWal,WRONG WALLENDA-EMPOWERMENT/
MrEmpTot,MARGIN TOTAL-EMPOWERMENT/
MrEmpVis,MARGIN VISION-EMPOWERMENT/
MrEmpCom,MARGIN COMMUNICATE-EMPOWERMENT/
MrEmpCon,MARGIN CONSTANCY-EMPOWERMENT/
MrEmpPos,MARGIN + SLF REGARD-EMPOWERMENT/
MrEmpWal,MARGIN WALLENDA-EMPOWERMENT/
ToEmpVis,TOTAL VISION-EMPOWERMENT/
ToEmpCom,TOTAL COMMUNICATE-EMPOWERMENT/
ToEmpCon,TOTAL CONSTANCY-EMPOWERMENT/
ToEmpPos,TOTAL + SLF REGARD-EMPOWERMENT/
ToEmpWal,TOTAL WALLENDA-EMPOWERMENT/
WgEmpNon,WRONG NONE-EMPOWERMENT/
WgEmpTot,WRONG TOTAL-EMPOWERMENT/
VALUE LABELS
Bkgd ('1 *)Caucasian (*2*)Asian (*3')Spanish
(t4I)MiddleEastern/
PEARSON CORR
Outtake. Sex, PictReas, KolbRO,
KolbAE, CattelB, CattelC, CattelE,
CattelF, CattelG, CattelH, CattelL,
CattelM, CattelN, CattelQB, CatQviii,
VisTot, CommTot, ConsTot, PosTot, WaleTot,
EmpowTot, EmpowVis, EmpowCom,
EmpowCon,EmpowPos, EmpowWal, WgEmpTot, WgEmpVis,
WgEmpCom, WgEmpCon, WgEmpPos, WgEmpWal
128
OPTIONS 1,33,5
STATISTICS 1,2
READ INPUT DATA
100 047 1 03 19 48 11 11 22 17 49 80
129 06060706030704070307040308050204
046039051061046047074100 2122 065060064062070070082069
05 1802 1201 0501 1201 0000 3
26 1005050600
0706120607 -19+03-01-07+00-07 1711171207 07 45
101 093 1 09 21 58 14 11 15 18 45 75
120 07070706080610070506040308070804
080031053079033087072040 3123 06807005606806509006607I
10 1201 3204 1402 0701 2802 1
53 0621070613
0000000006 +43+06+21+07+06+07 0621070619 04 10
102 021 1 07 17 57 15 14 17 17 44 71
115 09060609070808060606040403060506
083053046069043073053070 3222 047047051062062073058047
05 0601 0401 0601 0502 0000 1
15 0603020400
0009000903 -09+06-06+02-05-03 0612021303 03 24
103 052 0 07 13 59 13 10 20 20 44 75
119 06070609060705051005070907080608
059077087072058054068040 2333 055082043038033037029047
08 0301 2804 0701 0000 1402 1
35 0122040008
0000070011 + 16+01+22-03+00-03 0122110019 01 19
104 063 0 08 17 58 15 16 13 19 45 77
122 09070310030604090709030307030603
066048040100051048077040 2223 062078041064054057042070
07 0601 3003 0 701 0601 1401 1
38 0517040606
0000050707 +18+05+17-01-01-01 0517091313 01 20
105 034 1 16 21 58 19 16 15 14 47 71
118 07090607080105050406040703060306
065059073058050044054030 2232 047052056038054058053052
07 1403 0401 0701 0501 0401 1
29 1405020008
0407000006 +09+10-02+02+00+02 1812020014 03 20
106 072 1 10 17 58 18 13 16 17 47 75
122 07040504030601070907100907080406
019076010051077022054020 1312 052051031057048031034060
07 1802 3303 0000 0701 1401 3
41 0918000707
0500001002 +20+04+18+00-03+05 1418001709 04 21
107 053 1 14 16 57 18 18 12 16 52 77
129 03060407050703070707090405070507
037064061066059050071060 1222 066050068038059047058064
07 0000 2903 0601 1002 0801 1
34 0018040903
0400000507 +16-04+18+04+04-04 04l804l4l0 02 18
108 058 0 09 16 56 16 16 12 11 56 64
120 05030504060605060405040403070506
051055050044059053048070 2222 050058051057059062058060
05 1201 1201 0000 0601 2802 3
22 0405000508
0000030508 +064-04+05-03+00+00 0405031016 00 16
109 052 0 18 18 68 16 14 14 12 45 64
109 03040806060506060804050501050606
059055070050053060049060 2232 047052056038054058053052
06 0601 1201 0401 0601 2402 2
31 0603050611
1000020000 +10-04+03+03+06+11 1603070611 09 21
110 057 1 06 16 58 15 17 21 12 46 68
114 06040804060605030603080803030306
058066058023054051015080 2221 045029065048062057068047
06 2002 3003 0 000 0701 0000 1
35 1120000400
0000130717 -02+11+20-13-03-17 1120131117 00 37
111 043 1 10 22 53 13 09 19 16 32 75
107 06090510060506060207020408090707
065048075091046063100070 2233 058071054044052063048065
06 1002 0401 0501 0000 2402 1
24 0902040009
0005050706 +01+09-03-01-07+03 0907090715 00 23
112 038 0 02 13 41 13 12 21 15 30 74
104 05070306060601050801070908070507
043089057049064041051050 2322 041057037053047045034048
05 0401 0401 0000 0601 2402 2
22 0403000609
0006080510 -07+04-03-08+01-01 040908l119 00 29
113 055 1 17 20 54 14 10 15 22 49 81
130 07060503060607080102040307050706
062046038033059069054060 2211 053042057060062053062053
07 2003 0000 2103 0000 1401 1
36 1500150006
0600061203 +09+09+00+09-12+03 2100211209 00 27
114 033 1 05 20 58 16 18 14 14 47 63
110 07040506030905080805070604060607
046070015049075051058090 2312 050051038067060046044053
05 0902 1602 0000 0000 0801 1
12 0604000002
0700000703 -06-01+04+00-07-01 1304000705 01 18
115 056 1 06 20 45 20 10 14 16 41 68
109 06060409040405040406060805060606
129
051064060064065043061070 2222 050058051057059062058060
08 1902 2203 0301 0301 0601 1
28 1106040304
0000000000 +21+ 1 1+06+04+03+04 1106040304 07 07
116 078 1 00 08 42 14 14 16 13 46 76
122 07070510100508070705050806070506
085065055079045065063040 3223 056070045072068084057057
08 2002 2803 0401 0000 2602 1
39 1213020012
0400070200 +26+ 08+ 13- 05- 02+12 1613090212 00 13
117 059 0 10 18 54 17 17 15 15 53 78
131 06060606050405050602080803070206
049071060037065041046070 2321 04l029058048049044049034
07 1903 1602 0 000 0000 2402 2
34 1310000011
0700040007 +13+06+10-04+00+04 2010040018 03 21
118 048 0 05 13 40 13 16 16 16 50 73
123 05030809050703101007080507040603
050047068079041053063080 2223 062078041064054057042070
05 1702 1401 0501 0000 1201 3
20 0606050003
0700130002 - 11- 01+06- 08+00+01 1306l80005 09 31
119 098 1 06 14 56 11 14 19 18 46 80
126 09070808061010040508050708050607
087055051072045078060060 3223 056070045072068084057057
09 1401 3103 1 001 1302 2602 2
59 0719101211
0000000004 +48+07+19+10+12+07 0719101215 07 11
120 022 0 10 08 46 16 18 15 13 45 77
122 04010206040704060604070705070306
040077056050076034050100 2322 041057037053047045034048
04 0701 0401 0401 0701 0000 2
17 O50303O6O O
1102000007 - 04- 06+01+03+06-07 1605030607 01 21
121 055 0 16 14 57 16 15 18 16 43 71
114 08060205070708060405050704070406
071071050049068056051080 3322 043056040076054061044044
08 1202 1302 0 000 0602 2402 2
36 0810000612
0000000007 +25+08+10+00+06+05 O8 IOOOO6 I 9 04 11
122 041 0 03 18 61 14 14 22 16 53 73
126 09070707060807040404090305030807
081046067045041086030020 3222 047047051062062073058047
06 0601 0801 0 601 1102 1001 2
25 0504011005
0600050514 -05-01+04-04+05-09 110406l519 00 30
123 022 0 00 05 37 15 I 6 15 17 47 76
123 05030409030505020406080505070505
042051063066054049051060 2222 050058051057059062058060
05 0201 1002 0 802 0000 0000 1
16 0015010000
130
131
0000210600 -12+00+15-20-06+00 0015220600 01 28
124 046 0 07 24 44 13 12 18 19 41 75
116 06060810080208060406040209030304
083026067091021067061020 3123 068070056068065090066071
06 0000 1402 0501 0501 2202 1
24 0010040109
0505060000 +08-05+05-02+01+09 0515100109 00 16
125 025 0 08 00 49 14 10 19 16 41 72
113 090708090906I0060903080507030308
100060100064039078038040 3232 043053052055059071053044
03 0000 1802 0000 0601 0000 1
14 0012000200
1312040600 -21-13+00-04-04+00 1324040800 00 35
126 106 0 06 19 46 I8 09 I6 I6 54 73
127 0609070906040405070706071OO80703
047043057092031059082080 2223 062078041064054057042070
10 2803 4003 0301 0701 2802 1
54 1518060114
0007000007 +40+15+11+06+01+07 1525060121 00 14
127 067 1 04 19 52 14 10 15 20 53 72
125 07030509060504060607050607060408
061070050073059039053070 2323 058073038060044045034060
07 1802 4404 0501 0000 0000 3
36 0923040000
0500041400 +13+04+23+00-14+00 I42308l400 00 23
128 013 0 09 15 56 17 12 18 17 40 70
110 06060608020603040405050904090306
034069038058068031071060 1212 064061055058057043048070
02 0301 1001 0 000 0000 0000 2
07 0205000000
0700090803 -20-05+05-09-08-03 0905090803 00 27
129 035 1 14 21 61 14 09 23 16 51 77
128 O8O6O7IOO6O7080307O6O8O307O6O7O6
078044058087031083051080 3223 056070045072068084057057
05 1502 1001 1002 0000 0000 1
21 0905070000
1200000605 -11-03+05+07-06-05 2105070605 09 32
130 054 0 14 23 59 15 15 17 18 44 67
111 05070608060304090606060608050705
051053051078053049076060 2223 062078041064054057042070
10 1103 1303 0501 0401 1802 1
44 1512020510
0005000005 +34+ 15+07+02+05+05 1517020515 00 10
131 048 0 15 20 55 11 15 20 15 55 73
128 O9090708O8O6O6O6O3O6O7041OO706O3
069032041082019078064060 2123 066082047063055069061074
07 1302 0601 0802 0701 1401 3
27 1201020606
0007040608 +02+12-06-02+00-02 1208061214 00 25
132 052 1 04 08 53 09 I8 20 16 36 58
094 03030209050803040604030805060407
050083074057066039056020 2332 049050053037043041044045
07 1402 2402 0902 0501 0000 1
35 1111070600
0000001404 +15+11+11+07-08-04 1111072004 02 20
133 035 1 01 18 51 16 16 16 16 40 69
109 04030406020606060304070303070307
041059062045075045063070 2222 050058051057059062058060
05 1702 0601 0601 0601 0000 2
18 0704040300
0800050406 -05-01+04-01-01-06 1504090306 00 23
134 043 0 09 12 43 22 10 10 18 41 80
121 04060705080704030506090704050306
052061057036041057033080 2221 045029065048062057068047
07 2103 1502 0501 0201 0000 2
30 1409040300
0500040411 +06+09+09+00-01-11 1909080711 00 24
135 050 1 14 17 58 10 13 20 17 46 68
114 09060508060605040804040709040305
068064038067044051043050 2212 064061049071070059058062
08 1902 2504 0601 0101 0000 1
16 0607020100
0800000101 +06-02+07+02+00-01 1407020201 00 10
136 054 1 11 20 38 14 17 18 16 49 75
124 04100706050803030801070402050306
050060073040040067048070 2232 047052056038054058053052
05 1902 2802 0000 0701 0000 1
28 1012000600
0604080011 -01+04+08-08+06-11 I6I6O8O6I1 00 29
173 059 0 01 12 50 12 17 22 13 45 80
125 03030608020604050707070505070605
031050067070059046071060 1223 08I083053052055040048083
07 1202 1401 1502 0601 1201 2
38 1007090606
0004001506 +13+10+03+09-09+00 1011092112 00 25
176 060 1 05 19 59 14 15 15 16 44 78
122 07030707080607030504040507060705
075046066064032075034070 3222 047047051062062073058047
07 1202 1401 1502 0601 1201 1
39 1007110506
0004001606 +13+104-034-11-11+00 1011112112 00 26
180 041 1 12 15 56 11 13 19 18 37 69
106 08060309080609050304010409060203
086043067078032068062070 3223 056070045072068084057057
07 1402 1102 0601 0401 0601 1
25 O8O7020305
1302050000 +05-05+05-03+03+05 2109070305 00 20
183 057 0 13 18 07 15 15 15 17 47 72
119 06090409090306030903070407080604
067049100078024076056030 2233 058071054044052063048065
06 1402 2402 0000 0501 1401 1
32 1012000505
132
133
0004000506 +06+104-08+0()4.00-01 1016001011 11 26
191 053 0 13 18 55 16 14 18 16 51 80
131 0907O6O8O8O50706O6020906O8030806
085057075055043077033050 3232 043053052055059071053044
06 2103 1001 0000 0000 2202 1
29 1504000010
0006001200 -01+15-02+00-12+10 1510001210 12 30
192 050 1 08 13 '64 16 15 19 15 41 77
118 07040706060606060401060405050304
062045046041042063036070 2222 050058051057059062058060
07 1102 2303 0000 0000 1602 1
34 1016000008
0015000009 +10+104-01+00+00-01 1031000017 00 24
193 048 1 03 11 60 16 14 23 14 51 72
123 08030707050505070706080504040506
058056027055057049036090 2212 064061049071070059058062
06 1002 2402 O6OI 0000 O8OI 1
29 0911050004
0406140500 +00+05+05-09-05+04 1317190504 00 29
197 025 1 12 14 53 14 12 19 20 38 66
104 07030505060503070507060407050506
050055037055055044043080 2212 06406l049071070059058062
05 1603 0301 0601 0000 0000 3
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139
140
NEW REGRESSION
VARTABLES=Outtake Sex ClosrSpd TO CattelO Bkgd/
STATISTICS=R ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENT:Out take/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLES=Sex ClosrSpd TO CattelO VisTot Bkgd/
STATISTICS=R ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENT:Vi sTo t/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLES:Sex ClosrSpd TO CattelO CommTot Bkgd/
STATISTICS:R ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENT:CommTo t/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VAR TABLES:Sex ClosrSpd TO CattelO ConsTot Bkgd/
STATISTICS:R ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENT:ConsTo t/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLES:Sex ClosrSpd TO CattelO PosTot Bkgd/
STATISTICS:R ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENT:PosTot/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLES:Sex ClosrSpd TO CattelO WaleTot Bkgd/
STATISTICS:R ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENT:WaleTot/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARTABLES:Outtake Sex ClosrSpd TO AcadAch Bkgd/
STATISTICS:R ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENT:Outtake/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
141
VARIABLES:Sex ClosrSpd TO AcadAch VisTot Bkgd/
STATISTICS=R ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENT:Vi sTo t/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLES:Sex ClosrSpd TO AcadAch CommTot Bkgd/
STATISTICS:R ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENT:CommTo t/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLES:Sex ClosrSpd TO AcadAch ConsTot Bkgd/
STATISTICS:R ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENT:ConsTot/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLES:Sex ClosrSpd TO AcadAch PosTot Bkgd/
STATISTICS:R ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENT:PosTot/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLES:Sex ClosrSpd TO AcadAch WaleTot Bkgd/
STATISTICS:R ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENT:WaleTot/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLES:Sex ClosrSpd TO CattelO Bkgd EmpowTot/
STATISTICS:R ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENT:EmpowTot/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLES:Sex ClosrSpd TO CattelO Bkgd EmpowVis/
STATISTICS:R ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENT:ErapowVis/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLES:Sex ClosrSpd TO CattelO Bkgd EmpowCom/
STATISTICSrR ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENT:EmpowCom/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
142
VARIABLESrSex ClosrSpd TO CattelO Bkgd EmpowCon/
STATISTICS=R ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENT=EmpowCon/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLES:Sex ClosrSpd TO CattelO Bkgd EmpowPos/
STATISTICSrR ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENT=EmpowPos/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLES=Sex ClosrSpd TO CattelO Bkgd EmpowWal/
STATISTICS=R ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENTrEmpowWa1/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLES=Sex ClosrSpd TO AcadAch Bkgd EmpowTot/
STATISTICS=R ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENT=EmpowTot/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLESrSex ClosrSpd TO AcadAch Bkgd EmpowVis/
STATISTICSrR ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENTrEmpowVis/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLESrSex ClosrSpd TO AcadAch Bkgd EmpowCom/
STATISTICSrR ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENTrEmpowCom/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLESrSex ClosrSpd TO AcadAch Bkgd EmpowCon/
STATISTICSrR ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENTrEmpowCon/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLESrSex ClosrSpd TO AcadAch Bkgd EmpowPos/
STATISTICSrR ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPDEPENDENTrEmpowPos/
STEPWISE/
143
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLES=Sex ClosrSpd TO AcadAch Bkgd EmpowWal/
STATISTICSrR ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENTrEmpowWal/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLESrSex ClosrSpd TO CattelO Bkgd WgEmpTot/
STATISTICSrR ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENTrWgEmpTot/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLESrSex ClosrSpd TO CattelO Bkgd WgEmpVis/
STATISTICSrR ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENTrWgEmpVi s/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLESrSex ClosrSpd TO CattelO Bkgd WgEmpCom/
STATISTICSrR ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENTrWgEmpCom/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLESrSex ClosrSpd TO CattelO Bkgd WgEmpCon/
STATISTICSrR ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENTrWgEmpCon
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLESrSex ClosrSpd TO CattelO Bkgd WgEmpPos/
STATISTICSrR ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENTrWgEmpPos/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLESrSex ClosrSpd TO CattelO Bkgd WgEmpWal/
STATISTICSrR ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENTr WgEmpWa1/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLESrSex ClosrSpd TO AcadAch Bkgd WgEmpTot/
144
STATISTICS=R ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENTrWgEmpTot/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLESrSex ClosrSpd TO AcadAch Bkgd WgEmpVis/
STATISTICSrR ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENTrWgEmpVi s/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLESrSex ClosrSpd TO AcadAch Bkgd WgEmpCom/
STATISTICSrR ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENTrWgEmp Com/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLESrSex ClosrSpd TO AcadAch Bkgd WgEmpCon/
STATISTICSrR ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENTrWgEmpCon/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLESrSex ClosrSpd TO AcadAch Bkgd WgEmpPos/
STATISTICSrR ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENTrWgEmpP os/
STEPWISE/
NEW REGRESSION
VARIABLESrSex ClosrSpd TO AcadAch Bkgd WgEmpWal/
STATISTICSrR ANOVA LABEL END/
DEPENDENTrWgEmpWal/
STEPWISE/

Asset Metadata

Creator Watson, Marcia L. T (author)

Core Title Learning to lead: Observational learning of complex, cognitive-affective behavior

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag OAI-PMH Harvest,Psychology, clinical

Language English

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-519954

Unique identifier UC11247588

Identifier usctheses-c26-519954 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP24954.pdf

Dmrecord 519954

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Watson, Marcia L. T.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses