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A model for designing instructional animated films for adults

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A model for designing instructional animated films for adults

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Content A MODEL FOR DESIGNING INSTRUCTIONAL ANIMATED FILMS FOR ADULTS by Gail Ann March A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Education) December, 197 9 UMI Number: DP24715 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. UMI DP24715 Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY PARK LOS ANGELES. CALIFORNIA 90 0 0 7 This dissertation, written by Gail Ann March under the direction of /£.£.— Dissertation Com mittee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by The Graduate School, in partial fulfillm ent of requirements of the degree of D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y Dean D a te. < f dud. Ph*b 8 d *$0 DISSERTATION CpMMITJEE / TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ........................................... iv LIST OF FIGURES ........................................... v CHAPTER I. THE PROBLEM...................... 1 Introduction Background of Problem Purpose of the Study Questions to be Answered by the Study Procedures of the Study Assumptions Definitions of Terms Delimitations of the Study Organization of the Remainder of the Study II. THE ADULT LEARNER .............................. 16 Introduction Characteristics of the Adult Learner Instructional Design Needs of the Adult Learner Animated Film and the Adult Learner III. INSTRUCTIONAL ANIMATED FILM ................... 49 Introduction Different Types of Animation Instructional Advantages of Using Animation Design Approaches of Different Animators Basic Procedures for Designing Instructional Animated Film Future of Instructional Animated Films ii Chapter IV. THE DESIGN FACTORS Page 116 Introduction Elements of Visual Communication Visual Perception of Animation Instructional Design Factors Animation Design Factors Advantageous to Instruction Use in the Model V. THE MODEL ........ 161 Introduction Description of Model Glossary VI. SUMMARY ......................................... 205 Introduction Summary of Findings Conclusions Related to the Model Recommendations for Further Study BIBLIOGRAPHY... ........................................... 218 APPENDIX .............. 228 iii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Instructional Design Needs of Adult Learners ..... 44 2. Time, Cost, and Equipment Comparison of Different Types of Animation .................... . 186 3. Learning Characteristics and Instructional Needs of Adults Presented in Animated Film ..... 18 9 4. Description and Use of Visual Elements .......... 194 iv LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Basic Procedure for Animated Film.... 106 2. Line Elements................. 3. Elements of Drawing.......... 4. Balance..... ................ . 5. Stress......................... 6. Leveling and Sharpening.... . .........132 7. Preference for Lower Left.... .........133 3. Grouping...................... .........135 9. Positive and Negative........ .........-137 10. Distortion of Form........... .........144 11. Design Procedure Flow Chart., .........182 v CHAPTER I The Problem Introduction Film animation has great potential for use in adult instruction. Thomas Edison and Henry Ford were among the first to recognize this when they used animation in training films to explain industrial concepts (e.g., Edison's 1912 film on the operation of a cream separator, and Ford's 1917 film on the Bessemer Steel Process). In recent years, ani mated instructional films have been made which cover almost every field from letters of the alphabet to landings on the moon. Yet, for those individuals who design animated film (henceforth termed animators) and for those individuals who deal with instruction (henceforth termed educators), no formal guidelines exist relating the learning needs of adults to the variables in film animation. The majority of research studies on film animation leal primarily with children (ages four to eleven) as sub jects. In general, animators find it .difficult to interpret what (if any) portion of this research information about designing animation for children is appropriate for an adult audience. To answer design questions, animators seem to prefer to trust a personal, intuitive approach. Perhaps as ___________________ a result of this personal approach to the design of anima tion used in adult instruction, the learning needs of the viewing adults are frequently not met in the films. Experi ence may tell the animator to base the design of his film on what has previously been successful in the commercial mar ketplace. This design may not necessarily be successful in adult instruction. Because adults often categorize animated films as "cartoons" (a simplified visual entertainment for children implying fantasy and humor), a cartoon stereotype may distract adults from the objectives of an animated instructional film. In addition to this factor, an animated instructional film based on design principles successful for children may insult adults intellectually or simply bore them. When designing animated films for adults, the educator may know the learning needs of adults, but he usually does not have an understanding of the factors involved in design ing animated films for instruction. When and why use anima tion to instruct a particular content? Which type of ani mation is suitable for the instructional content? Because animated films are generally more expensive than live-action films, do the instructional advantages of the animated film form justify the additional time and costs involved? How does the educator translate the instructional design needs of adult learners into guidelines for the animator? These questions are but a few of those confronting the educator 2 when planning an instructional animated film for adults. The problem for both the animator and the educator is that no one source combines information on animated film, instructional design, and the learning design needs of adults. To resolve this problem, this study surveyed the three areas of information and is concerned with developing a model for designing instructional animated films for adults. This dissertation was initiated to provide for the following needs: Firstly, animators are often lost by educational jar gon and often question the need to follow an instructional plan. This study attempts to identify the educational factors involved and provides a model which will aid in designing effective instructional animated films for adults. Secondly, educators seem easily inhibited by the experience and technical expertise required, and by the additional time, equipment, and cost of animation. To aid the educator in selecting and designing instruction using animation, this study provides some basic information about animated film. Thirdly, by defining terminology, outlining procedures suggested, discussing problems common to animation in instructional films, this study is aimed at bridging some of the gaps in communication between animators and educators( a need-identified by Caldwell, 1973, p. 417). This model is iesigned to encourage animators and educators to work to- _____________________________________ 3J gether to produce effective animated films for adult in struction . The fourth reason for conducting this^study was to aid the educational researcher. By identifying certain design factors and by designing an appropriate model, this study may help the educational researcher proceed with investiga tions on the effective use of specific animation design factors in instruction for adults. Background of the Problem Research exclusively in film animation has been very limited. Perhaps the time and cost factors involved have prevented many researchers from beginning an animation research study. Other reasons inhibiting work in film ani mation research may be the requirement for a certain degree of technical expertise plus the complexity of the equipment needed for film animation. Animation has been used many times as an element of a research project. As in the Geoffrion and Bergeron (1977) study of the CARIS System (Computer Animated Reading In struction System), animation was used in the form of com puter-generated visual displays to stimulate beginning read ing and language skills in children. A program was devel oped using animation to display visually the meaning of verbs, to acknowledge a child’s structuring of a complete sentence by allowing the animation to reappear, and to _________________4 animate a spelling phase. After much expense and work, the program was proven largely ineffective because most of the children lost interest after six sessions. No rationale was given for the choice of animation technique, nor for the sequencing of the animated visuals within the instruction, nor for the design of the animated visuals. Perhaps, con sideration of such animation design choices could have altered the effectiveness of this teaching program and its research value. A number of books have dealt with the production design of film animation. B. J. Salt , (1976) has written a very technical coverage of camera movements discussing the mechanics of animation and providing detailed tables. Many other sources describe the various animation techniques (e.g., Levitan, 1962; Halas, 1970; Trojanski and Rockwood, 1973), but these also do not investigate the application nor the effectiveness of these techniques for presenting speci fic content and achieving predictable results. Kathyrn Smoot Caldwell recognized the need for a model for the use of animation in instructional film in her 197 3 doctoral thesis. She presented an excellent study providing heuristics on animation, but, unfortunately, her study is limited to the application of animation techniques in the teaching of children and her guidelines have not been tested. Since 1978 marked the fiftieth anniversary of Walt ___________ . _____________ 5 Disney's creation of his animated characters, the apparent importance, longevity, and success of Disney's animation has resulted in an increased interest in film animation. A number of good sources present the history and development of film animation (e.g., Stephenson, 1973) , and especially in Richard Schickel's Disney Version, the work of Disney is analyzed for the effect of film animation upon the viewing public. Schickel describes the Disney Machine as "a work of genius, but, as culture, it is mostly horror" (1971, p. 10). The viewing public tends to accept passively animated films, and the commercial animator profits from this general at traction to the magic of visions animated on film. Another animator, Ralph Bakshi, has created feature length animated films specifically for adult entertainment. As seen in his Fritz the C ' a ' t and Lord of the Rings, Bakshi's - - ' ■ ■ ■ ■ ' ■ ? • 1 1 - formula for adult animation is simply using content suitable for adults (e.g., explicit sex and extreme violence). Opposed to Bakshi's thinking, Palmer and Connell (1974) are applying a research-production model to create a television series about health for adults. David Connell, who is vice president for production of Sesame Street,claims the most unique aspect of the Children's Television Workshop was their research-production model (p. 19). With its con stant focus on the audience, the CTW program enabled the creative staff to make more effective creative decisions by conducting formative research. 6 Applying a research-production model like that used by the CTW program to an adult television viewing audience presents a complex problem due to the changing nature of the adult population. Because the "baby-boom" generation has grown into adulthood and because medical advances have allowed.adults to live longer, the adult audience has in creased in size and in its needs. Adults are changing their lifestyles and careers in response to their environment and world events .several times during their lifetime. As a result of this changing nature of the adult popu lation, more and more demands are being made upon adults to continue their formal education. Animated films are fre quently used in adult instruction, but no known source is available that collects information about the adult learner and relates it to the design of animation in instructional films. In addition to this deficiency, different animation styles have not been identified to the educational resear cher and investigated for their potential to instruct adult learners. Also, conflicting research reports on variables in animation (e.g., simple versus complex images, pacing) have not been examined for the learning needs of adults. The design model in this study should help the researcher, the animator, and the educator to identify types of anima tion and to recognize decision points so that animated instructional films can be effectively designed to meet the learning needs of a changing adult population. __________ 7 The background of the problem given in this section presented the limited use of animation in educational re search, the increasing interest in using animation as an instructional tool, and the apparent lack of sources of in formation about instructional animation designed for adult learners. The review of related literature usually covered in the background of the problem serves a different purpose in this study. The review of related literature actually supplies the data whereupon the model for designing instruc tional animated films for adults can be developed. In this study, each area of related literature (information on the adult learner, animated film, and instructional design) is reviewed separately before the collected data is synthesized into the model. Purpose of the Study This study intends to develop a decision model for designing instructional animated film for adults. As a result of this intention, two areas are involved in the pur pose of the study. The synthesis of related literature is intended to reveal the following data: the variables in animation advantageous to the learning design needs of adults, the instructional design factors utilized in adult animation, the influence of perceptual learning theory and visual.literacy on animation instructional design, and a collection of related terminology. From this data, the second area of the purpose, the model, is developed. The purpose of the model is to faci litate the designing of instructional animated film for adults. The model intends to help the animator, educator, and researcher by identifying relevant decision points and by suggesting a design procedure. In addition to the de cision points and design procedure, the model intends to provide a selection of animation design factors which appear to be advantageous for adult instruction and a glossary that defines related terminology used in the model. Questions to be Answered by the Study To develop the decision model, the study surveyed the literature to answer the following questions: 1. When and where is animation advantageous for adult instruction? 2. In designing animated instructional films for adults, what process is suggested for a designer to follow? 3. What instructional design factors should a designer consider in preparing for animation for adult in struction? 4. What are some of the possible animation techniques and their production requirements? 5. Is it possible to develop an appropriate model for designing instructional animated film for adults? 9 Procedures of the Study The research approach used in this study involved a survey of literature on film animation, literature on adult learners, literature on visual literacy, and literature on instructional design. As a result of the information gained from the survey of related literature, a decision-design model was developed. The first task in this study was to determine who is an adult learner. A computerized literature search was run in ERIC (Educational Resources Information Center) and in Psychological Abstracts (another literature data base) to locate the literature on adult learners. Through a manual search of the literature on adult learners, the sources were reviewed to determine the population for the study. The population selected for the study was distinguished by the definitions of an adult learner and was targeted as a general adult group between the ages of twenty-five and sixty. Literature on the adult learner was reviewed again and discriminated for this specific age group. From these sources, the learning characteristics and the instructional design needs of adult learners were reported. A table was composed on the instructional design needs of adult lear ners . The next task for this study was to define what is animated film. A computerized literature search was run in ERIC to locate the literature on animated film. To supplement the review of literature on animated film, the author taped interviews with selected animators attending the Filmex Animation Conference and Workshop, 1978, and the Fourteenth International Tournee of Animation, 197 9. Infor mation on the different types of animation and their basic production requirements were collected from a manual review of the literature and from the taped interviews. The ma terial compiled on animation was reviewed again to discri minate for the use of animated film for adult viewing. A table was composed on the time, cost, and equipment compar ison of the different types of animation. Synthesizing the information collected about adult learners with the data found on animated film, another table was composed on the learning characteristics and instructional needs of adults presented in animated film. The third task of the study was to consider how to de sign the instructional animated film. A third computerized literature search was run on instructional design, visual literacy, and perceptual learning theory. After the com puterized search, a manual study was done to differentiate information related to adult learners and animated film. A table was composed on the description and use of visual elements. Developing the decision model was the next task. Before the model was structured, existing decision and design models were examined. The research approach at this 11 point is that of a creative study. The tables and flow charts were composed from information gained in the survey of literature. These were next sequenced and combined into the model. Also, terms designated in the literature review were defined and compiled into a glossary for the model. The final task of the study was to review the entire procedure, to recommend the use of the model, and to suggest further study in the area of instructional film animation for adults. Assumptions For this study, it was assumed that sufficient re search in education and in film existed to supply informa tion for the model. In addition to the above, the assumption was made that educators in general are not experts in designing animated film, and that animators in general are not experts in designing instruction. Finally, animated film was assumed to have a potential use in adult instruction. Also, it was assumed that an in terest and need existed to design animated films for adults. Definitions of Terms Included in Chapter V, the model, is a glossary of terms defining most of the terms used in this study. Some of the more essential definitions are given here; please 12. refer to the glossary for additional terms. Adult. A human being as specified by state law as being fully developed and mature (over the age of eighteen or twenty-one depending upon state law) . Animation. The state of possessing life. The arts, techniques, and processes involved in giving apparent life and motion to inanimate objects by the means of cinemato graphy or computer-generated display. Animator. A person (or thing) who gives apparent life and motion to inanimate objects. An individual who designs animated film. Educator. A person whose work is to give knowledge to others. An individual who designs instruction. Instructional Animated Film. A film whose objective is to teach specific content material using animation as a tool. Instructional Design Model. The design elements of a medium which influence the instructional effectiveness (e.g., learner participation, attention-directing devices). Learning Characteristics of Adults. The innate and acquired traits of adults that attribute to the way adults learn. Perceptual Learning. An increase in the ability to extract information from the environment as a result of ex perience and practice with stimulation coming from it. Visual Literacy. The ability to interpret visual ________________ 13 stimulants in the environment. Delimitations of the Study This study is limited to developing a decision model for designing instructional animated films for adults. The following statements specify the limitations of this study: 1. This study did not deal in depth with learning theories. It reviewed, however, relevant material from perceptual learning theory. 2. Although this study identified various animation techniques, it did not list the technical procedures for developing them. Also, the film format was limited to Super 8mm, 16mm, and 3 5mm. Relevant material from video and com puter animation was included, but these were not studied individually. 3. Because of the special characteristics of older adults, illiterate adults, physically handicapped adults, and young adults, this study did not include these groups in the population for the study. Adult learners considered as the target audience for the model were Northern Americans in the age group between twenty-five and sixty. 4. The visual channel is emphasized in the decision model because the special feature of animation is its ability to present apparent life and motion. The audio channel is equally important in most instances in adult instruction (Carlerette and Jones, 1967), but the ; v ~ 1 ____________________________________________________L4_ application of the audio channel is not reported in this study. The study is limited to the visual design of film. 5. This study is limited to developing a model for designing animated film for adult instruction, and it does not cover production or evaluation of instructional animated films. Organization of the Remainder of the Study This study is organized into five additional chapters. Chapter II explores who is an adult learner and what are the characteristics and instructional design needs of adult learners. In Chapter III, the subject discussed is what is animated film. The material concluded from Chapter II on the adult learner is synthesized into the information about animated film. Design factors is the topic of Chapter IV. Perceptual learning theory, visual literacy, and instruc tional design are reviewed. Chapter V describes the model for designing instructional animated films for adults. In Chapter VI, the summary, conclusions which are related to the model, and the recommendations for further research are given. 15 CHAPTER II The Adult Learner Introduction One of the initial tasks for this dissertation was to determine who is an adult learner. Webster*s New World Dictionary (1958) defines an adult as specified by law as a person who has come of age (p. 20). When re ferring to an individual’s ability to learn, many research studies vary in their interpretation of "a person who has come of age." To discriminate adult learners as members of the target audience for the model, this study reviews various theories on adult learners. In the work done by Long and Ulmer (1971), a physical description of the adult (chronological age) was chosen to categorize adult learners. The "young adult" is a term used in their study for the ages between eighteen and thirty-nine. This age group is characterized by. maximum intellectual development, high energy, creativity, and aggressiveness. Whereas, the age group between forty and fifty-five signifies a stabilization of intellectual development and is termed "middle age." The fifty-six to _________________________________________________________________________ L£ seventy-five age group represents "older adults" who are declining in abilities to evaluate evidence and interpret data. Great individual differences characterize adults over seventy-five years of age who are called "senior adults." From the chronological categories suggested by Long and Ulmer, the decision model is aimed at a general adult au dience between the ages of eighteen and fifty-six. Havighurst (1967) also sees the adult in age cate gories, but his grouping is based upon the person coming of age in his social roles and developmental tasks. In the age division of twenty-to-forty years, individuals are getting established in their adult roles. Adults in the forty to fifty-five classification are said to be living high on a plateau of influence and energy. Maintaining one's position and looking ahead is the description for the fifty-five to sixty-five age division. The age group between the ages of sixty-five and eighty delineates adults who are disengaging from their social roles and tasks. Havighurst's adult de scriptions are very important to the model because they de fine how adults relate to their social and working world. The social roles and developmental tasks should be repre sented in the design of animated film to make it relevant and motivating to the adult learner. Because a general adult audience may represent a large range of social roles and tasks, essential ones should be depicted. In addition to chronological ages as a determining 17 factor, Horn (19 67) believes that two types of intelli gence identify the developmental level of the adult learner. The two types of intelligence are called "fluid" and "crystal." Such abilities as seeing figural relation ships, induction, and natural wit compose fluid intelli gence. A decline in fluid intelligence begins with twenty-year-old adults. Referring to acquired strategies such as verbal comprehension, crystallized intelligence continues through old age and is supported by accultura tion. The greatest intellectual prosperity is seen in the thirties and early forties age group. To design an ani mated film for adults, the model should consider the type of intelligence demanded of the adult learner and should provide a variety of stimuli. From a psychological point of view, Curran (1972) defines an adult as a person who has attained a self concept. Curran recognizes the dilemma of adults due to their self concept: The adult differs from the child in the learning process in that the adult, because of his self concept, tends to be defensive in relation to his identity. He is thus a paradox: by defending his self concept (ego), he defeats new learning; and by giving up his self concept in order to learn (as with a child), he would seem to lose his identity (p. 134). The problem of an adult learner coping with his ego in a learning situation is one of the most critical con cepts for designing animated film for adult instruction. 18 The interference of the adult's identity with a learning exercise often produces feelings of anxiety and rejection of ideas new to previously established adult views. This may result in eventual failure of the adult's ability to main tain self confidence or failure of the adult's ability to remain in the learning situation. Because adult's tend to consider animation suitable for consumption only by child ren, watching an animated film may cause the adult to feel childlike, or the adult's self concept of being a mature person may be threatened by this childlike feeling which could result in the adult rejecting the teaching concepts presented in the animated film. Scheffecnecht (1975) de fines the term "adult" 'as "the exercise of the total indi vidual and collective responsibility"(p. 29). As a result of the definitions of Curran and Scheffenecht, the author defines for the model an adult learner as one who accepts the responsibility to use his abilities to cope with his self concept and to learn. The adult learner also differs slightly from the child in his learning objectives. A child learns to be pre pared for life, whereas, the adult learns to meet the cur rent demands and aspirations of his life (Havighurst, 1967, p. 19). The adult experiences two types of learning sit uations, adult learning and adult education. It is impor tant for the model to differentiate these two experiences: Adult learning is a major, continuting mode of 19 adult behavior permeating the major categories of human experience and the major sectors of society. Adult education refers to organized and sequential learning experiences designed to meet the needs of adults. All adult education, then, involves adult learning, but all adult learning is not adult education (Report for the Third International Con ference of Adult Education, 1972, p. 1). Whereas, a child attends formal education to prepare him generally for life, an adult attends adult education to meet a present learning need. Whether an adult had previously participated in adult education was a significant factor in discriminating adult learners in the study by Monge and Gardner (1972). They summarized from their testing experiments on adults that cognitive functioning among adults attains maximum values for different age groups depending upon previous experience and interest of the individual adult. As far as previous educational background, only basic skills taught in school such as reading showed a decline after thirty years of age. Age appears to be not a performance variable, but it is an easy method for classification. In the longitudinal study of Klausmeier and Harris (19 66), it was found that motiva tion, drive, and time, rather than small variations in in telligence were important discriminators in adult learners. From these two studies, the author identified the character istics of adult learners significant for the model as their previous experiences, their motivation, and their drive. Although an adult .usually continues to learn during- > 20 his lifetime, motivational factors differentiate the adult learners who accept the responsibility to adapt and change within the disciplines of adult education. Sheffied (1965) investigated the underlying orientation of adult learners toward learning activities. The following five profiles emerged: (1) learning oriented (adults who enjoy obtaining new knowledge), (2) desire-activity oriented (adults who need a change of activity), (3) personal-goal oriented (adults who want self-improvement), (4) need activity ori ented (adults who must keep active), and (5) societal-goal oriented (adults who want to help others). These profiles by Sheffield should be considered in designing motivational and attentional devices into an instructional animated film. In identifying who is an adult learner, it is essen tial to know not only what motivates the adult to learn, but also what are the special categories of adult learners. Checkering (1967) believes the young adult (between the ages of eighteen and twenty-five) must be studied separately from other adult learners. He identifies seven developmental vectors for the young adult needing special consideration: (1) competence, (2) management of emotions, (3) autonomy, (4) identity, (5) freeing of interpersonal relationships, (6) purpose, and (7) integrity. As a result of this study, the target audience for the model is changed to adult lear ners in the age group between twenty-five and fifty-six. Another group of adult learners requiring special 21 attention is the older adults who are over sixty years of age. Older adults are not necessarily better or worse at learning because of their age, but rather, they generally learn better under different learning conditions (Neale, 1968, p. 31). Increased age may cause a special physical impairment requiring certain learning conditions such as enlarged type for weakened eyesight or subtitles for the hard-of-hearing. Monge and Gardner (1972) found that time constraints and strangeness of material influenced the learning performance of older adults. By allowing plenty of time to learn, Monge and Gardner reported that older adults can learn as well or sometimes better than young adults. Monge and Gardner recommended eliminating time constraints and having the adult set his pace for learning. Because.the.pacing within an animated film is fixed, some special designs such as a gradual increase in pacing after an initial slow orientation to content material or such as a repetition of content material may be needed for older adult audiences. Another factor identified by Monge and Gardner that influences learning for the older adult is the strangeness of new learning material. A characteristics of older adults that increases with age is dogmatism. Monge and Gardner describe dogmatism as a close-mindedness, a rigidity, and a intolerance of ambiguity that can interfere with learning by preventing the learning of new material. Because a field of study called Gerontology discriminates 22 the specific abilities of older adults, this age group is not included in the target audience for the model. The age group of adults for which the model is designed is between the ages of twenty-five and sixty. Other special categories of adult learners are the physically handicapped adult and the illiterate adult. Like the older adult, the physically handicapped adult may re quire specially designed instructional material for a phy sical impairment. . In addition to the needs of the physi cally handicapped adult, the illiterate adult requires specially designed instructional material to overcome cer tain anxieties felt in a learning situation. Adult Basic Education is a program designed specifically for the illi terate adult. The handicapped adult-and the illiterate adult are not specified as members of the target audience for the model. For this study, the members of the target audience for which the model is designed should have the following quali fications to be considered an adult learner: (1) individ uals between the ages of twenty-five and sixty, (2) individ uals having established and maintained their social roles and developmental tasks, (3) individuals exhibiting both fluid and crystal intelligence, (4) individuals able to cope with their self-concepts and learn, (5) individuals having previous experiences with adult education (planned, organ ized, and sequential learning), (6) individuals agreeing to ________ 23 and interested in learning within the disciplines of adult education, and (7) individuals not requiring special lear ning conditions. Adults who do not meet the 1qualifications described may need special instructional designs which are not covered in this study. The material to be covered in Chapter II examines the learning characteristics of the target audience. It also interprets how adult learning behavior influences the de sign of instruction. Chapter II concludes with a prediction of how animated film can assist in adult instruction. Characteristics of the Adult Learner Each adult possesses a certain combination of beha vioral traits influencing a learning experience. Some of these traits are innate such as ethnic inheritance, sex, and personality, while some of the traits are acquired such as academic and social traits. Academic background, intelli gence level, reading ability, study habits, ability to work alone, and motivation to study are examples of acquired academic traits. Examples of acquired social traits which influence learning are age, special talents, socioeconomic status, and past experiences (Kemp, 1977, p. 19). The adult population represents various combinations of innate and acquired characteristics influencing learning. Ideally, the design of instruction should recognize and try to match all the individual characteristics influencing 24 learning. Individualization in designing animated films for instruction usually becomes impractical and costly. In order that the design model for animated instructional films would be applicable to the varying innate and acquired traits of the target audience (a general group of adults be tween the ages of twenty-five and sixty), the author based the learning characteristics of the target audience on the twelve general characteristics of adult learners identified by Knox (1974) . The characteristics of adult learners described by Knox (1974) are the following: (1) performance, (2) moti vation, (3) meaning, (4) experience, (5) ability, (6) memo ry, (7) condition, (8) pacing, (9) complexity, (10) content, (11) feedback, and (12) adjustment. This study examines each one of these characteristics to develop a profile of the target audience and to understand how these character istics would influence the design of instructional animated films. Performance. Knox (1974) says that adult learners consider performance as an intended outcome of instruction. Adults want to use what they have learned in adult education soon after they have learned it. As mentioned before, a child"s attitude toward formal learning is to prepare him generally for life, while an adult's attitude is aimed at resolving a present learning need in his life. In a study at Brandeis University by the National Center for School and __________ 25 College Television (1966), a comparison of the use of educa tional television by school, college and general audiences showed that the college-adult instruction audience either maintained or increased their number of broadcast hours. The increased use of educational television was due to the demand for continued education in vocational and profes sional training. Dr. Thurman White says that an adult's request for instruction is to "give me knowledge so that I can make it a part of my life" (Symposium, 1973) . A charac teristic of the adult learner is the belief that the change and integration of skills, knowledge, and attitudes in adult education is directed to produce improved performance (Knox, 1974). Motivation. The motivation to improve one's perfor mance is generally a voluntary activity for the adult lear ner (Knox, 1974). Reasons to participate in adult education are based upon educational goals, sources of encouragement, and social or employment barriers. If the learning activity does not relate to these reasons to participate, or if the learning activity does not agree with one's expectation for improved performance, then the adult will not be motivated to learn. Also, overly intense motivation can cause anxiety that interferes with learning. There is a marked contrast between the enthusiasm with which a child learns and the lack of enthusiasm with which adults learn. It appears that adults often do not get through the learning process with out becoming resistant to further learning (Brady, 1975, p. 2). 26 An adult becomes resistant to further learning as a result of the instruction not satisfying his reasons to participate or his expectations for improved performance. Therefore, it is important to recognize clear, realistic educational ob jectives to adult learners before and during an animated instructional film. By relating his reasons or expectations to the objectives of the learning activity, an adult learner can be motivated to learn. Schwartz (1966) identified four classes of motivation in adult education (p. 5). Category A is composed of adults whose primary orientation is toward the improvement of so ciety and the welfare of others. Adults in Category B are coping with a situation not directly related to the educa tional task. Category B represents adults who are motivated to learn because it promises a job promotion or because it it what their friends have learned. In Category C, adults are motivated to learn for affiliation and comfort. They will attend adult education activity to join others with whom they like to be involved. Category D represents people who are motivated to be entertained, to be social, and to be active with others. These four classes identified by Schwartz are similar to the five profiles of orientation to learning described previously by Scheffield (1975). An animated instructional film should illustrate rewards to each category for participating in the learning task. Meaning. The perceptual theory of psychology suggests 27 that how an individual perceives people, objects, and events in his environment will determine his behavior (Verduin, Miller & Greer, 1978, p. 15). Over the years, adults have had time to collect many perceptions of their experiences, and they have established their beliefs, needs, attitudes, self-concept, and learning behavior. When new material is related to the current competencies of adults and is also given in a similar situation to its use, the material has meaning and recall is best (Knox, 1974) . Relating new ma terial to their existing perceptions, adults need to select learning activites that facilitate discovering meaning. Because adults are motivated to learn when learning includes an active search and self discovery of meaning (Knox, 197 4), various learning activities should be presented for the same content in the animated film so that the adult can choose one meaningful to his perceptions. Experience. Although an adult's prior experience may facilitate perceiving meaning in a learning task, it can also interfere with learning (Zahn, 1967). If experienced skills must be unlearned or disused skills refreshed, past experience can cause anxiety and delay in the learning pro cess. Even the idea of an adult returning to a school si tuation can cause resistance to learning. Many men and women in the present day, though they might subscribe to the notion that "school days are the happiest days of life," still carry some feel ings about the school they attended that range from mild dissatisfaction to hatred and loathing (Kidd, 1959, p. 98):. : 28 The characteristic of previous experience must be considered in the design of effective instruction for adults. The na ture of an adult's prior experiences plus the connection between prior experiences and new learning will determine an adult's ability to learn from an animated film. Past experiences cannot be changed, but an adult's interpretation of past experiences in relation to new knowledge can be designed into instruction (Verduin, Miller & Greer, 1978, p. 12) . Ability. An adult's ability to learn is often as sessed by an intelligence test. An intelligence test mea sures exposure to the ability patterns tested and does not take into account whether an adult (a) is not capable of mastering the ability tested, (b) has never had the oppor tunity to master the ability tested, and (c) possesses al ternate sets of abilities equally effective for learning (Symposium, Flaherty, 1973, p. 50). The range of abilities accumulates with age. Abili ties such as vocabulary are usually maintained and enhanced (Knox, 1974). The age group between twenty and sixty exhi bits relatively stable learning abilities (Zahn, 1967). When setting objectives for instruction, the prerequisite abilities of adults should be estimated to prevent either a boring or overwhelming experience. Adults with a greater amount of abilities learn more rapidly and learn complex tasks easily (Knox, 1974). 29 Also, adults, to maintain their self-concepts and to acknowledge improved performance, want to increase the amount and complexity of their abilities (Symposium, White, 1973, p. 52). Animated film should not only identify pre requisite abilities, but also it should list proposed ac quired abilities to motivate adults to attend to the film. Memory. An adults1s ability to acquire and retain in formation is dependent upon the strength of registration in the memory and factors erasing that registration. Memory varies with the intensity, frequency, and importance of the information to the adult learner (Knox, 1974). The factors causing memory lapses in adults are the passage of time and the interference of activity following acquisition of infor mation (Belbin, 1965, p. 62). Over a period of time, adults with increased age especially find it often takes longer for them to register ideas. This is frequently due to a con-.,. . flict between new and old information or to a delay in re calling material pertinent to retaining new information (Taub, 19 67, p. 54). Acquisition of material should be carefully paced to develop immediate recall in adults. Also, adult learners can acquire and retain more easily in structional material in an animated film if the content is made meaningful by relating it to the adult’s current ex periences and abilities. Condition. The ability of adults to learn is influ enced by their external and internal conditions for learning 30 (Knox, 1974). Learning environments must be provided that minimize factors interfering with learning from a film such as illumination with glare and the lack of sound amplifica tion. In addition to external conditions for learning, internal conditions can interrupt an adult's concentration and memory by causing stress and anxiety that produce mental and physical symptoms. Once an adult has overcome any trauma from entering a learning activity, other inward struggles remain to hide shortcomings from others (e.g., family, employer, class mates, or instructor), and particularly, to hide shortcom ings from the adult's self-concept (Brady, 1975, p. 11). Gomersall and Myers (1966) found in their study about on- the-job training that a special anxiety-reduction session actually cut training time in half and lowered costs, absenteeism, and rejections. The special sessions encour ages the adults to think of success and to communicate openly with their training supervisors about it. It is recommended to design into an animated film an anxiety- reduction sequence before instruction begins to provide an advantageous learning condition. Pacing. Adults differ greatly in the pace required for them to learn (Knox, 1974). By allowing adults to set their pace for learning may reduce any tension and strain in the instructional process (Sjoren & Knox, 1965) . Per iodic breaks suited to the distribution of content also can _________________________________________ 31 aid adults in learning. Because conventional animated films usually have a fixed pace, the adult cannot set his pace and must learn at the given film pace. By gradually building the pace or by providing varied pacing, an animated film can be designed to meet some of the needs of the adult learner. Complexity. When learning tasks are matched to the abilities of the adults so that they are not boring or over whelming, adults typically learn best (Knox, 1974). Gagne (1970) suggests the following hierarchy of intellectual skills by which to build complex mental processing: (1) signal, (2) stimulus-response, (3) chaining, (4) verbal association, (5) discrimination, (6) concepts, (7) rules, and (8) problem-solving. The author suggest that an ani mated instructional film can present several of these mental processing levels to aid the adult in learning complex material. Feedback. Adult learners need feedback to strengthen their self-concepts in a learning experience (Knox,1974). The authenticity and source of the feedback is important to adult learners. A person learns in proportion to the degree that his sense of self worth is confirmed by the per son whom he sees as the source and model of learning (Brady, 1975, p. 35). Although conventional animated film may not be able to pro vide individual feedback for the adult, it can present the sources of models of learning from which the adult could ______________________! ________________________________________ : _______________32 compare his performance in a learning task. Adjustment. Adjustments is the settling of differ ences in behavior, beliefs, or values of the adult to that required from the learning experience.(Knox, 1974). The child comes to school to learn what the school is teaching. The adult often brings quite differ ent views to the classroom from those held by the teacher. This may result in conflict and cause painful and generally negative feelings (Brady, 1975, p. 3). If past experiences are perceived the same, but the adult is asked to interpret them differently, adjustment can be suc cessful. Maladjustment acknowledges a threat to an adult's established behavior, values, or beliefs which may cause anxiety a,nd interfere with learning (Verduin, Miller & Greer, 1978). In animated film, new instructional material should be related to past experiences to reduce anxiety in learning from the film. Prof ile of the target .audience. As a result of the previous discussion on the characteristics of the adult learner, the following statements conclude the profile of the target audience. The influence of the profile on the design of animated instructional films is also provided. 1. Adult learners want to use what they have -learned to improve immediate performance. An animated film should show the adult learner that improved performance results from the instruction provided in the film. For acknowledge ment of improved performance, an animated instructional film should display rewards to the motivational categories of __________________: _________________________________ ; ____________ 33 adults as outlined by Swartz (1966). 2. Adult learners want to learn in areas which have meaning for them. New material presented in an animated film should be related to previous meaningful experiences. Also, by presenting varous learning activities for the same content in an animated film may allow a learner to select a meaningful experience. 3. Adult learners Want to progress from what they aIread y know. Although previous experiences should be re lated to new content in an animated film, the past should be dealt with briefly emphasizing the learning of the .new im proved performance. 4. Adult learners Want to learn at times and condi tions convenient to them. Animated films should be designed to present the instructional tasks clearly and concisely to maximize the use of the time an adult has voluntarily given. Also, a film should provide varied pacing of the learning material. 5. Adult learners want to use accumulated abilities to tackle complex tasks and mature content. Instruction in an animated film should gradually build the amount of needed abilities and the degree of complexity in the tasks and con tent as Gagne (197 0) has suggested in his hierarchy. 6. Adult learners want to adjust to new learning ma- erial. To avoid any threats to an adult1s current beliefs, an animated film should relate new instructional content to 34 assumed existing beliefs, and also, the film should present feedback by showing a modeling of behavior. This profile of the target audience and the twelve general learning characteristics described by Knox (1974) are reviewed again later in Chapter III. The question next to consider is how these behavioral characteristics of the target audience influences the design of instruction. Instructional Design Needs of the Adult Learner For this study, the difference between what design conditions for learning exist and what design conditions for learning should exist is termed an "instructional design need". The following discussion on the instructional design needs of the target audience is based upon the needs of adult learners identified by Knox (1974). Using the cate gories described by Knox, the instructional design needs considered for the model are summarized in Table 1. Attraction. Knox (1974) states that an adult partici pates in a learning activity to which he is attracted. A prime source of motivating an adult to prefer a learning activity is to appeal to his basic needs. Abraham Maslow suggested that adults satisfy their basic biological needs before higher order social needs emerge (cited in Swartz, 1966, p. 2) and he identified five hierarchial need systems. Adults must feel secure on each level before they can pro gress to the next need system. Maslow's need systems are: ________________________ 35 BASIC — Needs reflecting physiological and survival goals (food, clothing and shelter); SAFETY — Needs of security, orderliness, and protec tion (adequate salary, insurance policies, and per sonal protection); BELONGINGNESS — Needs for interpersonal relationships (feeling accepted and appreciated, having family ties, having friends, or being a group member); EGO STATUS — Needs for gaining status, ambition, and the desire to excell (various professional and social awards); SELF ACTUALIZATION -- Need for personal growth, greater creativity, and greater personal achievement (seeking autonomy, taking risks, and seeking freedom to act)(quoted in Verduin, Miller & Greer, 197 8, p- 13)- By illustrating and fulfilling some of the needs outlined by Maslow, an animated film should attract adults to watch the film. Also, the attraction category includes the fact that adults must be informed about the activity in order to select it. The instructional topic is attractive if it has meaning to the life of the adult and makes a difference in the way the adult will relate to his life. In addition to this, the information about the instruction must be avail able zthrough adult communication channels. Parker (1966) found that adults with little formal education are more apt to join a learning activity if someone from the activity encourages them on a one-to-one basis. They are, secondly, influenced by broadcast media (radio and TV). Although they utilize all media, better, educated adults prefer print media as sources for information about learning activity - 36 (Parker, 1966). In receiving information about a learning activity, adults are attracted to a learning activity for specific reasons. These specific reasons are labeled by Knox (1974) as "personal goals" and "situational conditions." Personal goals indicate what is the worth of learning according to the individual adult leaner. The following are examples of personal reasons for being attracted to learning: (1) to achieve an occupational goal (qualifications for a new job), (2) to reach a religious goal (understanding certain doc trines) , (3) to reach a social goal (helping disadvantaged children to learn), (4) to achieve public recognition, (5) to pursue personal fulfillment in a specific topic (through sports, art, or politics), (6) to meet formal requirements (as in a degree program), (7) to participate in a social activity (discussion group), and (8) to escape from routine surroundings. In situational reasons, an external source indicates what is the worth of learning to the individual adult. Adults are encouraged to increase their education by their friends, community, or employment incentives. Adults have barrier which may distract them from attending the learning activity such as lack of time, lack of money, lack of confidence, scheduling conflicts, or lan guage difficulties if instruction is not in native tongue. Although an animated film may not be able to resolve these __________________• 37 barriers, the designer can recognize these barriers in the content of the animated film as motivational cues for the target audience. Intake. Adults without any recent exposure to an ed ucational experience may? need help in feeling welcomed and accepted into an educational program. Knox (1974) termed this need as "intake." To resolve this need, the instruc tion should be designed to assist the adult learner in achieving at least one realistic educational objective. Secondly, "intake" includes the needs of adults who have had previous negative impressions of "school" or of "being a student" causing a decrease in their performance in an educational setting. By discussing past learning exper iences and plans for new learning, the adult learner can begin to understand the total process and the roles involved (Knox, 1974). The instruction in an animated film can also identify questions and problems to be solved which should lelp the need to unfreeze negative thoughts and habits concerning learning for the adult. Support. Adults require encouragement throughout a Learning experience. Knox (1974) suggests the following to satisfy the need for support: (1) realistic goal setting, (2) aimed at multiple outcomes, (3) emphasizing alternative and important ways to use increased competen- . cies, (4) grouping of participants with similar require ments, (5) allowing adults to progress at own rate to 38 minimize failure, (6) evaluating progress of learner based on prior performance, (7) stops to work through mistakes when they occur, (8) using gentle humor to soften anxieties over mistakes, and (9) allowing adults to perform the role of instructor for themselves or others to develop self con fidence in the learning situtation (p. 21). Retention. Many adults drop out of learning episodes with feelings of failure and disappointment. Knox (197 4) calls this a "retention" instructional need. Adult learners often cannot retain themselves in an instructional program because of their responsibilities to family, work, and com munity. The retention rate for an animated film may in crease if the instructional design is sensitive and can match the priorities of the target audience. Setting. It is important to recognize the necessities of the learning environment for adults. By identifying commercial sponsors, community support, resources available, scheduling, and possible constraints, effective learning experiences can be designed in an animated film for adults. Examples of setting instructional design needs are learning in a job scene or learning in a setting free of distract tions. ' Objectives« Adults select and enter an instructional activity because they expect certain intended outcomes im proving their performance (Knox, 1974). To reduce any pos sible anxieties, to motivate adults to learn, and to retain 39 adults in the learning activity, it is important to inform adult learners before instruction what is the intended per formance outcome. Two types of educational objectives are involved. One type is behavior objective (the observable change in adult behavior as a result of the instruction) and the other type is the instructional objective (a description cf what the instruction intends to do). Although the model in this study provides a supplement on writing objectives, the material covered next outlines the basic information about objectives. Because adults join an instructional program with :nany aspirations and expectations, it is important to focus their aims into realistic objectives. One way to direct their goals to the educational objectives in a film is to break down the objectives of an instructional film into two levels, terminal and enabling. Kemp (1977) differentiates the two levels of objectives (p. 32). A terminal objective describes the major behavioral outcome at the end of the Learning episode. Although more than one terminal objective is possible in a learning episode, each terminal objective- must have several , enabling objectives. Enabling objectives describe specific behaviors that must be learned in order to achieve the terminal objective. An educational objective has four essential parts (easily remembered by A-B-C-D): (1) subject (Audience), (2) action verb (Behavior), (3) condition (Criteria), and 40 (4) performance standard (Degree). Clearly written, an educational objective can direct adults into what changes and commitments they should make in the learning situation. Objectives for learning are grouped into three domains of behavior: (1) cognitive, (2) affective, and (3) psycho motor. The cognitive domain is the acquisition of knowledge plus the skills and abilities to use the knowledge. Con cerned with changes in attitudes, emotion, or values is the affective domain. The psychomotor domain deals with physi cal abilities involving observation, imitation, practice, and adaptation. Instructional objectives are divided into these three areas or combinations of the three domains to specify the bahavioral change for adults. Later, in Chapter IV, the study examines how these domains influence the visual design of animation. As adults experience a topic, they may shift the focus of their interests, arid they may require a shift in the ed ucational objectives (Knox, 197 4). Although animated in structional film has set instructional objectives that can not be easily changed, the use of the film in combination with other instructional strategies may satisfy this adult need. Organization» Adult learners also require an instru- tional experience organized around the behaviors of adult hood (Symposium, White, 1973). Instructional animated films should reflect the behaviors of adulthood and contain 41 problem-centered activities, game playing, simulation exer cises, apprentice-master relationships, and case studies. Knox (1974) states that successful learning exper iences are influenced by the matching of the organization of the learning activity to the preferred learning style of adults. To reduce anxieties, adult learners should be en couraged to follow a learning style which has previously worked for them. Again, animated film would provide a fixed organization of the instruction. Either the animated film could offer various organizations.of the content, or the film could be used in various ways to match the learning styles of an adult. Three principles for the organization of learning activities were identified by Knox (1974) as progression, application, and gratification (p. 42). The progression principle considers that effective achievement of educa tional objectives requires persistence in the learning activity and persistence happens if the learning material has a sense of coherence and sequencing. A theme of per sonal importance is recommended for a sense of coherence through the learning material. Examples of sequencing of learning material are given in Chapter IV. The organization of learning should also apply the newly learned improved performance to everyday activities. Instruction can alternate studying pertinent life problems with relevant knowledge to the problem. "Application" 42 principle of organization is essential to retain adult lear ners in the learning activity and to strengthen their memory of the instructional material. The third principle, gratification, involves indenti- fying the specific reasons why the adult has selected the learning activity. In addition to recognizing these rea sons, this principle considers how to use these reasons as an organizing theme in the instructional material. The key idea in this principle is maximizing gratification'in the learning activity so that the adult is motivated to learn. This section of Chapter II has discussed the instruc- design needs of the target audience which are described as attraction, intake, support, retention, setting, objectives, and organization. Much of the material presented may appear similar, redundant, overlapping, and too simple, but it is important for the development of the design model to reco- nize and consider these needs carefully. Table I is pro vided as a summary of the previous discussion. Based on the needs identified by Knox (1974) and composed by the author, Table I provided the source material to compose Table II in Chapter V which related the instructional design needs of adult learners to their use in animated film. Although the instructional design needs are essential for designing animated instructional films effectively for adult learners, these needs are rarely considered in designing animated films. The next section discusses this. ■ ; _________43 TABLE 1 INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN NEEDS OF ADULT LEARNERS Description Learning Condition Is Instruction Should Be A. Attraction 1. Adult selects the activity. 2. Adults must be informed to select activity. 3. Adults attracted for specific reasons. 1. Attractive and also motivating to adult's basic needs. 2a. Meaningful to the adult's life. 2b. Given through adult channels (one-to- one , broadcast, or print.) 3a. Representative of personal goals and situational conditions. 3b. Aware of possible barriers (lack of time or money). B * Intake 1. Adults with little recent educational experience feel un comfortable with learning episode. 2. Adult with nega tive attitudes toward education. 1. Designed to allow the adult to feel accepted in learning program. 2a. Designed to in clude discussion of total process (past learning, future plans, adult's role in lear ning . 2b. Designed to in clude identification of prior questions and problems to be solved. * Support Adults require encou ragement throughout learning experience. a. Realistic in set ting goals. 44 TABLE 1 . (CONTINUED) Description Learning Condition Is Instruction Should Be C. Support b. Aimed at multiple outcomes. c. Emphasizing ways to use increased skills. d. With groupings of similar adults. e. Paced by adult. f. Based on adult's prior performance. g. Designed to allow break to work through mistakes as they occur. h. Softened with gen tle humor. i. So that the adult can perform as an instructor. D. Retention Adults drop out because of external sources to learning experience. Matched to priorities of adult (family, work, and community). E. Setting 1. Adults require on-the-scene training. 2. Adults require an environment free of distractions. la. Represented by support of commercial sponsors, community activities, other resources, and sche dules . lb. Cognizant of possible constraints. 2a. Avoiding needless stress. 2b. Accompanied by good illumination, sound amplification, seating, and identifi cation of facilities (parking and toilets). 45 TABLE 1(CONTINUED) Description 1 Learning Condition Is Instruction Should Be F. Objectives 1. Adults enter with some expectations. 2. Adult can shift focus of learning interests. 1. Selective ahd real istic objectives. 2. Flexible in its use of enabling and termi nal objectives. G. Organization 1. Adults require behaviors of adult hood . 2. Adults have preferred learning styles. 3. Adults require persistence in learning. 4. Adults require learning to apply to everyday life. 5. Adults want to satisfy reasons for selecting learning activity. 1. Problem-centered activity, game playing, simulated exercises, apprentice-master re lationships, and case studies. 2. Suited to the range of learning styles. 3. Coherent with a theme of personal im portance and have se quencing . 4. Integrated with lifetime problems. 5. Organized around specific reasons of adult learners. 46 Animated film and the Adult Learner Despite the fact that many adults believe that ani mated film is "kid's stuff," animated film can provide for many adult instructional needs. Seen in many educational and training films, animation is a technique often taken for granted by the adult audiences and considered simply a part of the magic of filming. The potential of animated films to instruct and to entertain adults is witnessed in the enormous number of animated commercials on television directed toward an adult audience. As proved by the increased sales of products presented in animated commercials, the animated technique is successful in informing adults about the products and motivating adults to buy the products. This is not to say that television commercials are equated with adult educa tion, but to emphasize that some of the characteristics and needs discussed about adult learners are recognized and used successfully in animated commercials. In most ani mated instructional films, animation is a technique used to present instructional content, and is not necessarily used to respond to .adult characteristics or to satisfy adult needs. In Chapter II, the adult learner was defined as one who accepts the responsibility to use his abilities to cope with his self-concept and to learn. The adults included in 41 the target audience for the model were limited to those between the ages of twenty-five and sixty. As a result of the survey of literature on adult learners, six additional qualifications were defined for the target audience. From the discussion on the characteristics of adult learners, six statements were evolved that profiled the characteristics of the target audience. Also, the influence of the profile on the design of animated instructional films were predicted. The next section of Chapter II identified the instruc tional design needs of the target audience. As a result of the discussion on the instructional design needs, Table I was composed. The last section of Chapter II discussed the use of animation with adult audiences. Although the successful design of animated commercials for television use the cha racteristics and needs of its adult audiences, the design of animation into an instructional film for adult learners usually emphasizes the depiction of the learning material. In the next chapter, the elements and variables of animated film are defined and their use in instruction dis cussed. Chapter III also examines how animated film can be used to match and fulfill the characteristics and needs of adult learners. 48 CHAPTER III Instructional Animated Film Introduction Animation is a term describing the state of possess ing life. Neanderthal man attempted to imitate this state of possessing life in his cave drawings of Lascaux and Altamira in France. In the flickering of a fire, his drawings of multilegged creatures were illuminated and appeared to leap and quiver on the cave walls. Whether these drawings were made as a recording of hunts, or as a method of promising a good hunt, or as a magical way of capturing the power and life of those animals is not known. Throughout history, man has shown a fascination with movement and has tried to possess its force. In ancient Greece and Rome, artists also attempted to portray motion by painting acrobats performing around a vase or soldiers battling around a circular shield. Because the technology for projecting these images had not been developed, these early artists were limited to static images of movement. 49 The artificial movement of static images represents the art, technique, and technical process termed anima tion. Each frame of animated film contains a static image of an inanimate object (or of a rendering of an inanimate object) held in one position. As one frame advances to the next, the retina of the human eye retains for a brief instant the static image of the previous frame. This visual memory is known as "persistence of vision." When the frames are projected on a screen, the persistence of vision for each frame blends the series of still images into one single continuous visual experience. The illusion of movement is seen in the progressive change of position between frames. Although the same process of persistence of vision occurs in live action film, a difference in the movement exists between live action and animated film. Live action film is a recording of real motion. Real motion is the physical displacement of one object in reference to another object (Johnson, 1977, p. 24). Each frame of a live action film captures a real moving image of "A" coming closer to "B," whereas'/ the essence of animated film is the creation of apparent or illusionary motion. "Apparent or illusionary motion is a perceptual phenomenon that results from successive stimulation by two or more separated stationary stimuli" (Johnson, 1977, p. 24). In an animated film, a sequence of images are created with __________________________ 50 "A" closer to "B" in each successive image, and these sta tionary images are recorded on film frame by frame. "A" does not in reality move to "B," but the eye and the mind of the viewer fuse the separate still images into movement. While live action film is limited to the motion seen, ani mated film can create any type of motion imagined. It is important for this study to take a brief look at the history of animation because it reveals the evolve- ment of the relationship of adult audiences to animated film. The early work in animation as described by Stephenson (1973) was not done by great artists. The first pictures were simple drawings done by what one may call more or less uScientific dabblers." Inventing various instru ments to project their images, these early animators fol lowed the development of the magic lantern in the seven teenth century by the Jesuit priest, Athanasius Kircher. His pupil, Gaspar Schott, mounted a disk on the magic lan tern that, when rotated, produced images in motion. In 173 6, a Dutch scientist, Pieter van Musshenbroek, is given credit for drawing the first animated image which depicted the turning of a windmill^ A Belgium scientist, Professor Plateau, invented a revolving disk with slits, a phenakis- toscope (translated as deceit-look), that could complete a movement in sixteen drawings. Various other "scopes" were developed (e.g., zoetrope, animatoscope, and 109 more), 51 but it was not until 18 82 when Professor Emile Reynaud made his praxinoscope (translated as action-look) to amuse his son that this new technique of animation started to evolve. Reynaud painted on strips of cellu loid, synchronized his images) to music, and, later, opened a theater for public performances. He originated animated film as an entertainment spectacle (Stephenson, 197 3, p. 26). With the development of the camera by the Edison Laboratory and the development of film by the Eastman Company (around 189 5) , the live action film captured the surrounding world and flashed it on a screen. The early beginnings of animation were forgotten. Reynaud was unable to develop his animation apparatus to compete with live action film. This marked the end of handmade pic tures and the beginning of machine-made images (Stephenson, 1973, p. 26). Animation became tied to photography both in production and in projection. The early 19 00's are represented by the first animated films produced by an American, J. Stewart Black- ton, and a Frenchman, Emile Cohl. In these films, a new drawing was made for every frame. Earl Hurd in 1914 used transparent celluloid foil to reproduce the action and eliminated some of the repetitive drawings. The drawing on celluloid was termed a "cel,"' and its invention eased the development of animation by shortening the animating 52 process. The 1920's saw newspaper cartoonists trying their hand at animation. Such men as Winsor McCay who drew "Little Nemoy" for the New York Herald found the transfer to film very successful because of the large American comic strip audience. In fact, some characters such as Popeye and Felix the Cat did better on film. With this success, American cartoon units were formed, the roles of the different animation tasks defined (e.g., inker, inbetweener), and procedures for production set. Because the American public was drawn to animation as a contrast to the real world, animation became in demand and animation companies were prospering. To many people in the thirties, a golden age of the cartoon, a period when masses' weekly entertainment meant the movies and no movie program was complete without its "Mickey Mouse" — to many people then and since, the cartoon simply meant Walt Disney's work (Stephenson, 1973, p. 35). The Disney studios made many great advances in the technique of animation. Between 19 28 and 1979, Walt Disney and his artists changed the emotional and enter tainment perimeters of animation in three areas (Canemaker, 1979, p. 102). First, Disney realized a change should be made in the quality of animated films. Most animators (except Winsor McCay) used the "circle and rubberhose formula" to construct their cartoon characters. The Disney-developed characters were more expressive in their 53 personalities and were based on "pose” drawings to emphasize dialogue or musical beats. Secondly, Disney developed and utilized new technical advances in animation. He added sound and color to his work and invented the multiplane camera for depicting depth and for filming many levels of cels. Also at the Disney Studios, the storyboard approach was first used. A story board is a series of sketches arranged on a board in the sequence of a plot for an animated film (Levitan, 1962, p. 18 9). The third area in which Disney contributed was the cultivation and support of animating talent. Not only did he provide employment (epecially furing the Depression), but also Disney had on-the-job training and initiated the study of animation as an Art at the Chouinard Art Institute. Disney*s artists continue his work into the present. Criticism has been made of Disney's work because of the animation style that he formalized and because of the imitation world he created (Stephenson, 1973; and Schickel, 19 68). The formula that he developed was that of a soothing diet of optimistic humanlike animals who entertained with messages of success. The American audiences were deceived by the Disney formula because their Disney cartoon charac ters were based on real poses and because the Disney artists depicted realistic scenes and coloring. While the cartoon antics of such characters as Felix the Cat created the notion that it was indeed a graphic interpretation of _______________________________________________: _______________________________________________________________________________________; ________________________________5A impossible events, Disney's story-telling approach to his limited make-believe world provided an undemanding and false interpretation of his cartoons. Many adults have either stereotyped animation as a Disney formula cartoon of a "silly symphony" world suited for children; or as children who were entertained and educated by Disney, they are adults who have unconsciously accepted Disney's teaching of morals, optimism, and success. The Disney formula is repeated not only in the animation, but also in all Disney publications, products, and amusement parks. For over fifty years now, the Disney formula has been con sumed by the American public and remains to be very successful. Although not known for his artistic abilities, Disney is praised for his enterprise, his demand for highly technical competence in animation, his popular entertainment, and his contribution to modern folklore. Designers of animated film must recognize the fact that Disney has set a standard for animation, and adults initially exposed to the Disney-formula animation have a tendency to compare all animation to Disney's work. Animators who could not work within the Disney formula departed Disney to form other companies. One such company was UPA (United Productions of America) who created a certain simplified and abbreviated style of animation. In UPA type animation, light fixtures hang from empty space, a door is drawn in when a cartoon character needs 55 one, the colors are not natural, the characters have black outlines, and other such elements that do not follow the laws of nature. The followers of the animator, Tex Avery, (i.e., Chuck Jones, Friz Freleng, William Hanna, and Joe Barbera) who all worked for various other studios, had an even more unnatural and sometimes violent interpretation of life in their animations. Tex Avery's cartoon characters often performed unexpected acts. As in Lucky Duck (1948), a duck emerged from an egg and does a striptease, or as in Kingsize Canary (1947), a canary is fed "jumbo gro" by a cat and grows to be bigger than the skyscrapers in New York City. Stephenson (1973) describes Avery as "an anarchic filmmaker obsessed with changes is size and cosmic destruction" (p. 59). As a member of the Tex Avery school, Chuck Jones, who made Bugs Bunny, Daffy Duck, and the Roadrunner shorts has also been criticized for depicting violence. Although his animated shorts have become famous as children's entertain ment, Jones claims that they were made to accompany adult movies and were not intended for children or television (Filmex Animation Conference and Workshop, 197 9). He states that his task was to make adults laugh and his work imitated the genius of such comedians as Chaplin and Keaton. Because his comedy is based on the study of failures, the plots presented in the cartoons by Jones originated with adult _____________________________ : ____________ 56 failures of which many were violent, but no one died. In Duck Rabbit Duck, the hunters keep firing at Daffy Duck, but the only injury is that his beak goes out of place, while in Duck A Muck, Chuck Jones experimented with an animator's nightmare. In the middle of the ani mated sequence, Daffy Duck runs out of backgrounds. Chuck Jones who is considered a master of timing criticizes television cartoons for children of the "Saturday morning" variety. He believes animation, is effective because it shows that how people move is what makes them rather than how they look or what they say. The demands of television caused animated cartoons to be a soundtrack accompanied by a few drawings, or, as Chuck Jones called it, "the failure of post radio" (Filmex Animation Conference and Workshop, 1978). Television marked a change for animation. With the popularity of television, the American audiences turned away from the, theaters and the demand for animated shorts decreased. Animators turned to television to use their talents in cartoon series, commercials, and half-hour specials. To meet the weekly and daily demands of tele vision, animation companies such as Hanna-Barbera Produc tions systematized and computerized their animation. All the characters in a cartoon series like in The Flintstones (an animated take-off on The Honeymooners) were analyzed for their possible essential movements. These 5/7 movements were fed into a computer that would be programmed to pull specific cels (already prepared depict ing a certain movement of a character) and programmed to film the animation. The Hanna-Barbera animation has an even more reduced style of animation than that of UPA and is termed limited animation. In a Disney animated film, the sound could be turned off and the story understood from the action shown. Disney's work exemplifies total animation. In the Hanna-Barbera materials, only essential movements are given so that, if the visual were removed, the soundtrack would continue the action. Because of continuous exposure to limited animation, viewers have lost much of their sensitivity for movement and composi tion (Johnson, 1977, p. 8). Limited animation was done mainly for economic- reasons, but now viewers have become sophisticated and may not want ' all the visual information provided in total animation. Directed to young audiences, animation is prospering on television in Saturday morning and aftersqhool cartoons, a barrage of commercials, and many holiday half-hour specials. With the successful application of animation to instruction in the Children's Television Workshop series, Sesame Street, other animation for children, especially animated commercials, have been under attack. Some adults respect the work done on Sesame Street, and one Boston parent group, Action for Children's Television (ACT), ________________________________________________________________ 5_R complained to the Federal Trade Commission forcing the National Association of Broadcasters Code Authority to re strict the use of animation in children's commercials. As a result of this action by ACT, plus the fact that TV is a mass media with possible exposure to kids, and because ani mation on TV is so popular as entertainment for children; adult animation has not reached its potential on television. We're now in a Star Wars period, whereas in the early 60*s commercial animation was very simple, with an emphasis on characterization. The release of Yellow Submarine changed all that, plunging the commercial animation medium back into more detailed animation, or middle Disney . (Chuck Swanson of Murakami-Wolf-Swenson quoted by Meyers, 1979, p. 40). The "Star Wars" period is the result of the develop ment of "animatics" or automated animation. In the film titled Star Wars (1977), various special techniques and multiple camera designs were used to produce lights that twisted, glistened, and glowed; logos and title concepts travelled through space accented by cross stars and strobes; three-dimensional animation was emphasized; and live action was added to animation on the screen. Although many of these techniques were not new, this film marked the begin ning of a popular style. The predecessor in popularity to Star Wars is the film 2 001 (1968) in which many animated techniques were utilized including the linear animation camera to create the movements of planets and space life. For many years, animation has been used to depict the action of space vehicles and satellites by NASA to explain the 59 operations of real space adventure. As a result of the early animated engineering films, adults are able to accept the "Star Wars" period of animation as adult entertainment. Ralph Bakshi released in 197 8 his film, Lord of the Rings, and promoted it as an animated film for adults. The film proved to be a box office hit, but a large majority of the audience were children in spite of the extreme violence seen. At a 1979 showing of Fritz the Cat (an X-rated Bakshi animated film showing explicit sex), the author witnessed many adults bringing their children. Whether it is intended for children or not, animation is generally considered by the American public as an entertainment medium for children. The acceptance of animation by adult audiences may be dependent upon the visual presentation not conflicting with concepts held by the adult at the time of viewing the film. An animated film simulates life and movement on the screen. When the implied life and movement is distorted to a point that the animation conflicts with an adult's beliefs, the adult audience may dismiss it as kid’s stuff. Itfhen the animation is too believable, the adult audience may take it for granted or they may falsely interpret the fantasy as a reality. The concept of reality in the visual perception of animation is studied in Chapter IV. Three categories of animation have evolved in the history of animation: (1) commercial, (2) experimental, and (3) instructional. Most of what has been previously 60 discussed concerned the growth of commercial animation which is animation aimed at entertaining for profit or at marketing a product. Whenever applicable, commercial animation has borrowed from experimental animation. Experimental animation focuses on the art of animating and the aesthetics of animation (Russett and Starr, 1976, p. 7). While commercial animation is a collaborative effort of many people (e.g., animators, director, pro ducer, cameraman), experimental animation is usually the work of an independent animator. Some of the work of experimental animators are described in the section of this chapter covering the design approach of different animators. The third category of animation, instruc tional animation, is the main topic of this dissertation. Because instructional animated film is influenced by commercial and experimental animation, these two other categories are integrated into this study for their contributions to the field of animation^ Instructional animated film deals with teaching ‘specific content using animation to fulfill an educational objective. Thomas Edison was the first to see the impor tance of educational films and used animation in his 1912 film, The Cream Separator. Admiring the indus trial films produced by Edison, Henry Ford began producing educational films. In his 1917 film about the Bessemer steel process, animation was utilized to explain the 61 technical process without the aid of narration. Starting in 1932, Western Electric initiated pro duction of a series of educational films. The division.^ of Western Electric responsible for this work was the ERPI (Electric Research Products, Inc.). Not only did the ERPI use animation throughout the series, but also they consulted with university advisors on the content of the■ films (Madsen, 1969, p. 15). Instructional animated films do not usually draw the number of people nor do they attract the financial backing of commercial films. The early instructional films using animation were funded by companies like Edison, Ford, and Western Electric, or they were funded by the Federal government. The armed forces during World War II found themselves with a lack, of competent instructors and had to turn to educational films for training. Film companies like Disney, UPA, and Warners were enrolled to produce training films. In particular, UPA developed an animated character, Private Sanfu, who could not do any thing right. The use of animation has continued in the armed forces through to the present. With the research done in aerospace engineering, animation is especially utilized to instruct content which cannot be depicted with live action film. The purpose of this chapter is to give an overview of the various elements of instructional animated film. 62 From a description of the different types of animation, to a discussion of the instructional advantages of using animation, to a report of different design approaches, and to an outline of basic de'sign procedures, this section is directed toward defining the parameters of instructional animated film for use in the model. Also, this chapter includes a prediction of the future of instructional animated films and is keyed to the response of adults to animation. Different Types of Animation Although the design for an animated film is limited only by the financial costs involved and by the imagina tion of the animator, animation has evolved some labeling of certain designs based upon the technique of animation used. This study does not give the technical details for producing these types of animation, but it does give a definition and description of the techniques so they can be considered as potential types for the model. Handmade \filmsW The Canadian animator, Norman McLaren, popularized the technique of handmade or paint-on films. In this technique, the animation design is done directly on the film frame by frame without the use of a camera. Film has a base of transparent celluloid with an emulsion, a thin colored gelatinous substance, on one side. With a pin, scissors, hole puncher, or drops of bleach, the emulsion can be scraped, punched, or bleached 63 away to create a white on black design. The white area can be colored with inks or colored marking pens. The opposite effect of color on white is achieved by bleaching the emulsion off or by using clear leader. On the transparent celluloid base, the design can be applied by ink or markers, by finger prints or stamps, by press- on designs or type, or by glueing minute substances such as sand or glitter. It is important to remember that, because of the projection of the film frame by frame, designs must be done upside down and backwards, and the designs must be smooth on the film to prevent jamming the projector. It is advisable to use 16mm or 35mm film for this type of animation to have a large enough frame area to draw the designs. By drawing frame by frame, the animator must do twenty-four drawings on twenty-four frames for the drawing to appear projected on the screen for one second. A flickering sensation on the screen is seen if a picture is drawn on every other frame. This technique is quite tedious and requires a great deal of patience and dexterity in working within the frame area. In McLaren1s film, Begone Dull Care (1949), he ignored the frame divisions and drew lines and patterns continuously on the film. The projection of the film divided the film into frames and created the sense of movement. When projected with any type of music, the __________________________________________________________________________ 6_4 lines and patterns appear to dance to the music. This technique of animation provides a quality of freedom not only to the animator but also to the viewer. The lines and patterns create an abstract world symbolizing action, humor, and relationships between the design characters. Handmade films are useful in gaining attention, establishing abstract patterns, and setting a mood. By making one of these handmade films, adults can appreciate the creation of apparent movement of inanimate drawings and gain an initial understanding of the animation process. Handmade films usually are not expensive and require a minimum amount of time and equipment for produc tion. Because handmade films are relatively easy to pro- . duce, they are also good for adult group activity to pro duce them or to utilize them to trigger discussions. Animation of still pictures. One method of animating without having to draw pictures is the technique called kinestasis. Kinestasis is a filming technique that does not animate individual pictures, but it does present many still pictures in a short space of time (Trojanski and Rockwood, 1973, p. 102). The animation appears in the rhythm created by many pictures stimulating the eyes of the viewer in a short time. For this technique, still photographs, mag azine cutouts, slides, or movie clips are combined. The rhythm is created by the number of frames allowed for pro jection of each picture. Twelve frames or a half second of 65 projection time allows the viewer the ability to acknowledge a change, but to be able to perceive a still picture, the viewer needs at least four to seven seconds or 9 6 to 168 frames exposed of each picture. A kinestatic film usually begins slowly to present the pictures so that the viewer can become accustomed to the change of images, and then the rhythm can be increased or altered. The rhythm and the sequencing of the presented pictures are the two key factors in designing kinestatic films. Although this study does not deal with soundtracks, it is important to note that a musical accompaniment is recommended for kinestatic films. A musical score can assist in preventing eye strain or in hypnotizing the viewer by the barrage of pictures. Also, a musical score can help to establish the rhythm of the presentation. Charles Braverman popularized kinestasis in a film in which he presented in succession the most mememorable images of a time in history (Trojanski and Rockwood, 1973, p. 102). The technique of kinestasis has been applied to moments in history (e.g., photos of the Vietnam War), or to the growth of a scientific phenomenon (e.g., time-lapse photographs of the sprotting of a bean), or to the compilation of events in government (e.g., the process of amending a law), or to the examination of an artist’s work (e.g., a series of por traits painted by Picasso). For the viewers, it remains questionable how much material can be retained from a ; 66 kinestatic film, but it does seem advantageous as a quick review for material already known. Another method to animate without having to create pictures is called a filmograph. A filmograph is a tech nique in which the camera focuses on a specific section of a photograph or art work, and the animation is created by the movement of the camera to various parts of the still picture (Madsen, 1969, p. 214). Filmographs are especially useful in recapturing a moment in history (e.g., a Civil War battle) from a painting done at that time, or in studying in detail the work of a painter, or in comparing the components of several static images. Although this technique requires relatively little cost and production time, it does demand a careful shooting script. Caution must be observed in not moving too fast around a still picture. A logical juxtaposition of images and a reasonable visual interpretation of the narrative is needed by adult audiences who may require time to acknowledge visual and narrative statements. The Wall (1970) by Carmen DfAvino is an example of a film ograph. DfAvino pasted on a wall a collage of his lifetime momentos. By selecting and ordering objects on the wall, the camera told his autobiography (Halas and Manveil, 1970, p. 14). Another animator, Al Stahl, has developed a unique animation stand and techniques to create a filmograph __________________________________________________________________________ &L from slides and cut-outs which he calls "fotomation." Stahl states that fotomation is faster, less expensive, and more entertaining than anything else at the price (Meyers, 1979, p. 27). He is very successful with this technique and has clients such as IBM, the U. S. Army, Goodyear, and Columbia Records. Spontaneous creation animation. This type of animation is characterized by preparing the art work during filming and not before as with other techniques. Motion drawing and motion painting are examples of spontaneous creation animation. A figure is drawn bit by bit and becomes whole before the viewer. Working extensively in this area, Witold Giersz (a Polish animator) has pro duced the animated painting films in 19 69 called The Intellectual, Admiral, and the Horse. The viewer sees the flowing of oil paint on glass and can vicariously identify with the artist as he paints. Another form of this technique is done with the manipulation of clay under the camera. In comparison to other types of animation, spontaneous creation animation differs in that it does not have preplanned art work and it is a one-time filming activity. Although the animator is free to be expressive under the camera, this type of animation is tedious and requires a large amount of time to paint, then film, to paint, then film, and so forth, until the work is completed. For many adults, this type of animation is 68 exciting because the viewer is involved with the performance as in watching a house being built brick by- brick. Other adults may find this animation frustrating if they want to stop or change the direction of the spontaneous creation. Animation of three-dimensional objects. Objects with length,“width, and height can be moved a small distance and filmed in single frames to make them appear to move on their own. Real objects such as shoes can shuffle around a room without any feet moving them. Or, the objects can be models as in models of space ships traveling through space. Another version of object animation is puppet animation. In this type of animation, puppets can be anything from a clay figure, to a potato'>with painted eyes and mouth, or to a detailed replica of a person in history. A popular commercial on television using this technique is the Pillsbury doughboy. With puppet anima tion, a set must be constructed to serve as a background for the puppets. Jiri Trnka of Czechoslovakia works in puppet animation. In his film, The Hand (1966), he deals with the subject matter of the creative freedom of an individual against the restrictions of a domineering government (Halas and Manvell, 1970, p. 68). As shown in this film, puppet animation can present adult problem situations. ___________________69 Pixillation or stop motion animation is another form of object animation, and it is often considered a step child of animation (Wright, 1979). The animation of real people is pixillation. The idea is to distort the move ment of real people by making them disappear suddenly, appear, slow down, speed up, or take extreme changes of position. Motion distortion of moving objects occurs when the ordinary motion of trains, clouds, or a clock is filmed one frame every minute so that the movement is captured and condensed. A good example of pixillation and motion distortion is the film by Kevin Dole and Marion Kramer, Once Upon A Time (1978), in which a college student swallows some pills slowing down his movements and speed ing up the movements of everyone and everything around him. As a result of the fact that adults are sensitive to their "timing" in comparison to others, this technique of animation can be valuable in expressing certain adult feelings and behaviors. A variation of pixillation is ultraviolet fluorescent animation. In this technique, an object is in white or is painted with fluorescent paints. An animator dressed in black moves the object while an ultraviolet light is on. The camera will record only the white or fluorescent paint moving through a black space. The armless white glove of the magician is a popular use of this type of animation. _________70 An unusual version of object animation is that done with pinheads. Pinheads actually compose the pictures on a board. To change the composition, the pins are moved, or they are raised and lowered in height. The pins and their shadows create a smooth, tonal composition like a steel etching. The Frenchman, Alexander Alexeieff, originated this technique in 19 33 in Une Nuit Sur Le Mont Chauve, translated as A Night On Bald Mountain, (Stephenson, 1973, p. 99). Like the music accompanying this film by Mussorgsky, this technique appears tragic, serious, and ghostly. Pinhead animation requires little equipment expense, but it does demand a great deal of time and patience on the part of the animation artist. Although object animation has been utilized with success in entertainment animation (i.e., Sinbad and the Eye of the Tiger in 1977), object animation is really prospering in commercials on television. * John Gati, the head of Action Productions of New York City, declares the following: I have a lot of faith and hope for the continued growth of object animation. The technique is perfect for two approaches. First is necessity — when you have to demonstrate something in a very short time with the actual product. Second is the creative point — when you make things happen that can't happen in reality. Whether the client wants sophistication, special emphasis, or a show biz approach, figure animation can do it. There's no limitation in product use. Stop motion animation is fascinating for both children and adults. Adults are interested in the technique and children dream. The technique can be both informative and magical (quoted by Meyer, 197 9, p. 27). Cutout animation. Another technique that does not require drawing skills is cutout animation. Animated characters can be cut out of magazine pictures, photographs, or colored paper. By having flexible lim^s which can be moved with a pin or with a dab of plas-tac, or by having several replacement parts for expressions of the mouth or eyes, a cutout character can come to life as its parts move a distance for each frame. Cutout animation is usually a very simple and relatively inexpensive procedure. In the case of the 1978 film, La Traverse D'L'Atlan- tique X La Rame (Crossing the Atlantic in a Small Boat) by the Frenchman, Jean Francois Laguionie, the animator took a news item about a couple attempting to cross the Atlantic in a small boat. Laguionie created a very detailed and highly complicated use of cutouts to present an adult story of two people confronting the natural elements and each other (Wright, 197 9). It was difficult in this film to see the cutout parts because Laguionie painted the cutout parts to match in detail the painting style of the backgrounds. Cutout animation appears to be a good type of animation for adult instruction. Material relating to an adult’s life can be cut out and animated so that it is used as a moti vational factor in the instruction. This technique has beer very successful in the commercial films of Monty Python. 72 Cel animation. Traditionally, cel animation is con sidered to be the most sophisticated kind of animation (Trojanski and Rockwood, 1973, p. 89). In this technique, the animator paints on transparent sheets of acetate or "cels", and he sequences the cels according to the movement and other factors. The background may be on one cel.; under the main character who may appear on several layers of cels. The torso of the animated character that does not move may be on one cel, whereas, his limbs that swing or walk appear on another set of cels. In this way, the animator does not have to redraw the torso for each cel, and he only draws the parts that move. The camera sees through the cels and composes the picture. Because all these cels must register properly to the torso or background, an ordinary cel is a standard 10" X 14" size, is five mils in thickness, and is punched with three holes fitted to animation boards and easels. The cels are painted on the reverse side and must be carefully numbered for filming. In total animation, every cel is done with extreme detail and every effort .is made to create naturalistic movement. A new drawing is made for every second frame of film, and for fast action, a drawing is made for every frame of film. The Disney studios have done total anima tion for many years. As in their film, Bambi, the outlin ing inks matched the interior paints. This is opposed to the way limited animation is done in which a simple, 73 new drawing is made every six or seven frames and the animated characters are outlined in black. As Johnson (197 7) commented, total animation is a dying art due to the large amount of expense, time, and staff required to successfully compose it (p. 72). The general procedure for making total cel animated film is briefly outlined in the following: 1. Animation script written. 2. Character model sheet composed. (The sheet contains the essential characteristics such as features, relative size, and proportions.) 3. Storyboard sketched. 4. Key movement drawings done by animator. 5. Assistant animator cleans up rough key drawings. 6. In-betweeners draw the cels indicating movement inbetween key poses. 7. Pencil test done. (Drawings done in pencil are filmed and checked for correct movement and synchroniza tion to soundtrack). 8. After pencil test is approved, the inkers outline the animation design on cels. 9. The opaguers paint on the reverse side of the cels. 10. The backgrounds are painted. 11. Exposure sheets are written and corrected. 74 12. Final set up of cels and background are checked by checkers. 13. Incidental music and sound effects added to sound track. 14. Final filming of cels. Area photographed is called a field. A standard field for animation cameras is twelve inch. 15. Animated film is edited for filming mistakes or for aesthetic decisions of director. 16. Mixing of animated film, soundtrack, and other material such as credits. Each one of these sixteen steps involves a great deal of time and talent. Depending on the size of the animation project, the personnel would include producer, director, animators, assistant animators, scriptwriter, in-betweenerS, inkers, opaquers, background animators, checkers, voices, sound effects, soundman, cameraman, editor, mixer, and more. At the Disney studios, each character or each sequence of events -was. often assigned to different animators. Also, specialists were assigned to determine the color used to paint the cels. Despite the time and effort required, nothing can quite compare to the visual and naturalistic impact of total cel animation. The Disney studios are investing some fifteen million dollars and three to four years to do a new film. The Black Cauldron, using total cel _________________________________________________________ 13 animation. When depiction of fluid and realistic motion is essential in an instructional filmr the author believes that total cel animation is worth its time, cost, and staffing. Limited cel animation was developed as the result of television requirements and/or economic competition within the industry. Because of the "minimum-footage-drawn-per- -day" requirements, the animation studios became factories producing drawings to accompany a soundtrack. Whenever commercial considerations dominate rather than design con siderations, limited cel animation is the type of animation to choose. Reduced cel animation evolved in the Zagreb studio in Yugoslavia in response to a limited availability of trans parent acetate cels. As a result of this shortage, reduced cel animation features stylized movement, bold compositions, emphasis on artistic expression and media quality, and modern graphic designs (Holloway, 1972, p. 12). While limited cel animation is a commercial response to economize on cels, reduced animation became an artistic response to limit the number of cels and personalize the style of the individual animation artist. In America, John and Faith Hubley represent animators working with reduced cel animation to achieve a sketchy, painterly style of animation design. The Hubleys worked at CJPA, and their animation deals with current themes in an unusual manner. Their film, The Hole, is actually ________ 76 a warning of potential atomic destruction; yet, it is about two construction workers digging a hole. One white man and one black man converse casually on all sorts of topics. They start to discuss the atomic bomb, and, for a moment, they imagine an atomic explosion. The audience identifies with this depiction of reduced cel animation because the painterly, rough, and textured design reflects the slang dialogue and stylized movements of the two construction workers. The audience is enter tained by their street talk and antics in digging a hole when the point is felt of imagining a bomb exploding and destroying these characters. In the author's point of view. The Hole represents an excellent example of reduced cel animation used for adults. More of the work of the Hubleys is discussed later in this chapter under the design approaches of different animators. Automated animation. A catch-all term for animated images produced by machines rather than artist generated images is called automated animation. Included in this category, xerography and other photocopying pro cesses have reproduced the inking step in cel animation and duplicated textures onto cels. Manipulation of images in video has produced several special effects suchT as metamorphosis, distortions, staggering, debeaming (image smearing) and chroma-keying (matting of one picture into another) . Other technical devices in video,Cs’ uch'^ats 22 polarized light systems and animascope which transforms live action footage into a stylized cartoon (e.g., Levi- Strauss commercials, 1978), have, added, to the new video world of animation. The computer is adding yet another dimension to animation. As mentioned previously, computers have been used to systematize and film cels or computer-aided ani mation, but now computers are being programmed to produce the images or computer-generated animation. Hickey (19 75) films computer paper print-outs to produce computer animated films, while Noll (19 68) programs a computer to plot an animated image on a cathode ray tube which is then photographed frame by frame by a camera. The drawing capabilities of computers helps with tranditional anima tion by generating inbetween drawings, by depicting a metamorphosis of several images, and by producing a three-dimensional simulation of objects manipulated in space (Johnson, 1977, p. 92). An example of the ability of a computer to project a three-dimensional image moving in space is A. M. Noll's 4-Dimensional Hypercube (1968). The range of computer generated films runs from hard scientific instruction (e.g., films from Bell Telephone Laboratories, General Electric, Western Electric Company, Boeing Aircraft Company, Lawrence Radiation Laboratories, Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, and IBM) to visual IB. experiments of artists such as John Whitney and Stan Vanderbeek. Computer animated films are presently the most expen sive, they require costly and highly specialized equipment, and they must be produced by experienced computer artists or technicians* For three important reasons, computers are worth the extra cost and staffing that they demand. The first reason is that computers can record, store, and re trieve a large amount of information at an amazing speed. Because of this ability, computers can be used for inter active animated instruction in computer-aided instruction (Geoffrion and Bergeron, 1977). Secondly, computer-generated animation can create images which neither the naked eye can easily see or the human hand can easily capture in a drawing. Computer gra phics can construct images expanding and contracting (e.g., in the 1971 film, Matrix, by John Whitney). Or, it can continually change the position of parts within an object (e.g., Whitney’s 1967 film, Permutations). Another effect is the computer's ability to take a two-dimensional image of letters as in a title and to make it appear three dimen sional, twisting, and turning (e.g., title and credits for the 1979 movie, Superman). In the case of the 1968 film, Fluid Water Flow Dynamics, computer animation showed the flow of water oh a xy graph when an artificial channel of water had its gate opened forcing the water to hit a solid 79 dam. Not only did the computer present three-dimensionally the accurate movement in extreme perspective, but also, it gave a beautiful graphic image beyond the manual achieve ments of a traditional animator (Halas and Manvell, 197 0, p. 65). The third reason is the most important for this study in that computer-animated films are able to improve the instruction. Huggins and Entwisle (1969) of John Hopkins University feel that adults and children who are addicted to TV and not hooked on reading need an iconic media which uses images for instruction instead of a symbolic one as print represents. The TV generation seems to have a different kind of visual literacy based on the primarily iconic per ception of TV images. Computer animation can play a major role in the development of iconic modes of communication. Huggins and Entwisle (19 69) suggest computer pantomimes for instruction in math and science without .the use of words or equations. In medicine, computer-animated films have become an enormous help with simulating the natural functions of the body. A study supported by the Aerospace Corporation through the Cardiovascular Research Laboratory of Loma Linda University generated a computerized image of the external surface of the heart and plotted its movements (Gott, Kubert, Bowyer, & Nevatt, 1969). This film efficiently integrates and disseminates heart function data, and it _____ SjQ_ supplements the work of heart researchers and medical educators. Applicable to all aspects of scientific study, computer-animated films have been successfully made for the high school level to instruct principles of physics which are difficult to experience directly. The cost of computer animation is becoming more reasonable and it can be done from conception to production of final film by one person (Huggins and Entwisle, 1969, p. 625). On the commercial level, coijiputer-animatfon: in fiTms%;is'in great demand in the present "Star Wars" period. To review the material on the different types of animation, Table 2 ) (located in the model in Chapter V) has been prepared by the author. The purpose of this table is to compare time, equipment, applicable content, and costs for each major type of animation discussed. Although the information in the table may appear over simplified, it is meant as an initial step in the model for selecting an appropriate type of animation. The table does not dictate hard and fast rules, but it is only a suggestion of time and cost limitations to help animation and instructional designers apply the different types of animation. Instructional Advantages of Using Animation Animation represents a range of techniques, time and cost requirements, and applicable content. The next task is to determine why and when animation is appropriate 81 for instruction. Looking for factors to discriminate the use of animation, this study examines its unique capa bilities, its relationship to learning theory, and its use to match the learning characteristics and instruc tional needs of adults. Unique capabilities. Animated film has two unique capabilities useful for instruction. One is its ability to portray any type of apparent motion. The animator is free to select, create, abstract, or combine any move ment needed to meet an instructional objective. The ani mator also has complete control over the motion. In manipulating the motion to satisfy the needs of instruc tion, the animator enhances the educational process by providing the necessary moving ingredients and by increas ing attention and motivation to attend to the instructional task. Rudolf Arnheimf(IRjibjS states that attention to motion is a basic response in animals (p. 360). Movement implies a change of position in the environment being either beneficial or detrimental. To survive, animals must be particularly sensitive to the detection of motion. An illustration of this is a dog sitting in the sun. The dog is apathetic to his environment until a squirrel, looking for nuts, shakes a bush. The dog!s attention goes directly to the movement in the bush. Learning that some thing is alive there, the dog charges the bush for 82 adventure or food. The squirrel sees the oncoming motion and heads for the safety of the trees. Movement indicat ing a change of position is fundamental in the educative process. The dog learns of the squirrel's existence and the squirrel learns of the dog's attack. The control of motion is also vital to man's exist ence. All physical activity such as walking and eating are continually conscious efforts to hold, balance, and maneuver. Coordinating this movement in time determines man's mental orientation to the environment and his skill to survive. Returning to the dog-squirrel illustration, the squirrel had to control his balance, his muscle action, and his speed in order to escape from the dog's attack. This desire to acknowledge and to control motion gives attention and visual appeal to an animated film. Instructional animated film presents an environment with movement for the viewer to follow and to control vicarious ly. Both the animator and the viewer share in the structuring of the movement, and this can be instructive and entertaining. In live action film, the viewers become somewhat passive because they can predict the natural movement of events, whereas, in an animated film, the movement controlled by the animator is not predict able, and, as a result of this, the film requires more attention to the apparent movement. It is important __________________________________________________________83 that animated film is many times motivating and produces a desire to continue the ability to acknowledge and to control motion. As a result of this motivating factor, animated film has great potential as an educational tool for adult instruction. The instructional differences between learning from static pictures and an animated film includes variations in composition, viewer's involvement, and the amount of time to learn. In a static image, the composition remains constant, but the implied tensions between elements of the image provide potential energy. Shapes and colors attract, repel, and direct the viewer's eyes. Because no absolute boundaries exist for the viewer within the pictorial space, the viewer is free to wander and per ceive whenever, wherever, whatever, and however he wishes. The viewer activates his interest upon the existence of the static picture. Or, as Arnheim(19.71b) describes it, a static picture such as a drawing, photograph, or slide projection is "acting through being" (p. 36 5). In an animated film, the moving picture is "being through acting" (Arnheim,; ; 19J71 ,B> p. 365). An animated image exists as a flow of single images moving in time (twenty-four images per second). Each single image must fit into the flow of animated images and must be informed by the preceding and following images. The animated film demands the viewer to participate and to unify the ____________ 84 changing compositions of the static images as they are projected twenty-four frames per second. To comprehend the total picture, involvement in the film is necessary. The viewer must acknowledge and control the movement that the animator has presented to him. The viewer must order his visual memory of each frame as it is traced on his retina. This order establishes a sense of direction for his vision (i.e., the viewer follows animated man walking from right to left). This order also creates a sense of time. Time defines what is presently happening and what has happened in the past. The viewer partici pates, experiences each frame within a given time, and unifies the elements into a concept, A painting or photo graph can have a portrait of woman so realistic that the viewer would contemplate touching the silkiness of her hair, but in an animated film, the realism can go a step further by continuing the thought and action. After the viewer sees the portrait, the film image of the woman could wink, smile, toss her hair, walk away, vanish, or become a cat. Whenever instruction needs to portray motion, to have a dynamic interpretation of information, to increase motivation, or to maintain attention, animated film is advantageous. The second unique capability of animated film is its ability to portray events difficult to see with the naked eye or to portray events totally imagined and nonexistent 85 in reality. In directly filming a live-action character, too many visual stimuli are often presented confusing the goal of the instruction. (The author investigated this question in 19 72 by filming the movements of a live model for an instructional film on anatomy). In a drawn animated version, the visual information can be simplified and accented by outlining or coloring. Although areas are abstracted or cued, the animated character appears to be "real" if the movement portrayed appears natural. The argument remains that the animated character may present a situation unlike or not applicable to real life, but it may be advantageous to use animated film to single out the information to be learned before it must be learned in a real event with its barrage of extraneous stimuli. The ability of an animated film to generate instruc tional images difficult to see normally has been previously discussed in the description of teaching heart function by way of computer animation. In teaching physics, instruc tors have found animated film a valuable tool to help students visualize physical principles inaccessible to direct experience (Hickey, 1975, p. 414). The author (197 3) investigated the potential for animated film to instruct artists on the functioning anatomy of human figures by showing a moving arm change from skeletal to muscular to skin. (Although, in reality, the skeletal and muscular structures exist and function beneath the 86 skin, the artist is unable to see them functioning together in movement.) For adult instruction, an animated film is also useful in presenting external functions such as an individual's role in society plus his internal thoughts about himself and others. Animated film in this way can aid the adult in identifying any problems with his ego preventing learning and in identifying the meaningful ness of learning an instructional task for external and internal gains. The 197 8 film by John Canemaker, Confessions of a Star Dreamer, is an excellent example of how animated film can depict the external and internal responses of an adult in society. In this film, it is an insight into the personal life and career of an actress. The potential for an animated film to embellish on reality is advantageous to specific instructional tasks. The illusion of reality in an animated film is fantasy. The ability of an animated film to give life to inanimate objects appears magical. Because anything might happen to the object animated on film, the viewer increases his interest and the viewer's impressions of the activity are strengthened. If an instructional objective needs a little fantasy and magic to reach its goals, then animated film can be advantageous to adult instruction. Unfortunately, animation is often inappropriately applied to instruction. Animation should be utilized in instruction for its unique capabilities and not as a means 87 to duplicate what can be successfully accomplished with live action film. Poitre Kamler, a French animator, describes it best in the following: Why take pains to animate a flower if the wind does it without any trouble at all? Perhaps in order to allow the flower to act in a way it would not otherwise do; become a bird, recite a poem of Appo- linaire, to simply disappear. Or resemble no other flower in existence, while still remaining a flower animated by the wind (Kamler quoted by Halas and Manvell, 1970, p. 42). The purpose of this chapter is to help animators and educators successfully apply animation to an instructional problem. The previous discussion has described the various types of animation and its special capabilities. Next, this study looks at how animated film relates to learning theory. Animated film and learning theory. Kathryn Smoot Caldwell did an excellent 19 73 doctoral study on the utilization of animation in instructional films and video tapes. Although directed to instruction for children, it is important for this study to review briefly the prin ciples Caldwell has revealed applicable to adult instruc tion. 1. Within stimulus-response learning theory, the design of animated visual stimuli can predict certain learning responses in the viewer. Because the animator controls the visual stimuli, he can provide stimuli displaying novelty, visual cues, and perceptual 88 differentiation. All of these stimuli help to produce the responses needed .for learning. Novelty attracts and sustains attention. By changing the visual stimuli*, animation satisfies the basic need for novelty and rewards the viewer for watching by reducing the drive for novel stimuli. Unfortunately, novelty can be employed in animated film to a point that it causes frustration and habituation. The instructional task should determine the amount of novel stimuli needed for adequate learning responses. Caldwell found with a high degree of certainty that a viewer will attend to a drawn animated visual more readily than to live-action films, television, or still pictures presenting the same infor mation. Also, this attention to animated films will be \ held more readily and longer than for live presentations, live-action films or television, or still pictures (p. 232) . For responding to instructional stimuli, animated film is helpful in discriminating and cueing stimuli. Caldwell concluded that greater learning will result by using relevant animated superimposed cues such as pop-on arrows, appearing outlines and underlines (p. 255). Also, used in relation to the instructional task, humor expressed in an animated cue can facilitate learning (p. 2 6 3). Sometimes an animated sequence can cue a learning response before the viewer is familiar with its reference : __________________________________________________________________ to the real world. Caldwell gives the example of learning blood flow (p. 267). Showing the flow and channels used for blood, animated arrows will increase learning more so than from seeing actual blood cells in blood vessels. Animated film facilitates learning stimuli that is embarrassing, controversial, or distracting (p. 352). Viewing instruction in a film or on television provides a less-threatening situation for learning experiences that may cause anxiety. The symbolization in animated film eliminates the fear of direct confrontation with an alarming content. 2. Under cognitive theory of learning, animation is effective in discrimination, rule learning, and problem solving. Emphasizing the defining attributes of concrete concepts, drawn animated sequences can facilitate concept learning more so than verbal explanations or live-action film (p. 29 6). Also, animated instruction can bridge the gap between the real world and the conceptual one. Because the animator is free to organize and to simplify visuals, he can ease learning by discriminating objects into classes, and by linking them into chains of thought. Animation is advantageous in concept learning not only for its ability to discriminate and organize objects, but also for its ability to symbolize concepts in "blue printing" and "supplanting" methods. In blueprinting, a symbol is given to recall an aspect of the original ___________________ 90 stimulus (p. 132). Caldwell cites the example of Robinson Crusoe discovering a footprint in the sand and seeing another person on his island. Supplanting differs from blueprinting in that it represents an image helping an individual internalize a concept. The cartoon character of Pluto does not specifically resemble any breed of dog, but his generalized features and exaggerated movements give the impression of the concept of "dog" (p. 133) . As far as rule learning is concerned, animation can provide a direct experience symbolizing abstract concepts in the rule. The animated experience will facilitate rule learning more so than a verbal explanation. Also, the animator can present a humorous or negative example to strengthen the learning of abstract concepts in a rule. Problem-solving learning is a complex, higher level activity requiring divergent thinking. Animated film can facilitate this learning activity more so than a verbal presentation of the problem by displaying the problem and an illustration of relevant rules and concepts. In addi tion to the presentation of the problem, animation can be advantageous by cueing concepts that are important to the solution. After the problem has been solved, animated film can also be helpful in showing why alternative solu tions were illogical and incorrect. 3. From motivation and personality theory, Caldwell 91 examined how animation can facilitate attention sets, motivation, and developmental readiness. How a learner selects stimuli internally is called attention set (Gagne, 1970, p. 278). Animation is helpful in two types of cognitive structuring, field articulation and leveling- sharpening. In field articulation, the learner may have diffi culty discriminating the figure from the ground. The con trol of the animated visuals allows the figure to be presented without a background and the background to reappear later if necessary. Also, some learners are not flexible in learning incompleted figures. By removing the background and showing figures continuously changing, animation can practice and modify this condition. Learners who perceive differently new and old infor mation have a cognitive style called leveling-sharpening. Either the learner sees no difference between new and old stimuli and tends to "level" input, or the learner sees extreme differences between new and old stimuli and "sharpens" input to a point it may distract from learning. Animated film can exaggerate the differences between new and old stimuli so that "levelers" can discriminate them. For "sharpeners," animation can extract and display similarities between new and old input so that these viewers can see familiarities and learn. Caldwell divided motivation to learn into social and 92 internal motivation. Social motivation represents external stimuli (from parents # teachers, peer groups, or friends) to learn. By providing an ideal model who is rewarded for his learning from external stimuli, an animated film will result in greater interest for the viewer to perform the activity (p. 208). To arouse the learner to learn from internal stimuli, animation can provide a novel presentation or an expect ancy situation promising a long term reward for learning. Animation can also aid in factors overstimulating or preventing an arousal to learn. Because the amount of anxiety in an experience can aid or inhibit learning, animated sequences can avoid direct confrontations (such as a question and answer session) and reduce anxiety harmful to a learning situation. Also, animation can switch from displays of anxiety-reducing stimuli to displays of anxiety-producing stimuli to provide motiva tion for both types of learners. The third area examined in motivation and personality theory was developmental readiness. Because learners come to an instructional situation with different develop mental levels of maturity, perception, and cognitive style, animation can efficiently present the successive conditions for learning the content for various levels of individual readiness. As previously stated, animation is advantageous in discrimination, abstraction, rule learning, 93 and problem solving. It is also helpful in that it can be controlled and designed to meet the needs of a particu lar group of learners. The material taken from the Caldwell study explaining the instructional advantages of utilizing animation is summarized in the following statements: 1. Animation can provide novel stimuli. 2. Animation can cue learning stimuli. 3. Viewers attend longer to animated instruction. 4. Animated instruction can bridge the gap between the real world and the conceptual one. 5. Animated sequences are helpful in learning embarrassing, controversial, or distracting stimuli. 6. Animation is useful for visual discrimination of objects into classes. 7. Animated visuals can be organized and linked into chains of thought. 8. Animation is useful in blueprinting and supplant ing concepts. 9. Animation can provide a direct experience symbolizing abstract concepts in rule learning, 10. In problem-solving, animation can illustrate the problem, display relevant rules and concepts, and show alternative solutions. 11. Animated visuals are controlled and can be designed to meet the particular needs of learners. 94 12. Animation is motivating in that is is unpre dictable, it can satisfy both external and internal stimuli to learn, and it can display both anxiety- reducing and anxiety-producing experiences. This study will return to Caldwell's guidelines in regard to designing animated visuals. Next, this chapter continues to examine the instructional advantages for using animated film by relating animated film to the learning characteristics and instructional design needs of adults. Animated film matching the learning characteristics and instructional design needs of adults. In Chapter II, the learning characteristics and instructional design needs of adults were described and discussed. Table ij was written to list the instructional design needs of adults. Proceeding one step further, Table (3 ' interprets how animated film can aid in the learning process for the specific learning characteristic and instructional design needs of adults. Combining the learning character istics and instructional needs of adults identified by Knox (197 4) with the principles of animation recognized t by Caldwell (1973-), the author composed Table ; _ 3for use in the model. Table ( 3 (located in Chapter V) is in- tended to help the instructional * designer apply animation for specific instructional objectives and justify its cost and time requirements. 95 i Design Approaches of Different Animators Every animator has an individual way of designing his animated films. This study does not intend to dictate any approaches, but it will review the design approaches of several selected animators and animation studios to offer alternatives for the model. Jules Engel, an experimental animator and instructor at California Institute of the Arts, is concerned with timing. His point of view is that of a painter. Although his background is with Disney and UPA, Engel approaches the design of animated film with an open-ended idea. He starts with an idea (e.g., a wet-paint sign), and he discovers its sense in time. Drawing the total film first, Engel then interprets it into colored cels and adds a coexisting musical track (Filmex Animation Conference and Workshop, 19 78). Another experimental animator, Dennis Pies, who is an instructor at the College of Arts and Crafts in Oakland and at the San Francisco Art Institute, deals with pure experiments with movement. Pies believes that animated film represents a signature of an animator's sense of his own body language. Often, Pies will attend movement classes to exercise himself, or he will make a live-action film of his movements. According to Pies, most animators are too tight at the drawing board resulting in tight movements in their drawings. Also, Pies, considering the 96 screen as the grounding point for animators, attempts to design motion through and off the frame area (Filmex Animation Conference and Workshop, 1978). Sara Petty is another experimental animator who made the award-winning film, The Furies. Petty states that animation in this country is dependent upon a narrative and drama, while, in her films, the elements of the pictures are the characters and the drama is the movement, of these elements. Using pastels on newsprint, Petty initiates her ideas from schools of art such as the Futurists (Filmex Animation Conference and Workshop, 1978). John and Faith Hubley, who did reduced cel animation, started with an idea and a soundtrack. The Hole began with overhearing construction workers conversing next to their offices. In their film, A Windy Day, they taped their two young daughters conversing in their imaginary, childlike talk. From the soundtrack, animation artists would sketch from live models, then the film would be storyboarded to match the soundtrack (Filmex Animation Conference and Workshop, 1978). The Jay Ward Studios also begin their design of their animation with a soundtrack. Their TV cartoon series such as Bullwinkle and George, George of the Jungle were examples of limited animation. The character voices would record a script without a storyboard. Their aim was to portray stupidity combined with dignity. Oftentimes, * 97 the characters would lead away from the script, but they were allowed to do so. The Jay Ward cartoons differ from other series in that they initiated their scripts with current jokes and jokes about the viewer’s culture. After the soundtrack was completed, the limited animated charac ters were drawn to match the direction of the script(Filmex Animation Conference and Workshop, 1978). At the Disney Studios, the storyboard and pencil test were developed. Animators prepared a visual script of rough sketches. A large amount of emphasis was,placed on having a well-though out and complete storyboard. After the storyboard was accepted, the animation process would begin with character model sheets, exposure sheets, and pencil tests. A pencil test is a film of the cleaned-up pencil drawings. If the pencil test was approved, then the process would continue with inking, painting, checking, and final filming. Another procedure used by the Disney Studios was the Leica reel which combined all stages of the development of an animated film onto one reel of film. This allowed the studio to check its progess (Canemaker, 1977) . Chuck Jones, while at Warner Brothers Studios, followed a strict adherence to the storyboard technique, He recounted that, because so many animated shorts wer being made at the same time in the fifties and early sixties, each director would present his storyboard in a conference. ________98 No one was allowed to criticize, but suggestions were accepted. By using the storyboard conference, many directors and animators could give their input on an animation idea. After the storyboard was finalized, the director would present it again for criticism. Jones also remembers that many of the cartoon characters were based on who happened to walk into the office at the time they were being designed (Filmex Animation Conference and Workshop, 197 8). Caldwell (197 3) identified a gap between educators and animators in the designing of instructional animated films (p. 417). Although producers of animated film may have acquired certain practical knowledge of what works in films, they do not exchange information with research ers in media and education. Generally, the procedure for designing an instructional animated film begins with a sponsor who decides animation can accomplish the idea for a film. The sponsor contacts a producer with an animated film company to make the film. The producer attempts to satisfy the sponsor and school boards or curriculum specialists. Once the go-ahead is given, the producer gives the animator the general concept, the length, and the amount of animation to be used. It is left to the exlprience and intuition of the animator to determine the animated visual. The instructional animated film is usually designed on intuition and creativity, and its ______________________________________________________ 2_ a design is not based on the needs of the viewers (Caldwell, 1973, p. 14). An exception to this rule is the work being done at the Children*s television Workshop (Caldwell, 1973, p. 419). In their design approach, producers work with researchers in "formative research." They observe in the field what seems to work with children to hold their attention, to teach learning tasks, and to accomplish goals. Although independent animators and commercial animation companies are contracted to do the animation, the producers and researchers work closely with the animators. The animators working in the fields of video and computer animation have not yet reached the potential of their design approach. Because no equipment suited to this technique is readily available and, therefore, it must be built, automated animation is still tinkering with its hardware (Champlin, 1979). The special effects rendered by the mechanical concoctions are the reward for the animator's creativity to construct, program, and combine. Usually, the animator is given an idea from the capability of the equipment or by a sponsor to portray certain effects for a storyline. As a result of this, the animator must follow a very technical and controlled script. For every animated film, different personalities and 100 problems influence the design approach to animation. The design approaches reviewed in this study seem to fit into the following categories: 1. Designing an animated film based on the study of cetain artistic elements (i.e., time, movement, schools of art) . 2. Initiating the design of an animated film from a prerecorded soundtrack. 3. Designing the animation with a storyboard. 4. Directing the dseign of the animation from the output of animation hardware. 5. Engaging in formative research discriminates the design of the animated film. 6. Dictating by sponsor for certain special effects or by presentation tasks determines the design of the animation. No matter what kind of design approach is used, an animated film results from some basic procedures. The next section examines initiating an idea for animation, developing a flow chart for the animation process, and a guideline to designing instructional films. Basic Procedures for Designing Instructional Animated Film An animated film begins with specifically defining ideas. Hayward(197 6) claims supplying an idea suitable for film scripts is the biggest problem in animation, and he suggests the following methods (henceforth referred to ____________________________________ un_ as Hayward methods): 1. Brainstorming. A basic subject is stated (i.e., the teaching of computers to ten-year olds), and a group of people develop a suitable idea with no criti cism allowed. 2. Replacement. A well-established storyline is taken, but the characters are updated in a different time or place. Also, a well-established character (i.e., Sherlock Holmes) is taken and placed in a new storyline. 3. Extension. An original story is reworked and extended beyond its normal usage to create a new story. In Walt Disney's. Snow White, the original story remains, but the characters and music are developed, 4. Context. Taking an element of a story out of context and placing it in another one produces a potential idea for animation. King Kong in New York City is an example of this idea. Transfer. A cowboy placed in a science fiction plot is an example of taking one cliche character and transferring him to another cliche setting. Reversal. An idea can be formed by reversing establishing roles. The anti-hero or duality of person ality as in Dr. Jekyl and Mr. Hyde are examples of this method. 7. Renovation. An old storyline is taken and improved. 102 8. Abstraction. Part of a story is isolated and a story is developed around it. The ugly sisters in Cinderella could be abstracted and a story written without including Cinderella. Analogy. The use of simpler or more familiar terms to describe a complex idea. This method is par ticularly important for teaching films. 10. Critical Analysis. By examining an existing idea, script, or film, an idea can be formulated from identifying either the deficiencies or by suiting it to new objectives, 11. Isolation. If an idea for a film has gaps, then the separate points of the idea should be developed individually. Other points of the idea can be incorpo rated into the development of each. When a point goes off the subject, this shows its weakness and another point should be developed until the gaps are filled. 12. Juxtaposition. Because a good idea is con sidered the starting point, it often resists development. By placing it in the middle and supplying an idea to preceed and follow, the good idea may fit into a line of thought for development. - 1 - 3 • Ideal. An idea can be formed from modifying a plan for an ideal film with all the available time, money, and equipment. 14. Dichotomy. By questioning a point made, an ______ 103 idea can be defined from the yes and no answers. 15. Techniques. Another animation technique may be more applicable to the development of an idea. 16. Association. An idea for a film may evolve from taking a subject such as boats and listing horizontal (i.e., sailboat, motorboat) and vertical (i.e., rope, sailor) associations. Classes. An idea can be written from classi fying elements of an idea into concepts (i.e., horse: animal, cowboys, transportation). 18. Situations. Ideas can grow from a listing of usual, unusual, and interesting situations. The next step in the procedure for animated film after the idea is defined is to sequence the idea. Sequencing the idea is representative of a film script, a rough storyboard, a soundtrack, or a computer program. Although a pre-established plan usually does not exist in spontaneous-creation animation, the animator does have some idea how he intends to explore with the plastic medium. From the definition of the idea and the animation plan, the visual elements of the film are next defined. Handmade films would be marked, scraped, or painted. In cell animation, this involves character model sheets and backgrounds. For cut-out animation and puppet animation, this step indicates creating the cut-outs and puppets. In _________________________________________________________________________ 1Q1 automated animation, computer-generated or video images would be run and revised. Spontaneous-creation animation involves in this step experimenting with the medium to produce an image. After the animated visuals are determined, the move ment of these visuals must be recognized. Exposure sheets and work sheets plan the movement on paper. The visual movement is synchronized to a soundtrack or other tracks. Handmade films need this step for synchronizing a soundtrack to the marked film, and then it goes directly to projection after this step. The next step is the actual filming or recording of the animation. This involves not only setting up special equipment and establishing camera movements, but also it involves making test runs to check if the animation desired is accomplished. The final step includes editing out filming mistakes, altering the timing of animated sequences, and mixing other tracks. At this time, the animation is reviewed and sequences are identified for revision, elimination, or additions. No intention is made for this study to attempt to formalize animation. The technique of animation is a very creative activity and the animator must have freedom to explore, discover, and accidentally find new ideas. The flow chart developed by the author is a suggestion ______ 105 FIGURE 1 BASIC PROCEDURE FOR ANIMATED FILM Refer to Hayward methods START No idea tfhat Known Define animation idea into film script, storyboard, computer program or soundtrack. Known Refer to different types of animation . . Prepare visuals.' Develop character sheets, create cut-outs, and generate computer/video images.______ ow will the images mov Known No idea* 1 Study and time real movement Compose exposure and worksheets for filming an synchronizing sound and special effects. Known Mo idea1 """^ Shoot or record test footage w ■ — Shooting of film, recording rf videotape, mixing of extra tracks, and reviewing animation. No idea Carefully review film or videotaoe. Known » •Edit film. ENDi H iCf6 for the model. The staff needed for an animated film directly influences the procedure and ranges from one independent animator to a large group as in total cell animation. In total cell animation, a producer' secures the financing to make the film and oversees the total operation. The director guides the animators and the rest of the crew in deciding critical questions about the project. Depending upon the size of the film, many animators work together on separate sections, different characters, the back grounds, or different sequences of movement. The major animators design the characters and compose rough sketches for the storyboard. In total cel animation, the idea is to depersonalize individual styles, so assistant animators clean up the sketches of the major animators to make them compatible to the established film style. The inbetween- ers draw the different phases of action that occur between key poses sketched by the major animators. After the drawings are completed and tested for their continuity, the inkers either photocopy the drawings or outline them with ink on acetate cels. The opaquers paint on the reverse side of the acetate cels coloring inside the ink outline. Once the cels are completed, the checkers review each cel and check its sequencing. The cels are given to the animation cameraman with exposure sheets. The animation cameraman even if he is fortunate to be aided 10 7 by computers is an unusual artist. I wish more animators knew what it was like to work the camera. If they make a mistake, they can erase it. If I make a mistake, it has to be totally refilmed. The camera, like everything else in animation, hasn't been utilized to its utmost. You just can't give a guy a champagne job on a beer budget anymore (George Davis, head of Eighth Frame in New York City quoted by Meyers, 1979, p. 32). After the animation is filmed and developed, the editor must eliminate mistakes and sharpen the timing. Then, the edited version is given to a mixer who combines it with the other tracks. Animating can be a very com plicated process involving many people or it can be one animator like Caroline Leaf of the Canadian Film Board who paints with her fingers on glass under a camera. In this section of Chapter III, this study has examined initiating ideas for animated film, the basic animation procedure, and staffing. The next material concerns particularly the designing of instructional animated films. Truman (197 7) formulated in his doctoral thesis guidelines for designing and developing instruc- Briggs, he outlined the following steps for designing instructional motion pictures (p. 125). 1. Assess needs, specify target audience, and determine the conditions under which the film is to be used. 2. Write instructional objectives for the film and write tests for the objectives. tional motion pictures. Using the work 10 8 3. Analyze objectives to determine supporting skills and/or information. 4. Classify each terminal objective and subordinate competency by type of learning. 5. Develop content outline and have it checked for accuracy. 6. Select appropriate design for instructional motion picture in regard to teaching steps, audio and visual aspects, verbal information, and motor skills. 7. Select media for final version. 8. Choose a treatment strategy. Taking Truman's guidelines, this study interprets and integrates them into the procedure for designing animated film. As a result of this task, the author identified the following decision points in the designing procedure for instructional animated films for adults (a more detailed version appears in the model): Question 1. Why select animated film? The decision to choose animated film as a means of presenting instruction is based on recognizing three criteria: (1) to fulfill the characteristics or needs of adults in the target audience (identified in Chapter II), (2) to supply the visual design needs of instruction (described in Chapter IV), and (3) to apply the unique capabilities of animated film and to explore the potential of an animation technique to present instructional content 109 (listed earlier in Chapter III). Question 2. What is the idea for the animated film? Previously in this chapter it was discussed how to ini- tiate an idea for animated film. By applying the Hayward methods to the goals of the instruction, the idea for an instructional film can be identified. Question 3. How will the animated film fulfill the instructional objectives? The model contains supple mentary material on writing terminal and enabling objec tives, In addition to this, the domain and types of learning should be classified, the prerequisite abilities listed, and the assistance of animation to the instruction recognized. Question 4. What are the resources and constraints for the animated film? Time is an important factor. Schedules indicating the amount of time for designing, producing, revising, and actually viewing must be defined. Another constraint involves costs. The budget for the design and production of the film should be prepared plus the cost of marketing the film and the selling price of the film. The budget determines the type of animation selected, the staffing, the equipment, and the design materials. The costs of marketing and the selling price will influence the dissemination of the film to adult learners. Staffing represents both a resource and a constraint. 110 Attracting talented staff can provide excellent resources for design, but also they can be costly and may need to be limited. As with staffing, equipment must also be recog nized for its resources and constraints. The content for the instruction represents yet another description of sources and restrictions for the animated film. Question 5. How is the content for the animated film sequenced? Initially, the content covered in the animated film must be outlined and this outline must be checked for its accuracy. Then, a storyboard, script, or soundtrack can be composed. Question 6. What is the appropriate design of the animated visuals for the objectives of the instruction? Although the majority of the content material involved in this decision point is discussed in Chapter IV, it also includes the type of animation selected that was described in an earlier section of Chapter III. Question 7. How do the animated images appear and move? After studying and timing real movements, exposure sheets can be written. Test footage can be filmed and reviewed. Editing and mixing the animated film, an initial version is prepared. Question 8. Does the animation design need to be changed? Reviewing the initial version of the film with outside authorities and testing it on selected learners, a formative evaluation can be performed. Sequences 111 needing to be changed are revised and edited in. The fianl version of the film is composed. Question 9. How to use the animated instructional film? By designing a guide to accompany the film, an adequate introduction to viewing the film can be given to the adult learner or suggested to the instructor. Also, guidelines for the integration of the film into other instructional strategies and alternate uses for the film will encourage the instructor to utilize the film even more. Providing testing materials based on the instruc tional objectives, the effectiveness of the film and the performance of the adult learner can be evaluated. Question-10. How to market the instructional animated film? A summative evaluation can provide data indicating the success of the film in instructing adults. As a result of defining successful areas, markets can be identified for the film. Depending upon the target audience, the film should be advertised through appro priate adult communication lines (e.g., educational or training magazines, film catalogues, and sales representa tives.*) Also, the film design should include attractive and motivational devices to sell the film (e.g., colorful visuals, clever title, or recommendation by an authority). Another marketing method is packaging the film (e.g., adding material to accompany the film such as a teacher*s guide, programmed workbook, practice materials, and 112 evaluation methods). Future of Animated Instructional Films This chapter concludes with four reasons why animated instructional film has a large potential for growth and a bright future. First of all, the ideas that are possible to por tray in an animated film are endless. The only limits to the application of an animated idea to instruction are the imagination of the designers, the time and cost requirements, and the needs of specific adult learners. The second reason is the time and cost requirements are becoming more and more reasonable with the technical advances in animation equipment. An example is the video animation system developed by the Lyon-Lamb Company (West Los Angeles). Presently in use by the major animation studios to test animation footage before filming, this system cuts production time by displaying the test footage immediately after it is recorded. Not only does this system eliminate the time needed to develop the test footage, but also it allows the animator to explore animation ideas without committing to a major amount of development time and cost. The videotape can be used again and the animator can directly play with special effects. Larry Cuba, a computer animator, believes that 113 computer animation will be developed to become a public recreational-instructional activity for home use (Filmex Animation Conference and Workshop, 19 7 8). Like the avail able video game cassettes, Cuba predicts cassettes of animated instruction will be for home use and will be programmed by the response of the viewer. Back to the present, the third reason instructional animated film will increase in development is that more animators are being trained and more educators are becoming conscious of the influence of film. Most univer sities have courses on film, instructional film, and, sometimes, even on animation. Studios like Hanna-Barbera and Disney have apprentice programs for animators. Also, the demand for more "Star Wars" type animation has influenced many people to enter the now lucrative field of animation and special effects. The fourth and final reason for promoting instruc tional animated film production is the increased demand from the public. The adults in the United States of America are confronted with an ever-increasing complex life. They must be informed effectively and efficiently in order to make decisions and to relate their self- concepts to a complex and demanding world. Animated film is desirable to abstract concepts for learning from the barrage of extraneous everyday stimuli, to bridge the gap between the real and conceptual worlds, to see far 114 beyond the scope of human eyes or the work of human hands, and to be motivated with nonexistent and imagined visual concepts that have apparent life and movement. In the next chapter, this dissertation will examine how perceptual learning theory, visual literacy, and instructional design factors influence the design of animated visuals. Chapter IV also will investigate how the design of animated visuals is advantageous for adult instruction, and it will outline design decision points about animated visuals for the model. 115 CHAPTER IV Design Factors Introduct ion Why consider the design qualities of the visuals in an animated film? Usually, the design of animated visuals is dependent upon the experience and the aesthetic decisions of the animator(s). Animators prefer a personal approach to the design of animation rather than one based on the in structional content or on the needs of the viewers. Al though many animators have developed an intuitive sense about arranging visual elements, a visual language does exist and its structure can influence the design of animated visuals for specific content and for specific viewers. After 1950, a majority of children and adults were educated by television and film before they entered a school system with its emphasis on print instruction. Young children come to the school experience with a background of some 4,000 to 6,000 hours of TV, an experience in almost total passiveness. They are children of a visual world, yet they are being shaped by their environment without having any control other than the volume level. Young children who come from our society with electronically equipped homes tend to have limited visual-motor experiences. The child leaves home where he has grown accus tomed to a highly visual and electronic environment. He is able to change the visual stimulation to which he passively responds at the flip of a switch. 116 Learning, as he comes to know it, is not a result of interacting with his environment, but becomes an absorption process. The child comes to school, then, with an awareness and acceptance of his visual environment and is perhaps ready for direct visual learning experiences. Instead, he enters a school environment filled with ditto sheets, crayons, scissors, paper, glue, and reading, reading, reading. Reward comes in the form of the opportunity to see reruns of The Electric Company and Sesame Street (Purvis, 1973, p. 715.) A child learns about his world first from a tactile aware- ness, but this soon develops into an iconic awareness. Learning from visuals is accepted effortlessly. "We cannot remember learning to perceive due to the private or egocen tric nature of perception. So we assume we never learned how to perceive but always knew how"(Hoffman, 1973, p. 302). Adults have either changed their visual literacy from an initial childhood television learning experience, or later from a barrage of visual exposure to television, film, posters, billboards, and magazine advertisements. Man is a visually oriented mammal. Vision is the major sense in a normal human being (Hoffman, 1973, p. 287). If a man bumps into something, he will go back and look at what it is; whereas, if a dog bumps into something, he will go back and smell it. If a man hears a car drive up, he will go and see who it is; while a dog will go and smell who it is. Man supplements his vision with the other senses, but he primar ily depends upon his sight to learn about his environment. There is little doubt that contemporary life style has been influenced, and crucially, by the changes enacted on it by the fact of photography. In print, language is the primary element, while visual factors such as 117 the physical setting or design format and illustration, are secondary or supportive. In modern media, just the reverse is true. The visual dominates; the verbal aug ments. Print is not dead yet, nor will it ever be, but, nevertheless, our language-dominated culture has moved perceptibly toward the iconic. Most of what we know and learn, what we buy and believe, what we recognize and desire, is determined by the domination of the human psyche by the photograph. And it will be more so in the future (Dondis, 1973, p. 7). Man has a visual language. He also has some 3,000 unique verbal languages in current usage in the world today. Although not equalled in rules to his verbal languages, his universal and complex visual syntax does have certain char acteristics. These characteristics are called by different terms, but basically they are representational visual ma terial (objects), signsj( icons, indexes, and symbols) and abstract understructures (meaning, inferences, and percep tual habits). Perception of visuals involves more than seeing a visual stimulus (object) and consciously responding. Individuals must read the stimuli as signs and also read the meaning or inference of the sign. Cues to the meaning of signs differ with cultures. Certain habits of perception are developed in each culture. One habit is the habit of expectancy. Hoffman (1973) gives the example of tasting sour milk (p. 2 98). If it is suggested to an individual that the milk he is about to taste is sour, it will indeed taste sour whether it actually °is sour or whether he^has^ eVer./tasted sour milk before. Another habit of perception is the habit of abstraction. An example of a habit of (aSsfraction'',’ - • ->v;- l vl y 118 the ability of a hunter to follow the movements of an animal and ignore the surrounding environment. The habit of fill ing in is the third perceptual habit and is exemplified by the ability of a captain of a boat to fill in the outline of surrounding boats moving in the fog. Every culture has its set of signs, their meanings, and habits of perception. Each sign is related to its object by certain culturally determined rules. Hoffman (1973) discriminates the follow ing three kinds of rules: conventional rules, rules invol ving space-time relationships (causal connections and ostention), and rules of similarity (p. 304). Although signs are usually a combination of icons, indexes, and symbols, each type of sign represents a rule. An icon is similar to its object and refers to certain qualities of the object. Icons are maps, diagrams and por traits. Differing from an icon, an index is related to its object by some space-time relationship. An ostensive index (e.g., an arrow) points to its object, while a causal index is a sign showing the result of the object (e.g., smoke is a sign of fire). The third type of sign, a symbol, is related to its object by conventional rules. Examples of a symbol are a red light meaning "stop" and a green light meaning "go". When animators design an instructional film, they are speaking in a visual language, but generally, it is one that manipulates the signs and their meanings based upon the 119 personal preferences of the animators. The purpose of this chapter is to encourage the design of animated visuals based upon the instructional objectives and the needs of the tar get audience. To accomplish this task, Chapter IV includes the identification of the elements of visual communication, the perception of animated visuals, a description of in structional design factors advantageous to instruction, and the utilization of these design factors in the model. Elements of Visual Communication Like the writer who manipulateds nouns, verbs, and ob jects to structure a sentence, the animator manipulates ob jects, visual signs, and their meanings to structure a film. Although a writer has many more definitions and finite rules to discipline his work, an animator does have certain ways to compose his visual language. Paul Klee, the artist, described in his logic of pic torial thinking that the visual universe is initially prime val and chaotic (cited in Spiller, 1969, p. 2). Identifying certain elements of the visual universe gives structure and meaning to formulate a visual language. These ten elements are point, line, shape, form, direction, tone, color, tex ture, scale, and motion. By intelligently planning and manipulating these visual elements, the visual design of an animated film can be controlled to display what is needed 120 for instructional objectives and for the target audience. 1. Point. Out of the visual chaos, Klee selects a point. The point is not dimensionless, but is an infinitely tiny place being either round, square, or triangular. The point is at rest and has no apparent motion (cited in Spiller, 1969, p. 19). 2. Line. Klee takes a point for a walk and a line is born (cited in Spiller, 1969, p. 19). The close proximity of points eventually merge to form a threadlike mark. Although lines are fluid and can freely explore the dimen sions of space, they also are decisive in forming edges, cutting space, and building areas. Vertical lines represent man's ability to walk upright. Symbolizing movement, verti cal lines progress up and down (Figure 2a). A horizontal line represents the force of gravity on man when he is sleeping or resting (Figure 2b). Symbolizing man at peace with his environment, a horizontal line indicates the hori zon or a stage line. Differing from vertical and horizontal lines, diagonal lines seem to attract attention because man's need to maintain his equilibrium produces the tendency to balance diagonal lines. For animated instructional films, diagonal lines are useful as attention-getting de-. vices and for anxiety-producing situations. 3. Shape. The three basic shapes are the square (four equal lines joined at right angles), the triangle (three lines joined), and the circle (one continuous joined line 122 Figure 2. Line Elements VERTICAL Line progressing up & down down a HORIZONTAL Line is stable & secure (Drawings by author.) a DIAGONAL Line is unstable curving equidistant from a center point). Shapes are planal figures which also have meanings associated to their config urations (Dondis, 1973, p. 44). The square in some cultures symbolizes dullness (all sides the same), honesty, and work manship. Perhaps, this is the reason why many robots are composed of squares. Because the triangle consists of three lines at a diagonal to each other, triangular shapes may symbolize action, conflict, and tension. The circle repre sents an endless shape with connotations of warmth and pro tection. Using appropriate shapes for the instructional content, objectives, or identification for the audience may greatly influence the success of an instructional animated film. 4. Form« Adding depth lines to the height and width lines of a shape implies dimension and produces form. Figure 3 shows the growth of a form from points, lines, and a shape. Actually, form is difficult to illustrate in the two dimensional plane of animated film, but by using princi ples of perspective, form can be implied. 5. Direction. Perspective is illustrated in an anima ted film by using directional lines. Three directional indicators are provided by the basic shapes. From the square, the horizontal-vertical directions refer to man's drive to maintain equilibrium. The circle gives the curving direction indicating envelopment, repetition, and warmth. As seen in the triangle, diagonal directions are unstable 123 Figure 3. Figure Form v" Source, Note, concept taken from Jurg Spiller (Ed.) Paul Klee Notebooks Volume I The Thinking Eye. New York: George Wittenborn, 1969, p, 21, and drawn by author. _______________ ' 12A and the most provoking visually. Directional indicators are important to animated films to give a feeling of stability, depth, and movement. 6- Tone. Another element of visual communication, tone is the absence or presence of.li^ht. Tone varies with the amount of light reflected off, going around, or absorbed by objects. Because sides of a form reflect or absorb a light source at different angles, the resulting tones show the dimensions of the.form. The acceptance of monochromatic television and film shows how important tonal information is to visual communication. 7. Color. Color is yet another element of visual com munication and is the sensation resulting from the stimula tion of the retina of the eye by light waves of different lengths. Although each color has emotional and meaningful associations and symbols, these responses are not standar dized. The significance of each color is dependent upon the culture in which it is used. Three primary colors or hues are red, yellow, and blue. Red and yellow are warm colors, and they tend to expand in a visual frame, while blue is a cool color that contracts in a visual frame. Important characters in an animated film should be discriminated by warm colors. Combining the primary colors, red and yellow produce orange, yellow and blue create ' green, and blue and red make purple. These secondary colors (orange, green, and purple) 125 are compliments to the primaries for two reasons. First, if a primary and its compliment are mixed, they will produce neutral gray. Secondly, the after-image of a primary color will be its compliment. If a viewer were asked to concen trate for a period of time on a green and orange flag, the after-image for the viewer would be a red and blue flag. This phenomenon of color perception also influences the color of a figure of one color on a background in its complimentary color. Each color has three properties: hue, saturation, and brightness. Hue is the basic color or chroma family such as red. The amount of hue in a color describes its saturation, while the amount of tone indicates its brightness. Other relevant terms are tint and shade. Tint is the amount of whiteness and shade is the amount of darkness in a color. When describing color properties, a special note should be made that the perception of light differs from the percep tion of pigment. For television, the primary colors are not red, yellow, and blue, but they are red, yellow, and green. Color is a very special topic for animated film involving the change in color due to the animated movement and density of the animation cels. Texture. Texture is the surface character of objects. Simulating a tactile experience, texture implies what is the composition of the surface of objects. Texture provides a more informative experience for the viewer. 126 9. Scale. The relative size and measurement of an object or sign in space is the visual element termed scale. Scales are not absolute and must have comparison cues. An example of this is when it is important to determine the size of a character in an animated film in relationship to other characters or in relationship to the viewer. 10. Movement. Movement is the real or apparent physical displacement of an object or sign in relation to another object or sign (Johnson, 1977, p. 24). Movement as a visual element will be discussed in greater detail later in this study. Now that this study has defined the elements of visual communication, the next task is to recognize how to compose clear visual statements through^ balance, stress, leveling and sharpening, preference for lower left, attraction and grouping, and positive and negative visuals. Balance. Man unconsciously strives to maintain an equil ibrium originating with man's desire to walk upright perpen dicular to the ground. As Figure 4a shows the author's cartoon character of a primitive man, balance is an adjust ment to weight and the lack of balance is a disorienting experience. Seeking balance is man's strongest visual ref erence. If no horizontal or vertical axis is given, man will project a "felt" axis onto a visual to determine a sense of balance. In composing viiisals, no one way dominates, but three ______________ 127) Figure 4. Balance a. b. asymmetrical radial 1282 basic types of balance appear. Formal balance is symmetri cal and indicates one areas of the frame equals the other area of the frame (Figure 4b). Informal balance is asym metrical and has unequal areas of the frame (Figure 4c). The third type,' radial balance explodes from the center out (Figure 4d). Why worry about balance? The artist designing animated film should strive for balance because maintaining an equilibrium is one of man’s most elementary needs. When looking at an unbalanced visual, the viewer experiences a feeling of unbalance in his body. Unless this is the intended purpose, an effort should be made to balance a composition. Stress. When part of a composition dominates the frame due to more visual weight, the balance is disrupted by stress. Figure 5 gives examples of stress. In Figure 5a, the third circle attracts more visual attention because the radius does not conform to the line of the felt axis. The radius has visual weight because it is not balanced and is falling to the horizontal. Stress is important in animation design to cue the viewer to attend to specific parts of the visual. Visual weight is also influenced by size, color, and shape. When forms are identical in shape and color, size dominates (Figure 5b). When forms are identical in shape and size, color dominates (Figure 5c). Also, a different _________________________________________________________________ 129. Figure 5 Stress a. 1. 3. line stressed D size stressed c. color stressed d. shape stressed 130 shape has stronger visual weight and will dominate (Figure 5d) . Leveling and Sharpening. Leveling is a process of placing all parts of a composition in harmony (Figure 6a). In contrast, sharpening focuses the eyes of the viewer to one part of the composition (Figure 6b) Another factor is ambiguity. A point indicated which is not dead center or on an axis may cause confusion for the viewer . (Figure 6c) . Except for intended ambiguity, animated visuals should be composed to present clear statements that harmonize or con trast, attract or repel, and relate or clash. Preference for Lower Left. Another factor Involved in balancing a composition is the lower left phenomenon. The human eye favors the lower left for initial scanning(Dondis, 1973, p. 29). The composition also may look heavier on the right side. The viewer may identify with the left and the left may assume greater importance. This may be one reason why in traditional theater the actors tend to enter left, the first speaker stands left, and usually he is considered the most important character. Several explanations are given for the lower left preference such as our culture reads left to right, or the heart is on the left, or the differences in the right and left lobes of the brain favor the left, but no one theory rules. For designing animation, this preference is important. When an animated character enters right, the viewer may first look left. If this is 131 Figure 6. Leveling and Sharpening \ i /■ \ i N 1 / a . • - X - ^ | \ * V i N N leveling b. v sharpening v. X V ambiguity Source. Dondis, D. A- A Primer of Visual Literacy bridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1973, p» 28* Cam- 132 Figure 7. Preference for Lower Left upper lower upper left lower right upper upper lower left lower right 133 intended, then the animator should take advantage of this phenomenon, but otherwise, it can be distracting to the flow of the instruction if it is not controlled. Figure 7 shows the preference for lower left in a frame. Attraction and Grouping. A method of making a composi tion more interesting is to vary the number of parts in a frame. In Figure 8a, the hat in the frame becomes boring after awhile. The viewer looks at the hat in the frame, thinks about his lunch, looks at the hat, and so forth. Having two hats in a frame is also boring because they equally compete for the attention of the viewer (Figure 8b). An odd number of parts in a composition makes the viewer1s eyes attracted to the different areas of the frame (Figure 8c). Human eyes tend to attract or fill-in parts of a composition (Dondis, 1973, p. 33). As a result of this perceptual principle, an odd number of elements in a frame is more attractive. This is especially true if some parts are similar and others are dissimilar. The human eye tends to group similar objects and to repel dissimilar objects (Dondis,. 1973, p. 34). Parts of a composition are grouped in two ways either by forming an unit while still retaining their identity or by losing their identity to form a whole. Discrete parts of a composition can be grouped because of proximity to others. Also, discrete parts can be grouped because they 134 Figure Groupi a. <Q> 8. .ng i i t b. 1 & & r1 ' C . & & & <&? * “T* \ similar objects attract j dissimilar objects repel | display similar visual elements such as form, color, or j » * movement. The second way of grouping involves the fusion, roi| parts to make a whole. This can be done with good contin- ^ uity, or closure. In opposition to attraction and grouping, perceptual principles of separation include discrimination of visual elements, perspective, and movement (Ball'and Byrnes; 1960 p. 59) . Visual elements can be discriminated by making their dissimilar in color, tone, size, or shape. Another method is to divide the elements into figure and ground, or to overlap the elements. Perspective is a complex subject. A basic rule is that if shapes of unequal size are given, then the larger shape would appear closer. Another rule is as lines disappear to a point on the horizon, they converge. Also, objects grad ually lose their detail and color as they disappear into the horizon. The third principle of separation, movement, will be studied later in this chapter. Positive and Negative. In visual language, information that is seen, absorbed, and dominated in a visual experience is considered positive; and information that is passively displayed is considered negative (Dondis, 1973, p. 35). As seen in Figure 9a, negative space (the two profiles) is as important as the positive space (the vase). This principle also includes signs with lightness (positive) and darkness (negative). In film, positive spaces on a negative ground 136 Figure 9. Positive and Negative a. b. Positive Space * 1 Negative Space 137- tend to expand, while negative spaces on a positive ground tend to contract (Figure 9b). This study has defines the visual elements, recognized the structuring of compositions, and now examines the tech niques used to manipulate the visual elements to accomplish the instructional objectives. Various visual techniques range from one extreme to another in applying the visual elements to a defined instructional task. Dondis (1973) has provided the following list of visual techniques and their opposites (p. 16): Contrast Harmony exaggeration understatement spontaneity predictability accent neutrality asymmetry symmetry instability balance fragmentation unity economy intricacy boldness subtlety transparency opacity variation consistency complexity simplicity distortion realism depth flatness sharpness diffusion activeness passiveness irregularity regularity juxtaposition singularity angularity roundness representation abstraction vertically horizontally Some of the ^visual. techniques'will be specifically reviewed in the next section of this chapter dealing with the visual perception of animation. 138/ Visual Perception of Animation The two unique capabilities of animation, the ability to show apparent movement and the ability to illude to reality, differentiate the perception of an animated film. Percep tion of animated visuals not only involves the spatial principles described in the previous section, but also temporal principles. Visuals in an animated film are per ceived in time (a flow of twenty-four images per second) and in movement. To understand the visual perception of anima tion, this study examines the following visual attributes: constancy, figure-ground, motion-rest, experienced velocity, configurations, causality, anthropomorphism, attitude, adaptation, distortion of form, design of action, and realism. Constancy. Seeing an object as the same although it has illustrated changes is the attribute constancy (Johnson, 1977, p. 31). A strong constancy factor in animation is a motion that is consistent in direction and speed. If an animated character maintains its direction and speed, then the character can transform its shape or color during the movement and still retain its identity. Figure-ground. In perceiving a scene, the static ele ments normally are considered the ground and the moving element is considered the figure. Perception of movement in an animated film is dependent upon acknowledging the apparent physical displacement of one element in relation 139 to another. In filming an animated sequence, the back ground (e.g.* a countryside scene) may move while the figure stays still (e.g., Snoopy sitting in his W.W. I plane), but the resulting effect is the figure moves and the ground is static. Motion-rest. Movement, rest, and encounter are the three primary themes that protray man's physical relation ship to his environment (Seamond, 1977) . Everyday movements are habitual and responsible for an individual's spatial behaviors and routines. Opposed to movement, rest is asso ciated with regeneration and warmth. Motion and rest set the rythmn of a visual sequence. Each are important to the action and timing of an animated film. Signifying aware ness, encounter adds yet another dimension to a visual sequence and ranges from obliviousness to direct contact. To portray everyday physical action and timing, an animated film should have movement, rest, and encounter. Experienced velocity. Johnson (1977) researched and found the following information regarding experienced velocity in an animated film (p. 36): 1. ) Speed of an object is judged more so in terms of time than in terms of distance? 2. } Slower motion is harder to judge correctly than fast motion? 3. } Movement through an empty field is perceived faster than through a filled field; 140 4. ■ Two objects moving similarly in the same field pro duce a single moving unit; 5. j Velocity is experienced by the physical displace ment between objects and not between their displacement f from a stationary background; 6. / Motion activity to motion activity dominates over a motion activity to rest activity; 7., Velocity is experienced through spatial and temporal displacement. If these are in conflict, the timing will determine the velocity experienced; 8. ' Experienced velocity can also be the result of secondary related elements of time; 9. When movement is similar and time is equaled, any cue differentiating the movement of two objects will be exaggerated; 10. / The velocity is influenced by the concentration of spatial relationships; and 11. / Velocity is influenced by the whole presentation especially the timing in a soundtrack. Configurations. A configuration is an integrated whole with qualities and functions beyond the sum of its parts (Webster*s New World Dictionary, 1958, p. 307). A previous . section studied some of the characteristics of configuration such as proximity and similarity of its parts. In an ani mated film, configurations appear moving in time. Johnson (1977) terms these as "event configurations" (p. 39). __________________ 141 Within an event configuration, two objects in motion attract each other, and their movements dominate the spatial compo sition (Gunnar Johansson cited by Johnson, 1977, p. 40). The time allowed to move a part of an event configuration is another factor. If the time is not consistent, it can cause unusual effects such as pixillation or motion distortion (condensed time) or image-smearing (extended time). Also, timing and motion factors in an event configuration dominate over spatial factors. Causality. Not only are objects moving in an animated film perceived by their actual movement, but also by the result of their movement. An example is the different movements caused by pushing with full contact, with partial contact, or with friction. Seeing an object enter into a body of water and slow down due to its physical properties is another representation of causality. More of this attri bute is specifically explained under distortion of form. Anthropomorphi sm. An animated film gives apparent life and movement to inanimate objects. Man seeing the apparent life and movement of animated objects tends to recognize these qualities as being similar to human characteristics. Although an object may have an inorganic shape, its movement can display organic behavior, and the shape can exhibit humanlike attributes. Anthropomorphic movement arouses more attention from viewers because it relates to human experi ences. 142 Attitude. The perception of visual elements in an ani mated film is directly related to the attitude of the viewer. The viewer observes what he wants to see. If the viewer has anticipated the visuals with excitement, he will empathize with the movements and the illusions will be successful. If the viewer is apathetic and passive, he may reject the style and techniques of the film. An animated visual sequence should try to develop some empathy with the audience to enhance the communication of its visual elements. Adaptation. As a result of the barrage of visuals se quenced in time experienced through television and film, viewers have developed a visual shorthand or code. They, are able to "read" visuals faster, to comprehend complex move ments, and to interpret abstracted shapes. Acknowledging this ability of viewers to adapt to different visual sit uations, animation can be designed to gradually increase the speed, complexity, and abstraction of the visual elements in an film. Distortion of form. Distortion of form in an animated film is displayed for two reasons: to ease natural motion or to express external forces. Curving shapes are more sym pathetic to natural motion, whereas, hard-edges and non circular shapes must be distorted to display natural motion (Figure 10a). Because of this factor, the early animation characters were composed of circles and tubes, and total cel animation is based on circular shapes. Also, as the speed 143 Figure 10 Distortion of Form v air friction sail inertia boat inertia WdLfcil yK friction i momentum ' gravity stretch stretch squash squash 144 increases, the distortion of the form increase. If an ob ject moves across a frame so fast that it appears in every five frames, then sometimes the movement is not natural and appears to flicker. To show increased speed, cartoon ani mators add "swish" lines (i.e., a blue of lines trailing the object). When external forces act upon an object, form is dis torted and exaggerated to emphasize the perception of the external force. The four natural physical influences that an animator must deal with are gravity, friction, inertia, and momentum. Figure 10 shows the changes in form due to these physical laws. Drag is the result of an object's inertia or friction resisting an external force like air or water (Figure 10b). When an object moves so fast that its momentum gains control, the object becomes stretched, and when the momentum is cancelled by gravitational influences, the object is squashed. Animators learn stretch and squash factors by animating a bouncing ball (Figure 10c). Three characteristics of an object determining the amount of form distortion are speed, weight, and elasticity. The design of action. If the'..regular spacing is used to move and film an object across a space, then the action will appear mechanical. Naturalistic movement consists of three actions: anticipatory, main, and resulting. Anticipatory action prepares an object for movement and is very small increments of motion either toward or away from the directio . _________145; of movement. The main action shows the object at full speed and the resulting action illustrates the object either slow ing down to a stop or changing its movement to recover from the action (e.g., a long distance runner will walk after an extensive run). Representing the primary action, anticipa tory, main, and resulting movements are often followed by secondary actions. If the rabbit who is so late in Alice in Wonderland runs fast and stops, then his coattails or his watch chain will also move fast and then swing in the oppo site direction when he stops. The resulting movement of 1 i viusal elements supplementing the action of an animated figure are the secondary action. In total cel animation, an animator will rough key poses of the object and sketch the action lines. The action lines are then divided into increments indicating anticipation, main, and resulting movements. Composing the key poses indicating any distortion of form due to increased or de creased speed, the animator then turns it over to an assis tant to compose the inbetween drawing along the action lines Realism. The opposite of imaginary and visionary element is realism. Realism includes displaying facts to make ob jects appear natural. In the distortion of form in an ani mated film, the animator attempts to illustrate real motion, but it usually is done for comic effect or to emphasize rythmns. A technological instructional animated film is an exception because it often is very close to reality in 146 presenting facts and apparent movement. As previously discussed, animators draw from reality as a resource for their designs. Animation artist study models, watch live-action films, and sometimes rotoscope (draw frame by frame over a live-action film). Disney-type total cel animation illudes to reality due to its complexity in detail and movement. It was this literal interpretation of reality into fantasy that many animators rejected and started the UPA style of animation that symbolized reality and did not intend to imitate it. Madsen(1969) believes the amount of realism in an ani mated presentation should depend upon the nature of the instructional content and the visual literacy of the viewers (p. 96). Low intellectual ability viewers require more visual cues to reality for learning, and because of this factor, every phase'.- away from realism increases the need for visual sophistication resulting in a narrowing of the poten tial target audience (Madsen, 1969, p. 97). This study summarized certain visual attributes in the visual perception of animation. The next task is to iden tify those design factors influencing the effectiveness of instruction in an animated film. Instructional Design Factors In the previous section, this study was concerned with the appearance and arrangement of visual elements in an 147 animated film, and next, it is concerned with how visual elements can be utilized to present the objectives (content) and improve instruction. Allen (1976) identifies the fol lowing instructional design factors: 1) learner preparation and motivation, 2) directing perceptual attention, 3) learne paticipation, 4) feedback, 5) repetition and redundancy, 6) sequencing and organization, 7) rate of development and pacing, 8) contiguity, 9) modeling and imitation, 10) com plexity, 11) aesthetics, and 12) difficulty of material. Although many of these many seem similar to other areas identified, it is important to review them for the model. liearneriEreparation andjMotivation. Learner prepara tion involves the conditions given (by an instructor or built into the instructional material) prior to the instruc tional content. Three major psychological factors prepare the learner for the instructional content: developmental readiness, motivation, and attention set. Developmental readiness refers to the neurological growth stages deter mining the learner's ability to learn the material, while motivation indicates the internal state of the learner leading him to want to learn. The design factors in motivation used to increase the effectiveness in instruction are general alertness, arousal, expectancy, incentives, and punishment. Allen(197 6) suggest^ the following ways to incorporate these motivational factors into instruction: 148 1.) Specify objective or competencies expected by the learner; 2. Point out the importance of learning; 3. 'Develop the expectation of knowledge to be gained by the material? 4. Relate to personal needs or future growth of the individual; 5. !Develop anxiety about the consequences of not learn ing the material; 6. Arouse curiousity about the material; 7. 4 Stimulate exploratory behavior? 8.' ; Arouse a need to satisfy a: personal need; 9. : Threat of an exam? 1 0 Expectation of pleasurable experience? 11. } Show reward for learning; 12. , Explain use of material to be learned? and 13. -Provide a novel opening display to interest learner in the material. Determining which stimuli will be processed, attention set is another internal state of the learner influencing learning. Attention set has orienting and directing proper ties based on the learner's past experience. Allen(1976) builds attention set factors into the instruction in the following ways: l.„. Verbal directions. Words can appear on the screen telling the learner to attend to something, look at an object. , identify questions and problems, or call attention to self-organizing features in the material; 2. ) Instructional objectives; 4. ; Introductory overview of instructional material; and 5.:> Table of contents or an outline. Another design factor included in learner preparation is the concept of an advance organizer postulated by David Ausubel. An advance organizer is a cognitive structure to relate specific material to the instructional material. It is not a summary, but it is a scaffolding for ideas. Directing perceptual attention I * Attention directing devices cue or emphasize relevant elements in the visual communication. These devices can be inherent in the visual design by providing motion, visual change, novelty or sur prise, increase in size, contrast, brightness, complex displays, elemination of extraneous material, and subjective camera angle. In addition to these devices, attention can be directed by adding features to the visual elements. Allen(1976) recommends visual pointers(pop-on labels, arrows, circling, and flashing), underlining, varying face type, implosion or explosion techniques, and color for emphasis. ^Leaxiier parficip^ion.^ ; > Because active participation in learning strengthens the learning process, overt responses be built into the visual presentation. Overt responses 3.; i Recall of relevant material 1 5 0 are: speaking out, practicing, . note-taking, or participa tive exercises. Sesame Street uses this design factor when children are asked to count numbers with kinestatic display or when they are asked a question followed by a long pause for a response. Covert responses allow the viewer to think or practice mentally the answers to questions. Feedback. As stated in Chapter II, feedback is important to the adult learner in establishing and maintain ing his self concept. Animated film can show the correct and incorrect responses, confirm correct responses with a rewarding visual (e.g., a visual sign of "Congratulations, you did it correctly"), clarify misconceptions, and demon strate the required level of mastery. Feedback also pro vides practice for the correct answer. It is better to give the entire correct response than to provide a simple right or wrong response (Allen, 197 6). Also, it is important to provide feedback on why a response is incorrect. Immediate feedback confirming correct and incorrect responses is more effective for the learner because his response is still fresh in his mind (Allen, 1976). Repetition and redundancy. Repetition is the same stimulant repeated through the same communication channel, while redundancy is the same stimulant given through differ ent channels (Allen, 1976). Repeating similar or somewhat varied information increases learning for students. This is 151 true for both high and low mental ability learners (Allen, 1976). Because 50 to 7.0 percent of the English language is redundant (Ball and Byrnes, 1960, p. 4), individuals expect a certain amount of repetition in language. Whether the language is visual or verbal, learners require the repeti tion of objects, signs, or their meanings to strengthn their memory of the instructional information (Knox, 1974). Re petition provides a needed review of the content to be lear ned. In explicit repetition, the same stimulant is re peated, but in implicit repetition, new members are added. Varied repetition is the most effective for learning (Allen, 1976). How much repetition or redundancy is needed for learning is dependent upon the nature of the instructional content, the learning task, and the abilities of the adults. Sequencing and organization. As mentioned in Chap ter II, organization is one of the instructional design needs of adult learners. Outlining is a method or organi zation and provides a visual presentation with headings, enumeration of points (e.g., first, second, third), and sequencing. Allen (1976) suggests the following methods of sequencing content: (1) general to specific, (2) step pro cedure in which the content is divided into stages or sub- levels, (3) parts to whole, (4) hierarchial, (5) clustering into groups or categories, (6) using advance organization, (7) progression, (8) concrete to abstract, (9) simple to complex, and (10) known to unknown. 152 Rate of development and"pacing. . For a slow rate of development or slower pacing of the presentation, the visual material should be provided at a fixed and easily compre hensible rate . of-SpeedEnough time should be permitted for the viewer to scan the visual and to process mentally the information. In contrast for an adult learner requiring a rapid rate of development, a faster pace should be presented with a minimum of detail in the visuals (Dwyer, 1976). Contiguity. Contiguity involves presenting two associated visual items close together in time and space (Ball and Byrnes, 1960, p. 105). Nothing should interfer with the learned connection between the two visual items. If a concept is to be learned with a specific moving visual (e.g., tacking a sailboat), then the visual (e.g., a sail boat making a maneuver) should appear with the concept term (e.g., "tacking*') . Modeling and imitation. This design factor is very important to animated film because the nature of the ani mated material presented is actually a model or imitation of reality. A model is a description, analogy, or pattern used to help visualize something that cannot be directly experi enced, while imitation is something produced as a copy (Allen, 1976). This design factor is discussed further by the author. Modeling seems to be suited for certain learning pro cedures. By witnessing affective reactions of another adult 153 undergoing a painful or pleasurable experience, an adult learner can eliminate certain behavioral deficits that he has through this modeling process. An example would be a film showing how silly and ugly an individual looks when he is smoking a cigarette and how this effects the people around him. If the adult who presently smokes recognizes his behavior in the film, he may decide to reduce his smoking. Without having any adverse consequences to the learner, a modeled behavior toward a feared object shown in a film may reduce excessive fears and inhibitions for the learner. An example of this is a film showing an individual entering a hospital for removal of his tonsils. By explaining the entire procedure without any pain or with only minor recog nition of discomfort, the film may reduce the fear of going to the hospital. Another modeling procedure is the transmission of self regulating systems. If a modeled character is observed regulating his food intake and physical activity, then the viewer may consider accepting the self-regulating behavior. A variety of terms describe this modeling design fac tor such as body language, imitation, observational lear ning, identification, copying, vicarious learning, social facilitation, or role-playing. Imitation is the reproduc tion of discrete responses supported by external rewards in the presence of the modeled stimulus (Allen, 197 6). 154 Identification is the adoption of many patterns of behavior, symbols, and values, supported by internal rewards in the absence of the model (Allen, 197 6). Identification may lead to imitation and vice versa. An animated film can exaggerate discrete responses to be imitated or identified, illustrate external and internal rewards(real or imaginary), and show how imitation becomes identification or vice versa. Complexity. This design factor involves the amount of visual information given at one time. An animated visual may contain a large quantity of detail within one image, or a montage of images, or a rapidly changing image within a given time. Lower mental ability individuals may benefit from complex animated visuals because more informa tion is provided for the viewers, and therefore, the learner is stimulated to process more information which makes it both challenging and interesting. If the complexity of the visual presentation is beyond the information processing ability of the learner (e.g., lower mental ability individ uals) , then the learner may be overwhelmed by the complexity and become frustrated because he cannot interpret it, or he may reject the instructional material altogether. Complex ity in designing instructional material is dependent upont the abilities of the intended audience and the nature of the instructional task. Content material which is complex may be divided into gradual learning steps so that the adult can build up his capacity for complex images and concepts as _________________________________________________________________ 155 Gagne(1970) has suggested. Aesthetics. The philosophy of beauty in visual presentations is aesthetics. Learners generally discrimi nate their perception of animated images in degrees of beautiful and ugly. Also, viewers usually develop a sense of style preference. Although aesthetics may not influence the direct communication of visual information, it does effect the viewer's desire to perceive and retain visual information. Aesthetics often involves motivating factors. When the aesthetics of an animated film overshadow its in structional purpose, the beauty of the design approach may distract the viewer. A viewer is conscious of the aesthetic qualities of balance, order, and expression (Arnheim, 1971, p. 260). The designer should carefully consider the aesthe tic factors selected in an animated instructional film so that these factors may assist the instruction and not dis tract. The visual elements .(described earlier in this chap ter) should be aesthetically designed into an instructional animated film to maintain the viewer's sense of balance, to order the concepts to be learned, and to express clearly and succintly the instructional material. Difficulty of material. , Not only can instruc-. tional material be difficult due to its complex presenta tion, but also, the material itself can be difficult to learn. In an animated film, the difficulty of an instruc tional task can be eased by applying Gagne's (1970) _______________________________________________ _ ______________ L5J5_ hierarchy of. learning (i.e., signal, stimulus-response, chaining, verbal association, discrimination, concept, rules, and problem-solving). The first level of learning in Gagne's hierarchy is signal learning which involves presenting general, diffuse visual elements to produce a response in the learner. Designing the visual elements in a film so that the viewers attend to a specific.stimulus and discriminate their re sponse to the stimulus is the second type of learning, stimulus-response. The third level is chaining which is the learner sequencing his reaction to two or more pre viously learned stimuli to produce one response. Verbal association is part of chaining in that the stimulus is converted into a sign which triggers a response. Discrimi nation learning, the fourth type, may be accomplished in animation by distinguishing the physical features between examples and nonexamples of the stimulus. In the fifth type of learning, concepts classify the stimulus by means of abstract properties. It is important in animation to prevent interference between the visual illustration of a concept and its classification. Practice should be provided to assist in discriminating concepts. Rule learning is the sixth type of learning in Gagne8 s hierarchy. This level requires the learner to have mastered the previous levels of sign, stimulus-response, chaining (verbal association), discrimination, and concept learning. __________________________________________________________________1_ 52_ The top of Gagne's hierarchy is problem-solving lear ning. This type of learning seems to be most appropriate for adult learning activity. As discussed in Chapter II, adults prefer problem-centered learning activity (Symposium, White, 1973). Animated film is especially advantageous in problem-solving learning if the problem presented requires any motion (real or imaginary). Animation Design Factors Advantageous to Instruction Caldwell(1973) postulated in her research certain ani mation design factors advantageous to instruction. Although her study is directed toward children and her guidelines have not been proven, it is important to the model to review several of these factors. Only Caldwell's guidelines that were labelled with a high or medium degree of certainty were considered. 1. Anthropomorphic features used as relevant cues in an animated film do facilitate discriminate learning (p. 371). 2. The illustration of rewarded modeling in an ani mated film increased learning (p. 372). 3. Viewers will perceive the most familiar object on the screen as the figure (p. 37 9). 4. The brightest object of a group of several objects will be discriminated first in an animated film (p. 381). 5. Moving diagonals are more obvious in discriminating 158 the relevant qualities of a form in an animated film (p. 382) . 6. ■ The critical qualities of an object to be discrimi nated are best learned when presented alone and exaggerated against a blank background in an animated visual (p. 383). 7. / Parts of an object are best discriminated when they appear to pop out of the object, are shown individually, and are returned to their real-life position (p. 387). Q.rt After discrimination of an object has been learned, the practice of animated visuals with additional complexity will transfer and generalize to other situations more easily than with simplified visuals (p. 388). 9. By allowing the relevant cues in practice visuals to gradually fade, an animated film can assist the learner to discriminate without the aid of cues (p. 3 8 9). 10. Concept learning is facilitated by the visual attributes of animated sequences that define and emphasize concrete concepts (p. 390). Use in the Model Chapter Iv has presented a diverse collection of design factors involved in designing animated film for adult in struction. The question now is how to apply these design factors for use in the model. From reviewing the material in Chapter IV, the author recognized the following decision points: _______________ 159 1>; What visual elements are involved in the film and why? 2. What instructional design factors are needed? 3. How will the visual elements be structured? 4. What visual techniques will be utilized? 5., How is the animation perceived? 6- Are the animated visuals advantageous to the instruc tion? These decision points are integrated into the animation design procedure flow chart and the ten decision points in the model located in the next chapter. 160 CHAPTER V The Model Introduction What is a model? A model is a description, analogy, or pattern used to help visualize something that cannot be directly observed. In this case, the model serves as a description of the designing process for instructional ani mated films for adults. The purpose of the model is to pro vide the following; l.[ An identification of relevant questions to resolve when designing an animated film for adult instruction; 2/ A selection of instructional design factors utilized in animation for adult instruction; 3./ A listing of different animation techniques? 4.V A design procedure flow chart; and 5.,;\ A glossary of terms. How it this model used? First of all, this model is a practical suggestion for designing an animated film for adul : instruction. This model does not in anyway dictate its * suggested process as a rule. Designers should use it as a guide and reference to develop their individual design pro cess that will be more suited to the variables and problems they are encountering with a specific instructional task or 161 particular target audience. Ten decision points are provided in the model to help design an animated film. Although the ten decision points may be sequenced differently, the model suggests the design procedure flow chart in Figure 2. Description of Model Where does the design process begin? Actually, a designer can begin at any point in the flow chart and work to complete a film. The most critical question must often be dealt with first. This model describes ten decision points to design animated film for adult instruction. Question 1. Why select animated film? The decision to choose animated film as a means of presenting instruction is based on recognizing three criteria: 1; . Due to its time, cost, equipment, and staffing re quirements, animated film should be utilized only when it is advantageous to the instructional task. It should be se lected because of its unique capabilities. An animated film can create and control apparent movement and also is moti vating. Many animation techniques are available with the potential to explore the presentation of instructional material. See Table 2. 2'. Animated film should be chosen to supply the visual design needs of instruction. Refer to Table 3. Check the appropriate needs for instruction for the film. 162 a-^ V need to portray apparent movement, b- need for novel stimuli, c ' . - ; need to cue instruction, d . - / need to lengthen attention span, e^'./ need to bridge gap between real and conceptual worlds, fV need to discriminate visually rules and concepts, g . - need to organize and sequence visuals, need to blueprint or supplant concepts, i. ; need to provide direct experience of abstract concepts, ^ need to provide anxiety-reducing or anxiety-pro ducing experiences, k. N 3 need to increase motivation, or ___vlVneed to illustrate the imagined, nonexistent, or hard-to-see concepts. 3/. ^ The decision to use animation should also be based on the characteristics and needs of the target audience. The target audience should be defined. Check if the target audience fits into the profile of an adult learner for this model; t i t . ; . • Individual between the ages of twenty-five and sixty, Individuals having established and maintained social « roles and developmental tasks, ___ cV. ; Individuals exhibiting both fluid and crystal 163 intelligence. N di I:Individuals able to cope with their self concepts and learn, e*. Individuals having previous experience with adult education (i.e., planned, organized and sequential learn ing, ___ f ) . , ; Individuals agreeing to and interested in learning within the disciplines of adult education, and gj. Individuals not requiring special learning condi tions (e.g., handicapped or illiterate adults). Answer the following questions to assess the character istics and needs of the target audience of the film. 1. 'What are the innate characteristics of the audience influencing learning (e.g., sex, ethnic inheritance, age,or personality)? 2. What are some of the acquired characteristics exhi bited by the audience that will effect learning (e.g., academic background, intelligence level, lifestyle, special talents, motivation to study, socioeconomic status, or past experiences)? 3. 1 Which present performance should be improved by the instructional task? 4. How are areas of meaning prioritized for the target audience? ■5.' ; When is viewing this film convenient and under what conditions? 164 6./ Does an anxiety-production situation exist in the instructional task and should it be modified? 7./ Why are adults attracted to the instructional ma terial in the film? 8. / ' ) How will the adult be informed about the instruction in the film (e.g., peers, television, or brochures)? 9. > What type of feedback is needed by the audience(e.g. ,confirmation of correct responses, explanation of incorrect responses, emotional rewarding of correct responses, or delayed confirmation)? 10. What is the appropriate setting for viewing the film(e.g., lighting, seating, necessary facilities, free of distractions, or on the job)? As a result of answering Question 1, the designer should be able to write the instructional purpose and the topic of the film. Question 2. What is the idea for the animated film? Conventi6nai„animatedCfilm ' ; begins with an idea. Sometimes the idea is the result of the need to solve an instructional problem, or the result of a creative moment, or the result of a felt need from a sponsor, or the result of certain resources and constraints, or the result of a defined need of the target audience. Hayward(1976) outlined the following methods for initiating an animation idea: 1. ' A more effective and efficient organization of the 165 instructional content, 2. ■ An update of the instruction, 3.: • Original instructional material reworked and ex tended beyond its normal usuage, 4. Taking an element of the instructional content and placing it in an unusual setting, 5..J Transferring a cliche character into the instruc tional content, 6.. Reversing the instruction (i.e., showing the wrong way to perform a task), ''t 7; ^Animating an old method of instructing the content, 8. Abstracting part of the instruction and developing a story around it, 9.' Using simple and familiar terms to describe a com plex concept in the instruction, 10. .Analyzing critically a concept, 1 1 'Isolating gaps in the instruction and building a sequence around them to make the instruction cohesive, 12 Supplying preceding and following material to the instructional content, 13.(} Providing the ideal situation for instruction, 14.0 Presenting a dichotomy of concepts, 15.Q Using various animation techniques, 16.0 Associating unusual ideas to instructional content, 17 .J Classifying elements of the instructional content, 18.w Listing of alternative animation techniques, unusual 166 setting, and interesting action. After the idea has been defined, the designer will be able to write a brief treatment for the film. A treatment is a two or three page description indicating the animation idea (i.e., where the film will begin, what is the main body, and how will it conclude). Question 3. How will the animated film fulfill the instructional objectives? For animated film to fulfill the instructi^hair. pj?j'.ectives, >7 four criteria must be supplied. First, the instructional objectives must be identified. In the Appendix of this study is supplementary material on writing terminal and enabling objectives. Secondly, the domain and type of learning must be de- * scribed. The domain of the instruction should be either cognitive, affective, psycho-motor, or a combination of these. Thirdly, a list of prerequisite abilities is necessary to design the animated visuals. The designer must know the audience's ability to process information so that he can determine the appropriate animation technique and design factors. The fourth criteria is the recognition of the assistance of the animated film to the instructional task. Refer to Table III, or the animation design factors advantageous to instruction in Chapter IV. 167 Question 4. What are the resources and constraints for the animated film? Five factors determine the answer to this question: 1. Timing. Schedules indicating the amount of time needed for designing, producing, evaluating, revising, and viewing the film must be estimated. 2. Costs. Budgets should be prepared for the design, production, evaluation, revision, and marketing of the film. Also, the selling price of the film should be approximated. 3. Staffing. Depending upon the animation technique chosen and the difficulty of the animation project, staffing may present a constraint. Talented staff is always an excellent resource, but in planning a film, the design can not depend upon the finding and funding of talented staff. A list of the minimum and ideal amount and type of staffing should be made. 4. Equipment. Refer to Table 2. Different animation techniques require various equipment. In the case of automated animation, the equipment offers a greater range of visual reources beyond the draftmanship of an animation artist, but it also may be restrictive in cost. This factor also requires a listing of the mimimum and ideal amount and type of equipment. 5. Content. Content experts are an excellent resource for the film. It is important to seek out available sources in the world community from a variety of fields of study. ____________________________________________________ L£l8. Content may also prove a constraint if its limitations or source availability modifies the animation process. An identification of content experts, sources, and limitations should be made. Question 5. How is the content for the animated film sequenced? After a content outline is written and checked for its accuracy, the necessary content should be listed under each enabling objective for the film. The content should be reviewed and prioritized for its importance to the enabling objective. All extraneous material should be eliminated. The next step is to sequence the essential content in one of the following ways as suggested by Allen (1976) : 1. general to specific, 2. step procedure, 3. parts to whole, 4. hierarchial, 5. clustering into groups or categories, 6. advance organization, 7. progression, 8. concrete to abstract, 9. simple to complex, 10. known to unknown, or 11. a reversing of any of the above methods. Once the content is sequenced, the designer can write the script, storyboard, computer, program, or soundtrack. __________________________________________________ JL j6-SL Question 6. What is the appropriate design of the ani- mated visuals for the objectives of the instruction? After the appfopfiafeeuanimatedytechnique is selected, the design factors must be considered before the visuals are prepared. By reviewing the elements in visual communication, the visual structuring, the visual techniques, and the instruc tional design factors, those appropriate design factors can be selected for the design of the animated visuals. Table IV lists the elements in visual communication. It is important for the animated film to present clear visual statements to communicate the instructional content. The necessary visual statements can be structured through balanced configurations, stressed elements, leveling and sharpening of the viewer*s focus, accommodating for the viewer*s preference for lower left, acknowledging the at traction and grouping of visual elements, and using positive and negative areas of the composition. The next design consideration to select is the visual technique used to apply the visual elements. Dondis (1973) has provided the following list of visual techniques and their opposites(p. 16): Contrast Harmony exaggeration understatement spontaneity predictability accent neutrality asymmetry symmetry instability stability fragmentation unity economy intricacy 170 boldness subtlety transparency opacity variation consistency complexity simplicity distortion realism depth flatness sharpness diffusion activeness passiveness irregularity regularity juxtaposition singularity angularity roundness representation abstraction vertically horizontally The instructional objectives of the film should be reviewed before deciding upon the design of the animated visuals. From the list of instructional design factors, select those factors useful for each enabling objective of the film. 1. ■ Learner preparation and motivation a. general alertness b. arousal c. expectancy d. incentives e. puni shment f. verbal directions g. stating of instructional objectives h. recall of relevant material i. introductory overview j. outline of the instructional content 2. ' Attention-getting devices a. inherent motion b. visual change c. novelty or surprise d. increase in size e. contrast 171 f. brightness g. complex displays h. elimination of extraneous material i. subjective camera angle j. visual pointers (e.g., pop-on lables, arrows, circling, and flashing) k. underlining 1. varying in face type m. implosion or explosion n. change in action or speed of movement o. color for emphasis 3.^ Learner participation a. speaking out along with film presentation b. practicing with film presentation c. note-taking d. participative exercises built into film content e. mental practicing encouraged ' \ 4.1 Feedback a. confirm correct and incorrect responses b. clarify misconceptions c. demonstrate required level of mastery d. explain why response is incorrect e. present entire correct response f. provide immediate or delayed feedback 5.^ Repetition and redundancy a. needed review of content b. same stimulus repeated c. varied repetition of stimulus 6.’, Sequencing and organization a. outlining b. general to specific 172 c. step procedure d. parts to whole e. hierarchial f. clustering into groups or categories g. advance organization h. progression i. concrete to abstract j. simple to complex k. known to unknown 1 Rate of development and pacing a. For a slow rate of development, the visual material must be designed to be projected at a fixed and easily comprehensible speed. b. For a faster rate of development, a faster pace is needed with a minimum amount of detail in the visuals. 8.-,1 Contiguity a. Two associated visual items should appear at the same time and in the same space. b. Two associated visual items should appear close together in time and space, and nothing should interfer with learning the connection between them. * 9.. Modeling and imitation a. to eliminate certain behavioral deficits b. to reduce excessive fears and inhibitions toward a feared object c. to transmit self-regulating systems 1 0 . Complexity a. a large quantity of detail within one image b. a montage of images _____________________________ 173 c. a rapidly changing image within a given time d. a gradual building of complexity 11.*; Aesthetics a. balance the visual elements b. order the concepts to be learned c. express clearly and succinctly the instructional material d. attract the viewer to attend to the instruction 12.; ' Difficulty of material V a. signal learning b. stimulus-response learning c. chaining of responses d. discrimination of stimulus and response e. rule learning f. problem-solving learning In addition to the elements of visual communication, the visual structures, visual techniques, and instructional design factors, Caldwell (197 3) has identified the following statements describing certain animation design factors.that should be consider in designing visuals for instruction: 1.) Anthropomorphic features used as relevant cues in an animated film do facilitate discriminate learning (p. 371>. 2 J\J The illustration of rewarded modeling in an animated film increases learning (p. 372). 3. ^Viewers will perceive the most familiar object on the screen as the figure (p. 379). 4.3 The brightest figure of a group of several objects will be discriminated first in an animated film (p. 381). 174 5 .D Moving diagonals are more obvious in discriminating the relevant qualities of a form in an animated film (p. 382) . 6Jj The critical qualities of an object to be discrimi nated are best learned when presented alone and exaggerated against a blank background in an animated visual (p. 383). 7.1 Parts of an object are best discriminated when they appear to pop out of the object, are shown individually, and are returned to their real-life position (p. 387). 8.j After discrimination of an object has been learned, the practice with animated visuals, of additional complexity will transfer and generalize to other situations more easily than with simplified visuals (p. 388). 9.j By allowing the relevant cues in practice visuals to gradually fade, an animated film can assist the learner to discriminate with the aid of the cues (p. 389). 10.V - Concept learning is facilitated by the visual attributes of animated sequences that define and emphasize concrete concepts (p. 390). After the design factors have been selected specifically for presenting the instructional content and objectives, the visuals can be prepared. Depending upon the type of animation technique chosen, the visuals prepared at this point are the character model sheet, cutouts, painting on film, or the generation of computer and video images. ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________123. Question 7. How do the animated images appear and move? In initial} planning how the movement in an animated film will be perceived, the designer should consider this list of visual attributes. 1. Constancy a. consistency in direction b. consistency in speed 2 Figure-ground a. the moving element is considered the figure b. the static element is considered the ground 3. Motion-rest a. motion indicates an individual's spatial routines and behaviors b. rest is associated with regeneration c. motion and rest set the rythmn of the visual d. enounter adds another dimension to the rythmn of motion and rest , and it ranges from obliviousness to direct contact 4. Experienced velocity (Johnson, 1977, p. 36) a. Speed of an object is judged more so in terms of time than in terms of distance. b. Slower motion is harder to judge correctly than fast motion. c. Movement through an empty field is perceived faster than through a filled field. 176 d. Two objects moving similarly in the same field produce a single moving unit. e. Velocity is experienced by the physical displace ment between objects and not between their displace ment from a stationary background. f. Motion activity to motion activity dominates over motion activity to rest activity. g. Velocity is experienced through spatial and temporal displacement. If these are in conflict, the timing will determine the velocity experienced. h. Experienced velocity can also be the result of secondary related elements of time. i. When movement is similar and time is equaled, any cue differentiating the movement of two objects will be exaggerated. j. The velocity is influenced by the concentration of spatial relationships. k. Velocity is influenced by the whole presentation especially the timing in a soundtrack. 5. ) Configurations a. Two moving objects in an event configuration attract each other and dominate the spatial compo sition . b. Condensing the time to move a part of an event configuration causes pixillation or motion distor tion. 177 ; _ c. Extending the time to move a part of an event configuration causes image smearing. d. Timing and motion factors dominate over spatial factors in an event configuration. 6 . \ y Causality a. actual movement and the result of the movement b. pushing with full contact c. moving with partial contact d. moving with friction 7. ; Anthropomorphism a. inorganic shapes can exhibit organic behavior b. anthropomorphic movement arouses more attention 8. . ; • Attitude y a. Viewer observes what he wants to see. b. Empathetic viewer will accept movements and illusions. c. Apathetic viewer may reject style and animation techniques. 9 •( Adaptation a. Viewers can adapt to different visual situations. b. The speed, complexity, and abstraction of the visuals can gradually be increased. 10. [ \ Distortion of Form a. to ease natural motion and to express external forces b. hard-edges or non-circular shapes 178 c. swish lines d. drag e. stretch and squash f. results of gravity, friction, inertia, and momentum g. dependent upon speed, weight, and elasticity of animated element 11JJ' Design of action a. anticipatory action b. main action c. resulting action d. secondary action 12.[ } Realism a. dependent upon the nature of the instructional content b. modified by the visual literacy of the viewers After these visual attributes are considered, the designer can time and study real movement of models, live- action film or in rotoscoping. The exposure and worksheets should be composed, and some test footage filmed to check the movement. If the test footage is accepted, the filim- should be photographed , the video recorded,and extra tracks mixed. The initial version of the film should be prepared. 179 Question 8. Does the animation need to be changed? By Reviewing the initial version of the film with outside authorities, it should be determined if the animated film does accomplish the instructional objectives. A group of selected learners representative of the target audience should be tested to conduct a formative evaluation. Se quences needing changes should be revised and edited out.or into the film. The instructional objectives should be used as the basis of the evaluation of the film for the tested group. If no further changes are indicated, the final version of the film should be composed. Question 9. How to use the animated instructional film? Some'i guide should accompany the film containing an intro duction for the instructor and the intended audience, a listing of the instructional objectives, suggestions on the integration of the film into other instructional strategies, alternative uses of the film, and evaluative material based on the instructional objectives. Because instructors and students complain that often guides accompanying a film are lost, the designer can include this information in the beginning or after the instructional presentation of the film. These supplementary sections can be projected de pending upon the needs of the instructor or the student. 180 Question 10. How to market the instructional animated film? After reviewing the instructional objectives and the definition of the target audience, markets should be iden tified for selling the film. Depending upon the recognized markets, the film design should include attractive and mo tivational devices to sell the film (e.g., colorful visuals, clever title, or recommendation from an authority). Once the markets and the advertisement approach are defined, the film should be advertised through appropriate adult communication channels (e.g., educational or training journals, film catalogues, film distributor, educational television, or specialized conventions). Another successful marketing method is packaging the film. This includes adding other material to accompany the film making it a complete instructional package. Examples of other material for the package are a summative evaluation of the success of the film, a teaher’s guide, programmed workbook, practice materials, and evaluation methods. The model for designing instructional animated film for adults concludes with the Design Procedure Flow Chart; Tables 2, 3, and 4; and the Glossary. 181 Figure 11. Design Procedure Flow Chart No idea known Write instructional purpose and topic for film. What is animation idea? No idea known Define animation idea into film treatment. No idea known Write terminal and enabling objectives for the film. refer to Table II or Table III 7h refer to Hayward methods (p. 165) refer to appendix for writing objectives & Table III 182' Figure 11.(Continued) © known * Write content outline, ■ 9 - • 7 review ,sequencing Write film script, storyboard, computer program or sound track. Review objectives. design factors, and Table IV Prepare visuals. Develop character model sheets, create cutouts, and generate computer/video images. known _________________ye_________________________ Decide upon animation technique. Prepare time schedules, write budgets, and list content sources and constraints. X Ho\K / is the Nv content for\No idea animated filing ^sequenced?/ known What\ are the n. ^resources and constraints for animated / film 1/ 133. Figure 11.(Continued) No idea known Compose exposure sheets, film visuals, record video, mix extra tracks. changed? known No idea Make necessary revisions, edit film. How No idea known Write instructional guide to accompany film for instructor, audience or individual student Review visual attributes, study and time real movment, shoot test footage Review film, formative evaluation, test it on selected group ZL Review objectives, and needs of target audience I84 Figure 11.(Continued.) No idea known / H o w \ to market ^ film? Review use summative evaluation target audience, resources Define marketable areas, use summative evaluation, decide upon method of advertising and design attractive packaging. 185 TABLE 2 1 1IME, COST DIFFE , AND EQUIPMENT COMPARISON RENT TYPES OF ANIMATION OF Type of Animation Material. Expense Time Requirement Special Equipment Applicable Content j HANDMADE not expensive frame by frame needs a lot of time continuous flow needs little time marking devices $ bleach/ blank film abstract line words,letters textures, shapes, minimal characters jsTILL jPICTURES Kinestasis i ! ! | < i t : i ! : i some expense to secure pictures and film some time to sequence and film pictures single frame camera, zoom lens, easel, lights, panning animation stand historical, political, social, scientific, and artistic time capsules i : iFilmograph | ■ ! i ! i | ! H | not expensive some time to write compre hensive shooting script and film art and photos com pared , or narrative told of story or historical moment from still picture SPONTANEOUS CREATION I i i ; j j not expensive very much time single frame camera, animation stand, plastic- media (ink, crayons, paint, clay) clear glass or support creation of art, telling a story ^OBJECT ANIMATION real, puppets, models not expensive to extremely expensive much time to move objects a small distance and film background set, single frame camera ,lights tell a story, show function of object,or model behavior : _________ i8 6_ TABLE 2 (CONTINUED) Type of Animation Material Expense Time Requirement Special Equipment Applicable Content OBJECT pixillatioi and motion ' distortion ' i not expensive much time to film and stop motion people or moving obj ects, single frame camera, tripod condensing j time for a story or for j the motion oi people or things f making people suddenly . appear and ■ disappear. | CUT-OUT not expensive a lot of time needed to cut out parts, and move them in increments to be filmed single frame camera, cut-outs, animation stand, glass to cover cut outs , plas-tac or pins lights story tellinc! cueing content minimum move ment showed CEL Total i i i extremely expensive very much time needed to design, paint, and film cels storyboard cels inks, paint single frame camera, animation stand, lights fluid and realistic motion Limited 1 I i i : i very expensive a lot of time to design, paint and film cels plus compose sound track system for categori zation of character motion cels commercial demands to economize animation ! 1 187 TABLE 2 (CONTINUED) \ Type of Animation Material Expense Time Requirement Special Equipment Applicable Content CEL ■ Reduced expensive a lot of time to design, paint and film cels single frame camera, animation stand, lights, cels artistic decision to economize animation fox stylized motion, bold compo sitions, and graphic 1 designs J AUTOMATED Video very expensive very much time needed to plan and compose video effects video camera, monitors, special effects' generator special visual effects, metamorphosis distortions, staggering, debeaming, chroma keying , and polarized light Computer generated extremely expensive very much time needed to program computer and generate images computer program, computer hardware, single frame camera project 3D image moving in space, simulations, portray event unseen to naked eye or unable to produce correctly by human hand 18 8] TABLE 3 LEARNING CHARACTERISTICS AND INSTRUCTIONAL NEEDS OF ADULTS PRESENTED IN ANIMATED FILM iLearning Description of Characteristic Instructional Need “Utilization of Animated Film [A. iPerf ormance Educational Objectives 1. Visual display of improve ment in performance of real* abstract, or imaginary moving concepts. 2. Novel show"of performance. 3. Cueing important factors needed to improve performance. 4. Visual illustration of alarming content involved in improving performance. 5. Visual bridging between conceptual explanation and performance in real world. 6. Visual organization of concepts to be linked to show improved performance. ;B. Motivation Attraction 1. Longer attention to anima tion because it is moving and unpredictable. 2. Novel display reducing neec for novel stimuli and reward ing viewer for watching. 3. Cueing of stimuli meaning ful to adult's life. 4. Visual bridging between interesting concepts to adults and existence in real world. 5. Blueprinting of 'motivating concepts. 6. Visual display of anxiety- reducing and anxiety-producing experiences. 7. Illustration of external and internal stimuli to learn. p - . Meaning Attraction, Educational Objectives, Retention 1. Visual organization, sim- I plification, and distinction ] of information to provide self 18 9 I TABLE 3 (CONTINUED) Learning Description of Utilization Characteristic Instructional of Need Animated Film C. Meaning (continued) Attraction, Educational Objectives, Retention discovery of meaning. 2. Moving visuals offers an "active" search for meaning. 3. Cueing of familiar factors between new material and current competencies. 4. Continuously moving images displaying significance of new material to existing thinking. 5. Illustrating supplanting to help give meaning to a concept ,D. (Experience Intake 1. Visually bridging between past and new experiences. 2. Providing anxiety-reducing and anxiety-producing events. 3. Cueing significant exper iences . 4. Novel presentations of familiar experiences. 5. Blueprinting and supplant ing an experience. ! 6. Providing direct experience’ for abstract concepts in rule j learning. | 7. Illustrating total process j of problem-solving experience.! ; E. 'Ability Educational Objectives, Organization, Support 1. Novel presentation of abilities, 2. Discriminating abilities necessary for learning. 3. Illustrating alarming abilities. 4. Visually bridging between abilities in real world and conceptual one. 5. Cueing similar abilities. 6. Organizing and linking abilities of adulthood. 19 0 J TABLE 3 (CONTINUED) f I •Learning 'characteristic Description of Instructional Need Utilization of Animated Film J ! E. Ability | (continued) i \ Educational Objectives, Organization, Support 7. Providing humorous, r negative, .or imaginary examples of abilities. F. Memory i i i i Retention, Organization, Support 1. Visually cueing to acquire and retain information. 2. Novel presentation of • information strengthens its registration. 3. Longer attention to anima tion strengthens acquisition and retention of information. 4. Organizing and simplifying information intensifies memory and avoids interference from extraneous information. 5. Blueprinting and supplant ing an experience 6. Bridging between old and new information, or between real and conceptual world strengthens memory. G. Condition 1 ! j 1 ' Setting 1. Organizing and simplifying concepts helps perception of images on screen. 2. Presenting anxiety-reducinc or anxiety-producing events. 3. Avoiding direct confronta tion with alarming content. 4. Providing real, imaginary, or abstracted resources from local or world community. 5. Visual display of concepts for hard-of-hearing. H. Pacing Organization 1. Organizing and linking of concepts to set pace. TABLE 3 (CONTINUED) Learning Characteristic Description of Instructional Need Utilization of Animated Film H. Pacing (continued) Organization 2. Simplifying or distorting pace from real world activity. 3. Designing pace to meet .special needs of adult learnei 4. Bridging between pace for learning and real world needs. 5. Presenting novel pacing. 6. Discriminating different pacing. I. Complexity Organization 1. Discriminating complex images and concepts. 2. Supplying many cues to resemble the complexity of realism. 3. Attracting attention to complex images real or imagi nary in motion. 4. Building level of compe tencies by presenting both simple and complex images. 5. Chaining of successive conditions:for learning to problem-solving. J. Content Attraction, Intake, Organization, Retention 1. Presenting content in a novel way. 2. Cueing of content visually. 3. Organizing, simplifying, sequencing of real or imagi nary content. 4. Introducing content to adults so they feel at ease (i.e., anxiety-reducing event or addition of humor). 5. Practicing content that is not accessible in real world. 6. Prioritizing content to adult interests. 1.9 2 TABLE 3 (CONTINUED) Learning Description of Utilization Characteristic Instructional of need Animated Film K. Feedback Support 1. Softening of mistakes with humor. 2. Rewarding for attending to instruction and for correct performance. 3. Supplying display of many outcomes to learning task — 4. Relating prior performance to recent performance. 5. Discriminating and cueing correct performance. 6. Providing realistic and imaginary reward for correct performance. L. Adjustment Intake 1. Discriminating and cueing differences or similarities between individual beliefs ancj those of the learning task. 2. Visually bridging between individual beliefs and those | of learning task. 3. Providing a novel inter- I | pretation of beliefs. | I 4. Supplying way to adjust to j alarming beliefs by avoiding • direct confrontation. 5. Illustrating an anxiety- ! reducing experience to help adult adjust. TABLE 4 ! DESCRIPTION AND USE OF VISUAL ELEMENTS i jElement Description Use i 1- iPOINT Round, square, or triangular, at rest a. locates area in space, j b. series of points indicates | line of direction, i c. combination of points gives texture. 12. ' line Thin, threadlike mark a. verical line symbolizes moving progression up and down, b. horizontal line symbolizes peaceful motion, c. diagonal lines are unstable d. indicates direction, e. decisive, defines edges,and cuts space, f. expresses emotions g. lines combined create tex- ! ture, j h. determines perspective. ?• 3HAPE Lines joining points in space to indicate length and width, circle, square, triangle a. express associate meanings, b. enclose areas, c. represents a sign for an object or meaning. 4. FORM i 1 Lines joining points in space to show length, width, and depth to represent real objects. 5. DIRECTION The line of force to give a feeling of stability! depth, and movement. ^ 6. TONE Presence and absence of light a. to inform the presence and absence of light, 194 TABLE 4 (CONTINUED) Element Description Use 6. TONE b. to differentiate objects and forms, c. to differentiate sides of a form. 7. ’ COLOR Stimulation of retina of eye with light waves of different wave lengths a. differentiates one color from another, b. identifies specific area, • c. codes similar things, d. expresses emotions and meanings, e. interacts with other colors ! 8. TEXTURE Surface character a. simulates tactile exper ience , warmth to a design, more info given of sub stance of object, d. more interesting design. b. c. 9. SCALE Relative size and measurement of object or sign a. clues importance of object or sign, b. identifies specific areas, c. compares relationship between areas. 1°. MOTION Physical displace- ; ment of an object in relation to ! another object a. attractive to eye, b. informative of real or illusionary events, c. discriminates figure and ground, d. expresses one of man's ways of relating to environment, e. establishes rythmn- 195 Glossary Introduction. The purpose of this glossary is to ex plain terms used in the model for designing instructional animated film for adults. To aid in the communication be tween sponsors, animators, educators, and researchers in media; this glossary has both instructional design and animated film terms. The glossary is an integral part of the model. The author recommends for definitions not listed in this glossary to consult Madsen (1969) for animation terms and to consult Gagne and Briggs (1974) for instruc tional design terms. Definition of Terms. ACTION. The movements of characters and objects which con stitute the events of a film (Madsen, 1969, p. 209). AFFECTIVE DOMAIN. Internalization, the change or inner growth that occurs in an individual as he becomes aware and adopts certain attitudes and principles which are inherent in forming selected judgments and behaving according to his values (Verduin et al, 1977, p. 58). ANGLE. The point of view in drawing perspective (Madsen, 1969, p. 209). ANIMATED ZOOM. A zoom effect achieved by making progressive changes in the sizes of artwork, rather than by moving the camera toward or away from the subject as when making a conventional zoom on an animation stand (Madsen, 1969, p. 209). ANIMATION. The arts, techniques, and processes involved in giving apparent life and movement to- inanimate object by means of cinematography (Madsen, 1969, p. 209). Animation is also created by means of a computer generated display on paper or on a cathode ray tube. The state of possessing life. 196 ANIMATION BOARD. A drawing board adapted for animation drawing by the addition of registration pegs (Madsen, 1969, p. 209). ANIMATION CAMERA. A motion picture camera having special adaptations making it suitable for animation photography These adaptations most often include a single- and continuous-exposure control, forward and reverse direc tional movement of film, a shuttle movement and regi-' " • ^stration system, a variable opening shutter with fade C_;. sealesV) and a rackover or reflex viewfinder to permit directf^viewing of the animation artwork (Madsen, 1969, P • 2s _^ /) . ANIMATION STAND. A mechanical device for holding and photo graphing artwork. An animation stand comprises a camera mounted on a movable carriage, one or two verti cal columns supporting the camera and (carriage, and a compound tabletop on which the artowrk is mounted be neath the camera for phogography(Madsen, 1969, p. 210). ANTICIPATION. Caracatured action developed at Disney which prepares audience and emphasizes action (Canemaker, 1977, p. 55). APPARENT MOTION. A perceptual phenomenon that results from successive stimulation by two or more separated statio nary stimuli (Johnson, 1977, p. 24). ATTENTION SET. The means by which the learner internally selects the stimuli to be apprehended at the appropri ate time (Gagne, 1970, p. 278). BACKGROUND. The setting against which the cels are photo graphed (Madsen, 1969, p. 210). BALANCE. A state of equilibrium (Webster’s New World Dic tionary, 1958, p. 111). BEHAVIOR. Refers to any visible activity displayed by the learner (Manger, 1962, p. 3). BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVE. A means for stating objectives so that observable adult behaviors are indicated in mea surable terms (Verduin et al, 1977, p. 73). BLUEPRINTING. A symbol is given to recall an aspect of the original stimuli (Caldwell, 1973, p. 132). BLURS. Animated speed lines rendered softly to carry the flow of fast action (Madsen, 1969, p. 211). . BRIGHTNESS, The amount of black and white (tone) in a color (Webster's New World Dictionary, 1958, p. 182). CAUSAL INDEX. A sign that is the result of the object such as smoke is a sign of fire^: (Hoffman, 1973, p. 305). CEL. A transparent plastic sheet used as the surface for inking and painting images in full and limited animation Animation cels are usually punched with three holes, outside the photography area intended to fit over reg- J istration pegs which are identical on both the drawing (fisc and the surface of the animation table (Madsen, 1969, p. 211) . CHARACTER MODEL SHEET. One piece of paper showing the features of an animation character with relative size, proportions, and notations on costume or specific move ments (Canemaker, 1977, p. 30). CHECKER. The person in an animation studio assigned to examine the materials to be photographed on the anima tion stand to assure that everyting is ready and in order (Madsen, 1969, p. 211). COGNITIVE DOMAIN. Knowledge category and skills and abil ities needed to use this knowledge (Verduin et al, 1977, p. 57). COMPUTER ANIMATION. A system of photographying in stop motion the illumination of a cathode tube in accordance with signals fed to the tube by a programmed computer (Madsen, 1969, p. 209). Computer-generated animation. COLOR. The coordinate of tone with the added component of chroma, the most emotional and expressive visual element (Dondis, 1973, p. 15). Perception of light waves. CONFERENCE TECHNIQUE. Developed by Disney, a group of animators meet to review storyboard and ideas under intense critical analysis (Canemaker, 1977, p. 30). CONFIGURATION. An integrated whole with independent proper ties and functions over and above the sume of the pro perties and functions of its parts (Webster's New World Dictionary, 1958, p. 307). CONSTANCY. The tendency to perceive an object as the same despite changing sense impressions (Johnson, 1977, p.31), CRITERION. A standard or test by which terminal behavior is evaluated (Mager, 1962, p. 3). 198 CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE. Acquired strategies such as verbal comprehension (Horn, 1967, p. 23). CUT. In motion pictures, an instantaneous change from one scene to the next (Madsen, 196'9, p. 213).* CUTOUT ANIMATION. A technique in which subjects, cut from cardboard and sometimes having joined limbs, are moved manually between single-frame exposures (Madsen, 1969, p. 209). DESCRIPTIVE MODEL. A means to identify the elements in a particular process, or to indicate the areas fr\om which questions may be drawn for further research (Adams et al, 1960, p. 16). DIRECTION. The thrust of movement that incorporates and reflects the character of the basic shapes, circular, diagonal, and perpendicular (Dondis, 1973, p. 15). DIRECTOR^. The person who is responsible for transmuting a script-- into a motion picture and supervises all aspects of fits production (Madsen, 1969, p. 213). DISSOLVE. A fade-in superimposed over a fade-out so that the first scene on the screen gradually^ disappears as the succeeding scene replaces it (Madsenj 1969, p. 213). DOT. The minimal visual unit, pointer, marker of space (Dondis, 1973, p. 15). DRAG. The way an object is distorted to represent the exaggerated effects of inertia or friction (Cleave, 1973, p. 131). EDITING. The process of selecting those scenes and sound tracks to be used in a film and assembling them into a dfesirable relationship for a good motion picture (Madsen, 1969, p. 214). EDITOR. The person responsible for selecting the recorded scenes and sounds to be used in a motion picture and for arranging them in the most desirable relationship and tempo (Madron, 1969, p. 214). EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY. . The application of systematic processes for the design, implementation, and evaluation of the total process of learning and teaching in terms of specific objectives. It employes a combination of human and non-human reources to bring about more effec tive instruction (IDI Glossary, 1972, p.4). '19 9 EMULSION. The light-sensitive coating of the film base, on which images are photographically recorded (Madsen, 1969 p. 214). ENABLING OBJECTIVE. Describe specific behaviors that must be learned or performed in order to achieve the terminal objective (Kemp, 1977, p. 32). EXPOSURE SHEETS. A record of every frame of animation. The sheets include a description of the sound track and the order in which each cel is to photographed, as well as the background notes and camera instructions (Levitan, 1962, p. 186). FADE. A fade-in is the gradual appearance of a scene from a darkened screen. A fade-out is the gradual darkening and disappearance of a scene to black on the screen (Madsen, 1969, p. 214). FEATURE LENGTH. A film averaging 90 minutes or more in length and intended for theatrical distribution (Madsen, 1969, p. 214). FELT AXIS. A visual axis that dominates but is not seen and remains an unconscious constant (Dondia, 1973, p. 23). FIELD. The size of the area to be photographed. A standard field is twelve inches horizontally (abbreviated 12F). Ranging from 1-12F, fields have a 36 to 50 proportional ratio (Levitan, 1962, p. 186, and Madsen, 1969, p. 214). FILM BASE. The transparent, flexible material bearing the photographic emulsion (Madsen, 1969, p. 209). FILMOGRAPH. A technique in which movements of the camera and compound create the illusion of animation in still photographs and artwork(Madsen, 1969, p. 214). FLUID INTELLIGENCE. Induction, seeing figural relationships or natural wit (Horn, 1967, p. 23). FLUORESCENT ANIMATION. A variant of object animation in which the objects to be photographed are coated with a fluorescent paint. The background and extraneous objects are painted flat black. The animation is then photo graphed under ultraviolet light source. Only the objects coated with the fluorescent paint will appear in the finished print (Madsen, 1969, p. 209). FRAME. A single picture in a piotion picture film. 2HCL HANDMADE ANIMATION. A technique in which the emulsion of black leader or inks and paints applied to clear leader are scratched off to produce animation effects (Madsen, 1969, p. 209). HUE. The basic color or chroma. The three primary hues are red, yellow, and blue (Dondis, 1973, p. 51). ICONIC. The ability to see, to recognize, and understand environmental and emotional forces visually (Dondis, 1973, p. 1). An image that resembles. its- object. INBETWEENER. An assistant to the animator; one who sketches the animation drawings in between the extreme drawings made by the animator to create a convincing flow of action (Madsen, 1969, p. 216). INDEX. A sign related to its object by a dynamic spatio- temporal relationship (Hoffman, 1973, p. 305). INKER. An artist who specializes in rendering animation drawings on cels in ink (Madsen, 1969, p. 216). INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVE. Describes an intended outcome rather than a description or summary of content (Mager, 1962, p. 24). LEICA REEL. A film of the entire feature in all stages of development (Canemaker, 1977, p. 36). LIMITED ANIMATION. A technique in which the cel images are animated only in part, but appear to be rendered in full animation because of added movement contributed by pans, zooms, cycles, and other effects (Madsen, 1969, p. 210). LINE. The fluid, restless.articulator of form, in the probing looseness of the sketch and the tighter tech nical plan (Dondis, 1973, p. 15). LIVE-ACTION PHOTOGRAPHY. The use of the motion picture camera to record events taking place before the camera. MIXER. The director of a sound-recording crew who is in charge of combining voices, music, and sound effects int desirable proportions on a single sound track (Madsen, 1969, p. 217). OBJECT ANIMATION. The movement or manipulation of three- dimensional objects, photographed by single-frame exposure (Madsen, 1969, p. 210). 201 OPAQUER. An artist who specializes in applying opaque paint to animation cels (Madsen, 1969, p. 217). OSTENSIVE INDEX. A sign that points to an object to which it is related in space and time such as an arrow point- ing to its object (Hoffman, 1973, p. 305). PENCIL TEST. The process of photographing and projecting the penciled animation drawings to determine the smooth ness of the animation before proceeding to the inking and painting of the cels(Madsen, 1969, p. 218). PERSISTENCE OF VISION. A characteristics of the human eye in which the retina retains the image of a viewed sub ject for an instant after the subject has been removed (Madsen, 1969, p. 218). PERSPECTIVE. In art, a method of creating the illusion of three-dimensional form and distance on a two-dimensional surface (Madsen, 1969, p. 218). PINHEAD SHADOW ANIMATION. A form of animation in which rows of pins are pressed into a board, and the board is cross-lighted. The pinheads are raised and -lowered to catch or lose the light for each frame of film (Madsen, 1969, p. 210). PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN. Observation, imitation, practice, and adaptation category (Verduin et al, 1977, p. 60). PUPPET ANIMATION. A technique in which three-dimensional figures are moved, an increment at a time, and photo graphed with single-frame exposures(Madsen, 1969, p. 210) REAL MOTION. The physical displacement of one object in reference to another object (Johnson, 1977, p. 24). ROTOSCOPING. The tracing of images projected down from the camera to the compound tabletop for the purposes of making layouts or traveling mattes (Madsen, 1969, p. 220) . ROUGH DRAWINGS. Drawings containing life-giving elements in a kind of graphic shorthand which gives the heart of the action but eithout nonessential details (Canemaker, 1977, p. 32). SATURATION. The density of a hue in a color (Dondis, 1973, p. 55). SCALE. The relative size and measurement of an object (Dondis, 1973, p. 15). 202 SCRIPT. A written statement of content and cinematic tech niques to be used as a blueprint for producing a motion picture (Madsen, 1969, p. 221). SEQUENCE. Several actions or scenes from a production (Levitan, 1962, p. 189). SHAPE. Circle, square, triangle and all their endless variation, combinations, permutations, which are planal and dimensional (Dondis, 1973, p. 15). SOUNDTRACK. The recorded dialogue and background sound on tape. Also, the edge of the film frame where the sound impulses appear (Levitan, 1962, p. 189). SPECIAL EFFECT. Any motion picture effect unobtainable by conventional cinematography techniques such as combining live-action with animation (Madsen, 1969, p.222). SPONTANEOUS CREATION ANIMATION. Animation art work is created under the camera spontaneously and the animation camera records the successive changes frame by frame (Johnson, 1977, p. 84). STORYBOARD. A visual presentation in the form of sketches of the ideas and pictorial continuity of the script (Madsen, 1969, p. 222). STRESS. The dominance of an element of a composition that disrupts the balance(Dondis, 1973, p. 25). STRETCH AND SQUASH. Caracatured actions developed by Disney which exaggerate the physical laws of expansion, con traction, and gravity. SUPPLANTING. An image helps a learner internalize a concept (Caldwell, 1973, p. 133). SYMBOL. Signs related to their objects by conventional rule such as a red light meaning stop and a green light meaning go (Hoffman, 1973, p. 305). TARGET AUDIENCE. The people intended to view a given motion picture (Madsen, 1969, p. 222). TECHNIQUE. A style or method of handling the subject matter in commercial film production (Levitan, 1962, p. 190). TELEVISION ANIMATION. Animated film intended for broadcast distribution differ from the traditional form in that their subjects must be more carefully centered to pre- 203 elude any amputation of key images by "television cut off" (Madsen, 1969, p. 222). TERMINAL OBJECTIVE. Describes in behavioral terms the major learning outcomes (Kemp, 1977, p. 32). TEXTURE. Optical or tactile, the surface character of visual materials (Dondis, 1973, p. 15). TIMING. Duration of action on screen determined by number of individual frames (Cleave, 1973, p. 31). TONE. The presence or absence of light (Dondis, 1973, p. 15) . TOTAL ANIMATION. Fluid and very detailed style of animation (Cleave, 1973, p. 132). TREATMENT. Detailed written story outline for a film (Cleave, 1973, p. 132). VISUAL LITERACY. Visual literacy refers to a group of vision-competencies a human being can develop by seeing and at the same time having and integrating other sensory experiences. The development of these compe tencies is fundamental to normal human learning. When developed, they enable a visually literate person to discriminate and interpret the visible actions, objects, and/or symbols, natural or man-made,that he encounters in his environment. Through the creative use of these competencies, he is able to communicate with others. Through appreciative use of these competencies, he is able to comprehend and enjoy the masterworks of visual communication (as defined by the Conference on Visual Literacy quoted by Ross, 1973, p. 205). VISUAL TECHNIQUE. Methods of manipulating visual elements (Dondis, 1973, p. 16). 204 CHAPTER VI Summary Introduction The purpose of Chapter VI is to complete this disserta tion with a summary of the findings, conclusions related to the model, and recommendations for further study. Summary of the Findings Chapter I introduced the problem and described the pro blem for this dissertation project. The problem was iden tified as a lack of body of information combining the information on animated film, instructional design and the learning design needs of adults. To resolve this problem, this study sought to synthesize the information from the three areas of interest and to develop a model for designing instructional animated films for adults. Chapter I also proposed five questions to be answered as as result of the study. The answers to the five questions are summarized in the following: 1. When and where is animation advantageous for adult instruction? Animation is helpful to instruction when used for its two unique capabilities. One ability is that ani mated film, can have any apparent movement. Because an 205 animated film exists through the flow of single images pro jected in time, it is unpredictable and motivates a learner to attend to the created moving images. Having complete control over the creation of the visual, an animated film has the second ability to portray images difficult to see with the naked eye. This includes concepts that do not exist and are imagined From Caldwell’s (1973) investigation of the use of ani mation in instructional film and videotapes, the author identified twelve statements describing where animation would assist in instruction for adults. These twelve statements are listed in the following: 1. Animation can provide novel stimuli; 2. Animation can cue learning stimuli; 3. Viewers attend longer to animated instruction; 4. Animated instruction can bridge the gap between the real world and a conceptual one; 5. Animated sequences are helpful in learning ember- rassing, controversial, or distracting stimuli; 6. Animation is useful for visual discrimination of objects into classes; 7. Animated visuals can be organized and linked into chains of thought; 8. Animation is useful in blueprinting and supplanting concepts; 2116 9. Animation can provide a direct experience symbo lizing abstract concepts in rule learning; 10.- In problem-solving, animation can illustrate the problem, dispaly relevant rules and concepts, and show alternative solutions; 11. Animated visuals are controlled and can be designed to meet the particular needs of learners; and 12. Animation is motivating in that it is unpredic table, it can satisfy both external and internal stimuli to learn, and it can display both anxiety- -reducing and anxiety-producing experiences. As a result of the two unique capabilities and twelve statements about animated film, Table 3 (located in Chap ter V) was formulated to note when and where animated film f is advantageous to the learning characteristics and instruc tional design needs of adults. 2. In designing animated instructional films for adults, what process is suggested for a designer to follow? Initially, ; this study .investigated the design approaches of selected animators and animation studios who are recognized as important contributors to the field of animation by the Filmex Animation Conference and Workshop (197 8). From this information, the author wrote the flow chart on the proce dure for designing animated film (located in Chapter III). Combining this procedure with the Truman (197 7) guide lines for designing instructional film and the steps in ___________________________________________________________________________ zm instructional system development by Gagn6 and Briggs (1974), the decision points were identified by the author. The study of design factors in Chapter IV provided additional elements to consider in the design process. In Chapter V, the model supplies the final process suggested by this study for designing instructional films for adults. The decision points identified are: 1. Why select animated film? 2. What is the idea for the animated film? 3. How will the animated film fulfill the instruc tional objectives? 4. What are the resources and constraints for the animated film? 5. How is the content for the animated film sequenced? 6. What is the appropriate design of the animated visuals for the objectives of the instruction? 7. How doe the animated images appear and move? 8. Does the animation need to be changed? 9. How to use the animated instructional film? 10. How to market the instructional animated film? 3. What instructional design factors should a designer consider for animation for adult instruction? Located in Chapter IV, some of the- design factors involved in designing animation for adults were discussed. The study began with a definition of the elements of visual communication, and it continued with the perception of these elements in an . 2 -0 - 8 animated film. The ten elements of visual communication are point, line, shape, form, direction, tone, color, texture, scale, and motion. Methods reviewed for structuring these elements into a composition so that they create clear visual statements were balance, stress, leveling and sharpening, preference for lower left, attraction and goruping, and positive and negative areas. Also, various visual tech niques identified by Dondis (1973) were listed to manipulate the visual elements within a composition. In perceiving these elements within an animated film, the dimension of motion is added. This study distinguished the perception of animated film by reviewing the visual attributes of constancy, figure-ground, motion-rest, experi enced velocity, configurations, causality, anthropomor phism, attitude, adaptation, distortion of form, design of action, and realism. In addition to the visual elements, visual structures, visual techniques, and visual attributes of animated film, the study investigated what design factors assisted the effectiveness of instruction in an animated film. The in structional design factors recognized by Allen(197 6) were reviewed and consist of learner preparation and motivation, directing perceptual attention, learner participation, feed back, repetition and redundancy, sequencing and organiza tion, rate of development and pacing, contiguity, modeling and imitation, complexity, aesthetics, and difficulty of ______ 2H9 of material. Also, ten additional statements were identified from the research done by Caldwell (197 3) that show the advan tages of certain animation design factors to instruction. The ten statements are: 1. Anthromorphic qualities used as relevant cues in an animated film do facilitate discriminate learning; 2. The illustration of rewarded modeling in an anima ted film increases learning; 3. Viewers will perceive the most familiar object on the screen as the figure; 4. The brightest figure of a group of several objects will be discriminated first in an animated film; 5. Moving diagonals are more obvious in discriminating the relevant qualities of a form in an animated film; 6. The critical qualities of an object to be discri minated are best learned when presented alone and exagge^- rated against a blank background in an animated visual; 7. Parts of an object are best discriminated when they appear to pop-out of the object, are shown individ ually, and are returned to their real-life position; 8. After discrimination of an object has been learned, the practice of animated visuals with additional complexity will transfer and generalize to other situations more easily than with simplified visuals; 9. By allowing the relevant cues in practice visuals 2JLQ to gradually fade, an animated film can assist the learner to discriminate without the aid of cues? and 10. Concept learning is facilitated by the visual attributes of animated sequences in defining and emphasizing concrete concepts. All of the design factors that were identified in this study were integrated into the decision points and animation process. 4. What are some of the possible animation techniques and their production requirements? Chapter III defined and described the following seven animation techniques: hand made, still pictures, spontaneous creation, object, cel, and automated animation. After reviewing the material on ani mation, the author composed Table 2 to suggest the relative time, cost, and equipment requirements plus the applicable content for the different animation techniques. An endless possibility of animation techniques is available to the designer. The major limitations are the imagination of the desiger, the development of appropriate technical hardware, and the time/cost restrictions. This study suggested the seven animation techniques for use in adult instruction. 5. Is it possible to develop a model for designing instructional animated films for adults? After the problem was investigated and defined, computerized and manual 211 literature searches were done in the three areas of inte rest: animated film, instructional design, and the adult learner. Chapter II investigated who is an adult learner. This was an unusually difficult task because the majority of the research studies did not seem to agree upon one defini tion. Extracting significant points from various research sources, the target audience for this study and the model was recognized. The general learning characteristics and needs of adult learners identified by Knox (1974) were used as a guide for Chapter IT. Six statements evolved profiling the adult learner. The learning behavior of adults was then studied as to how it influences the design of instruction. Table .1 was composed by the author on the instructional design needs of adults. Chapter III deals with defining and describing animated film. From a brief look at the history of animated film, the relationship of adult viewers to animation was revealed. Different types of animation techniques were also explained and Table >2 was written suggesting time, cost, equipment, and applicable content for the different animation tech niques . The nest task was to determine the instructional advan tages of animated film for adults. As a result of the review of literature and especially of the guidelines by Caldwell (1973), Table 3 . ' was composed by the author. 212 Table 3 : shows the learning characteristics and instruc tional design needs of adults related to the utilization of animated film. Also, in Chapter III, the design process for animated film was explored. A review of design approached of se lected animators and animation studios provided information to formulate a flow chart illustrating the basic design procedure for animated film. Adding to this information, the design guidelines by Truman (1977) and the design stages identified by Gagni and Briggs (1974), twelve decision points were recognized for the designing process involved in animated film Now that the study had investigated who is an adult learner, what are the animation techniques, how animated film can assist adult instruction; the next task was to determine how the animated visual should be designed to maximize its use in instructing adults. A review of ma terial on perception, visual literacy, and instructional design factors revealed a set of design factors for the model. As a result of the review of literature in animated film, instructional design, and the adult learner; the target audience was defined, types of animation explained, the advantageous application of animation to adult instruc tion recognized, and 'the design factors identified. The model was composed in Chapter V. Because a body of . 212 knowledge did exist in the three areas of interest, it was possible to combine them and structure a model for designing instructional animated film for adults. Conclusions Related to the Model The model for this study is a descriptive model. It is a method for identifying the various elements involved in the designing of animated films for adult instruction and is also a method of sequencing decision points. The success of the model depends upon its practical use as a suggested guide and not as a hard and fast rule. All three areas of interest for this study are not finely pin pointed. Each group of adults provides many variables in fluencing learning from an animated film. Animated film, in turn, represents a very creative endeavor that can not be limited or formularized. Although certain aspects of the perception of images can scientifically support principles on designing animated instruction, the design factors are dependent upon the other two amorphous topics. This model has provided a stepping stone for others in designing animated instruction for adults. Future studies can now isolate certain elements of instructional animation or of this model, and they can investigate their effective ness for adult instruction. Recommendations for Further Study Considering the five questions answered by this study, 214 the author would like to recommend these further investiga tions : 1. When and where is animation advantageous for adult instruction? Research can be done with a specified group of adults (i.e., based upon chronological age, intelligence level, or past experiences) to determine how certain factors in animation (e.g., novelty, cueing or pacing) can effect the learning task. 2. In designing animated instructional films for adults, what process is suggested for a designer to follow? This dissertation formulated ten decision points. Not only can each decision point represent a research topic, but the total process can be tested for different types of anima tion, different groups of adult learners, and different ca tegories of instructional objectives. 3. What instructional design factors should a designer consider for animation for adult instruction? Any of the design factors identified in this study can provide good material for an experimental study on their instructional effectiveness for a group of adults and for a type of instructional task. 4. What are some of the possible animation techniques and their production requirements? A research study can investigate what is the best type of animation technique to utilize given certain production requirements, cetain in structional objectives, and a certain adult audience. ____________________________________________ 2X5 5. Is it possible to develop a model for designing instructional animated film for adults? Researchers can improve on the model by expanding it to more specific types of adult learners, by concentrating on one type of animation or one design factor, and by applying other systems of or ganizing the content material. Caldwell (1973) identified in her dissertation a com munication gap between animators, educators, and researchers in instructional media. This gap still exists and it is hoped that this model will assist in encouraging more co- operative work between those individuals who design animated film, those who design instruction, and those who investi gate the variables in media and instruction. An interesting research study could compare the use of this model by the three different specialists (i.e., animator, educator, and researcher),to see if they interpret the model differently and to note if any changes should be made in the model. Finally, the author would like to recommend further development of animated film for adult instruction. Anima tion has been used in adult instruction for many years, but usually it has been utilized for adult content and not ne cessarily related to the characteristics and instructional design needs of adults. It is hoped that this model will assist animators in recognizing the elements of instruc tional design for adults. By following the suggested model, animators should be able to add this information to their . _ _2Jj6 l_ instinctual knowledge about animation. Also, educators should be able to identify the different types of animation, the designing process, and the limitations of animated film as a result of the model. 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Austin, TX: Learning Concepts, 197 8, ------------------ : __________________________________ 2_2JL Weaver, P. A. , & Rosner, J. Relationships Between Visual and Auditory Perceptual Skills and- Comprehension Inde pendent of Decoding. Pittsburgh, PA: Learning : , \ Research and Development Center of the University of Pittsburgh, 1975. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 113 679). Wright, P. Introduction to the 14th International Tournee of Animation. Presented at Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Bing Theater, April 7, 197 9. Wright, Jr.,R. R. Visual Literacy— Debes' Concept is a Beautiful IT Reality. Audio Visual Instruction, June/ July, 1971, 16(6), 48-49. Youngblood, G. Expanded Cinema. New York: E. P. Dutton and Company, Inc., 1970. Zahn, J. C. Differences Between Adults and Youth Affecting Learning. Adult Education, Winter, 1967, 1/7 (2) , 67-77. 227 APPENDIX Writing Instructional Objectives Introduction An important decision point in designing an animated instructional film is to determine what the film will do to instruct the viewers. Otherwise, what are the instructional objectives for the film? Before writing the instructional objectives, it may be easier to consider first the cal^gory and the level of the objectives. Category of Objectives Learning Objectives are divided into three categories according to the type of behaivor they describe. The three categories are cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. 1. Cognitive. Learning objectives in this category are used to describe knowledge or information (e.g., naming, recognizing, predicting). . 2. Affective. In this category, learning objectives are used to describe attitudes, values, or feelings (e.g., enjoying, respecting). An example of an objective in this category is the following: Given five essays in French, the student will be able to enjoy reading in French as observed by the number of essays optionally completed in the six-week French course. ' 2-2.8. 3. Psychomotor. Learning objectives used to describe skills or coordination of skeletal muscles (e.g., perform, construct, observe) are in the psychomotor category. Levels of Objectives The two basic levels of learning objectives are the terminal and enabling levels. A terminal objective is used to describe the behavior the medium will demonstrate by the end of the instruction. The following statement is an example of a terminal objective: After reading this dissertation and reviewing the model, the reader will be able to utilize the ten decision points in designing animated instructional film for adults. An enabling objective describes the behaviors the film is going to demonstrate in order to achieve the terminal objective. An enabling objective for this study is the following: As a result of reading this appendix on writing instructional objectives, the reader will be able to recognize the three components of a learning objective for an instructional film. Writing Terminal Objectives A learning objective consists of three components. The three components are an action verb, a content reference, and a performance standard. Some individuals prefer to add a fourth component indicating the conditions for learning. An easy method to remember the components of a learning 229 objective is A-B-C-D. "A" refers to the audience who is going to learn, and "B" indicates the behavior the audience is going to learn. "C" means the conditions for learning, while "D" is the degree of learning performance. It is easier to list the components for an objective before writing it into a complete statement. The author suggests the following method: terminal objective # _ C a t e g o r y _________________ action verb (behavior)_____________ content (behavior)____________ ______________________ condition _____________________________________ criteria (degree) Listed below are some action verbs categorized by behavior. From the list, select an action verb that will specifically show an observable behavior in the film. "Creative behaviors" ask change design predict question generalize reorganize revise paraphrase synthesize systematize vary "Complex, Logical, Judgemental behaviors" analyze contrast combine criticize compare defend formulate generate explain "General Discriminative behaviors" choose differentiate isolate define identify describe collect "Scientific behaviors apply manipulate match omit report structure substitute plan point order list transfer -23-d Using the terminal objective given previously as an example, the following list of components are illustrated, terminal objective # _ 1 Category cognitive action verb utilized content ten decision points condition after reading this dissertation and reviewing the model criteria (in this case, all ten decision points are assumed to be used correctly) After listing the components of the terminal objective, write the components in a complete sentence. After reading this dissertation and reviewing the model, the reader will be able to utilize the ten decision points (correctly) in designing animated instructional film for adults. Writing Enabling Objectives For each terminal objective, at least two enabling objectives exist. A good method of recognizing the enabling oehaviors is to list initially all the behaviors the film will need to achieve the terminal behavior. From this list, check the most critical behaviors and eliminate extraneous behaviors. Each important behavior should be written into an enabling objective. An enabling objective is written in the same manner as a terminal objective. It also has three components, the action verb, a content reference, and a performance __________________________________________231_ standard. An important difference in enabling objectives is that they must be sequenced. In order to achieve the ter minal behavior, each enabling objective must be mastered before tackling another objective, so it advisable to se quence the objectives in a logical manner. How is the enabling objective mastered? In each lear ning objective, a performance criteria is written. Examples of performance critera are correctly, four out of five, with seventy percent accuracy, or completely. In the first segment, the animated film will illustrate completely four of the ten decision points in the model for designing animated instructional films for adults. 3y carefully writing the performance criteria, an instruc tional objective can be used as a means to evaluate the offectiveness of the film. It is important to note that two types of learning objectives are written. Instructional objectives describe what the film will do, while behavioral objectives describe what the student will do. In both types of learning objec tives, terminal and enabling objectives are written. Where to begin in writing learning objectives? A good idea is to initially determine the terminal objective(s). By reviewing the content outline for the film, the necessary content should be listed under each terminal objective. Next, the instruction in each terminal objective should be subdivided into the necessary enabling objectives. The terminal and enabling objectives are then written. _____________ 232 References Kemp, J. E. Instruct'iona 1 Design. Belmont, CA: Fear on Publishers, 1977. Mager, R. F. Preparing Instructional Objectives. Belmont, CA: Fearon Publishers, 1962. 2-3-3

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Creator March, Gail Ann (author)

Core Title A model for designing instructional animated films for adults

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Degree Doctor of Philosophy

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Tag Education, Instructional Design,education, technology of,OAI-PMH Harvest

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Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-541290

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