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African universities in search of their identities: A study of the culture of careerism at the University of Ouagadougou (Upper Volta)

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African universities in search of their identities: A study of the culture of careerism at the University of Ouagadougou (Upper Volta)

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Content AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES IN SEARCH OF THEIR IDENTITIES:
A STUDY OF THE CULTURE OF CAREERISM AT THE
UNIVERSITY OF OUAGADOUGOU
(UPPER VOLTA)
by
F ernand Sanou
A D i s s e r t a t i o n P re s e n te d to th e
FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In P a r t i a l F u lf il lm e n t of th e
R equirem ents f o r th e Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
(E d u catio n )
December 1981
UMI Number: DP24797
All rights reserved
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UNIVERSITY O F SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
THE GRADUATE SCH O O L
UNIVERSITY PARK
LOS ANGELES. C A LIFO RN IA 9 0 0 0 7
This dissertation, written by
FERNAND SANOU
under the direction of h.h?.... Dissertation Com
mittee, and approved by all its members, has
been presented to and accepted by The Graduate
School, in partial fulfillment of requirements of
the degree of
D O C T O R OF P H I L O S O P H Y
■ M O i,
Dean
Date.
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE
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DEDICATION
To my w if e , M ic h e lin e L u c ie , and my so n s,
P h ilip p e Zezouma and Stephane R oland.
i i
A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S
F i r s t of a l l I would li k e to thank th e V o lta n peo p le and p a r
t i c u l a r l y th e form er M in is te r of E d u ca tio n and C u ltu r e , Dao Oumarou,
who allow ed and encouraged me to p ursue my d o c t o r a l s t u d i e s .
T his d i s s e r t a t i o n and th e academ ic work w hich preceded i t
would n o t have been p o s s ib le w ith o u t th e generous f i n a n c i a l and adm in
i s t r a t i v e s u p p o rt of th e American peo p le and t h e i r s p e c i a l a g e n c ie s :
th e Agency f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development (AID) and th e A frican -A m erican
I n s t i t u t e (AAI) .
My f u l l g r a t i t u d e is extended to th e p e rs o n n e l w orking f o r
th e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y C ynthia W ise, E liz a b e th Ward, Susan
'Votaw., H eath er Monroe, David H e n ric k s , and T h eo p h ile Bambara of AAI,
and F a t i Ouedraogo of AID, f o r th e o p p o rtu n ity of s h a r in g th e r i c h
c u l t u r a l and e d u c a tio n a l e x p e rie n c e s of th e Am erican p e o p le .
At th e U n iv e r s ity of S o u th ern C a l i f o r n i a I met i n t e l l e c t u a l l y
c h a lle n g in g s c h o la r s who h elp ed me u n d e rsta n d th e im portance and com
p l e x i t y of e d u c a tio n a l p ro b le m s. Among them were th e members o f my
D i s s e r t a t i o n Committee: D r. W illiam M axwell, D r. C aro l Thompson, and
D r. W illiam R id e o u t. I am g r a t e f u l f o r t h e i r a d v ic e and g u id a n c e .
D r. M axwell, my a d v i s e r and ch airm an , and Dr. Thompson have been p a r
t i c u l a r l y rem a rk ab le in h aving th e p a tie n c e to sh a rp e n my t h e o r e t i c a l
r e s e a r c h in s tru m e n ts and in s e e in g t h a t I made good use of them in
th e f i e l d . D r. R id e o u t's e x te n s iv e e x p e rie n c e in A fric a n problem s was
a c o n s ta n t so u rc e of r e f e r e n c e f o r me.
i i i
I would l i k e to thank a l l Ouagadougou U n iv e r s ity a u t h o r i t i e s ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y th e R e c to r, th e S e c r e ta r y G e n e ra l, th e R e g i s t r a r , th e
h ead s of the d e p a rtm e n ts, and th e s tu d e n t p e rs o n n e l (BIO) o f f i c e r s
f o r th e in fo rm a tio n th e y k in d ly p ro v id ed and f o r th e a s s i s t a n c e from
my form er c o l la b o r a t o r s in th e ty p in g and assem b lin g of my q u e s ti o n
n a i r e .
I thank th e h ig h sc h o o l p r i n c i p a l s who so g e n e ro u s ly p ro v id ed
me w ith in fo rm a tio n co n c e rn in g t h e i r s c h o o ls , th e u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o rs
and s tu d e n ts who a s s i s t e d me in p re p a rin g and a d m in is te rin g my survey
q u e s ti o n n a ir e , and th e Ouagadougou U n iv e r s ity s tu d e n ts who u n s e l f i s h l y
d ev o ted t h e i r tim e to co m p letin g th e q u e s ti o n n a ir e .
My w if e , M ic h e lin e L u c ie , a s s i s t e d me in c o l l e c t i n g th e d a ta ,
b u t most im p o rta n t to me was h e r lo v in g encouragem ent and u n d e rsta n d in g
and f o r assum ing a l l th e fa m ily o b lig a tio n s d u rin g th e s e l a s t 3% y ears
t h a t I have been away.
To my s o n s , P h ilip p e and S t£phane, a l s o my s p e c i a l th an k s fo r
s u p p o rtin g my long ab sen ce and s ta y in g in good h e a l t h , th e re b y f r e e i n g
my mind f o r the in t e n s iv e work th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h r e q u ir e d .
To a l l my p a re n ts and r e l a t i v e s who encouraged me in t h i s work,
I can o n ly say "th a n k you a l l . " My f a t h e r - i n - l a w , Compaorl Hamadqu
P a u l, was the most s u p p o r tiv e , b u t, u n f o r tu n a te ly he d id n o t l i v e to
se e the p ro d u c t of h is encouragem ent. His f a i t h in me w i l l always be
rem em bered.
A s p e c i a l thanks to my f r i e n d , P au l D av is, who took p a tie n c e
in e d i t i n g my d r a f t .
iv
TABLE O F CONTENTS
Page
DEDICATION.................................................................................................................... i i
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.......................................................... i i i
LIST OF TABLES.................................................................................................................... v i i
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................ x i i
GLOSSARY ...................... x i i i
C h ap ter
I . THE PROBLEM OF SEARCH FOR IDENTITY.................................................... 1
The S e tt in g : The U n iv e r s ity of Ouagadougou and
I t s R ole in th e S o c ia l S t r a t i f i c a t i o n ................................... 2
R esearc h Q u estio n s ............................................................................. . 7
I I . REVIEW OF LITERATURE................................... 10
T h e o rie s of S o c ie ty and D eterm inant
S o c ia l F o r c e s ................................................ 10
T h e o rie s C oncerning th e Development of U n iv e r s ity
D epartm ents, and th e S e le c tio n and
T rac k in g of S tu d e n ts .......................................................................... 31
I I I . RESEARCH D E S I G N .............................................................................................. 45
D ata C o l l e c t i o n ........................................................................................ 45
D ata P r o c e s s i n g ........................................................................................ 54
L im ita tio n s .............................................................................. 54
Development of th e S t u d y ............................................................................ 5 7
IV. THE POLITICAL ECONOM Y OF BUREAUCRACY............................................. 59
H i s t o r i c a l C o n d itio n s of th e R ise o f th e
P o lit i c o - B u r e a u c r a t i c B o u rg e o isie ............................................... 5 9
The R ise of th e P o l i t i c o - B u r e a u c r a t i c B o u rg e o isie
and th e Id eo lo g y of N a tio n a l Development
th ro u g h S ta te C a p i t a l i s m ................................................................ 69
The C o n tr a d ic tio n s w ith in th e B ureau cracy ......................... 92
The P o l i t i c a l , Economic P r i v i l e g e s , and S o c ia l
P r e s t i g e of V arious B u re a u c ra tic Groups
and U n iv e r s ity G raduates ........................................................... 104
v
C hapter Page
V. THE RACE FOR THE UNIVERSITY: EDUCATIONAL SELECTION
IN THE SCHOOLS........................................................................................................133
A dvantages and S t r a t e g i e s Taken by th e Dominant
C la sse s in th e C o m p e titio n
o v er School S e le c tio n .......................................................................... 136
The S o c ia l F u n c tio n of th e S ta t e S c h o la rs h ip ......................... 154
G eoethnic and R e lig io u s F a c to rs of. S e le c tio n :
The Unequal S ch o o lin g o f the
V o lta n P o p u la tio n ................................................................................... 163
The Im pact of G e o e th n ic ity on th e R e p ro d u ctio n
o f S o c ia l C la ss e s th ro u g h E d u c a tio n ....................................... 176
The B a c c a la u r^ a t E xam ination ................................................................ 184
The O b je c tiv e C o n s tr a in ts to E d u c a tio n a l D evelop
ment and T h e ir P o l i t i c a l S o lu tio n s ............................................ 198
V I. SOM E BACKGROUND REMARKS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENTS AND THE TRACKING SYSTEM..........................218
The Development of th e U n iv e r s ity D epartm ents
in a B u re a u c ra tic P e r s p e c tiv e ...................................................... 220
The T rac k in g System and th e Power S tru g g le
over I t s C o n t r o l ........................................................................................25 6
V II. EDUCATIONAL SELECTION AND OCCUPATIONAL TRACKING
IN THE U N IV E R SIT Y ................................................ 291
C a re e rs Chosen by S tu d e n ts ................................................................ 292
C aree r T racks O btained by S tu d e n ts from th e
N a tio n a l O r ie n ta tio n Committee ...................................................... 303
Some F a c to rs of S e le c tio n I n s id e th e U n iv e r s ity . . . . 323
Summary and C o n clu sio n ............................................................................... 336
V I I I . SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................ 343
BIBLIOGRAPHY.....................................................................................................................................359
APPENDIX.............................................................................................................................................. 370
v i
LIST OF TABLES
T able Page
1. Survey Sample of U n iv e r s ity S tu d e n ts A ccording to
Sex C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ........................................................................................ 49
2 . Survey Sample of U n iv e r s ity S tu d e n ts A ccording to
S o c ia l O rig in C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( F a t h e r 's O ccupation) . . . 50
3 . S t a t i s t i c a l D ata C oncerning V o ltan Wage E a rn e rs in
195 7 ( M ili ta r y Not In c lu d e d ) ................................................................ 66
4 . P r o f e s s i o n a l S tr u c t u r e o f S a la r ie d Labor F orce
in 195 7 ..................................................................................................................... 66
5 . D i s t r i b u t i o n o f V o lta n Wage E a rn e rs by P r o f e s s i o n a l
Q u a l i f i c a t i o n (A fric a n s and E u ro p ean s, P u b lic
and P r i v a t e S e c to rs T o g eth er) ................................................................ 67
6. E v o lu tio n o f P r i v a t e and P u b lic E lem en tary Schools and
S tu d e n ts s in c e 1 9 6 9 --th e D ate of N a t i o n a l i z a t i o n
of C a th o lic I n s t i t u t i o n s ......................................................................... 141
7. D i s t r i b u t i o n of P r i v a t e E lem entary S chools o v er the
T e r r i t o r y in 1966 and in 1980 . ...................................................... 142
8 . D i f f e r e n t i a l Ages a t Which S tu d e n ts of Both Sexes
E n te re d th e D i f f e r e n t P rim ary S chools in 1980 ......................... 144
9. D i f f e r e n t i a l Ages a t Which S tu d e n ts of Both Sexes
E n te re d th e D i f f e r e n t P rim ary Schools in 1966 ......................... 144
10. D i s t r i b u t i o n of S ix th G raders A ccording to F a t h e r 's
O ccupation from 1975 to 1980 146
11. E v o lu tio n of R e p e t it io n R ates i n th e P u b lic and
P r i v a t e S c h o o l s ..................................................... 147
12. D i s t r i b u t i o n o f S tu d e n ts in th e Lycees M unicipaux and
PM K A ccording to th e S o c ia l O rig in s as M easured
by F a t h e r 's O ccu p atio n , f o r th e Academic Y ear
1980-1981 ................................................................................................................. 150
13. D i s t r i b u t i o n of S c h o la rs h ip s among Secondary School
S tu d e n ts from D if f e r e n t S o c ia l O r i g i n s . P r o
p o r tio n o f S c h o la rs h ip s f o r each S o c ia l C ategory . . . . 156
v i i
T able Page
14. D i s t r i b u t i o n o f S c h o la rs h ip s among Secondary School
S tu d e n ts from D if f e r e n t S o c ia l O r i g i n s . P ro
p o r ti o n o f each S o c ia l C ateg o ry among 100
S c h o la rs h ip H olders ................................................................................... 15 7
15 . G eoethnic D i s t r i b u t i o n of High School and Ouagadougou
U n iv e r s ity S tu d e n ts ( in p e rc e n ta g e s ) ....................................... 165
16. E th n ic O rig in s of Ouagadougou U n iv e r s ity S tu d e n ts
G raduated from S em in aries (N=43) ................................................. 167
17. D i s t r i b u t i o n of th e V o lta n P o p u la tio n a t L arge and
th e U n iv e r s ity S tu d e n ts by R e lig io u s A f f i l i a t i o n
( in p e rc e n ta g e s ) ........................................................................................ 168
18. R e la tiv e Im portance of P r iv a t e (M issio n ary ) E d u ca tio n
in th e D if f e r e n t Regions and S chool D i s t r i c t s by
1964-1966 ............................................................................................................ 169
19. E v o lu tio n of th e D i f f e r e n t i a l S c h o o lin g R ates of D if
f e r e n t G eographic A reas (School D i s t r i c t s ) over
th e L a s t 15 Y ears ........................................................................................ 171
20. P r o p o r tio n of th e T o ta l School Age C h ild r e n , E lem entary
School S tu d e n ts , F i f t h Grade S tu d e n ts , C an d id ates
f o r th e J u n io r High School E n tra n c e E x am in atio n ,
and A d m ittees in each School D i s t r i c t f o r 100
C h ild re n from 1969 to 1978 (Data f o r 1970, 1972,
and 1973 a re n o t a v a i l a b l e ) ................................................................ 173
21. P ro p o rtio n o f School Age C h ild re n and S tu d e n ts E n ro lle d
i n E lem en tary School and in th e U n iv e r s ity in each
A d m in is tr a tiv e R egion f o r 100 C h ild re n .................................. 174
22. R e la tio n s h ip between E t h n i c i t y and O ccupation among
Ouagadougou U n iv e r s ity S tu d e n t s 1 P a re n ts .............................. 178
23. D i s t r i b u t i o n of R esponses to th e Q u estio n C oncerning
T rib a lis m ............................................................................................................ 180
24. D i s t r i b u t i o n of R esponses to th e Q u e stio n C oncerning
th e Is s u e of T r ib a lis m .......................................................................... 180
25. Breakdown o f T able 23 ................................................................................... 181
26. D i f f e r e n t i a l R ates of Success on th e B a c c a la u re a t
E xam in atio n of S tu d e n ts from D if f e r e n t S o c ia l
O rig in s (S e ssio n of 1980) ..................................................................... 185
v i i i
T able Page
27. D i f f e r e n t i a l R ates of Success in th e B a c c a la u r^ a t
E xam ination of S c h o la rs h ip H olders and Non-
S c h o la rs h ip H olders a t th e Lyc^e P h ili p p e Zinda
Kabore f o r 1977, 1979, and 1980, A ll Stream s ......................... 187
28. S o c ia l O rig in s of th e I n d iv id u a l F ree C an d id ates
E n ro lle d a t th e U n iv e r s ity of Ouagadougou
d u rin g th e Academic Y ear 1980-1981 195
29. Source and Im portance of th e In v estm en t in B u ild in g
th e U n iv e r s ity of Ouagadougou from 1970 to 1981 .................... 205
30. C a re e r C hoices of S tu d e n ts by S o c ia l O rig in s ( F a th e r 's
O ccupation) f o r Ouagadougou U n iv e r s ity ... . .. .. . 293
31. C a re e r C hoices o f S tu d e n ts by F a t h e r 's L evel o f Formal
E d u c a tio n f o r Ouagadougou U n iv e r s ity ............................................ 294
32. E v o lu tio n of S tu d e n ts ' C a re e r P re fe re n c e s s in c e 1964
(P e rc e n ta g e o f S tu d e n ts by C a re e r C hoice) ................................... 295
33. S tu d e n ts ' C a re e r P re fe re n c e s in 1971 by B a c c a la u r^ a t
S t r e a m ............................................................... 296
34. S tu d e n ts ' C a re e r P r e fe re n c e s in 1980 by B a c c a la u re a t
S t r e a m .............................................................................. 297
35. C a re e r P re fe re n c e s of S c h o la rs h ip H olders a t Ouagadou
gou U n iv e r s ity in 1980 by B a c c a la u r ia t S tream ......................... 298
36. C a re e r P re fe re n c e s by N o n -S c h o larsh ip H olders to th e
U n iv e r s ity of Ouagadougou f o r 1980-1981 ....................................... 299
37. D i s t r i b u t i o n of S tu d e n ts A ccording to th e Degree
Congruence o f T h e ir C a re e r C hoices
w ith T h e ir C a re e r T racks .......................................................................... 304
38. D i s t r i b u t i o n of Ouagadougou U n iv e r s ity S tu d e n ts in
th e D if f e r e n t B a c c a la u re a t Stream s A ccording
to T h e ir S o c ia l O rig in s ............................................................................... 306
39. Degree of Congruence o f C a re e r Choice w ith C a re e r
T rack A ccording to th e D i s t i n c t i o n O btained
in th e B a c c a la u re a t E xam ination ........................................................... 307
4 0 . D i s t r i b u t i o n of D i s t i n c t i o n s A ccording to D if f e r e n t
High School T r a c k s ........................................................................................ 309
ix
T able Page
41 . D i s t r i b u t i o n of D i s t i n c t i o n s among S tu d e n ts from
D i f f e r e n t S o c ia l O rig in s .......................................................................... 309
4 2 . D i s t r i b u t i o n o f B a c c a la u r^ a t D i s t i n c t i o n s among
D if f e r e n t Age Group S tu d e n ts (Minimum
P a s sin g and H o n o r s ) ........................................................................................ 310
4 3 . D egree o f Congruence of C a re e r C hoice w ith C aree r
Track A ccording to P ro fe s s io n s Asked For
by S tu d e n ts ( in p e rc e n ta g e s ) ................................................................ 312
4 4 . D egree o f Congruence o f C aree r Choice w ith C aree r
T rack O btained by S tu d e n ts from D if f e r e n t
S o c ia l O rig in s ( in p e rc e n ta g e s ) ........................................................... 312
4 5 . Degree o f Congruence of S tu d e n ts ' C a re e r C hoices w ith
T h e ir C a re e r T racks A ccording to F a t h e r 's L evel
o f Form al E d u c a tio n ( in p e rc e n ta g e s ) . .......................................... 314
4 6 . R e la tio n s h ip betw een Age a t E n try to U n iv e r s ity and
Degree of Congruence of C aree r C hoice w ith
C a re e r Track o f Ouagadougou U n iv e r s ity
S c h o la rs h ip H olders ( in p e rc e n ta g e s )................................................... 314
4 7 . D i f f e r e n t i a l Ages a t E n try to U n iv e r s ity o f S tu d e n ts
from E ducated and U nschooled F a m ilie s (Ouagadougou
U n iv e r s ity S c h o la rs h ip H olders) ( in p e r c e n t a g e s ) .................... 315
48. Degree of Congruence o f C a re e r Choice w ith C aree r
T rack f o r Younger (19-21 Year Old) S tu d e n ts from
D if f e r e n t Groups C l a s s i f i e d in t o Dominated and
Dominant ( in p e rc e n ta g e s ) .......................................................................... 316
4 9 . Degree o f Congruence of C a re e r Choice w ith C aree r
T rack f o r E ld e r (22-23 Y ear Old) S tu d e n ts from
D if f e r e n t Groups C l a s s i f i e d i n t o Dominated
and Dominant ( in p e r c e n t a g e s ) ................................................................ 316
5 0 . D i s t r i b u t i o n of 1980-1981 Freshmen in Home and F o re ig n
U n i v e r s i t i e s A cco rd in g to T h e ir S o c ia l O rig in s
( in p e rc e n ta g e s ) ............................................................................................. 318
51 . P ro p o rtio n s of Freshm en S tu d e n ts from D if f e r e n t S o c ia l
O rig in s E n ro lle d i n Law, Econom ics, and M edicine
a t th e Home U n iv e r s ity and A b r o a d ...................................................... 319
5 2 . E v o lu tio n of th e R e p r e s e n ta tio n of D if f e r e n t S o c ia l
Groups in D if f e r e n t P r o f e s s i o n a l Tracks
from 1975 to 1980 ............................................................................................. 319
x
T ab le Page
5 3 . E v o lu tio n o f th e Im portance o f th e Age F a c to r in
S tu d e n t s 1 C aree r T rac k in g by th e N a tio n a l
O r i e n t a t i o n Committee .................................................................................... 321
5 4 . R ates of S uccess in U n iv e r s it y E xam ination by D e p a rt
ment from 1966 to 1980 ( in p e r c e n t a g e s ) ........................................ 325
5 5 . R ates of Success in U n iv e r s ity E xam ination by L evel
of S tu d ie s ( in p e rc e n ta g e s ) over S ix Y ears
( 1 9 7 4 - 1 9 7 9 ) ............................................................................................................ 326
5 6 . R ates of Success in U n iv e r s ity E xam inations by D e p a rt
ments and L ev e l of S tu d ie s , C a lc u la te d o ver
S ix Y ears (1974-1979, Unweighted Means) .......................................... 327
5 7 . D i f f e r e n t i a l R ates of S uccess in F in a l E xam inations
of U n iv e r s ity S tu d e n ts from D i f f e r e n t S o c ia l
O rig in s (as M easured by F a t h e r 's O ccupation)
( in p e rc e n ta g e s ) . . ............................................................................... 330
5 8 . D i f f e r e n t i a l R ates of S uccess in F in a l E xam inations
f o r S tu d e n ts Who O btained D i f f e r e n t D i s t i n c t i o n s
to T h e ir B a c c a la u r^ a t (High School) Exam ina
tio n s ( in p e rc e n ta g e s ) ........................................................................... 332
5 9 . D i f f e r e n t i a l R ates o f Success in F in a l E xam inations
f o r S c h o la rs h ip H olders Who E n te re d th e
U n iv e r s ity a t D if f e r e n t Ages
( in p e rc e n ta g e s ).................................................................................................... 333
60. R a tin g by S tu d e n ts o f D if f e r e n t F a c to rs I n f lu e n c in g
T h e ir S uccess in E xam inations ( in p e rc e n ta g e s ) ...................... 335
x i
LIST OF FIGURES
F ig u re Page
1. A d m in is tr a tiv e d i v i s i o n of th e V o lta n t e r r i t o r y ..................... 170
2 . E v o lu tio n o f b a c c a la u r ^ a t ex am in atio n r e s u l t s
from 1970 to 1980 193
x i i
AEVCI
GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
A s s o c ia tio n des E tu d ia n ts V o lta iq u e s en Cote d 'I v o i r e
AEVO A s s o c ia tio n des E tu d ia n ts V o lta iq u e s a Ouagadougou
ASV A s s o c ia tio n des S c o la ir e s V o lta iq u e s
BIO B ureau d ' In fo rm a tio n e t d 'O r i e n t a t i o n
CDPP C e n tre de D ocum entation e t de P e rfe c tio n n e m e n t Pedagogique
LEAO
/
Communaute Economique de l 'A f r i q u e de l 'O u e s t
CEG C o lle g e d 'E n seig n e m en t G eneral
CILSS
t It
Comite I n t e r n a t i o n a l de L u tte c o n tre l a S e c h e re sse au S ahel
CLU C o lle g e L i t t e r a i r e U n i v e r s i t a i r e
CM C o n s e il des M in is tr e s
CNACB Commission N a tio n a le d 'A t t r i b u t i o n e t de C o n tro le des B ourses
CNO Commission N a tio n a le d 'O r i e n t a t i o n
CPES
t
C en tre de P r e p a r a t io n aux E nseignem ents S e c o n d a ire s
ECOW AS Economic Community o f West A f r ic a n S ta te s
ENS E co le Normale S u p e rie u re
ESD E cole S u p e rie u re de D ro it
ESLSH E cole S u p e rie u re de L e t t r e s e t des S cie n ces Humaines
ESSEC E cole S u p e rie u re de S cie n ces Economiques
IMP I n s t i t u t de M athem atiques e t de Physique
INAFEC I n s t i t u t A f r ic a i n d 'E d u c a tio n C inem atographique
ISP I n s t i t u t S u p e rie u r de P o ly te c h n iq u e
IUT I n s t i t u t U n i v e r s i t a i r e de T ec h n o lo g ie
M ENC M in is te r e de l'E d u c a ti o n N a tio n a le e t de l a C u ltu re
x i i i
MESRS
OAU
ORD
PV
RHV
SNEAHV
SUVESS
UAPT
UDEAO
UGEV
U.O.
x iv
M in is te r e de 1 ’E nseignem ent S u p e rie u r e t de l a R echerche
S c i e n t i f i q u e
O rg a n iz a tio n of A fric a n u n ity
/
O ffic e R e g io n a l de Developpement
P r o c e s - v e r b a l
R epublique de H au te-V o lta
S y n d ic a t N a tio n a l des E n se ig n a n ts A f r ic a i n s de H au te-V o lta
S y n d ic a t U nique V o lta iq u e des E nseignem ents du S eco n d aire e t
du S u p e rie u r
Union A f r ic a i n e des P o ste s e t T elecom m unications
Union D ouaniere e t Economique de 1 'A friq u e de l'O u e s t
Union G en erale des E tu d ia n ts V o lta iq u e s
U niversite^ de Ouagadougou
CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM OF SEARCH FOR IDENTITY
A f te r t h e i r p o l i t i c a l independence in th e e a r l y 1960s most of
th e A f r ic a n c o u n t r i e s have been c o n fro n te d w ith th e problem of
( r e ) d e f i n i n g th em selv es a f t e r a p e rio d o f c o l o n i z a t i o n , v a r i a b l e in
d u r a ti o n a c c o rd in g to th e c o u n tr ie s b u t tr a u m a tiz in g and a l i e n a t i n g
f o r e a c h . Among th e i n s t i t u t i o n a l means used in t h i s s e a r c h f o r id e n -
. t i t y , e d u c a tio n in g e n e r a l and th e u n i v e r s i t y in p a r t i c u l a r re c e iv e d
s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n .
The o b je c tiv e of th e p r e s e n t s tu d y is to exam ine, w ith th e
i l l u s t r a t i v e example of th e U n iv e r s ity of Ouagadougou in Upper V o lta ,
how th e A f r ic a n u n i v e r s i t i e s a re s t r i v i n g to e x p re s s t h e i r i d e n t i t i e s ;
t h a t i s , t h e i r s p e c i f i c and d i s t i n c t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . I t is th e
assu m p tio n of th e p r e s e n t stu d y t h a t th e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e o b s e rv
a b le th ro u g h th e academ ic c u l t u r e or th e v a lu e sy stem to w hich th e
s t u d e n t s , te a c h e r s , and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a u t h o r i t i e s r e f e r f o r t h e i r
b e h a v io r a t th e U n iv e r s it y . I t i s a l s o th e c o n te n tio n of th e p r e s e n t
s tu d y t h a t t h i s v a lu e sy stem can be d e f in e d as c a re e ris m o r th e s u b
o r d i n a t i o n of a l l a c t i v i t i e s to th e p u r s u i t o f th e most s o c i a l l y and
f i n a n c i a l l y rew ard in g c a r e e r s in th e b u re a u c ra c y .
T his d e f i n i t i o n of c u l t u r e is borrow ed from phenom enological
a n th ro p o lo g y ( S a r te , 1956; S c h e le r , 1973; G e e rtz , 1973). I t c o n s id e rs
c u l t u r e and v a lu e s as a c t e d , liv e d elem en ts by p eo p le in t h e i r d a y - to -
1
day a c t io n s and i n t e r a c t i o n . I t i s n o t p r im a r ily concerned w ith th e
ex p o s t f a c t o r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n of th e s e a c t i o n s , a lth o u g h th e s e r a t i o n a l
i z a t i o n s ( id e o l o g iz a tio n s ) may be h e l p f u l in u n d e rs ta n d in g th e i n t e r
a c t i o n p ro c e s s betw een p e o p le . Nor i s i t con cern ed w ith th e s e a rc h f o r
some c u l t u r a l e s s e n c e , some o n to g e n e tic e sse n c e o r " A fric a n n e s s " p r o
f e s s e d by some " A f r i c a n i s t s 1 1 (S enghor, 1959; D iop, 1959; Obenga, 1973).
The n o tio n of c a re e ris m i s borrow ed from th e W eberian th e o ry of
i n t e r e s t g ro u p s, p o in tin g o u t th e grow ing im p o rtan ce of th e b u re a u c ra c y ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y th e s t a t e b u re a u c ra c y , and i t s s p e c i f i c o r g a n iz a tio n around
h i e r a r c h i c a l p o s i t i o n s .
The S e t t i n g : The U n iv e r s ity of Ouagadougou
and I t s R ole in th e S o c ia l S t r a t i f i c a t i o n
The U n iv e r s ity of Ouagadougou, chosen as an i l l u s t r a t i v e exam
p l e , is p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t a b l e f o r a s e a rc h f o r i d e n t i t y . I t i s th e
c o u n t r y 's o n ly h ig h e r e d u c a tio n i n s t i t u t i o n and was c r e a te d in 1965
i n the-mostly a g r a r i a n c o u n try of Upper V o lta , and i t la c k s th e w eig h t
of a w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d c o l o n i a l academ ic t r a d i t i o n w hich could mask th e
dynamics of e v o lu tio n ta k in g p la c e in th e s o c i e t y a t la r g e and im pinging
on th e U n iv e r s it y . Y e t, th e U n iv e r s ity r e t a i n s a s tr o n g a tta c h m e n t w ith
th e fo rm er F ren ch c o l o n i z e r . I t was in th e framework of th e c o o p e ra tiv e
agreem ents w ith th e l a t t e r t h a t th e U n iv e r s ity was c r e a te d w ith th e o f
f i c i a l m issio n o f p ro d u cin g th e m o d e rn izin g te c h n ic a l a g e n ts n e c e s s a r y .
I t s b u d g et i s e q u a lly s u p p o rte d by F ran ce and Upper V o lta . S ince i t s
c r e a t i o n a few y e a rs ag o , th e U n iv e r s ity has been o p e ra te d by a te a c h in g
and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t a f f , a lm o s t e n t i r e l y F re n c h , and p r e s e n t l y f o r e ig n
p e rso n n e l s t i l l r e p r e s e n t 60 p e r c e n t of th e te a c h in g s t a f f and h o ld some
2
im p o rta n t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o s i t i o n s . The c u rric u lu m was con ceiv ed w ith
th e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f F ren ch academ ics and ta u g h t in th e F ren ch academ ic
t r a d i t i o n , le a d in g to th e g r a n tin g of diplom as w ith t o t a l v a l i d i t y in
F r a n c e - - a n o p tio n ta k e n by V o lta n o f f i c i a l s who were o f f e r e d th e a l t e r n
a t i v e o f sim p le e q u iv a le n c e in 1971, fo llo w in g th e R efo rm atio n of th e
F ren ch academ ic sy stem .
The U n iv e r s ity was o r i g i n a l l y d e s ig n e d to t r a i n ju n i o r and
s e n i o r h ig h sc h o o l t e a c h e r s . S tu d e n ts were to be tra c k e d a c c o rd in g to
t h e i r perform ance b o th in h ig h sc h o o l and th e f i r s t y e a r of u n i v e r s i t y ;
th o s e p e rfo rm in g m o d e ra te ly w e ll tow ard th e s h o r t c y c le (2 y e a rs ) t r a i n
in g f o r a j u n i o r se c o n d a ry s c h o o l te a c h in g p o s i t i o n ; th e b e s t p erfo rm in g
s tu d e n ts w ere to be allo w ed to go f u r t h e r f o r a b a c h e lo r o f a r t s d e g re e
and a te a c h in g p o s i t i o n in th e s e n io r seco n d ary s c h o o ls . T his s e l e c
t i o n sy stem was abandoned a f t e r two y e a r s , as a r e s u l t of c o n tin u o u s
s tu d e n t p r o t e s t d u rin g th e s e two y e a r s . The U n iv e r s ity became more
d i v e r s i f i e d i n i t s o f f e r in g s as a r e s u l t , s p e c i f i c a l l y , , o f th e e x p u ls io n
and r e t u r n of V o lta n s tu d e n ts e n r o ll e d in n e ig h b o rin g A f r ic a n u n i v e r s i
t i e s w hich had e x p e rie n c e d s tu d e n t u n r e s t (D akar, 1966, 1968; A b id ja n ,
1966, 1970).
P r e s e n tl y th e r e a r e some 1,553 s tu d e n ts e n r o ll e d i n d i f f e r e n t
d i s c i p l i n e s ( L e t t e r s , Law, Econom ics, A g r i c u l t u r a l E n g in e e rin g , th e
p r e p a r a t o r y s e c t i o n o f C i v i l E n g in e e rin g , B u sin e ss A d m in is tr a tio n , and
T e a c h e r - t r a i n i n g ) .
The a l l o c a t i o n o f s tu d e n ts w ith in th e s e d i f f e r e n t d i s c i p l i n e s
i s n o t o n ly l e f t to th e i n d i v id u a l c h o ic e of th e s tu d e n ts , b u t th e r e i s
a N a tio n a l O r i e n t a t i o n Comm ittee (CND) w hich i s o f f i c i a l l y ch arg ed w ith
____________________________________________________________________ 3
tr a c k in g th e s tu d e n ts tow ard th e d i f f e r e n t d i s c i p l i n e s and c a r e e r s
p re p a re d by th e s e d i s c i p l i n e s . S tu d e n ts a r e however asked to i n d i c a t e
in t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n s th e t h r e e o c c u p a tio n a l c h o ic e s ran k ed by o rd e r of
p r e f e r e n c e . The N a tio n a l O r i e n t a t i o n Committee i s a t e c h n ic a l i n s t r u
ment of th e N a tio n a l Committee f o r th e G ra n tin g of S c h o la rs h ip s (CNACB),.
a much l a r g e r i n s t i t u t i o n which has th e l e g a l power to c o n firm o r a l t e r
th e N a tio n a l O r ie n ta tio n C om m ittee's recom m endations c o n c e rn in g th e
tr a c k in g of in d i v id u a l s t u d e n t s . The p rim ary co n cern o f th e CNACB i s
to g r a n t s c h o la r s h ip s to d e s e rv in g s tu d e n ts and make s u re t h a t a p p r o p r i
a t e use is made of th e s e s c h o la r s h ip s by th e s t u d e n t s . A p p ro p ria te use
Vmeans t h a t th e academ ic perform ance of th e co ncerned s tu d e n ts rem ains
a c c e p ta b le v i s - h - v i s th e term s e s t a b l i s h e d by th o se g r a n tin g s c h o l a r
s h ip s ; i t a l s o means t h a t th e s tu d e n ts keep up w ith o th e r s c h o la r s h ip
c r i t e r i a such as rem a in in g in th e s p e c i f i e d academ ic t r a c k a s s ig n e d
to them .
The tr a c k a s s ig n e d to an in d i v i d u a l s tu d e n t i s a f u n c tio n of
th e employment and developm ent p o lic y o f th e c o u n try and ta k e s in t o
a c c o u n t th e s t u d e n t 's p re v io u s p r e p a r a t io n in h ig h s c h o o l - - e s p e c i a l l y
from th e te n th g rad e on.
The tr a c k s o r stre a m s in w hich s tu d e n t s e n t e r a t th e te n th
g ra d e a r e c o p ied from th e F ren ch sy ste m , w hich, a c c o rd in g to th e Franco-
V o lta n c o o p e r a tio n agreem ents of 1961, s p o n s o rs , s u p e r v is e s , and g u a r
a n te e s th e V o lta n u n i v e r s i t y d ip lo m a s --a n d th e " b a c c a la u r ^ a t" (high
sc h o o l diplom a) is th e f i r s t of th e s e diplom as w hich opens th e door to
th e u n i v e r s i t y . They have p assed from th r e e tr a c k s - - P h il o s o p h y , E x p eri
m e n tal S c ie n c e s , and E lem en tary M a th e m a tic s --in th e f i r s t decade of
4
independence to a dozen now i d e n t i f i e d by a l p h a b e t i c a l l e t t e r s from A
to G, w ith o u t c o u n tin g th e s u b d iv is io n s w ith in a s i n g l e tr a c k ( e . g . ,
A1 to A5; D*; FI to F3; G1 and G2, e t c . ) . Roughly th e dozen s p e c i a l i
t i e s can be narrow ed down to f i v e r ig o r o u s l y d i s t i n c t academ ic and
c a r e e r p a th s : th e A s tre a m f o r h u m a n itie s , th e B anc G stream s f o r
econom ics and b u s in e s s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , th e C and E stre a m s f o r math and
p h y sic s and t h e i r p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s to e n g in e e r in g , th e F s tre a m
f o r i n d u s t r i a l e n g in e e r in g , and th e D s tre a m f o r s p e c i a l i z a t i o n b ased
on b io lo g y ( e . g . , m e d ic in e , a g r i c u l t u r e ) .
U n i v e r s i t i e s in F ra n c e and in Upper V o lta s p e c if y in t h e i r b u l
l e t i n s o f c u rric u lu m o f f e r in g s th e k in d ( s ) of h ig h sc h o o l academ ic
t r a c k ( s ) t h a t i s ( a re ) r e q u ir e d from th o s e s e e k in g e n ro llm e n t in one o r
a n o th e r d e p a rtm e n t. These r e s t r i c t i o n s aim , so i t i s s a i d , to maximize
th e chances of su c c e s s o f th e a p p l ic a n t s and th e re b y a v o id th e w aste
o b serv ed w ith th e form er fo rm u la w hich a llo w e d th e b a c c a la u r ^ a t h o ld e r
to f r e e l y choose h is u n i v e r s i t y c u r r ic u lu m . The d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n of
h ig h sc h o o l tr a c k s was in te n d e d to h e lp in t h a t r e s p e c t , and a t th e
same tim e i t would s o lv e th e problem of s k i l l s p e c i a l i z a t i o n s t h a t
fo llo w e d th e s o c i a l and i n d u s t r i a l developm ent of th e F rench s o c i e t y
in th e 1970s.
As f o r th e employment p o li c y , th e p r i v a t e s e c t o r em ployers an d ,
more p a r t i c u l a r l y , th e p u b lic s e c t o r (th e c i v i l s e r v ic e ) w hich i s th e
m ajor em ployer of th e s c h o o l, an d , p a r t i c u l a r l y , u n i v e r s i t y g r a d u a te s ,
s p e c if y th e le v e l of e d u c a tio n a l c r e d e n t i a l s (diplom as and a re a s of
s p e c i a l i z a t i o n ) r e q u ir e d to h o ld c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n s . L o w e r-le v e l em ploy
ment is a s s ig n e d to h o ld e rs of th e j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l c e r t i f i c a t e (|
5
(BEPC); in te r m e d ia te l e v e l employs a r e a s s ig n e d to h o ld e rs of s e n io r
h ig h sc h o o l c e r t i f i c a t e s ( b a c c a la u r d a t) and s h o r t - c y c l e u n i v e r s i t y
t r a i n i n g d e g re e s ; h ig h e r le v e l employment i s p re s e rv e d f o r u n i v e r s i t y
g r a d u a t e s .
However, th e r e i s a p ro c e d u re i n h e r i t e d from th e F rench c o l o n i a l
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e t r a d i t i o n w hich a llo w s lo w e r - le v e l c i v i l s e r v a n ts to
move up to th e to p of t h e i r o r g a n iz a ti o n th ro u g h i n t e r n a l c o m p e titio n
(co n co u rs) w ith o u t th e a p p r o p r ia te form al e d u c a tio n a l c r e d e n t i a l s men
tio n e d a b o v e .
The s c h o la r s h ip sy stem is n o t li m it e d to th e u n i v e r s i t y s t u
d e n t s . I t a l s o a p p l ie s to h ig h sc h o o l s t u d e n t s , b u t, in a d d i tio n to
th e c r i t e r i a o f academ ic ach iev em en t and age e x i s t i n g a t th e u n i v e r s i t y
l e v e l , i t r e q u ir e s t h a t h ig h s c h o o l s tu d e n ts come from low income
f a m i l i e s .
The s c h o la r s h ip sy ste m , f o r u n i v e r s i t y s tu d e n ts as w e ll as f o r
h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s , goes back to th e c o l o n i a l p e r io d . I t s o f f i c i a l
r a t i o n a l e is to m inim ize th e economic o b s ta c l e s .which m ight p re v e n t
d e s e rv in g s tu d e n ts from ta k in g a d v a n ta g e o f l i m it e d e d u c a tio n a l f a c i l i
t i e s o f te n lo c a te d f a r away from t h e i r r e s id e n c e .
In Upper V o lta , o n ly a s m a ll m in o rity (12%) o f th e e le m e n ta ry
sc h o o l age p o p u la tio n (6 to 14 y e a rs o ld ) have a c c e s s to s c a r c e e l e
m en tary sc h o o l f a c i l i t i e s ; a s t i l l s m a lle r m in o r ity (9%) of th e s e e l e
m entary s c h o o l s tu d e n ts have a c c e s s to s t i l l s c a r c e r h ig h s c h o o l
f a c i l i t i e s ; and ab o u t th e same p r o p o r tio n o f h ig h sc h o o l s tu d e n ts
re a c h th e u n i v e r s i t y .
6
I t i s th e n easy to r e a l i z e how im p o rta n t i t i s to be one o f th e
s h r in k in g m in o r ity of th o s e who s u c c e s s f u l l y advance up th e academ ic
la d d e r and how im p o rta n t a r e th e is s u e s of e d u c a tio n a l s e l e c t i o n and
o c c u p a tio n a l t r a c k i n g .
The system of e d u c a tio n a l s e l e c t i o n and o c c u p a tio n a l tr a c k in g
a r e c o n s id e re d by most s tu d e n ts of s o c i a l and e d u c a tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s
as a t e s t i n g ground of th e n a t u r e of th e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s .
R esearc h Q u estio n s
The fu n d am en tal q u e s tio n s th e p r e s e n t stu d y w i l l a sk a r e th e
fo llo w in g :
1. What i s th e n a t u r e of th e p ro c e s s of s e l e c t i o n and tr a c k in g
a t th e U n iv e r s ity of Ouagadougou?
2 . Whose i n t e r e s t s does i t s e rv e ?
More s p e c i f i c a l l y , th e s tu d y w i l l a d d re s s b o th d e s c r i p t i v e and
e x p la n a to ry ty p e s of q u e s tio n s c o n c e rn in g th e s e l e c t i o n s y ste m , e s t a b
lish m e n t of u n i v e r s i t y d e p a rtm e n ts , and t r a c k in g o f th e s tu d e n ts in t o
th e s e d e p a r tm e n ts .
T here a r e two a s p e c ts o f th e problem o f u n i v e r s i t y s e l e c t i o n :
one a s p e c t concerns th e s o c i a l o r ig i n s of s tu d e n ts and th e o th e r a s p e c t
co n cern s th e ex am in a tio n sy ste m .
T here a re a l s o two a s p e c ts in v o lv e d in o c c u p a tio n a l tr a c k i n g :
one a s p e c t concerns th e s t u d e n t 's c h o ic e o f a s p e c i f i c c a r e e r , th e
s t u d e n t 's c a r e e r e x p e c ta t io n s ; a n o th e r a s p e c t co n cern s the a c t u a l c a r e e r
t r a c k th e s tu d e n t g e ts from th o s e i n ch arg e o f th e human a l l o c a t i o n
p ro c e s s i n th e s o c i e t y . B u t, u n d e rly in g th e s e two a s p e c t s , th e r e i s
7
th e problem o f th e c r e a t i o n o f th e tr a c k s w hich d e l i m i t s th e o p tio n s
( a s p i r a t i o n s ) o f th e s t u d e n t s ' c h o ic e s of and t h e i r a l l o c a t i o n in to
e x i s t i n g o c c u p a tio n a l t r a c k s .
D e s c r ip tiv e Q u e stio n s
The d e s c r i p t i v e q u e s tio n s c o n c e rn in g s e l e c t i o n and tr a c k in g as
d e f in e d above c a n be fo rm u la te d as fo llo w s :
1. What a r e th e o c c u p a tio n s a v a i l a b l e f o r u n i v e r s i t y g ra d u a te s ?
2 . Which o c c u p a tio n s c a r r y th e m ost p o l i t i c a l and econom ic
p r i v i l e g e s and s o c i a l p r e s ti g e ?
3 . Which o c c u p a tio n a l tr a c k s do s tu d e n ts p r e f e r and ask fo r?
4 . In w hich o c c u p a tio n a l tr a c k s a r e th e y a c t u a l l y tra c k e d ?
5 . What k in d o f s e l e c t i o n system i s e s t a b l i s h e d f o r e n t r y to
th e U n iv e r s ity and i n s i d e th e U n iv e rs ity ?
6. What k in d s of s tu d e n ts a r e a c t u a l l y e n r o lle d ?
E x p la n a to ry Q u e stio n s
The s tu d y w i l l a l s o be guided by th e fo llo w in g e x p la n a to ry
q u e s t i o n s :
1. What f a c t o r s a f f e c t th e n a tu r e o f th e o c c u p a tio n s made
a v a i l a b l e to u n i v e r s i t y s tu d e n ts ?
2 . What f a c t o r s m ight e x p la in th e o b serv ed d i f f e r e n c e s o f
p o l i t i c a l , econom ic, and s o c i a l p r i v i l e g e h e ld by d i f
f e r e n t o c c u p a tio n s ?
3 . What f a c t o r s a f f e c t s t u d e n t s ' o c c u p a tio n a l c h o ic e s and
a c t u a l tr a c k s ?
8
4 . What i s th e purpose of th e s e l e c t i o n sy stem e s t a b l i s h e d
a t th e e n tra n c e to and w ith i n th e u n i v e r s i t y ?
These e x p la n a to r y q u e s tio n s , w hich co n c e rn th e d e te rm in a n ts of
th e s e l e c t i o n and t r a c k in g sy stem , w i l l n o t be th e p rim ary focus of
th e r e s e a r c h f in d in g s c h a p te r s (C h ap ters V and V I I ) . These q u e s tio n s
a r e , how ever, v e ry im p o rta n t to th e r e s e a r c h in t h a t th e y form th e a p
p ro ach by w hich th e r e s e a r c h fo c u s e s on th e d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e s e l e c t i o n
sy ste m . S e le c tio n and tr a c k in g would b e , th e n , th e dep en d en t v a r i a b l e s
i n th e s e e x p la n a to r y q u e s ti o n s . A g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n , and some r e
s e a r c h f i n d i n g s , on th e s e e x p la n a to ry q u e s tio n s a r e p ro v id e d i n th e
background c h a p te rs (IV and V I ) .
I t i s g e n e r a lly a d m itte d i n s o c i a l s c ie n c e t h a t th e so cio ec o ^
nomic n a t u r e of a s o c i e t y g r e a t l y in f lu e n c e s th e developm ent o f s o c i a l
i n s t i t u t i o n s in g e n e r a l and h ig h e r e d u c a tio n in p a r t i c u l a r . The ty p e
o f s o c i e t y t h a t e x i s t s c r e a te s a p a r t i c u l a r e u l t u r e th ro u g h some dom i
n a n t fo r c e s and t h i s c u l t u r e , in t u r n , in f lu e n c e s th e academ ic c u l t u r e .
But beyond th e ag reem ent on t h i s fo rm a l p r i n c i p a l , th e r e i s a g r e a t
d e a l o f d isa g re e m e n t as to th e s p e c i f i c n a t u r e of s o c i e t i e s , th e id e n
t i t y of th e dom inant f o r c e s o r groups a t w ork, and th e mechanism
th ro u g h w hich th e y e x e r c is e t h e i r d o m in a tio n over o th e r g r o u p s . The
d i f f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s can be ro u g h ly c l a s s i f i e d i n t o th r e e broad
c a t e g o r ie s o r a p p ro a c h e s, a lth o u g h w ith i n each c a te g o ry can be found
s t i l l more d iv e rg e n c e w hich makes th e b o u n d a rie s betw een c a t e g o r ie s
somewhat a r t i f i c i a l . The th r e e ap p ro ac h es a r e th o s e of m o d e rn iz a tio n ,
im p e ria lis m , n e o c o lo n ia lis m , and i n t e r e s t g r o u p s .
9
CHAPTER I I
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
T h e o rie s of S o c ie ty and D e te rm in a n t S o c ia l F o rces
The M o d e rn iz a tio n A pproach
The m o d e rn iz a tio n ap proach se e s s o c i e t i e s in g e n e ra l and A fric a n
s o c i e t i e s i n p a r t i c u l a r as moving tow ard a s t a t e of r a p id developm ent
o f te c h n o lo g y , s c ie n c e , and i n d u s t r y - - a s t a t e of m o d e rn iz a tio n . T his
s t a t e i s s o c i a l l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d , th e th e o ry s a y s , by dem ocracy o r
s o c i a l c o n se n su s, in d i v id u a l i n i t i a t i v e , o r e n t r e p r e n e u r s h ip . The
d e m o c ra tic and e n t r e p r e n e u r s p i r i t cau ses p eo p le to a d j u s t t h e i r i n
s t i t u t i o n s and t h e i r l i f e s t y l e s to th e new needs c r e a te d by th e p ro c e s s
o f m o d e rn iz a tio n o r i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n (K err e t a l . , 1960).
The Im p e ria lism and N e o c o lo n ia lism A pproach
The im p e ria lis m and n e o c o lo n ia lis m ap p ro ac h a l s o p o s t u l a t e s
t h a t s o c i e t i e s a r e e v o lv in g tow ard an i n d u s t r i a l s t a t e . B u t, in o p p o s i
t i o n to th e m o d e rn iz a tio n a p p ro a c h , i t does n o t b e lie v e t h a t th e p r i n
c i p a l fo r c e s b eh in d t h i s e v o lu tio n a r e dem ocracy, s o c i a l c o n se n su s, and
e q u a l i t y among p e o p le s and n a t i o n s . I n s t e a d , th e im p e ria lis m ap proach
a rg u e s t h a t th e r e i s a g r e a t te n d en cy tow ard th e c o n c e n tr a ti o n of means
of p ro d u c tio n and d e c isio n -m a k in g power i n th e hands of a s m a ll m in o rity
o f c a p i t a l i s t s who use s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , and p a r t i c u l a r l y h ig h e r
e d u c a tio n , to m a in ta in t h e i r d o m in a tio n o v er th e m a jo r ity of p r o p e r ty -
10
l e s s and p o w e rle ss p e o p le , and th e r e i s a l s o a te n d en cy tow ard c a p i t a l
ism - -dom inated c o u n t r i e s e n s la v in g l e s s d ev elo p ed c o u n t r i e s i n t h e i r
own socioeconom ic sy stem , f i r s t th ro u g h cru d e m i l i t a r y f o r c e and t e r r i
t o r i a l o c c u p a tio n (c o lo n ia lis m ) and th e n th ro u g h s u b t l e r economic and
c u l t u r a l d o m in atio n (n e o c o lo n ia lis m ) and dependence system s (L en in ,
1939; Moumouni, 1964; C arnoy, 1974; A ltb a c h , 19 7 1 ).
To be s u r e , th e r e i s a g r e a t d e b a te g o in g on i n th e im p e ria lis m
camp c o n c e rn in g th e im p o rtan ce o f th e n e g a tiv e f o r c e s d o m in atin g th e
s o - c a l l e d d e v e lo p in g n a t i o n s . The d e b a te opposes th e t h e o r i e s of th e
M a rx is t w r i t e r s em p h asizin g i n t e r n a l c l a s s s t r u g g l e s a t th e p ro d u c tio n
l e v e l (M arkow itz, 1977; S h i v j i , 1976) to th e new dependency t h e o r i s t s
em p h asizin g th e s t r u g g l e s betw een r i c h ( c a p i t a l i s t ) and poor (u n d e r
d ev elo p ed ) n a t io n s a t th e le v e l o f exchange and c i r c u l a t i o n o f p ro d u c ts
(Amin, 1973, 1 9 7 6 ). The a p p ro a c h , how ever, b a s i c a l l y a g re e s w ith th e
m o d e rn iz a tio n th e o ry on th e fu n d a m e n ta lly econom ic n a t u r e o f th e s o c i a l
c o n f l i c t and th e groups c o n c e rn e d .
The I n t e r e s t - G r o u p 1s A pproach
The i n t e r e s t - g r o u p 's ap p ro ac h f in d s i t s u n i t a r y d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s
in i t s r e j e c t i o n of th e e x p la n a to ry econom ic d e te rm in ism of th e f i r s t
two a p p ro a c h e s . W hile a c c e p tin g th e im p e ria lis m t h e o r y 's view t h a t
s o c i a l c o n f l i c t i s o f te n more fu n d am en tal th a n c o n s e n s u s , th e i n t e r e s t -
g r o u p 's th e o ry r e f u s e s w hat i t c o n s id e r s th e o v e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n by th e
im p e ria lis m a p p ro ac h of th e b a se s o f th e c o n f l i c t and th e i d e n t i t y of
th e c o n f l i c t i n g g ro u p s . The c o n f l i c t , t h i s th e o ry a r g u e s , can be
k in d le d by c u l t u r a l , r e l i g i o u s , and p o l i t i c a l a s w e ll as economic
11
f a c t o r s , and th e groups a t s ta k e a r e i n t e r e s t groups form ed around
th e s e d i f f e r e n t f a c t o r s .
There i s a wide d i v e r s i t y of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h i s a p p ro a c h ,
each v e r s io n em phasizing d i f f e r e n t d e te rm in a n t f a c t o r s . As f a r as
A f r ic a n i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e c o n c e rn e d , a g r e a t em phasis has been p u t on
th e im p o rtan ce of e t h n i c i t y ( C lig n e t & F o s t e r , 1966; K u rtz , 1973;
K lin e b e rg & Z a v a llo n i; 1969; Van den B e rg h e , 1965, 1 9 7 3 ). T his v e r s io r
o f th e i n t e r e s t - g r o u p ’s ap p ro ac h claim s t h a t e t h n ic c o n f l i c t s a r e more
im p o rta n t th a n c l a s s s t r u g g l e s o v er econom ic a d v a n ta g e s .
However, i t i s th e c o n te n tio n o f th e p r e s e n t stu d y t h a t th e
c l e a r e s t v e r s io n o f th e ap p ro ac h is th e W eberian th e o ry of i n t e r e s t
g ro u p s . I t i n t e g r a t e s th e M a rx is t o r im p e ria lis m a p p ro a c h 's n o tio n
o f c l a s s s tr u g g le s o v er econom ic ad v a n ta g e s w ith a n o n d e t e r m in i s t ic
view o f s o c i a l e v o lu tio n and ta k e s in t o a c c o u n t th e c u l t u r a l ( e t h n i c ,
r e l i g i o u s , and p o l i t i c a l ) p a r t i c u l a r i t y of each s o c i e t y .
S u p p o rte rs o f th e W eberian v e r s io n of th e i n t e r e s t g ro u p 's
ap p ro a c h p o in t out s o c i a l groups such as b u r e a u c ra ts who have p la y ed
an im p o rta n t r o l e i n a n c ie n t A sia (M oore, 1966) and a r e p r e s e n t l y
( r e ) g a i n in g im p o rtan ce in s o c i a l i s t c o u n t r i e s ( D j i l a s , 1957; C a s t o r i a -
d i s , 1973, 1981; S k e ll in g & G r i f f i t h s , 1971; L e f o r t , 1976; V o slen k y ,
19 8 0 ), in most o f th e new ly d ev elo p ed c o u n t r i e s o f A sia (K rau s, Max
w e l l , & Vanneman, 1978; M axw ell, 19 7 5 ), L a t in A m erica, o r A f r ic a
( P e t r a s , 1978) o r even i n th e more d ev elo p ed s o c i e t i e s ( C r o i s i e r , 1964;
C o l l i n s , 1979). The b u r e a u c r a ts h o ld t h e i r power w ith " e d u c a tio n a l
c r e d e n t i a l s , " to u se C o l l i n 's p h r a s e , a t th e s e r v ic e of s t a t e o r g a n iz a
ti o n s w hich r e g u l a t e t h e i r c a r e e r s and th u s c r e a te a c u l t u r e of c a r e e r
12
ism , d e fin e d as th e s u b o r d in a tio n of a l l a c t i v i t i e s to th e p u r s u i t of
th e most re w a rd in g c a r e e r s (B endix, 1962).
The n o tio n s of c a re e ris m and b u re a u c ra c y a r e n o t a b s e n t from
th e a l t e r n a t i v e ap p ro ac h es of m o d e rn iz a tio n and im p e ria lis m . However,
th e y a r e c o n s id e re d by th e s e ap proaches as m a rg in a l and s u b s i d i a r y in
com parison to o th e r fo r c e s ( i n d u s t r i a l i s m o r e x t e r n a l pow ers) a t work
in th e s o c i e t i e s . The m o d e rn iz a tio n a p p ro a c h , f o r exam ple, c o n s id e rs
t h a t o c c u p a tio n s and c a r e e r s a r e s e t and a t ta c h e d d i f f e r e n t m oral and
f i n a n c i a l rew ards in o rd e r to m o tiv a te p eo p le f o r b e t t e r p r o d u c t i v i t y
and a c h ie v e m e n t. But t h i s i s o n ly a means used by s o c i e t y to a c h ie v e
i t s u lt im a te g o a l of m o d e rn iz a tio n , p r o g r e s s , and p r o d u c t i v i t y (D avis &
M oore, 1945). The im p e ria lis m and n e o c o lo n ia lis m ap p ro ac h a l s o co n
s i d e r s c a r e e r s as m eans, b u t means used by dom inant f o r e ig n groups to
s t i f l e the p o l i t i c a l c o n s c io u s n e s s of n a t i o n a l e l i t e s a b o u t th e r e a l
n a t u r e of th e i n s t i t u t i o n s th e y a r e e n d o c tr in a te d and b r ib e d to s e rv e
(A ltb a c h , 197 1 ).
What b o th th e im p e ria lis m and m o d e rn iz a tio n th e o r i e s f a i l to
e x p l a i n , how ever, i s how t h i s s u b o rd in a te group of b u r e a u c ra ts can
d i v e r t th e i n s t i t u t i o n s th e y s e rv e from t h e i r supposed g o a ls and o b je c
t i v e s f o r th e b e n e f i t of th e b u r e a u c ra ts w hich is n o t i d e n t i c a l to
th o se of th e i n s t i t u t i o n s , and in d eed may be a n t a g o n i s t i c to t h e i r
g o a ls (Kraus e t a l . , 1979; B en-D avid, 1964; B e n d ix , 1 9 6 2 ). Kraus e t a l.
show how b u r e a u c ra ts i n s te a d of b e in g sim p ly used by f o r e ig n powers
manage to use th e s e powers to c o n s o lid a te t h e i r own pow er.
A c lo s e e x a m in a tio n of th e i n t e r e s t s o f th e b u r e a u c ra ts may be
a key f a c t o r i n u n d e rs ta n d in g th e s p e c i f i c s o c i a l c o n f l i c t s of contem -
13
p o ra ry A f r i c a . I t w i l l p ro v id e a lin k a g e betw een im p e ria lis m th e o ry
em p h asizin g th e r o l e of e x t e r n a l f o r c e s in sh a p in g th e i n s t i t u t i o n s of
d e v e lo p in g c o u n t r i e s , and th e c l a s s i c a l M a rx is t th e o ry em p h asizin g th e
i n t e r n a l c l a s s s t r u g g l e a t th e p ro d u c tio n l e v e l (se e L ey s, 1975 on the
n e c e s s i t y of t h i s b r i d g e ) . The c o n s id e r a tio n of th e i n t e r e s t s o f th e
b u r e a u c ra ts a l s o can h e lp e l u c i d a t e th e p u z z le f o r th e M a rx is t th e o ry
c r e a te d by th e A f r ic a n ca se where th e dom inant group (o f b u r e a u c r a ts )
do n o t h o ld t h e i r power from th e a p p r o p r i a t i o n of th e means o f p ro d u c
t i o n , b u t from th e a p p r o p r i a t i o n of th e s u r p lu s o f th e p r o p r i e t o r s of
th e means of p ro d u c tio n ( p e a s a n ts ) th ro u g h th e s t a t e a p p a ra tu s ( S h i v j i ,
1976; L e f o r t , 1976; P e t r a s , 1 9 7 8 ).'
The p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r e o f c a r e e r is m of th e b u r e a u c r a ts d e r iv e s
from th e te n d en cy o f th e l a t t e r to p r e f e r o r d e r and jo b s e c u r i t y to th e
r i s k - t a k i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t i e s . T his c u l t u r e makes
p o s s i b le th e r e b i r t h of some forms o f s o c i a l o r g a n iz a ti o n t h a t an
e v o lu tio n a r y th e o ry c o u ld c o n s id e r as p e r t a i n i n g to p r e - h i s t o r y : f o r
in s ta n c e a r i s t o c r a c y b ased on e d u c a tio n and p a trim o n ia lis m i n w hich a
la r g e number o f o f f i c i a l s r e l y on th e s t a t e f o r t h e i r s u b s i s te n c e
(B endix, 1962, pp. 4 6 0 -4 6 2 ). B u reau c racy has been d e f in e d by Weber
and m ost contem porary s o c i o l o g i s t s as th e r a t i o n a l o r g a n iz a ti o n o f
s o c i e t y o r s o c i a l g ro u p s , th e im p e rso n a l a p p l i c a t i o n of u n i v e r s a l
r u l e s , a sy stem b ased on ach iev em en t r a t h e r th a n a s c r i p t i o n , in s h o r t ,
th e v e ry symbol of m o d e rn iz a tio n and " p r o g r e s s . " As su c h , b u re a u c ra c y
i s t h e o r e t i c a l l y a t odds w ith p a trim o n ia lis m c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a p e r -
s o n a l i s t i c tre a tm e n t o f problem s and s u b j e c t s by th e p a tr im o n ia l r u l e r .
The p a trim o n ia l r u l e r manages s o c i e t y as h is own p e rs o n a l p r o p r i e t y ,
and g r a n ts rew ards to whom he l i k e s . 14
The p r e s e n t s tu d y w i l l a rg u e t h a t a co n v erg en ce (o r " r e g r e s
s i o n ” ) o f b u r e a u c r a t i c s o c i a l system s tow ards p a trim o n ia lis m , th e p o s
s i b i l i t y of w hich was a d m itte d and in d e e d f o r e s e e n by Weber h im s e lf ,
i s o b s e rv a b le i n th e new A f r ic a n modern s o c i e t i e s in g e n e r a l and Upper
V o lta in p a r t i c u l a r .
I t i s th e c o n te n tio n o f th e p r e s e n t s tu d y t h a t a lth o u g h th e
b u r e a u c r a ts c o n s t i t u t e th e dom inant c l a s s of th e p r e s e n t V o lta n s o
c i e t y , th e y a r e n o t a c l a s s w hich has form ed i t s own i d e n t i t y or
a c c e p te d i t s e l f as a b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s , as o b serv ed in some E a s te r n
( s o c i a l i s t ) s o c i e t i e s . We p r e f e r t a l k i n g a b o u t " s e a r c h f o r i d e n t i t y "
to c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e p ro c e s s o f ( tr a n s ) f o r m a t io n of th e V o lta n s o c i a l
c l a s s e s o r groups in g e n e r a l and th e V o lta n dom inant b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s
in p a r t i c u l a r in s t e a d of " t r a n s i t i o n " as m ost A f r i c a n i s t s do.
To t a l k o f " t r a n s i t i o n " means t h a t one knows where th e dom inant
c l a s s i s g o in g , and th e term " t r a n s i t i o n " r e f e r s o n ly to th e rhythm and
th e pace of th e march tow ard t h i s t e l e o l o g i c a l o b j e c t i v e s . In c o n
t r a s t , t o t a l k of " s e a r c h f o r i d e n t i t y " im p lie s t h a t th e r e is a c o n
f l i c t a b o u t th e d i r e c t i o n th e s o c i e t y s h o u ld ta k e , and t h a t th e outcome
i s n o t a l l p r e d i c t a b l e w ith o u t c a r e f u l a n a l y s i s o f th e c o n f l i c t s w ith in
th e dom inant s o c i a l c l a s s .
T h e o r e t i c a l and O p e r a tio n a l
D e f i n i t i o n o f S o c ia l C la ss e s
S o c ia l c l a s s e s a r e g e n e r a l l y d e f in e d as groups of p e o p le c h a r
a c t e r i z e d by t h e i r r e l a t i o n s to th e p ro c e s s o f econom ic p r o d u c tio n .
These r e l a t i o n s a r e fu n d a m e n ta lly th o s e o f ow nership of th e means of
p ro d u c tio n and a p p r o p r i a t i o n of th e s u r p lu s v a lu e g e n e r a te d . B u t, as
15
some a u th o rs ( p a r t i c u l a r l y S h i v j i , 1976; M a rk o v itz , 1977) a rg u e , th e y
a l s o in c lu d e th e p o l i t i c a l , o r g a n i z a t i o n a l , and id e o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l s
w hich l e g i t i m a t e o r p r o t e c t th e econom ic sy ste m . S h i v j i sa y s t h a t th e
r e l a t i o n s o f p r o d u c tio n a r e n e v e r sim p ly "econom ic r e l a t i o n s . "
The wage r e l a t i o n s h i p u n d er c a p i t a l i s m depends on th e e x i s t e n c e
of i n s t i t u t i o n s su ch as p r i v a t e p r o p e r ty and c o n t r a c t , on a
l e g a l a p p a ra tu s f o r d e f in i n g th e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s , on p o l i c e and
a rm ies f o r e n f o r c in g them , and on r e l i g i o u s and p o l i t i c a l id e a s
w hich s a n c ti o n them , and w hich j u s t i f y th e i n e q u a l i t y and e x
p l o i t a t i o n w hich is p a r t and p a r c e l o f c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t y .
(p. 3.)
I n a s e n s e , th e d i v i s i o n of la b o r i s n o t o p e r a tin g o n ly betw een
owners of means of p ro d u c tio n and p ro d u c e rs , w o rk e rs, o r among th e s e
p ro d u c e rs th e m s e lv e s , b u t , a l s o , a n a l o g i c a l l y , among th e owners them
s e lv e s as a s o c i a l c la s s --s o m e b e in g d i r e c t l y in c h arg e o f th e means of
p r o d u c tio n and o th e rs b e in g i n c h a rg e of p r o t e c t i n g them .
I n t h i s r e s p e c t th e d e f i n i t i o n L e n in g iv e s to th e s o c i a l
c l a s s e s r e p r e s e n t s a f a i r l y a c c u r a te o p e r a t i o n a l to o l i n ap p re h e n d in g
t h e i r c o m p le x ity . He d e f in e s s o c i a l c l a s s e s as
la rg e groups of p e o p le who d i s t i n g u i s h th e m selv es by th e p la c e
th e y occupy i n th e h i s t o r i c a l l y d e f in e d sy stem of s o c i a l p r o
d u c t io n , by t h e i r r e l a t i o n (m ost of th e tim e f ix e d and c o n s e
c r a t e d by law) to th e means o f p r o d u c tio n , by t h e i r r o l e in
th e s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n •o f la b o r and c o n s e q u e n tly by th e means
o f o b ta in in g and th e s i z e of th e s h a re of p u b lic ' r i c h e s a t
t h e i r d i s p o s a l s . (1 9 6 7 , p . 248)
*
W ith th e r e s e r v e t h a t th e a d j e c t i v e " l a r g e " be n o t i n t e r p r e t e d
i n a to o n a rro w ly q u a n t i t a t i v e s e n s e , i t i s t h i s d e f i n i t i o n t h a t w i l l
be u sed as an o p e r a t io n a l t o o l i n exam ining th e h i s t o r i c a l developm ent
o r s t r u g g l e of th e s o c i a l f o r c e s i n Upper V o lta from th e c o l o n i a l
p e r io d to th e p r e s e n t .
To sp eak o f th e h i s t o r i c a l developm ent of s o c i a l c l a s s e s i s
to sp eak of t h e i r a n t a g o n i s t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s ; th e s t r u g g l e s w hich
16
d e f in e them as s u c h . These s t r u g g l e s a r e th e p ro c e s s by w hich a c l a s s
po ses i t s e l f by opposing a n o th e r and th e re b y a c q u ir e s i t s i d e n t i t y . I t
i s why, a lth o u g h M arx 's n o tio n of c l a s s c o n s c io u s n e s s w rought in th e
s t r u g g l e i s im p o r ta n t, i t i s n o t , how ever, n e c e s s a r y to e s t a b l i s h i t as
a c r i t e r i o n a p a r t from th e p o s i t i o n in th e p ro c e s s o f p ro d u c tio n a s ,
f o r exam ple, P o u la n tz a s (1973) d o e s . D is tin g u i s h i n g betw een an o b je c
t i v e c l a s s d e f in e d by th e p o s i t i o n in th e p ro d u c tio n p ro c e s s and a s u b
j e c t i v e c l a s s d e f in e d by c l a s s c o n s c io u s n e s s , i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , and "clasji
p o s i t i o n " i s n o t v e ry h e l p f u l . I t even in tr o d u c e s some c o n fu s io n by
o b j e c t i v i z i n g , r e i f y i n g , o r n e g a tin g a p ro c e s s : th e p ro c e s s by w hich
a c l a s s comes to a c l e a r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f and to i t s e l f th ro u g h s t r u g
g l e , t h a t i s by i t s v e ry e x i s t e n c e .
T h is n o tio n of s o c i a l c l a s s seems more c o n c e p tu a lly and o p e ra
t i o n a l l y u s e f u l th a n the f u n c t i o n a l i s t (m o d e rn iz a tio n th e o ry ) n o tio n
of s o c i a l c l a s s e s d e fin e d by so cio eco n o m ic s t a t u s (SES) . The v a r i a b l e s
in c lu d e d in th e o p e r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f th e SES (o c c u p a tio n , incom e,
e d u c a tio n , *••) c r e a t e a r t i f i c i a l in d e x e s w hich do n o t m easure th e
r e l a t i v e d e g re e s o f p o l i t i c a l and econom ic c o n t r o l by th e v a r io u s
c l a s s e s . B e s id e s , th e s e v a r i a b l e s a re a c t u a l l y th e e f f e c t s r a t h e r
th a n th e cau se of a more fu n d am e n tal s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n .
The te rm " f a c t i o n " w i l l be used to r e f e r to a s u b d iv is io n of
a s o c i a l c l a s s : f o r exam ple, th e i n t e r n a t i o n a l b o u r g e o is ie and th e
n a t i o n a l b o u r g e o is ie a r e two f a c t i o n s o f th e b o u r g e o is i e . They s h a re
th e same o b j e c t i v e economic i n t e r e s t s in r e l a t i o n to th e o th e r c l a s s e s ,
b u t w i l l d is a g r e e on q u e s tio n s o f t a c t i c s f o r c o n t r o l .
17
The te rm "g ro u p " w i l l be used to r e f e r to any g a th e r in g o f
p eople s h a r in g a l i m i t e d , w e ll-c ir c u m s c r ib e d i n t e r e s t o r a c t i v i t y .
T hus, f o r exam ple, we can d i s t i n g u i s h th e p r o f e s s i o n a l groups (m edical
d o c t o r s , e c o n o m is ts , t e a c h e r s , e n g in e e r s , e t c . ) , and th e g e o e th n ic
groups whose members s h a re a common membership to a g e o g ra p h ic a re a
and common e t h n ic o r i g i n ( e . g . , th e M o ssi, th e D a g a r ti , e t c . c o n s t i t u t e
d i f f e r e n t g e o e th n ic g r o u p s ) .
The V o lta n S o c ia l C la ss e s
P r e s e n t V o lta n s o c i e t y can be s c h e m a tic a lly d iv id e d in t o f iv e
b ro ad c l a s s e s :
1. th e b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s
2 . th e b o u r g e o is ie
3 . th e p e t t y b o u r g e o is ie
4 . th e w orking c l a s s
5 . th e p e a s a n tr y
The b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s com prises two f a c t i o n s : th e " p o l i t i c o -
b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o is ie " and th e " b u r e a u c r a t ic p e t t y b o u r g e o i s i e ."
The B u r e a u c r a tic C la ss
The p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o i s i e . T his f a c t i o n of th e
b u re a u c ra c y is m o stly composed o f th e s m a ll group o f e d u c a te d p eo p le
who f i r s t s e rv e d as a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a u x i l i a r i e s , th e n as p o l i t i c a l
opponents o r c o l l a b o r a t o r s o f th e form er c o l o n i a l regim e from w hich
th e y i n h e r i t e d s t a t e power w ith in d e p e n d e n c e . I t a l s o in c lu d e s to p
b u r e a u c r a ts ( c i v i l and m i l i t a r y ) c o n t r o l l i n g im p o rta n t a d m i n is tr a t iv e
and econom ic s e c t o r s .
This f a c t i o n of th e b u re a u c ra c y has no r e a l ow nership of means
o f p ro d u c tio n i n c o n t r a s t to th e p e a s a n ts or th e e x - c o l o n i a l b o u r g e o i
18
s i e . However i t has an im p o rta n t p o l i t i c a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r o l e in
th e o r g a n iz a ti o n of th e fram e o f th e econom ic a c t i v i t i e s . In a d d i t i o n ,
th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o is ie is s t r i v i n g to a c q u ir e i t s own
means o f p ro d u c tio n by u s in g i t s p o l i t i c a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e pow ers.
I t has been n o te d by most s tu d e n t s of A f r ic a n i n s t i t u t i o n s
t h a t th e r u l i n g b u r e a u c ra ts a r e t r y i n g to c o n v e rt th e m selv es in t o
b u sin e ssm e n , e n t r e p r e n e u r s , to become p a r t i f n o t th e b a s is o f an
em erging n a t i o n a l b o u r g e o is ie and th e re b y com pete o r c o l l a b o r a t e w ith
th e i n t e r n a t i o n a l b o u r g e o is i e . T his ambiguous s i t u a t i o n has been
t r a n s l a t e d in th e d e f i n i t i o n o f th e r u l i n g group of b u r e a u c r a ts as a
" p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o is ie " (M. D iop, 1968) o r " o r g a n i z a t i o n a l
b o u r g e o is ie " (M a rk o v itz , 1 9 7 7 ).
The b u r e a u c r a t i c p e t t y b o u r g e o i s i e . The b u r e a u c r a t i c p e t t y
b o u r g e o is ie com prises th e c l e r k s , salesm en o f th e com m ercial, f i n a n
c i a l , and i n d u s t r i a l e n t e r p r i s e s , a n d , m o s tly , th e in te r m e d ia te and
low er c i v i l s e r v a n ts and th e m i l i t a r y .
L ik e th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o is ie w hich i s , b a s i c a l l y ,
p a r t o f i t , th e b u r e a u c r a t i c p e t t y b o u r g e o is ie has no in d e p e n d e n t
means of p r o d u c tio n . I t s c a p i t a l is however e s s e n t i a l l y i n t e l l e c t u a l ,
t e c h n i c a l , n o t p o l i t i c a l as th e p o l i t i c o b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o is i e .
L ike th e l a t t e r i t i s s t r i v i n g to a c q u ir e i t s in d e p e n d e n t m eans, i f
n o t o f p r o d u c tio n , a t l e a s t o f s u b s i s t e n c e . U n lik e th e p o l i t i c o -
b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o is i e , i t s p rim a ry c o n c e rn i s n o t maximum p r o f i t
and e x p a n s io n , b u t autonomy and s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y . The b u r e a u c r a t i c
p e t t y b o u r g e o is ie i s more li m it e d in i t s means o f a c t i o n th a n th e
19
p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o is ie w hich has a g r e a t e r c o n t r o l o ver th e
s t a t e power t o a c h ie v e i t s g o a l s .
The b u r e a u c r a t i c p e t t y b o u r g e o is ie i s d ep en d e n t on th e
p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o is ie in r e s p e c t to t h e i r j o b s , t h e i r
d e f i n i t i o n s , and th e f i x a t i o n o f t h e i r re m u n e ra tio n . T his s i t u a t i o n
o f dependence g e n e r a te s c o n tin u o u s c o n f l i c t s aro u n d c a r e e r o p p o r tu n i
t i e s as th e gap w idens betw een th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o is ie
( g e t t i n g c l o s e r to th e i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r n a t i o n a l b o u r g e o i s i e ) , and th e
b u r e a u c r a t i c p e t t y b o u r g e o is ie (s e e in g i t s l i v i n g c o n d itio n s d e t e r i o
r a t i n g w ith i n f l a t i o n and s ta g n a n t s a l a r i e s ) .
W hile th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o is ie i s a b le to u se th e
/
s t a t e power f o r p r i v a t e en ric h m en t o f i t s i n d i v i d u a l members, th e
b u r e a u c r a t i c p e t t y b o u r g e o is ie can o n ly u se th e s t a t e power to prom ote
\
i t s e l f as a c l a s s th ro u g h m a in ly s a l a r y r a i s e s and some s o c i a l a d v an
ta g e s ( f r e e h o u s in g , fa m ily a llo w a n c e s , m e d ical c a r e , e t c . ) .
The b o u r g e o is ie co m p rises th r e e f a c t i o n s : th e i n t e r n a t i o n a l
b o u r g e o is i e , th e com prador b o u r g e o is i e , and th e n a t i o n a l b o u r g e o is i e .
The B o u rg e o is ie
The i n t e r n a t i o n a l b o u r g e o i s i e . T his f a c t i o n of th e b o u r g e o i
s i e co m p rises th e i n t e r n a t i o n a l powers (J a p a n e s e , D utch, German) who
j o i n th e fo rm er F rench c o l o n i a l power and th e S y ria n s and L ebanese in
th e c o m p e titio n f o r economic c o n t r o l and a d v a n ta g e s th ro u g h , g e n e r a l l y ,
m u l t i n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a tio n s o p e r a tin g p a r t i c u l a r l y in th e domains of
t r a n s p o r t and o i l d i s t r i b u t i o n .
The com prador b o u r g e o i s i e . T h is f a c t i o n o f th e b o u r g e o is ie is
c o n s t i t u t e d by some elem en ts coming from th e b u r e a u c r a t i c p e t t y b o u r
20
g e o i s i e who, a t in d e p e n d e n c e , c o n v e rte d th e m selv es i n t o bu sin essm en and
a c c e p te d to r e p r e s e n t th e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c a p i t a l in t h e i r c o u n try . The
movement i s s t i l l going on, a lth o u g h f a r l e s s , due to th e c l a s s c l o s u r e
t h a t o p e r a te s i n th e b o u r g e o is i e .
The n a t i o n a l b o u r g e o i s i e . What i s c a l l e d n a t i o n a l b o u r g e o is ie
i s som ething r e a l l y sy m b o lic , l i m it e d to th e c o n s tr u c t io n e n tre p r e n e u r s
and th e b ig m erchants o f c e r e a l s . They g e n e r a lly work w ith th e s t a t e -
owned a g e n c ie s and a l s o w ith th e f o r e ig n e n t e r p r i s e s on w hich th e y r e l y
f o r t h e i r te c h n o lo g y , a n d , ev en , t h e i r i n i t i a l c a p i t a l .
In f a c t th e d i s t i n c t i o n betw een n a t i o n a l b o u r g e o is ie and
com prador b o u r g e o is ie in th e p r e s e n t c o n te x t o f Upper V o lta i s more
c o n c e p tu a l th a n r e a l .
The P e t t y B o u rg e o is ie
The p e t t y b o u r g e o is ie co m p rises th e c a t t l e b r e e d e r s , a r t i s a n s ,
p e t t y t r a d e r s , and shop k e e p e r s . They a r e r e l a t i v e l y in d e p e n d e n t and
ru n t h e i r b u s in e s s e s on a fa m ily b a s is o r a v e ry m inim al h i r e d la b o r
f o r c e (1 , 2 , o r 3 a p p r e t i c e s o r em p lo y e e s).
The W orking C la ss
The w orking c l a s s co m p rises th e u rb an w orkers in c lu d in g g o v e rn
ment c o n t r a c t u a l w o rk e rs , and th e r u r a l w o rk ers composed m o s tly o f m i
g r a n ts who have gone to n e ig h b o rin g c o u n t r i e s such as th e Iv o ry C o a s t.
Given th e p o o re r l e v e l of i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n of Upper V o lta , as
w i l l be seen in C h a p te r IV, th e w orking c l a s s i s n o t n u m e ric a lly and
s o c i a l l y im p o r ta n t. However i t i s o f te n p o l i t i c a l l y sp o n so re d by th e
b u r e a u c r a t i c p e t t y b o u r g e o is i e , th e most im p o rta n t n u m e ric a lly and
s o c i a l l y . T his s p o n s o rs h ip e x p re s s e s i t s e l f th ro u g h m utual s u p p o rt by
21
s t r i k e s and g rie v a n c e s a g a i n s t t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e e m p lo y e rs. In f a c t ,
th e b u r e a u c r a t i c p e t t y b o u r g e o is ie i d e n t i f i e s i t s e l f as a f a c t i o n of
th e V o lta n w orking c l a s s .
The P e a s a n tr y
The in t r o d u c t i o n o f c a s h c ro p p in g by t h e . c o l o n i a l pow er, and
i t s i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n by th e p o s t-in d e p e n d e n t s t a t e b u r e a u c r a t s , b ro u g h t
a b o u t a d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n among th e p e a s a n tr y , w hich was p r e v io u s ly r e l a
t i v e l y homogenous and p re o c c u p ie d w ith s u b s i s te n c e fa rm in g . I t le d to
th e c o n s t i t u t i o n of a r i c h p e a s a n tr y d i s t i n c t from th e poor p e a s a n tr y .
The r i c h p e a s a n t r y . Ths r i c h p e a s a n tr y co m p rises a v e ry s m a ll
m in o r ity engaged in cash c ro p p in g ( c o tto n and peanuts, in p a r t i c u l a r )
w ith o c c a s io n a l h i r e d la b o r f o r c e .
F o re ig n and l o c a l banks have d e v is e d lo a n system s t o p ro p e l
t h i s f a c t i o n o f th e p e a s a n tr y i n t o th e a g r i - b u s i n e s s c i r c u i t . V ario u s
a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t i o n s , m o stly F re n c h , p ro v id e s e r v ic e s to
t h i s f a c t i o n ( c u l t u r a l m ethods and m a n u re ).
The r i c h p e a s a n ts a r e used by th e s t a t e b u re a u c ra c y as a g e n ts
f o r th e e n d o c t r i n a t i o n o f th e r e s t of th e p e a s a n tr y , w hich a r e e x p e c te d
to fo llo w t h e i r exam ple and tu r n to cash c r o p p in g - - a v a lu a b le so u rc e of
f o r e ig n c u rre n c y needed by th e s t a t e b u re a u c ra c y .
The poor p e a s a n t r y . The poor p e a s a n tr y c o n s t i t u t e s th e o v e r
whelming m a jo r it y o f th e 90 p e rc e n t V o lta n p o p u la tio n engaged in a g r i
c u l t u r e , I t p r a c t i c e s s u b s i s te n c e farm in g on a fa m ily b a s i s , w ith
ru d im e n ta ry t o o l s and g e n e r a l l y on poor la n d .
22
The n etw o rk of modern s e r v i c e goods ( h e a l t h , e d u c a tio n , and
b u r e a u c r a t i c p a p e rs su ch as i d e n t i t y c a r d s , b i r t h c e r t i f i c a t e s , ta x e s ,
e t c . ) t r a p s th e poor p e a s a n tr y i n t o p o v e rty and i s o l a t i o n g iv in g d i s
i n t e g r a t i o n of th e t r a d i t i o n a l way o f l i f e w ith o u t i t s r e a l re p la c e m e n t
by a modern one (as w i l l be d is c u s s e d f u r t h e r in C h ap ter I V ) .
M ig ra tio n o f th e young poor p e a s a n ts to th e Iv o ry C o ast as
u rb an or r u r a l w orkers has b ro u g h t ab o u t a way to g e t o u t of t h i s
p o v e rty "box" s in c e th e c o l o n i a l e r a . The d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e of
p r e s e n t day m ig r a tio n , how ever, i s t h a t i t i s o rg a n iz e d and e x p l o ite d
by th e s t a t e b u re a u c ra c y , w hich draws s u b s t a n t i a l re v e n u e s from th e
o p e r a tio n ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l M onetary Fund, 1970, p . 74 9 ).
Of c o u rse t h i s re v ie w o f V o lta n s o c i a l d i v i s i o n s does n o t p r e
te n d to be e x h a u s tiv e . I t i s d i f f i c u l t to g ra s p a p ro c e s s th ro u g h th e
s t a t i c d e s c r i p t i o n used h e re f o r th e p u rp o se of c l a r i t y . In any c a s e ,
th e p rim ary c o n c e rn o f th e p r e s e n t s tu d y i s n o t an e x h a u s tiv e a n a l y s i s
o f th e s e s o c i a l d i v i s i o n s . I t is more co n ce rn ed w ith th e a n a l y s i s o f
th e c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r e s t s w ith i n th e dom inant b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s .
T his c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f th e b u r e a u c r a ts as c o n s t i t u t i n g a s i n g l e ,
y e t s e r i o u s l y d iv id e d c l a s s , d e s e rv e s a d d i t i o n a l e x p l a n a ti o n .
Some s tu d e n ts of th e A f r ic a n s o c i e t i e s (M. D iop, 1968;
Mamdani, 1976) g e n e r a lly c o n s id e r b u re a u c ra c y as a " s t r a t u m , 1 1 t h a t i s
a r e l a t i v e l y unform ed, f l u c t u a n t group w ith o u t any s e p a r a t e i d e n t i t y
from o th e r c l a s s e s , and th e y d iv id e t h i s " s tr a tu m " betw een th e b o u rg e o i
s i e and th e p e t t y b o u r g e o is i e . To th e b o u r g e o is ie i s a t ta c h e d th e
r u l i n g f a c t i o n c a l l e d th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o is ie and i s
composed of " p r o f e s s i o n a l p o li tic ia n s " - - g o v e r n m e n t o f f i c i a l s and
23
p a r li a m e n ta r ia n s p a r t l y c o n v e rte d i n t o b u sin essm en , h ig h e r ra n k in g
c i v i l s e r v a n t s , and d i r e c t o r s of im p o rta n t s e r v i c e s . To th e p e t t y
b o u r g e o is ie a r e g e n e r a lly a t ta c h e d o th e r in te r m e d ia te and low er r a n k
in g c i v i l s e r v a n ts and th e m i l i t a r y .
W hile th e a tta c h m e n t of th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o is ie
seems somewhat j u s t i f i e d in t h a t , as w i l l be se e n in C h ap ter IV, th e
n a t i o n a l b o u r g e o is ie and th e s e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o is ie a r e
e s s e n t i a l l y th e same p e o p le o r come from th e same p o l i t i c o -
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a re n a and have th e same i n t e r e s t s and l i f e s t y l e s , th e
re a tta c h m e n t o f th e in te r m e d ia te o r low er ra n k in g c i v i l s e r v a n ts to
th e p e t t y b o u r g e o is ie com prised o f low er ra n k in g c i v i l s e r v a n ts (n u rse s,
e le m e n ta ry sc h o o l t e a c h e r s , and r e g i s t e r i n g c l e r k s ) i s l e s s j u s t i f i e d .
B e s id e s , one sh o u ld c o n s id e r th e power o f th e low er ra n k in g c i v i l s e r
v a n ts of th e M in is tr y of I n t e r i o r s e n t as d i s t r i c t commanders and r e p
r e s e n t a t i v e s of th e s t a t e power in d i s t r i c t s . One sh o u ld a l s o c o n s id e r
th e power h e ld by m ost in t e r m e d ia te and low er c i v i l s e r v a n ts i n th e
c e n t r a l s u b - b u r e a u c r a c ie s a s a r e s u l t of t h e i r r o l e s as in t e r m e d i a r ie s
betw een th e p u b lic and th e to p b u r e a u c r a t s . F i n a l l y one sh o u ld c o n
s i d e r th e sy stem o f i n t e r n a l p ro m o tio n w hich a llo w s an in te r m e d ia te o r
low er c i v i l s e r v a n t to move up to th e to p of th e o r g a n i z a t i o n . A l
though o n ly a l i m it e d number of lo w er and in te r m e d ia te c i v i l s e r v a n ts
can re a c h th e to p of t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n s , th e e x i s t e n c e of
su ch a b u i l t - i n p o s s i b i l i t y sh ap es th e b e h a v io r of low er c i v i l s e r v a n ts
so t h a t th e y a r e s t r i v i n g to a c t u a l i z e t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y ; i n o th e r
w o rd s, t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y by i t s e l f d e te rm in e s th e c u l t u r e of c a r e e r is m
w hich i s s p e c i f i c to th e b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s .
_______________________________ 24
The a ssu m p tio n a b o u t b u re a u c ra c y as a c l a s s w i l l be g iv e n some
s u p p o r tin g e v id e n c e i n C h a p te r IV where i t s r o l e i n th e V o lta n s o c i a l ,
econom ic, and p o l i t i c a l sy stem w i l l be h i g h l i g h t e d .
The i n t e g r a t i o n o f th e m i l i t a r y in t o th e b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s and
i t s tr e a tm e n t on an e q u a l b a s is w ith th e c i v i l i a n s a l s o d e s e rv e some
words of e x p l a n a ti o n .
The m i l i t a r y i s g e n e r a lly c o n s id e re d as a s p e c i a l co rp s i n th e
s o c i e t y and m ost a t t e n t i o n has been p a id to th e a n a l y s i s of i t s r e l a
t i o n s h i p w ith th e c i v i l i a n s (H u tin g to n , 1957; W elch, 1970; Welch &
S m ith , 1 9 7 4 ), and i t s r o l e in th e m o d e rn iz a tio n p r o c e s s , p a r t i c u l a r l y
i n d e v e lo p in g c o u n t r i e s (Pye, 1961, pp. 82-92; Jo h n so n , 1962; J a n o w itz ,
1 9 6 4 ). But th e c l a s s n a t u r e o f th e m i l i t a r y i n A f r ic a n s o c i e t i e s has
n o t been p a id s u f f i c i e n t a t t e n t i o n u n t i l r e c e n t l y .
When a n a ly z in g th e r o l e o f th e b u re a u c ra c y in th e p o l i t i c a l
d ev elo p m en t, La Palom bara (1963) e x clu d ed th e m i l i t a r y , a lth o u g h he
r e f e r s to i t as a n o th e r ty p e o f b u re a u c ra c y . La Palom bara jo in e d Pye
i n s e e in g in th e r e c r u i tm e n t of th e m i l i t a r y from d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l
c l a s s e s and groups a f a c t o r of s o c i a l i n t e g r a t i o n .
However, m ost t h e o r i e s m entioned above go back to th e e a r l i e r
p e rio d of in d ep en d en ce f o r A f r ic a n c o u n t r i e s . M ost s tu d e n t s of A f r ic a n
i n s t i t u t i o n s te n d to a n a ly z e th e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s th ro u g h th e framework
and c o n c e p ts d ev elo p ed i n t h e i r home c o u n tr ie s - - E u r o p e o r A m e ric a --
w ith a " t r a d i t i o n a l ” army o r i e n t e d tow ard f i g h t i n g e x t e r n a l en em ies.
The h i s t o r i c a l developm ent o f new A f r ic a n s t a t e s and th e w id e
s p re a d in v o lv em en t of th e m i l i t a r y in p o l i t i c a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
a f f a i r s o f th e s e s t a t e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y by th e m id -1 9 6 0 s, le d to a
25
r e v i s i o n o f th e i n i t i a l d e f i n i t i o n o f th e m i l i t a r y as a s p e c i a l , n e u t r a l
c o rp s i n th e s o c i e t y .
F e i t (1973) sp eak s o f th e m i l i t a r y as "arm ed b u r e a u c r a t s ."
D ecalo (1976, pp. 15, 2 4 0 ), B ien en (1 9 7 8 ), and Potholm (1979, p . 203)
s e e no d i f f e r e n c e betw een m i l i t a r y and c i v i l i a n s in t h e i r r u l i n g of th e
c o u n try and d e g re e of c o r r u p t i o n . F i r s t (1970) i d e n t i f i e s th e m i l i t a r y
b u r e a u c r a ts w ith th e c i v i l i a n b u r e a u c r a t s . He say s t h a t " th e b u r e a u
c r a c y , c i v i l s e r v i c e and army became th e new s o c i a l ro a d to pow er, and
th e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , in u n ifo rm o r i n t a i l o r e d s u i t s , th e new power
b u r e a u c r a ts " (p . 1 1 2 ). He a l s o p o in t s o u t th e d i f f e r e n c e betw een to p
o f f i c e r s and low er ra n k in g o f f i c e r s , and t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e i d e n t i f i c a
t i o n w ith c i v i l i a n to p b u r e a u c r a ts and c i v i l i a n low er b u r e a u c r a t s .
" S e n io r m i l i t a r y commanders have te n d ed to i d e n t i f y w ith th e governm ent
in power and to have s u b s t a n t i a l s ta k e s i n p r e s e r v in g th e s t a t u s quo.
Younger o f f i c e r s have te n d e d to i d e n t i f y w ith t h e i r g e n e r a tio n in
p o l i t i c s o r th e c i v i l s e r v i c e " ( F i r s t , 1970, p . 1 9 ).
F e i t (1973) d e f in e s b u r e a u c r a ts
as men in s t a t e s e r v i c e c o rre s p o n d in g to " to p " o r "m id d le" le v e ls
of management i n b u s i n e s s . They a r e a p a r t o f t h a t h ie r a r c h y o f
o f f i c e s whose a u t h o r i t y d e r iv e s from a c h i e f e x e c u tiv e , a t i t u l a r
h e a d - o f - s t a t e , o r some e q u i v a le n t o f f i c e . T h is d e f i n i t i o n a l
lows f o r in c l u s i o n of th e army o f f i c e r s , who of c o u rs e a r e p u b li c
o f f i c i a l s , em ployed by th e s t a t e , and who m eet a l l c r i t e r i a u s u
a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith b u r e a u c r a c y - - h i e r a r c h y , s p e c i a l i z a t i o n ,
t r a i n i n g and so f o r t h . The f a c t t h a t " b u re a u c ra c y " i s u s u a ll y
a s s o c i a t e d w ith c i v i l i a n s i s one o f th o s e c l i c h e s i n lan g u ag e
t h a t ham pers c l e a r t h i n k in g . (p . 9)
E xcept f o r th e f a c t t h a t F e i t r e s t r i c t s b u re a u c ra c y to s t a t e
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and to th e u pper and m iddle l e v e l s of th e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
p e r s o n n e l, th u s e x c lu d in g th e low er l e v e l p e rs o n n e l and a l s o th e p r i v a t e
26
b u s in e s s b u r e a u c r a t s , h i s d e f i n i t i o n a llo w in g f o r th e in c l u s i o n o f th e
m i l i t a r y i s q u i t e a c c e p ta b l e .
In Upper V o lta , th e in v o lv em en t of th e m i l i t a r y in th e d i r e c t
o r g a n i z a t i o n o f th e so cio eco n o m ic and p o l i t i c a l l i f e o f th e c o u n try
s in c e 1966 made t h i s group an i n t e g r a l p a r t of th e b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s
on th e same b a s is as t h e i r c i v i l i a n c o u n t e r p a r t s .
M i l i t a r y o f f i c e r s have been d i r e c t i n g im p o rta n t m i n i s t e r i a l
and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s e r v i c e s . In 1974 a d m i n i s t r a t i v e re g io n s were a d
m i n is te r e d by army o f f i c e r s , and s in c e 1975, when th e c i v i l i a n b u r e a u
c r a t s fo rc e d th e m i l i t a r y to p a r t l y s u r r e n d e r th e s e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and
p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n s , army o f f i c e r s have been a p p o in te d as to p d ip lo m ats,
M i l i t a r y heads o f m i n i s t e r i a l d e p a rtm e n ts o r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
s e r v i c e s have been u s in g t h e i r p o s i t i o n s f o r i n d i v i d u a l en ric h m e n t j u s t
a s t h e i r c i v i l i a n c o u n t e r p a r t s . Some of them p o s s e s s s m a ll i n d u s t r i a l
u n i t s „ or, have.farm s grow ing v e g e ta b le s and p o ta to e s f o r e x p o r t; some
o th e r p o sse ss r e l a t i v e l y im p o rta n t f i n a n c i a l c a p i t a l and a r e in v o lv e d
i n b u s in e s s in c o n n e c tio n w ith t h e i r c i v i l i a n c o u n t e r p a r t s .
The m i l i t a r y th e m selv es claim e d in 1970 to be c o n s id e re d and
t r e a t e d as "u n ifo rm ed c i t i z e n s , " t h a t i s , in f a c t , as mere u niform ed
c i v i l s e r v a n ts o r , to u se F e i t ' s p h r a s e , "arm ed b u r e a u c r a t s ."
I f th e low er ra n k in g s o l d i e r s a r e n o t r e c r u i t e d as th e c i v i l i a n
low er b u r e a u c r a ts on t h e b a s is of e d u c a tio n a l c r e d e n t i a l s , t h e i r moving
up in th e m i l i t a r y h ie r a r c h y depends on some e d u c a tio n a l c r e d e n t i a l s ,
even i f th e s e c r e d e n t i a l s em phasize m i l i t a r y t r a i n i n g o v er g e n e r a l
e d u c a t i o n .
As f o r th e o f f i c e r s , i t i s e v id e n t t h a t th e y s h a re more s o c i a l
27
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w ith th e c i v i l i a n u p p er b u r e a u c r a t s . M ost of them, in
a d d i t i o n to t h e i r s t r i c t l y m i l i t a r y t r a i n i n g , h o ld e d u c a tio n a l c re d e n
t i a l s in some t e c h n i c a l o r s c i e n t i f i c a r e a (E n g in e e rin g , E conom ics,
A d m in is tr a tio n , and Law ), a lth o u g h th e c i v i l i a n c o n f l i c t betw een u n i
v e r s i t y e d u c a te d b u r e a u c r a ts and n o n - u n i v e r s i t y e d u c a te d b u r e a u c r a ts
does e x i s t in th e arm y. As w i l l be se e n in C h a p te r V, th e m i l i t a r y o f
f i c e r s , j u s t as t h e i r c i v i l i a n c o u n t e r p a r t s , have been t r y i n g to monop
o l i z e t h e i r p r o f e s s io n and make i t a r e s e r v e d domain o f p r i v i l e g e s to
be p assed a lo n g to t h e i r o f f s p r i n g . C h a p te r IV w i l l p ro v id e a d d i t i o n a l
e lem en ts o f j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f th e i n t e g r a t i o n o f th e m i l i t a r y in th e
s t a t e b u re a u c ra c y w ith th e c i v i l i a n s .
The c o n c e p t o f b u re a u c ra c y i s ta k e n in th e p r e s e n t s tu d y i n i t s
b r o a d e r , W eberian a c c e p t a t i o n of h i e r a r c h i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n in w hich
p o s i t i o n s r e q u i r e s p e c i a l i z a t i o n and t r a i n i n g . T his d e f i n i t i o n a llo w s
us to in c lu d e th e r e l a t i v e l y sm a ll segm ent of th e c l e r k s and e x e c u tiv e s
w ork in g in p r i v a t e b u s in e s s a g e n c ie s .
G ouldner (1 9 7 9 ), Konrad and S z e le n y l (1979) c o n v in c in g ly
p o in te d o u t th e h i s t o r i c a l common o r i g i n s of s t a t e and b u s in e s s b u re a u
c r a t s in t h e i r u se o f e d u c a tio n a l c r e d e n t i a l s and " i n t e l l e c t u a l c a p i
t a l " to advance t h e i r c l a s s i n t e r e s t s .
In Upper V o lta , in p a r t i c u l a r , th e " V o l t a i z a t i o n " o f th e f o r
e ig n p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e s e n a c te d in 1974 and th e su b se q u e n t s t a t e i n
v olvem ent in th e p r i v a t e s e c t o r as s h a r e h o ld e r , has te n d ed to b l u r th e
d i f f e r e n c e s betw een s t a t e b u r e a u c r a ts and b u s in e s s b u r e a u c r a ts as f a r
a s r e c r u i tm e n t and w orking c o n d itio n s a r e c o n c e rn e d .
28
The Dynamics o f C la ss T ra n s f o r m a tio n :
The S p e c ia l Case o f th e T r a d i t i o n a l
C h ie fs o r R u le rs
The f i v e c l a s s e s m en tio n ed above r e p r e s e n t a rou g h s c h e m a tiz a -
t i o n o f th e V o lta n s o c i a l r e a l i t y . The p r e s e n t a n a l y s i s does n o t p r e
te n d to be an e x h a u s tiv e and s y s te m a tic c l a s s a n a l y s i s . I t does n o t
p r e te n d to a c c o u n t f o r th e dynam ics o f th e s o c i a l tr a n s f o r m a tio n w hich
has b een ta k in g p la c e s in c e th e p r e - c o l o n i a l p e r io d , and by w hich new
s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s and f o r c e s a r e em erging from p e r s i s t i n g " t r a d i t i o n a l , 1
p r e - c o l o n i a l , and c o l o n i a l s t r u c t u r e s and f o r c e s . T hus, f o r in s t a n c e ,
th e p r e s e n t s o c i a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n does n o t in c lu d e th e t r a d i t i o n a l
c h i e f s o r r u l e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y o f th e M ossi p r e - c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y .
The M ossi s o c i e t y , w hich encom passes n e a r l y h a l f o f th e t o t a l
V o lta n p o p u la tio n and i s th e m ost homogenous among th e 100 V o lta n
e t h n i c g ro u p s , was o rg a n iz e d a c c o rd in g to fe u d a lis m .
The M o ssilan d o r Mogho was o rg a n iz e d i n t o an em pire c r e a te d
some f i v e hundred y e a rs a g o . The em pire i s co m p rised o f t h r e e r e l a
t i v e l y in d e p e n d e n t kingdoms (Fada N'Gourma, Tenkddqgp, and O u a h ig o u y a ),
a l l o f e q u a l pow er. The K ings and th e Emperor r e f e r r e d to a common
a n c e s t r y , b u t had no more a c t u a l t i e s . They claim e d t h e i r in d e p en d en ce
from th e c e n t r a l power r e p r e s e n t e d by th e "Em peror of th e Moss i s " o r
Mogho N aba, who c o n t r o l s th e t e r r i t o r y o f Ouagadougou, e q u iv a le n t to a
kingdom (B alim a, 1968, p . 2 9 ).
Under th e Mogho Naba and eac h f e u d a l k in g th e r e were f i v e m in
i s t e r s who, i n a d d i t i o n to t h e i r o f f i c i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o r m i l i t a r y
f u n c tio n s in th e C o u rt, w ere e n t r u s t e d w ith th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f th e
29
" p r o v i n c e s . 1 1 These p ro v in c e s w ere d iv id e d i n t o v i l l a g e s o f more o r
l e s s im p o rta n c e .
The v i l l a g e c h i e f s w ere r e s p o n s ib le to th e p ro v in c e c h i e f s f o r
th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of th e v i l l a g e s in b e h a l f of th e Em peror. T h is a d
m i n i s t r a t i o n c o n s is te d m a in ly o f s e t t l i n g d is p u te s o v er la n d .
The la n d was "ow ned," n o t by th e c h i e f s o r th e Em peror, b u t by
th e ex ten d ed fa m ily o r c l a n . However, t h i s o w n ersh ip had no m eaning
i n term s of s o c i a l s t a t u s o r power f o r th e o w n e rs .
In e f f e c t , th e M ossi s o c i e t y was h ig h ly s t r a t i f i e d w ith a c l a s s
o f n o b i l i t y , a c l a s s o f freem en , and a c l a s s o f s l a v e s . The Emperor
was the owner o f a l l th e Em pire in c lu d in g a l l o f i t s p o p u l a t i o n - - s l a v e s
as w e ll as freem en ( S k in n e r, 1972, p. 2 4 3 ). T h is f e u d a l sy stem was
m o d ifie d by th e F re n c h c o l o n i a l power by 1910 to b e t t e r s e rv e i t s *
i n t e r e s t s .
The t r a d i t i o n a l c h i e f s w ere u sed by th e c o l o n i a l power f o r
c o l l e c t i n g t a x e s , m a in ta in in g o rd e r among th e r u r a l p o p u la tio n s , and
m o b iliz in g them f o r fo rc e d l a b o r . T h is c o n t r i b u t e d to m a in ta in in g th e
in f lu e n c e o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l r u l e r s o v er th e r u r a l p o p u la tio n s up to
d a t e , e s p e c i a l l y s in c e th e V o lta n b u r e a u c r a ts i n power d id n o t s i g n i f i
c a n t l y change th e s o c i a l o r g a n iz a ti o n of th e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s .
I f a t p r e s e n t th e t r a d i t i o n a l c h i e f s e n jo y s u b s t a n t i a l s o c i a l
power o v e r th e s e r u r a l p o p u la tio n s , t h i s pow er, how ever, does n o t
s e c u r e them w ith an econom ic b a s i s as i t d id d u rin g th e p r e - c o l o n i a l
and c o l o n i a l p e rio d s . The c h i e f s a r e t h e r e f o r e o b lig e d to engage
th e m selv es i n some p r o d u c tiv e a c t i v i t i e s - - s o m e become b u sin e ssm e n ,
o th e r s j o i n th e b u re a u c ra c y , and some j o i n th e p e a s a n t r y .
30
T his d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f th e M ossi t r a d i t i o n a l r u l i n g c l a s s and
i t s i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o some em erging new s o c i a l c l a s s e s makes i t d i f f i
c u l t to s y s t e m a t i c a l l y a p p ro a c h t h i s d i s i n t e g r a t e d c l a s s .
I t i s t r u e t h a t th e t r a d i t i o n a l c h i e f s have been s e e k in g to
r e s t o r e t h e i r f e u d a l power th ro u g h th e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f t h e i r
s o - c a l l e d f u n c ti o n of " g u a rd ia n s o f th e t r a d i t i o n . " But th e f a c t t h a t
t h i s f e u d a l sy stem has no n a t i o n a l b a s i s - - a l t h o u g h i t i s t r y i n g t o g a in
such a b a s i s by e x te n d in g th e c h i e f t a n c y even o v e r th e p r e - c o l o n i a l
in d e p e n d e n t s m a ll v i l l a g e s - - a n d o b j e c t i v e l y a n ta g o n iz e s th e b u re a u
c r a t i c system as a w h o le, makes t h i s c la im f o r r e s t o r a t i o n somewhat
u n r e a l i s t i c .
B ecause of t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n of th e c h i e f t a n c y , th e
p r e s e n t s tu d y c o n s id e r s i t as a v e ry s tr o n g i n t e r e s t group b u t n o t a
c l a s s i n th e p r e s e n t p o s t- in d e p e n d e n t V o lta n s o c i e t y . A g a in , t h i s is
th e tem p o rary outcom e o f an o n -g o in g power s t r u g g l e . As C h a p te r IV
w i l l a r g u e , th e c h i e f ta n c y had a chance t o m a in ta in i t s e l f as a c l a s s ,
b u t l o s t a t th e eve o f in d e p e n d e n c e .
T h e o rie s C o n cern in g th e D evelopm ent of U n iv e r s it y
D e p a rtm e n ts , and th e S e l e c t i o n and
T ra c k in g o f S tu d e n ts
C r e a tio n of U n iv e r s it y D epartm ents
The m o d e rn iz a tio n a p p ro a c h a s s e r t s t h a t a s s o c i e t y p a s s e s from
a t r a d i t i o n a l s t a t e of developm ent to a modern s t a t e o f d ev elo p m en t,
th e u n i v e r s i t y a d a p ts i t s e l f t o t h i s change and becomes more a ttu n e d
to th e new s o c i a l n e e d s , th u s c r e a t i n g a s y m b io tic harmony betw een
s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , g ro u p s , and in d i v i d u a l s (Eddy, 1956; N evin, 1962;
31
H a rb iso n 6c M eyers, 1964; B ru b ach er 6c Rudy, 197 6 ). Thompson and F o g el
(1976) c o l l e c t e d some c a s e s o f d e m o n s tra tiv e and a d a p t a t i v e p ro c e s s e s
o f A f r ic a n u n i v e r s i t i e s to t h e i r s o c i e t i e s ' n e e d s . Examples in c lu d e
im provem ent o f m e d ic a l and h e a l t h s e r v i c e , a g r i c u l t u r a l and food p r o
d u c t io n , e t c . (p . 1 4 8 ).
However, th e s e exam ples seem t o be e x c e p tio n s r a t h e r th a n i l
l u s t r a t i o n s of th e g e n e r a l s i t u a t i o n i n s o f a r a s th e c u r r i c u l a fo llo w e d
by A f r ic a n u n i v e r s i t i e s a r e s t i l l c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e i r e x t r a v e r t e d
o u tlo o k ( I s u f u , 1973; UNESCO, 1978) . T h is e x t r a v e r t e d o u tlo o k g iv e s
some c o n f ir m a tio n to th e t h e s i s o f th e im p e ria lis m a p p ro a c h , a rg u in g
t h a t academ ic d e p a rtm e n ts grow in A f r ic a n u n i v e r s i t i e s , n o t from th e
socio eco n o m ic needs o f A f r ic a n c o u n t r i e s b u t from th e i m p e r i a l i s t i c
ex p a n sio n of f o r e i g n c a p i t a l i s t powers . T hus, Berman (1979) g iv e s th e
example of th e F o rd , R o c k e f e lle r , and C a rn e g ie F o u n d a tio n s ' program s
i n A f r ic a w hich em phasize th e c r e a t i o n o f s o c i a l - s c i e n c e d e p a rtm e n ts
(P u b lic A d m in is tr a tio n a t Ahmadou B e llo U n iv e r s it y in N ig e r ia , a t th e
U n iv e r s it y of E a s t A f r i c a , and th e N a tio n a l S chool of Law and A dm inis
t r a t i o n in Z a i r e ) , n o t as means o f m o d e rn iz a tio n of A f r ic a n c o u n t r i e s
b u t as means of s o c i a l c o n t r o l of th e s e c o u n t r i e s . The way to a s s u r e
t h i s s o c i a l c o n t r o l i s by p ro d u c in g th e manpower n e c e s s a r y to m a in ta in
and r e i n f o r c e th e econom ic sy ste m of dependence and p a r t i c u l a r l y by
c r e a t i n g c u l t u r a l h a b i t s of consum ption and ways o f l i v i n g f a v o r a b le
t o th e W estern econom ic m arket (M azrui, 1973, 1978) o r by p rom oting
p r o f e s s i o n a l i n t e r e s t s and li n k s o f l o c a l academ ics w ith f o r e i g n
c o u n t r i e s (A ltb a c h , 1971, p . 5 4 9 ).
However, i t has been shown t h a t even i n c o u n t r i e s l i k e T an z an ia
32
w here th e l o c a l governm ent i s d e l i b e r a t e l y t r y i n g to i n t e g r a t e th e
u n i v e r s i t y w ith i t s n a t i o n - b u i l d i n g e f f o r t s , th e u n i v e r s i t y is o f f e r i n g
s tr o n g r e s i s t a n c e to th e s e e f f o r t s ( S c o t t , 1970; B ark an , 1 9 7 5 ). T his
i s c o n t r a r y b o th to th e m o d e rn iz a tio n and im p e r ia lis m t h e o r i e s , and
i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e academ ic com m unities may have t h e i r own i n t e r e s t s
t h a t th e y a r e n o t w i l l i n g to r e l i n q u i s h f o r o th e rs ( l o c a l o r f o r e ig n
p o w e rs ).
A cco rd in g to th e th e o ry of m o d e rn iz a tio n , th e u n i v e r s i t y c u r
r ic u lu m f o s t e r s in s tu d e n t s th o s e q u a l i t i e s o f l e a d e r s h i p , e n t r e p r e n e u r
s h i p , and s c i e n t i f i c o r i e n t a t i o n n e c e s s a r y to p ro p e l th e c o u n t r i e s t o
ward more t e c h n i c a l and dynamic d ev elo p m en t. A b ro a d s u rv e y of Ghana,
T a n z a n ia , and U ganda's s tu d e n t s i n d i c a t e s , how ever, t h a t " a s s e r v a n ts
o f th e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t a t e who shun e n t r e p r e n u r i a l r o l e s , and v a lu e
s e c u r i t y above a l l e l s e , s tu d e n t s a r e l e s s l i k e l y to be a m ajor so u rc e
of in n o v a tio n f o r th e d e v e lo p m e n ta l p ro c e s s th a n m ig h t o th e rw is e be th e
c a se f o r p e o p le w ith s i m i l a r s k i l l s " (B arkan, 1975, p . 2 8 0 ). The same
su rv e y a l s o i n d i c a t e s t h a t " A f r ic a n s tu d e n ts te n d to p u rsu e c o u rs e s in
th e l i b e r a l a r t s " (p . 5 5 ) . Evans (1970) co n firm s t h i s o b s e r v a tio n f o r
West A f r ic a n u n i v e r s i t y s tu d e n t s who w ere more a t t r a c t e d by law
(p p . 2 0 8 -2 1 7 ).
I t must be b o rn e in mind t h a t th e T a n a n a riv e C o n feren c e on
D evelopm ent of H ig h er E d u c a tio n in A f r ic a had s e t as a d e c e n n ia l t a r g e t
th e o r i e n t a t i o n o f a t l e a s t 60 p e rc e n t of th e s tu d e n t s tow ard s c i e n -
r i f i c d i s c i p l i n e s i n o rd e r t o m eet th e m o d e rn iz a tio n im p e r a tiv e .
Even g iv e n th e h y p o t h e t i c a l s i t u a t i o n t h a t th e s e o b je c tiv e s
w ould be m et, i t i s n o t c e r t a i n t h a t s tu d e n t s would re sp o n d to th e
33
m o d e r n i s ts ' e x p e c t a t i o n s . A r e c e n t s u rv e y o f V o lta n se c o n d a ry s tu d e n t s
i n d i c a t e s , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h a t 90 p e r c e n t o f th o s e e n r o l l e d in t e c h n i c a l
s c h o o ls e x p e c te d to ta k e a " w h ite c o l l a r " jo b , w hich i s c o n s id e re d more
p r e s t i g i o u s i f n o t f i n a n c i a l l y more re w a rd in g th a n th e t e c h n i c a l jo b s
th e y w ere p re p a re d f o r (H ardy, 1978, p . 9 9 ).
The above exam ples i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e r e i s n o t a sim p le a u t o
m a tic i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e u n i v e r s i t y and i t s p o p u la tio n w ith th e
so cio ec o n o m ic needs o f th e c o u n try in w hich th e u n i v e r s i t y i s o p e r a t in g
n o r i s th e r e o u ts id e m a n ip u la tio n by th e academ ic com munity. T his i n
v i t e s us to se e k e x p la n a to r y f a c t o r s f o r developm ent of A f r ic a n u n i v e r
s i t i e s a t th e v e ry l e v e l o f th e academ ic community i t s e l f , i t s c u l t u r e ,
o r th e v a lu e sy stem w ith w hich i t i d e n t i f i e s i t s e l f , i t s c a r e e r i n t e r
e s t s , and e x p e c t a t i o n s , as i n t e r e s t - g r o u p 's a p p ro a c h s u g g e s ts .
S e l e c t i o n and T ra c k in g System s
S o c ia l o r i g i n s o f s t u d e n t s . T h e o r e t i c a l l y , th e m o d e rn iz a tio n
a p p ro a c h a s s e r t s t h a t th e d e m o c ra tic f o r c e s a t work i n c r e a t i n g modern
s o c i e t i e s b r in g s a b o u t s o c i a l m o b i lit y b ased on in d i v i d u a l ach iev em en t
and m e r it ( m e r i t o c r a c y ) . The u n i v e r s i t y opens i t s d o o rs to a l l o c c u p a
t i o n a l g ro u p s , b u t s in c e th e number of d e s i r a b l e , p r e s t i g i o u s s t a t u s
o c c u p a tio n s a c c e s s i b l e th ro u g h u n i v e r s i t y e d u c a tio n a r e l i m i t e d , t h e r e
i s in t e n s e c o m p e titio n f o r th e s e p r e s t i g i o u s o c c u p a tio n s . To be s u r e ,
t h i s t h e s i s , a lth o u g h d o m in an t, i s n o t th e o n ly one i n th e m o d e rn iz a
t i o n camp. T here has b e e n , and s t i l l c o n tin u e s to b e , a d e b a te betw een
" e x p a n s i o n i s t s " a rg u in g f o r an open a c c e s s to u n i v e r s i t y and s o c i a l
s e r v i c e s ( P a r k e s , 1963; d 'A r b o u s ie r , 1964; G ra n g e r, 1964; Ashby, 1962,
1964) and " r e s t r i e t i o n i s t s " who a rg u e f o r th e n e c e s s i t y of m a in ta in in g
34
h ig h academ ic s ta n d a r d s ( C a r r - S a u n d e r s , 1 9 6 5 ), ta k in g i n t o a c c o u n t th e
l i m i t e d a v a i l a b l e f i n a n c i a l r e s o u r c e s ( S u tto n , 1 9 7 1 ).
P r a c t i c a l l y , how ever, th e m o d e rn iz a tio n a p p ro a c h does n o t p r o
v id e much e x p l i c i t e v id e n c e r e g a r d in g th e fa m ily background o f A fric a n
s t u d e n t s . T h is i s b e c a u se such a r e s e a r c h w ould seem w ith o u t i n t e r e s t
o r dam aging to th e e f f o r t s of n a t i o n - b u i l d i n g i n w hich th e new A f r ic a n
c o u n t r i e s a r e su pposed to m o b iliz e t h e i r p o p u la tio n s . N e v e r th e le s s ,
i m p l i c i t l y , th e th e o r y c o n s id e r s t h a t th e l a r g e m a j o r i t y o f A f r ic a n
s tu d e n t s come from r e l a t i v e l y d is a d v a n ta g e d f a m i l i e s - - a f t e r a l l , a r e
n o t a l l th e s e c o u n t r i e s th e m se lv e s v e ry d is a d v a n ta g e d in com p ariso n to
th e i n d u s t r i a l d e v e lo p e d c o u n t r i e s ? - - j u s t i f y i n g th e p o li c y of r e s i d e n
t i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s and g r a n t i n g o f s c h o la r s h ip s (UNESCO, 196 3 ).
The same o b s e r v a ti o n can be made f o r th e im p e r ia lis m a p p ro a c h .
T h e o r e t i c a l l y , i t say s t h a t th e upper c l a s s e s c lo s e th e d o o rs of th e
u n i v e r s i t y to th e so n s of lo w er c l a s s e s a n d /o r a s s i g n them to low er
s t a t u s tr a c k s and p o s i t i o n s . However, th e r e i s n o t much e v id e n c e p r o
v id e d to s u p p o rt t h i s a s s e r t i o n r e g a r d in g A f r ic a n u n i v e r s i t i e s .
The d i f f i c u l t y may come from th e f a c t t h a t th e new s o c i a l
c l a s s e s em erging in A f r ic a a r e r e l a t i v e l y young and to o much a t a s t a t e
of fo rm a tio n to p e rm it c o n c lu s iv e s ta te m e n ts (M a rk o v itz , 19 7 7 ).
A n o th er s o u rc e o f d i f f i c u l t y may be th e f a c t m entioned e a r l i e r t h a t
th e M a rx is t n o tio n o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s seems d i f f i c u l t to a p p ly to th e
s o c i a l groups of c l e r k s , m a n a g e ria l p e r s o n n e l, and b u r e a u c r a ts w hich
a r e p red o m in an t in A f r i c a ( S h i v j i , 1 9 7 6 ). A f u r t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s
t h a t v e ry few a t t a i n e d u n i v e r s i t y d e g re e s un d er c o l o n i a l i s m , and t h i s
35
s m a ll e l i t e m ust p e rm it e n t r y from th e o th e r c l a s s e s in o r d e r to p ro v id e
le a d e r s h ip f o r a grow ing economy. I t i s p o s s i b le t h a t th e s e t h e o r e t i c a l
d i f f i c u l t i e s , added to th e a ssu m p tio n o f th e dom inant v e r s i o n of th e
im p e r ia lis m a p p ro ac h t h a t th e fu n d am e n tal s t r u g g l e is n o t w ith i n A fric a n
c o u n t r i e s th e m se lv e s b u t betw een th e s e c o u n t r i e s and f o r e i g n powers
(Amin, 1 9 7 6 ), e x p la in s th e e l u s i v e c h a r a c t e r of a n a ly s e s by th e im p e r i
a lis m a p p ro a c h . T hus, C arnoy (1974) and Moumouni (1964) m e re ly c la im
t h a t A f r ic a n s tu d e n t s come from p r i v i l e g e d f a m i l i e s on th e b a s is o f th e
B r i t i s h and F ren ch e d u c a tio n a l p o l i c i e s i n A f r i c a , s e e k in g to w in l o c a l
c h i e f s and n o ta b le s th ro u g h t h e i r s o n s - - t h e r e l a t i v e l a r g e number of
s tu d e n t s from low er c l a s s e s b e in g e x p la in e d by th e i n i t i a l r e s i s t a n c e
of c h i e f s and Muslims ( t r a d e r s ) to c o l o n i a l e d u c a tio n , a r e s i s t a n c e to
be overcome as e d u c a tio n a p p e a rs t o be a so u rc e o f s u b s t a n t i a l p r o f i t
(C arony, 1974, p . 1 9 0 ).
Much o f th e e v id e n c e r e g a r d in g th e s o c i a l o r i g i n s of A f r ic a n
u n i v e r s i t y s tu d e n t s comes from th e e t h n ic c o n f l i c t t h e o r i s t s who a r e ,
in f a c t , more co n ce rn ed w ith m in im izin g t h e i r im p o rta n c e i n fa v o r o f
th e e t h n i c d i s p a r i t i e s . T hus, s t u d i e s co n d u cted i n Ghana ( F in la y ,
K o p lin , & B a l l a r d , 1968; B ark an , 1975), T an z an ia and Uganda (B arkan,
1975), N ig e r ia (Van den B erg h e, 1973), and th e Iv o ry C o a st ( C lig n e t &
F o s t e r , 1966) c o n s i s t e n t l y i n d i c a t e an o v e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n
of c i v i l s e r v a n t s , t e a c h e r s , and p r o f e s s i o n a l s (betw een 20 and 3l7o of
th e s tu d e n t p o p u la tio n , w h ile th e p r o p o r tio n o f th e s e c a t e g o r i e s to
th e g e n e r a l p o p u la tio n i s in a l l c a s e s l e s s th a n 3%), a n d , c o n s e q u e n tly ,
an u n d e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n o f fa rm e rs (31 to 54% o f th e s t u d e n t
body f o r a p r o p o r tio n o f 70 to 95% of th e o v e r a l l p o p u l a t i o n ) .
36
The m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of d i f f e r e n t o c c u p a tio n a l groups a t a
u n i v e r s i t y , a c c o rd in g to th e e t h n ic c o n f l i c t th e o r y , i s l e s s d ra m a tic
th a n th e m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t g e o e th n ic groups w ith i n th e
c o u n t r i e s . Not o n ly i s t h i s l a t t e r m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n g e n e r a l l y g r e a t e r
in q u a n t i t a t i v e te rm s; f o r exam ple, a c c o rd in g to Van den B erghe (1973)
" th e a v e ra g e chance of a N ig e r ia n c h i l d g a in in g a d m issio n to a u n i v e r
s i t y i s o f th e o rd e r o f one i n a th o u sa n d . In some p a r t s o f N ig e r ia ,
i t i s of th e o rd e r of one in a hundred th o u s a n d , i n o th e r p a r t s o f one
in a hundred" (p . 1 4 8 ), b u t a l s o i t has a more p o w erfu l p s y c h o lo g ic a l
im pact inasm uch as m ost A f r ic a n p e o p le s t i l l te n d to i d e n t i f y them
s e lv e s p r im a r ily by t h e i r e t h n i c a f f i l i a t i o n .
An a d v a n ta g e o f th e e t h n ic c o n f l i c t th e o ry i s t h a t i t ta k e s
i n t o a c c o u n t th e s p e c i f i c c o n te x t of most A f r ic a n c o u n t r i e s b e t t e r
th a n th e ap p ro a c h e s b ased on th e n u c le a r f a m i l y , w hich a r e to o r e s t r i c
t i v e in re g a rd to t r a d i t i o n a l and s t i l l p e r s i s t i n g A f r ic a n k in s h ip
r e l a t i o n s .
However, t h i s p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h a rg u e s t h a t t h i s a p p ro ac h as
w e ll as th e m o d e rn iz a tio n and im p e ria lis m ap p ro ac h es do n o t a d e q u a te ly
i n t e r p r e t th e d a t a c o n c e rn in g th e s o c i a l o r i g i n s of A f r ic a n u n i v e r s i t y
s t u d e n t s . T hese d a t a p o in t to th e grow ing im p o rtan ce of th e b u r e a u
c r a t s and t h e i r c o n t r o l o v er th e u n i v e r s i t i e s , and i n d i c a t e s w hat
B ourdieu and P a s s e ro n (1977) c a l l th e " p h y s i c a l r e p r o d u c tio n " of the
b u r e a u c r a ts i n th e u n i v e r s i t i e s .
However, t h i s p h y s ic a l r e p r o d u c t io n a lo n e does n o t e x p la in how
th e b u r e a u c r a t i c o r c a r e e r i s t c u l t u r e is t r a n s m i t t e d to th e w ould-be
b u r e a u c r a t s , in c lu d in g th o s e coming from o th e r s o c i a l groups or c l a s s e s ,
37
The e x a m in a tio n sy stem p ro v id e s a b e t t e r u n d e rs ta n d in g of t h i s a s p e c t
of th e problem .
Im portance o f e x a m in a tio n s y s te m . The d e b a te betw een " r e s t r i e -
t i o n i s t s " and " e x p a n s i o n i s t s " in th e m o d e rn iz a tio n camp has so f a r
b een c o n c e n tr a te d around th e problem of f u n c t i o n a l a d ju s tm e n t of u n i
v e r s i t y g r a d u a te s to e i t h e r supposed "econom ic im p e r a tiv e s " o r s o -
c a l l e d academ ic " s t a n d a r d s " o r s t i l l s o - c a l l e d p o l i t i c a l " im p e r a tiv e s "
i d e n t i f y i n g d e m o c r a tiz a tio n w ith a J a c k s o n ia n ty p e of p o p u lism . I f
t h i s d e b a te makes s e n se as f a r as th e a d m is sio n to a u n i v e r s i t y is
c o n c e rn e d , i t becomes o b s o le te as f a r as th e i n t e r n a l u n i v e r s i t y s e l e c
t i o n is c o n c e rn e d . The same is tr u e f o r th e im p e ria lis m t h e o r i s t s '
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f e l i t i s m as o b serv ed in A f r ic a n e d u c a tio n a l s y ste m s.
I t has been p r a c t i c a l l y im p o s s ib le f o r th e s e th e o r i e s to d e s c r ib e th e
p ro c e s s by w hich th e u n i v e r s i t y autonom ously a p p l ie s i t s s e l e c t i o n o f
s tu d e n t s or i n t e r p r e t s th e e x t e r n a l im p e ra tiv e s and m atch them w ith
i t s own "academ ic r u l e s " (o f i n t e l l e c t u a l f a i r n e s s and academ ic f r e e
dom) .
B ourdieu and P a s s e ro n (1977) made a s e r io u s c o n t r i b u t i o n to
th e e l u c i d a t i o n of t h i s problem by p o in t in g o u t th e im p o rta n c e o f th e
u n i v e r s i t y 's i n t e r n a l s e l e c t i o n p ro c e d u re . A cco rd in g to th e s e a u t h o r s ,
i n t e r n a l s e l e c t i o n may be th e key f a c t o r in e x p la in in g th e r e l a t i o n s h i p
betw een th e e x t e r n a l s e l e c t i o n (th e r e p r o d u c tio n o f s o c i a l c l a s s e s ) and
th e c u rric u lu m (th e r e p r o d u c tio n of c u l t u r e ) , w ith an a p p a re n t a c c e p
ta n c e by th e o v e r a l l s o c i e t y , in c lu d in g th e s e d is a d v a n ta g e d by th e
sy ste m . B o urdieu and P a s s e ro n u n d e r lin e d th e im p o rtan ce o f th e exam i
n a t io n system as f o llo w s :
38
In f a c t th e e x a m in a tio n i s n o t o n ly th e c l e a r e s t e x p r e s s io n of
academ ic v a lu e s and o f th e e d u c a tio n a l s y s te m ’s i m p l i c i t c h o ic e s :
in im posing a s w orthy of u n i v e r s i t y s a n c ti o n a s o c i a l d e f i n i t i o n
of know ledge and th e way to show i t , i t p ro v id e s one o f th e most
e f f i c a c i o u s to o l s f o r th e e n t e r p r i s e of i n c u l c a t i n g th e dom inant
c u l t u r e and th e v a lu e of t h a t c u l t u r e . As much as or more th a n
th ro u g h th e c o n s t r a i n t s of c u r r ic u lu m and s y l l a b u s , th e a c q u i s i
t i o n o f l e g i t i m a t e c u l t u r e i s r e g u l a t e d by th e custom ary law
w hich i s c o n s t i t u t e d in th e ju r i s p r u d e n c e of e x a m in a tio n s and
w hich owes i t s main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s to th e s i t u a t i o n in w hich
i t i s fo rm u la te d . (p . 142)
The e x a m in a tio n sy ste m a ls o p ro v id e s th e lin k a g e betw een s tu d e n t s and
te a c h e r s as a p r o f e s s i o n a l g ro u p , and a b u r e a u c r a t i c s o c i e t y i n g e n e r a l
(Weber, 1946, pp. 240, 4 3 7 ).
However, th e tr a n s m is s io n of th e b u r e a u c r a t i c c u l t u r e i s n o t
th e o n ly o b j e c t i v e of th e e x a m in a tio n s y ste m , as i t may a p p e a r from
B o u rd ieu and P a s s e r o n ’s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . A s tu d e n t i s n o t a u t o m a ti c a l ly
d e c l a r e d " a d m itte d " ( in t o th e b u re a u c ra c y ) once he has a c q u ir e d t h i s
c u l t u r e . The norms of p erfo rm a n ce r e q u ir e d from a c a n d id a te a r e a l s o
a f u n c tio n o f th e s o c i a l and. m a t e r i a l i n t e r e s t s of th o s e c o n t r o l l i n g
th e p r o f e s s i o n a l o r g a n iz a ti o n s to w hich th e c a n d id a te i s se e k in g e n t r y .
B l e d s t e i n (1976) and p a r t i c u l a r l y C o ll in s (1979) made a s i g n i f i -
c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n by show ing th e a r b i t r a r i n e s s of e d u c a tio n a l and p r o
f e s s i o n a l r e q u ir e m e n t s , in c lu d in g t h e i r enhancem ent and m a n ip u la tio n
by o rg a n iz e d p r o f e s s i o n a l groups as a means to m onopolize t h e i r t e c h
n i c a l s k i l l s f o r more a d v a n ta g e s .
S tu d e n ts 1 c a r e e r e x p e c t a t i o n s . B o u rd ie u (1973) and Bowles and
G e n tis (1976) s t a t e d t h a t s tu d e n t s te n d e d to g e a r t h e i r lo n g -ru n c a r e e r
e x p e c ta tio n s and c h o ic e s to t h e i r s o c i a l o r i g i n s .
When th e w o rk in g p o p u la tio n is e f f e c t i v e l y s t r a t i f i e d , i n d i v i d
u a l needs and s e l f - c o n c e p t s d e v e lo p in a c o r r e s p o n d in g ly f r a g -
39
merited m anner. Y outh of d i f f e r e n t r a c i a l , s e x u a l, e t h n i c , or
econom ic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s d i r e c t l y p e r c e iv e th e econom ic p o s i
t i o n s and p r e r o g a t iv e s o f t h e i r "k in d of p e o p le ." By a d j u s t i n g
t h e i r a s p i r a t i o n a c c o r d in g ly , th e y n o t o n ly re p ro d u c e s t r a t i f i
c a t i o n on th e l e v e l o f p e r s o n a l c o n s c io u s n e s s , b u t b r in g t h e i r
needs i n t o ( a t l e a s t p a r t i a l ) harmony w ith th e frag m e n ted c o n
d i t i o n s of econom ic l i f e . (p . 128)
Hardy (1978) claim ed to have found su ch a c o r r e l a t i o n betw een
V o lta n h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s ' s o c i a l o r ig i n s and t h e i r lo n g - r u n e x p e c ta
ti o n s and c h o ic e s . He r e p o r te d :
Among th o s e s tu d e n ts whose p a r e n ts w ere w h ite c o l l a r w o rk ers
a b o u t 96% i n d i c a t e d th e y would l i k e employment i n th e lo n g -ru n
a s w h ite c o l l a r w o r k e r s . I n th e b lu e c o l l a r o c c u p a tio n a l group
of s tu d e n ts 68% e x p e c te d lo n g -ru n employment as w h ite c o l l a r
w o rk e rs. (p . 96)
However, most s tu d e n t s of A f r ic a n e d u c a tio n a l and s o c i a l i n s t i
t u t i o n s , w h a te v e r t h e i r t h e o r e t i c a l a s s u m p tio n s , r e f e r to A f r ic a n s t u
d e n ts as a " p re su m p tiv e e l i t e " (M arvick, 1965), o r as " a s p i r i n g m id d le -
c l a s s p r o f e s s i o n a l s " (B ark an , 1 9 7 5 ). C lig n e t and F o s t e r (1966) found
t h a t I v o r ia n h ig h s c h o o l s tu d e n t s w ere e q u a lly a m b itio u s . Heyneman
and C u r r ie (1979) found t h a t Ugandan h ig h s c h o o l s tu d e n t s w ere a l s o
e q u a lly a m b itio u s r e g a r d l e s s of t h e i r s o c i a l o r i g i n s . I t seems t h a t
th e im p o rta n c e o f e d u c a tio n i n th e s h a p in g of s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i s
r e a l and c r e a t e s e x p e c ta t io n s w hich have n o th in g to do w ith th e s t u
d e n ts 1 s o c i a l b a c k g ro u n d s .
T h is i n v i t e s us to reex am in e th e B o u rd ie u , B ow les, and G e n tis
t h e o r i e s . In i t s g e n e r a l f o r m u la tio n th e th e o ry seems q u i t e p l a u s i b l e ,
b u t i t may be m is le a d in g when a p p l ie d w ith o u t p r i o r and c o r r e c t i d e n t i
f i c a t i o n o f th e b a s i s of s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n a t work in d i f f e r e n t
s o c i e t i e s .
40
In s o c i e t i e s l i k e th e A m erican o r m ost W estern c a p i t a l i s t
s o c i e t i e s w here th e is s u e s o f c l a s s s t r u g g l e s and s t r a t i f i c a t i o n a r e
a l l s e t ( a t l e a s t t e m p o r a r i l y ) , and th e sy stem of s o c i a l r e p r o d u c tio n
i s c l e a r l y e s t a b l i s h e d on th e grounds o f th e p o s s e s s io n of f i n a n c i a l
and m a t e r i a l c a p i t a l , i t i s q u i t e u n d e r s ta n d a b le t h a t s tu d e n t s g e a r
t h e i r a s p i r a t i o n s to t h e i r s o c i a l o r i g i n s . But w here c l a s s e s a r e s t i l l
in a s ta g e o f ( r e ) f o r m a t io n and where e d u c a tio n a l c r e d e n t i a l s a r e th e
m ain c a p i t a l w hich d e te rm in e s th e p o s i t i o n one i s l i k e l y to h o ld i n th e
new s o c i a l sy ste m , i t i s a l s o q u i t e u n d e r s ta n d a b le t h a t s tu d e n ts do
n o t l i m i t t h e i r a m b itio n s to t h e i r s o c i a l o r i g i n s b u t to t h e i r p e r
c e iv e d i n d i v i d u a l i n t e l l e c t u a l c a p i t a l , " a b i l i t i e s " - - a p o in t m issed by
H ardy. I n t h i s r e g a r d , Heyneman and C u r r ie (1979) a r e q u i t e r i g h t when
th e y co n clu d ed a stu d y on Ugandan s t u d e n t s 1 p r o f e s s i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n s by
s t a t i n g :
A m bitious c h i l d r e n o f b o th p r e s i d e n t s and p e a s a n ts know two
th in g s p e r f e c t l y c l e a r l y . They know t h a t o c c u p a tio n a l s u c c e s s
f i r s t depends upon m e etin g th e minimum e d u c a tio n a l re q u ire m e n ts
f o r a j o b . Second, each i s aw are t h a t t h e r e i s o n ly one c r i t e
r i o n f o r a c h ie v in g an o p p o r tu n ity f o r advancem ent beyond p rim a ry
s c h o o l: a g ra d e I pass on th e P rim a ry L eav in g E x a m in a tio n . In
c o n t r a s t , s c h o o l advancem ent i n i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t i e s can be i n
flu e n c e d by g r a d e s , p e r s o n a l i t y , n e ig h b o rh o o d , ta x b a s e , and
co n d u ct as w e ll as t e s t s c o r e s ; w hereas none o f th e s e a r e f a c t o r s
w hich a f f e c t th e p r i v i l e g e to advance i n t o a Ugandan s e c o n d a ry
s c h o o l .
C h ild re n know t h a t p r e s e n t e l i t e s come from humble o r i g i n s ,
t h a t e d u c a tio n a l advancem ent is r e q u ir e d f o r m ost e l i t e s t a t u s ,
and t h a t th e y w i l l a l l have an o p p o r tu n ity f o r advancem ent on
th e b a s i s of t h e i r t e s t p e rfo rm a n c e . (p . 104)
As Heyneman and C u r r ie re c o g n iz e i t , t h i s does n o t mean t h a t
s o c i a l o r i g i n s a r e n o t p la y in g a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n th e c a r e e r o r i e n
t a t i o n i n term s o f p r o b a b i l i t y o f o b ta in in g th e d e s ir e d o c c u p a tio n a l
t r a c k s .
41
However, m ost s tu d e n ts of A f r ic a n i n s t i t u t i o n s , in c lu d in g
Heyneman and C u r r i e , do n o t go beyond g e n e r a l o b s e r v a tio n s and th e o
r e t i c a l f o r m u la tio n s t o c o r r e l a t e th e outcome o f A f r ic a n s t u d e n t s ' h ig h
c a r e e r e x p e c ta t io n s w ith t h e i r s o c i a l o r i g i n s . T h is i s a s e r i o u s p i t
f a l l in th e r e s e a r c h on A f r ic a n e d u c a tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s and one to
w hich th e p r e s e n t a u th o r would l i k e t o c o n t r i b u t e to rem edy.
A n o th er s h o rtc o m in g in p re v io u s r e s e a r c h i s th e f a i l u r e to
c o n s id e r th e d i f f e r e n c e s and changes i n s t u d e n t s 1 c a r e e r e x p e c t a t i o n s .
S tu d e n ts o f A f r ic a n h ig h e r e d u c a tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e c o n te n t i n
p o in t in g out t h a t some d e p a r tm e n ts , such as th e l i b e r a l a r t s i n some
E a s t e r n A f r ic a n c o u n t r i e s (B ark an , 1975) o r law i n W est A f r ic a n co u n
t r i e s (E v a n s, 1 9 7 0 ), a r e more a t t r a c t i v e th a n o th e r academ ic a r e a s su ch
as th e s c ie n c e s and a g r i c u l t u r e , f o r exam ple. The re a s o n s f o r t h i s
a t t r a c t i v e n e s s g e n e r a l l y evoke q u ic k ly r e f e r e n c e s to th e academ ic o r
employment " t r a d i t i o n " o f th e form er c o l o n i a l p o w e rs . The s i t u a t i o n
may be a l s o d e p lo re d as dam aging f o r th e c o u n t r y 's econom ic d e v e lo p
m ent. However, th e s e d i f f e r e n c e s and changes i n s t u d e n t s ' c a r e e r e x
p e c t a t i o n s a r e n o t i n t e r p r e t e d in th e l i g h t o f a power s t r u g g l e w i t h i n
th e s o c i e t i e s and among th e p r o f e s s i o n a l groups t r a i n e d i n th e u n i v e r
s i t i e s .
Most s tu d e n t s o f A f r ic a n e d u c a tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s assum e t h a t
v i r t u a l l y a l l c a r e e r s open to A f r ic a n u n i v e r s i t y g ra d u a te s a r e more o r
l e s s e q u a l as f a r as p o l i t i c a l , econom ic p r i v i l e g e s , and p r e s t i g e a r e
c o n c e rn e d . I l l u s t r a t i v e o f t h i s i s B a rk a n 's (1975) s ta te m e n t:
V i r t u a l l y a l l o f th e c a r e e r s w hich s tu d e n t s p la n to e n t e r ,
how ever, a r e s i m i l a r i n r e s p e c t to s a l a r i e s and jo b s e c u r i t y .
The re a s o n is t h a t r e g a r d l e s s o f th e n a t u r e o f t h e i r t r a i n i n g
42
of th e p a r t i c u l a r c a r e e r s th e y p u rs u e , m ost s tu d e n t s become em
p lo y e e s of th e s t a t e . A lm ost a l l a r e s u b j e c t to s i m i l a r s a l a r y
s c a le s and p o l i c i e s of p ro m o tio n and t e n u r e . I t i s p o s s i b ly
f o r t h i s re a s o n t h a t s tu d e n t s do n o t c o n s id e r s a l a r y and jo b
s e c u r i t y as th e m ost im p o rta n t c r i t e r i a a f f e c t i n g t h e i r c h o ic e
of c a r e e r even though th e y m ust o b ta in s e c u re and f i n a n c i a l l y
re w a rd in g c a r e e r s to r e a l i z e t h e i r c o n c e p tio n s of s u c c e s s .
(p . 86)
T h is m ight be t r u e f o r some h i s t o r i c a l p e rio d s ( f o r i n s t a n c e ,
th e im m ediate p o s t-in d e p e n d e n c e p e r i o d ) , and f o r some A f r ic a n c o u n t r i e s ,
d ep en d in g on t h e i r so cio ec o n o m ic r e g im e s . But th e s ta te m e n t by B arkan
does n o t ta k e i n t o a c c o u n t f a i r l y r a p id and f u r t h e r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n and
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n w hich o c c u rre d among th e u n i v e r s i t y g ra d u a te s i n some
o th e r c o u n t r i e s . T h is d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a c c o u n ts n o t o n ly f o r th e s o -
c a l l e d g e n e r a tio n c o n f l i c t o p p o sin g " o ld e l i t e s " to "new e l i t e s "
(R id e o u t, 1 9 7 1 ), b u t a l s o f o r th e c o n f l i c t among th e s e new e l i t e s
th e m s e lv e s .
Ben-David (1964, p . 259) and G ouldner (1979, pp. 63, 65) s t a t e d
t h a t p o l i t i c a l a c t iv is m and s o c i a l r e v o l u t i o n a r e l i k e l y to happen in
s o c i e t i e s w here t h e r e i s a d is c r e p a n c y betw een th e e l i t i s t c u l t u r e and
th e h ig h s t a t u s a s p i r a t i o n s of th e i n t e l l e c t u a l s and th e o c c u p a tio n a l
c h o ic e s or p o l i t i c a l r o l e o f f e r e d to them.
R e se a rc h H ypotheses
T aking c a r e e r is m as th e m a jo r h y p o th e s i s , th e p r e s e n t s tu d y
s p e c i f i c a l l y h y p o th e s iz e s t h a t :
1. The d evelopm ent o f th e U n iv e r s it y o f O uagadougou, i n term s
o f s tu d e n t s e l e c t i o n , c r e a t i o n of d e p a r tm e n ts , o c c u p a tio n a l
t r a c k s , and a l l o c a t i o n of s tu d e n t s to th e s e t r a c k s , w i l l be
l a r g e l y a f u n c t i o n of th e c a r e e r s a v a i l a b l e and c o n s id e re d
to be th e m ost re w a rd in g i n th e s t a t e b u re a u c ra c y .
2 . As i n t e r e s t g ro u p s , th e s t a t e b u r e a u c r a ts w i l l te n d to
p r e s e r v e t h e i r own c a r e e r i n t e r e s t s by e i t h e r i n c r e a s i n g
o r r e s t r i c t i n g t h e i r num ber, a c c o rd in g to th e c irc u m s ta n c e s
(e x p a n sio n of a c t i v i t i e s o r em phasis on th e " e l i t e " c h a r a c
t e r o f th e c a r e e r s c o n t r o l l e d by th e b u r e a u c r a t s ) .
C o n f li c ts a r e m ost l i k e l y to a r i s e betw een th e s e b u r e a u c r a ts
and th e s t u d e n t s , a s w ould-be b u r e a u c r a t s , c o n c e rn in g th e l a t t e r ' s a l
l o c a t i o n t o d i f f e r e n t u n i v e r s i t y d e p a rtm e n ts o r o c c u p a tio n a l t r a c k s .
W hile we may e x p e c t th e b u r e a u c r a ts to s e t m easures te n d in g to
p r e s e r v e t h e i r c a r e e r i n t e r e s t s by making a c c e s s to th e m ost re w a rd in g
b u r e a u c r a t i c c a r e e r more d i f f i c u l t th a n f o r th o s e c a r e e r s c o n s id e re d
l e s s re w a rd in g , s tu d e n t s a r e e x p e c te d to s t r u g g l e to g e t r i d of th e s e
m easures i n o r d e r t o a s s u r e t h e i r own c a r e e r i n t e r e s t s - - e n t e r i n g i n t o
th e s e m ost re w a rd in g b u r e a u c r a t i c c a r e e r s .
T hese s p e c i f i c h y p o th e se s r e l y on two g e n e ra l assu m p tio n s conv
c e r n in g th e b u r e a u c r a t i c - p a t r i m o n i a l n a t u r e o f th e V o lta n s o c i e t y and
th e c a r e e r s made a v a i l a b l e to u n i v e r s i t y g ra d u a te s by th e b u r e a u c r a t s .
T h u s, th e s e l e c t i o n and t r a c k i n g sy stem w i l l be m o s tly exam ined in
t h e i r a f f e c t s on s t u d e n t s ' a d m is s io n , c a r e e r e x p e c t a t i o n s , and o c c u p a
t i o n a l t r a c k s , w h ile t h e i r ca u se s (th e b u r e a u c r a ts c o n t r o l o v er th e
V o lta n s o c i e t y and th e u n i v e r s i t y ) w i l l b e , i n a s e n s e , presum ed from
summary d e s c r i p t i o n s and a n a ly s e s w hich do n o t c la im f u l l e v id e n c e
b u t w i l l be p ro v id e d o n ly as b ackground in f o r m a tio n . The r e s e a r c h
w i l l fo cu s p r i m a r i l y on th e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s , o r outcom es, s p e c i f i e d
i n th e h y p o th e s e s .
44
CHAPTER I I I
RESEARCH DESIGN
D ata C o l l e c t i o n
V ario u s m e th o d o lo g ic a l a p p ro a c h e s and d a t a c o l l e c t i o n t e c h
n iq u e s w ere used to t e s t , more p r e c i s e l y i l l u s t r a t e , th e two s e t s o f
h y p o th e se s and th e b a s i c a ssu m p tio n s u n d e r ly in g them c o n c e rn in g th e
b u r e a u c r a t i c - p a t r i m o n i a l c h a r a c t e r of th e V o lta n s o c i e t y and i t s
i n t e r a c t i o n w ith th e academ ic s o c i e t y . The d a ta hav e been c o l l e c t e d
th ro u g h h i s t o r i c a l docum ents and s t a t i s t i c a l in f o r m a tio n and th ro u g h
p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a ti o n a t th e U n iv e r s it y to i l l u s t r a t e th e h y p o th e se s
r e g a r d in g th e academ ic s o c i e t y and i t s r e l a t i o n to th e b ro a d e r s o c i e t y .
The h i s t o r i c a l p a r t of th e s tu d y was co n ce rn ed w ith th e d e v e l
opment of Upper V o lta from th e p r e - c o l o n i a l p e r io d to th e p r e s e n t ,
em p h asizin g th e s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l f a c t o r s w hich c o n t r i b u t e d and s t i l l
c o n t r i b u t e to c r e a t i n g b u r e a u c r a t i c - p a t r i m o n i a l f e a t u r e s . P a r t i c u l a r
a t t e n t i o n was p a id to i d e n t i f y i n g th e s o c i a l f o r c e s and i n t e r e s t s a t
work in th e V o lta n s o c i e t y .
S econdary d a t a from s t u d e n t s o f th e V o lta n s o c i e t y were used as
a s o u rc e of in f o r m a tio n a b o u t th e c o l o n i a l and p r e - c o l o n i a l h i s t o r i c a l
p e r i o d s . As f o r th e p r e s e n t , e x t e n s i v e u se was made of new spapers and
p u b l i c a t i o n s from p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s , u n io n s , and o th e r a s s o c i a t i o n s .
45
I n r e l a t i o n to th e so cio ec o n o m ic backgrounds o f th e s t u d e n t s ,
s t a t i s t i c a l in f o r m a tio n was g a th e r e d to e s t a b l i s h th e tr e n d of e n r o l l
m ents o f V o lta n s tu d e n t s a t Ouagadougou U n i v e r s i t y as w e ll as e lse w h e re
and th e r a t e s of s u c c e s s e s and f a i l u r e s in u n i v e r s i t y e x a m in a tio n s .
The o b s e r v a t i o n a l p a r t of th e s tu d y h as c o n c e n tr a te d s p e c i f i
c a l l y on th e academ ic community i t s e l f and th e two a r e a s of academ ic
l i f e : s e l e c t i o n and t r a c k i n g . The d e s c r i p t i v e q u e s tio n s g iv e n e a r l i e r
w ere u sed as a g u id e lin e f o r th e o b s e r v a ti o n . The r e p o r t o f th e ob
ta in e d d a ta was made i n co m b in a tio n w ith and u s in g th e d e s c r i p t i v e
v a r i a b l e s of th e su rv e y d a t a .
The p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a tio n d id n o t l i m i t i t s e l f to th e p r e s e n t
academ ic com m unity, b u t co v ere d as w e ll a m ajo r p e rio d in th e h i s t o r y
o f th e u n i v e r s i t y , u s in g th e r e s e a r c h e r 's own memory as a v a lu a b le
s o u rc e of d a t a . The r e s e a r c h e r was a s tu d e n t a t th e U n iv e r s it y of
Ouagadougou, a c t u a l l y among th e f i r s t s tu d e n t s r e g i s t e r e d i n th e "E c o le
Normale S u p e rie u re " (ENS) a t i t s o p en in g i n November 1965. He was a l s o
named S e c r e t a r y G e n e ra l o f th e same i n s t i t u t i o n in 1970 w hich became
" C e n tre d 'E n se ig n e m e n t S u p e r ie u r " (CE S u p .) . A ls o , as S e c r e t a r y Genera!
o f E d u c a tio n a l S e r v ic e s from 1972 to 1977, th e r e s e a r c h e r was d e e p ly
in v o lv e d i n m ost of th e p r o c e s s e s o f s t u d e n t t r a c k i n g and th e p ro c e s s
o f b a r g a in in g betw een th e governm ent and t e a c h e r s 1 u n i o n s , and a t th e
same tim e he was and s t i l l i s an a c t i v e member o f th e Union o f S econd
a r y and U n iv e r s it y T e a c h e rs (SUVESS).
The p a r t i c i p a n t - o b s e r v a t i o n co n d u c te d d u r in g th e academ ic y e a r
1980-1981 (December to M arch) c o n s i s t e d m o s tly o f h e lp in g th e
46
r e s e a r c h e r r e f r e s h h i s memory and awaken h i s c o n s c io u s n e s s a b o u t what
he had p r e v io u s l y been d o in g r o u t i n e l y . T hus, he (r e ) a tte n d e d some
m e e tin g s o f th e N a tio n a l O r i e n t a t i o n Comm ittee ch arg e d w ith tr a c k in g
s tu d e n t s i n t o d i f f e r e n t u n i v e r s i t y d e p a rtm e n ts and c a r e e r s ; he o b serv ed
th e p e rs o n n e l o f th e B ureau of I n fo rm a tio n and O r i e n t a t i o n (BIO) d e a l
in g w ith th e d a y - to - d a y s tu d e n t p ro b le m s, and he a l s o took p a r t in a l l
SUVESS a c t i v i t i e s (m e e tin g s , d e m o n s tr a tio n s , and s t r i k e s i n O ctober
and November 1 9 8 0 ).
The s u rv e y a p p ro a c h was o r i g i n a l l y d e s ig n e d to be co n ce rn ed
w ith b o th th e te a c h in g and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t a f f and th e s tu d e n t p o p u la
t i o n . However, th e f a c u l t y was f i n a l l y e x c lu d e d from th e su rv e y due to
a m a n if e s t r e l u c t a n c e to answ er th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e g iv e n to th e m --o n ly
26 o u t o f a t o t a l o f 120 p r o f e s s o r s r e tu r n e d th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e .
The a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a u t h o r i t i e s , c o n s i s t i n g m o stly o f h ead s of
th e u n i v e r s i t y d e p a rtm e n ts and a l s o th e s tu d e n t p e rs o n n e l o f f i c e r s
( d i r e c t o r s o f th e BIO s e r v i c e s ) , a t o t a l of 10 p e r s o n s , were each
in te r v ie w e d f o r a p p ro x im a te ly 1% h o u r s . An open-ended q u e s t i o n n a i r e
s e rv e d as a g u id e l i n e f o r th e s e in - d e p th in te r v ie w s t h a t were d e s ig n e d
to g e t in f o r m a tio n a b o u t th e o b j e c t i v e s o f th e u n i v e r s i t y d e p a rtm e n ts
o r s e r v i c e s , th e academ ic re q u ire m e n ts s e t and t h e i r r a t i o n a l e , and
th e problem s fa c e d by th e heads of d e p a rtm e n ts o r s tu d e n t p e rs o n n e l
o f f i c e r s i n o p e r a t in g t h e i r s e r v i c e s . The heads o f u n i v e r s i t y d e p a r t
m ents and d i r e c t o r s of BIO s e r v i c e s proved to be much more c o o p e r a tiv e
th a n th e te a c h in g s t a f f in a n sw e rin g th e r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s .
As f o r th e s t u d e n t s , a c lo s e ie n d e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e was a d m in is
te r e d to them, e i t h e r by th e r e s e a r c h e r h im s e lf o r h i s r e s e a r c h
47
a s s i s t a n t s ( f a c u l t y members and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ) , d u rin g s c h e d u le d eom-
p u ls o r y c l a s s e s and t h e r e f o r e a maximum number of s tu d e n t s w ere i n
c lu d e d . A b se n te e s were a p p ro ac h ed by o th e r f e llo w s tu d e n ts to co m p lete
and r e t u r n th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s .
However, a l l u n i v e r s i t y d e p a rtm e n ts had n o t been in c lu d e d in
th e s u r v e y . T h u s, th e D epartm ent o f Cinema (INAFEC) and some s e c t i o n s
of th e D epartm ent o f L e t t e r s (G eography, L i n g u i s t i c s , and th e new ly
c r e a t e d S o c ia l S c ie n c e s e c t i o n s ) , r e p r e s e n t i n g a r e l a t i v e m in o r ity of
th e s t u d e n t p o p u la tio n (18%), were n o t in c lu d e d in th e s u r v e y . These
e x c lu s io n s w ere d i c t a t e d by th e li m i t e d tim e and f i n a n c i a l r e s o u r c e s
a v a i l a b l e to th e r e s e a r c h e r .
W ith th e e x c e p tio n of th e f i r s t y e a r s tu d e n t s o f th e I n s t i t u t e
o f M athem atics and P h y s ic s (IMP) and th e H ig h er P o ly te c h n ic I n s t i t u t e
(ISP o r a g r i c u l t u r a l d e p a rtm e n t) b o th groups of whom showed some r e l u c
ta n c e in re s p o n d in g to th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e , s in c e o n ly h a l f o f them
r e tu r n e d t h e i r co m p leted q u e s t i o n n a i r e s , in a l l o th e r d e p a rtm e n ts th e
re s p o n s e r a t e was a p p ro x im a te ly 90 p e r c e n t .
The q u e s t i o n n a i r e s w ere a d m in is te re d and c o l l e c t e d by d i s c i
p l i n e s and l e v e l of s t u d i e s , t h a t i s by s t r a t i f i c a t i o n of th e s tu d e n t
p o p u la tio n . Subsam ples o f t h i s p o p u la tio n w ere th e n drawn random ly,
up to h a l f o f th e a c t u a l p o p u la tio n in each co n ce rn ed d i s c i p l i n e and
l e v e l of s tu d y .
The r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s of th e sam ple th u s o b ta in e d , p a r t l y
a s s u r e d by th e p re v io u s s t r a t i f i c a t i o n of th e s t u d e n t p o p u la tio n by
m ajo r and l e v e l of s tu d y , was f u r t h e r checked by com paring th e c h a r a c
t e r i s t i c s of th e s tu d e n t s s e l e c t e d w ith some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e
48
w hole s tu d e n t p o p u la tio n in d i c a t e d by a g g re g a te d d a t a o b ta in e d from
th e r e g i s t r a r ' s o f f i c e (s e x and s o c i a l o r i g i n s as m easured by t h e i r
f a t h e r 's o c c u p a tio n ) . The r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s of th e s u rv e y sam ple i s
i n d i c a t e d by T a b le s 1 and 2 .
T a b le 1
Survey Sample of U n iv e r s it y S tu d e n ts A cco rd in g to
Sex C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
Sex
Male Fem ale
% %
Survey sam ple (N=626) 77.5 22.5
S tu d e n t p o p u la tio n (N = l,531) 79.1 2 0 .9
I t m ust be n o te d , how ever, t h a t th e a g g re g a te d d a t a a r e n o t
v e ry r e l i a b l e i n s o f a r a s th e y a r e b a se d on s tu d e n t s r e p o r t i n g t h e i r
own s o c i a l o r i g i n s w ith o u t th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n c h e c k in g th e in f o r m a tio n .
Some c a s e s of m is in fo rm a tio n were fouhd,^ b u t n o t to an e x t e n t as to
i n v a l i d a t e th e g lo b a l r e s u l t s . These c a s e s co n ce rn ed m o s tly th o s e
s t u d e n t s ' f a t h e r s who r e t i r e d from th e m i l i t a r y o r c i v i l s e r v i c e and
became f a r m e r s . They w ere som etim es r e p o r t e d as " p e a s a n t s . " The
e r r o r s w ere o f te n d e t e c t e d when th e b i r t h p l a c e o f th e s tu d e n t s was
d i f f e r e n t from th e a c t u a l r e s id e n c e of p a r e n ts who w ere lo c a te d i n
u rb a n a r e a s . But i t was im p o s s ib le to d e t e c t o th e r e r r o r s u n le s s
g l a r i n g d is c r e p a n c ie s e x i s t e d .
49
Table 2
Survey Sample of U n iv e rs ity S tudents A ccording to S o c ia l O rig in C h a r a c te r is t ic s
( F a th e r ’s O ccupation)
S o cia l O rig in s
P easants
%
Workers
7 o
T raders
C a ttle -b r e e d e r Lower
A rtis a n s B u reau crats
7 0 %
Upper
B u reau crats
E n trep ren eu rs
T o
Unknown
$
T o ta l
%
Survey sample
(N=626)
54.0 4 .8 6.7 27.3 6.2 1.0 100.0
S tu d en t p o p u la tio n
(N=l ,531)
56.0 3.7 5 .7 27.2 4 .0 3.4 100.0
U i
o
The q u e s t i o n n a i r e was d e s ig h e d to g iv e th e p a t t e r n s o f c a r e e r
e x p e c ta tio n s of th e s t u d e n t s , t h e i r s c h o o l o c c u p a tio n a l tr a c k s in r e l a
tion" to t h e i r s o c i a l and academ ic b ack g ro u n d s, and th e c r i t e r i a s t u
d e n ts u sed i n s e l e c t i n g and a p p r a i s i n g th e r e s p e c t i v e academ ic d i s c i
p l i n e s and o c c u p a tio n s f o r w hich th e y were p r e p a r i n g .
The s u b j e c t s w ere ask e d to r e p o r t th e c a r e e r c h o ic e s th e y made
when th e y a p p l ie d f o r a d m is sio n to th e U n i v e r s i t y , and to r e p o r t any
changes w hich had o c c u rre d o r w ere d e s ir e d i n t h e i r c a r e e r p r e f e r e n c e s
and c h o i c e s . They w ere a l s o ask ed to ra n k on a L i k e r t ’s s c a le ra n g in g
from 1 t o 4 (v e ry im p o rta n t to n e g a t iv e ) c r i t e r i a su c h a s s o c i a l u t i l
ity * s e c u r i t y , s o c i a l p r e s t i g e , or i n t e l l e c t u a l c h a l le n g e , w hich
were ta k e n i n t o a c c o u n t in a s s e s s i n g th e s e r e s p e c t i v e d i s c i p l i n e s
and f u t u r e o c c u p a t i o n s .
However, th e r e s p o n s e s to th e l a t t e r q u e s tio n s a b o u t th e c r i
t e r i a < of c a r e e r c h o ic e s w ere n o t in c o r p o r a te d i n t o th e p r e s e n t r e p o r t .
The re a s o n f o r t h i s was t h a t th e m a n if e s t s te r e o t y p e d p a t t e r n s o f th e s e
answ ers i n d i c a t e d t h a t e i t h e r th e q u e s tio n s were n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y e l a b
o r a te d on o r t h a t th e d e g re e o f s o c i a l i z a t i o n o f s tu d e n t s had b een so
h ig h t h a t s t u d i e s on a t t i t u d e would n o t y i e l d s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s . In
any c a s e , th e s tu d y had a l t e r n a t i v e ways f o r a p p r a i s i n g th e o b j e c t i v e
a t t i t u d e s o f s t u d e n t s , i . e . , th ro u g h th e e x a m in a tio n o f a c t u a l c a r e e r
c h o ic e s and th e r e a c t i o n s o f s tu d e n t s to th e o c c u p a tio n a l t r a c k s a s
s ig n e d to them by th e N a tio n a l O r i e n t a t i o n C om m ittee.
D ata c o n c e rn in g s o c i a l , e t h n i c , and r e l i g i o u s o r i g i n s w ere
o b ta in e d from th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e re s p o n s e s by s tu d e n t s r e p o r t i n g t h e i r
51
e t h n i c , r e l i g i o u s o r i g i n s , th e o c c u p a tio n o f t h e i r p a r e n t s , and t h e i r
p a r e n t s ' l e v e l o f fo rm a l e d u c a tio n .
The v a r i a b l e " s o c i a l o r i g i n s " was e s s e n t i a l l y m easured by th e
o c c u p a tio n of th e s t u d e n t 's f a t h e r and th e d e g re e o f c o n t r o l he had
o v e r h i s work a n d /o r th e work of o th e r p e o p le .
P e rso n s who own an i n d u s t r i a l u n i t o r a b u s in e s s o r a shop
w hich em ploys more th a n f i v e s a l a r i e d p e o p le w ere c l a s s i f i e d as " e n t r e
p re n e u rs - - b i g t r a d e r s . " Those who own such u n i t s b u t employ no more
th a n f i v e p e o p le w ere c l a s s i f i e d as " t r a d e r s - a r t i s a n s ," as were th e
c a t t l e - b r e e d e r s . L i b e r a l p r o f e s s i o n a l s (in d e p e n d e n t la w y e rs , b a r r i s
t e r s , and s o l i c i t o r s ) w ere a l s o c l a s s i f i e d as " e n tr e p r e n e u r s " r e g a r d
l e s s o f th e number of p e o p le th e y em ployed.
The q u e s t i o n n a i r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d p e a s a n ts who p r a c t i c e d c a s h -
c ro p p in g from th o s e who d id n o t , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f th e number o f p eo p le
th e c a s h - c r o p p e r s em ployed. However, i t was f i n a l l y d e c id e d to combine
b o th groups of " p e a s a n ts " in a s i n g l e c a te g o r y f o r p r a c t i c a l p u rp o se s
b e c a u se th e re s p o n s e s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e w ere no pure c a sh c ro p p e rs
among th e s u rv e y sa m p le s. Some s t u d e n t s r e p o r te d t h a t t h e i r ca sh c r o p
p e r p a r e n ts a l s o p r a c t i c e d s u b s i s t e n c e fa rm in g .
The c i v i l i a n b u r e a u c r a ts o f th e p u b li c and p r i v a t e s e c t o r s were
c l a s s i f i e d i n t o " u p p e r" and " lo w e r" b u r e a u c r a ts a c c o rd in g to t h e i r
ra n k in g s i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n s . Top b u r e a u c r a ts were c l a s
s i f i e d as " c o n c e p tio n c a d r e s " i n th e h i g h e s t c a te g o r y o f th e c i v i l
s e r v i c e o r th e p r i v a t e b u s in e s s s e c t o r ( c a te g o r y A ), b e c a u se th e y
e n jo y e d a s u b s t a n t i a l d e g re e o f autonom y in t h e i r work and a t th e same
tim e th e y g e n e r a l l y s u p e r v is e d o th e r in t e r m e d i a te and lo w er b u r e a u c r a ts
52
w ork. T hese lo w er and i n t e r m e d i a te b u r e a u c r a ts w ere c l a s s i f i e d as
"lo w er b u r e a u c r a ts
The m i l i t a r y b u r e a u c r a ts w ere c l a s s i f i e d i n t o "u p p e r" and
" lo w e r" b u r e a u c r a ts a c c o rd in g to t h e i r ra n k i n th e arm y. A ll o f f i c e r s
from th e ra n k o f l i e u t e n a n t up w ere c l a s s i f i e d as "u p p e r" b u r e a u c r a t s ,
and a l l m i l i t a r y below t h i s ra n k w ere c l a s s i f i e d as "lo w er" b u r e a u c r a t s .
The v a r i a b l e d e g re e o f co n g ru en ce of c a r e e r c h o ic e w ith c a r e e r
t r a c k was m easured by th e d i s t a n c e betw een s t u d e n t s ' c a r e e r c h o ic e s
ran k ed i n o r d e r o f p r e f e r e n c e and th e a c t u a l o c c u p a tio n a l t r a c k a s
s ig n e d to them by th e N a tio n a l O r i e n t a t i o n C om m ittee.
A s tu d e n t was c o n s id e re d to have " t o t a l co n g ru en c e" when th e
a c t u a l o c c u p a tio n a l t r a c k c o rre sp o n d e d to th e f i r s t c a r e e r c h o ic e
made by th e s t u d e n t . He was c o n s id e re d to have " p a r t i a l co n g ru en ce"
when th e a c t u a l o c c u p a tio n a l c o rre s p o n d e d to h i s second o r t h i r d
c h o ic e . The s tu d e n t was c o n s id e re d to have " la c k of c o n g ru en c e" when
h i s a c t u a l o c c u p a tio n a l t r a c k d id n o t c o rre s p o n d to any o f h i s c a r e e r
p r e f e r e n c e s .
The v a r i a b l e "academ ic a c h ie v e m e n t" was d i f f e r e n t l y m easured
f o r h ig h s c h o o l s tu d e n t s th a n f o r u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s . F o r th e l a t t e r ,
i t was m easured i n term s o f number of g ra d e r e p e t i t i o n s e x p e rie n c e d by
th e s t u d e n t ; th e few er th e number o f r e p e t i t i o n s , th e b e t t e r th e a c a
dem ic a c h ie v e m e n t. T h is was th e e a s i e s t and most r e l i a b l e means f o r
m easurem ent s in c e th e g ra d in g sy ste m d i f f e r s among d e p a rtm e n ts .
A sh o rtc o m in g o f t h i s m easurem ent, how ever, i s t h a t i t e x
c lu d e d th e fresh m en who had n o t ta k e n any f i n a l e x a m in a tio n by th e
tim e th e y w ere s u r v e y e d .
F or h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s , "acad em ic a c h ie v e m e n t" was m easured
by th e l e v e l o f d i s t i n c t i o n o b ta in e d a t th e b a c c a la u r ^ a t e x a m in a tio n .
T h is was th e m ost r e l i a b l e m ethod f o r m easurem ent s in c e th e b a c c a la u -
r £ a t i s a n a t i o n a l e x a m in a tio n , w h ile a l l o th e r g ra d in g sy stem s depend
on th e i n d i v i d u a l s c h o o ls . I t p r e s e n t s , how ever, th e in c o n v e n ie n c e o f
n o t r e f l e c t i n g s t u d e n t s 1 academ ic ac h ie v e m e n t as o b se rv e d o v e r a lo n g e r
p e r io d of t i m e .
However u n s a t i s f a c t o r y th e m easurem ents o f th e academ ic a c h i e v e
ment c r i t e r i a , th e y do r e f l e c t th e s e l e c t i o n sy ste m as i t a c t u a l l y
o p e r a t e s .
D ata P r o c e s s in g
The d a t a o b ta in e d from th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o n c e rn in g th e i n d e
p e n d e n t and d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s w ere s u b m itte d to c ro s s t a b u l a t i o n and
th e c h i - s q u a r e t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e o f r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een v a r i a b l e s .
L i m it a ti o n s
The p r e s e n t s tu d y has two fu n d a m e n ta l l i m i t a t i o n s i n th e sco p e
o f th e s u r v e y , as a r e s u l t o f some p r a c t i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s .
F i r s t , i t d e a ls w ith a r e l a t i v e l y s m a ll p o r t i o n o f th e V o lta n
s t u d e n t p o p u la tio n . T h is p o p u la tio n was e s tim a te d a t a b o u t 3 ,5 0 0 i n
1980 o f whom o n ly 1 ,553 a r e e n r o l l e d a t Ouagadougou U n i v e r s i t y . F u r
th e rm o re , th e ra n g e o f th e academ ic d i s c i p l i n e s o f f e r e d a t t h i s u n i
v e r s i t y i s q u i t e li m i t e d i n co m p ariso n to th e ra n g e of o f f e r i n g s a t
th e o t h e r u n i v e r s i t i e s . P r e s e n t l y , m ost g r a d u a te and m ost s c i e n t i f i c
and t e c h n i c a l s t u d i e s a r e found a b ro a d , p a r t i c u l a r l y in F ra n c e . T his
c o n s t i t u t e s a s e r io u s l i m i t a t i o n to th e g e n e r a l i z a b i l i t y o f th e
r e s e a r c h f in d i n g s b e c a u se o n ly p a r t o f th e academ ic e x p e rie n c e in term s
o f " c a re e ris m " o c c u rre d a t th e U n iv e r s it y of Ouagodougou.
However, th e p u rp o se o f th e s tu d y im poses th e s e l i m i t a t i o n s .
The fo cu s is n o t on th e s t u d e n t 's o p in io n s as s u c h , b u t on th e p o p u la
t i o n of th e u n i v e r s i t y a s an A f r ic a n i n s t i t u t i o n on A f r ic a n s o i l an d ,
p r e f e r a b l y , w ith A f r ic a n i n s t r u c t o r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s - - c o n d i t i o n s
w hich a r e n o t found in f o r e i g n i n s t i t u t i o n s .
A n o th er l i m i t a t i o n in t h e scope o f th e s u rv e y i s th e a b se n c e o f
an a c t u a l c o m p a ra tiv e d im e n sio n . Much more c o u ld have been le a r n e d
a b o u t th e d evelopm ent o f A f r ic a n u n i v e r s i t i e s i f a co m p ariso n were
made betw een Ouagadougou U n iv e r s it y and a n o t h e r , somewhat d i f f e r e n t ,
A f r ic a n u n i v e r s i t y . T h is l i m i t a t i o n i s due to m a t e r i a l and f i n a n c i a l
l i m i t a t i o n s a n d , h o p e f u l l y , w i l l be com pensated f o r as soon as p o s s i b l e .
H owever, t h i s l i m i t a t i o n does n o t c u r t a i l th e t h e o r e t i c a l v a l i d i t y of
th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h c o n c e iv e d o f as an ex em p lary s tu d y .
The s tu d y e n c o u n te re d some s e r io u s d i f f i c u l t i e s i n c o l l e c t i n g
in f o r m a tio n c o n c e rn in g th e s o c i a l and e t h n i c o r i g i n s o f s t u d e n t s . The
o n ly s o u rc e f o r h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s ' s o c i a l o r i g i n s as m easured by
th e f a t h e r 's o c c u p a tio n was th e e d u c a tio n a l p la n n in g o f f i c e . Each y e a r
t h i s o f f i c e p u b lis h e s s t a t i s t i c s on se c o n d a ry s c h o o l s tu d e n t s in c lu d in g
t h e i r s o c i a l o r i g i n s . But th e c r i t e r i a f o r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n w ere n o t
alw ays e x p l i c i t , p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n c e rn in g th e w o rk ers and th e p r i v a t e
s e c t o r em ployees. Under th e l a b e l "em ployees o f i n d u s t r y and commerce"
w ere mixed " w h ite c o l l a r " em ployees and m anual w o r k e r s , two c a t e g o r i e s
t h a t th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h t r e a t e d q u i t e d i f f e r e n t l y , th e fo rm er b e in g
a p a r t o f th e lo w er b u r e a u c r a ts and th e l a t t e r c o n s t i t u t i n g th e w orking
55
c l a s s . I t has been p o s s i b le t o r e o r g a n i z e th e d a ta to f i t th e p r e s e n t
r e s e a r c h s o c i a l c a t e g o r i z a t i o n f o r o n ly r e c e n t d a t a (1 9 8 0 ). F o r a l l
o t h e r s , th e e d u c a tio n a l p la n n in g o f f i c e 's c a t e g o r i z a t i o n was k e p t .
As f o r th e u n i v e r s i t y s tu d e n t p o p u la tio n , th e o n ly a v a i l a b l e
d a t a on s o c i a l o r i g i n s w ere th e in f o r m a tio n g iv e n by s tu d e n t s th e m se lv e s
on t h e i r r e g i s t r a t i o n fo rm s. No o th e r r e c o r d of t h i s in f o r m a tio n was
k e p t in th e r e g i s t r a r ' s o f f i c e , and m ost of i t was l o s t when th e s t u
d e n ts t r a n s f e r r e d to a n o th e r f o r e i g n u n i v e r s i t y . T h is p re v e n te d a
h i s t o r i c a l fo llo w -u p of th e change i n th e s o c i a l c o m p o sitio n of th e
Ouagadougou s t u d e n t p o p u la tio n ; f u r th e r m o r e , th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e
in f o r m a tio n g iv e n by s tu d e n t s was som etim es q u e s t i o n a b l e . Many sons .
o f p e t t y t r a d e r s or o f r e t i r e d m i l i t a r y and c i v i l s e r v a n t s , f o r i n
s t a n c e , r e p o r te d t h e i r f a t h e r s as b e in g p e a s a n ts b eca u se th e y c o n v e rte d
th e m se lv e s i n t o fa rm e rs a f t e r r e t i r i n g . Sometimes i t was p o s s i b l e to
check t h i s in f o r m a tio n w ith t h a t g iv e n in th e s t u d e n t 's a p p l i c a t i o n
f o r a se c o n d a ry e d u c a tio n s c h o l a r s h i p . But t h i s was n o t alw ays p o s
s i b l e f o r a l l s tu d e n t s inasm uch as a l l d id n o t a p p ly f o r s c h o l a r s h i p s .
O v e r a l l , how ever, th e d a t a o b ta in e d r e p r e s e n t a f a i r l y good a p p ro x im a
t i o n of th e s o c i a l c o m p o sitio n o f th e s t u d e n t p o p u la tio n .
I t has a l s o been d i f f i c u l t to f i n d r e l i a b l e in f o r m a tio n a b o u t
th e g e o e th n ic and r e l i g i o u s c o m p o sitio n o f th e p r e s e n t V o lta n s o c i e t y .
The o n ly d a t a a v a i l a b l e w ent back to th e e a r l i e r 1960s when a g e n e r a l
p o p u la tio n cen su s in c lu d in g such in f o r m a tio n was do n e. The 1975 popu
l a t i o n c en su s d e l i b e r a t e l y av o id e d a s k in g q u e s tio n s a b o u t e t h n i c
o r i g i n s . I t was th o u g h t t h a t t h i s m ight be d i s r u p t i v e f o r th e n a t i o n a l
u n i t y b eca u se o f th e h ig h s e n s i t i v i t y o f th e p o p u la tio n , p a r t i c u l a r l y
56
p o l i t i c i a n s , to th e e t h n i c pro b lem s in c e each le a d e r w ould m easure h is
p o l i t i c a l s t r e n g t h by th e n u m eric im p o rta n c e o f t h i s e t h n i c g ro u p , n o t
h is program . T h u s, th e in d e x es o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n f o r eac h e t h n i c group
a t th e u n i v e r s i t y a r e n o t v e r y r e l i a b l e s i n c e th e y a r e b ased on a g g r e
g a te d a t a o u td a te d by tw en ty y e a r s . However, th e y do r e p r e s e n t an a p
p ro x im a tio n o f V o lta n e t h n i c r e a l i t y i f we su p p o se t h a t a l l e t h n ic
groups have had th e same grow th r a t e , as th e 1961 cen su s s u g g e s te d .
D evelopm ent of th e S tudy
The s tu d y i s r e p o r te d in th e f o llo w in g sev en c h a p te r s w hich
c o n s i s t of th e a n a ly s e s sum m arized below :
C h a p te r I I re v ie w s and e v a lu a te s th e l i t e r a t u r e c o n c e rn in g u n i
v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s e l e c t i o n i n a g r a r i a n s o c i e t i e s .
C h a p te r I I I d e s c r ib e s th e r e s e a r c h m ethods u sed in th e s tu d y .
C h a p te r IV p ro v id e s a background a n a l y s i s of th e p o l i t i c a l
economy o f Upper V o lta n s o c i e t y w hich a f f e c t s e d u c a tio n a l s e l e c t i o n and
t r a c k i n g .
C h a p te r V r e p o r t s th e r e s e a r c h f in d i n g s c o n c e rn in g s e l e c t i o n
and t r a c k i n g of s tu d e n ts in s c h o o ls , w hich p ro c e s s e s a f f e c t th e s e l e c
t i o n o f th e s tu d e n t s s u b s e q u e n tly i n t o th e u n i v e r s i t y .
C h a p te r VI p ro v id e s a background a n a l y s i s , and some r e s e a r c h
f i n d i n g s , c o n c e rn in g th e dom inant groups and p r a c t i c e s w i t h i n th e u n i
v e r s i t y a f f e c t i n g th e s e l e c t i o n and t r a c k i n g o f th e u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s .
C h a p te r V II r e p o r t s th e r e s e a r c h f in d in g s on th e s e l e c t i o n and
tr a c k i n g of th e u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s .
57
C h a p te r V I I I p r e s e n ts th e c o n c lu s io n s drawn from th e r e s e a r c h
and some d i s c u s s i o n of t h e i r i m p lic a tio n s f o r s o c i a l p r o g r e s s .
58
CHAPTER IV
THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF BUREAUCRACY
In an u n d e rd e v e lo p e d A f r ic a n c o u n try w ith a
weak p e t t y b o u r g e o i s i e , i t s r u l i n g s e c t i o n
w hich comes to p o s s e s s th e in s tr u m e n ts o f
s t a t e on th e morrow o f in d e p e n d e n c e , r e l a
t i v e l y commands enormous power and i s
th e r e f o r e v e ry s t r o n g . . . . M oreover,
th e group o r " c l i q u e " im m e d ia te ly in p o s
s e s s i o n o f s t a t e power c a n n o t in norm al
c irc u m s ta n c e s c u t i t s e l f o f f from i t s
c l a s s b a s e . ( S h i v j i , 1976, p . 63)
H i s t o r i c a l C o n d itio n s of th e R is e o f th e P o l i t i c o -
B u r e a u c r a tic B o u rg e o is ie
B u r e a u c r a tic P e t t y B o u rg e o is ie and
T r a d i t i o n a l C h ie f ta in c y in th e Race
f o r th e C o n tro l of th e S t a t e A p p a ra tu s
The h i s t o r i c a l c o n d itio n s in w hich Upper V o lta came to in d e
pendence e x p l a in th e p red o m in an t r o l e o f th e b u r e a u c r a ts i n th e e v o lu
t i o n o f th e new n a t i o n - s t a t e in com p ariso n to o th e r s o c i a l f o r c e s
and g ro u p s a t work: th e t r a d i t i o n a l c h i e f s , th e p e a s a n t s , and th e
w o r k e r s .
In i t s a tte m p ts to mold th e t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t i e s t o make them
f i t i t s m i l i t a r y , econom ic, and c u l t u r a l i n t e r e s t s , th e c o l o n i a l ad m in
i s t r a t i o n had c r e a te d and s tr e n g t h e n e d th e c l a s s o f th e b u r e a u c r a ts by
w eakening th e e x i s t i n g t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i a l g r o u p s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e t r a
d i t i o n a l c h i e f s . The b u r e a u c r a ts w ere in th e b e s t p o s i t i o n to i n h e r i t
th e s t a t e a p p a r a tu s l e f t by th e c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , m o stly b e c a u se
59
th e p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e had b een le d by th e A f r ic a n p e t t y b o u rg e o is
who, up to t h i s p o i n t , had s e rv e d as th e a u x i l i a r i e s o f th e c o l o n i a l
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , and th e i n t e r n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s th e l a t t e r e n c o u n te re d
i n o p e r a t in g huge c o l o n i a l em p ires a f t e r World War I I .
To be s u r e , th e i n h e r i t a n c e had n o t been e a s y f o r th e b u r e a u
c r a t s to s e c u re f o r th e y found s ta u n c h r i v a l s in th e s o - c a l l e d t r a d i
t i o n a l c h i e f s . B oth g ro u p s w ere p r a c t i c a l l y in th e same p o s i t i o n :
w ith o u t any in d e p e n d e n t econom ic b a s e .
In d e e d , th e s o - c a l l e d t r a d i t i o n a l c h i e f s , p a r t i c u l a r l y in th e
M ossi s o c i e t i e s , had no i n d i v i d u a l p r o p e r ty of la n d o r any o t h e r means
o f p r o d u c tio n . The la n d has been s o f a r a c o l l e c t i v e p r o p e r ty of
s m a ll c l a n s , g e n e r a l l y o rg a n iz e d i n t o v i l l a g e s . Taxes on th e p ro d u c t
of t h i s la n d , in th e form o f " g i f t s " a t th e end of th e c ro p s e a s o n s ,
c o n s t i t u t e d th e main s o u rc e of re v e n u e f o r th e c h i e f s and t h e i r o f f i
c i a l s ch arg e d w ith th e c o l l e c t i o n o f t a x e s . O th e r t a x e s , on s a l e s
(th e m ost p r o f i t a b l e b e in g , s i n c e 1800, ta x e s on s l a v e s ) c o n s t i t u t e d
a d d i t i o n a l s o u rc e s of re v e n u e s f o r th e r u l i n g c l a s s and t h e i r e x e c u
t i v e s (S k in n e r, 1972, p p . 243-25 7 ) .
C o lo n iz a tio n s u p p re s s e d th e s e s o u rc e s of re v e n u e , and s u b s t i
t u t e d a k in d of p r o f i t s h a r i n g from th e ta x e s c o l l e c t e d by th e c h i e f s
f o r th e b e n e f i t o f th e c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ( c i t e d i n S k in n e r,
1972, p . 345, D ecrees of J u l y and November 1903) . In t h e i r new c o lo -
1
n i a l f u n c t i o n , th e c h i e f s w ere s a l a r i e d as were th e l o c a l a d m i n i s t r a
t i v e a u x i l i a r i e s , e x c e p t t h a t th e jo b s r e q u ir e d d i f f e r e n t " t e c h n i c a l "
s k i l l s .
The a d v a n ta g e o f th e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a u x i l i a r i e s c o n s i s t e d in
60
r e l a t i v e m a s te ry of th e c u l t u r a l v a lu e s and s k i l l s o f th e c o l o n i z e r ,
e n a b lin g them to e a s i l y com m unicate w ith th e new m a s t e r s , a n d , c o n s e
q u e n t ly , to be th e i d e a l in s tru m e n t f o r th e t r a n s f o r m a tio n o f th e t r a
d i t i o n a l s o c i e t i e s i n t o an e x p e c te d c o l o n i a l model o f " m o d e rn ity ."
The t r a d i t i o n a l c h i e f s , f o r t h e i r p a r t , had th e d is a d v a n ta g e o f
n o t m a s te rin g th e t o o l s f o r com m unication w ith th e c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a
t i o n , a n d , t h e r e f o r e , had th e d is a d v a n ta g e of h av in g to p ass th ro u g h
th e i n t e r m e d i a r i e s - - t h e l o c a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a u x i l i a r i e s ; t r a d i t i o n a l
c h i e f s a l s o had th e d is a d v a n ta g e o f b e a r in g th e marks of a to o r e c e n t ,
i f n o t a c t u a l , d i r e c t c o n f r o n t a t i o n w ith th e c o l o n i a l r u l e r s . However,
th e y had th e trem endous a d v a n ta g e o v e r t h e i r e d u c a te d r i v a l s o f b e in g
v e ry c l o s e to th e p e o p le who rem ain ed u n to u c h ed by th e c o l o n i a l v a lu e s
and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , e x c e p t f o r i t s t a x a t i o n , y e t , as B alim a (1968,
p . 78) and S k in n e r (1972, p . 346) n o t e , t h i s new t a x a t i o n was b a r e l y
d i f f e r e n t from t h a t a s s e s s e d p r e v io u s l y f o r th e b e n e f i t o f th e t r a d i
t i o n a l r u l e r s . M ost im p o r t a n t l y , th e l a t t e r h a d , i f n o t th e sym pathy,
a t l e a s t th e c o m p lic ity o f th e c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . T his a d m in is
t r a t i o n had t r i e d f o r a w h ile to c o o p t th e c h i e f t a i n c y i n t o a sy stem o f
r u l i n g p a r t n e r s h i p i n th e same m anner as th e c h i e f t a i n c y i t s e l f had
co o p ted th e co n q u ered e t h n i c n o t a b l e s , t r u s t i n g them w ith c u l t u r a l ,
r e l i g i o u s , o r c o n t r o l f u n c ti o n s ( e . g . , th e r e l i g i o u s c h i e f , th e
" T e n g so b a ," and th e "D apore" o r c h i e f o f bond m e n ). E f f o r t s w ere made
to a c h ie v e t h i s g o a l , p a r t i c u l a r l y th ro u g h e d u c a tin g th e sons o f th e
c h i e f s , and i n i t i a t i n g th e c h i e f s th e m se lv e s to th e a r t of "m odern"
( c o l o n i a l ) p o l i c y . F or t h i s l a t t e r p u rp o s e , a c o u n c i l of th e i n d i g e
nous n o ta b le s was c r e a t e d a t Ouagadougou, O uahigouya, Tenkodogo, Kaya,
61
and Koudougou to s e r v e as a s c h o o l o f p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e f o r th e t r a d i
t i o n a l c h i e f s a t th e same tim e as i t a llo w e d th e c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a
t i o n to have c l o s e r s u p e r v i s i o n o v er th e p o p u la tio n s and t h e i r c h i e f s
( S k in n e r , 1972, p . 3 6 2 ). A tte m p ts w ere made a l s o to enhance th e s o c i a l
p r e s t i g e and m a t e r i a l a d v a n ta g e s of th e c h i e f t a i n c y , p a r t i c u l a r l y
th ro u g h h ig h e r re m u n e ra tio n s and th e e n t r u s t i n g o f l e g a l f u n c t i o n s ;
power o v er th e n a t i v e r u r a l p o p u la tio n .
T h is s p e c i a l tr e a tm e n t o f th e c h i e f s was n o t f r e e , of c o u r s e .
I t was in te n d e d as a c o u n t e r p a r t f o r th e s e r v i c e s th e c o l o n i a l a d m in is
t r a t i o n e x p e c te d and d id g e t from them in'.the co m p lian ce o f th e p o p u la
t i o n f o r m o b iliz in g and c h a n n e lin g them to work on th e p l a n t a t i o n s o f
t h e Iv o r y C o ast and th e Gold C o a st (now Ghana) and t o b u i l d th e r a i l
ro a d s l i n k i n g A b id ja n (Iv o ry C o a s t) to Niamey (N ig er) th ro u g h O uaga
dougou and th e n T h ie s (S e n a g a l) to Kayes ( M a l i ) .
I t was o n ly th e i n i t i a l r e s i s t a n c e o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l c h i e f s
to s e n d in g t h e i r sons to th e c o l o n i a l s c h o o l and t h e i r m a n if e s t i n a b i l
i t y o r u n w illin g n e s s to i n t e g r a t e th e m se lv e s i n t o th e c o l o n i a l s o c i a l
s t r u c t u r e s , a t l e a s t as q u ic k ly as th e c o l o n i z e r w ould l i k e them t o ,
w hich a llo w e d th e fo rm a tio n of a new e d u c a te d " e l i t e " d i f f e r e n t from
th e t r a d i t i o n a l o n e . T h is e v o l u tio n seems t o have been in d e p e n d e n t
from th e i n t e n t i o n of th e c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w hich w anted a s u p e r
s e d in g o f th e two k in d s o f " e l i t e s , " as t h i s has p a r t i a l l y been done
i n th e B r i t i s h c o l o n i e s .
The p e r io d betw een World War I I and p o l i t i c a l in d e p en d en ce of
th e c o u n try was m arked by a rou g h s t r u g g l e betw een f e u d a l f o r c e s and
b u r e a u c r a t i c p e t t y b o u r g e o is i e f o r th e c o n t r o l of th e s h a r e o f p o l i t i c a l
62
power l e f t by th e c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . T hus, i n 1946, th e e l e c t i o n
o f a r e p re s e n ta*tive o f th e Iv o ry C o a st (w hich th e n in c lu d e d a la r g e
p o r ti o n of Upper V o lta , w hich was to be r e s t o r e d one y e a r l a t e r ) to th e
C o n s tit u e n t A ssem bly gave b o th camps th e o p p o r tu n i ty to t e s t t h e i r r e
s p e c t i v e s t r e n g t h s . The c h i e f t a i n c y , o rg a n iz e d i n t o th e p a r t y c a l l e d
"Union f o r th e D efense o f th e I n t e r e s t s o f Upper V o lta " (UDIHV), and
cham pioned by a h ig h M ossi im p e r ia l m i n i s t e r , th e "Baloum N ab a," l o s t
th e e l e c t i o n to th e " A fric a n D em o cratic A ssem b lin g " (RDA) le d by F e l i x
H ouphouet B oigny, an exam ple o f a s u c c e s s f u l c o m b in a tio n o f f e u d a lis m
w ith lan d ed and i n t e l l e c t u a l b o u r g e o i s i e , by a narrow m arg in o f 11,620
v o te s a g a i n s t 12,650 (S k in n e r, 1972, p . 3 9 4 ).
The id e o lo g y of th e c h i e f t a i n c y was a narrow " n a tio n a lis m "
c la im in g th e r e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f th e V o lta n T e r r i t o r y , th e n d iv id e d
betw een n e ig h b o rin g c o lo n ie s o f th e F re n c h Sudan, N ig e r , and th e Iv o ry
C o a s t. Though i t d id n o t much p le a s e th e c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ,
w hich f e a r e d lo s i n g a v e ry im p o rta n t s o u rc e and r e s e r v o i r o f manpower
f o r th e p l a n t a t i o n s and i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , t h i s id e o lo g y w as, n e v e r t h e
l e s s , l e s s f r i g h t e n i n g th a n t h a t o f th e RDA, th e n a f f i l i a t e d w ith th e
Communist P a r t y who so u g h t th e s u p p r e s s io n o f fo rc e d l a b o r , a n d , even
autonom y, f o r th e c o l o n i a l t e r r i t o r i e s . T hus, th e UDIHV had th e s e
c r e t , i f n o t th e o v e r t , s u p p o r t of th e c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , and
th e RDA, i t s i r e and r e p r e s s i o n . H owever, th e v e r y n arro w n ess of i t s
id e o lo g y was to be d e t r i m e n t a l to th e c h i e f t a i n c y and allo w e d f o r th e
v i c t o r y of th e new ly e d u c a te d " e l i t e s " grouped a ro u n d th e RDA. In d e e d ,
th e i n t e g r a t i o n of Upper V o lta i n t o a l a r g e r c o l o n i a l c o n t e x t n e c e s
s a r i l y r e q u ir e d a l a r g e r p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , and th e RDA was su ch
63
a l a r g e r r e g i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , w ith th e su p p le m e n ta ry a d v a n ta g e of
g a t h e r in g th o s e sc h o o le d p e o p le who w ere v a l i d i n t e r l o c u t o r s w ith th e
c o l o n i a l pow er, p ro v id e d t h a t th e y showed some w i l l i n g n e s s to c o o p e ra te
w ith th e l a t t e r - - w h i c h o c c u rre d i n 1957 when, a t th e Bamako c o n g r e s s ,
th e RDA changed i t s r a d i c a l p o l i t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n i n t o a more l i b e r a l ,
c o o p e r a tiv e o n e .
S i t u a t i o n o f th e O th er S o c ia l G roups:
P e a s a n t s , W o rk e rs, and M i l i t a r y a t
th e Eve o f In d ependence
The p r e - c o l o n i a l , as w e ll as th e c o l o n i a l , e r a s d id n o t a llo w
f o r th e developm ent of s o c i a l f o r c e s o th e r th a n th e c h i e f t a i n c y and th e
b u r e a u c r a t i c p e t t y b o u r g e o i s i e . Upper V o lta was and s t i l l i s an a g r a r
ia n c o u n try w ith a v e ry p oor p e a s a n tr y d e v o te d to fa m ily s u b s i s t e n c e
t i l l i n g . W hile in th e M ossi and M o s s ifie d (Y arse and G ourm antche)
s o c i e t i e s , f e u d a lis m m a in ta in e d th e p e a s a n ts by d i v i d i n g them i n t o
s m a ll v i l l a g e s w ith o u t much, i f a n y , c o n t a c t w ith each o t h e r , i n o th e r
s o c i e t i e s (Bobo, Samo, D ag ara, e t c . ) , s m a ll in d e p e n d e n t v i l l a g e s c o n
s t i t u t e d th e o n ly s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n a v a i l a b l e . Even when th e c o l o
n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t r i e d t o g ro u p th e s e in d e p e n d e n t v i l l a g e s i n t o
l a r g e r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e u n i t s (" c a n to n s 1 ’) on th e model o f th e M ossi o r
g a n i z a t i o n , t h i s had n o t had much im pact on th e p e a s a n t r y i n s o f a r as
i t d id n o t change th e mode o f p r o d u c tio n and o th e r c u l t u r a l v a l u e s .
The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f c a sh c ro p p in g , w hich was to change th e
t r a d i t i o n a l mode o f p r o d u c tio n , had no s i g n i f i c a n t im p act on th e r u r a l
s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s b e f o r e in d e p e n d e n c e , a n d , p a r t i c u l a r l y , th e c o n v e rs io n
o f r e t u r n i n g v e t e r a n s from th e In d o c h in a and A lg e r ia n w ars i n t o c a sh
c r o p p e r s . Cash c ro p p in g d u rin g th e c o l o n i a l p e r io d was su p erim p o sed on
64
th e t r a d i t i o n a l mode of p ro d u c tio n and was c o n s id e r e d by th e p e a s a n ts
as a su p p le m e n ta ry ty p e o f f o r c e d la b o r f o r th e "w h ite m an," e s p e c i a l l y
s in c e th e p e a s a n ts r e c e iv e d a lm o s t n o th in g from i t .
The p e a s a n ts w ere m oreover w eakened by th e d r a f t i n g o f prim e
manpower t o be s e n t to c o l o n i a l p l a n t a t i o n s &n th e Iv o ry C o ast and on
th e Gold C o a s t, a n d , more r e c e n t l y , th e b u i l d i n g o f th e r a i l r o a d s from
A bidjan-N iam ey and from T h ie s -K a y e s. In b o th p r o j e c t s a l a r g e number
of w o rk e rs d i e d , v ic tim s o f p o o r w o rk in g c o n d i tio n s and a c c id e n t s
(S k in n e r, 1972, p . 3 4 8 ).
On a n o th e r h a n d , th e a b se n c e o f i n d u s t r i a l u n i t s o r p l a n t a t i o n s
in Upper V o lta d id n o t a llo w f o r th e fo rm a tio n o f an u rb a n o r r u r a l
w orking c l a s s o r p r o l e t a r i a t . The w o rk e rs s e n t to th e n e ig h b o rin g
c o u n t r i e s o r r e g i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n p l a n t s w ere r e i n t e g r a t e d i n t o th e
p e a s a n t r y on t h e i r r e t u r n , w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f a m in u te m i n o r ity who
s ta y e d i n town to s e r v e a s d o m e stic s e r v a n t s f o r th e E uropean b o u r g e o i
s i e o r th e em erging V o lta n b u r e a u c r a t i c p e t t y b o u r g e o i s i e . The commer
c i a l e n t e r p r i s e s (SCOA, CFAO, MONOPRIX, and P e y r is s a c ) and two t r a n s
f o rm a tio n " f a c t o r i e s " (CITEC f o r p e a n u t o i l , and BRACODI f o r b e e r and
lem onade) g e n e r a l l y em ployed l e s s th a n f i f t y w o rk ers a t a tim e and
managed to s a c k them b e f o r e th e y d e v e lo p e d r o o t s and s t r e n g t h .
The s i t u a t i o n o f th e w o rk in g c l a s s a t th e eve o f in d e p en d en ce
i s shown i n T a b le s 3 , 4 , and 5 , s t a t i s t i c s from B a rb e ’s p u b l i c a t i o n in
1964.
65
Table 3
S t a t i s t i c a l D ata C o n cern in g V o lta n Wage E a rn e rs in 1957
( M i l i t a r y Not In c lu d e d )
' P e r c e n t of
T o t a l Number of M ale
Wage E a rn e rs S a l a r i e d E uropeans S a la r i e d A f r ic a n s P o p u la tio n
2 4 ,5 0 0 1 ,2 0 0 2 3 ,3 0 0 1 .6
N o te . Taken from Les C la s s e s S o c ia le s en A friq u e N o ire (No. 10930),
by Raymond B a r b e . P a r i s : P r e s s e de la S . I . P . E . 1964, p. 69
T ab le 4
P r o f e s s i o n a l S t r u c t u r e of S a l a r i e d L abor F o rce in 1957
Number
P u b lic S e c t o r :
C i v i l s e r v a n ts 2 ,6 0 0
O th ers 9,050
P r i v a t e S e c t o r :
A g r i c u l t u r e , f i s h i n g , and f o r e s t r y 1,120
M ining and e x t r a c t i v e i n d u s t r i e s 320
B u ild in g and p u b lic w orks 5 ,1 0 0
T r a n s p o r t a t i o n , h a n d lin g 690
T ra n s fo rm a tio n i n d u s t r i e s 1,5 60
Commerce, b a n k in g , l i b e r a l p r o f e s s io n s 2 ,2 3 0
D om estic s e r v a n ts 1,780
N o te . Taken from Les C la s s e s S o c ia le s on A friq u e N o ire (No. 10930),
by Raymond B arb e. P a r i s : P r e s s e de l a S . I . P . E . , 1964, p. 70.
66
Table 5
D is tr ib u tio n of V oltan Wage E arn ers by P r o fe s s io n a l Q u a lif ic a tio n
(A fricans and Europeans, P u b lic and P r iv a te S e cto rs T ogether)
U n sk ille d Workers S k ille d Workers T o ta l
7 o of T o ta l
Number S a la rie d A frican s
% of T o ta l
Number S a la rie d A frican s Number
1 of T o tal
S a la rie d A fric a n s
12,600 54 4,300 18.5 16,900 72.5
N o te. Taken from Les C la sses S o c ia le s en A friq u e N oire (No. 10930), by Raymond B arbe.
P a r is : P re sse de la S . I . P . E . , 1964, p. 71.
C'>
No in d ig e n o u s com m ercial group was o rg a n iz e d and a b l e to throw
i t s w e ig h t i n t o th e p o l i t i c a l b a t t l e f o r s t a t e pow er. Big b u s in e s s
w ith F ra n c e was in th e hands o f F re n c h a g e n c i e s . S y ria n s and L ebanese
s e rv e d as r e t a i l e r s and in t e r m e d i a r i e s betw een th e s e a g e n c ie s and th e
l o c a l p e t t y t r a d e r s . The l a t t e r s w ere to e n t e r i n t o c o n t r a c t w ith th e
r u r a l p o p u la tio n to s e l l im p o rte d item s s u c h as c l o t h s , h a rd w a re , s o a p ,
e t c . , and buy a g r i c u l t u r a l p ro d u c ts f o r th e c i t i e s , more p r e c i s e l y , f o r
th e u rb an p r o l e t a r i a t and p e t t y b o u r g e o is i e w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f i t s
b u r e a u c r a t i c f r a c t i o n who consumed im p o rted g o o d s . T h is p e t t y tr a d e
b a r e l y a llo w e d i t s members t o s c r a t c h o u t a l i v i n g , much l e s s to a c
q u ir e a s u r p lu s and e x e r t c o n t r o l o v e r th e com m ercial c i r c u i t s and th e
p r i c e s , d e p e n d e n t a s th e y w ere on means o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n w hich th e y
d id n o t c o n t r o l .
As f o r th e m i l i t a r y , who were to p la y a v e ry im p o rta n t r o l e
f i v e y e a rs a f t e r in d e p e n d e n c e , th e y d id n o t r e p r e s e n t a r e a l f o r c e on
th e eve of in d e p e n d e n c e . They w ere n o t a V o lta n c a r e e r m i l i t a r y , b u t
w ere r e c r u i t e d as m e rc e n a rie s f o r d e f i n i t e o p e r a t io n s (W orld Wars I and
I I , th e In d o c h in a and A lg e r ia n c o l o n i a l w ars) and f o r a li m i t e d p e r io d
(15 y e a rs a t m ost) a f t e r w hich th e y w ere r e i t e g r a t e d i n t o c i v i l i a n
l i f e , more p r e c i s e l y r u r a l l i f e s in c e m ost m i l i t a r y o r i g i n a l l y came
from t h e r e . T h ere w ere no more th a n tw en ty o f f i c e r s , th e h i g h e s t r a n k
in g among them b e in g a C a p ta in , and th e y w e re , f o r th e most p a r t , i n t e
g r a te d i n t o th e F re n c h r e g u l a r ( c a r e e r ) arm y.
I t i s th e n e a s y to u n d e rs ta n d how th e b u r e a u c r a t i c p e t t y
b o u r g e o is i e (e le m e n ta ry s c h o o l t e a c h e r s , n u r s e s , and o th e r c l e r k s ) came
to power in Upper V o lta and fa c e d th e momentous pro b lem of b u i l d i n g i t s
68
own la c k in g econom ic b a s e s , a n d , by do g o in g , t o d e v e lo p c o n t r a d i c
t i o n s t h r e a t e n i n g i t s v e r y e x i s t e n c e as su c h .
The R is e o f th e P o l i t i c o - B u r e a u c r a t i c B o u rg e o is ie
and th e Id e o lo g y of N a tio n a l D evelopm ent
th ro u g h S t a t e C a p ita lis m
A g a in , th e b u r e a u c r a t i c p e t t y b o u r g e o is i e had no in d e p e n d e n t
econom ic b a s e . However, th e y c o n t r o l l e d th e s t a t e a p p a r a tu s w ith i t s
p red o m in an t r o l e o v er th e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f th e s o - c a l l e d "m odern1 * e c o
nomic s t r u c t u r e s . T h e irs was th e id e o lo g y o f an a c c e l e r a t e d econom ic
dev elo p m en t on th e W estern (F ren ch ) m o d e l. The c o n c e p tio n of th e ways
and means o f t h i s dev elo p m en t was e n t r u s t e d to F re n c h b o u r g e o i s i e ,
e x p e r t s , and t e c h n i c a l a d v i s o r s i n th e l e g a l fram ew ork o f c o o p e r a tio n
ag re e m e n ts s ig n e d i n A p r il 1961, w hich c o n s e c r a te d a c l o s e p a r t n e r s h i p
betw een th e b u r e a u c r a t i c p e t t y b o u r g e o is i e and th e F re n c h b o u r g e o i s i e .
T hese c o o p e r a tiv e ag ree m en ts s t i p u l a t e d t h a t F ra n c e was to be a p r i v i
le g e d p a r t n e r in a l l s e c t o r s (co m m ercial, t e c h n i c a l , c u l t u r a l , and
d i p l o m a t i c ) , and was to p a r t i c i p a t e in th e d e c is io n -m a k in g p ro c e s s f o r
governm ent p r o j e c t s and p ro g ram s. F ra n c e was to " h e lp " w ith i t s t e c h
n i c a l and f i n a n c i a l c a p i t a l and a l l th e s e c u r i t y of i t s " f r i e n d s h i p . "
In exchange f o r t h i s , F ra n c e was t o be g r a n te d p r i v i l e g e d tr e a tm e n t in
th e a r e a s c o v ere d by th e a g re e m e n ts . In th e com m ercial a r e a , F ra n c e
was t o be t r e a t e d as th e "m ost p r i v i l e g e d n a t i o n , " t h a t i s , h a v in g th e
l i o n ' s s h a r e i n e x p o r ts from and im p o rts to Upper V o lta . At th e d i p l o
m a tic ( p o l i t i c a l ) l e v e l , F ra n c e had b een g r a n te d th e t i t l e o f doyen of
th e d ip lo m a tic c o r p s , th u s c o n t r o l l i n g th e d ip lo m a tic r e l a t i o n s o f
Upper V o lta . As f o r e d u c a tio n , F ra n c e had e x c l u s i v e c o n t r o l o v e r th e
o r g a n i z a t i o n o f th e V o lta n e d u c a tio n a l s t r u c t u r e s and p ro g ram s, no
change in th e s e s t r u c t u r e s and program s was th e n p o s s i b l e w ith o u t
F ren ch " a d v i c e ." Only th e a r e a o f d e fe n s e had been l e f t a s i d e by th e
V o lta n b u r e a u c r a t i c p e t t y b o u r g e o i s i e s , c o n f id e n t t h a t no i n t e r n a l o r
e x t e r n a l m i l i t a r y t h r e a t was f o r e s e e a b l e . A lth o u g h somewhat i r r i t a t e d
by t h i s r e f u s a l to s i g n a d e fe n s e a g re e m e n t, th e F ren ch b o u r g e o is i e
d id n o t i n s i s t , p a r t i c u l a r l y b e c a u se Upper V o lta d id n o t p r e s e n t to o
g r e a t a s t r a t e g i c im p o rta n c e as d id th e c o a s t a l c o u n t r i e s l i k e S e n e g a l,
M a u r it a n ia , th e Iv o r y C o a s t, and th e c e n t r a l s t a t e s l i k e Chad, Cameroun,
and Gabon, b o r d e r in g on th e fo rm e r B r i t i s h c o l o n i a l e m p ire . F o r th e
V o lta n b u r e a u c r a t i c p e t t y b o u r g e o i s i e , how ever, t h i s r e f u s a l would v e ry
soon r e v e a l i t s e l f a s a .m ista k e .
The C o n s o lid a tio n o f th e S t a t e A p p aratu s
and th e P o l i t i c o - B u r e a u c r a t i c B o u rg e o is ie
A lth o u g h th e o f f i c i a l r h e t o r i c was em p h asizin g econom ic d e v e l
opm ent, th e f i r s t y e a rs o f in d e p en d en ce w e re , how ever, d e v o te d to th e
c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f th e power o f th e p e t t y b o u r g e o is i e w ith th e r e i n f o r c e
ment of th e s t a t e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , th e d o m e s tic a tio n o f th e s t i l l r e c a l
c i t r a n t c h i e f t a i n c y , and th e b u i l d i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l econom ic b a se s a t
th e same tim e as th e p e t t y b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o is i e in tr o d u c e d some
d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w i t h i n i t s e l f .
The r e in f o r c e m e n t o f th e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e s was c o n s id
e re d a p r e li m i n a r y s t e p tow ard econom ic developm ent i n a modern c o n t e x t.
The t r a d i t i o n a l c h i e f t a i n c y th rew a l l of i t s s t r e n g t h in a d e s p e r a t e
b a t t l e to s h a r e , i f n o t to keep f o r i t s e l f a l o n e , th e s t a t e a p p a r a tu s .
I t s l e a d e r , th e Morho Naba K o u g ri, t r i e d f i r s t in 1956 and 1957, to
p le a d b e f o r e a T e r r i t o r i a l A ssem bly e n t i r e l y composed o f th e r e p r e s e n t a -
70
t i v e s of th e b u r e a u c r a t i c p e t t y b o u r g e o is i e f o r an a s s o c i a t i o n o f th e
t r a d i t i o n a l c h i e f s w ith th e new pow er; th e n , r e a l i z i n g t h a t th e l a t t e r
was n o t h e e d in g h i s p a t h e t i c c a l l f o r w hat he c o n s id e re d a " n a t i o n a l
u n it y " g o v ern m en t, he t r i e d , i n 1958, to f o r c e th e A ssem bly to a c c e p t
h i s o f f e r w ith a show-down w ith some th r e e th o u san d M ossi w a r r io r s
b e s e ig in g th e T e r r i t o r i a l A ssem bly b u i l d i n g (S k in n e r, 1972, p p . 4 31-
4 3 5 ) . The p e a c e f u l d i s p e r s a l of th e d e m o n s tra tio n c o n s e c r a te d th e v i c
t o r y o f th e b u r e a u c r a t i c p e t t y b o u r g e o i s i e . The l a t t e r , now s e c u r e ,
y e t s t i l l f r i g h t e n e d , r e s o lv e d to " m a in ta in , a t a l l c o s t s , th e demo
c r a t i c r e p u b li c a n i n s t i t u t i o n s . " And a lth o u g h m ost t r a d i t i o n a l c h i e f s
d iv o rc e d th e m se lv e s from th e a tte m p te d coup d ' E t a t , th e governm ent
gave them a s s u r a n c e t h a t th e y w ere n o t c o l l e c t i v e l y to pay th e c o n s e
q u ences o f th e a t t e m p t . M easures w e re , how ever, ta k e n to e l im i n a te
th e c h i e f t a i n c y and o n ly th e v i l l a g e c h i e f t a i n c y was o f f i c i a l l y r e c o g
n iz e d and m a in ta in e d . A l l o th e r h i e r a r c h i c a l l y s u p e r i o r p o s i t i o n s
(c a n to n and p ro v in c e c h i e f t a i n c i e s ) h ad to d is a p p e a r a t th e d e a th of
t h e i r a c t u a l h o l d e r s . I t was f o r b id d e n to r e p la c e a d e c e a s e d c h i e f o f
a c a n to n o r p r o v i n c e .
To r e p l a c e th e s e f e u d a l s t r u c t u r e s , a la r g e s h a re o f th e s t a t e
b u d g e t was d i v e r t e d tow ard c r e a t i n g , s t a f f i n g , and e q u ip p in g "m odern"
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s e r v i c e s and t e r r i t o r i a l d i v i s i o n s : th e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
" c e r c l e s , " " a r r o n d is s e m e n t s ," and " p o s t e s . " A la r g e p a r t o f th e s t a t e
b u d g e t was a l s o d i v e r t e d tow ard th e e x t e r n a l sym bols o f th e s t a t e
pow er: b u i l d i n g s f o r o f f i c e s and o f f i c i a l s 1 r e s i d e n c e , th e r u l i n g
p a r t y .
71
A t th e same tim e , a r a p i d and c l e a r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n was i n t r o
duced w i t h i n th e b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s w ith i t s s m a ll r u l i n g f r a c t i o n
becom ing a p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o i s i e . The p a r t i c u l a r i t y o f
t h i s f r a c t i o n was t h a t i t t r i e d to c o n v e r t i t s i n t e l l e c t u a l c a p i t a l
i n t o a f i n a n c i a l o n e . The r e l a t i v e l y v e ry h ig h re m u n e ra tio n s and
o th e r a d v a n ta g e s o f th e governm ent o f f i c i a t e , p a r li a m e n ta r y members and
to p o f f i c i a l s o f th e s t a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s a llo w e d t h e i r b e n e f i c i a r i e s to
become b u s in e ss m e n , r e n t e r s , and r i c h fa rm e rs : a n a s c e n t b o u r g e o i s i e .
The m ost " f l o u r i s h i n g b u s in e s s " d u r in g th e f i r s t y e a r s o f i n d e
pendence w ere i n c o n s t r u c t i o n and o r c h a r d s . V i l l a s of m i n i s t e r s , p a r
l i a m e n t a r ia n s and to p s t a t e o f f i c i a l s w ere r e n te d by th e s t a t e to house
th e f o r e i g n t e c h n i c a l c o o p e r a tio n e x p e r ts o r th e em bassy s t a f f s . L arg e
s e c t i o n s o f la n d w ere w re s te d from p e a s a n ts who w ere unaw are t h a t t h e i r
p r o p e r ty was b e in g a p p r o p r i a t e d by th e i n d i v i d u a l members o f th e
p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o i s i e .
T h is happened in th e f o llo w in g way: th e members o f th e
p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o is i e ask e d th e p e a s a n ts f o r some s e c t i o n s
o f la n d f o r fa rm in g p u rp o s e s . G e n e r a lly th e p e a s a n t s , a f t e r c o n s u l t i n g
o th e r members o f th e f a m ily who own c o l l e c t i v e l y th e la n d , a g re e d on
c e d in g th e s e c t i o n s of la n d as t h i s i s u s u a l l y done f o r new s e t t l e r s .
The c e s s io n o f la n d was c o n s id e r e d a te m p o ra ry c e s s i o n , th e fa m ily
h a v in g th e r i g h t to r e p e a l i t a n y tim e . However, once th e members of
th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o is i e o b ta in e d su ch c o n c e s s io n s
( v e r b a l l y ) , th e y u se d t h e i r p o l i t i c a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o s i t i o n to
g r a n t t i t l e - d e e d s to th e m se lv e s on th e la n d s w hich up t o t h i s p o in t
w ere c o l l e c t i v e l y owned by fa m ily o r v i l l a g e members. The g i f t s
( u s u a l l y a c o u p le o f b o t t l e s of w in e , s u g a r , s a l t , and c o l a n u ts ) were
c o n s id e r e d by th e members o f th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o is i e as
th e b u y in g p r i c e of th e w re s te d s e c t i o n s of la n d .
I n a d d i t i o n to th e s e " l e g a l " ways o f a c c u m u la tin g w e a lt h ,
t h e r e w ere th e i l l e g a l em bezzlem ents o f p u b lic m o n ie s --a n a p p a r e n t l y
w id e s p re a d p r a c t i c e in th e p o s t-in d e p e n d e n c e A f r i c a (B arb e, 1964,
p p . 1 1 1 -1 1 4 ).
Not v e r y much was l e f t of th e m eager s t a t e b u d g e t f o r i n v e s t
ment p ro g ram s. The o n ly s i g n i f i c a n t i n d u s t r i a l acc o m p lish m en ts of th e
p e rio d betw een 1960 and 1966 w ere th e s t a r t i n g o f th e g o ld m in in g a t
P oura (South-W est o f th e c o u n try ) and th e t e x t i l e f a c t o r y o f Koudougou
c a l l e d " V o lte x " ; b o th p r o j e c t s w ere e n t i r e l y in th e hands o f e x p a t r i
a t e s a s w ere a l l o th e r v i t a l s e c t o r s o f th e n a t i o n a l economy. The
commerce and b an k in g were l e f t i n th e hands o f th e p r i v a t e f o r e i g n
com panies j u s t as d u r in g th e c o l o n i a l p e r i o d . The o n ly change w hich
o c c u rre d co n c e rn e d th e renam ing o f th e s e com panies as a c o n c e s s io n to
th e n a t i o n a l p r id e o f th e new s t a t e . On th e o th e r h an d , th e s e com
p a n ie s m a n if e s te d c a u t io u s n e s s i n t h e i r in v e s tm e n ts and h u r r i e d to
r e p a t r i a t e t h e i r p r o f i t s , d e s p i t e - - a n d sh re w d ly e x p lo itin g - -g o v e r n m e n
t a l a s s u r a n c e s to p r o t e c t them , and e x p l o i t i n g th e g e n e ro u s c o n d itio n s
made to them by th e in v e s tm e n t c o d e .
As a r e s u l t of t h i s g e n e r a l p lu n d e r o f th e m eager b u d g e t r e
s o u rc e s o v e r f i v e y e a r s , th e t r e a s u r y was u n a b le to pay i t s d e b t s , a n d ,
o v e r a l l , th e s a l a r i e s o f a l a r g e body of c i v i l s e r v a n t s . The l a t t e r ,
a l r e a d y i r r i t a t e d by th e s o c i a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n in tr o d u c e d b y , and in
fa v o r o f , th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o i s i e , l i t e r a l l y ex p lo d ed
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when t h i s f a c t i o n t r i e d to have them pay f o r i t s m ism anagem ent r e s u l t
in g i n a lo s s o f f o u r b i l l i o n f r a n c s , t h a t i s , more th a n h a l f th e
a c t u a l n a t i o n a l b u d g e t (7 b i l l i o n f r a n c s ) . The governm ent had in d e e d
p ro p o sed to re d u c e th e c i v i l s e r v a n t s ' s a l a r i e s by 20 p e r c e n t and t h e i r
fa m ily a llo w a n c e s by 50 p e r c e n t , and to l i m i t them to o n ly s i x , in s t e a d
o f a l l o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n .
A g e n e r a l s t r i k e was le d by th e b u r e a u c r a t i c p e t t y b o u r g e o is i e
o rg a n iz e d i n t o u n io n s and a l l i e d , f o r th e c ir c u m s ta n c e s , w ith d i s
c a rd e d e le m e n ts o f th e r u l i n g f r a c t i o n , th e t r a d i t i o n a l c h i e f s and
th e Roman C a t h o lic c l e r g y i r r i t a t e d by th e d iv o r c e and much p u b li c iz e d
seco n d m a rria g e o f P r e s i d e n t Yameogo. T h is r e s u l t e d i n th e o u s tin g of
th e c i v i l i a n p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o is i e and i t s re p la c e m e n t by
th e m i l i t a r y .
The R ise of th e M i l i t a r y B u r e a u c r a t s :
The E t h ic s o f " A u s t e r i t y " and I n t e n s i
f i c a t i o n of S o c ia l C o n tr a d ic ti o n s
Once r i d o f t h e i r g re e d y r i v a l s , th e e le m e n ts of th e b u r e a u
c r a t i c p e t t y b o u r g e o is i e had no d i f f i c u l t y i n a c c e p ti n g th e a u s t e r i t y
m easures w hich had k in d le d t h e i r i r e .
The army o f f i c e r s a g re e d t o s e t t l e th e c o n f l i c t b etw een th e two
f a c t i o n s o f th e c i v i l i a n b u r e a u c r a ts inasm uch as th e o f f i c e r s had r e
c e iv e d no p a r t i c u l a r a d v a n ta g e from th e r u l i n g f a c t i o n . They had b een
k e p t away from s t a t e a f f a i r s a c c o rd in g to a th e n w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d p r e
j u d i c e a b o u t th e r o l e of th e army in a n a t i o n in g e n e r a l and a d e v e lo p
in g A f r ic a n n a t i o n in p a r t i c u l a r . They l i v e d i n d is m a n tle d mud w a lle d
b a r r a c k s , d ro v e u sed " j e e p s " l e f t by th e F ren ch arm y, and b a d ly needed
74
am m unition to t r a i n th e new r e c r u i t s and keep th e e x p e rie n c e d tro o p s
in s h a p e . So n e g l e c te d s o c i a l l y w ere th e y t h a t th e s t r i k e r s s h o u tin g
"Army t o p o w er1 ." d id n o t even know th e name o f th e c h i e f o f t h i s arm y,
L ie u te n a n t- C o lo n e l Sangoul£ L am izana.
Common g o a ls u n i t e d b o th c i v i l i a n and m i l i t a r y p e t t y b o u r g e o i
s i e : th e d e s i r e f o r o r d e r and d i s c i p l i n e , th o s e fu n d a m e n ta ls o f b u re a u
c r a c y , w hich had b een v i o l a t e d by th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c e le m e n ts
and needed to be r e e s t a b l i s h e d and g u a ra n te e d by th e army o f f i c e r s - - i f
n e c e s s a r y , a t g u n p o in t1 . F ra n c e d id b l e s s t h i s p a la c e r e v o l u t i o n , s in c e
i t d id n o t t h r e a t e n any e s t a b l i s h e d d ip l o m a t ic r e l a t i o n s h i p s o r fu n d a
m e n ta l l i b e r a l ( c a p i t a l i s t ) econom ic o p t i o n s , as L ie u te n a n t- C o lo n e l
Lam izana p rom ised w h ile a g r e e in g to become head of s t a t e on J a n u a ry 3 ,
1966.
The m i l i t a r y commanders th e n b e n e f i t e d from a f a v o r a b l e p r e j u
d ic e on th e p a r t o f a l l s o c i a l groups c o n c e rn e d by th e s o - c a l l e d popu
l a r movement of J a n u a ry 3 , 1966; n am ely, th e b u r e a u c r a t i c p e t t y b o u r
g e o i s i e p r o p e r , th e t r a d i t i o n a l c h i e f s and th e i n t e r n a t i o n a l b o u r g e o i
s i e , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e F re n c h . A ll th e s e groups w ere re a d y to g iv e
t h e i r s u p p o r t, o f c o u r s e , i n exchange f o r a d v a n ta g e s and c o n c e s s io n s
n o t alw ays c o m p a tib le w ith eac h o t h e r .
The most im p o r ta n t o f th e s e a d v a n ta g e s f o r th e s e m i l i t a r y s u p
p o r t e r s was c l o s e a c c e s s to th e d e c is io n -m a k in g p r o c e s s . T h is was a p
p a r e n t l y o b ta in e d th ro u g h th e c r e a t i o n o f a " N a tio n a l C o n s u lta tiv e
C om m ittee" composed o f 10 m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r s , 5 u n i o n i s t s , 5 r e p r e s e n
t a t i v e s of t r a d i t i o n a l and r e l i g i o u s f o r c e s , and 26 c i v i l s e r v a n t s ,
p r i d i n g th e m se lv e s more on t h e i r t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e th a n t h e i r
75
p o l i t i c a l m i l i t a n c y . In a d d i t i o n , f i v e " te c h n o c r a t s " w ere a p p o in te d
w ith e i g h t army o f f i c e r s t o c o n s t i t u t e a " P r o v is o r y M i l i t a r y G overn
m ent" (GMP) .
The t r a d i t i o n a l r u l e r s , f o r t h e i r p a r t , re c o v e re d t h e i r v a n i s h
in g p r e s t i g e and f i n a n c i a l a d v a n t a g e s . They w ere a llo w e d to r e c r e a t e
t h e i r s p h e re w ith a l l t h e i r fo rm er h i e r a r c h i c a l s t r u c t u r e s , and w ere
p a id from th e a u s t e r i t y b u d g e t.
B ut th e arm y, more p r e c i s e l y i t s power e l i t e , c o n s t i t u t e d by
th e h ig h e r o f f i c e r s o rg a n iz e d i n t o a "H ig h er C o u n c il o f th e Armed
F o r c e s ," was i n r e a l i t y th e d e c is io n -m a k in g pow er, d e c id in g whom to
a p p o in t t o th e GM P a s w e ll a s to th e N a ti o n a l C o n s u lta tiv e Com m ittee
and o th e r im p o rta n t s t a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s .
The econom ic p o li c y o f th e r i s i n g m i l i t a r y b u r e a u c r a ts was
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by two p o i n t s :
1 . R e d u c tio n o f th e b u y in g power o f th e p o p u la tio n i n o r d e r
t o c o n s t i t u t e a s u r p lu s f o r s t a b i l i z i n g th e economy, and
2 . th e re b y a t t r a c t i n g f o r e i g n i n v e s t o r s - - f r o m w h e re v e r.
To th e s e e n d s , a " p a t r i o t i c c o n t r i b u t i o n " was c r e a t e d c o n s i s t i n g of th e
r e d u c t i o n of c i v i l s e r v a n t s 1 s a l a r i e s and o t h e r re m u n e ra tio n s by 20
p e r c e n t and th e f a m ily a llo w a n c e s by 72 p e r c e n t , a n d , f o r th e p e a s a n ts
and n o n - s a l a r i e s a d u l t p e r s o n s , a s u p p le m e n ta ry ta x c o rre s p o n d in g to a
norm al ta x in c r e a s e o f 20 p e r c e n t .
In o r d e r to g e t i n t e r n a t i o n a l c u r r e n c y from th e o n ly n a t i o n a l
r e s o u r c e a v a i l a b l e , th e GM P c r e a t e d th e " O r g a n iz a tio n s f o r R e g io n a l
D evelopm ent" (ORD), a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e s d e s ig n e d to c o n t r o l th e
r u r a l m a ss e s . T h e o r e t i c a l l y , th e ORDs w ere to prom ote g lo b a l r u r a l
76
d e v e lo p m e n t, i n t e g r a t i n g a l l r u r a l a c t i v i t i e s l i k e fa rm in g , c a t t l e -
b r e e d i n g , and h a n d i c r a f t , w ith a d e c is io n -m a k in g power h e ld by th e
c o n c e rn e d p o p u l a t i o n . In f a c t , how ever, th e y tu rn e d o u t to be th e
i n t e r m e d i a r i e s betw een th e r e g i o n a l p o p u la tio n and th e numerous F re n c h
a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t e s (IRHO, SARIA, CFDT, e t c . ) f o r th e i n
t e n s i f i c a t i o n o f c a sh c ro p p in g ( c o tt o n and p e a n u ts) and th e a d o p tio n of
a g r i c u l t u r a l te c h n iq u e s and m a t e r i a l ( f e r t i l i z e r , i n s e c t i c i d e • • • ) s o ld
by th e s e i n s t i t u t e s . The GM P gave th e o p e r a t io n l o g i s t i c a l s u p p o r t by
c r e a t i n g and d e v e lo p in g a r u r a l b r o a d c a s t in g program to i n d o c t r i n a t e
th e p e a s a n t s .
An i n d i r e c t y e t im p o rta n t means f o r g e t t i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l c u r
re n c y was th e o rg a n iz e d and c o n t r o l l e d m ig r a tio n o f w o rk ers to n e i g h
b o r in g r i c h e r c o u n t r i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e Iv o ry C o a s t. The GM P t r i e d
to ta p t h i s s o u rc e by r e i n f o r c i n g th e manpower b u re a u to e n a b le i t to
im plem ent th e c o n v e n tio n s ig n e d betw een th e I v o r i a n and V o lta n g o v e rn
m ents i n 1961 c o n c e rn in g th e s e l l i n g of V o lta n la b o r f o r c e , a co n v en
t i o n somewhat n e g l e c te d by th e p re c e d in g re g im e . A cco rd in g to th e
W orld Bank (1 9 7 3 ), t h i s o r g a n iz e d m ig r a tio n o f some one m i l l i o n V o lta n
w o rk ers t o th e Iv o ry C o a st a llo w e d Upper V o lta to have an e q u i l i b r a t e d ,
a n d , ev en , s u r p lu s b a la n c e o f p a y m e n ts --th a n k s to th e f o u r b i l l i o n
f r a n c s s e n t y e a r l y by th o s e m ig ra n ts t o t h e i r f a m i l i e s i n Upper V o lta .
F u r t h e r , th e unem ploym ent pro b lem i n Upper V o lta was l a r g e l y s o lv e d
th ro u g h th e o p e r a t i o n . In any c a s e , s o p r o f i t a b l e was t h i s t a c t i c f o r
th e Government t h a t i t was l a t e r t o be e x te n d e d to Gabon i n 1973.
F o r e ig n in v e s tm e n t was en c o u ra g e d by a s y s t e m a t i z a t i o n o f
" p l a n n i n g , ” w hich added up to a d e t a i l e d c a ta lo g u e o f th e in v e s tm e n t
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a r e a s . A p la n n in g u n i t would l a t e r be (1971) r e q u i r e d o f a l l m i n i s
t r i e s w ith th e m iss io n o f c o l l e c t i n g and p r e s e n t i n g i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l
s t a n d a r d i z e d form t h e i r p r o j e c t s and d e s i d e r a t a . A n o th e r im p o rta n t
way o f e n c o u ra g in g f o r e i g n in v e s tm e n t was th ro u g h th e in v e s tm e n t code
(E nactm ent o f December 2 6 , 1 9 7 0 ). The a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g c o d e , a lth o u g h
v e r y g en ero u s as f a r as ta x c o n c e s s io n s w e n t, was made s t i l l more g e n
e ro u s . To th e r e d u c t i o n o f ta x on im p o rte d equipm ent and raw m a t e r i a l
o v e r a f i v e - y e a r p e r io d was added m a rk e t p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t o th e r com
p e t i n g f o r e i g n p r o d u c ts f o r th o s e c h o o sin g a p r i v i l e g e d , in s t e a d of
common re g im e . The c o u n t e r p a r t of th e p r i v i l e g e d re g im e , i t i s t r u e ,
was an o b l i g a t i o n f o r th e b e n e f i c i a r i e s to r e i n v e s t a h ig h e r p o r t i o n
o f th e o b ta in e d p r o f i t - - d e c l a r e d a t i t s minimum by th e e n t e r p r i s e s .
The p r i v i l e g e d regim e a d d r e s s e d p a r t i c u l a r l y , and f o r th e f i r s t tim e ,
V o lta n i n v e s t o r s .
T hese g en ero u s c o n d i tio n s a llo w e d th e c r e a t i o n o f a r e l a t i v e l y
l a r g e number o f i m p o r t - s u b s t i t u t i o n e n t e r p r i s e s s u c h as IVOLCY f o r th e
a s s e m b lin g o f b i c y c l e s , BATA f o r s h o e s , SVPEC f o r p a i n t i n g , th e G M V
f o r f l o u r m i l l i n g com bining m i l l e t arid w h e a t, SOSUHV f o r s u g a r , e t c .
T h is p e r io d (1966-1975) m arked th e b e g in n in g o f a r e a l com pra
d o r b o u r g e o i s i e , th e le a d in g e le m e n ts o f w hich came from th e c i v i l i a n
b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o i s i e . Top s t a t e o f f i c i a l s from th e f in a n c e and
p la n d e p a rtm e n ts to o k a d v a n ta g e o f th e r e g u l a t i o n s th e y had o f t e n
e l a b o r a t e d r e g u l a t i n g th e p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e s , to o k a lo n g - p e r io d le a v e
from th e c i v i l s e r v i c e , and s e t t l e d a s e n t r e p r e n e u r s in v a r io u s e c o
nom ic a r e a s : w a te r s u p p ly , p n eu m atic t i r e s and b a t t e r i e s 1 c o n c e s s io n s
by a (fo rm e r) GM P m i n i s t e r o f p la n and i n d u s t r y a s s i s t e d by two fo rm er
78
f in a n c e d i r e c t o r s ; m atches and d o n k e y -d riv e n c a r t s c o n c e s s io n s by a
(fo rm e r) p la n d i r e c t o r . In some c a s e s , e v e n , th e governm ent took th e
i n i t i a t i v e of p u s h in g some o f i t s o f f i c i a l s in t o th e p r i v a t e s e c t o r ,
in e n t e r p r i s e s and b u s in e s s e s w here i t s members w ere s h a r e - h o l d e r s i f
n o t f o u n d e r s , w ith f o r e i g n (F ren ch ) b u sin e ssm e n as t h e i r f i n a n c i a l "
h e l p .
E n tr e p r e n e u r s h ip was a l s o en co u ra g ed by s t a t e in v e s tm e n ts in
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e works (ro a d b u i l d i n g ) and c o n s t r u c t i o n ( e . g . , th e o p e r a
t i o n "Zone du B o is" c o n s i s t i n g o f b u i l d i n g lu x u r io u s v i l l a s f o r th e
b e n e f i t o f h ig h - r a n k i n g s t a t e o f f i c i a l s ) . A ll th e s e works w ere e n
t r u s t e d to p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e s , and c o n s t i t u t e d th e m ain s o u rc e o f
re v e n u e f o r th e s e e n t e r p r i s e s . A c t u a l l y m ost o f th e s e e n t e r p r i s e s r a n
o u t o f b u s in e s s w ith th e c o m p le tio n o f th e p r o j e c t s .
The group w hich b e n e f i t e d th e m ost from th e c r e a t i o n o f a com
p ra d o r b o u r g e o is i e was th e army o f f i c e r s . From th e b a r r a c k s th e y i n
v ad ed b o th th e c i v i l i a n b u re a u c ra c y and th e b u s in e s s s e c t o r , s u c c e s s
f u l l y com peting w ith th e c i v i l i a n s . To l e g i t i m i z e t h e i r new p o s i t i o n
and t o t a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w ith th e c i v i l i a n s , th e y w ro te a new c o n s t i
t u t i o n , in te n d e d , so th e y s a i d , to be th e f i r s t s t e p tow ard th e e s t a b
lis h m e n t o f a c i v i l i a m reg im e and i n w hich th e y a s s e r t e d t h a t th e y
w ould l i k e to be p la c e d on an e q u a l f o o t i n g w ith c i v i l i a n s . I f th e
m i l i t a r y d id n o t s u c c e e d i n im posing t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n in th e
p a r lia m e n t by members a l r e a d y a p p o in te d by th e h ig h e r c o u n c il o f th e
Armed F o r c e s , th e y n e v e r t h e l e s s o b ta in e d from th e c i v i l i a m p o l i t i c i a n s
t h a t th e h ead o f th e s t a t e i n th e new, t r a n s i t o r y regim e be th e "m ost
a n c i e n t of th e h i g h e s t r a n k in g army o f f i c e r s , " and t h a t th e m i l i t a r y
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k eep i n th e governm ent f o u r ( i . e . , o n e - f o u r th ) of th e m i n i s t e r i a l p o s i
t i o n s . T hese p o s i t i o n s happened to be th e m ost s t r a t e g i c ( d e f e n s e ,
f i n a n c e , i n t e r i o r , and a g r i c u l t u r e ) .
The army s tr e n g t h e n e d i t s e l f by r e c r u i t i n g new e le m e n ts , th u s
in c r e a s i n g th e number o f s o l d i e r s from 1 ,5 0 0 i n 1966 to 3 ,0 0 0 i n 1970.
I t s b u d g e t was n o t s u b m itte d to a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o n t r o l l i k e th e b u d g e ts
o f th e o th e r d e p a r t m e n t s . I t was a d o p te d once th e s e n i o r c o m m is s a ria t
o f f i c e r had i t d r a f t e d and t r a n s m i t t e d to h is c o lle a g u e i n c h a rg e of
th e f in a n c e d e p a rtm e n t.
The army o f f i c e r s r e c e iv e d a l l th e b l e s s i n g s o f th e i n t e r n a
t i o n a l b o u r g e o is ie f o r m a in ta in in g o r d e r and le a v in g th e l a t t e r * s hands
f r e e —and c l e a n . A s u b t l e cam paign was o rg a n iz e d by th e F re n c h b o u r
g e o i s i e t o b o a s t t h i s f a c t i o n o f th e V o lta n b o u r g e o is i e and make i t c o n
s i d e r i t s e l f i n d i s p e n s a b le f o r th e n a t i o n (s e e th e much p u b l i c i z e d o f
f i c i a l v i s i t to F ra n c e i n November 1971 o f P r e s i d e n t Lam izana and h is
m i n i s t e r , th e s e n i o r c o m m is s a ria t o f f i c e r G arango, s e l f - a c c l a i m e d as
th e n a tio n * s s a v i o r i n h i s b o o k le t e n t i t l e d ‘Le R ed ressem en t F i n a n c i e r
de l a R e p u b liq u e de H a u te - V o lta , p u b lis h e d two m onths e a r l i e r ) .
An i n t e r n a l s t r u g g l e f o r power w i t h i n th e dom inant p a r t y , th e
RDA c o o p te d i n 1970 by m i l i t a r y a n x io u s to g iv e to t h e i r regim e a n a p
p a r e n t l y p o p u la r (d e m o c ra tic ) b a s i s , gave th e army o f f i c e r s th e o p p o r
t u n i t y t o g e t r i d o f th e s e fo rm e r and p o t e n t i a l , i f n o t a c t u a l RDA
r i v a l s , and to a tte m p t t o m o n o p o lize s t a t e power and i n t e n s i f y th e c r e
a t i o n o f th e com prador b o u r g e o i s i e .
80
The Em ergence o f a Comprador B o u rg e o is ie
The a tte m p t o f m o n o p o liz a tio n o f s t a t e power w ent so f a r as to
co n c e rn th e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e s th e m s e lv e s , w hich had b een l e f t
th u s f a r i n th e hands o f c i v i l i a n s . P r e f e c t u r e s (R e g io n a l A d m in is tr a
t i v e U n its ) w ere e r e c t e d and e n t r u s t e d to young o f f i c e r s a n x io u s to
g e t t h e i r s h a r e o f th e c a k e . Q u a l i f i e d to p c i v i l s e r v a n t s w ere a p
p o in te d g e n e r a l s e c r e t a r i e s to do th e t e c h n i c a l jo b f o r th e h o ld e r s
o f th e new s i n e c u r e s .
A t th e same tim e , m easu res w ere ta k e n to l i m i t th e a d v a n ta g e s
and p r e s t i g e o f th e h ig h e r ra n k in g c i v i l s e r v a n t s . T hese m easures c o n
c e rn e d th e s u p p r e s s io n o f f r e e h o u s in g (D ecree No. 49 of March 1972)
and s e v e r e r e g u l a t i o n s on th e u se o f o f f i c i a l c a r s (D ecree No. 509 o f
December 1975) . T hese w ere f e l t by th e h ig h e r r a n k in g c i v i l s e r v a n t s
a s p a r t i c u l a r l y v e x in g and h u m i l i a t i n g .
The n e g a t iv e im p act of th e d ro u g h t w hich h i t th e c o u n try from
1971 t o 1973 on th e b u y in g power o f th e p o p u la tio n , a n d , c o n s e q u e n tly ,
th e p r o f i t m arg in o f f o r e i g n e n t e r p r i s e s , le d th e m i l i t a r y to i n c r e a s e
s t a t e i n t e r v e n t i o n i n th e econom ic s e c t o r . The " V o l t a i z a t i o n " o f th e
p r i v a t e f o r e i g n e n t e r p r i s e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e b a n k s , was announced i n
May 1974, p r i m a r i l y to answ er th e "SOS" c a l l from th e s e in d e p en d en t.,
e n t e r p r i s e s f a c i n g b a n k ru p tc y (se e " O r i e n t a t i o n S p eech es" o f F e b ru a ry
2 3rd and May 3 0 th , 1974 by th e head o f s t a t e ) . An im p o rta n t s id e b e n e
f i t o f th e o p e r a t io n was to c a r r y p o p u la r s u p p o r t and r e c a p t u r e a c o n
f id e n c e s e r i o u s l y damaged by th e c e r e a l s ' s c a n d a ls com m itted by h ig h e r
ra n k in g m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r s i n ch a rg e o f d i s t r i b u t i n g em ergency c e r e a l
81
g i f t s from i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n iz a ti o n s and f o r e i g n governm ents to th e
p o p u la tio n s h i t by th e fa m in e .
A fund f o r " V o l t a i z a t i o n " o f c a p i t a l s was c r e a t e d in O c to b e r
1975, to a llo w t h e p u rc h a s e o f s h a r e s , th e c r e a t i o n o f new e n t e r p r i s e s ,
and th e c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g o n e s . The s t a t e b o ught s h a r e s from
p r i v a t e f o r e i g n e n t e r p r i s e s i n o r d e r to m eet th e " V o l t a i z a t i o n " r e
q u ire m e n ts and w ith th e s u b se q u e n t p r o s p e c t of l e a s i n g them to c a p a b le
n a t i o n a l s . The p r i n c i p l e o f th e " V o l t a i z a t i o n " i s t h a t V o lta n s m ust
h o ld a t l e a s t 51 p e r c e n t o f th e c a p i t a l of th e e n t e r p r i s e s c o n s id e re d
v i t a l f o r th e economy, and a t l e a s t 35 p e r c e n t o f th e c a p i t a l i n o t h e r s ,
w ith a minimum of two s e a t s on th e b o a rd s o f t r u s t e e s .
The s t a t e c o u ld a f f o r d such in v e s tm e n ts s in c e th e a u s t e r i t y
im posed on th e p o p u la tio n o v e r f i v e y e a r s (1967-1971) pro d u ced rev en u e
o f 1 7 .1 b i l l i o n f r a n c s CFA (E u ro p e -O u tre m e r. - N os. 5 4 0 -5 4 1 , J a n u a r y -
F e b ru a ry 1975, p . 1 4 ).
I n f a c t , th e " V o l t a i z a t i o n " k n i t t e d c l o s e t i e s betw een th e
i n t e r n a t i o n a l , p a r t i c u l a r l y F re n c h , b o u r g e o i s i e , th e V o lta n com prador
b o u r g e o is i e and th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o i s i e - - t h e two l a t t e r
b e in g th e sam e. M ost s h a r e - h o l d e r s of th e " V o lta iz e d " e n t e r p r i s e s were
and s t i l l a r e found i n th e ra n k s o f th e b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o i s i e . The
same p r i v a t e s h a r e - h o l d e r s a r e found on th e b o a rd s o f t r u s t e e s as go v
ern m en t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , o f f i c i a l s . Many e n t e r p r i s e s d id n o t h e s i t a t e
t o le n d th e money n e c e s s a r y f o r th e s e to p o f f i c i a l s t o buy s h a r e s t h a t
t h e i r s a l a r i e s a lo n e c o u ld n o t a llo w them t o p u rc h a s e ; t h i s , of c o u r s e ,
i n exchange f o r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and f i s c a l f a c i l i t i e s .
The " V o l t a i z a t i o n " o f e n t e r p r i s e s was o n ly a n a t i o n a l i s t i c n o te
82
i n a b r o a d e r a tte m p t to e n c o u ra g e p r i v a t e e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p among V o lta n
n a t i o n a l s . The fu n d s f o r " V o l t a i z a t i o n " w ere i n f a c t e n t r u s t e d to th e
" N a tio n a l Company f o r D e p o s its and In v e s tm e n ts " (CNDI) c r e a t e d e a r l i e r
(1973) to h e lp V o lta n e n t r e p r e n e u r s to c r e a t e new com m ercial and in d u s
t r i a l u n i t s . A "B oard f o r th e P ro m o tio n o f V o lta n E n t e r p r i s e s " (OPEV)
was c r e a t e d i n 1974 to g iv e l o g i s t i c a l ( t e c h n i c a l ) s u p p o r t to th e CNDI
by p r o v id in g a d v ic e and c o n s u l t a t i o n s e r v i c e s to in e x p e r ie n c e d e n t r e
p r e n e u r s . H ere a g a i n , th e m a j o r i t y o f th e s e n a t i o n a l e n t r e p r e n e u r s
w ere to p o f f i c i a l s and th e y w ere more a g g r e s s iv e th a n e v e r b e f o r e ,
ta k in g o v er p e t r o l s t a t i o n s , b a k e r i e s , b a r s , n i g h t c l u b s , and f u n e r a l
e s t a b l i s h m e n t s . A much f l o u r i s h i n g b u s in e s s of th e m id-1970s was th e
p r i v a t e s c h o o l b u s i n e s s . More th a n 50 p r i v a t e e le m e n ta ry s c h o o ls and
20 s e c o n d a ry s c h o o ls were b u i l t from 1972 to 1977 as a r e s u l t o f s t a t e
e d u c a tio n a l p o l i c y , p ro v id in g s c h o o lin g f o r o n ly 12 p e r c e n t of th e
s c h o o l- a g e c h i l d r e n and a d m itt in g i n t o h ig h s c h o o l o n ly 10 p e r c e n t o f
th o s e b r i g h t s tu d e n t s who co m p lete d p rim a ry s c h o o l - - t h u s s u r v i v i n g a
h ig h s e l e c t i v i t y p r o c e s s w ith a w a sta g e r a t e (d ro p o u t and r e p e t i t i o n )
of 90 p e r c e n t o f th e i n i t i a l i n t a k e (L 1 O b se rv a te u r,, N o. 1903, 8 /7 /1 9 8 0 ,
p. 5; M in i s t r y of E d u c a tio n and C u lt u r e , 1976, p . 1 6 ).
I t i s , how ever, d i f f i c u l t to d e te rm in e w ith d e t a i l and p r e c i
s io n th e number of s t a t e o f f i c i a l s in v o lv e d i n e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p , a l
though th e e x t e n t to w hich t h i s had o c c u r r e d w ould be v e ry soon d e
nounced by t r a d e u n io n s , and l a t e r , in h i s 1980 New Y e a r 's m e ssag e, by
th e head of s t a t e , a s a n a t i o n a l p la g u e c r i p p l i n g th e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
The re a s o n f o r t h i s was t h a t th e e n t e r p r i s e s w ere n o t d i r e c t l y i n th e
names of t h e i r r e a l o w n ers, s i n c e th e g e n e r a l s t a t u t e o f th e C i v i l S e r -
83
v i c e fo rb a d e th e p r a c t i c e o f any p r i v a t e l u c r a t i v e a c t i v i t i e s ( A r t i c l e
16 o f Law No. 22 A l, O c to b e r 1 9 5 9 ). To a v o id th e i n t e r d i c t i o n , s t a t e
o f f i c i a l s r e s o r t e d to t h e i r unem ployed w iv e s , p a r e n t s , and to o th e r
s u b t e r f u g e s , b e s id e s u s e l e s s , s i n c e th e s t a t e d id n o t ch eck th e id e n tit y
o f n a t i o n a l e n t r e p r e n e u r s . In any c a s e , th e s t a t e d id en c o u ra g e such
e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p among i t s c a d r e s . The head o f s t a t e h im s e lf made i t
c l e a r in h is " O r i e n t a t i o n S peech" on May 30, 1974: " I t i s n e c e s s a r y ,"
he th e n s a i d , " t o t r a i n b u sin essm en among th e y o u n g er g e n e r a t i o n s . The
c a d re s coming from u n i v e r s i t y and s p e c i a l i z e d s c h o o ls m ust be e n c o u r
aged i n t h a t w ay ." A lm ost a l l o f th e s e young c a d re s w ere f i r s t em
p lo y e d by th e s t a t e b e f o r e th e y v e n tu re d i n t o p r i v a t e e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p .
However, th e g r e e d i n e s s o f th e new b u sin e ssm e n h u r r y in g to make
r a p i d and s u b s t a n t i a l p r o f i t s com bined w ith th e i n t e r n a t i o n a l ( o i l )
econom ic c r i s i s w ere p a r t i c u l a r l y f e l t by th e u rb a n w o rk ers and low er
‘ ra n k in g and h o n e s t h ig h e r ra n k in g s t a t e o f f i c i a l s . The two g ro u p s
a l l i e d , once a g a i n , a s i n 1966, and g a in e d th e s u p p o r t of th e c i v i l i a n
p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o i s i e . The l a t t e r had n e v e r a c c e p te d th e
m o n o p o liz a tio n or s t a t e pow er, i t s s o u rc e o f re v e n u e and s o c i a l p r e s
t i g e , by th e m i l i t a r y b u r e a u c r a ts who w ere a c t i v e l y p r e p a r in g th e c r e
a t i o n of a p o l i t i c a l p a r t y , th e "Movement f o r N a tio n a l Renewal" (MRN)
to c o n s o l i d a t e t h i s m o n o p o liz a tio n and g iv e i t a p o p u la r c o n s e c r a t io n
(s e e th e mass s u p p o r t r a l l i e s o rg a n iz e d th ro u g h o u t th e c o u n try by P r e s i
d e n t L am izana to p r e p a r e th e c r e a t i o n o f th e MRN on November 29, 1975) .
The s u c c e s s o f th e g e n e r a l s t r i k e la u n c h e d i n 1975 by th e tr a d e
u n io n s made th e m i l i t a r y r e t r e a t and make some c o n c e s s io n s t o t h e i r
c i v i l i a n r i v a l s .
84
A m ajo r demand o f th e u n io n s was t h a t governm ent em ployees and
o f f i c i a l s s to p t h e i r p r e o c c u p a tio n w ith b u s i n e s s - - t h a t i s , re d u c e t h e i r
a c t i v i t i e s i n th e p r i v a t e s e c t o r w hich in c lu d e d th e n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n of
key s e c t o r e n t e r p r i s e s su ch as th e v i t a l e l e c t r i c and w a te r power com
p a n ie s (se e u n i o n s 1 p la tf o r m o f c la im s a d d re s s e d to th e governm ent on
December 26, 1 9 7 5 ). T h is was co n ce d ed , a t l e a s t a p p a r e n t l y , by th e
c r e a t i o n o f s ta te -o w n e d i n t e r p r i s e s , th e " O f f i c e s " o r B o a rd s , ru n l i k e
p r i v a t e b u s i n e s s , w ith th e same o b j e c t i v e of maximum p r o f it - m a k in g ,
w h ile b e in g e l i g i b l e f o r s t a t e s u b v e n tio n s i n c a s e o f f i n a n c i a l tr o u b l e s
T h is fo rm u la was a k in d o f com prom ise b etw een th e a p p a r e n t l y r a d i c a l
c la im o f th e u n io n s le d by th e b u r e a u c r a t i c p e t t y b o u r g e o is i e and th e
c o n s e r v a t iv e c la im o f th e p r i v a t e and mixed s e c t o r s d o m in ated by th e
b u r e a u c r a t i c and p o l i t i c a l b o u r g e o is i e s s a y in g " Y e s! to V o l t a i z a t i o n ;
b u t No! to n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n " '( L 'O b s e r v a te u r .* ■ 1 J a n u a ry 7, 1 9 7 6 ).
J u s t to c o o l down th e s t r o n g p o p u la r wave of n a t i o n a l i s m d i
r e c t e d a g a i n s t F r a n c e , f o llo w in g th e b o u n d a rie s c o n f l i c t betw een Upper
V o lta and M ali (December 1 9 7 5 ), a c o n f l i c t i n w hich F ra n c e was s u s p e c te d
o f s i d i n g w ith M a li, th e governm ent s e t up a " N a tio n a l Com m ittee f o r
th e R e v is io n of th e C o o p e ra tio n A greem ents w ith F r a n c e ." So f a r , no
r e v i s i o n o f th e s e ag ree m en ts has o c c u r r e d , n o r i s one e x p e c te d i n a
n e a r f u t u r e .
The c o n c e s s io n made t o th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o is i e was
t h a t t h e r e would be a " r e t u r n to a norm al d e m o c ra tic l i f e , " t h a t i s , a
c i v i l i a n g o v ern m en t.
The " S p e c ia l C om m ittee" e s t a b l i s h e d in A p r i l 1976 w ith th e m is
sio n o f p r e p a r in g t h i s t r a n s f e r o f power from m i l i t a r y to c i v i l i a n d id
85
n o t d is a p p ro v e of th e m i l i t a r y ' s econom ic o p t i o n . I t o n ly found th e
o p tio n n o t a g g r e s s iv e enough a s f a r as s t a t e in v o lv e m e n t was c o n c e rn e d .
The com m ittee p ro p o se d t o f o llo w th e exam ple o f Ja p a n w here th e s t a t e
to o k a l a r g e p a r t i n i n i t i a t i n g econom ic dev elo p m en t and h e lp in g p r i
v a t e e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p to ta k e r o o t and r e p l a c e th e s t a t e ( S p e c ia l
C om m ittee, " R e p o rt on Econom ic, S o c ia l and C u l t u r a l A f f a i r s , " 1976,
p . 1 3 ). More s i g n i f i c a n t l y , th e Comm ittee a l s o p ro p o sed a r e d i s t r i b u
t i o n o f power to ta k e i n t o a c c o u n t th e i n t e r e s t s o f th e d i f f e r e n t
g r o u p s . The Com m ittee e m p h a tic a lly p re te n d e d to r e p r e s e n t su ch a com
p ro m ise of i n t e r e s t s . But a c u r s o r y e x a m in a tio n o f th e l i s t o f th e
Com m ittee members does n o t s u p p o r t t h i s p r e t e n t i o n . In f a c t , th e com
m i tte e members r e p r e s e n t e d a r e l a t i v e l y homogenous group of c i v i l / a r m y
b u r e a u c r a t s , m o s tly s e r v i c e d i r e c t o r s . The o n ly d i f f e r e n c e among them
was t h e i r p a r ty m em bership, w hich am ounted to n o th in g a t a l l , s i n c e , as
w i l l be s e e n ,, no s i g n i f i c a n t c l a s s i n t e r e s t d iv i d e s th e s e p o l i t i c a l
p a r t i e s .
The E ra o f S ta te -o w n e d E n t e r p r i s e s
and G e n e ra liz e d C o rru p tio n
To heed th e S p e c ia l C o m m itte e 's recom m endation, th e s t a t e i n
c r e a s e d i t s d i r e c t i n t e r v e n t i o n i n th e econom ic s e c t o r by d r a s t i c a l l y
in c r e a s i n g th e number o f s ta te -o w n e d com m ercial and i n d u s t r i a l e n t e r
p r i s e s . W hile in 1975 th e r e was a d e r i s o r y number o f su ch e n t e r p r i s e s ,
f o u r , i t s k y ro c k e te d to 30 by 1979. To t h i s number m ust be added some
20 "m ixed" ( p r i v a t e - s t a t e ) e n t e r p r i s e s w ith th e s t a t e h o ld in g a m a jo r
i t y (51%) o f th e s h a r e s . A l l c o m m ercial, f i n a n c i a l , and i n d u s t r i a l
s e c t o r s w ere s u p e r v is e d by s t a t e e n t e r p r i s e s most o f th e tim e , p la y in g
86
th e r o l e o f i n t e r m e d i a r i e s b etw een f o r e i g n e n t e r p r i s e s and l o c a l t r a d
e r s , j u s t l i k e th e S y ria n s and L ebanese d u r in g th e c o l o n i z a t i o n and
im m ediate p o s t- in d e p e n d e n c e .
The r a t i o n a l e o f th e s ta te -o w n e d e n t e r p r i s e s o r " o f f i c e s 1 1 was
t h a t t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r s t a t u t e w ould b r i n g a b o u t e f f i c i e n c y and dynamism
i n th e management o f th e s e e n t e r p r i s e s a lo n g w ith s t a t e c o n t r o l and
s e c u r i t y . F o r t h i s p u rp o s e , s u b s t a n t i a l m a t e r i a l i n c e n t i v e s w ere
g r a n te d to th e p e r s o n n e l, c o n s i s t i n g in h ig h e r s a l a r i e s ( r a n g in g from
tw ic e to s i x tim e s th e s a l a r i e s o f th e c i v i l s e r v a n ts w ith e q u a l q u a l i
f i c a t i o n s ) , m e d ic a l i n s u r a n c e , f r e e h o u s in g , and a c c e s s t o c r e d i t f a c i l
i t i e s (R e p o rt o f th e N a tio n a l Com m ittee f o r A d m in i s t r a ti v e R eform ,
F e b ru a ry 1 9 8 0 ).
The outcom e of su c h a p o l i c y , h ow ever, has b een m ost d i s a p p o i n t
i n g . Not o n ly d id th e " o f f i c e s " n o t b r in g a b o u t th e e x p e c te d e f f i c i e n c y
b u t m ism anagem ent, em b ezzlem en ts, and c o r r u p t i o n on th e p a r t o f to p
p e r s o n n e l o f th e s e " o f f i c e s " le d them to th e v e rg e o f b a n k ru p tc y .
W orse, t h i s s i t u a t i o n had a s t r o n g n e g a t iv e im p act on th e c i v i l s e r v a n ts
who com pared t h e i r s i t u a t i o n to t h a t o f th e p e r s o n n e l o f th e s t a t e -
owned e n t e r p r i s e s (R ep o rt o f th e N a tio n a l Com m ittee f o r th e A d m in is tr a
t i v e Reform ; P r e s i d e n t i a l M essage to th e N a tio n , A ugust 4 , 1 9 8 0 ).
F o r th e g o v ern m en t, how ever, th e p u b li c e n t e r p r i s e s have b e e n ,
and s t i l l a r e , u sed a s a p o l i t i c a l in s tr u m e n t to b re a k down th e power
of a u n i f i e d and homogenous group of c i v i l s e r v a n t s . A ppo in tm en ts to
th e s i n e c u r e of p u b li c e n t e r p r i s e s a r e an e f f i c i e n t means to rew ard
d o c i le ele m e n ts o f th e c i v i l s e r v i c e a t a l l ra n k s o r to c o o l down e x
c i t e d tr o u b l e m a k e r s . The b l a t a n t f a i l u r e o f th e s ta te -o w n e d e n t e r -
_ _ _ _ _ ___________ 87
p r i s e s g iv e s th e o p p o r tu n i ty to le a d a v i o l e n t cam paign a g a i n s t th e
b u r e a u c r a t i c p e t t y b o u r g e o is i e to th e new c o a l i t i o n o f th e m i l i t a r y
and c i v i l i a n p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o is i e is s u e d from th e e l e c
ti o n s o f A p r il and Ju n e 1978.
The b u r e a u c r a t i c p e t t y b o u r g e o is i e was a c c u se d o f b e in g a p r e
t e n t i o u s and r e b e l l i o u s gro u p o p p o sin g governm ent i n s t r u c t i o n and
p o l i c y (L 'O b s e r v a t e u r , No. 1698, p p . 1 , 10; No. 1860, 1980, p . 8;
E u ro p e -O u tre m e r. N os. 6 0 0 -6 0 1 , 1980, p . 4 ) .
The p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o is i e c l e a r l y d e f in e d th e
te rm s of th e r i v a l r y and e x p re s s e d i t s d e t e r m in a tio n to su b m it th e s o -
c a l l e d t e c h n i c a l com petence to a unw eaving p o l i t i c a l l o y a l t y . The
th e n Prim e M i n i s t e r d e c l a r e d :
A d m in is tr a tio n i s a t o o l f o r th e E x e c u tiv e Pow er. The l a t t e r
draw s i t s e s s e n c e from p o l i t i c s . T h ere m ust be no c o n fu s io n :
A d m in i s t r a ti o n i s n o t p o l i t i c s . . . . I f we i n s i s t on t h i s p o in t
i t i s l e s s i n o r d e r t o g iv e le s s o n s to ou r s e r v i c e d i r e c t o r s and
s u p e r v i s o r s th a n to c a l l a g a in th e e n t i r e N a t i o n 's a t t e n t i o n on
a g ro s s m ista k e we have b een le d i n t o .
I n e f f e c t , th e p o l i t i c a l v o id e x p e rie n c e d by th e c o u n try d u r
in g th e p e r io d when p o l i t i c i a n s w ere n o t a llo w e d to e x p re s s them
s e lv e s [ f o ll o w i n g th e m i l i t a r y coup o f 1974 and th e ban o f p o l i t
i c a l p a r t i e s u n t i l l a t e 1977[] has been a t th e r o o t o f a c o n fu s io n
we a r e l i v i n g w ith th e c i v i l s e r v i c e .
Under th e c o v e r o f t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e , h ig h ra n k in g c a d re s
o f th e c o u n try c a r r i e d o u t b o th th e p o l i t i c a l power and th e a d
m i n i s t r a t i v e pow er. In d e e d , th e y had f r e e hands o v er a l l and d e
c id e d a b o u t th e o p p o r tu n i ty and l e g a l i t y [ o f p u b li c a c t i o n ] .
One som etim es w onders w h e th e r i t i s n o t more l o g i c a l and in
tu n e w ith th e m e n t a l i t y r e c e n t l y d e v e lo p e d in t h i s c o u n try t h a t
th e power in p la c e r u l e s a c c o r d in g to th e A m erican s y s t e m ; [ f o r
th e s e r v i c e d i r e c t o r s and s u p e r v i s o r s ] th e r e i s o n ly one a l t e r n a
t i v e : to su b m it o r r e s i g n . ( L 'O b s e r v a te u r , No. 1868, 1980, p . 8)
Im m ediate m easu res w ere ta k e n a t th e l e v e l o f th e r u l i n g p a r ty
RDA to make s u r e t h a t a l l s e r v i c e d i r e c t o r s w ere l o y a l to th e r u l i n g
f a c t i o n , g e n e r a l l y th ro u g h a d h e s io n to th e RDA.
88
The cam paign, how ever, was n o t d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t th e r i g h t e l e
m ents inasm uch as m ost p e r s o n n e l o f th e s ta te -o w n e d e n t e r p r i s e s no
lo n g e r b e lo n g e d to th e b u r e a u c r a t i c p e t t y b o u r g e o i s i e . They have
le a r n e d from th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o is ie how to be c o o p te d
i n t o th e r u l i n g f a c t i o n , th ro u g h t h e f t o f p u b lic r e s o u r c e s . The b u re a u
c r a t i c p e t t y b o u r g e o is i e had an a l t e r n a t i v e e x p l a n a ti o n to t h i s s i t u a
t i o n : "The c r i s i s o f ou r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i s m o s tly im p u ta b le to th e
d i s p a r i t y of a d v a n ta g e s g r a n te d to th e d i f f e r e n t h ig h ra n k in g c a d re s
w ith th e same p r o f e s s i o n a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n , " d e c la r e d th e s e c r e t a r y
g e n e r a l o f th e g o v ern m en t, spokesm an o f th e s t a t e o f f i c i a l s , i n h is
New Y e a r 's 1980 g r e e t i n g to th e h ead o f s t a t e .
The Coming Back o f th e M i l i t a r y
T h is d i s p a r i t y of a d v a n ta g e s e n jo y e d by d i f f e r e n t h ig h ra n k in g
c a d re s e x p la in e d th e fre q u e n c y and i n t e n s i t y o f s t r i k e s and work w a lk
o u ts on th e p a r t o f m ost p r o f e s s i o n a l g roups t i e d to th e g e n e r a l c i v i l
s e r v i c e , and p a r t i c u l a r l y on th e p a r t o f h e a l t h and e d u c a tio n p e r s o n n e l,
The a p p l i c a t i o n o f th e s p o i l sy ste m announced by th e -th en Prim e
M i n i s t e r in a l l s e c t o r s o f th e b u r e a u c ra c y , in c lu d in g th e m i l i t a r y ,
c r e a t e d th e c o n d i tio n s o f th e d o w n fa ll of th e re g im e .
In d e e d , th e e le m e n ta ry t e a c h e r s ' u n io n (SNEAHV) la u n c h e d a
r e n t r y b o y c o tt to p r o t e s t a g a i n s t r e p r e s s i v e m easures ta k e n a g a i n s t
th e u n io n l e a d e r s (nam ely th e s e c r e t a r y g e n e r a l and an em in en t m i l i
t a n t s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s u p e r v i s o r ) c o n s i s t i n g of rem oving them from t h e i r
p o s i t i o n s b e c a u se o f t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n in s t r i k e s .
The r e n t r y b o y c o tt aim ed a l s o t o p r o t e s t a g a i n s t m easu res of
89
f a v o r i t i s m on th e p a r t of th e r u l i n g f a c t i o n , c o n s i s t i n g o f o r g a n iz in g
a c o m p e titio n f o r r e c r u i tm e n t o f s c h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s li m i t e d o n ly to
t h r e e c a n d id a te s who happened t o be p a r e n ts o r f r i e n d s o f th e th e n
M in is te r of E d u c a tio n .
The t e a c h e r s ' s tr ik e * b a c k e d by o th e r p r o f e s s i o n a l groups and th e
s o - c a l l e d p o l i t i c a l o p p o s iti o n p a r t i e s f r u s t r a t e d by th e m o n o p o liz a tio n
o f th e n a t i o n a l cake by th e r u l i n g c l a s s was th e n c o n s id e r e d by th e l a t
t e r as an e x c e l l e n t o p p o r tu n i ty to b re a k down th e power o f i t s i n t e l
l e c t u a l r i v a l s . F u l l p u b l i c i t y was t h e r e f o r e g iv e n to th e o r i g i n a l l y
b e n ig n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e problem w hich t r i g g e r e d th e s o c i a l s t r i f e in
o r d e r t o a s c e r t a i n th e power of th e r u l i n g f a c t i o n .
A f te r two months o f d e s p e r a t e s t r u g g l e w ith o u t s a l a r y , th e d e
m o ra liz e d s t r i k e r s saw no i s s u e f o r them th a n to c a l l on th e m i l i t a r y
to ta k e o v er th e pow er, j u s t as i n 1966, th ro u g h s t r e e t d e m o n s tr a tio n s .
I f i t i s t r u e t h a t th e army o f f i c e r s w ere th e m ost p r i v i l e g e d
group o f th e re g im e , i t i s no l e s s t r u e t h a t th e s e p r i v i l e g e s were
t h r e a te n e d by th e r e g im e 's i n a b i l i t y to p r e s e r v e th e s u i t a b l e s o c i a l
o r d e r n e c e s s a r y f o r th e m i l i t a r y to e n jo y th e s e p r i v i l e g e s . B e s id e s ,
some o f f i c e r s f e a r e d f o r t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l p o s i t i o n s th r e a t e n e d by th e
in t r o d u c t i o n o f th e s p o i l sy ste m i n th e arm y, w hich so f a r had p r id e d
i t s e l f on m a in ta i n in g i t s u n i t y th ro u g h a r i g i d a p p l i c a t i o n o f m e r i t o
c r a t i c p r i n c i p l e s and a v o id a n c e o f " p o l i t i c s ."
T his s i t u a t i o n e x p la in s why a gro u p o f o f f i c e r s (c o m p risin g
m o s tly th o s e who had been d is m is s e d from th e governm ent i n 1975 f o ll o w
in g th e u n i o n s ' p r o t e s t s a g a i n s t th e p r o j e c t e d i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f
th e m i l i t a r y reg im e) to o k o ver th e power on November 2 5 , 1980. The
90
m i l i t a r y coup j u s t co n firm ed a p r e d i c t i o n o f V e n g ro ff (1980) who had
w r i t t e n i n th e A f r i c a R e p o r t:
Should th e g o v e rn in g c o a l i t i o n f a l l i n t o d i s a r r a y , o r u n io n s
demands and s t r i k e a c t i v i t y become to o i n t e n s e , th e army w i l l
u n d o u b te d ly f i l l th e b r e a c h . (p . 7)
H is to r y seems to r e p e a t i t s e l f . In 1980 as i n 1966, th e r a
t i o n a l e f o r th e m i l i t a r y ta k e o v e r o f th e power was th e m i l i t a r y d e t e r
m in a tio n to r e s t o r e an economy now c r i p p l e d by a d e f i c i t o f 16 b i l l i o n
CFA f r a n c s (com pared to 4 b i l l i o n i n 1 9 6 6 ).
I f th e new m i l i t a r y reg im e d id n o t p ro p o se th e 1966 p a t r i o t i c
c o n t r i b u t i o n , th e m easures ta k e n amount to t h a t : a r e d u c t i o n i n g o v e rn
ment s p e n d in g p a r t l y r e a l i z e d by th e s u p p r e s s io n o f a p a r a s i t i c c o n f l i c t
r id d e n p a r li a m e n t, a r e d u c t io n i n th e s a l a r i e s o f s ta te -o w n e d e n t e r
p r i s e d i r e c t o r s , and a " s o c i a l c o n t r a c t " im posed on r a t h e r th a n p r o
posed to th e g ro w lin g u n i o n s .
However, no s i g n i f i c a n t change in te r v e n e d i n th e econom ic o r i
e n t a t i o n . A f te r some p e r io d o f h e s i t a t i o n when some m i l i t a r y e c o n o m ist
t h e o r i s t s w ere t r y i n g to p o in t o u t new fo rm u la s ( " n e i t h e r r i g h t n o r
l e f t " ) , and p ro b a b ly in th e e x p e c t a t i o n of F re n c |i new regim e i n th e
m aking, th e m i l i t a r y regim e f i n a l l y r e s t a t e d th e p re v io u s econom ic
o p tio n f o r a " c o n t r o l l e d , " " p la n n e d " l i b e r a l i s m .
The c o n sp ic u o u s f a i l u r e o f th e s ta te -o w n e d e n t e r p r i s e s gave more
argum ents to th e p a r t i s a n s of l i b e r a t i o n to advance t h e i r p o s i t i o n .
Thus th e com m ittee e s t a b l i s h e d i n F e b ru a ry 1981 t o i n v e s t i g a t e and
d ia g n o se th e p r e s e n t im p airm en ts o f th e s t a t e e n t e r p r i s e s recommended
t h a t :
91
The s t a t e s h o u ld l i m i t th e c r e a t i o n o f p u b li c e n t e r p r i s e s
to o n ly w hat i s r e q u i r e d by p u b l i c s e r v i c e , i n o r d e r to a v o id
u s e l e s s s p re a d o f f i n a n c i a l e f f o r t s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e i r c r e a
t i o n . T h is m easure s h o u ld be ta k e n a lo n g w ith th e s e t t i n g o f
fo rm a l c r i t e r i a d e f i n i n g th e n a t u r e o f p u b li c e n t e r p r i s e s , and
a lo n g w ith a s u p p o r t o f p r i v a t e i n i t i a t i v e , f o r th e s t a t e c a n
n o t p ro v id e f o r e v e r y th in g w ith o u t d e s tr o y i n g i t s e l f .
(L 1O b s e r v a te u r , No. 2135, 1981, p . 12)
I f t h i s s u g g e s tio n w ere h e e d e d , i t w ould c o rre s p o n d to th e
p o l i c y th e fo rm e r c i v i l i a n reg im e was t r y i n g to im plem ent by d i r e c t i n g
s e v e r e a t t a c k s on th e s t a t e e n t e r p r i s e s . I t i s how ever h ig h l y u n l i k e l y
t h a t t h e r e would be any s i g n i f i c a n t change in th e econom ic r o l e o f th e
s t a t e . So much so t h a t th e econom ic h a r d s h ip s p u t some p r e s s u r e on th e
s t a t e t o in c r e a s e i t s d i r e c t m o n etary r e v e n u e s , and t h a t th e p r i v a t e
e n t e r p r e n e u r s th e m s e lv e s , in Upper V o lta , a r e r e l y i n g more and more
on s t a t e s u b s i d i e s o f a l l k in d s (lo w er i n t e r e s t r a t e l o a n s , d e t a x a t i o n ,
e t c . ) as a r e s u l t o f a d im in is h in g f o r e i g n c a p i t a l r e d i r e c t e d tow ard
th e more a f f l u e n t o i l p ro d u c e r c o u n t r i e s .
The C o n tr a d ic ti o n s w ith i n th e B u re a u c ra c y
The fu n d a m e n ta l c o n t r a d i c t i o n betw een th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c
b o u r g e o is i e and th e b u r e a u c r a t i c p e t t y b o u r g e o is i e r e s i d e s i n c o n t r a
d i c t o r y i n t e r e s t s : w h ile i t i s in th e i n t e r e s t o f th e l a t t e r t o keep a
homogenous dom inant b u r e a u c ra c y c o n t r o l l i n g th e so cio ec o n o m ic d e v e lo p
ment o f th e n a t i o n , i t i s in th e i n t e r e s t o f th e fo rm e r to d i v e r s i f y
th e b u re a u c ra c y and become o r a l i g n w ith a g ro u p c a p a b le o f s u p p ly in g
p r i v a t e e n t r e p r e n e u r s c o n t r o l l i n g t h i s so c io e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t.
In th e W estern c a p i t a l i s t s o c i e t i e s , th e e x i s t e n c e o f a s tr o n g
92
b o u rg e o is c l a s s h as p re c e d e d th e e x i s t e n c e of a c a p i t a l i s t s t a t e
dom inated by t h i s c l a s s . In d e v e lo p in g c o u n t r i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y in
A f r i c a and s i n g u l a r l y in Upper V o l t a , a c a p i t a l i s t s t a t e has p re c e d e d
th e e x i s t e n c e o f a c l a s s o f b o u rg e o is v o l u n t a r i l y c r e a t e d and g iv e n
i t s means by th e s t a t e . B ut s in c e th e g ro u p who i n i t i a t e d su ch an
o r i e n t a t i o n in Upper V o lta had no common c o n c r e te and in d e p e n d e n t
econom ic b a s e , i t i s q u i t e u n d e r s ta n d a b le t h a t d is a g re e m e n ts a p p e a r
in t h e i r d ev elo p m en t id e o lo g ie s as to how f a r th e y may o r may n o t go
i n t o th e c o n t r o l o f th e econom ic dev elo p m en t th ro u g h th e s t a t e a p p a r a
t u s . And, i t i s th e c o n t e n tio n o f th e p r e s e n t s t u d y , th e d e g re e o f
t h i s c o n t r o l i s a f u n c t i o n o f th e d e g re e to w hich th e g ro u p members
have b een a b l e to c o n v e r t o r m a in ta in th e m s e lv e s i n t o a c t u a l o r p o te n
t i a l b e n e f i c i a r i e s o f th e s t a t e p o li c y a d o p te d . T h is i s th e m ain d i f
f e r e n c e betw een th e d i f f e r e n t p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s w i t h i n w hich th e d e v e l
opment i d e o lo g ie s and re g r o u p in g o f b u r e a u c r a ts a r e r e a l i z e d .
The F u n c tio n s o f th e P o l i t i c a l P a r t i e s
I d e o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n . The m a jo r, i f a n y , s p l i t betw een th e
V o lta n p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s , w hich p r o f e s s d i f f e r e n t i d e o l o g i e s , r e s i d e s
i n th e d e g re e o f s t a t e c o n t r o l th e y a d v o c a te , n o t in th e problem of
r e a l r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s o c i a l , econom ic, and p o l i t i c a l power w ith i n
th e V o lta n s o c i e t y a t l a r g e . The d i f f e r e n c e te n d s to b l u r o u t i n
f a v o r o f th e " l a i s s e z - f a i r e " id e o lo g y as tim e goes b y , and th e le a d in g
e le m e n ts f a v o r a b l e to more s t a t e c o n t r o l a c c u m u la te w e a lth and a r e
g iv e n t h e i r s h a r e o f power i n th e p a r li a m e n ta r y sy ste m w hich i s th e
p o l i t i c a l a s p e c t o f th e id e o lo g y o f econom ic l i b e r a l i s m . T h is p ro c e s s
93
o r p r o g r e s s iv e i n t e g r a t i o n to th e dom inant s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l sy ste m i s
what i s c a l l e d , i n th e p o l i t i c a l m i l i e u , th e phenomenon o f " m a tu r a tio n "
and " r e a l i t y s e n s e ." By t h i s , i t i s im p lie d t h a t th e a l i e n a t i o n from
th e dom inant s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l s y ste m i s a t t r i b u t a b l e to y o u th and i g n o r
an ce a b o u t th e r e a l l i f e or, u to p i a c o n c e rn in g th e p o s s i b i l i t y of an
a l t e r n a t i v e s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l s y ste m .
The i d e o l o g i c a l e v o l u t i o n o f th e V o lta n p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s g iv e s
some e v id e n c e and s u p p o r t to th e a l t e r n a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s
phenomenon p ro p o se d i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y : t h a t i n a; b u r e a u c r a t i c s o c i e t y
su ch a s th e V o lta n , -th e p o l i t i c a l id e o lo g y and a c t i v i s m a r e a f u n c ti o n
o f th e c a r e e r s i t u a t i o n w h ic h , in t u r n , i s l a r g e l y a f u n c t i o n of tim e .
As tim e goes o n , th e i n d i v i d u a l b u r e a u c r a t moves up i n h i s o r g a n iz a tio n 's
l a d d e r , a c c u m u la te s s o c i a l and econom ic pow er, and i n t e g r a t e s th e s o
cio eco n o m ic sy ste m i n p la c e '.
A t i t s o r i g i n , t h a t i s by 1946, th e RDA w a s -a r a d i c a l p a r t y
a f f i l i a t e d w ith th e F re n c h com m unist p a r t y . T h is a f f i l i a t i o n can b e - -
and in d e e d h as b e e n - - i n t e r p r e t e d as an o p p o r t u n i s t i c s ta n d inasm uch as
th e com m unist p a r t y was th e n th e m a j o r i t y i n th e F re n c h p a r lia m e n t and
g o v ern m e n tal c o a l i t i o n (B alim a, 1 9 6 8 ). T h is i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , how ever,
does n o t a c c o u n t f o r th e f a c t t h a t th e i d e o l o g i c a l o p tio n o f th e RDA
d id n o t change to l i b e r a l i s m and m o d e ra tio n u n t i l a f t e r th e G aston
D e fe rre " O u tlin e Law" in 1956, g r a n t i n g more power to th e l o c a l p e t t y
b o u r g e o i s i e , w h ile th e com m unist p a r t y had l o s t i t s dom inant p o s i t i o n
in th e F re n c h p a r lia m e n t and governm ent a s e a r l y as i n 1948.
The " P a r t y f o r A f r ic a n R eg ro u p in g " (PRA) and th e "Movement f o r
N a tio n a l L i b e r a t i o n " (MLN), b o th c r e a t e d i n 1958 i n r e a c t i o n t o th e
__________________________________________________________________________________________
i d e o l o g i c a l change o f th e RDA, p r o f e s s e d a s o c i a l i s t id e o lo g y , y e t i n
i t s s o - c a l l e d " A fric a n " v e r s i o n . V ery so o n , h ow ever, th e PRA was
p h y s i c a l l y a b so rb e d by th e RDA to r e c u p e r a t e i t s autonom y when th e
l a t t e r te m p o r a r il y l o s t c o n t r o l o f th e s t a t e i n 1966; w ith o u t , how ever,
i t s i n i t i a l id e o lo g y . The MLN un d erw en t th e same i d e o l o g i c a l m e ta
m o rp h o sis i n 1970, a f t e r some o f i t s le a d in g m i l i t a n t s had been c o o p te d
by th e m i l i t a r y b o u r g e o is i e i n th e GMP. No more r e f e r e n c e was made t o
th e i n i t i a l A f r ic a n s o c i a l i s t o p tio n s i n docum ents is s u e d from i t s
o f f i c i a l c o n g re s s o f 1970 and th e s u c c e s s iv e m u ta tio n s o f t h i s p a r t y
become " V o lta n P r o g r e s s i v e U nion" (UPV) in 1978, th e n " V o lta n P r o g r e s
s i v e F r o n t" (FPV) one y e a r l a t e r by m erg er w ith tu r n c o a t s from th e PRA
and RDA who w ere u n s a t i s f i e d w ith t h e i r l o t in t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e p a r t i e s
The " P a r t y f o r A f r ic a n In d ep en d e n ce" (P A I), an u n d erg ro u n d
p a r t y s i n c e i t s c r e a t i o n i n 195 7, p r o f e s s e s a M a r x i s t - L e n i n i s t id e o lo g y ,
b u t i s c o n te n t w ith t h e o r e t i c a l a n a ly s e s by h i g h l y e d u c a te d members who
h o ld key p o s i t i o n s i n th e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e s . The p u rp o se o f
s u c h a n a l y s e s , i t s c la im s , i s t o e d u c a te th e m asses and make th e n re a d y
f o r a r a d i c a l s o c i a l change to come a t th e end and as a r e s u l t o f t h i s
p o p u la r e d u c a tio n and r i s i n g o f c o n s c io u s n e s s . M eantim e, how ever, i t
does n o t r e p r e s e n t a t h r e a t to th e e s t a b l i s h e d p o l i t i c a l c a s t e w ith
w hich i t i s c h a rg e d w ith open c o l l a b o r a t i o n by th e " V o lta n R e v o l u tio n
a r y Communist P a r ty " (PCRV).
, The V o lta n R e v o lu tio n a ry Communist P a r ty a p p e a re d in th e p o
l i t i c a l a r e n a i n 1978 from a s p l i t of a p p a r e n t l y more r a d i c a l e le m e n ts
o f th e P a r ty f o r A f r ic a n In d e p e n d e n c e .
95
The PCRV i s m o s tly composed of s tu d e n t s and young e le m e n ts o f
th e i n t e l l e c t u a l p e t t y b o u r g e o i s i e . In c o n t r a s t to th e PA I, i t is
a c t i v e l y engaged in th e p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e f o r an im m ediate ch a n g e .
But i t has n o t y e t deep r o o ts in th e p o p u la tio n and r e c r u i t s i t s mem
b e rs from th e i n t e l l e c t u a l c i r c l e s w e ll ro u n d ed in d i a l e c t i c s and r e v o
l u t i o n a r y t h e o r i e s b u t in e x p e r ie n c e d in th e p r a c t i c a l s u b t l e t i e s o f th e
V o lta n p o l i t i c s .
A p e c u l i a r i t y o f th e V o lta n p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s i s th e r e l a t i v e
ea se w ith w hich im p o r ta n t members jump from one p a r t y to a n o th e r and
betw een com parable le a d in g p o s i t i o n s . The h i s t o r y of Upper V o lta has
so f a r been c h a r a c t e r i z e d by su c h movements to and from p a r t i e s , and
c o a l i t i o n s o f le a d e r s a r r a n g e d to ta k e o v e r power; e . g . , th e c o a l i t i o n
i n 1958 o f th e PSEMA, th e MDV, and UV a g a i n s t th e RDA governm ent of
O uezzin C o u lib a ly sav ed o n ly by th e d i s a f f e c t i o n o f f o u r M DV r e p r e
s e n t a t i v e s among whom Mr. Yameogo became th e f i r s t p r e s i d e n t o f th e
in d e p e n d e n t r e p u b l i c ; th e c r i s i s o f th e second r e p u b l i c in 1973 was
a t t r i b u t a b l e to th e i n t e r n a l c o a l i t i o n o f some l e a d e r s ( th e A ssem bly
p r e s i d e n t and some governm ent members) a g a i n s t o th e r s ( th e Prim e M in is
t e r and h i s f r i e n d s ) o f th e RDA; th e p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n s of 1978 saw
th e c r e a t i o n o f a " F r o n t o f R e f u s a l" (o f some RDA m i l i t a n t s to th e nom
i n a t i o n of Lam izana as p r e s i d e n t i a l c a n d id a te by t h e i r p a r ty ) and i t s
c o a l i t i o n w ith th e UPV to g iv e b i r t h to th e FPV; more r e c e n t l y some RDA
a sse m b ly members jo i n e d w ith th e FPV and th e UNDD (a r e c e n t o f f s p r i n g
o f th e RDA c r e a t e d by fo rm e r P r e s i d e n t Yameogo) to a tte m p t to o v e rth ro w
th e governm ent th ro u g h a new p a r li a m e n ta r y m a j o r i t y (D u n ia, 7 /2 8 /1 9 8 0 ) .
96
T h is s i t u a t i o n i l l u s t r a t e s th e a b s e n c e o f r e a l c l a s s d i f f e r
en ce s betw een th e p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s , and th e l i t t l e im p o rta n c e a t t a c h e d
t o th e p r o f e s s e d i d e o l o g i e s .
A n o th e r s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e o f a l l th e s e p a r t i e s i s t h e i r b u r e a u
c r a t i c com ponent. A lth o u g h a l l of them r i t u a l i s t i c a l l y p r o f e s s to
f i g h t f o r th e i n t e r e s t s o f th e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n , none o f them makes
room f o r t h i s r u r a l p o p u la tio n in i t s l e a d in g o r g a n s . On th e c o n t r a r y ,
t h e r e seems to be a k in d o f i n t e l l e c t u a l i s t com plex on th e p a r t o f th e
p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s w hich t r y to l i s t t h e i r b e s t " b r a i n s 1 1 in c o m p e titio n
w ith each o t h e r . The one o r two n o n - i n t e l l e c t u a l e le m e n ts found i n th e
b o a rd s o f th e p a r t i e s a r e g e n e r a l l y " h o u se w iv e s" who a r e sp o u se s o f
i l l u s t r i o u s l i v i n g o r d e c e a se d c a d r e s . In any c a s e th e s e e le m e n ts a r e
th e r e f o r p ro p ag an d a p u rp o se s and n e v e r f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n th e d e
b a t e s w hich r e q u i r e th e m a s te ry o f th e F re n c h la n g u a g e and some p o l i t i
c a l t h e o r i e s . (F o r an i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h i s , s e e th e l i s t s o f p a r t i e s
b o a rd members p u b lis h e d i n C a r r e f o u r A f r i c a i n , s p e c i a l No. 65 9 -6 6 0 ,
O c to b e r 7 -2 1 , 1977, p p . 8 - 9 ) . The v e r y o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s o f
th e p a r t i e s c o n s e c r a t e th e c o l o n i z a t i o n o f th e r u r a l m asses by th e
u rb a n e d u c a te d m i n o r i t y . I t i s from th e c i t i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y from th e
c a p i t a l , t h a t " o p e r a t i o n a l " g ro u p s a r e s e n t to th e c o u n t r y s i d e . R e
g i o n a l d e l e g a t i o n s to p a r t y n a t i o n a l c o n g re s s e s a r e le d by c i t y r e s i
d e n ts * o r i g i n a r y from th e c o n c e rn e d r e g i o n s .
T r i b a l m o b i l i z a t i o n f u n c t i o n . R e g io n a lism i s , in d e e d , a n o th e r
f e a t u r e of th e V o lta n p a r t i e s . The " S p e c ia l C om m ittee" e s t a b l i s h e d in
1976 to a n a ly z e t h e s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l c r i s i s s t a t e s :
97
F o r th e m a j o r i t y of o u r p o p u la tio n s ( i l l i t e r a t e a s w e ll as
l i e r a t e ) , one of th e c r i t e r i a f o r j o i n i n g a p o l i t i c a l p a r t y
i s th e m em bership of th e p a r ty l e a d e r to t h e i r e t h n i c g ro u p ,
t h e i r r e g i o n , and so m etim e s, t h e i r r e l i g i o n . Id e a s and p r o
grams w eigh v e ry l i g h t l y in th e b a la n c e o f t h e i r c h o ic e .
(" R e p o rt on P o l i t i c a l and A d m in i s t r a ti v e P ro b le m s ," p . 19)
E l e c t o r a l c o n t e s t s a r e o c c a s io n s f o r m o b iliz in g g e o e th n ic
e n e r g i e s , b u t a l s o , th e S p e c i a l Com m ittee n o t e s , a p p o in tm e n ts to to p
p o s i t i o n s in th e c i v i l s e r v i c e w hich a r e a s t e p tow ard p o l i t i c a l pow er.
To be s u r e , t h e r e a r e some c a s e s o f e t h n i c c o n f l i c t s betw een r u r a l
p o p u l a t i o n s , when, f o r e x a m p le , a l a r g e number o f m ig ra n ts s e t t l e am id
o th e r p o p u la tio n s and v i o l a t e some t r a d i t i o n a l custom s and r u l e s c o n
c e r n in g th e o c c u p a tio n o f th e la n d o f t h e i r h o s t s . T h is w as, f o r e x
am p le, th e c a s e w hen, i n 1971, M ossi p o p u la tio n s pushed by th e e f f e c t s
o f th e d ro u g h t m ig r a te d h e l t e r - s k e l t e r i n t o th e Bobo r e g io n and a n t a g o
n iz e d th e l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n s . B u t, e x c e p t f o r th e s e few c a s e s , th e
s t a t e r e g i o n a l dev elo p m en t p o l i c i e s have been th e m a jo r c au se o f g e o
e t h n i c c o n f l i c t s . U p p e r* V o lta , l i k e m ost A f r ic a n n a t i o n s , i s a p l u r a l
i s t s o c i e t y . I t c o m p rise s some 100 e t h n i c groups who k e p t a s tr o n g
s e n s e o f t h e i r i d e n t i t i e s d u r in g th e c o l o n i z a t i o n . T h is p u ts g o v e rn
ment and p a r li a m e n t members u n d e r p r e s s u r e to p u t e t h n i c l o y a l t y b e fo re
n a t i o n a l l o y a l t y , i n s o f a r as th e e l e c t o r a l s y ste m makes t h e i r p o s i t i o n s
d e p e n d e n t on g e o e th n ic m o b i l i z a t i o n . The p a u c ity o f n a t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s
and t h e i r c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n th e hands of a c e n t r a l s t a t e make i t e a s y to
d i s t o r t n a t i o n a l d ev elo p m en t program s to s a t i s f y e t h n i c demands
( S o c ie t£ A f r i c a i n d 'E tu d e s p o u r Le D ev elo p p em en t, 1 9 7 7 ).
P r o t e s t s have been v o ic e d h e re and t h e r e a g a i n s t u n e q u a l r e
g io n a l d e v e lo p m e n t. The c lim a x of th e s e p r o t e s t s came i n 1976 when th e
98
W e ste rn r e g io n th r e a t e n e d to s e c e d e from th e n a t i o n , and a g a in in 1980
w ith th e S a h e l r e g io n t h r e a t e n i n g to do th e same (L 'O b s e r v a t e u r » J a n u a ry
25 and M arch 2 2 , 1977; D u n ia, J u l y 2 8 , 1 9 8 0 ). The p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f th e
s o - c a l l e d r e g i o n a l dev elo p m en t a s s o c i a t i o n s i s e v id e n c e o f th e d i s s a t
i s f a c t i o n o f r e g io n s a b o u t th e s t a t e dev elo p m en t p o l i c y , even i f th e
governm ents t r y to c a p tu r e th e s e s t r u c t u r e s to su p p lem en t i t s a c t i o n .
I t i s , b e s i d e s , re m a rk a b le t h a t th e le a d in g i n s t a n c e s o f th e r e g i o n a l
dev elo p m en t a s s o c i a t i o n s a r e composed o f i n t e l l e c t u a l b u r e a u c r a ts who
a r e from th e c o n c e rn e d re g io n s and l i v i n g i n th e c a p i t a l , each a s s o c i a
t i o n m aking i t a m a t t e r o f p r id e to l i s t a l l i t s b e s t e d u c a te d c a d r e s .
T h u s, th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o is i e i s c a u g h t in a
v ic io u s c i r c l e : on one h a n d , i t s v e r y e x i s t e n c e and i t s id e o lo g y r e s t
on c e n t r a l i z a t i o n and u n iv e r s a l is m ; on th e o t h e r h a n d , th e c o o p t a tio n
o f i t s i n d i v i d u a l members i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e i r a b i l i t y to m o b iliz e
d i v i s i v e e t h n i c f o r c e s , u s in g a s e c t a r i a n and p a r t i c u l a r i s t i c id e o lo g y .
E l e c t o r a l c o n t e s t s hav e alw ays b e e n s e r i o u s t h r e a t s to n a t i o n a l
u n it y i n Upper V o lta w ith th e c o n ju n c tio n of th e new (m odern) f e u d a lis m
w ith th e o ld ( t r a d i t i o n a l ) o n e. The e d u c a te d p o l i t i c a l b a ro n s need th e
t r a d i t i o n a l r u l e r s to m o b iliz e t r i b e s and c l a n s . The r o l e o f th e t r a -
i i t i o n a l r u l e r s i s p r e c i s e l y to k eep a l i v e th e t r i b a l i d e n t i t y and c o n
s c io u s n e s s i n exchange f o r l e g a l r e c o g n i t i o n and r e m u n e ra tio n a s an e f
f i c i e n t a u x i l i a r y o f th e m odem a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . B u t, s in c e t h e r e a r e
r i v a l r i e s b etw een m odern b a ro n s o f th e same e t h n i c g ro u p , th e t a s k of
rhe t r a d i t i o n a l r u l e r s becomes more and more u n e a s y , and t h e i r v e r y
e x i s t e n c e je o p a r d iz e d w ith e l e c t o r a l p ro m ise s n o t f u l f i l l e d a f t e r w a r d .
B e s id e s , some t r a d i t i o n a l c h i e f s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th o s e who have b een
99
s c h o o le d , t r y t o u se t h e i r p o s i t i o n to g a in p o l i t i c a l power f o r them
s e l v e s . T h u s, th e number o f t r a d i t i o n a l r u l e r s i n th e p a r lia m e n t has
been i n c r e a s i n g , p a s s in g from none in 1960 to 13 i n 1970 and 17 i n
1978, o u t o f a t o t a l of 57 r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s .
The R o le of th e P r o f e s s i o n a l Groups
and U nions
A n o th er im p o rta n t a r e a o f c o n f l i c t b etw een t h e V o lta n b u r e a u
c r a t s i s th e v a l u a t i o n of t h e i r c r e d e n t i a l s . The c o n f l i c t has th r e e
l e v e l s .
U n iv e r s it y - e d u c a te d c a d re s v e r s u s n o n - u n i v e r s i t y e d u c a te d
c a d r e s . The f i r s t l e v e l c o n c e rn s th e ways o f a c c e s s to h ig h e r p o s i
t i o n s o f th e c i v i l s e r v i c e : th ro u g h u n i v e r s i t y t r a i n i n g o r i n t e r n a l
p ro m o tio n . The l a t t e r way i s a le g a c y of th e c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
I t was d e s ig n e d to rew ard b r i g h t o r /a n d d o c i l e a u x i l i a r i e s o f th e a d
m i n i s t r a t i o n by h a v in g them occupy h i g h e r p o s i t i o n s a f t e r a r e l a t i v e l y
s h o r t (one o r two y e a r s ) n o n -aca d em ic t r a i n i n g i n s p e c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s
( e . g . th e I n s t i t u t des H autes E tu d es d ’O u tre-M er, IHEOM). W hile th e
p o s i t i o n s d e s ig n a t e d as open to i n t e r n a l p ro m o tio n s w ere v e r y li m i t e d
b o th q u a n t i t a t i v e l y and q u a l i t a t i v e l y and w ere r e s t r i c t e d to m id d le -
l e v e l p o s i t i o n s , s in c e in d e p e n d e n c e t h e r e has b een a b o o s t in th e number
and q u a l i t y ( l e v e l ) o f th e s e p o s i t i o n s (De B e a u v a is , 1965, p . 8 6 ) . The
la c k o f s u f f i c i e n t q u a l i f i e d c a d re s to occupy to p a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o s i
t i o n s l e f t by th e c o l o n i z e r j u s t i f i e d su c h a b o o s t . However, th e e l e
m ents b e n e f i t i n g th e s e s u p p o s e d ly e x c e p tio n a l m easu res w ere to o young
t o be r e p la c e d th ro u g h th e no rm al r e t i r e m e n t p r o c e s s by th e new
100
u n i v e r s i t y - e d u c a t e d c a d r e s , and th e p r a c t i c e of i n t e r n a l p ro m o tio n s has
been m a in ta in e d and i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d by th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c
b o u r g e o i s i e , i t s e l f a p r o d u c t o f th e s y ste m . The i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n
h as been r e i n f o r c e d by th e c r e a t i o n by each m i n i s t r y o f i t s p r o f e s
s i o n a l s c h o o l f o r th e t r a i n i n g o f i t s em p lo y ees. The n o n - u n i v e r s i t y -
e d u c a te d c a d re s a l s o hav e th e s t r o n g s u p p o r t o f th e low er r a n k in g c i v i l
s e r v a n ts e x p e c tin g to b e n e f i t from th e same c o n d i tio n s o f i n t e r n a l p r o
m o tio n and th e re b y m aking up f o r t h e i r la c k of u n i v e r s i t y e d u c a tio n .
The u n i v e r s i t y - e d u c a t e d c a d r e s , f o r t h e i r p a r t , have th e a d
v a n ta g e of m a s te r in g s o p h i s t i c a t e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l la n g u a g e s and t h e o r i e s
w hich a llo w them to com m unicate w ith th e f o r e i g n d e v e lo p e d c o u n t r i e s
and t o be c o n s id e r e d .a s r e a l c a d re s o f " c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n . " They h a v e ,
ho w ev er, th e d is a d v a n ta g e o f n o t p r e s e n t i n g a u n i f i e d f r o n t , d iv i d e d as
th e y a r e a b o u t th e v a l u a t i o n of th e acad em ic o r i g i n s o f t h e i r c r e d e n
t i a l s .
F re n c h v e r s u s o t h e r f o r e i g n d ip lo m a s . The seco n d l e v e l o f c o n
f l i c t w i t h i n t h e b u r e a u c r a c y , in d e e d , c o n c e rn s th e o r i g i n s o f th e u n i
v e r s i t y c r e d e n t i a l s o b ta in e d . F re n c h d ip lo m as and i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e th e
b a s i c r e f e r e n c e s and c r i t e r i a f o r th e v a l u a t i o n o f an y o th e r dip lo m a
and i n s t i t u t i o n by th e M in is tr y o f L ab o r and C i v i l S e r v ic e and i t s
T e c h n ic a l N a ti o n a l Com m ittee f o r th e E q u iv a le n c e of D ip lo m a s. A lth o u g h
Upper V o lta h as b een s e n d in g l a r g e r and l a r g e r numbers o f s t u d e n t s to
f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s o t h e r th a n F r a n c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y to th e S o v ie t U nion,
Germany, th e U n ite d S t a t e s , C anada, and E a s t e r n E u ro p e , t h e r e i s no
o f f i c i a l ag ree m en t on d ip lo m a e q u iv a le n c e w ith th e s e c o u n t r i e s , w ith the
101
v e r y r e c e n t (1976) e x c e p tio n o f th e S o v ie t U nion. The d ip lo m as o b
t a i n e d from th e s e c o u n t r i e s a r e e v a l u a te d a c c o r d in g to th e d e g re e o f
s e l e c t i v i t y o f th e i n s t i t u t i o n a t te n d e d and th e d u r a t i o n o f th e t r a i n
in g in v o lv e d . L i t t l e , i f a n y , c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s g iv e n t o th e program s
of t r a i n i n g th e m s e lv e s , and in f o r m a tio n a b o u t f o r e i g n i n s t i t u t i o n s i s
la c k i n g . T h u s, th e g r a d u a te s o f th e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s f e e l f r u s t r a t e d
w ith th e e v a l u a t i o n made o f t h e i r c r e d e n t i a l s . On some o c c a s io n s ,
F re n c h e d u c a te d c a d re s g e t t o g e t h e r to a n ta g o n iz e " f o r e i g n " (re a d "n o n -
F re n c h " ) e d u c a te d c a d r e s . A c o n s p ic u o u s i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h i s o c c u rre d
i n A p r i l 1979, when a t an i n t e r m i n i s t e r i a l m e e tin g o f o n ly F re n c h e d u
c a te d c a d r e s , th e r e v i s ion o f th e d ip lo m a e q u iv a le n c e a g re e m e n t w ith
th e S o v ie t U nion was p ro p o s e d . The l a t t e r was c o n s id e r e d to o g en ero u s
f o r S o v ie t e d u c a te d c a d re s who h ad n o t b een s u b je c t e d t o th e same c r i
t e r i a of s e l e c t i v i t y as th e F re n c h e d u c a te d c a d re s and who w ere c o n
s i d e r e d to be l e s s co m p eten t in t h e i r jo b s . The S o v ie t e d u c a te d c a d re s
and s t u d e n t s o b je c te d t h a t th e l e n g t h of th e d e g re e program and th e
s e l e c t i v i t y o f s t u d i e s d id n o t c o n s t i t u t e v a l i d c r i t e r i a o f th e compe
te n c e and e f f i c i e n c y of th e g r a d u a te d c a d r e , and t h a t th e s c i e n t i f i c
and t e c h n i c a l p e rfo rm a n c e s o f th e S o v ie t U nion c o n s t i t u t e d more v a l i d
c r i t e r i a of t h e i r own t r a i n i n g (L 'O b s e r v a t e u r , No. 1907, 1980, p . 8 ) .
S tr u g g le s f o r a d v a n ta g e s b etw een p r o f e s s i o n a l g r o u p s . The
t h i r d l e v e l o f w h at can be c a l l e d " c a d r e s s t r u g g l e " c o n c e rn s th e d i s c i
p l i n e s a n d , c o n s e q u e n tly , th e p r o f e s s i o n a l groups r e l a t e d to each d i s
c i p l i n e .
The s t r u g g l e s b etw een t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l g ro u p s , p r a c t i c a l l y n o n
102
e x i s t e n t i n th e f i r s t decad e o f in d e p e n d e n c e , s t a r t e d w ith th e c r e a
t i o n , by th e m i l i t a r y b u r e a u c r a t s , o f a com prador b o u r g e o is i e w ith
e le m e n ts of th e c i v i l s e r v i c e , by 1970. T h is c r e a t i o n , added to th e
im p act of th e a u s t e r i t y .p o lic y on th e b u y in g power of th e p o p u la tio n
i n g e n e r a l and th e c i v i l s e r v a n t s i n p a r t i c u l a r , le d each p r o f e s s i o n a l
gro u p to se e k any a d v a n ta g e w hich w ould en h an ce i t s econom ic and s o c i a l
p o s i t i o n . F o r t h i s p u rp o s e , arg u m en ts and docum ents (from f o r e i g n
c o u n t r i e s ) w ere g a th e r e d to j u s t i f y th e c la im f o r s p e c i a l a d v a n ta g e s .
T hese argum ents r e f e r r e d to th e s u p e r i o r e d u c a tio n (as m easured by th e
d e g re e of s e l e c t i v i t y and le n g th of s t u d i e s ) o f th e p r o f e s s i o n a l mem
b e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e d e g re e o f d i f f i c u l t y of th e j o b , e t c . D e s p ite
th e r i t u a l i s t i c a l l y p ro c la im e d i n t e n t i o n o f e a c h p r o f e s s i o n a l group o f
d e fe n d in g i t s i n t e r e s t s w ith o u t e n ro a c h in g upon th o s e o f o t h e r p r o f e s
s i o n a l g ro u p s , th e arg u m e n ts th re w p r o f e s s i o n a l g ro u p s i n t o o p p o s iti o n
w ith eac h o th e r by in t r o d u c in g co m p ariso n s b etw een t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e
c r e d e n t i a l s and th e so c io e c o n o m ic a d v a n ta g e s a t t a c h e d t o them . ^An i l
l u s t r a t i o n of t h i s i s found i n a t a b l e p ro d u c e d by th e t e a c h e r s ’
u n io n s , th e SUVESS and th e SNEAHV i n 1973, to s u p p o r t t h e i r c la im s f o r
b e t t e r t r e a t m e n t .
From 1970 up to th e p r e s e n t tim e , th e s t r u g g l e s betw een c a d re s
have ta k e n th e form of f r e q u e n t s t r i k e s by u n io n s o f th e d i f f e r e n t p r o
f e s s i o n a l g r o u p s . The c o n f r o n t a t i o n i s n o t d i r e c t b u t m e d ia te d by th e
s t a t e , t h a t i s , th e r u l i n g f a c t i o n o f th e b u r e a u c ra c y from w hich s a t i s
f a c t i o n and a r b i t r a t i o n a r e e x p e c te d .
The te n d e n c y f o r eac h p r o f e s s i o n a l group i s to s ta n d above a l l
a l l o th e r g ro u p s o r , a t b e s t , to g a in autonom y from th e s t a t e , y e t
103
c o n t r o l l i n g th e p u b li c s e c t o r and u s in g th e s t a t e a p p a r a t u s .
\
The P o l i t i c a l , Economic P r i v i l e g e s , and S o c ia l
P r e s t i g e of V a rio u s B u r e a u c r a tic Groups
and U n i v e r s i t y G r a d u a te s .
One o f th e m ajo r s o c i a l changes w hich o c c u rre d i n th e V o lta n
b u r e a u c r a t i c s o c i e t y in th e l a s t two d e c a d e s has been th e r a p i d and
n o t a b l e d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n in tr o d u c e d i n t o a r e l a t i v e l y homogenous b u r e a u
c r a t i c c l a s s .
The c a r e e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s w hich w ere r e l a t i v e l y homogenous d u r
in g th e f i r s t d ecad e o f in d e p en d en ce in term s of b o th q u a n t i t y and
q u a l i t y ( s o c i a l and f i n a n c i a l r e w a r d s ) , have e v o lv e d and d i v e r s i f i e d
a lo n g w ith th e so c io e c o n o m ic changes d e s c r i b e d in th e p r e c e d in g s e c
t i o n s , g iv in g r i s e to some p r o f e s s i o n a l g roups and d e c l i n e to o t h e r s .
The R is in g M a n a g e ria l Group
L aw -based b u r e a u c r a t i c c a r e e r s . L aw -ed u ca ted b u r e a u c r a ts have
b een i n a r e l a t i v e l y fa v o re d p o s i t i o n on th e V o lta n jo b m a rk e t. On
th e morrow o f in d e p e n d e n c e , t h e r e was a s h o r ta g e o f " q u a l i f i e d " adm in
i s t r a t o r s to r e p l a c e th e m i d d l e - l e v e l p e r s o n n e l who had b een p la c e d a t
th e to p o f th e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e h i e r a r c h y by th e c o l o n i a l p o w ers. T h is
was e s p e c i a l l y so as th e i n t e r n a t i o n a l p o w e rs' new c o n c e rn f o r th e
t h i r d w o rld e x p r e s s e d i t s e l f i n an i d e o l o g i c a l em phasis on developm ent
th ro u g h th e c r e a t i o n o f a d ev elo p m en t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . The s o - c a l l e d
" u n d e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n " o f U pper V o lta h as alw ays b e e n e m p h asized ,
j u s t i f y i n g th e m a in te n a n c e o f t r a d i t i o n a l c h i e f s in t h e i r c o l o n i a l
f u n c t i o n s o f i n t e r m e d i a r i e s betw een th e m odem s t a t e a p p a r a tu s and th e
m asses (R.HV, Com m ission S p e c i a l e , R a p p o rt G e n e ra l, 1976, p p . 5 1 - 5 5 ) .
104
H owever, lo n g a f t e r in d e p e n d e n c e , t e r r i t o r i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
c a r e e r s d id n o t a t t r a c t law s t u d e n t s , s i n c e th e s e p o s i t i o n s w ere c l o s e l y
lin k e d to th e r u l i n g f a c t i o n w hich u sed them to rew ard o r p u n is h p o l i t
i c a l ( d i s ) l o y a l t i e s . T hese p o s i t i o n s re m a in e d th e m onopoly of th e o ld -
fa s h io n e d ra n k and f i l e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s t r a i n e d i n c o l o n i a l p r o f e s s i o n a l
s c h o o ls (su c h a s th e " I n s t i t u t des H autes E tu d e s d ' O u tre -M e r," IHEOM
to become " I n s t i t u t I n t e r n a t i o n a l d 1A d m in i s t r a ti o n P u b l i q u e , 1 1 IIA P i n
P a r i s ) o r th e l o c a l " N a tio n a l S ch o o l o f A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ," ENA. The
p r e s e n c e o f t h i s c a te g o r y of t e r r i t o r i a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s was a c t i n g as
a p s y c h o - s o c i o l o g i c a l b a r r i e r to th e com ing o f u n i v e r s i t y - e d u c a t e d a d
m i n i s t r a t o r s who d id n o t w ant to be i d e n t i f i e d w ith p e r s o n n e l whom th e y
lo o k e d down on b e c a u se o f t h e i r lo w er e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l . The w o rk in g
c o n d i t i o n s o f th e s e t e r r i t o r i a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , o f t e n s e n t to th e c o u n
t r y s i d e , a l s o a c t e d as d e t e r r e n t s , s i n c e m ost u n i v e r s i t y - e d u c a t e d
c a d re s c o n s id e r ( e d ) c i t i e s , and p a r t i c u l a r l y th e c a p i t a l c i t y , as th e
w o rk in g p la c e " p a r e x c e l l e n c e . " The f i r s t u n i v e r s i t y - e d u c a t e d t e r r i
t o r i a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r d id n o t a p p e a r b e f o r e 1970, a lth o u g h law had b een
q u i t e a p o p u la r and t r a d i t i o n a l d i s c i p l i n e among F ran co p h o n e W est A f r i
can s t u d e n t s i n th e c o l o n i a l and im m ediate p o s t-in d e p e n d e n c e p e r io d s
(E v an s, 1970, p . 2 1 2 ).
What has j u s t b een s a i d f o r t e r r i t o r i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n h o ld s
a l s o f o r d ip lo m a c y . Law s t u d e n t s hav e n o t b een q u ic k to engage them
s e lv e s i n d ip lo m acy w here th e c a r e e r p e r s p e c t i v e s w ere b lo c k e d by th e
f a c t t h a t p o s i t i o n s a s am b assad o rs (th e o n ly p o s i t i o n i n V o lta n d i p l o
macy t o c a r r y p r e s t i g e and f i n a n c i a l - a d v a n ta g e s ) w ere more p o l i t i c a l
th a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e . T hese p o s i t i o n s w ere u se d by th e r u l i n g f a c t i o n
105
to rew ard i t s l o y a l members o r d i s c a r d d an g ero u s r i v a l s ; th e i n t e r m e d i
a t e p o s i t i o n s w ere h e l d by ENA, n o n - u n i v e r s i t y - e d u c a t e d c i v i l s e r v a n t s .
The f i r s t p r o f e s s i o n a l u n i v e r s i t y - e d u c a t e d d ip lo m a ts w ere r e
c r u i t e d from among h ig h s c h o o l t e a c h e r s , w ith law and p o l i t i c a l s c ie n c e
t r a i n e d d ip lo m a ts a p p e a r in g o n ly by 1970. More o f t e n , law s tu d e n t s
p r e f e r r e d p o s i t i o n s in new i n s t i t u t i o n s lin k e d to th e e x t e n s i o n of th e
s t a t e a p p a r a t u s - - m a g i s t r a t u r e , custom s and t a x c o l l e c t i o n s e r v i c e s ,
c i v i l s e r v i c e and c o o r d i n a t i o n s e r v i c e s o f d i f f e r e n t m i n i s t e r i a l d e p a r t
m ents .
W ith i n c r e a s i n g s t a t e in v o lv e m e n t i n d i f f e r e n t s e c t o r s o f th e
so c io e c o n o m ic l i f e , c a r e e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s in c r e a s e d i n b o th q u a n t i t a t i v e
and q u a l i t a t i v e te rm s . The la w -e d u c a te d b u r e a u c r a ts b e n e f i t e d from th e
c r e a t i o n o f s ta te - o w n e d e n t e r p r i s e s in v o lv in g l e g a l problem s ( in s u r a n c e ,
t a x e s , l i t i g a t i o n , b a n k in g , p e r s o n n e l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ) o r a c t i v i t i e s of
c o o r d i n a t i o n , and from th e c r e a t i o n o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r r e g i o n a l e c o
nomic o r p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s (UNO, OAU, OCAM, ECOWAS, UDAO, CEAO,
e t c . ) , w hich p a id b e t t e r s a l a r i e s and c o n f e r r e d s o c i a l a d v a n ta g e s .
The p r e o c c u p a tio n w ith b u s in e s s among th e s t a t e b u r e a u c r a ts
betw een 1970 and 1976 gave r i s e t o a new, l i b e r a l p r o f e s s i o n a l group
o f in d e p e n d e n t la w y e rs . The f i r s t p r i v a t e law o f f i c e opened i n 1975,
a lth o u g h th e number d id n o t in c r e a s e s i g n i f i c a n t l y (o n ly two new o f
f i c e s have b een s e t up s in c e t h e n ) .
A lth o u g h l e s s w e l l p a id th a n t h e i r c o lle a g u e s w o rk in g i n s t a t e
e n t e r p r i s e s o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , th e m a g i s t r a t e s o f th e c i v i l
s e r v i c e have managed to s u r v iv e th e econom ic h a r d s h ip s w hich i n 1972
in v o lv e d th e s u p p r e s s io n o f some s o c i a l a d v a n ta g e s , i n p a r t i c u l a r th e
106
f r e e h o u s in g , f o r m ost s t a t e b u r e a u c r a t s . In p le a d in g f o r t h e i r p a r
t i c u l a r i s t i c tr e a tm e n t th e y a rg u e t h a t i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o f r e e th e
ju d g e from a l l s o c i a l in v o lv e m e n t w hich m ight hamper h i s i m p a r t i a l i t y .
" Im a g in e ," one m a g i s t r a t e w ro te i n a l o c a l new spaper i n 1 9 7 3 ," a m a g is
t r a t e h a v in g tr o u b l e w ith h is la n d lo r d and b e in g sued f o r non-paym ent
of h i s r e n t . "What k in d o f d e c i s i o n do you e x p e c t h i s c o lle a g u e ch a rg e d
to ju d g e him w ould g iv e in t h i s s i t u a t i o n , w h ile , maybe, th e same h o u s
in g t r o u b l e s m ig h t be w a i t i n g f o r him o u t s i d e th e d o o r o f th e C o u rt? "
As f a r as s o c i a l p r e s t i g e i s c o n c e rn e d , th e m a g i s t r a t e s a r e i n c r e a s i n g
t h e i r power by c la im in g and o b t a i n i n g w o rk in g c o n d i tio n s r e l a t i v e l y
autonom ous from th e r u l i n g f a c t i o n 's s u p e r v i s i o n , and by m aking l e g a l
p r o v is io n s (b ro u g h t from F ra n c e ) f o r t h e i r b e in g n o m in ated by o f f i c i a l
d e c r e e and sw orn i n w ith cerem ony and p u b l i c i t y .
E c o n o m is ts . S in c e th e m id -1 9 7 0 s, th e f a s t e s t r i s i n g p r o f e s
s i o n a l group has been th e e c o n o m is ts .
P r i o r t o t h i s tim e , th e c a r e e r p e r s p e c t i v e s o f t h i s group have
been l i m i t e d t o m inor p o s i t i o n s in p u b lic f i n a n c e , a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , and
p la n n in g . A lth o u g h th e 1960s had b een d e c l a r e d by th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l
powers as th e dev elo p m en t d eca d e f o r A f r i c a , one m ust b e a r in mind t h a t
th e V o lta n p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o is i e d id n o t heed th e s e i n t e r
n a t i o n a l s lo g a n s and em phasized th e s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f th e s t a t e a p p a r a tu s
o v e r d ev elo p m en t a c t i v i t i e s . T h is e x p la in s why la w -e d u c a te d b u r e a u c r a ts
had more c a r e e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s th a n th e e c o n o m is ts .
A d d i t i o n a l l y , econom ics as an academ ic d i s c i p l i n e i s r e l a t i v e l y
new in th e F re n c h h ig h e r e d u c a t i o n a l s y ste m and d id n o t a t t r a c t s tu d e n t s
107
as Law d i d . Out o f 52 s tu d e n t s e n r o l l e d i n 1960 i n F ra n c e and S e n e g a l,
o n ly 2 (4%) w ere r e g i s t e r e d i n E conom ics, more p r e c i s e l y " P o l i t i c a l
Economy" as i t was th e n c a l l e d , w h ile in 1955 a l r e a d y 8 (22%) o f th e
t o t a l s t u d e n t p o p u la tio n o f 36 were r e g i s t e r e d in Law. " P o l i t i c a l
Economy" i n th e e a r l i e r 1960s te n d e d to be a n a l t e r n a t i v e f o r s tu d e n t s
f a i l i n g i n th e s c ie n c e d e p a r tm e n t.
The m a ssiv e s t a t e in v o lv e m e n t, by th e m id -1 9 7 0 s, in d o m e stic as
w e ll as r e g i o n a l dev elo p m en t p r o j e c t s , a l r e a d y m e n tio n e d , d r a s t i c a l l y
in c r e a s e d th e c a r e e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r e c o n o m is ts , m aking them i n f a c t
th e more im p o rta n t s o c i o - p r o f e s s i o n a l group o f th e V o lta n s o c i e t y .
N ote t h a t th e s t a t e ' s in v o lv e m e n t had b een s lo w ly p re p a re d by eco n o m ists
o f th e M i n i s t r i e s o f F in a n c e and P la n n in g , and p ro p o se d as a m ajo r o f
f i c i a l o p tio n a t th e f a v o r o f , and as a s o l u t i o n t o , th e c i v i l s t r i f e
and econom ic h a r d s h ip o f th e m id -1 9 7 0 s.
As se e n in th e p re c e d in g c h a p t e r , s ta te -o w n e d e n t e r p r i s e s n o t
o n ly have b een p ay in g b e t t e r s a l a r i e s to t h e i r p e r s o n n e l, p a r t i c u l a r l y
to p m a n ag ers, b u t a l s o g iv e th e l a t t e r a r e a l s e n s e o f pow er, d i r e c t
d e c i s i o n m aking.
B u r e a u c r a t e c o n o m is ts c o n s t i t u t e d in th e h e y -d a y of th e s t a t e -
owned e n t e r p r i s e s , t h a t i s betw een 1976 and l a t e 1980, th e c o re o f th e
"new r i c h , " and a shrew d o b s e r v e r o f th e V o lta n s o c i e t y d e p i c t s them
as " a r r o g a n t " (L 'O b s e r v a t e u r , A ugust 6 , 1 9 8 0 ). They b eg an to d e v e lo p
a s p e c i f i c l i f e s t y l e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by th e c r e a t i o n o f c l o s e d -
m em bership c lu b s w hich i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e y had a k in d of c l a s s c o n
s c io u s n e s s . A n o th e r c o n c r e te m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h i s c o n s c io u s n e s s has
been t h a t t h i s gro u p s e t up p a r t i c u l a r , u n o f f i c i a l r e g u l a t i o n s f o r th e
108
g r a n t i n g o f lo a n s from p u b lic banks t o t h e i r members on th e b a s i s o f
th e f i n a n c i a l c a p i t a l e n t r u s t e d t o them as m anagers and n o t on th e
b a s i s of t h e i r a l r e a d y s u b s t a n t i a l i n d i v i d u a l s a l a r i e s , as was th e
custom f o r o th e r s a l a r i e s p e r s o n n e l.
The m i d d l e - l e v e l b u s in e s s a d m i n i s t r a t o r s . The m i d d l e - l e v e l
b u s in e s s a d m i n i s t r a t o r s t r a i n e d a t th e " I n s t i t u t U n i v e r s i t a i r e de
T ech n o lo g y " (IUT) a l s o had t h e i r |fey -d ay from th e m id-1970s u n t i l v e ry
r e c e n t l y , as a r e s u l t o f th e econom ic a g i t a t i o n of th e b u r e a u c r a ts
s e e k in g e i t h e r to become p r i v a t e e n t r e p r e n e u r s th e m s e lv e s o r t o monopo
l i z e some econom ic s e c t o r u n d e r th e form o f a " s ta te " - o w n e d e n t e r p r i s e .
As a l r e a d y m en tio n ed i n th e s e c t i o n r e l a t e d t o th e c r e a t i o n o f th e IUT,
th e " V o l t a i z a t i o n " p ro c e s s o f f o r e i g n p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e s had b een th e
im p etu s f o r th e t r a i n i n g o f t h i s c a te g o r y of p e r s o n n e l. A n o th e r im p o r
t a n t im petus had a l s o been th e p r o l i f e r a t i o n of th e s ta te -o w n e d e n t e r
p r i s e s , w here i n f a c t , m ost IUT g r a d u a te s a r e em ployed. The b u r e a u
c r a t s o f th e s e e n t e r p r i s e s a r e s e e k in g IUT g r a d u a te s n o t o n ly b e c a u s e ,
as th e y s a y , th e y do need p r a c t i c a l s k i l l s , b u t a l s o as a means to p r e
s e rv e t h e i r s o c i a l a d v a n ta g e s o v e r t h e i r o t h e r u n i v e r s i t y - e d u c a t e d c o l
le a g u e s and p o t e n t i a l r i v a l s f o r th e c o n t r o l o f t h e i r f i e f s . The g e n
e r a l p o l i c y o f m ost b u r e a u c r a ts i n s ta te -o w n e d e n t e r p r i s e s h as b een th e
l i m i t a t i o n to a minimum o f th e number of h ig h e r d e g re e h o ld e r s and th e
r e c r u i tm e n t o f m i d d l e - l e v e l m a n ag ers, who a r e as e f f i c i e n t a s th e h ig h e r
d e g re e h o ld e r s b u t a r e r e l a t i v e l y l e s s c o s t l y a n d , more im p o r t a n t l y ,
l e s s t h r e a t e n i n g to th e s o c i a l p o s i t i o n s o f th e new b a r o n s . T h ere i s
a c o v e r t b a t t l e g o in g on betw een b u r e a u c r a ts i n th e s e s ta te -o w n e d
109
e n t e r p r i s e s w hich s u r f a c e s from tim e to tim e and r e s u l t s in th e f i r i n g
e i t h e r o f th e to p m anagers o r some o f t h e i r r i v a l s . ^ The m i d d le - l e v e l
b u s in e s s a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a r e o f t e n th e in n o c e n t b e n e f i c i a r i e s o f t h i s
r i v a l r y . Some ev en manage to s e i z e c o n t r o l o v er one o r a n o th e r o f
th e s e so c io e c o n o m ic f i e f s ( e . g . , N a tio n a l L o t t e r y , N a tio n a l S o c ia l
S e c u r it y A gency, DIMA f o r im p o r ta t io n o f c a r s , o i l , and o th e r consum p
t i o n goods) .
F r u s t r a t e d and D e c lin in g Groups
The t e a c h e r s 1 g r o u p . T h ere h as been a g r e a t c o n c e rn on th e
p a r t o f th e V o lta n b u r e a u c r a ts f o r th e t r a i n i n g o f t r a i n e r s , t h a t i s ,
t e a c h e r s . S p e c i a l m e a su re s, e i t h e r i n c e n t i v e s (su ch as a h ig h e r h i e r
a r c h i c a l r a n k in g in th e c i v i l s e r v i c e f o r a s h o r t e r t r a i n i n g tim e ,
s p e c i a l tr e a tm e n t f o r th e w o u ld -b e te a c h e r s e n r o l l e d a t th e u n i v e r s i t y ) ,
o r c o e r c io n (b in d in g o b l i g a t o r y c o n t r a c t s a s te a c h e r s f o r a t e n - y e a r
p e r io d , i n t e r d i c t i o n from s i t t i n g f o r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c a r e e r c o m p e titiv e
e x a m i n a t i o n s ) , h av e b een ta k e n t o " a t t r a c t " s t u d e n t s tow ard and m a in ta in
them i n te a c h in g p o s i t i o n s .
A ll o f th e s e m easures d e r iv e d from th e p e r c e iv e d d i s t o r t i o n b e
tw een th e l a r g e q u a n t i t a t i v e n eed s f o r te a c h e r s and th e s m a ll number
a c t u a l l y i n t e r e s t e d in te a c h in g c a r e e r s .
Those i n te a c h in g c a r e e r s seem lo c k e d i n a m onotonous and h o r i
z o n ta l s t a g n a t i o n , w ith o u t any p o s s i b i l i t y o f m oving u p , e x c e p t in
s a l a r y i n c r e a s e s . T h ere i s no smooth e s c a l a t i o n tow ard d i f f e r e n t s ta g e s
In th e p r o f e s s i o n as t h e r e i s in o t h e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y a d m i n i s t r a t i v e ,
c a r e e r s , and p ro m o tio n i s c o n d itio n e d by e d u c a t i o n a l c r e d e n t i a l s ; th e
110
te a c h e r s a r e p a id to know t h a t th e y a r e n o t e a s y to w r e s t o u t . And th e
te a c h e r s f e e l s t r o n g l y a b o u t t h a t . They i n s i s t t h a t :
None of us i s b o rn to be a m a r t y r . I n o th e r c o r p s , w ith a m i n i
mum m o t iv a t io n and w i l l i n g n e s s to move u p , anyone can u se th e
l e g a l p r o v is io n s to s a t i s f y o n e ’s a m b itio n ( p r o f e s s i o n a l ex am in a
t i o n s and c o m p e t i t i o n s ) . N o th in g s i m i l a r to t h i s e x i s t s i n th e
te a c h in g p r o f e s s i o n , and to move from c a te g o r y B1 to c a te g o r y A 2,
one m ust have . u n i v e r s i t y d ip lo m a s . (SUVESS, 1973, p . 35)
Even th e e d u c a t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o s i t i o n s , w hich w ere p e r
c e iv e d as b e in g s l i g h t l y b e t t e r th a n c la s s ro o m te a c h in g p o s i t i o n s ,
b e s id e s t h e i r q u i t e l i m i t e d num ber, have been p r o g r e s s i v e l y m onopolized
by th o s e who g o t them f i r s t , g e n e r a l l y as a r e s u l t of r e a l o r im a g in a ry
i n a b i l i t y f o r c la s s ro o m t e a c h i n g . The r e c e n t coup d ’E t a t was b a s i c a l l y
t r i g g e r e d by th e e le m e n ta ry t e a c h e r s ' w i l l i n g n e s s to ta k e t h e i r ch an c es
o f g e t t i n g o u t o f th e c la s s ro o m by co m p etin g f o r o n ly t h r e e e d u c a tio n a l
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o s i t i o n s ( f o r n e a r l y 1 ,0 0 0 p o t e n t i a l c a n d i d a t e s ) , w h ile
a c t u a l l y t h e i r c o lle a g u e s a l r e a d y and te m p o r a r il y i n th e s e p o s i t i o n s
had m aneuvered to r e t a i n them and exem pt them from c o m p e tit io n .
U n i v e r s i t y te a c h e r s have lo n g been a f f i l i a t e d w ith s e c o n d a ry
te a c h e r s among whom th e y w ere r e c r u i t e d f o r q u i t e a w h ile , a lth o u g h
th e y g e n e r a l l y h e ld c r e d e n t i a l s deemed a p p r o p r i a t e f o r u n i v e r s i t y
te a c h i n g . I t was n o t u n t i l 1977 t h a t th e y r e c e iv e d t h e i r own s t a t u t e s
and p r o f e s s i o n a l autonom y. T hese new s t a t u t e s r e p r e s e n t new c a r e e r
p e r s p e c t i v e s f o r t e a c h e r s . They p ro v id e f o r t h e i r b e n e f i c i a r i e s s u b
s t a n t i a l s o c i a l and m a t e r i a l a d v a n ta g e s su ch a s acad em ic freed o m ,
autonom ous w o rk in g c o n d i tio n s f r e e d from a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s u p e r v i s i o n ,
c o v e te d f r e e h o u s in g , and a s a l a r y s c a l e e q u a l le d o n ly by th e to p army
o f f i c e r s and h ig h e r (by t h r e e - f i f t h s ) th a n r e g u l a r to p c i v i l s e r v a n t s .
I l l
However, th e c o n d i tio n s f o r b e n e f i t i n g from th e h i g h e s t s a l a r y
s c a l e w ere a l s o s e t v e ry h i g h - - i t r e q u i r e s t h a t a Ph.D . be o b ta in e d
when th e la c k o f r e s e a r c h f a c i l i t i e s a t th e l o c a l u n i v e r s i t y makes i t
v e ry d i f f i c u l t f o r m ost f a c u l t y members to s u c c e e d . New c o n d i tio n s
s e t in 1976 f o r th e p u r s u i t o f a P h.D . p ro g ra m --th e o b t a in in g o f a
" m a i t r i s e " d e g re e w ith a "m e n tio n A ssez B ie n " minimum and 27 y e a rs of
age a m axim um --already d i s q u a l i f i e d a number of p o t e n t i a l c a n d id a te s
from among h ig h s c h o o l te a c h e r s and c r e a t e d f r u s tr a ti o n - a m o n g s tu d e n t s
s t r i v i n g to g e t th ro u g h a h ig h l y s e l e c t i v e e d u c a t i o n a l sy ste m w ith th e
minimum p a s s in g g r a d e .
To be s u r e some u n i v e r s i t y and s e n i o r h ig h s c h o o l te a c h e r s
s e r v i n g i n c i t i e s a r e ta k in g a d v a n ta g e o f l e g a l p r o v is io n s a llo w in g
th e p r i v a t e p r a c t i c e o f t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n f o r some s p e c i a l c u l t u r a l and
s c i e n t i f i c c r e d e n t i a l h o ld e r s ( t e a c h e r s , m e d ic a l d o c t o r s ) o f th e c i v i l
s e r v i c e , and a r e ta k in g a d v a n ta g e o f th e p r o l i f e r a t i o n in c i t i e s of
p r i v a t e h ig h s c h o o ls to i n c r e a s e t h e i r m on th ly e a r n i n g s . I t i s rum ored
i n th e te a c h in g m i l i e u t h a t some manage to d o u b le t h e i r m on th ly e a r n
in g s .
The t e a c h e r s , how ever, c o n s id e r th e s e e x t r a h o u rs i n p r i v a t e
s c h o o ls a s a s e l l - o u t o f th e m s e lv e s , as "m erce n ary w ork" th e y a r e f o r c e d
i n t o by t h e i r d e c l i n i n g so c io e c o n o m ic s i t u a t i o n and w hich c o n t r i b u t e s
to th e e r o s i o n o f t h e i r s o c i a l " r e s p e c t a b i l i t y " ; e s p e c i a l l y s in c e m ost
o f th e s c h o o l e n t r e p r e n e u r s who h i r e and f i r e them a t w i l l ( i n o r d e r to
p ro v id e t h e i r e n t e r p r i s e s w ith more s t a b l e and d o c i l e te a c h in g s t a f f ,
som etim es e x p a t r i a t e s ) a r e r e l a t i v e l y l e s s e d u c a te d fo rm e r s c h o o l
m a s te rs .
112
The n a t i o n a l te a c h e r s a r e s t r i v i n g to f l e e from t h e i r c l a s s
room p o s i t i o n s tow ard a d m i n i s t r a t i v e ones w hich a r e a p p a r e n t l y more
p r e s t i g i o u s and f i n a n c i a l l y more re w a r d in g . T e a c h e rs f e e l th e y c o n
s t i t u t e a d e c l i n i n g p r o f e s s i o n a l g ro u p . E ld e r h ig h s c h o o l o r u n i v e r
s i t y te a c h e r s r e c a l l w ith n o s t a l g i a t h e i r m em ories o f th e eve o r e a r
l i e r morrow o f in d e p e n d e n c e , when th e y w ere welcomed a t th e a i r p o r t as
n a t i o n a l h e ro e s a t t h e i r homecoming f o llo w in g th e c o m p le tio n o f t h e i r
u n i v e r s i t y s t u d i e s . E ld e r t e a c h e r s in e le m e n ta r y s c h o o l s , f o r t h e i r
p a r t , a r e s t i l l more n o s t a l g i c when r e c a l l i n g th e "good o ld tim e s "
w hen, a f t e r th e c o l o n i a l "commandant de c e r c l e " ( d i s t r i c t a d m i n i s t r a
t o r ) , th e s c h o o l m a s te r was th e se c o n d -m o st im p o r ta n t and r e s p e c t e d
p e rso n a g e in th e d i s t r i c t . The d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e i r fo rm e r s t a t u s i s
s i m i l a r to th e one Ubah (1980) h as done f o r th e N ig e r ia n te a c h e r s
d u r in g th e c o l o n i a l p e r io d :
W hatever th e l e v e l o f t h e i r e d u c a t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t , te a c h e r s
w ere a h ig h l y i n f l u e n t i a l g ro u p . U s u a lly th e same man was b o th
s t a t i o n m a s t e r and s c h o o l - t e a c h e r and had u n d e r h i s c o n t r o l n o t
j u s t s c h o o l - c h i l d r e n , b u t a l s o th e l o c a l c o n g r e g a tio n and was
a b l e t o i n s p i r e b o th f e a r and r e s p e c t . . . . The t e a c h e r was
e n t i t l e d to f r e e h o u s in g and f r e e farm l a b o r .
As a c l a s s , te a c h e r s c a u s e d some p roblem s f o r th e c h i e f s
and e l d e r s who w ere th e c u s to d i a n s o f th e o ld ways w h ich th e
t e a c h e r s , by t h e i r t r a i n i n g and p o s i t i o n , w ere t r y i n g t o d i s
m a n tle . A common c o m p la in t a g a i n s t them was t h a t th e y e n c o u r
aged d i s r e s p e c t t o t r a d i t i o n a l a u t h o r i t i e s and som etim es a c t e d
as i f th e y w ere v e s t e d w ith s p e c i a l p o w e rs. (p p . 379-380)
T hese te a c h e r s o f te n e x p r e s s e d t h e i r r e g r e t s f o r n o t h a v in g
c h o sen an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c a r e e r on th e e a r l y morrow o f in d e p e n d e n c e ,
when th e y had th e o p p o r tu n i ty and th e i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t i e s o f c o n
s t i t u t i n g th e g ran d c o rp s to ta k e o v e r th e c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
a p p a r a t u s . The t e a c h e r g ro u p was th e b e s t e d u c a te d i n th e c o l o n i a l
113
p e r i o d . Many te a c h e r s had a c t u a l l y s a t to com pete f o r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
p o s i t i o n s and g e n e r a l l y had come o u t ah ead i n th e s e c o m p e tit io n s ,
le a v in g c l a s s e s and p u p i l s i n th e m id d le o f th e s c h o o l y e a r to j o i n
t h e i r new p o s i t i o n s . The M i n i s t r i e s of C i v i l S e r v ic e and E d u c a tio n
h a d , t h e r e f o r e , b een o b lig e d to s e t up m easures p r e v e n t in g te a c h e r s
from s i t t i n g f o r su ch c o m p e titio n s in o r d e r to g u a r a n te e th e r e g u l a r
f u n c ti o n in g o f th e s c h o o ls . R e l a t i v e l y l e s s a b l e e le m e n ts from o t h e r
p r o f e s s i o n a l g r o u p s , who m ig h t have been somewhat b e h in d th e s e a d m in is
t r a t i v e m e a su re s, w ere th e b e n e f i c i a r i e s o f th e w ith d ra w a l o f te a c h e r s
from a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o m p e tit io n s . T hese m e asu re s r e s u l t e d i n f r u s t r a
t i o n on th e p a r t o f a b le and a m b itio u s e le m e n ts who, more o f t e n th a n
n o t , had no c h o ic e b u t t h a t o f r e s i g n i n g from a te a c h in g p o s i t i o n p e r
c e iv e d as to o dem anding and u n p r o f i t a b l e .
S in c e 1972, th e te a c h e r s have been dem anding by means o f
s t r i k e s a " r e v a l u a t i o n " o f t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n th ro u g h some m a t e r i a l a d
v a n t a g e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y f r e e h o u s in g , a h ig h e r h i e r a r c h i c a l p o s i t i o n
f o r th e "CEG" te a c h e r s in th e c i v i l s e r v i c e , and f o r a l l te a c h e r s an
a u to m a tic pay r a i s e e v e ry o th e r y e a r in th e a b se n c e o f q u a l i f i e d s u
p e r v i s o r y p e r s o n n e l t o e v a l u a te t h e i r w ork and r a t e them (on th e b a s i s
o f w hich p ro m o tio n and s a l a r y r a i s e s a r e d e te rm in e d f o r m ost o th e r c i v i l
s e r v a n t s ) . The b e t t e r h i e r a r c h i c a l p o s i t i o n i n th e c i v i l s e r v i c e was
s p e c i f i c a l l y c la im e d f o r th e "CEG" t e a c h e r s , a r g u in g t h a t b e c a u se of
t h e i r s u p e r i o r two y e a r s o f u n i v e r s i t y t r a i n i n g ( to w hich th e y w ere
a d d in g th e y e a r o f p r o b a ti o n a r y c la s s ro o m t e a c h i n g , w hich w as, i n f a c t ,
a g e n e r a l p r o v is io n f o r a l l b e g in n in g c i v i l s e r v a n t s ) , th e y so u g h t n o t
to be e q u a te d w ith th o s e ( a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ) who had o n ly two y e a r s o f
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p r o f e s s i o n a l , n o n - u n i v e r s i t y t r a i n i n g a f t e r th e h ig h s c h o o l d ip lo m a
( o r more o f t e n w ith o u t t h i s d e g r e e , th ro u g h i n t e r n a l p ro m o tio n ). I n
f a c t , ho w ev er, th e c la im a l s o c o n c e rn e d s e n i o r h ig h s c h o o l and u n i v e r
s i t y te a c h e r s who w ere t h r e a t e n e d t o s t e p down from t h e i r p r e s e n t r e l a
t i v e l y p r i v i l e g e d p o s i t i o n . Any tim e i t was a q u e s ti o n o f re fo rm in g
th e C i v i l S e r v ic e , t h i s t h r e a t d e v e lo p e d and te a c h e r s f e l t p o w e r le s s ,
s in c e th e y w ere n o t a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e d e c is io n -m a k in g p ro c e s s i n th e
hands o f o t h e r b u r e a u c r a ts (from th e M i n i s t r i e s o f C i v i l S e r v ic e and
F in a n c e , in p a r t i c u l a r ) . The f r e e h o u s in g g r a n te d to th e h ig h e r r a n k
in g c i v i l s e r v a n t s s i n c e th e c o l o n i a l p e r io d had been s u p p re s s e d i n 1972
f o r m ost o f them , w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f governm ent o f f i c i a l s and some
p r o f e s s i o n a l g roups ( m a g i s t r a t e s and m e d ic a l d o c t o r s ) , whose jo b s w ere
s a i d to r e q u i r e f r e e h o u s in g . T e a c h e rs a rg u e d t h a t th e y to o n eed ed
f r e e h o u s in g b e c a u se m ost o f t h e i r w ork was done a t home w hich th u s
became an o f f i c e and a w ork in s tr u m e n t (SUVESS, 1972, p . 1 6 ).
The f r u s t r a t i o n of th e te a c h e r s was re n d e r e d more d r a m a tic a s ,
a c c o r d in g to them , l e s s e d u c a te d c a d re s came i n t o p o s i t i o n s o f power i n
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e jo b s and showed a c e r t a i n d i s d a i n f o r th e f o rm e rly p r e s
t i g i o u s b u t now d e c l i n i n g te a c h in g p r o f e s s i o n . Karsamba Toumde (The
T e a c h in g J o b ) , a p o p u la r song w r i t t e n by a fo rm e r e le m e n ta ry t e a c h e r
who became a m u s ic ia n , i l l u s t r a t e s th e s i t u a t i o n . I t t e l l s o f th e m is
f o r t u n e o f a te a c h e r h u m i lia te d by h i s fo rm e r dumb s t u d e n t , now in an
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o s i t i o n o f power and i n command o v e r him .
The m e d ic a l g r o u p . W ith o u t b e in g a d e c l i n i n g g ro u p , th e m e d ic a l
d o c t o r s , d e n t i s t s , and p h a r m a c is ts c o n s t i t u t e n e v e r t h e l e s s a f r u s t r a t e d
B e s id e s th e p r e s t i g e a t t a c h e d to th e p r o f e s s i o n on th e b a s i s
o f r e l a t i v e l y le n g th y , d i f f i c u l t , and s e l e c t i v e s t u d i e s , th e m e d ic a l
d o c t o r s , f o r i n s t a n c e , have s u b s t a n t i a l a d v a n ta g e s s u c h as f r e e h o u s in g ,
and s h a r e h a l f o f th e c o n s u l t a t i o n f e e s e a rn e d by an i n d i v i d u a l m e d ic a l
d o c to r i n a (u rb a n ) h o s p i t a l . The d ev elo p m en t o f s t a t e o r p r i v a t e
e n t e r p r i s e s , and th e e x i s t e n c e of l e g a l p r o v is io n s a llo w in g th e p r i v a t e
p r a c t i c e o f t h e i r t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e , a l s o in c r e a s e d th e d o c t o r s ' p e r
s p e c t i v e s o f s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n c r e a s i n g t h e i r m o n th ly e a r n in g s th ro u g h
e x t r a h o u rs and p r i v a t e p r i v a t e p r a c t i c e i n th e s e e n t e r p r i s e s o r even
a t th e p u b l i c h o s p i t a l - - a t l e a s t f o r th o s e w o rk in g i n u rb a n a r e a s , a
r e l a t i v e m a j o r i t y (29 a g a i n s t 26 w o rk in g in r u r a l a r e s in 1972) (RHV,
P la n , 1972, p p . 273, 2 8 0 ).
The p h a r a m a c i s t s , f o r t h e i r p a r t , su c c e e d e d i n m aking th e two
e x i s t i n g p u b l i c p h a rm a c ie s s ta te - o w n e d e n t e r p r i s e s , a lth o u g h n o t a s
p r e s t i g i o u s and w e ll-e n d o w e d as th o s e e n t r u s t e d to th e e c o n o m is ts .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , th e m e d ic a l d o c t o r s , d e n t i s t s , and p h a rm a c is ts
f e e l t h a t th e y a r e n o t g e t t i n g th e s h a r e o f r e s o u r c e s th e y m ig h t have
e x p e c te d from t h e i r t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e and th e econom ic sy ste m w ere
i t n o t f o r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e m e asu re s ta k e n i n 1977 to b in d them w ith a
c o n t r a c t to s e r v e 10 y e a r s ( f o r th o s e who b e n e f i t e d from a s c h o l a r
s h ip ) o r 5 y e a r s ( f o r th o s e who had s t u d i e d w ith t h e i r own means) o f
p u b li c s e r v i c e b e f o r e b e in g a u t h o r i z e d to open t h e i r own p r i v a t e p r a c
t i c e s , w hich m ost p e r c e iv e d as more p r o f i t a b l e th a n em ploym ent i n th e
c i v i l s e r v i c e .
The h am p erin g o f th e c a r e e r e x p lo s io n o f th e m e d ic a l p e r s o n n e l
makes t h i s g ro u p , a lo n g w ith th e t e a c h e r s , one of th e m ost f r u s t r a t e d ;
e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e a r r o g a n t e c o n o m ists t r e a t them as u n p ro d u c tiv e and
m ere b u d g e t co n su m ers. T h u s, i n 1977, The D i r e c t o r G e n e ra l o f th e
P u b lic H e a lth S e r v ic e s h im s e lf had to s e t t l e th e e a sy t a s k o f demon
s t r a t i n g th e f i n a n c i a l '’p r o f i t ' 1 h i s d e p a rtm e n t c o u ld g e t from th e e x
p l o i t a t i o n o f h e a l t h c a r e , w ere th e l a t t e r n o t c o n s id e r e d , f o r hum ani
t a r i a n r e a s o n s , a f r e e p u b l i c s e r v i c e . .
To be s u r e , th e f r u s t r a t i o n o f th e m e d ic a l d o c t o r i s n o t , as
th e t e a c h e r s , u n an im o u sly and p u b l i c l y v o ic e d by th e p r o f e s s i o n a l
group as a w h o le . I n th e S y n ts h a , th e m e d ic a l p e rs o n n e l u n io n m o s tly
d o m in ated by n u r s e s and young, i d e o lo g ic a lly - c o m m i tte d d o c to r s a r e
p la y in g an im p o r ta n t r o l e i n te m p e rin g th e b u s in e s s p r e o c c u p a tio n o f
th e o l d e r , n o n - m i l i t a n t d o c t o r s . I t i s n o t c e r t a i n , h o w ev er, t h a t th e
u n io n c o u ld c o n tin u e i f no r a d i c a l s o c i a l change w ere to o c c u r o r i f
econom ic p r e s s u r e s w ere to e ro d e th e s o c i a l commitment o f th e young
m i l i t a n t s . F o r exam ple, th e h ig h s c h o o l and u n i v e r s i t y t e a c h e r s ' u n io n
(SUVESS) b ro k e o f f from th e e le m e n ta ry s c h o o l t e a c h e r s ' u n io n (SNEAHV)
i n 1972 b e c a u se th e l a t t e r was a c c u s e d o f b lo c k in g w hat th e fo rm e r
c o n s id e r e d to be i t s " l e g i t i m a t e c la im s " f o r a b e t t e r s h a r e o f th e
n a t i o n a l c a k e .
A m e d ic a l c a r e e r , l i k e te a c h in g , i s a l s o a h o r i z o n t a l l y - l o c k e d
c a r e e r , w ith o u t u p g ra d in g s c a l e s t o move i n t o f o r b e t t e r p o s i t i o n s .
B ut h e re th e f r u s t r a t i o n o f th e lo w er p e r s o n n e l su ch as th e n u r s e s , i s
much g r e a t e r th a n t h a t o f th e lo w e r - l e v e l te a c h in g p e r s o n n e l b e c a u se
o f th e i n t e l l e c t u a l p in n a c le on w h ich th e m e d ic a l d o c to r s s ta n d f a r
above t h e i r im m ediate c o l l a b o r a t o r s , th e n u r s e s . The l a t t e r have n o t
th e s l i g h t e s t a m b itio n to e m u la te them , y e t f e e l t h e i r t r a n s c e n d e n t
117
power (and w e a k n e sse s) in a d a y - to - d a y h i e r a r c h i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n .
S ta g n a n t Group: The E n g in e e rs
D om estic c a r e e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r th e v a r io u s ty p e s o f e n g i
n e e r s ( p u b l i c w orks e n g i n e e r i n g , e l e c t r i c a l e n g i n e e r in g , g e o l o g i s t s ,
a g r i c u l t u r e l e n g i n e e r i n g , e t c . ) have b een d e p e n d e n t on th e rhythm s o f
d e v elo p m en t o f th e p rim a ry and s e c o n d a ry s e c t o r s (m in in g , s u g a r r e
f i n e r y , w a te r and e l e c t r i c power s u p p l i e s , e t c . ) . T hese rhythm s have
b een r a t h e r s lo w , h i t t i n g t h e i r peak by 1 9 74-1976, w ith th e la u n c h in g
o f s e v e r a l s t a t e d ev elo p m en t p r o j e c t s , b u t s i n c e th e n slo w in g down.
I n t e r n a t i o n a l and r e g i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s have so f a r r e p r e
s e n te d b e t t e r c a r e e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r e n g i n e e r s . I n t e r n a l c o n f l i c t s
a s to th e ra n k in g o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e t r a i n i n g s c h o o ls - - a n d t h e r e f o r e
t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e h i e r a r c h i c a l p o s i t i o n - - h a v e b een a m a jo r c h a r a c t e r i s
t i c o f th e V o lta n e n g i n e e r s 1 p r o f e s s i o n a l g ro u p . As w i l l be s e e n in
th e n e x t s e c t i o n o f t h i s c h a p t e r , th e s e i n t e r n a l c o n f l i c t s o v e r ra n k in g
a r e a t t r i b u t a b l e to th e b u r e a u c r a t i c n a t u r e o f th e V o lta n s o c i e t y w hich
v a lu e s n o t t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e p e r s e , b u t i n s t e a d th e h i e r a r c h i c a l
p o s i t i o n o f pow er.
H owever, some p a r t i c u l a r su b g ro u p s o f e n g in e e r s have managed
t o c l i n g to th e r i s i n g w ing o f th e V o lta n b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s by b e n e f i t
in g from th e p r e s s u r e s o f n a t i o n a l c a l a m i t i e s o r by h e l p in g to s tim u
l a t e th e b e l i e f t h a t t h e i r e x p e r t i s e m ig h t c o n t r i b u t e to some econom ic
m i r a c l e s .
T hus, f o r ex am p le, a g r i c u l t u r a l e n g in e e r s have s e e n t h e i r
c a r e e r p e r s p e c t i v e s d r a s t i c a l l y in c r e a s e d by th e d ro u g h t o f 1972-1976
118
and th e s u b s e q u e n t s tr e n g t h e n i n g o f th e ORD’s , th e c r e a t i o n o f A f r ic a n
r e g i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s su ch a s th e "C om ite I n t e r n a t i o n a l de L u t t e
C o n tre l a S e c h e r e s s e au S a h e l" (C IL S S ), and a l s o by th e a l r e a d y men
tio n e d s ta te -o w n e d e n t e r p r i s e s and r e g i o n a l econom ic o r g a n i z a t i o n s
m aking sy m b o lic g e s t u r e s tow ard o r t r y i n g to e x p l o i t th e r u r a l w o rld .
The g e o l o g i s t s h av e a l s o managed to g e t b e t t e r w o rk in g and
s a l a r y c o n d i tio n s by s t r e s s i n g th e p r o s p e c t o f t h e i r p o t e n t i a l c o n t r i
b u t i o n t o th e n a t i o n ’ s d ev elo p m en t th ro u g h a b e t t e r e x p l o i t a t i o n o f
m in e ra l r e s o u r c e s d e c l a r e d more im p o r ta n t th a n th o u g h t. To th e c o n c e p t
o f U pper V o lta doomed to a g r i c u l t u r e , th e y a r e t r y i n g t o s u b s t i t u t e
th e n o ti o n of an U pper V o lta a s a " g e o l o g i c a l s c a n d a l " w hich may h id e
trem endous m in e r a l r e s o u r c e s b e c a u se o f i t s l o c a t i o n b etw een m in e r a l
p ro d u c in g c o u n t r i e s (M a li, N ig e r , and G hana).
The S p e c i a l , U nconcerned G roup:
The Army O f f i c e r s
S ta n d in g a p a r t from o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l g r o u p s , th e m i l i t a r y
g ro u p , more p r e c i s e l y th e army o f f i c e r c o r p s , i s th e one w hich has
t r i e d , s i n c e th e v e r y s t a r t , to m o n o p o lize i t s so c io e c o n o m ic t e r r i t o r y
and exem pt i t from th e c o v e to u s n e s s o f o t h e r c i v i l i a n b u r e a u c r a t s . The
w o u ld -b e army o f f i c e r s a r e r e c r u i t e d from among g r a d u a te s o f th e
" P ry ta n e e M i l i t a i r e de K ad io g o " (PMK), a p r e p a r a t o r y m i l i t a r y h ig h
s c h o o l; o f f i c i a l l y r e s e r v e d f o r sons o f th e m i l i t a r y and v e t e r a n s , f o r
th e t w o - th i r d s o f th e t o t a l s t u d e n t i n t a k e , i t i n f a c t i s d o m in ated by
so n s o f c i v i l i a n b u r e a u c r a t s . More w i l l be s a i d a b o u t th e s o c i a l r e
p r o d u c tio n f u n c ti o n o f t h i s v e ry s p e c i a l s c h o o l i n th e c h a p t e r c o n c e r n
in g s e l e c t i o n .
119
The t a k e - o v e r o f th e s t a t e a p p a r a tu s by th e army o f f i c e r s i n
1966, and more p a r t i c u l a r l y th e b o r d e r c o n f l i c t w ith M ali i n 1975,
d r a s t i c a l l y i n c r e a s e d th e q u a n t i t a t i v e and q u a l i t a t i v e im p o rta n c e of
th e army p e r s o n n e l, p a r t i c u l a r l y i t s to p p e r s o n n e l. A c c o rd in g to
V e n g ro ff (1 9 8 0 ),
u n d er L a m iz a n a 's t u t e l a g e th e army h as grown from a b o u t 1 ,5 0 0
men i n 1966 to w e ll o v e r 8 ,0 0 0 to d a y . . . . The m i l i t a r y r e
c e iv e d pay r a i s e s ra n g in g from 40 to 50% in l a t e 1978. P e r s o n
n e l c o s t s a lo n e f o r th e M in is tr y o f D efen se ro s e by 32% b etw een
1978 and 1979. I n 1979 th e army r e c e iv e d more money th a n th e
m i n i s t r i e s of E d u c a tio n , P u b lic H e a lt h , and R u ra l D evelopm ent
com bined. The arm ed f o r c e s c l e a r l y o b ta in th e l i o n ' s s h a r e o f
th e n a t i o n a l b u d g e t. ( p . 7)
T h is r e p r e s e n t s a b o u t o n e - t h i r d o f th e t o t a l e x p e n d itu r e s f o r p e r s o n n e l
A lth o u g h i t i s d i f f i c u l t in Upper V o l t a , as e ls e w h e re i n th e w o rld and
f o r th e same m i l i t a r y s e c r e c y r e a s o n s , t o know th e e x a c t e s t i m a t e s of
human, m a t e r i a l , and f i n a n c i a l r e s o u r c e s expended by th e arm ed f o r c e s ,
th e f i g u r e s r e p o r t e d above r e p r e s e n t an a p p ro x im a tio n of th e grow ing
im p o rta n c e th e m i l i t a r y p r o f e s s i o n a l g ro u p h as been ta k in g i n th e
V o lta n s o c i e t y s in c e 1966.
The i n c r e a s e in th e number o f s o l d i e r s b ro u g h t a b o u t a c o n s e
q u e n t i n c r e a s e i n th e number of o f f i c e r s . T hese o f f i c e r s have te n d e d
more and more t o come from u n i v e r s i t y - t y p e m i l i t a r y t r a i n i n g s c h o o ls
( S a i n t Cyr i n F r a n c e , A n s h ir a b le i n M a la g a sy ), a lth o u g h a power s t r u g
g le s i m i l a r to th e one found i n th e c i v i l s e r v i c e b etw een u n i v e r s i t y
and n o n - u n i v e r s i t y - e d u c a t e d b u r e a u c r a t s does e x i s t b etw een th o s e
u n i v e r s i t y - e d u c a t e d o f f i c e r s and th e ra n k and f i l e prom oted o f f i c e r s
who i r o n i c a l l y a r e c a l l e d " In d o c h in a war o f f i c e r s " ( a f t e r th e F re n c h
in v o lv e m e n t i n In d o c h in a w here m ost V o lta n o f f i c e r s o f th e im m ediate
120
p o s t-in d e p e n d e n c e e r a had e a rn e d t h e i r m e d a l s ) .
The s u c c e s s iv e a tte m p ts by th e army o f f i c e r s to m onopolize
s t a t e power (1 9 6 6 , 1974, 1980) n o t o n ly in c r e a s e d t h e i r c a r e e r o p p o r
t u n i t i e s b u t a l s o d i v e r s i f i e d th e s e c a r e e r s , insom uch a s th e army o f
f i c e r s , i n a d d i t i o n to s t r i c t l y m i l i t a r y a b i l i t i e s , le a r n e d th e te c h n o
c r a t i c e x p e r t i s e t o ru n "m odern" c i v i l i a n b u s i n e s s e s . The PMK w hich
had b een r e t u r n i n g m ost o f i t s g r a d u a te s t o c i v i l i a n l i f e by th e e a r
l i e r 1970s h as b e e n , f o r th e l a s t f o u r y e a r s , r e t a i n i n g more and more
g r a d u a te s and s e n d in g them to th e u n i v e r s i t y f o r n o n - m i l i t a r y s t u d i e s
w ith th e f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t o f th e a rm y 's b u d g e t.
To th e s o c i a l p r e s t i g e o f b e in g members o f th e r u l i n g g ro u p ,
th e army o f f i c e r s have b een a d d in g c o n s i d e r a b l e m a t e r i a l a d v a n ta g e s
su ch as f r e e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and f r e e h o u s in g o r a m o n e ta ry e q u i v a l e n t
am o u n tin g , f o r a b e g in n in g l i e u t e n a n t , to th e t o t a l m o n th ly s a l a r y of
h i s c i v i l i a n c o u n t e r p a r t .
The Dynamics o f th e P r o f e s s i o n a l G ro u p 's
S tr u g g le f o r Power and A dv an tag es
The d e s c r i p t i o n j u s t p r e s e n te d in t h i s s e c t i o n had o n ly exem
p l a r y v a l u e . I t h as b een done in a r a t h e r s t a t i c p e r s p e c t i v e w hich
may be m is le a d in g a s to th e r e a l dynam ics o f th e r i s e o r d e c l i n e o f
th e d i f f e r e n t g ro u p s . To be s u r e , no p r o f e s s i o n a l g ro u p i s m e re ly
s t a y i n g i n i t s p o s i t i o n o f pow er. More c o u ld be s a i d a b o u t th e v a r io u s
a tte m p ts made by d i f f e r e n t p r o f e s s i o n a l g ro u p s to g e t th e s o c i a l and
f i n a n c i a l a d v a n ta g e s o f th e e n v ie d r i s i n g g ro u p s . The s o c i a l a t t r a c
t i o n o f th e s ta te - o w n e d e n t e r p r i s e s had b een so s t r o n g t h a t a lm o s t a l l
m i n i s t e r i a l d e p a rtm e n ts t r i e d t o g r a s p f o r th e m s e lv e s some k in d s o f
121
autonom ous s t a t e - o w n e d - l i k e s e r v i c e s . T hese e f f o r t s even in c lu d e d
th o s e d e p a rtm e n ts su c h a s E d u c a tio n , C i v i l S e r v ic e , and I n f o r m a t io n ,
w hich c o u ld n o t be g r a n te d su ch s t a t u s s i n c e by d e f i n i t i o n , s t a t e -
owned e n t e r p r i s e s w ere d e s ig n e d t o f a c i l i t a t e s t r i c t l y econom ic a c t i v i
t i e s , to make them more e f f i c i e n t and p r o d u c t i v e . But th e d e f i n i t i o n
o f econom ic r e n t a b i l i t y o r p r o d u c t i v i t y i s q u i t e s u b j e c t i v e and depends
more on th e d i a l e c t i c a l and p o l i t i c a l s t r e n g t h o f th e b u r e a u c r a t s who
a r e s t r i v i n g t o b u i l d t h e i r own so c io e c o n o m ic f i e f s .
Econom ic and s o c i a l c r i s e s o r n a t i o n a l c a l a m i t i e s a r e i n s t r u
m e n ta l in th e r i s e o f one o r a n o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l group w h ich ta k e s th e
o p p o r t u n i t y o f su c h momentum to m o b iliz e n a t i o n a l r e s o u r c e s and b u i l d
up some id e o lo g y to l e g i t i m a t i z e t h i s m o n o p o liz a tio n o f c o l l e c t i v e
r e s o u r c e s f o r i t s own p a r t i c u l a r p r o f i t .
We c o u ld a l s o m e n tio n th e s t r u g g l e b etw een th e s ta te -o w n e d
e n t e r p r i s e s th e m se lv e s aro u n d t h e i r h i e r a r c h i z a t i o n . In d e e d , t h e o r e t i
c a l l y a l l w ere su p p o se d to be e q u a l; b u t , a s in O r w e l l's A nim al Farm
(1 9 4 6 ), some d e c l a r e d th e m s e lv e s more e q u a l th a n o t h e r s , p r o c la im in g
t h e i r s u p p o s e d ly g r e a t e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n th e econom ic d ev elo p m en t o f
t h e c o u n t r y .
As a M a tt e r o f C o n c lu sio n : C a re e r and
S o c ia l Power C a re e r Rewards i n a
B u r e a u c r a t i c S o c ie ty
T h is r a n k in g o f th e s ta te - o w n e d e n t e r p r i s e b u r e a u c r a ts i s n o t ,
how ever, th e o f f i c i a l l y p ro c la im e d id e o lo g y o f th e V o lta n b u r e a u c r a t i c
c l a s s w hich s h a r e s i n th e b e l i e f in th e l i b e r a l and f u n c t i o n a l th e o r y
h e ld w o rld w id e a b o u t th e n e c e s s i t y o f r a p i d econom ic d ev elo p m en t
122
th ro u g h th e d e v elo p m en t o f t e c h n i c a l an d s c i e n t i f i c t r a i n i n g .
The f u n c t i o n a l th e o r y s a y s t h a t th e b e s t , s o c i a l l y , and f i
n a n c i a l l y m ost re w a rd in g jo b s a r e th e m ost s o c i a l l y u s e f u l . T h e ir
number i s l i m i t e d so t h a t c o m p e titio n among many p o t e n t i a l c a n d i d a te s
le a d s to th e w in n in g by th e b e s t , th u s e n h a n c in g th e e f f i c i e n c y and
s t a t u s o f th e s e jo b s (D avis & M oore, 1945, p p . 2 4 2 -2 4 3 ).
One m ig h t e x p e c t a d e v e lo p in g c o u n try l i k e Upper V o lta w i t h a
l i b e r a l s o c io e c o n o m ic o r i e n t a t i o n t o heed th e s e f u n c t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s
by u s in g as re w a rd s th e jo b s and c a r e e r s c o n s id e r e d to b e th e m ost u s e
f u l f o r i t s d e v e lo p m e n t. But t h i s i s n o t t h e c a s e f o r th e V o lta n s o
c i e t y w here th e b e s t re w a rd s do n o t go t o th e t e c h n i c a l jo b s d e c l a r e d
to be t h e m ost u s e f u l f o r a q u ic k econom ic t a k e - o f f o f th e c o u n t r y ,
b u t i n s t e a d , to th e b u r e a u c r a t i c j o b s , th u s c r e a t i n g b l a t a n t c o n t r a d i c
t i o n s b etw een th e o b j e c t i v e r e a l i t i e s and i d e o l o g i c a l d i s c o u r s e s , th e
s u b j e c t i v e b e h a v i o r s .
The b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s i s t h e r e f o r e o b lig e d to r e s o r t t o
c o e r c io n to e x c lu d e from a d m i n i s t r a t i v e (m a n a g e ria l) jo b s th e many
c a n d i d a te s a t t r a c t e d by th e a d v a n ta g e s a t t a c h e d to them and to g e t th e
manpower n e c e s s a r y to ru n some s o c i a l s e c t o r s , su c h a s e d u c a tio n , f o r
ex am p le, p e r c e iv e d a s v i t a l to th e r e p r o d u c t i o n o f th e b u r e a u c r a t i c
c l a s s .
The r u l i n g f a c t i o n o f t h i s c l a s s h a s b een s o f a r u n a b le o r u n
w i l l i n g to r e a l i s t i c a l l y d ia g n o s e th e phenomenon o f d i s a f f e c t i o n from
th e te a c h in g c a r e e r s , a s e x p re s s e d i n t e a c h e r s ' s t r i k e s and s t u d e n t s '
r e f u s a l t o e n t e r th e s e c a r e e r s . I t u s u a l l y r e s o r t s t o some p o l i t i c a l
123
m a n ip u la tio n p r i n c i p l e , a r g u in g t h a t th e t e a c h e r s ' g ro u p i s c o n t r o l l e d
by " l e f t i s t " p o l i t i c a l o p p o n e n ts , and t h a t a l l te a c h e r s a ro u n d th e
w o rld a r e " l e f t i s t " (L ' O b s e r v a te u r , No. 1860, Ju n e 4 , 1 9 8 0 ).
The p r e s e n t s tu d y s u g g e s ts an a l t e r n a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n , ta k in g
i n t o a c c o u n t th e b u r e a u c r a t i z a t i o n o f V o lta n s o c i e t y and i t s economy,
b u r e a u c r a t i z a t i o n te n d in g to e x c lu d e from s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l and econom i
c a l power th o s e who a r e n o t d i r e c t l y a t th e command o f an a d m i n i s t r a
t i v e u n i t - - t e a c h e r s as w e ll a s m e d ic a l d o c t o r s , w o r k e r s , and p e a s a n t s ,
a lth o u g h to a q u i t e d i f f e r e n t d e g r e e . The c r i s i s o f th e te a c h in g p r o
f e s s i o n i n Upper V o lta i s n o t o n ly a f i n a n c i a l p ro b le m . The p o l i t i c o -
b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o i s i e i s r i g h t i n p o i n t i n g o u t th e s i m i l a r i t y o f
th e f i n a n c i a l s i t u a t i o n o f th e te a c h e r s w ith t h a t o f m ost c a d re s who
do n o t have f r e e h o u s in g o r l e g a l ways t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r m o n th ly e a r n
in g s th ro u g h th e p r i v a t e p r a c t i c e o f t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n , b u t y e t a r e l e s s
v o c a l th a n th e t e a c h e r s . I t i s a l s o r i g h t i n p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t t e a c h
e r s have a r e l a t i v e l y good h i e r a r c h i c a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i n co m p ariso n to
o th e r p r o f e s s i o n a l g ro u p s and th e r e s p e c t i v e l e n g t h o f s t u d i e s - - w h i c h
i s th e c r i t e r i o n f o r su c h c l a s s i f i c a t i o n .
What i s n o t s a i d , how ever, b o th from th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c
b o u r g e o i s i e 's s i d e a n d , p a r t i c u l a r l y * , from th e t e a c h e r s ' s i d e , i s th e
t o t a l d i f f e r e n c e betw een te a c h e r s and o t h e r b u r e a u c r a t s as f a r as
s o c i a l power and p r e s t i g e i s c o n c e rn e d . The t e a c h e r s , a s a r e s u l t of
t h e i r r a p i d l y i n c r e a s i n g number w hich s c a r e s a l s o f in a n c e a d m i n i s t r a
t o r s c o n c e rn in g th e im p a c t o f even s l i g h t s a l a r y i n c r e a s e s , have a
f e e l i n g o f im p e r s o n a l i t y i n c o n t r a s t w ith o t h e r b u r e a u c r a t s who have
a grow ing s e n s e o f pow er and s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e a s t h e i r number in c r e a s e s
124
and t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s ex p an d . An o ld e r t e a c h e r , u n le s s he becomes a
d i r e c t o r o f an e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n , has no more s e n s e o f power
th a n h i s y o u n g er c o lle a g u e who may have been h i s s t u d e n t some y e a rs
b e f o r e . An o l d e r a d m i n i s t r a t o r , u n le s s he i s c o m p le te ly s t u p i d , i s
g u a r a n te e d to o u tp a c e h i s y o u n g er c o lle a g u e and be i n a p o s i t i o n o f
command o v e r him .
More im p o r t a n t l y , c e n t r a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n b u r e a u c r a ts have s e v
e r a l o c c a s io n s f o r t e s t i n g t h e i r d e g re e of s o c i a l im p o rta n c e , s t a t u s
th ro u g h o f f i c i a l m e e tin g s , s o c i a l e v e n ts to w hich th e y a r e i n v i t e d as
members o r h ead s o f s p e c i f i c a d m i n i s t r a t i v e i n s t i t u t i o n s . When su ch
m e e tin g s and ce re m o n ie s a r e o rg a n iz e d by th e M i n i s t r y of E d u c a tio n ,
th e y c o n c e rn o n ly th e e d u c a tio n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t a f f .
An o ld t e a c h e r , now an e le m e n ta ry s c h o o l s u p e r v i s o r , r e p o r t e d
to th e r e s e a r c h e r an am using y e t s i g n i f i c a n t a n e c d o te o f an e le m e n ta ry
te a c h e r s p e n d in g h o u rs and e n e rg y t r a i n i n g and le a d in g h i s s t u d e n t s to
an o f f i c i a l l o c a l p a r a d e , o n ly to f i n d h im s e lf f o r g o t t e n when i t came
l a t e r to th e p a r t y o rg a n iz e d f o r a t t e n d i n g o f f i c i a l s .
The te a c h e r s have th u s th e f e e l i n g o f b e in g d i s c a r d e d by th e
s t a t e a p p a r a tu s and lo c k e d i n t o t h e i r r o l e o f r e p r o d u c e r s o f a s o c i a l
sy ste m w hich i s c o n tin u o u s ly e x c lu d in g them and p u t t i n g them i n t o a
s o c i a l g h e t t o . They have good r e a s o n s f o r b e l i e v i n g t h i s . The te a c h e r s
do n o t p a r t i c i p a t e i n th e f o r m u l a tio n o f th e p o l i t i c a l d e c i s i o n s as do
t h e i r o t h e r b u r e a u c r a t i c c o u n t e r p a r t s . And m ost o f th e tim e th e d e c i
s io n s a r e made in f a v o r o f th o s e who d i r e c t l y p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e i r f o r
m u la tio n and a g a i n s t th o s e who a r e k e p t a l o o f from th e p r o c e s s - - t h e
te a c h e r s as w e ll as th e p e a s a n ts and th e w o rk e rs . I t i s a l s o h i s t o r -
125
i c a l l y i r o n i c to n o te t h a t b u r e a u c r a t s to d a y t h r e a t e n bad s t u d e n t s w ith
s e n d in g them to te a c h i n g , j u s t as te a c h e r s f o rm e rly th r e a t e n e d bad s t u
d e n ts w ith s e n d in g them to th e la n d ( r u r a l a r e a s ) .
The s o c io e c o n o m ic changes m e n tio n ed i n th e p r e c e d in g c h a p t e r
c l e a r l y h av e been in f a v o r o f th e h ig h e r s t r a t a o f th e c e n t r a l a d m in is
t r a t i o n b u r e a u c r a t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e e c o n o m ists and p la n n e r s who p r o
g r e s s i v e l y jo i n e d th e r u l i n g f a c t i o n i n i t s a t te m p t to c o n s t i t u t e a
n a t i o n a l b o u r g e o i s i e . I n t h i s p r o c e s s o f power m o n o p o liz a tio n by a
s m a l le r and s m a l l e r f r a c t i o n o f th e b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s , th e id e o lo g y
h as b een t h a t o f e m p h a siz in g th e econom ic p r o d u c tio n b e f o r e d e v e lo p in g
th e " n o n - p r o d u c tiv e " s e c t o r s , t h a t i s , h e a l t h and e d u c a t i o n . But in
th e m a t t e r o f e m p h a siz in g econom ic p r o d u c ti o n , o n ly th e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s
o f econom ic s t r u c t u r e s d e v e lo p e d t h e i r p e r s o n a l r e s o u r c e s .
T h i s , th e p r e s e n t s tu d y s u g g e s t s , e x p l a in s why th e r e i s a b l a
t a n t d i s a f f e c t i o n f o r jo b s w hich a r e n o t d i r e c t l y c o n c e rn e d w ith p o l i t
i c a l d e c i s i o n m aking, and a r u s h to w ard jo b s w hich p o t e n t i a l l y a llo w
t h e i r h o ld e r s to w eigh p o l i t i c a l l y on th e f u t u r e o f th e r e s t o f th e
p o p u la tio n and th e m s e lv e s .
T e c h n ic a l jo b s do n o t a t t r a c t V o lta n stud-ents (H ardy, 1978) .
I f some d o , i t i s b e c a u s e o f t h e i r p o t e n t i a l a s s o c i a t i o n w ith such a
d e c i s i o n and money m aking pow er. M ost o f th e e n g in e e r s and s c i e n t i s t s
t r a i n e d so f a r found th e m s e lv e s d i r e c t o r s o f s e r v i c e s o r v a r io u s p r o
j e c t s e s t a b l i s h e d i n r e l a t i o n w ith f o r e i g n a g e n c ie s and g o v e rn m e n ts.
A t th e s e p o s i t i o n s , th e y a r e a b s o rb e d by p u r e ly a d m i n i s t r a t i v e ta s k s
o f c o o r d i n a t i n g , n e g o t i a t i n g , r e p o r t i n g , and p r o j e c t i n g . The o n ly
f i e l d e n g in e e r s a c t u a l l y a v a i l a b l e t o im plem ent th e s o - e l a b o r a t e d
126
p r o j e c t s a r e e x p a t r i a t e s . Of c o u r s e , t h i s s i t u a t i o n may a p p e a r t o be
q u i t e l o g i c a l i n s o f a r a s i t g u a r a n te e s th e n e c e s s a r y " V o l t a i z a t i o n " o f
th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y p o s i t i o n s . But th e r e i s more th a n t h a t - - t h e s o c i o
econom ic s t r u c t u r e does n o t rew ard t e c h n i c a l s k i l l s p e r s e , b u t th e
p o s i t i o n s i n t o a s p e c i f i c h i e r a r c h i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . I t i s n o t t h a t
th e V o lta n e n g in e e r s and te c h n i c i a n s d e l i b e r a t e l y a v o id d o in g p r a c
t i c a l , h a n d - d i r t y i n g work i n th e f i e l d - - a l t h o u g h some c la im so and
a t t r i b u t e t h i s r e f u s a l to do p r a c t i c a l work by e n g in e e r s to th e e l i t e ,
g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n - o r i e n t e d ty p e of t r a i n i n g g iv e n to th e e n g in e e r s in
2
F re n c h s c h o o ls ( E i c h e n b e r g e r , 1981, p p . 4 3 - 4 4 ) .
The P roblem o f th e " S o c ia l " S e c to rs
(H e a lth and E d u c a tio n )
The c la im s f o r p a r t i c u l a r i s t i c tr e a tm e n t on th e p a r t o f th e
b u r e a u c r a t i c p r o f e s s i o n a l g ro u p s make th e s e g r o u p s , p a r a d o x i c a l l y ,
more d e p e n d e n t on th e s t a t e . The l a t t e r a c t s tow ard them a s a p a r t r i -
m o n ia l r u l e r , g r a n t i n g a d v a n ta g e s and s p e c i a l tr e a tm e n t to th o s e i t
l i k e s and r e f u s i n g them to th o s e i t d i s l i k e s . T h u s, in 1977, th e
governm ent to o k i t upon i t s e l f to g iv e b e t t e r h i e r a r c h i c a l p o s i t i o n s
i n th e c i v i l s e r v i c e and b e t t e r s a l a r i e s to th e f u n c t i o n a r i e s in
c h a rg e o f C ustom s, F in a n c e , and th e P o l i c e , w h ile re m a in in g d e a f to
th e v o c i f e r o u s c la im s o f th e te a c h e r s and m e d ic a l p e r s o n n e l.
The s i n e c u r e s (a p p o in tm e n ts t o s e r v i c e d i r e c t o r s h i p s , to s t a t e -
owned e n t e r p r i s e s and th e q u o ta p o s i t i o n s r e s e r v e d to Upper V o lta i n
i n t e r a f r i c a n o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s ) c a n be u se d by th e s t a t e
to c o n t r o l th e l o y a l t y o f i n d i v i d u a l members o f th e p r o f e s s i o n a l g ro u p s
127
by m a n ip u la tin g th e hope t h a t th e y c o u ld , one d a y , have a c c e s s to th e s e
s i n e c u r e s .
H owever, th e s e a d v a n ta g e s a r e g r a n te d w i t h i n c e r t a i n l i m i t s
and c o n s t r a i n t s beyond w hich th e v e r y e x i s t e n c e o f th e s t a t e , t h a t i s ,
th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o is i e i t s e l f would be i n je o p a r d y .
I t i s , f o r i n s t a n c e , d i f f i c u l t to im ag in e t h e s t a t e c o n c e d in g th e im
m e d ia te and c o m p lete p r i v a t i z a t i o n o f th e m e d ic a l and e d u c a t i o n a l c o rp s
i n th e p r e s e n t c o n t e x t o f mass p o v e r ty . Such a c o n c e s s io n w ould d e
p r i v e th e s t a t e o f im p o r ta n t in s tr u m e n ts o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l and p o p u la r
m y s t i f i c a t i o n by w hich th e s t a t e c a m o u fla g e s i t s p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t
w ith u n i v e r s a l i s m o r l e g i t i m i z a t i o n . I f i t i s t r u e t h a t any s o c i a l
c l a s s g a in s c o n t r o l o v e r o th e r s by i t s a b i l i t y to c o n v in c e them o f th e
u n i v e r s a l c h a r a c t e r o f i t s i n t e r e s t s , i t m ust do so o n ly by e f f e c t i v e l y
c o n t r o l l i n g th e means o f s a t i s f y i n g th e s e g e n e r a l i n t e r e s t s . T h is e x
p l a i n s why, w h ile th e s t a t e , on one h a n d , e n c o u ra g e s p r i v a t e e n t r e p r e
n e u r s h ip i n some a r e a s and f o r some p r o f e s s i o n a l g r o u p s , i t a l s o d i s
c o u ra g e s su ch p r i v a t e i n i t i a t i v e f o r o t h e r s .
The s t a t e e n c o u ra g e s , by means o f s u b s i d i e s , p r i v a t e e n t r e p r e
n e u r s h ip f o r th e e c o n o m is t b u r e a u c r a t s and th e s o - c a l l e d " p r o d u c ti v e "
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s e c t o r s . The r e a s o n i s s im p le and am ounts t o a s e l f
p ro m o tio n by th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o i s i e . I t i s th e s e s e c
t o r s t h a t th e l a t t e r e f f e c t i v e l y c o n t r o l s o r t r i e s t o . L im ite d as th e y
a r e now i n U pper V o lta t o s im p le t r a n s a c t i o n o p e r a t io n s o r im p o r t-
s u b s t i t u t i o n , a s s e m b lin g i n d u s t r i e s , th e s e " p r o d u c ti v e " s e c t o r s r e q u i r e
v e r y l i t t l e , i f a n y , r e a l t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e ( w ith in th e r e a c h o f th e
r a t h e r p o o r ly e d u c a te d e le m e n ts o f th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r
128
g e o i s i e ) b u t a l o t o f f i n a n c i a l c a p i t a l ( a v a i l a b l e th ro u g h e x p l o i t a t i o n
o f o t h e r s o c i a l g ro u p s th ro u g h th e s t a t e a p p a r a t u s ) . S o c i a l m y s t i f i c a
t i o n i s o p e r a te d th ro u g h th e id e o lo g y o f econom ic d ev elo p m en t as a - -
in d e e d t h e - - p r i o r i t y and b a s i s o f s o c i a l d e v e lo p m e n t. U n i v e r s i t y -
e d u c a te d p e o p le a r e th e n and o n ly th e n needed t o p r e p a r e and p r e s e n t
th e p e rfo rm a n c e s o f th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o is i e i n th e s o
p h i s t i c a t e d la n g u a g e u sed i n th e m i l i e u o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l b o u r g e o is i e s
and a p t t o m y s ti f y th e l o c a l p o p u la tio n and j u s t i f y i t s f u r t h e r s p o l i a
t i o n .
We have s e e n i n t h i s c h a p t e r how some to p b u r e a u c r a t s o f th e
M i n i s t r i e s o f F in a n c e and P la n have p r o p e l l e d th e m se lv e s i n t o in d u s
t r i a l e n t r e p r e n e u r s a t th e f a v o r o f r e g u l a t i o n s th e y had e l a b o r a t e d
f o r t h e i r d e p a r t m e n t s .
We h av e a l s o m e n tio n ed t h a t some i n d i v i d u a l governm ent members
have b een e n c o u r a g in g , ev en p u s h in g some o f t h e i r d e p a r tm e n ts ' p e r s o n
n e l t o engage th e m s e lv e s i n p r i v a t e e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p i n c o n n e c tio n
w ith th e s e governm ent m em bers. T h is has b een p a r t i c u l a r l y th e c a se
f o r i m p o r t - s u b s t i t u t i o n i n d u s t r i a l u n i t s ( b a t t e r i e s , c y c l e s ) and o i l
d i s t r i b u t i o n .
D is c u s s io n w ere g o in g i n th e 1970s i n th e governm ent a b o u t th e
p o s s i b i l i t y o f c h a n g in g th e r e g u l a t i o n s o f th e c i v i l s e r v i c e i n o r d e r
to a llo w c i v i l s e r v a n t s t o engage i n b u s in e s s w h ile m a in ta i n in g t h e i r
p o s i t i o n s o r p r i v i l e g e s i n th e c i v i l s e r v i c e (RHV, C ons.eil des M in is -
t r e s , P .V . du 7 O c to b re 1 9 7 0 ).
I t i s e a s y and m ost a d v a n ta g e o u s f o r th e i n d i v i d u a l members o f
th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o i s i e to engage th e m s e lv e s i n t o p r i v a t e
129
e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p w ith o u t l o s i n g c o n t r o l o v e r th e s t a t e a p p a r a tu s i n s o
f a r a s th e s o - c a l l e d " p r o d u c ti v e " econom ic s e c t o r s a r e n o t d e f in e d as
" w e lf a r e " p u b li c s e r v i c e s as a r e e d u c a tio n and h e a l t h s e r v i c e s , f o r
i n s t a n c e . In f a c t , th e members o f th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o i
s i e c o n s id e r th e m se lv e s a s g iv i n g th e exam ple o f e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p and
p r o d u c t i v i t y to th e r e s t o f th e p o p u l a t i o n . They c o n s id e r t h a t i n th e
a r e a o f b u s in e s s and p r i v a t e e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p , p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l i n
t e r e s t s and p u b li c g e n e r a l i n t e r e s t s a r e q u i t e c o m p a tib le .
The id e o lo g y o f l i b e r a l i s m i s o n ly a means o f l e g i t i m i z a t i o n of
th e in v e s tm e n ts made o r to be made i n some econom ic s e c t o r s by th e i n
d i v i d u a l members o f th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o i s i e .
The s o - c a l l e d " s o c i a l " o r " u n p ro d u c tiv e " s e c t o r s i n c l u d i n g
H e a lth and E d u c a tio n , f o r t h e i r p a r t , have n o t been o b j e c t s o f d i r e c t
and im m ediate in v e s tm e n t on th e p a r t o f i n d i v i d u a l members o f th e
p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o i s i e . H e re , f i n a n c i a l c a p i t a l a lo n e i s
n o t s u f f i c i e n t . Some t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e seems to be n e c e s s a r y f o r
th e s e s e c t o r s to g a in p o p u la r and a l s o i n t e r n a t i o n a l a c c e p t a b i l i t y .
And i f th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o is i e may have th e f i n a n c i a l
c a p i t a l , i t d oes n o t h a v e , h o w ev er, th e t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e h e ld by th e
i n t e l l e c t u a l p e t t y b o u r g e o i s i e . I n th e s e c o n d i tio n s i t i s u n d e r s t a n d
a b l e t h a t th e p r i v a t i z a t i o n s o u g h t by th e l a t t e r i s n o t to be much
welcom ed by th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o i s i e w h ich i s i n p o s i t i o n
o f c o n t r o l l i n g th e s o - c a l l e d s o c i a l s e c t o r s o n ly th ro u g h t h e i r f ir m
l i n k s to th e c e n t r a l s t a t e a p p a r a t u s .
H ere th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o is i e c la im s t h a t p r i v a t e
i n d i v i d u a l i n t e r e s t i s in c o m p a tib le w ith p u b li c g e n e r a l i n t e r e s t s . By
130
d e f i n i n g th e s o - c a l l e d " s o c i a l " s e c t o r s a s " w e lf a r e " p u b l i c s e r v i c e s ,
th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o is i e l e g i t i m a t e s i t s c o n f i s c a t i o n o f
i n t e l l e c t u a l c a p i t a l . More i m p o r t a n t l y , i t p r e v e n ts th e h o ld e r s o f
t h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l c a p i t a l from co m p etin g w ith th e i n d i v i d u a l members
o f th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o is i e by i n v e s t i n g t h i s c a p i t a l
i n t o " p r o d u c ti v e " a c t i v i t i e s . T h is c o n f i s c a t i o n a l s o a llo w s th e
p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o i s i e to l e g i t i m i z e i t s p o l i t i c a l power
o v e r th e r e s t of th e p o p u la tio n by p r o v id in g i t w ith " f r e e " e d u c a tio n
and h e a l t h s e r v i c e s .
T h is i s why m e asu re s have b een ta k e n by t h e s t a t e o b l i g i n g th e
m e d ic a l p e r s o n n e l and b a d ly n eed ed te a c h e r s (o f Math and P h y s ic s , p a r
t i c u l a r l y ) t o s e r v e i n th e p u b li c s e c t o r f o r a t l e a s t 10 y e a rs b e f o r e
th e y can be l e t go t o th e p r i v a t e s e c t o r . I t i s a l s o why th e u n i v e r
s i t y r e p r e s e n t s a s t r a t e g i c in s tr u m e n t f o r th e s h a p in g o f th e new n a
t i o n ' s s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l i d e n t i t y . F o r , c o n t r a r y to w hat can be o b se rv e d
i n th e " d e v e lo p e d " c o u n t r i e s , th e b a t t l e i s n o t won f o r th e p o l i t i c o -
b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o i s i e (o r f u t u r e b o u r g e o i s i e p ro p e r t o come, w ith
i t s v a r io u s f a c t i o n s o r su b g ro u p s) and l o s t f o r a n o t h e r (n am ely , th e
V o lta n i n t e l l e c t u a l p e t t y b o u r g e o i s i e , a l s o w ith i t s v a r io u s f a c t i o n s ) .
The a c c e s s t o th e U n i v e r s i t y r e p r e s e n t s a c r u c i a l i s s u e . The
n e x t c h a p t e r w i l l exam ine how th e b u r e a u c r a t s c o n t r o l t h i s a c c e s s i n
o r d e r t o a s s u r e t h e i r own c a r e e r i n t e r e s t s a s a s m a ll p r i v i l e g e d g ro u p
and p a ss t h e i r a d v a n ta g e s a lo n g to t h e i r o f f s p r i n g .
131
JSO TES
Such i n c i d e n t s happened a t th e e l e c t r i c pow er d e p a rtm e n t
( V o lte le c ) i n 1976 and a t one o f th e m a jo r n a t i o n a l b a n k s , BICIAHV in
1980 (C o n f e d e r a tio n S y n d ic a te V o lta iq u e m e e tin g o f A p r i l 3 0 , 1981,
sp e e c h of S e c r e t a r y G e n e r a l ) .
I n 1981, i n t e r n a l r i v a l r i e s b etw ee n to p p e r s o n n e l o f th e S o c i a l
S e c u r i t y Agency (CNSS) le d th e new m i l i t a r y reg im e s e n d in g th e s p o k e s
man o f th e M i l i t a r y E x e c u tiv e Com m ittee (CMRPN) to p u b l i c l y s u p p o r t th e
c o n t e s t e d d i r e c t o r , and t h r e a t e n r e b e l l i o u s e le m e n ts w ith f i r i n g them
i f th e y r e f u s e d t o c o o p e r a te (L 1O b s e r v a te u r , No. 2037, du M e r c r e d i,
25 F e v r i e r 1981, p p . 1, 6 - 7 ) .
2
E ic h e n b e r g e r i s th e P r e s i d e n t o f th e F e d e r a t io n des Chambres
S y n d ic a le s des M in e ra is e t M ^taux N o n -F e rre u x , th e c o r p o r a t i o n o f m in
in g i n d u s t r i e s in F r a n c e . T h is c o n f e r s to h i s c r i t i q u e s o f th e F re n c h
e n g in e e r in g s c h o o ls some w e ig h t. He sa y s f o r exam ple:
A b ro ad , o u r sy ste m f o r t r a i n i n g e n g in e e r s im p re sse d by i t s
c o n t r i b u t i o n to th e t r a i n i n g of e x i s t i n g e l i t e s , b u t i t s o r g a
n i z a t i o n and i t s o b j e c t i v e s a r e m is u n d e r s to o d . A B r i t i s h Com
m is s io n on e n g in e e r in g n o te d : "We a r e v e r y im p re s se d by th e
l e v e l o f g e n e r a l and s c i e n t i f i c c u l t u r e g iv e n to s t u d e n t s in
F r a n c e - - a l e v e l we a r e f a r from r e a c h in g i n E n g lan d ; b u t ,
w here a r e t r a i n e d th o s e who c o n c e iv e and o p e r a t e th e e n g in e s " ?
(1 9 8 1 , p . 43)
132
CHAPTER V
THE RACE FOR THE UNIVERSITY: EDUCATIONAL SELECTION
IN THE SCHOOLS
M A Jk
M On a o u v e r t l ' ^ c o l e a to u s , que l e p lu s f o r t g a g n e l"
T r a n s l a t i o n : " S c h o o l i s open t o a l l . L e t th e b e s t w in I"
N o t e . I n A Q ui P r o f i t e L 'E c o le by J a c q u e s H a ll a k . P a r i s : P r e s s e s
U n i v e r s i t a i r e s de F r a n c e , 1976, p . 8 3 .
133
The o b j e c t i v e of th e p r e s e n t c h a p te r i s to exam ine th e u n e q u a l
s c h o o lin g o p p o r t u n i t i e s a v a i l a b l e f o r d i f f e r e n t V o lta n s o c i a l c l a s s e s
and g ro u p s , a s a r e s u l t o f th e b u r e a u c r a t s ' c o n t r o l o v er th e e d u c a
t i o n a l sy ste m and m a n ip u la tio n o f d em ographic an d acad em ic r e q u ire m e n ts
f o r th e a c c e s s t o l i m i t e d e d u c a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s .
The u n e q u a l s c h o o li n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s and th e b u r e a u c r a t s ' c o n
t r o l o v e r th e e d u c a t i o n a l s y ste m c o n s t i t u t e w hat can be c a l l e d e x t e r n a l
f a c t o r s of s c h o o l s e l e c t i o n , as opposed to th e i n t e r n a l s c h o o l s e l e c
t i o n . The i n t e r n a l s c h o o l s e l e c t i o n r e f e r s to th e e x a m in a tio n sy ste m
and th e acad em ic a c h ie v e m e n t o f s t u d e n t s to t h e i r e x a m in a tio n s .
The p r e s e n t c h a p t e r w i l l a rg u e t h a t th e e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s o f th e
s e l e c t i o n sy ste m a r e more im p o rta n t th a n th e i n t e r n a l f a c t o r s i n a c
c o u n tin g f o r th e u n e q u a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l c l a s s e s and
g ro u p s th ro u g h o u t th e e d u c a t i o n a l sy s te m , from th e e le m e n ta ry up to th e
u n i v e r s i t y l e v e l . However, i t w i l l a l s o be a rg u e d t h a t t h e r e i s a p e r
c e p t i b l e te n d e n c y tow ard a d j u s t i n g th e two k in d s o f f a c t o r s ( e x t e r n a l
and i n t e r n a l ) , and th e i n t e r n a l s e l e c t i o n re m a in s h e a v i l y m arked by
e x t e r n a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , by th e b u r e a u c r a t i c c a r e e r p e r s p e c t i v e s .
T h is c h a p t e r i s d iv i d e d i n t o th e f o ll o w i n g s i x s e c t i o n s :
The f i r s t s e c t i o n exam ines how th e m ix tu r e o f dem ographic and
acad em ic re q u ire m e n ts f o r th e e n t r y t o eac h c y c le o f th e h ig h s c h o o l
a p p ly o n ly to th e lo w er c l a s s e s ' s tu d e n t s and n o t to th e s t u d e n t s from
th e c l a s s e s o f b u r e a u c r a t s and t h e i r b u s in e s s a l l i e s who r e s o r t , i f
n e c e s s a r y , to th e a l t e r n a t i v e o f p r i v a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s o r r e s e r v e d
s c h o o l ("L ycees M u n ic ip a u x ," PMK) to b y -p a s s t h e i r own r e g u l a t i o n s i n
134
o r d e r to a s s u r e t h e i r p h y s i c a l r e p r o d u c t i o n i n t o t h e i r o f f s p r i n g .
The seco n d s e c t i o n w i l l a n a ly z e th e s o c i a l f u n c t i o n o f th e
s t a t e s c h o l a r s h i p s y ste m w hich m ight be p e r c e iv e d as a way o f m in im iz -
in g th e econom ic d i f f e r e n c e s b etw een s t u d e n t s from d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l
o r i g i n s , w h ile i t w i l l be a rg u e d t h a t i t i s (by th e d r a s t i c a ca d em ico -
d em o g rap h ic r e q u ir e m e n ts ) a d e v ic e in th e hands *of th e b u r e a u c r a ts
f o r th e c o n t r o l of th e so n s from d o m in ated p e a s a n t , a r t i s a n , and w o rk er
c l a s s e s to be c o o p te d i n t o th e b u r e a u c r a c y .
The t h i r d and f o u r t h s e c t i o n s w i l l a n a ly z e a d d i t i o n a l f a c t o r s
o f s t u d e n t s e l e c t i o n and t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n to s o c i a l c l a s s e s . T hese
f a c t o r s a r e th e g e o e t h n i c i t y and th e u n e q u a l s c h o o lin g o f th e V o lta n
p o p u l a t i o n . I t w i l l be a rg u e d t h a t th e s e e t h n i c and h i s t o r i c a l f a c t o r s
a r e a c t i n g to sh ap e th e e d u c a t i o n a l sy ste m so t h a t th e f u l l im p a c t o f
th e s o c i a l o r i g i n s o f s t u d e n t s i s somewhat b l u r r e d , a lth o u g h g e o e t h n i c
i t y i s u sed by th e b u r e a u c r a t s to r e i n f o r c e t h e i r s o c i a l p o s i t i o n s .
The f i f t h s e c t i o n exam ines th e d i f f e r e n t i a l r a t e s o f s u c c e s s
o f s t u d e n t s from d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l o r i g i n s on th e u n i v e r s i t y e n tr a n c e
e x a m in a tio n , th e b a c c a l a u r ^ a t . T h is i s an a t te m p t to a s s e s s th e r e l a
t i v e im p o rta n c e o f th e i n t e r n a l f a c t o r s o f s e l e c t i o n as com pared to
th e e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s exam ined i n th e f i r s t s e c t i o n . S p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n
w i l l be p a id to th e r e c e n t (1978) re fo rm o f t h i s e x a m in a tio n and i t s
e f f e c t s on s tu d e n t s w ith d i f f e r e n t s c h o o l and l i f e e x p e r i e n c e s , i . e . ,
c u l t u r a l b a c k g ro u n d . I t w i l l be a rg u e d t h a t by e m p h a siz in g a c e r t a i n
k in d of know ledge ( f o r m a l, b o o k is h ) and i t s mode o f e x p r e s s io n ( w r i t t e n )
o v e r a n o th e r k in d of know ledge ( p r a t i c a l and e m p i r i c a l , in f o r m a l)
135
and i t s mode of e x p r e s s io n ( o r a l , i n t e r p e r s o n a l ) , th e re fo rm i s c u l
t u r a l l y c l a s s ( b u r e a u c r a t i c ) b i a s e d .
The s i x t h s e c t i o n i s a g e n e r a l a s s e s s m e n t o f th e p o l i t i c a l
c h o ic e s th e b u r e a u c r a t s make to fa c e th e o b j e c t i v e c o n s t r a i n t s th e y
s a y th e y e n c o u n te r in th e d ev elo p m en t o f th e e d u c a t i o n a l s y s te m . T hese
c o n s t r a i n t s a r e th e l i m i t e d f i n a n c i a l , t e c h n i c a l r e s o u r c e s and q u a l i
f i e d p e r s o n n e l, and th e l i m i t e d jo b s in th e m odern s e c t o r . I t i s
a rg u e d t h a t a lth o u g h th e s e o b j e c t i v e c o n s t r a i n t s a r e in d e e d r e a l and
f o r m id a b le , th e y do n o t , by th e m s e lv e s , e x p l a in th e p o l i t i c a l c h o ic e s
made c h i e f l y t o p r e s e r v e and enhance th e p r i v i l e g e s o f th e d o m in an t
b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s a g a i n s t th e d o m in ated p e a s a n t , a r t i s a n , and w o rk er
c l a s s e s .
P a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n w i l l be p a id to some s p e c i f i c problem s
( la c k o f p h y s ic a l sp a c e and te a c h in g p e r s o n n e l) t h a t th e u n i v e r s i t y i s
f a c i n g , and to th e p o l i t i c a l s o l u t i o n ( r e in f o r c e m e n t o f th e s e l e c t i v i t y
i n g e n e r a l) c h o sen to s o lv e th e s e p r o b le m s .
I t w i l l be a rg u e d t h a t th e s e problem s a re m o s tly c a u se d by th e
f a c u l t y ' s c a r e e r is m and th e s t u d e n t s ' " p e t t y b o u r g e o is " a t t i t u d e p r e
v e n tin g in c r e a s e s in th e te a c h in g lo a d and s t a f f and e x p e d ie n t s o l u
t i o n s to th e sp a c e p ro b lem .
A dv an tag es and S t r a t e g i e s Taken by th e D om inant C la s s e s
i n th e C o m p e titio n o v er S ch o o l S e l e c t i o n
The p e a s a n t 's o r u rb a n w o r k e r 's son who r e a c h e s th e u n i v e r s i t y
h a s b een s u b m itte d to more s e l e c t i o n th a n th e b u r e a u c r a t ’s o r th e
w e a lth y u rb a n t r a d e r 's s o n . The b a r r i e r s e r e c t e d a c r o s s th e s c h o o l
ro a d c o n s i s t o f two h ig h l y s e l e c t i v e e x a m in a tio n s (one f o r th e e n t r y
136
t o each of th e two c y c l e s o f th e h ig h s c h o o l) p lu s s t r i c t age r e q u i r e
m ents (b e in g young, y e t n o t a llo w e d t o e n t e r young i n th e e le m e n ta ry
s c h o o l ) . T hese age l i m i t s in p r a c t i c e a f f e c t o n ly low c l a s s s t u d e n t s ;
dom inant c l a s s s tu d e n t s have v a r io u s a l t e r n a t i v e s o l u t i o n s to b y -p a s s
th e s e d r a s t i c re q u ire m e n ts ( f o r in s t a n c e by e n t e r i n g th e p u b l i c s c h o o l
much y o u n g er th a n o f f i c i a l l y a llo w e d f o r th e low c l a s s c h i l d r e n o r ,
b e t t e r , by e n t e r i n g p r i v a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s u n a f f e c t e d by th e p u b li c i n s t i
t u t i o n s ' r e g u l a t i o n s ) .
In d e e d , c a u g h t b etw een th e i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l p r e s s u r e s f o r
more s c h o o lin g and i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e s p e c t a b i l i t y on th e one h a n d , and
th e v e r y h a r s h econom ic r e a l i t i e s , on th e o t h e r h a n d , th e V o lta n b u r e a u
c r a t s ch o se t o s a c r i f i c e th e m asses by l i m i t i n g t h e i r a c c e s s t o f u r t h e r
s c h o o l i n g .
The f i r s t s t e p i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n was th e i n s t i t u t i o n , i n 1966,
o f a c o m p e titio n f o r e n t r y to s e n i o r h ig h s c h o o l. The j u n i o r h ig h
s c h o o l le a v in g c e r t i f i c a t e (d ip lo m a) was no lo n g e r s u f f i c i e n t f o r a
s t u d e n t to be a d m itte d t o th e s e n i o r h ig h s c h o o l. I t became n e c e s s a r y »
to be l e s s th a n 19 y e a r s o ld and ra n k i n th e f i r s t p e r c e n t i l e o f th e
j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l g r a d u a t e s , a c c o r d in g t o th e number o f p la c e s y e a r l y
d e c l a r e d a v a i l a b l e by th e M in i s t r y o f E d u c a tio n . T h is number has r e
m ained s t a t i o n a r y a t a ro u n d 450 f o r th e p a s t 14 y e a r s , as no new c l a s s
rooms have been b u i l t f o r s e n i o r h ig h s c h o o l s i n c e in d e p e n d e n c e .
To make th in g s more d i f f i c u l t f o r th e s t u d e n t s , o n ly one r e p e
t i t i o n o f th e s e n i o r as w e ll a s th e j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l c y c l e , has been
a llo w e d . T h is p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e p e t i t i o n i t s e l f h as a l s o become more
t h e o r e t i c a l th a n r e a l f o r j u n i o r s t u d e n t s n o t ra n k e d i n th e a p p r o p r i a t e
137
p e r c e n t i l e in th e e x a m in a tio n a lth o u g h th e y g ra d u a te d and who w ere
w i l l i n g to u se t h e i r l e g a l r i g h t to r e p e a t th e l a s t y e a r of th e j u n i o r
c y c le in o r d e r to g e t a b e t t e r ra n k in g a t th e same e x a m in a tio n . As
th e number o f su ch s t u d e n t s h as been i n c r e a s i n g e a c h y e a r , th e number
o f p la c e s a v a i l a b l e f o r new s t u d e n t s h as d e c r e a s e d . T h e r e f o r e , th e
e d u c a t i o n a l b u r e a u c r a t s s o u g h t m easu res to re d u c e th e demand and d e
c id e d o n ly to a c c e p t r e p e a t e r s i f t h e r e w ere p la c e s a v a i l a b l e a f t e r
th e a d m is s io n o f th e new s t u d e n t s - - a l r e a d y more num erous th a n th e
a v a i l a b l e p l a c e s .
To c o n t r o l th e flo w o f th e s e new s t u d e n t s , a t l e a s t f o r th e
c h i l d r e n of th e m a ss e s , a seco n d m easure was ta k e n in 1967 c o n s i s t i n g
o f f i x i n g th e minimum s c h o o l age a t 7 i n s t e a d o f 6 y e a r s , a s i t had
b een s i n c e th e c o l o n i a l p e r i o d .
No o f f i c i a l a c t , ho w ev er, s u p p o r ts t h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e m easu re
w hich i s b r o a d c a s t y e a r l y to th e p a r e n t s o f s c h o o l age c h i l d r e n and
com m unicated to i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s l i k e UNESCO and to e d u c a
t i o n a l r e s e a r c h e r s . The e d u c a t i o n a l p la n n in g o f f i c e o f th e M i n i s t r y o f
E d u c a tio n s t a t e s t h a t " th e o f f i c i a l age f o r a d m is s io n t o p rim a ry schools
i s 7 y e a r s " (MEN, P l a n i f i c a t i o n , S t a t i s t i q u e s S c o l a i r e s 1 9 7 9 -1 9 8 0 ,
p . A 5 ) . However, th e o n ly o f f i c i a l d e c re e f i x i n g th e c u r r ic u lu m and
th e age l i m i t s f o r e n t r y to e le m e n ta r y s c h o o ls s t i p u l a t e s t h a t :
The f i r s t l e v e l o f e d u c a tio n i s f r e e to th e e x t e n t o f s p a c e
a v a i l a b l e . The a d m is s io n age i s s i x y e a r s a t l e a s t and e i g h t
y e a r s a t m ost on December 3 1 s t o f th e y e a r o f e n t r y i n th e
f i r s t g r a d e . ( A r t i c l e 3 0 , D ecree No. 289 bis/PR E S/E N ,
A ugust 3 , 1965)
Seven y e a r s , th e n , i s an u n o f f i c i a l age l i m i t . T h is m ethod of
e s t a b l i s h i n g u n w r itt e n r e g u l a t i o n s a llo w s th e V o lta n b u r e a u c r a t s
138
t o th w a rt th o s e r e g u l a t i o n s " l e g a l l y " i n o r d e r to p r e s e r v e t h e i r i n t e r
e s t s a g a i n s t o th e r s o c i a l c l a s s e s .
F o r exam ple, th e b u r e a u c r a t s send t h e i r so n s to p u b li c s c h o o ls
a t ag e 6 o r even 5 , w h ile th e p e a s a n ts and w o r k e r s ' so n s h av e a lm o s t
no a c c e s s to p rim a ry e d u c a tio n a t 7 o r 8 .
In f a c t , 7 y e a r s i s to o o ld an age to b e g in i f th e s t u d e n t i s
to be e l i g i b l e f o r th e L y c^ e, th e lo n g - c y c le h ig h s c h o o l ( l y c e ^ s ) ,
a f t e r 6 y e a r s o f e le m e n ta ry s c h o o li n g . I n e f f e c t , th e b u r e a u c r a t s s e t
o t h e r , u n o f f i c i a l ag e l i m i t s b e s id e s th e o f f i c i a l o n e s , r e s u l t i n g in
th e t r a c k i n g o f s t u d e n t s o f 14 i n t o th e s h o r t - c y c l e s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l s - -
to th e much h a te d "CEG," c o n s id e r e d to be " c o o li n g o u t" i n s t i t u t i o n s .
The o rd in a n c e and d e c re e r e g u l a t i n g th e c o n d i t i o n s o f g r a n t i n g
s c h o l a r s h i p s and a c c e s s t o p u b li c e d u c a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s to s e c o n d a ry
s c h o o l s t u d e n t s d id s e t th e age l i m i t s f o r a c c e s s to th e lo n g - c y c le a t
14 and to th e s h o r t - c y c l e a t 15. T hese r e g u l a t i o n s th u s a llo w e d th e
s t u d e n t e n t e r i n g th e e le m e n ta ry s c h o o l a t 7 to u se h i s l e g a l r i g h t to
r e p e a t a t l e a s t one form and s t i l l m eet th e age re q u ir e m e n ts f o r e n t e r
in g th e lo n g - c y c le s e c o n d a ry e d u c a tio n program .
However, th e b u r e a u c r a t s r e p r e s e n t e d in th e N a ti o n a l Com m ittee
f o r th e G ra n tin g o f S c h o la r s h i p s (CNACB) underm ined th e s e o f f i c i a l d i s
p o s i t i o n s and s u b s t i t u t e d f o r them w hat may be c a l l e d a p h ilo s o p h y of
" m e d io c ra c y ." T h is p h ilo s o p h y was c l e a r l y s p e l l e d o u t by th e CNACB as
f o l l o w s :
The te n d e n c y b e in g to p r e p a r e f o r th e b a c c a l a u r d a t y o u n g er and
yo u n g er e le m e n ts a b l e t o p u rs u e good h ig h e r e d u c a tio n , th e com
m i t t e e would l i k e to s e e th e ag e l i m i t s e t a t 13 f o r e n t r y i n t o
th e L yce^s o r s i m i l a r e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , and a t 14 f o r
th e e n t r y to th e " c o l l e g e s d 'e n s e ig n e m e n t g e n e r a l . "
139
The co m m ittee a l s o w ish e s t h a t m i n i s t e r i a l m easu res be ta k e n
to f o r b i d e n t r y i n t o th e s e n i o r h ig h s c h o o l to s t u d e n t s more th a n
18 y e a r s o l d . The a d v a n ta g e o f su ch m easu res i s to a llo w s t u
d e n ts o f a v e ra g e i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t y to g e t a c c e s s to h ig h e r
e d u c a tio n a t 22 y e a r s o f a g e . (CNACB, PV 27-28 J a n v i e r 1969,
p p . 1 3 -1 4 )
T h a t th e age l i m i t a t i o n i s a d e v ic e f o r th e c o n t r o l o f th e
d o m in ated c l a s s e s 1 c h i l d r e n o n ly i s a p p a r e n t in t h a t i t c o n c e rn s o n ly
p u b li c i n s t i t u t i o n s , more p r e c i s e l y a c e r t a i n c a te g o r y o f p e o p le s e e k
in g a c c e s s to th e s e p u b li c i n s t i t u t i o n s , n o t th e p r i v a t e o n e s . And i t
i s to th e l a t t e r t h a t th e b u r e a u c r a t s and t h e i r w e a lth y u rb an t r a d e r
a l l i e s have b een s e n d in g t h e i r c h i l d r e n s i n c e th e n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n in
1969 o f m is s io n a r y s c h o o l s , w hich had p r e v i o u s l y p la y e d an im p o rta n t
r o l e i n r e d u c i n g , q u i t e u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y , th e s c h o o lin g o p p o r t u n i t y gap
b etw een u rb a n and r u r a l a r e a s , b u r e a u c r a t s ' s o n s , and p e a s a n t s ' s o n s .
I t i s re m a rk a b le t h a t t h e s e p r i v a t e e le m e n ta ry s c h o o ls have
g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d t h e i r number and t h e i r e n r o llm e n ts s i n c e th e d e c l a r a
t i o n o f th e minimum s c h o o l age f o r p u b li c i n s t i t u t i o n s . From 22 (20
b e in g p r i v a t e p r o t e s t a n t s c h o o ls w h ich s u r v iv e d th e n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n ) in
1970, th e y jumped to 50 i n 1975 and 64 i n 1980. T a b le 6 i n d i c a t e s th e
r e l a t i v e im p o rta n c e o f th e p u b li c and p r i v a t e s c h o o ls s in c e 1969.
The t u i t i o n a t th e p r i v a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s , e x c e p t f o r th e 20
P r o t e s t a n t s c h o o l s , ra n g e s from 2 to 10 tim e s th e p e a s a n t's a n n u a l p e r
c a p i t a income ($ 6 0 ), and th e a v e ra g e w o r k e r 's m o n th ly s a l a r y . The
p e a s a n ts and th e w o rk e rs c a n n o t a f f o r d th e t u i t i o n i n th e s e p r i v a t e
i n s t i t u t i o n s . In any c a s e , th e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e c o n c e n tr a te d i n th e
t h r e e m ain c i t i e s o f O uagadougou, B o b o -D io la s s o , and Koudougou.
T a b le 7 i n d i c a t e s th e e v o l u t i o n i n th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p r i v a t e e le m e n
t a r y s c h o o ls th ro u g h o u t th e t e r r i t o r y .
140
T a b le 6
E v o l u tio n o f P r i v a t e and P u b l i c E le m e n ta ry S c h o o ls and S tu d e n ts s i n c e
1 9 6 9 - - th e D ate o f N a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f C a t h o l i c I n s t i t u t i o n s
Number o f S c h o o l Number o f S tu d e n ts
P l a n t s Number o f C la ssro o m s E n r o l l e d
P e r io d P u b l i c P r i v a t e P u b l i c P r i v a t e P u b l i c P r i v a t e
1969
415 180 1 ,4 4 0 711 6 8 ,0 8 3 3 1 ,7 4 4
1970 574 22 2 ,1 2 6 72 9 9 ,7 3 2 2 ,8 4 2
1975 639 50 2 ,4 0 9 208 12 4 ,9 2 9 8 ,7 3 1
1980
799 64 2 ,8 3 9 294 1 7 0 ,7 7 3 14,885
N o t e . From S t a t i s t i q u e s S c o l a i r e s . 1 968-1969; 1 9 6 9 -1 9 7 0 ; 1974-
1975; 1 9 7 9 -1 9 8 0 . By th e M in i s t h r e de l ’E d u c a tio n N a ti o n a le
e t de l a C u l t u r e . The k i n d e r g a r t e n s h av e b e e n in c lu d e d in
th e c o m p u ta tio n . N ote t h a t t h e r e h as alw ay s b e e n one p u b li c
k i n d e r g a r t e n l o c a t e d a t B o b o - D io u la s s o . The num ber of
p r i v a t e k i n d e r g a r t e n s r o s e from 0 i n 1970 t o 10 i n 1975
and 19 i n 1980.
141
T a b le 7
D i s t r i b u t i o n of P r i v a t e E le m e n ta ry S ch o o ls o v e r th e T e r r i t o r y
in 1966 and in 1980
Number of S ch o o l Number of S tu d e n ts
P l a n t s Number of C lassro o m s E n r o l le d
S ch o o l o f ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
D i s t r i c t 1966 1980 1966 1980 1966 1980
B a n fo ra 25 - 87
-
3 ,8 4 3
Bobo-
D io u la s s o
25 11 113 65 5 ,0 5 3 3 ,6 1 7
D^dougou 29 1 97 3 4 ,3 0 0 172
F a d a -
N ’Gourma
26 4 106
12 4 ,3 1 9 677
Kaya 9 3 25 8 1,095 469
Koudougou 21 7 88 25 4 ,0 5 6 1,335
Ouagadougou 32 37 138 178
6 ,8 0 9 8,395
O uahigouya 7 1 28
3
1 ,3 3 6 219
T o t a l 173 64 684 294 30 ,8 1 1 14,885
N o te . From S t a t i s i q u e s S c o l a i r e s . 1965-1966; 1 9 79-1980. By
th e M i n is te r e de l ’E d u c a tio n N a tio n a le e t de l a C u l t u r e .
F o r c o m p a ra tiv e p u r p o s e s , th e e d u c a tio n a l s t r u c t u r e s o f
1966 w ere k e p t f o r 1980 d a t a .
142
W ith th e e x c e p tio n o f B o b o -D io u la s s o , w hich has one p u b li c
k i n d e r g a r t e n , k in d e r g a r t e n s e x i s t o n ly i n p r i v a t e s c h o o ls , more p r e
c i s e l y i n th e t h r e e m ain c i t i e s m e n tio n e d . They aim to g iv e t h e i r
c l i e n t e l e , nam ely th e b u r e a u c r a t s and w e a lth y u rb a n tr a d e r s * c h i l d r e n
a m arked h e a d - s t a r t . In f a c t , th e y f u n c t i o n a s an i n t e g r a t e d p a r t of
e le m e n ta ry s c h o o ls . They r e c e i v e c h i l d r e n a s young as 2 who s t a y f o r
3 to 5 y e a r s b e f o r e j o i n i n g th e p u b l i c s c h o o ls i n th e 3 rd o r even 4 th
g ra d e when t h e i r l e s s f o r t u n a t e p e e rs a r e j u s t b e g in n in g th e 1 s t g r a d e .
In e f f e c t , a f t e r th e minimum age i s s e t f o r e n t r y i n th e f i r s t
g ra d e o f p u b l i c e le m e n ta ry s c h o o l, no f u r t h e r m e asu re s a r e ta k e n to
make s u r e t h a t each s u b s e q u e n t g ra d e i s e n r o l l i n g th e a p p r o p r i a t e aged
s t u d e n t s . T h u s, i n a d d i t i o n t o th e trem endous a d v a n ta g e o f g e t t i n g
b a s i c s k i l l s i n th e k i n d e r g a r t e n s , o r e n t e r i n g s c h o o l much y o u n g er th a n
th e age o f f i c i a l l y a llo w e d f o r o th e r c l a s s e s ’ c h i l d r e n , th e b u r e a u c r a ts
and w e a lth y u rb a n t r a d e r s * so n s have th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f s t e a l i n g p la c e s
i n th e p u b l i c s c h o o ls w ith o u t b e in g s u b m itte d to th e l e g a l r e g u l a t i o n s .
T a b le s 8 and 9 i n d i c a t e th e d i f f e r e n t i a l ag e s a t w h ich c h i l d r e n
e n t e r e d th e d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f e le m e n ta ry s c h o o ls i n 1980 and th e e v o
l u t i o n o f th e s e d i f f e r e n t i a l a g e s s i n c e 1966.
V i r t u a l l y a l l sons o f b u r e a u c r a t s and w e a lth y u rb a n t r a d e r s
g a in a c c e s s t o e le m e n ta ry s c h o o l, w h ile th e n a t i o n a l r a t e o f s c h o o lin g
i s as low a s 12 p e r c e n t . T h ere a r e no c o m p a ra tiv e s t a t i s t i c s f o r th e
d i f f e r e n t i a l r a t e s o f s c h o o lin g f o r d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l c l a s s e s and g ro u p s
a t th e e le m e n ta ry l e v e l , b u t th e d i f f e r e n t i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e s e
c l a s s e s i n th e f i r s t form o f s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l f o r th e l a s t s i x y e a rs
(1 9 7 5 -1 9 8 0 , d a t a f o r 1979 a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e ) i s v e r y r e v e a l i n g .
143
T a b le 8
D i f f e r e n t i a l Ages a t Which S tu d e n ts o f B oth Sexes E n te re d
th e D i f f e r e n t P rim a ry S ch o o ls i n 1980
-
Types o f I n s t i t u t i o n s
Age
P u b lic
%
P r i v a t e
%
A l l
%
5 y e a r s - .06 2 .7 0 .27
6 y e a r s 1 1 .5 0 25.15 1 2 .5 7
7 y e a r s 6 4 .0 0 5 0 .2 7 6 2 .8 7
8 y e a rs 2 0 .2 0 1 7 .1 0 19.95
9 y e a r s 3 .8 0 3 .5 1 3 .7 4
10 y e a r s .48 .43 .47
11 y e a r s .93 .40 .60
N = 4 0 ,8 2 2 3 ,4 7 9 4 4 ,3 0 1
T a b le 9
D i f f e r e n t i a l Ages a t Which S tu d e n ts o f B oth Sexes
th e D i f f e r e n t P rim a ry S ch o o ls in 1966
E n te r e d
Types o f I n s t i t u t i o n s
Age
P u b lic
%
P r i v a t e
7 o
A ll
7 o
5 y e a r s .25 1 .1 0 .52
6 y e a r s 2 6 .4 3 3 7 .3 4 2 9 .8 9
7 y e a r s 4 9 .7 2 4 5 .5 0 4 8 .2 2
8 y e a r s 1 8 .6 0 1 4 .8 4 17.33
9 y e a r s 4 .3 9 1 .9 0 3 .5 7
10 y e a r s
.54 .11 .97
11 y e a r s
.08 .03 .06
N = 15 ,443 7 ,4 2 1 2 2 ,9 2 4
144
T a b le 10 i n d i c a t e s t h i s d i f f e r e n t i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
an o v e r - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f b u r e a u c r a t s and t r a d e r s and an u n d e r r e p r e s e n
t a t i o n o f p e a s a n t s .
E n t e r in g th e e le m e n ta ry s c h o o l much y o u n g er th a n t h e i r r u r a l
c o u n t e r p a r t s , th e so n s of b u r e a u c r a ts o r w e a lth y u rb a n t r a d e r s h a v e ,
b e s id e s th e c u l t u r a l b ack g ro u n d a d v a n ta g e b r o u g h t from th e f a m ily o r
g iv e n by th e p r e - s c h o o l , th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e p e a t i n g two o r th r e e
g ra d e s and s t i l l m e e tin g th e ag e l i m i t s f o r e n t r y to j u n i o r h ig h
s c h o o l .
I f th e y f a i l th e e n t r a n c e e x a m in a tio n f o r j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l,
th e y s t i l l have th e f i n a n c i a l r e s o u r c e s to pay t u i t i o n in one o f th e
num erous p r i v a t e h ig h s c h o o ls t h a t have b e e n f l o u r i s h i n g s i n c e 1970.
T h ere th e y a r e n o t s u b j e c t t o th e d r a s t i c s c h o o l m o r t a l i t y w hich h i t s
th e p u b l i c s e c o n d a ry i n s t i t u t i o n s . As T a b le 11 i n d i c a t e s , th e r e p e t i
t i o n r a t e in th e p r i v a t e s e c o n d a ry s c h o o ls i s lo w er (a b o u t 9%) th a n
t h a t of th e p u b li c s c h o o ls (a b o u t 18%); and s i n c e 1 9 7 0 --th e r a t e o f
r e p e t i t i o n b e in g a b o u t e q u a l (14.5% ) by 1966 f o r b o th ty p e s o f s c h o o l.
One o f th e m ost e v id e n t a d v a n ta g e s o f t h i s lo w er r e p e t i t i o n
r a t e i n p r i v a t e h ig h s c h o o ls i s t h a t th e s t u d e n t s from th e s e s c h o o ls
have more ch an ce t o r e a c h th e 1 2 th g ra d e a t a r e l a t i v e l y y o u n g e r age
th a n t h e i r f e llo w s from p u b l i c s c h o o l s , even i f th e y s h o u ld r e t a k e th e
b a c c a l a u r ^ a t e x a m in a tio n two o r t h r e e ti m e s . T h u s, th e y w ould s t i l l
b e young enough to b e n e f i t from a s t a t e s c h o l a r s h i p u n d e r th e c o n d i
t i o n s t o be exam ined f u r t h e r .
In a d d i t i o n , some s p e c i f i c b u r e a u c r a t i c g ro u p s s t i l l enhance
t h e i r ch an c es to g a in a c c e s s to e d u c a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s th ro u g h th e
145
T a b le 10
D i s t r i b u t i o n o f S ix th G rad ers A c c o rd in g to
F a t h e r 's O c c u p a tio n from 1975 to 1980
P r o p o r tio n s o f In d e x of
F a t h e r 's O c c u p a tio n S tu d e n ts
A c tiv e
P o p u la tio n
R e p r e s e n t a ti o n
= 100
P e a s a n t 3 9 .0 8 8 .3 7 4 4 .1 3
C a t t l e - b r e e d e r .45 3 .7 5 1 2 .1 0
A r t i s a n 1 .5 6 2 .4 7 6 3 .1 6
T ra d e r 6 .1 1 .2 6 4 8 4 .1 3
C i v i l s e r v a n t 3 0 .1 .94 3 ,2 0 2 .1 3
M i l i t a r y 5 .1 .61 885 .25
L i b e r a l
p r o f e s s i o n a l
2 .6 .14 1 ,8 5 7 .1 4
P r i v a t e s e c t o r
em p lo y ees3-
3 .0 .08 3 ,7 5 0 .0 0
R e t i r e d 5 .2 .42 1 ,2 3 8 .1 0
D eceased 1 .4
cl
W orkers 4 .2 1.92 218 .75
N o te . From S t a t i s t i q u e s S c o l a i r e s ( s t a t i s t i c s o f h ig h s c h o o l
e n r o ll m e n t s , 1974-75 t o 1 9 7 9 -8 0 ). By M i n i s t e r e de
1 'E d u c a tio n N a ti o n a le e t de l a C u lt u r e ; R e s u l t a t s du
R ecensem ent de l a p o p u la tio n 1975; S i t u a t i o n Econom ique
e t F in a n c i e r e de l a H a u te - V o lt a . November 1979. By
M in is tb r e du P la n .
c i
D ata n o t v e ry r e l i a b l e .
146
147
Table 11
E v o lu tio n of R e p e titio n R ates in th e P u b lic and P r iv a te High Schools
Year
Grade
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Average
pca 11.86 12.98 11.27 17.64 16.37 34.16 23.63 14.56
1965-66
u
PV 11.81 12.10 11.61 24.25 6.15 30.43 15.00 14.30
PC 12.69 16.86 14.10 * 25.28 18.45 20.77 24.00 17.47
1969-70
PV 7.16 9.77 7.03 16.33 10.00 10.42 12.17 9.94
PC 9.23 10.76 12.07 30.90 16.98 26.29 30.75 17.61
1974-75
PV 5 .1 4 4.61 6.01 18.20 6.23 6.96 26.64 8.58
PC 13.50 15.70 16.55 23.80 16.90 18.38 32.36 19.29
1980-81
PV 7.88 8.08 8.02 12.15 4.38 12.55 12.85 9.07
PC 11.80 14.00 13.50 24.40 17.20 24.90 27.70 17.23
T o ta l
PV 8.00 8.60 8.17 17.70 6.70 15 .10 16.60 10.47
N o te . Computed from S t a t i s t i q u e s S c o l a i r e s . 1965-66; 1969-70; 1974-75; 1980-81.
By M in is te re de I ’E ducation e t de la C u ltu re .
aPC = p u b lic .
PV = p r i v a t e .
c r e a t i o n and m a in te n a n c e , on p u b l i c fu n d s o f r e s e r v e d s c h o o ls f o r th e
e x c l u s i v e b e n e f i t o f t h e i r m em bers1 o f f s p r i n g .
T h u s, f o r i n s t a n c e , th e s o - c a l l e d " ly c e e s m u n ic ip a u x ,1 1 o f w hich
t h e r e a r e t h r e e ( lo c a te d i n O uagadougou, B o b o -D io u la sso and B a n f o r a ) , a re
se c o n d a ry s c h o o ls whose b u i l d i n g s b e lo n g t h e o r e t i c a l l y to th e to w n sh ip ,
a lth o u g h m ost o f them have b e e n b u i l t w ith s t a t e b u d g e t p a r t i c i p a t i o n ,
w hich a r e o p e r a te d e x c l u s i v e l y w ith s t a t e - p a i d t e a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a
t o r s . Y e t, t h e i r a c c e s s i s l i m i t e d to c h i l d r e n from th e s o - c a l l e d t a x
p a y e rs of th e c o n c e rn e d to w n s, t h a t i s , p r i n c i p a l l y th e f u n c t i o n a r i e s
and w e a lth y u rb a n t r a d e r s ; and th e c o n d i tio n s o f r e c r u i t m e n t a r e n o t
d e p e n d e n t on a d m is s io n t o th e n a t i o n a l e x a m in a tio n .
In f a c t , th e " ly c e e s m u n icip au x " have b een d e s ig n e d as a means
o f overcom ing th e b a r r i e r r e p r e s e n t e d by th e h ig h l y s e l e c t i v e j u n i o r
h ig h s c h o o l e n t r a n c e e x a m in a tio n i n w hich l e s s th a n 15 p e r c e n t o f th e
c a n d id a te s and l e s s th a n 9.5 p e r c e n t o f th e t o t a l f i f t h - g r a d e p o p u la
t i o n hav e been a d m itte d from 1969 t o 1980.
The m i l i t a r y p r e p a r a t o r y s c h o o l, PMK, a l r e a d y m e n tio n e d i n th e
p r e c e d in g c h a p t e r , r e s e r v e s tw o - t h i r d s of i t s p la c e s f o r so n s o f th e
m i l i t a r y , g en d arm es, and v e t e r a n s w ith th e re m a in in g o n e - t h i r d o f th e
p la c e s t o be s h a r e d by th e r e s t o f th e V o lta n p o p u l a t i o n . The d e c re e
(6 0 /0 2 0 /p re s/D N du 22 j a u v i e r 1969 p o r t a n t s u r l a c r e a t i o n e t
1 O r g a n i s a t i o n du P r y ta n e e M i l i t a i r e de K adiogo) i s q u i t e e x p l i c i t
a b o u t th e s e g r e g a t i o n a l , c a s t e - l i k e n a t u r e o f th e i n s t i t u t i o n . A r t i c l e s
3 and 7 r e a d a s f o llo w s :
The PMK i s a s e c o n d a ry e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n r e s e r v e d i n p r i n
c i p l e f o r w ar o rp h an s and s t a t e d e p e n d e n ts , so n s o f m i l i t a r y and
gendarm es i n s e r v i c e o r r e t i r e d .
148
I t s o b j e c t i v e i s t o g iv e m o ra l, i n t e l l e c t u a l and p h y s i c a l
t r a i n i n g to y o u n g s te r s d e s ig n e d e v e n t u a l l y f o r c a r e e r s i n th e
army o r th e s t a t e c i v i l s e r v i c e . ( A r t i c l e 3)
The PMK i s open to a l l V o lta n s m e e tin g th e age re q u ir e m e n ts e s
t a b l i s h e d . However th e r e c r u i t m e n t o f s t u d e n t s o c c u rs a t th e
l e v e l o f th e s i x t h g ra d e and th ro u g h c o m p e tit io n . A d m issio n s
to th e c o m p e titio n a r e s u b j e c t e d to a p e r c e n ta g in g f i x e d and
p r e - e s t a b l i s h e d as f o llo w s :
- 1 /3 o f th o s e a d m itte d w i l l c o m p rise th e so n s o f m i l i t a r y
and gendarm es i n s e r v i c e o r r e t i r e d ,
- 1 /3 w i l l be c o m p rise d o f w ar o rp h a n s and o t h e r s t a t e d e p e n
d e n t s , and so n s o f c i v i l s e r v a n t s .
- 1 /3 w i l l be co m p rised o f n a t i o n a l s from a l l o t h e r p r o f e s
s io n s . ( A r t i c l e 7)
A ll PMK s tu d e n t s h o ld s c h o l a r s h i p s , a lth o u g h i t was o r i g i n a l l y
in te n d e d to l i m i t th e b e n e f i t of s c h o l a r s h i p s t o so n s o f th e m i l i t a r y
and g e n d a rm e s, a l l o t h e r c a t e g o r i e s b e in g r e q u i r e d to o b t a i n " r e g u l a r "
s t a t e s c h o l a r s h i p s by co m p etin g w ith o th e r s t u d e n t s o r to pay t u i t i o n
e q u i v a l e n t to th e amount o f th e s c h o l a r s h i p .
T a b le 12 i n d i c a t e s th e s o c i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e s e r e s e r v e d
s c h o o ls ( ly c e e s m u n icip au x and PMK). I t m ust be p o in te d o u t once a g a i n
t h a t th e c a te g o r y l a b e l l e d " p e a s a n ts " in th e PMK r e f e r s t o r e t i r e d
m i l i t a r y who g e n e r a l l y c o n v e r t th e m s e lv e s i n t o f a r m e r s , l i k e m ost r e
t i r e d c i v i l s e r v a n t s . I t has n o t b een p o s s i b l e i n th e fram ew ork o f
th e p r e s e n t s tu d y to s o r t o u t th e s e " f a l s e " p e a s a n ts from th e t r u e .
C l e a r l y , th e PMK i s p r e s e n t l y th e p re e m in e n t V o lta n e l i t e
s c h o o l . The c i v i l s e r v a n t s who sen d t h e i r so n s to t h i s i n s t i t u t i o n
a r e th e to p b u r e a u c r a t s , a lth o u g h i t h a s n o t b een p o s s i b l e in th e
p r e s e n t s tu d y to e s t a b l i s h s t a t i s t i c a l e v id e n c e to s u b s t a n t i a t e t h i s
o b s e rv e d and m u c h -d is c u ss e d t r e n d .
In sum, (1) th e e n t r y to e le m e n ta ry s c h o o l a t a y o u n g e r a g e ,
149
T a b le 12
D i s t r i b u t i o n o f S tu d e n ts i n th e L ycees M un icip au x and PMK A cc o rd in g
to th e S o c ia l O r ig in s as M easured by F a t h e r 's O c c u p a tio n ,
f o r th e Academ ic Y ear 1980- 1981
In s t i t u t i o n
L ycees M u n icip au x of
Ouagadougou and
B o b o -D io u la sso PMK
F a t h e r 's O c c u p a tio n P e r c e n ta g e Number P e r c e n ta g e Number
a
P e a s a n t 3 1 .3 1 460 2 3 .9 3 106
C a t t l e - b r e e d e r .14 2 .23 1
A r t i s a n 2 .5 9 38 3 .3 9 15
T ra d e r 6 .4 7 95 3 .3 9 15
C i v i l s e r v a n t 3 .3 4 49 9 .0 3 40
L i b e r a l
p r o f e s s i o n a l
2 .7 9 41 .45 2
P r i v a t e s e c t o r
em ployees
1 .3 6 20 1.35 6
R e t i r e d 9 .3 9 138 9 .0 3 40
D eceased 3 .2 0 47 1 .6 0 7
W orkers 7 .4 2 109 9 .9 3 44
T o t a l 1 0 0 .0 1,4 6 9 1 0 0 .03b 443
N o te . From R a p p o rts de R e n tre e s des E t a b li s s e m e n ts S e c o n d a i r e s :
1980-1981 ( D i r e c t i o n de Second D e g r e ) . By M in is th r e de
1 'E d u c a tio n N a tio n a le e t de l a C u l t u r e .
cL
T h is c a te g o r y co m p rise s a l s o r e t i r e d m i l i t a r y , a lth o u g h
in an unknown p r o p o r t i o n .
P e r c e n ta g e s do n o t add up t o 100 due to ro u n d in g e r r o r s .
150
(b ) th e a b i l i t y to pay t u i t i o n f o r p r i v a t e s e c o n d a ry s c h o o ls th e re b y
a v o id in g th e d r a s t i c c o m p e titio n f o r th e l i m i t e d p la c e s a v a i l a b l e i n
p u b l i c i n s t i t u t i o n s , (3) th e h ig h w a s te r a t e s t h e r e , and (4) t h e e x i s
te n c e of s p e c i a l s e c o n d a ry e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s d i s p r o p o r t i o n a l l y
r e s e r v e d f o r th e c h i l d r e n o f b u r e a u c r a ts ( m i l i t a r y and c i v i l i a n , p u b li c
an d p r i v a t e ) , a l l com bine to g iv e th e s e b u r e a u c r a t s and t h e i r w e a lth y
u rb a n a l l i e s trem endous a d v a n ta g e s o v e r th e so n s o f p e a s a n t s , r u r a l
a r t i s a n s , and u rb a n w o r k e r s .
The s t a t i s t i c a l t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e s e a d v a n ta g e s p o r tr a y e d i n
T a b le 7 i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e p e a s a n t s , c a t t l e - b r e e d e r s , and a r t i s a n s who
r e p r e s e n t 9 4 .6 p e r c e n t o f th e V o lta n p o p u la tio n make up o n ly 44 p e r c e n t
o f th e s i x t h g ra d e s t u d e n t p o p u l a t i o n , t h a t i s , th e y a r e u n d e r r e p r e
s e n t e d by more th a n 56 p e r c e n t o f t h e i r n u m e ric im p o rta n c e ; w h ile th e
so n s of th e b u r e a u c r a t s who r e p r e s e n t o n ly 2 p e r c e n t o f th e p o p u la tio n
a t l a r g e make up 4 3 .3 p e r c e n t o f th e s i x t h - g r a d e s t u d e n t p o p u l a t i o n ,
t h a t i s , 21 tim e s t h e i r r e l a t i v e dem o g rap h ic im p o rta n c e i n th e s o c i e t y .
The w o rk e rs a r e b e t t e r r e p r e s e n t e d th a n th e p e a s a n t s , m aking 2 .2 tim e s
t h e i r dem o g rap h ic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , b u t th e y a r e th e m ost d e p r iv e d u rb a n
d w e l l e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n c o m p ariso n w ith th e b u r e a u c r a ts and ev en th e
p e t t y t r a d e r s who a r e o v e r - r e p r e s e n t e d by 9 tim e s t h e i r r e l a t i v e demo
g r a p h ic im p o rta n c e . I t m ust be b o rn e i n m ind, ho w ev er, t h a t th e t r a d
in g p r o f e s s i o n i s th e m ost d i f f i c u l t to d i f f e r e n t i a t e in U pper V o l t a .
I t has n o t b een p o s s i b l e f o r th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h to d e v e lo p s t a t i s t i c s
c o n c e rn in g th e d i f f e r e n t i a l r a t e s of s c h o o lin g f o r th e " t r a d i t i o n a l "
t r a d e r s (46 p e r c e n t o f a l l o f th e p r o f e s s i o n l i v i n g m o s tly i n r u r a l
and s e m i - r u r a l a r e a s ) and "m odern" t r a d e r s r e f e r r e d t o a s w e a lth y u rb a n
151
t r a d e r s th ro u g h o u t t h i s s tu d y (54 p e r c e n t o f th e c a t e g o r y ) . H owever,
i f we assum e t h a t th e a v e ra g e incom e o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l p e t t y t r a d e r s
i s b a r e l y h ig h e r th a n t h a t of a n u rb a n u n s k i l l e d w o rk e rs , we may e x p e c t
t h e i r c h i l d r e n t o be s c h o l a r s h i p r e c i p i e n t s , w h ile th e sons o f w e a l t h
i e r , u rb a n t r a d e r s may be a b l e to pay th e t u i t i o n o f a p r i v a t e h ig h
s c h o o l. By co m p arin g th e p r o p o r t i o n o f t r a d e r s ' so n s who have h e ld
s c h o l a r s h i p s from 1975 t o i 1980 w ith th e p r o p o r t i o n o f th o s e who have
n o t , we come t o an a p p ro x im a tio n o f th e d i f f e r e n t i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f
t r a d i t i o n a l p e t t y t r a d e r s and w e a l t h i e r u rb a n t r a d e r s e q u a l 2 0 .5 p e r
c e n t f o r th e fo rm e r and 79.5 p e r c e n t f o r th e l a t t e r . T hese f i g u r e s ,
how ever, a r e t o be u s e d w ith much c a u t io n a s th e p re m ise on w h ich th e y
a r e b a se d ( c h i l d r e n o f w e a l t h i e r t r a d e r s a t t e n d i n g h ig h s c h o o l w ith o u t
s c h o l a r s h i p s ) i s n o t t h a t c e r t a i n . As we s h a l l s e e in th e n e x t s e c
t i o n , th e r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een g e o e t h n i c i t y and c l a s s f o r m a tio n te n d s
to b l u r c l a s s d i f f e r e n c e s a s f a r a s a c c e s s to e d u c a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s
i s c o n c e rn e d .
T h is s i t u a t i o n , h ow ever, does n o t c u r t a i l in th e l e a s t th e
b a s i c p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t th e b u r e a u c r a ts a r e in c o n t r o l o f th e s c h o o l
sy stem and u se i t a s t h e i r own to p r e s e r v e and th ro u g h i t p a ss a lo n g
t h e i r p r i v i l e g e s to t h e i r o f f s p r i n g . In d e e d , a s a l r e a d y a rg u e d i n
C h a p te r IV , and as w i l l be s e e n i n th e n e x t s e c t i o n , th e g e o e th n ic
phenomenon i s n o t a s e p a r a t e b u t an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e c l a s s s t r u g g l e ,
s in c e th e b u r e a u c r a t s ' s t r a t e g y i s to r e i n f o r c e t h e i r s o c i a l p o s i t i o n
th ro u g h th e m o b i l i z a t i o n o f g e o e th n ic f o r c e s , ev en i f by s o d o in g th e
b u r e a u c r a t s a r e o b lig e d to make some c o n c e s s io n s to t h e i r o c c a s i o n a l
a l l i e s , y e t b a s i c a l l y c l a s s a n t a g o n i s t s , th e p e a s a n t s .
152
I t i s e v i d e n t from a l l t h a t h as b een s a i d so f a r c o n c e rn in g th e
d r a s t i c m e asu re s im posed on th e a c c e s s o f so n s o f p e a s a n ts to th e e d u
c a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s , t h a t th e b u r e a u c r a t s have s u b s t a n t i a l c o n t r o l o v e r
th e sy ste m o f s o c i a l r e p r o d u c t i o n th ro u g h e d u c a tio n . The m e asu re s men
ti o n e d c o n c e rn o n ly th e p u b li c i n s t i t u t i o n s w h e re , f o r e v i d e n t econom ic
r e a s o n s , th e d o m in ated c l a s s e s a r e o b lig e d to se n d t h e i r c h i l d r e n .
They do n o t c o n c e rn th e p r i v a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s w hich r i s e a t th e f a v o r
o f and in r e s p o n s e to th e s e m e a s u re s , as a b ack d o o r f o r th e b u r e a u
c r a t s to b y -p a s s t h e i r own r e g u l a t i o n s and y e t g u a r a n te e t h e i r l e g i t i
macy a s a r u l i n g c l a s s ta k in g c a r e of th e w e l l - b e i n g o f th e s o c i e t y as
a w h o le .
I n 1974 th e M i n i s t r y of E d u c a tio n e n a c te d some o f f i c i a l r e g u l a
t i o n s c o n c e rn in g th e p r i v a t e s c h o o l s . T hese r e g u l a t i o n s so u g h t to
g u a r a n te e m inim al p h y s i c a l s e c u r i t y o f th e s c h o o l p l a n t s and m inim al
acad em ic s ta n d a r d s a t th e moment when th e p r i v a t e s c h o o l e n t r e p r e n e u r s
w ere more p re o c c u p ie d w ith m aking q u ic k and b ig money o u t o f h a z a rd o u s
b u i l d i n g s , and in c o m p e te n t h ig h s c h o o l d r o p - o u ts r e c r u i t e d a s t e a c h e r s .
But th e s e r e g u l a t i o n s had n o th in g to do w ith th o s e e s t a b l i s h e d in th e
p u b li c s c h o o ls . P a r t i c u l a r l y , th e y d id n o t c o n c e rn th e p ro b lem of
maximum s c h o o l ag e f o r e n t r y to th e j u n i o r and th e s e n i o r c y c l e s .
I t may be a rg u e d t h a t t h e r e is n o th in g wrong w ith th e f a c t t h a t
th e s t a t e r e g u l a t i o n s c o n c e rn in g th e age l i m i t s f o r th e e n t r y to th e
d i f f e r e n t segm ents o f th e e d u c a t i o n a l sy ste m do n o t a p p ly to th e p r i
v a t e s e c t o r , i n s o f a r as f r e e e n t e r p r i s e i s g u a r a n te e d by th e o p tio n
f o r l i b e r a l i s m ; i t may a l s o be a rg u e d t h a t t h e r e i s n o th in g w rong w ith
153
th e f a c t t h a t l i m i t e d p u b l i c r e s o u r c e s le a d s to d e v i s i n g m e asu re s f o r
t h e i r o p tim a l u s e .
T hese p o i n t s w i l l be exam ined f u r t h e r in th e n e x t s e c t i o n c o n
c e r n in g th e o b j e c t i v e c o n s t r a i n t s e n c o u n te re d by b u r e a u c r a t s i n th e
d ev elo p m en t o f e d u c a t i o n . F o r th e tim e b e i n g , one re s p o n s e i s t h a t
w hat is wrong w ith th e s u s p e c te d s t a t e o f a f f a i r s i s t h a t i t c o n t r a
d i c t s some o th e r b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f th e s o - c a l l e d " l i b e r a l " sy ste m .
I n d e e d , th e c o m p e titio n s e t a t th e g a te s o f th e j u n i o r and s e n i o r h ig h
s c h o o ls a r e su p p o se d t o g iv e any V o lta n s t u d e n t e q u a l a c c e s s o p p o r tu
n i t y , and to show p u b l i c l y th e i m p a r t i a l i t y and h o n e s t y - - t h e r e b y th e
l e g i t i m a c y - - o f th e s t a t e and i t s b u r e a u c r a t s . The acad em ic a b i l i t y o f
a s t u d e n t i s su p p o se d to be th e o n ly f a c t o r i n h is s u c c e s s o r h i s
f a i l u r e , n o t e x t e r n a l , nam ely so c io e c o n o m ic f a c t o r s . The m e r i t o c r a t i c
p h ilo s o p h y was s p e l l e d o u t by th e s t a t e b u r e a u c r a t s a s f o llo w s :
th e dem o g rap h ic g ro w th , com bined w ith th e grow ing t h i r s t f o r
i n s t r u c t i o n le a d s more and more c h i l d r e n to th e s c h o o l d o o rs .
I n th e i m p o s s i b i l i t y of a c c e p ti n g a l l of them , i t i s n e c e s s a r y
to o r g a n iz e so a s to s e l e c t th e b e s t e le m e n ts and r e c e i v e more
o f th e s e e le m e n ts . (R .H .V ., P la n c a d re 1 9 6 7 -1 9 7 0 , p . 228)
The S o c i a l F u n c tio n o f th e S t a t e S c h o la r s h ip
I t is t r u e t h a t th e V o lta n b u r e a u c r a ts have r e t a i n e d th e c o
l o n i a l p o l i c y of m in im iz in g .econom ic h a n d ic a p th ro u g h th e g r a n t i n g o f
s t a t e s c h o l a r s h i p t o th e b e s t low income f a m i l i e s ' s t u d e n t s . B ut th e
s c h o l a r s h i p s y s te m c a n n o t, by i t s own, remedy th e b a s i c s o c i a l i n e q u a l
i t y among s t u d e n t s from d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l o r i g i n s .
The s c h o l a r s h i p s y ste m e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e F re n c h c o l o n i a l power
f o r th e s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l was d e s ig n e d to rem edy th e l o c a t i o n o f th e
154
s c a r c e e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s in one o r two m ain c i t i e s o f th e c o u n
t r y . S tu d e n ts coming from d i s t a n t r u r a l a r e a s c o u ld n o t r e a s o n a b l y be
s u p p o r te d by t h e i r p o o r p a r e n t s w h ile s tu d y in g i n th e s e c i t i e s . T h is
i s why th e s c h o l a r s h i p c o n s i s t e d m a in ly i n p r o v id in g b o a rd and room
e x p e n se s f o r th e s t u d e n t s .
The V o lta n b u r e a u c r a t s have k e p t th e p h ilo s o p h y o f th e c o l o n i a l
s t a t e s c h o l a r s h i p s y ste m . The econom ic h a r d s h ip f o llo w in g th e p lu n d e r
in g o f th e n a t i o n a l b u d g e t by th e im m ediate p o s t in d e p e n d e n c e regim e
le d th e V o lta n b u r e a u c r a ts to t i g h t e n th e econom ic c o n d i tio n s o f e l i b i -
b i l i t y f o r .the s c h o l a r s h i p . T h u s, th e s c a l e o f income w hich s e rv e d as
a b a s i s f o r d e te r m in in g th e e l i g i b i l i t y f o r a s c h o l a r s h i p was r e v i s e d
i n 1967 by an o rd in a n c e to lo w er th e l e v e l of income above w hich t h i s
e l i g i b i l i t y i s n o t p o s s i b l e .
By r e v i s i n g th e s c a l e o f income o r i g i n a l l y c a l c u l a t e d on th e
b a s i s of c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ' s a l a r y and in c o m es, th e b u r e a u c r a ts
l a r g e l y e x c lu d e d th e m s e lv e s from th e b e n e f i t o f s t a t e s c h o l a r s h i p .
I n d e e d , th e c o l o n i a l s c a l e o f income e l i g i b i l i t y had been h ig h enough
to a llo w a r e l a t i v e l y im p o r ta n t p r o p o r t i o n of n a t i o n a l c i v i l s e r v a n t s
to be e l i g i b l e f o r a s t a t e s c h o l a r s h i p .
As T a b le s 13 a n d .14 i n d i c a t e , th e number o f th e c h i l d r e n of
b u r e a u c r a t s b e n e f i t i n g from a s c h o l a r s h i p d ro p p ed s h a r p l y s in c e th e
a p p l i c a t i o n of th e r e v i s e d s c a l e o f income i n l a t e 1967.
The c h i l d r e n o f p e a s a n t s , c a t t l e - b r e e d e r s a n d , to some e x t e n t ,
w o rk e rs have b een th e b e n e f i c i a r i e s o f th e new r e g u l a t i o n s . Y e t, as
T a b le s 13 and 14 a l s o i n d i c a t e , t h e r e has b een a c o n s i s t e n t i n c r e a s e
i n th e e n r o llm e n t p r o p o r ti o n o f s t u d e n t s from b u r e a u c r a t s and t r a d e r s '
155
T a b le 13
D i s t r i b u t i o n o f S c h o la r s h ip s among S eco n d ary S ch o o l S tu d e n ts from
D i f f e r e n t S o c ia l O r i g i n s . P r o p o r t i o n o f S c h o la r s h ip s
f o r each S o c i a l C a te g o ry
1969 -1970 1975 -1976 1979
o
00
a\
i— i
i
T o t a l 7 o o f T o t a l 7 o o f T o t a l 7 > o f
F a th e r 1s E n S c h o l a r En S c h o la r En S c h o l a r
O c c u p a tio n r o l l e d s h ip s r o l l e d s h ip s r o l l e d s h ip s
P e a s a n t 5 ,0 2 4 8 8 .1 5 ,6 5 7 6 2 .2 8 ,1 6 3 5 3 .6 8
C a t t l e - b r e e d e r 82 7 7 .0 62 5 3 .2 148 2 2 .9 7
A r t i s a n 135 8 0 .0 116 3 2 .7 484 1 2 .6 0
T ra d e r 296 5 2 .0 1 ,1 3 0 3 4 .5 1 ,132 1 0 .3 4
C i v i l s e r v a n t 2 ,0 1 3 4 4 .4 3 ,9 1 7 1 6 .0 5 ,3 0 2 5 .4 5
M i l i t a r y 175 5 0 .8 705 2 1 .3 860 6 .8 6
L i b e r a l
p r o f e s s i o n a l
86 3 6 .0 296 19 .6 562 9.8 6
P r i v a t e s e c t o r
em ployees
200 4 0 .0 225 1 6 .4 746 8 .4 5
R e t i r e d 408 6 2 .2 650 2 8 .3 1,225 1 7 .8 0
W orkers 306 5 8 .8 404 2 4 .1 751 2 3 .9 7
D eceased 520 4 8 .1 597 5 0 .9 2
N o te . From S t a t i s t i q u e s S c o l a i r e s
. 1969- 70; 1975 -76; 1979- 80.
By M in is tb r e de 1 ’E d u c a tio n N a tio n a le e t de l a C u l t u r e .
156
Table 14
D is tr ib u t io n of S c h o la rsh ip s among Secondary School S tudents from D iffe re n t S o c ia l O rig in s .
P ro p o rtio n of each S o cial Category among 100 S c h o la rsh ip Holders
1969 -1970 1975 -1976 1979- 1980
F a th e r 's O ccupation
7 o of
T o ta l
E n r o l l
ment
% of
S c h o la r
sh ip
Holders
% of
T o ta l
E n r o l l
ment
7 o of
S c h o la r
sh ip
H olders
7 o of
T o ta l
E n r o l l
ment
7 o of
S c h o la r
sh ip
Holders
P easan t 57.58 71.18 41.65 65.61 39.76 74.07
C a ttle -b r e e d e r .94 1.01 .46 .61 .72 .57
A r tis a n 1.55 1.74 .85 .71 2.36 1.03
T rader 3.39 2.48 8.32 7.27 5.51 1.98
C iv il s e rv a n t 23.07 13.41 28.84 11.33 25.83 4.89
M ili ta r y 2.01 1.43 5.19 2.80 4 .1 9 1.00
L ib e r a l p r o f e s s io n a l .99 .50 2.18 1.08 2.74 .95
P r iv a te s e c to r
employee
2.29 1.29 1.66 .69 3.63 1.06
R e tire d 4.68 4.08 4.79 3.43 5.97 3.68
Workers 3.51 2.89 2.97 1.81 3.66 5.14
Deceased
— —
3.83 4.66 2.91 3.04
100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
T o ta l Number 8,725 6,221 13,582 5,365 20,529 5,916
N o te .. From S t a t i s t i q u e s S c o l a i r e s . 1969-70; 1975-76; 1979-80. By M inistfere de l'E d u c a tio n
e t de l a C u ltu re .
f a m i l i e s i n c o n t r a s t w ith th e c o n s i s t e n t d e c r e a s e i n th e e n r o llm e n t
p r o p o r ti o n o f s t u d e n t s from p e a s a n t s , c a t t l e b r e e d e r s and w o r k e r s '
f a m i l i e s .
T h is a p p a r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n f i n d s i t s e x p l a n a t i o n i n (1) th e
a d d i t i o n a l d em o g rap h ic c o n d i t i o n s a t t a c h e d to th e g r a n t i n g o f s c h o l a r
s h ip s to th e s t u d e n t s from low -incom e f a m i l i e s , (2) th e M a lth u s ia n
l i m i t a t i o n o f th e s c h o l a r s h i p s t o a u n v a ry in g num ber, and (3) th e b a s i c
u n e q u a l s c h o o li n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s f a v o r in g th e b u r e a u c r a t i c and b u s in e s s
c l a s s e s and p r e v e n t in g any r e m e d ia l a c t i o n (su c h as th e s c h o l a r s h i p
sy ste m ) from h a v in g a s i g n i f i c a n t im p a c t on t h e s e b a s i c u n e q u a l i t i e s .
I n e f f e c t , w ith o u t s p e a k in g o f th e 88 p e r c e n t of th e s c h o o l age
c h i l d r e n e x c lu d e d from th e c o m p e titio n a t th e v e r y s t a r t , th e s c h o l a r
s h ip s y ste m has t h r e e b a s i c fla w s w hich g r e a t l y weaken i t s s u b s ta n c e
and make i t a p p e a r as an in s tr u m e n t i n th e hands of b u r e a u c r a t s f o r th e
c o n t r o l of o t h e r s o c i a l c l a s s e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e p e a s a n t s . T hese flaw s
a r e (1) th e l i m i t a t i o n of th e number o f c h i l d r e n p e r f a m ily e l i g i b l e
f o r th e s t a t e s c h o l a r s h i p , (2) th e l i m i t a t i o n , t o an u n v a ry in g num ber,
of th e s t a t e s c h o l a r s h i p s to be g r a n te d e a c h y e a r t o new d e s e r v in g low -
income f a m i l i e s ' s t u d e n t s , and (3) th e r e s t r i c t i o n o f th e s e two r e g u l a
t i o n s to o n ly th e s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l l e v e l a t th e e x c l u s i o n o f th e
u n iv e r s i t y .
T hese t h r e e fla w s com bine t o make even th e s c h o l a r s h i p sy ste m
p a r t i a l l y a d e v ic e o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l o v e r low -incom e f a m i l i e s by th e
b u r e a u c r a t s .
1 . B e sid e s th e i n d i v i d u a l acad em ic and d em o g ra p h ic r e q u i r e
m ents an a p p l i c a n t f o r s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l s c h o l a r s h i p m ust m eet th e 1967
158
o rd in a n c e and i t s s u b s e q u e n t m o d i f ie r s r e q u i r e d a l s o t h a t th e a p p l i c a n t
does n o t come from a low -incom e f a m ily h a v in g b e n e f i t e d from two s c h o l
a r s h i p s i n th e l a s t f i v e y e a r s . When one knows th e r e l a t i v e l y h ig h
b i r t h r a t e among p e a s a n t and w o rk e r f a m i l i e s , t h i s m easure am ounts to
s o c i a l c o n t r o l of th e flo w o f c h i l d r e n from th e s e f a m i l i e s .
T a b le s 13 and 14 s u g g e s t t h a t W hile th e s c h o l a r s h i p sy ste m has
a q u i t e s i g n i f i c a n t im p a c t on th e a t te n d a n c e o f a s c h o o l i n s t i t u t i o n
by th e c h i l d r e n o f low -incom e f a m i l i e s , i t has a r e l a t i v e l y l i m i t e d
e f f e c t on th e s c h o o l a t te n d a n c e o f th e c h i l d r e n o f w e a lth y f a m i l i e s
who, more and m o r e ,a t te n d p r i v a t e t u i t i o n - p a y i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s . I t i s
t h e r e f o r e u n d e r s ta n d a b le t h a t th e g e n e r a l d e c l i n e i n th e p r o p o r t i o n o f
s c h o l a r s h i p s g r a n te d by th e s t a t e i s more l i k e l y t o a f f e c t th e e n r o l l
ment r a t e s of so n s from low -incom e f a m i l i e s .
2 . The d e c l i n e i n th e p r o p o r ti o n s o f s c h o l a r s h i p s i n d i c a t e d
by th e t a b l e s i s th e r e s u l t o f th e M a lth u s ia n l i m i t a t i o n to a u n v a ry in g
number o f th e s t a t e s c h o l a r s h i p s to be g r a n te d each y e a r t o new d e
s e r v i n g low -incom e f a m i l i e s ' s t u d e n t s . T h is number had b een f i x e d i n
1967 a t 1 ,4 0 0 p e r y e a r f o r th e f o ll o w i n g se v e n y e a r s .
I n th e mind o f th e e d u c a t i o n a l and econom ic p la n n e r s who p r o
p o sed th e s e f i g u r e s , t h i s f ix e d number was to c o rre s p o n d to th e y e a r l y
i n t a k e of new s t u d e n t s f o r b e t t e r human r e s o u r c e s an d econom ic p la n n in g
F o r t h i s r e a s o n and a l s o b e c a u s e o f th e la c k o f p h y s i c a l sp a c e a v a i l
a b l e i n a l o n g - s t a t i o n a r y num ber o f s c h o o l p l a n t s , th e e d u c a t i o n a l
b u r e a u c r a t s g e a re d th e p la c e s o f f e r e d to th e s c h o l a r s h i p s p ro v id e d to
( p u b l i c ) h ig h s c h o o l s , and i n c r e a s e d c o m p e titio n f o r t h i s l i m i t e d num
b e r o f s c h o l a r s h i p s .
15 9
I n t h i s p la n n in g , no b a la n c e had b een s t r u c k b etw een th e t o t a l
number o f s c h o l a r s h i p s o f f e r e d f o r th e s i x t h g ra d e and th e p o t e n t i a l
s t u d e n t s from b e t t e r - o f f f a m i l i e s who a r e to be a d m itte d to p u b l i c i n
s t i t u t i o n s w ith o u t s c h o l a r s h i p s on th e b a s i s o f t h e i r p e rfo rm a n c e on
th e j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l e n t r a n c e c o m p e tit io n . As a r e s u l t , th e a d m is
s i o n o f s t u d e n t s from b e t t e r - o f f f a m i l i e s c o n s id e r a b ly re d u c e d th e
number o f low -incom e f a m i l i e s 1 c h i l d r e n who c o u ld b e n e f i t from a s c h o l
a r s h i p . A g a in , w ith o u t th e s c h o l a r s h i p , i t i s p r a c t i c a l l y im p o s s ib le
f o r low -incom e f a m i l i e s ' s t u d e n t s to s tu d y f a r away from t h e i r home,
in u rb a n o r s e m i-u rb a n a r e a s w here th e s e c o n d a ry i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e
l o c a t e d . U n le s s , o f c o u r s e , th e y have i n th e s e a r e a s more f o r t u n a t e
r e l a t i v e s w i l l i n g to s u p p o r t them , a common p r a c t i c e to be exam ined i n
th e n e x t s e c t i o n .
I t m ust be n o te d t h a t th e s c a l e o f f a m ily income s e r v i n g to
c o n t r o l th e l e v e l above w h ich one c a n n o t be e l i g i b l e f o r a s t a t e s c h o l
a r s h i p has b een c o n s t a n t l y q u e s tio n e d by th e b u r e a u c r a t s com posing th e
co m m ittee f o r th e g r a n t i n g o f s c h o l a r s h i p s . The b u r e a u c r a t s have
alw ays s o u g h t t o r a i s e th e minimum l e v e l o f th e income so t h a t th e y
c o u ld be e l i g i b l e f o r more s t a t e s c h o l a r s h i p s . I f th e y d id n o t su c c e e d
in t h e i r s t r u g g l e , i t was b e c a u s e o f an e v e r - w o r s e n in g econom ic s i t u a
t i o n f o r t h e i r r u l i n g f a c t i o n . N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t can be n o te d t h a t
some c h i l d r e n o f t r a d e r s and b u r e a u c r a t s (p ro b a b ly th e lo w er ra n k in g
ones) s t i l l b e n e f i t from a s t a t e s c h o l a r s h i p . T h is s u g g e s ts t h a t th e
s c a l e of income i s n o t t i g h t enough s i n c e t h e r e i s no c o m p a riso n b e
tw een th e a v e ra g e income o f th e lo w e s t b u r e a u c r a t and th e a v e ra g e
income o f th e w e a l t h i e s t V o lta n p e a s a n t .
160
More i m p o r t a n t l y , th e f a c t t h a t m ost s e c o n d a ry e d u c a t i o n a l i n
s t i t u t i o n s a r e lo c a t e d i n u rb a n and s e m i-u rb a n a r e a s c o n s t i t u t e s an
in v a l u a b l e a d v a n ta g e f o r th e b u r e a u c r a t s and w e a lth y u rb a n t r a d e r s
c o n c e n tr a te d i n th e s e a r e a s , inasm uch a s t h i s re d u c e s th e e x p e n s e s f o r
t h e s t u d e n t 's m a in te n a n c e , t u i t i o n b e in g m e re ly sy m b o lic i n p u b l i c i n
s t i t u t i o n s . I n any c a s e , th e c o s t o f s e c o n d a ry e d u c a tio n i n p r i v a t e
i n s t i t u t i o n s i s q u i t e a f f o r d a b l e f o r t h e s e s o c i a l g ro u p s .
3 . Where t h e c o s t o f e d u c a tio n becomes h e a v i e r f o r th e s e
g ro u p s t o s u p p o r t by th e m s e lv e s , th e y hav e su c c e e d e d i n b l u r r i n g o u t
th e s o c i a l o r i g i n c r i t e r i a f o r e l i g i b i l i t y f o r a s t a t e s c h o l a r s h i p .
T h is i s p a r t i c u l a r l y th e c a s e f o r h ig h e r e d u c a t i o n , and t h i s c o n s t i
t u t e s th e t h i r d fla w i n th e s t a t e s c h o l a r s h i p s y s te m .
By 1960, th e a n n u a l c o s t o f a s t u d e n t e n r o l l e d i n f o r e i g n
u n i v e r s i t i e s - - a n d t h e r e was no l o c a l i n s t i t u t i o n y e t-- w a s e s ti m a t e d a t
2 7 5 ,0 0 0 f r a n c s CFA, w ith o u t c o u n tin g th e t r a v e l f a r e (a b o u t th e . same
am ount i f th e u n i v e r s i t y a t t e n d e d was l o c a t e d i n F ran ce);, 5 5 0 ,0 0 0
f r a n c s CFA was th e mean a n n u a l s a l a r y o f a h ig h e r r a n k in g c i v i l s e r
v a n t . P r e s e n t l y , th e c o s t o f m a in te n a n c e o f a s t u d e n t h as t r i p l e d ,
w h ile th e g e n e r a l s a l a r y h as b a r e l y changed (o n ly a 30 p e r c e n t i n c r e a s e
i n 20 y e a r s , w h ile i n f l a t i o n has b e e n s y s t e m a t i c a l l y e r o d in g th e b u y
in g power o f th e s a l a r i e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y i t s im p o rte d -g o o d s -c o n su m e r
b u r e a u c r a t i c f a c t i o n ) .
T h is s i t u a t i o n e x p l a in s why th e V o lta n b u r e a u c r a ts h av e done
away w ith some f a m ily income c o n s i d e r a t i o n s w h ich o r i g i n a t e d i n th e
c o l o n i a l c o n d i tio n s o f e l i g i b i l i t y f o r a s c h o l a r s h i p f o r h ig h e r e d u c a
t i o n . The a r r e t e No. 5 955 o f J u l y 18, 1956 s t i p u l a t e d t h a t " t o be
161
e l i g i b l e f o r a s c h o l a r s h i p , one m ust d e m o n s tra te s u f f i c i e n t a b i l i t y to
p u rsu e th e s t u d i e s c o n s id e r e d , p r e p a r e o n e s e l f f o r a c a r e e r deemed
u s e f u l f o r F re n c h W est A f r i c a , and g iv e th e p ro o f o f an econom ic s i t u a
t i o n r e q u i r i n g h e l p from th e com munity" (AOF, JO . 1956, p . 1 3 8 4 ).
B e sid e s th e f u l l s c h o l a r s h i p , t h e r e w ere th e r e im b u r s a b le
lo a n s ( " p r e t s d 'h o n n e u r " ) and th e " s e c o u r s s c o l a i r e s , " b o th a d d r e s s i n g ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y , th o s e s t u d e n t s who m ig h t e x p e r ie n c e u n e x p e c te d f i n a n c i a l
t r o u b l e s due to a su d d en change in th e f a m ily f i n a n c i a l s i t u a t i o n .
W ith in d e p e n d e n c e , th e s e c r i t e r i a o f f a m ily income have com
p l e t e l y d i s a p p e a r e d , and em phasis h as b een p la c e d on aca d em ic a b i l i t y ,
a n d , above a l l , a g e . The l i m i t a t i o n on th e number o f c h i l d r e n p e r
f a m ily e l i g i b l e f o r a s c h o l a r s h i p e s t a b l i s h e d a t th e s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l
l e v e l h as n o t b een a p p l i e d t o h ig h e r e d u c a tio n .
The r a t i o n a l e o f th e new m easu res can b e - - a n d in d e e d a r e - -
e x p la in e d by th e b u r e a u c r a t s i n term s o f th e n e c e s s i t y o f g u a r a n t e e in g
o p tim a l w o rk in g c o n d i t i o n s to th e t i n y m i n o r i t y o f p o t e n t i a l c a d re s
th e c o u n try i s su p p o se d to need f o r i t s d e v e lo p m e n t. B ut one c a n n o t
h e l p from c o r r e l a t i n g th e s e m e asu re s w ith o t h e r m e asu re s ta k e n w h ic h ,
o b j e c t i v e l y , te n d to l i m i t th e a c c e s s of s t u d e n t s from lo w er c l a s s e s
to th e l e v e l o f s t u d i e s w here th e s t a t e shows i t s f u l l g e n e r o s i t y .
The age c r i t e r i o n , w h ich i s i n f a c t th e m ost im p o r ta n t c r i t e r i o r
f o r b e n e f i t i n g from a s t a t e s c h o l a r s h i p f o r u n i v e r s i t y s t u d i e s , i s v e r y
r e v e a l i n g o f th e c l a s s n a t u r e o f th e s c h o l a r s h i p s y s te m .
To be e l i g i b l e f o r t h i s s c h o l a r s h i p , th e s t u d e n t m ust be 22
y e a r s o ld a t m o s t. The minimum ag e f o r e n t e r i n g th e p u b li c e le m e n ta ry
s c h o o l b e in g s e v e n , f o r a minimum s c h o o l a t te n d a n c e p e r io d o f 13 y e a r s ,
162
w ith two t i g h t b o t t l e - n e c k s a t th e t h r e s h o l d o f each c y c le o f s e c o n d a ry
s c h o o l, i t i s e a s y to u n d e r s ta n d w hat k in d o f s t u d e n t s a r e m ost l i k e l y
t o b e n e f i t from th e s t a t e ' s g e n e r o s i t y . To k eep w ith th e age l i m i t
r e q u ir e m e n t s , th e sons o f p e a s a n ts o r w o rk e rs have j u s t one ch an ce to
r e p e a t d u r in g t h e i r 13 y e a rs o f e d u c a t i o n a l c o u r s e . The so n s o f b u r e a u
c r a t s and w e a lth y tr a d e r s ,w h o ^ r e n o t s u b m itte d to th e minimum age
c o n d i t i o n when th e y e n t e r a p r i v a t e o r more o f t e n th a n n o t th e p u b li c
s c h o o l , have two to t h r e e more ch an c es t o r e p e a t g ra d e s and s t i l l m eet
th e d em o g ra p h ic re q u ir e m e n ts f o r e l i g i b i l i t y f o r a s c h o l a r s h i p a t th e
u n i v e r s i t y .
G e o e th n ic and R e l ig io u s F a c t o r s o f S e l e c t i o n ; The
U nequal S c h o o lin g o f th e V o lta n P o p u la tio n
So f a r t h e s tu d y h as b een c o n c e rn e d w ith s e l e c t i v i t y a c c o r d in g
to s o c i a l o r i g i n s , a s m easu red by th e s t u d e n t s f a t h e r s ' o c c u p a tio n .
I f t h e r e i s s t r o n g e v id e n c e t h a t t h i s v a r i a b l e i s an im p o r ta n t f a c t o r
o f s e l e c t i o n , i t does n o t e x p l a i n th e e n t i r e s e l e c t i o n phenom enon.
To make a m ore s y s t e m a t i c a p p ro a c h t o t h i s phenom enon, th e
q u e s t i o n n a i r e u se d f o r th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h h as t r i e d t o i d e n t i f y th e
e t h n i c o r i g i n s o f th e s t u d e n t s and t h e i r p a r e n t s ' r e s i d e n c e s . The
re s p o n s e s o f th e sam ple i n d i c a t e an u n e q u a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of th e
d i f f e r e n t g e o e th n ic g ro u p s com posing th e V o lta n p o p u l a t i o n .
The d i s t o r t i o n o f th e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o p e r a t e s in f a v o r o f th e
s o - c a l l e d m i n o r ity g ro u p s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th o s e lo c a t e d i n th e s o u th and
w e s t o f th e c o u n tr y (S e n o u fo , L o b i - D a g a r t i , Bobo, B w aba), and to th e
d is a d v a n ta g e o f th e g ro u p s n u m e r i c a l ly more im p o r ta n t ( th e M o ssi, a n d ,
more p a r t i c u l a r l y , th e F u la n i who c o n s t i t u t e 1 0 .4 p e r c e n t of th e popu-
163
l a t i o n b u t l e s s th a n 4 p e r c e n t o f th e s t u d e n t p o p u l a t i o n ) .
T a b le 15 i n d i c a t e s th e in d e x o f s e l e c t i v i t y f o r e a c h g e o e th n ic
g ro u p , b o th a t th e h ig h s c h o o l and u n i v e r s i t y l e v e l s . D ata f o r th e
h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s ' e t h n i c o r i g i n s has been borrow ed from a r a t h e r
c u r s o r y s u rv e y c o n d u c te d by th e E d u c a tio n a l P la n n in g O f f i c e i n 1974.
As a l l o t h e r d a t a on e t h n i c com ponents o f th e V o lta n s o c i e t y , th e y a r e
n o t v e r y r e l i a b l e , e s p e c i a l l y s in c e th e b a s i c r e f e r e n c e d a t a i s b ased
on a c e n s u s t a b u l a t e d i n 1 9 6 1 --n o o th e r e t h n i c c e n su s h a v in g b een
done s i n c e t h a t d a t e to ch ec k t h i s v a l i d i t y . G e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f th e
d a t a from th e p r e s e n t s u rv e y a r e q u i t e h a z a rd o u s b e c a u se o f th e a b
se n c e o f a g g r e g a te d a t a c o n c e rn in g th e g e o e th n ic d i s t r i b u t i o n of th e
s t u d e n t p o p u la tio n a s a w h o le . I t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t a gro u p w hich
seems u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t e d a t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f O uagadougou may be r e l a
t i v e l y o v e r - r e p r e s e n t e d a t o t h e r f o r e i g n i n s t i t u t i o n s , th e re b y s t r i k i n g
a b a la n c e b etw een th e s e two e x t r e m e s .
However, w ith th e above r e s e r v a t i o n s , th e d a t a does r e p r e s e n t
a rough a p p r o x im a tio n o f th e g e o e th n ic r e a l i t y i n i t s r e l a t i o n to th e
u n e q u a l s c h o o lin g among d i f f e r e n t g e o e th n ic g r o u p s .
The u n e q u a l g e o e t h n i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o b s e rv e d i s n o t due to
any u n e q u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of acad em ic a b i l i t i e s . N o th in g from th e
p r e s e n t d a t a a llo w s su ch a h y p o t h e s i s , as a l r e a d y a rg u e d in p re c e d in g
s e c t i o n s o f t h i s c h a p t e r . T h is u n e q u a l g e o e t h n i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of
s t u d e n t s m ust r a t h e r be e x p la in e d by s o c i o - h i s t o r i c a l f a c t o r s , nam ely
th e u n e q u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of s c h o o l f a c i l i t i e s and p l a n t s g o in g b ack to
th e c o l o n i a l p e r io d o r th e r e s i s t a n c e s of l o c a l c u l t u r e s to th e phenom
enon o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n to th e F re n c h c u l t u r a l s y s te m . In d e e d , th e
164
T able 15
G eo eth n ic D i s t r i b u t i o n o f High S ch o o l and
Ouagadougou U n i v e r s i t y S tu d e n ts
( in p e r c e n ta g e s )
Index of
S e l e c t i v i t y = 100
c
o
i — i
o
i 1 M L
ft
o
i i
i-4
.- 1 4 J
Ctf C t f
1 i , |
O 0 0
X JJ
o a
CO 0 )
V J
i - l - u
0 9 C
} - 4 0 )
< u -u
> p
1 -i 4-1
C CO
u
X
o
CO
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to
u
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>
i-4
S
E th n ic O rig in
o a
H o.
o
F U
X 3
0 0 - u
i-4 CO
s
X
0 0
i-4
P C S
M ossi 4 8 .0 0 4 4 .0 6 4 4 .7 9 1 .8 0 93.13
F u la n i 10.40 4 .5 9 3 .2 4 4 .1 3 3 0 .7 7
L o b i 2 .4 2 2 .4
D a g a r ti 7 .0 0 3 .6 9 5 .4 8 7 .2 9 11 1 .4 3
Samogo 3 .3 0 5 .73 5 .8 173.64 1 75.76
Daf ing-M arka 2 .7 0 2 .3 6 2 .2 8 7 .4 1
8 1 .4 4
D io u la 0 .9 0 3 .2 8 4 .0 3 6 4 .4 4
/■ /< / i A /i
“ T I i • r i
Bobo 5 .87 4 .5 |
Bwaba / 6 .7 0 3 .1 5 4 .8 f 134.63 138.81
S en o u fo , A s s im il 5 .50 6 .7 3 8 .1 122.63 147.27
Gourouns i 5 .3 0 7 .2 0 6 .4 135.85 120.75
B oussance 4 .7 0 3 .9 4 5 .0 8 3 .8 3 160.38
Gourm antche 4 .5 0 3 .4 9 3 .0 77 .5 6 6 6 .6 7
M is c e lla n e o u s 1 .0 0 3 .4 8 0 .5 3 4 8 .0 0 5 0 .0 0
T o ta l 100.00 N=13,404 N=626 100 100
N o te . F o r th e p o p u la tio n cen su s s e e th e cen su s o f 1960-1961 in A tla s
de l a H aute - V o lta . e d i t e d by Y . P ero n and V . Z a l a c a i n . P a r i s :
E d i tio n s Jeu n e A f r iq u e , 1975; f o r th e d a t a from h ig h s c h o o l
s tu d e n t s s e e Reform e de 1 'E d u c a tio n . D o s s ie r i n i t i a l
»
in
MENC, D i r e c t i o n de l a P l a n i f i c a t i o n , 1976; th e d a ta from th e
Ouagadougou U n iv e r s it y s tu d e n t s w ere ta k e n from t h e i r re
sp o n se s to th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s .
The r e s u l t s o f th e p o p u la tio n c e n su s u sed h e re do n o t p ro v id e
a breakdow n of th e k i n g ro u p s , as t h i s was done f o r th e su rv e y
of th e s t u d e n t g r o u p s .
165
c o l o n i a l pow er, and m ost p a r t i c u l a r l y th e m i s s i o n a r i e s , im plem ented
s c h o o ls w here th e p o p u la tio n s o f f e r e d l e a s t r e s i s t a n c e .
B ecause o f t h e i r r e l a t i v e l y weak s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , th e popu
l a t i o n s S o u th and W est o f th e c o u n try (w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f th e L o b i
a n d , a t a l e s s e r d e g r e e , th e Bwaba) d id n o t o f f e r much r e s i s t a n c e to
th e c o l o n i a l o c c u p a tio n a s d i d , f o r ex am p le, th e M ossi p o p u l a t i o n s .
The F u l a n i p o p u la tio n s w ere c u l t u r a l l y w e ll o rg a n iz e d aro u n d th e IsT am ic
r e l i g i o n and a s p e c i f i c nom adic t r a d i t i o n t h a t made i t d i f f i c u l t f o r
th e F re n c h i n d e a l i n g w ith them , and p a r t i c u l a r l y th e F re n c h m is s io n a r y
c u l t u r a l a s s i m i l a t i o n a c t i o n s .
The u n e q u a l g e o e th n ic im p a c t o f m is s io n a r y e d u c a tio n on e d u c a
t i o n a l d ev elo p m en t i s h i g h l i g h t e d by th e f a c t t h a t , f o r i n s t a n c e , th e
D a g a r ti who have b een th e m ost a c c e s s i b l e to m is s io n a r y p e n e t r a t i o n
( P a t e r n o t , 1 9 5 3 ), have b e e n a b l e to ta k e th e m ost a d v a n ta g e o f t h i s
s i t u a t i o n . They r e p r e s e n t a b o u t o n e - t h i r d o f th e 43 Ouagadougou s t u
d e n ts who r e c e iv e d t h e i r b a c c a l a u r d a t s from s e m i n a r i e s , by f a r th e
l a r g e s t r e l a t i v e f i g u r e , and th e se c o n d l a r g e s t a b s o l u t e f i g u r e a f t e r
th e M ossi who r e a c h o n ly t h e i r p o p u la tio n in d e x r e p r e s e n t a t i o n (48 p e r
c e n t) . T h is may e x p l a i n th e a p p a r e n t u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e L o b i-
D a g a r ti g ro u p i n th e h ig h s c h o o l s , s i n c e s e m in a r ie s have n o t b een i n
c lu d e d i n th e e d u c a t i o n a l p la n n in g o f f i c e s u r v e y .
T a b le s 16 and 17 i n d i c a t e , r e s p e c t i v e l y , th e e t h n i c o r i g i n s o f
O uagadougou U n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s g r a d u a te d from s e m i n a r i e s , and th e d i s
t r i b u t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t e t h n i c g ro u p s a c c o r d in g to r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a
t i o n . T a b le 18 i n d i c a t e s th e r e l a t i v e im p o rta n c e o f m is s io n a r y e d u c a
t i o n and i t s uneven d i s t r i b u t i o n o v e r th e c o u n try (shown i n F ig u r e 1) .
166
T able 16
E t h n ic O r ig in s o f Ouagadougou U n i v e r s i t y S tu d e n ts
G ra d u a te d from S e m in a rie s
(N=43)
L o g i-
M ossi D a g a ri Samo D a fin g Bobo S enoufo G o u ro u n si T o t a l
c y c y c y c y c y cy c y c y
/ o /o / o / o /o / o / o /o
4 8 .8 3 2 .7 4 .7 2 .3 2 .3 4 .7 4 .7 100
The h i s t o r i c a l f a c t o r s m e n tio n e d above p a r t l y e x p l a i n th e u n
e q u a l s p r e a d o f s c h o o l p l a n t s and s c h o o li n g f a c i l i t i e s on th e eve o f
in d e p e n d e n c e . S u b seq u en t p o s t- in d e p e n d e n c e g o v e rn m e n ts' c a r e l e s s n e s s
i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h i s s i t u a t i o n t o d a t e .
T a b le 19 i n d i c a t e s th e p e r s i s t i n g s c h o o li n g u n e q u a l i t i e s among
th e d i f f e r e n t l o c a l i t i e s ( s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s ) , from 1965 t o 1980.
I n th e s p e c i f i c c a s e o f th e Kaya s c h o o l d i s t r i c t , th e low r a t e
o f s c h o o li n g i s e x p l a i n a b l e n o t o n ly by th e la c k o f s c h o o l f a c i l i t i e s ,
b u t a l s o by th e h ig h r a t e of a t t r i t i o n among th e F u l a n i who p r e f e r t o
k eep t h e i r young men t o w a tc h th e h e r d s . T h is i s th e o n ly c a s e in
u p p e r V o lta w here s c h o o l a t t r i t i o n i s a p ro b lem and w here by c h o ic e
c h i l d r e n do n o t a t t e n d s c h o o l.
The above g l o b a l f i g u r e s o f u n e q u a l s c h o o li n g among r e g io n s
h id e th e s t i l l more b l a t a n t i n e q u a l i t y o f s c h o o li n g b etw een r u r a l
a r e a s (9%) and u rb a n a r e a s (70%) (MENC, 1976, p . 11).,
The e f f e c t s o f th e s e i n i t i a l i n e q u a l i t i e s i n s c h o o li n g a r e f e l t
th r o u g h o u t th e d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s o f th e e d u c a t i o n a l l a d d e r , from th e
167
T able 17
D i s t r i b u t i o n o f th e V o lta n P o p u la t io n a t L a rg e and
th e U n i v e r s i t y S tu d e n ts by R e l ig io u s A f f i l i a t i o n
( i n p e r c e n ta g e s )
E th n ic
A f f i l i a t i o n
R e l ig io u s A f f i l i a t i o n
Anamis t
d
o
* 1 - 4
4 - 1
C tf
i— I
3
a.
o
Pm
C O
4 -1
3
< u
T J
3
4 -1
cn
I s la m ic
3
o
* i “ 4
4 -1
t- M
3
a,
o
P m
C O
4-1
3
a)
-d
3
4-1
co
C h r i s t i a n
3
o
•r4
4 - 1
C tf
H
3
P u
O
P m
C O
4 -1
3
Q J
d
3
4 -1
CO
No
Answer
C O
4 - 1
3
Q J
d
3
4 -1
CO
M ossi 75 .3 15 .0 2 1 .9
B is s a 76.5 1 6 .1 1 9 .0
Gourmantchd 94.5 15 .6 4 .8
Bobo 8 4 .6 2 2 .4 1 5 .0
S L
M andingues 4 4 .6 1 3 .3 3 4 9 .5
G o u ro u n si 9 1 .8 2 2 .5 5 .8
S enoufo 90.5 3 1 .4 9 .1
L o b i-D a g a ri 8 1 .8 1 8.37 4 .4
F u l a n i 3 .2 5 .0 9 6 .8
O th e rs 1 .3 9 5 .1
2 0 .7
25 .8
5 .3
15 .52
4 5 .3 3
20.0
3 9 .2
0 .6 1
9 0 .0
100.0
2.8
4 .5
0 .7
1 0 .4
5 . 9
2 .4
0 .4
1 3 .8
3 .6
5 7 .6
5 4 .8
7 3 .7
6 0 .0
3 4 .6 7
5 7 .5 0
2 7 .5
75 .51
5 .0
.7
3 .2
0.0
0.0
0 .0 7
0.0
2.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
T o t a l 6 8 .7 1 7 .4 2 7 .5 2 5 .9 3 .6 55 .1 0 .5
N o te . From A tla s de l a H a u te - V o lt a , by Iv e s P e ro n . P a r i s : E d i t i o n s
J e u n e A f r iq u e , 1975, p . 26 ( d a ta c o n c e rn in g th e V o lta n p o p u la
t i o n ' s r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n ) ; d a t a on Ouagadougou U n i v e r s i t y
s t u d e n t s ' r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n w ere o b ta in e d from th e q u e s t i o n
n a i r e .
aM andingues c o m p ris e Samo, D a fin g , M arka, and D io u la . D e t a i l s
o f th e r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n o f t h e s e e t h n i c su b g ro u p s w ere
n o t a v a i l a b l e .
168
T able 18
R e l a t i v e Im p o rta n c e o f P r i v a t e (M issio n ary ) E d u c a tio n -
in th e D i f f e r e n t R eg io n s and S c h o o l D i s t r i c t s
by 1964-1966
R eg io n S ch o o l D i s t r i c t s
M is s io n a ry
E d u c a tio n
%
R eg io n I B a n fo ra , B o b o -D io u la sso 39.65
R eg io n I I
t
Dedougou 4 1 .3 0
R egion I I I K aya, O uahigouya 14.45
R eg io n IV F eda N'Gourma 4 6 .9 5
R eg io n V Koudougou, O uagadougou 36.75
N a ti o n a l A verage 35.75
N o te . From La S c o l a r i s a t i o n en H aute V o lta : D o s s ie r T e c h n iq u e .
P r o j e c t UPV-POI. P o p u la t io n e t P l a n i f i c a t i o n du D e v e lo p p e m e n t,
Mars 1981, T a b le a u 1 -2 5 , p . 4 1 . By I n s t i t u t N a tio n a l de l a
S t a t i s q u e e t de l a D ^m o g rap h ie.
169
boundaries of reg io n s
b oundaries of departm ents
g o tc m -^ x o
boundaries of
"a rro n d isse m e n ts"
RE6IOM m
ar-btr.da
re g io n a l c a p i to l
03 ' I
07.-— 5 { j^
'•■ ..jjicm ljj:
o \4sm*
jk C iiO W T ) *
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n o u n o f g a is S s -
• tomfa ^ L.^Q m oa *•*,.* I
RET (jlOfvjjjj r * .'nono«W‘ A V t ^
Region i £ •
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rb o u b ,a
:c n lc h £ .t
,-Z/a£SX $2U .
n r -•(■;,«« \ .-*s;
/OuarW r n - c r - • C A U » k i\
» > p o u n r . ,
• : • ■ dcp&ja
H o u s e lo
J A P A .H S Q U R M A
V i'A v o id / bcgojsi • X ,
•» ibo rd ta
u r ttis r
n c /w o
Region
(K firg a y c
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jam :* jtjat}' *
M o k o /
9
y bfoarp^ * louss bna
) fto g o -B io iJm sso
'* ■ 06 V' N
ticmkoufa
06 Hauts-bassins
07 Nori
OS Sahel
09 Sud-cuest
fO Vofto-noire
« * ■ ‘ ■ 'K fifiS L o -y n a lo
^ lidtrodougou I v 9
O J Centre
0 2 Centre-est
03 C entre hotd
6k Centte-euetf
05Est
0 * ^ » I U l l u u u u u v u
nE6iON I
loumyia
: ncco^oo
i ....... ‘•vir^oko /■ ..... * ;
n o rc o d a ra
•V l
o
F ig u re 1. A d m in istra tiv e d iv i s i o n of the V oltan t e r r i t o r y
Source: ^ n s t i t u t N atio n a l de la S t a t i s t i q u e e t de l a Demographie. R apport de s ta g e :
"La S c o la r i s a tio n en Haute V o lta . D o ssier te c h n iq u e . P r o je t U.P.V.-POI
P o p u la tio n e t P l a n i f i c a t i o n du D e v e l o p p e m e n t M a r s , 1981.
T able 19
E v o lu tio n o f th e D i f f e r e n t i a l S c h o o lin g R a te s o f D i f f e r e n t G eo g rap h ic
A reas (S ch o o l D i s t r i c t s ) 3 o v e r th e L a s t 15 Y ears
P e r io d
S ch o o l D i s t r i c t
1965
%
1970
%
1975
%
1980
%
A verage
%
B a n fo ra 3 .0 11.53 9 .2 4 1 4 .3 9 1 0 .7 2
B o b o -D io u la sso 2 0 .0 2 3 .3 0 2 7 .8 5 3 1 .0 7 2 5 .9 4
9
Dedougou 1 0 .0 1 2 .3 0 1 3.03 13.38 1 2 .2 3
F ada N'Gourma 7 .7 9 .5 3 1 0 .1 6 10.22 9 .31
Kay a 4 . 0 5 .2 9 5 .57 6 .9 3 5 .62
Koudougou 8 .7 9 .8 4 9 .7 4 1 4 .4 8 1 0 .8 3
O uagadougou 8 .7 1 3 .4 2 1 8.63 2 3 .0 7 1 7 .1 9
O uahigouya 7 .3 7 .2 1 6 .7 1 9 .0 7 7 .6 1
T o t a l
N=
9 .0
=85,509
10 .8 7
N=102,302
11.65
N=133,660
14.55
N=185,658
11 .7 3
N o te . From S t a t i s i q u e s S c o l a i r e s . 1964-1965; 1969-1970; 1974-1975;
19 7 9 -1 9 8 0 . By th e M in is th r e de 1 'E d u c a tio n N a ti o n a le e t de la
C u l t u r e .
S L *
B ecau se o f th e r e s t r u c t u r i n g o f th e s e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s d u r in g
th e p e r i o d , th e f i g u r e s f o r some d i s t r i c t s (B a n fo ra , Dedougou)
a r e n o t v e r y r e l i a b l e .
171
e le m e n ta ry to th e u n i v e r s i t y l e v e l . They a r e somewhat a g g r a v a te d by
th e b o t t l e - n e c k s c o n s t i t u t e d by th e two e n t r a n c e e x a m in a tio n s to th e
d i f f e r e n t . c y c le s o f th e h ig h s c h o o l.
T h u s, w h ile th e r e a r e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e b etw een th e
d i f f e r e n t r e g io n s as f a r as a ca d em ic a c h ie v e m e n t (m easured by th e r a t e s
o f s u c c e s s on th e n a t i o n a l e x a m in a tio n f o r th e e n t r a n c e to th e j u n i o r
c y c le o f th e h ig h s c h o o l s c h o o l) i s c o n c e rn e d , one n o te s an u n e q u a l
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n among th e s t u d e n t p o p u la tio n s from th e s e d i s t r i c t s a t
i
th e u n i v e r s i t y l e v e l to th e a d v a n ta g e o f u rb a n d i s t r i c t s (O uagadougou
and B o b o -D io u la s s o , p a r t i c u l a r l y ) and th e d is a d v a n ta g e o f r u r a l o n e s,
p a r t i c u l a r l y th o s e lo c a t e d i n th e N o rth (K aya, D o ri) .
The c le a v a g e b etw een u rb a n and r u r a l a r e a s i s d r a m a t i c a l l y i l
l u s t r a t e d by th e f a c t t h a t w h ile th e u rb a n c e n t e r s (O uagadougou, Bobo-
D io u la s s o , K oudougou, O uah ig o u y a, K aya, Fada N 'G ourm a, and B a n fo ra )
make up o n ly 6 p e r c e n t o f th e s c h o o l age p o p u l a t i o n , th e y hav e b een
e n r o l l i n g 34 p e r c e n t of th e e le m e n ta ry s c h o o l s t u d e n t s , and 31 p e r c e n t
a g a i n s t 58 p e r c e n t o f th e U n i v e r s i t y o f O uagadougou s t u d e n t s f o r th e
r u r a l areas.'*'
T a b le 20 i n d i c a t e s th e in d e x e s o f s e l e c t i v i t y f o r th e e n t r y
to p rim a ry and s e c o n d a ry s c h o o ls f o r d i f f e r e n t s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s , o v e r
an e i g h t - y e a r p e r io d o f t i m e . T a b le 21 i n d i c a t e s th e in d e x e s o f s e l e c
t i v i t y f o r th e e n t r y to p rim a ry s c h o o l in 1974 and to u n i v e r s i t y i n
1980 f o r d i f f e r e n t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e g i o n s . T hese two t a b l e s a r e shown
b e c a u se t h e r e i s no o v e r la p p in g b etw een th e two k in d s o f t e r r i t o r i a l
d i v i s i o n s and d a t a a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e f o r th e c o m b in a tio n i n t o a s i n g l e
t a b l e o f in f o r m a tio n on th e s e d i v i s i o n s . As can be n o te d from an
172
173
Table 20
Proportion of the T otal School Age C hildren, Elementary School Students, F ifth Grade Students,
Candidates for the Junior High School Entrance Examination, and Admittees In
each School D is tr ic t for 100 Children from 1969 to 1978
(Data for 1970, 1972, and 1973 are not a v a ila b le)
School
D istr ic t
School Age
Population
7 „
1
Elementary
Enrollment
7 .
2
F ifth Grade
Students
7 .
3
Candidates for
Junior High
School Entrance
Examination
7 .
4
Admittees
7 .
5
Indexes of S e le c tiv ity = 100
5/4
6
5/3
7
5/2
8
5 /1
9
2/1
10
3/2
11
Banfora 10.34 9.72 9.47 9.00 10.35 115.00 109.29 106.48 100.1 94.40 97.43
Bobo-Dioulasso 7.34 15.49 15.50 18.50 15.42 83.35 99.48 99.55 210.1 211.06 100.06
i
Dedougou 10.39 11.26 11.52 14.07 12.40 88.13 107.64 110.12 119.35 108.37 102.31
Fada-N'Gourma 13.07 10.39 9.97 9.43 13.42 142.31 134.60 129.16 102.68 79.50 95.96
Kaya 16.59 7.97 7.82 7.31 8.17 103.29 104.48 102.51 49.25 48.04 98.12
Koudougou 13.96 12.63 13.09 11.52 11.87 103.04 90.68 93.54 85.03 90.90 103.15
Ouagadougou 17.78 25.86 25.30 22.33 22.91 99.91 90.55 88.59 128.85 145.44' 97.83
Ouahigouya 10.53 6.63 7.33 6.64 5.46 82.23 74.49 82.35 51.85 62.96 110.56
Total 100 100 100 100 100 R=6Q.08a R=60.11 R=46.81 R=160.85 R=163.00 R=14.6
N=137,586 N=87,49l N=12,874 S=19.75b S=17.62 S=14.47 S= 50.96 s- 51.91 S= 4.6 9
Note. From S ta tistlq u e s S c o la lr e s. 1968-1969 to 1978-1979. By the M inistbre de l'E ducation N ationale e t de la Culture.
For b etter comparative data, the 1968 educational stru ctu res have been maintained throughout the 8-year period
without taking in to account subsequent adm inistrative changes.
a_
R = range.
^S « = standard d ev ia tio n .
174
Table 21
P ro p o rtio n of School Age C h ild re n and S tu d e n ts E n ro lle d in E lem entary School
and in th e U n iv e rs ity in each A d m in istra tiv e Region fo r 100 C h ild re n
E lem entary U n iv e rs ity
School Age School S tu d en t Index of Index of Index of
C h ild re n E n ro llm en t E n ro llm en t S e l e c t i v i t y S e l e c t i v i t y S e l e c t i v i t y
Region % % % 2/1=100 3/2=100 3/1=100
C en tre (Ouagadougou) 16.45 26.00 29.1
158.05 112.00 176.90
C e n tre -E s t (Tenkodogo) 6.53 6.68
5 .1 102.30 76.35 78.10
C entre-N ord (Kaya) 14.97 8.30 4 .5 55 .44 54.22 30.06
C en tre-O u e st
(Koudougou)
14.85 8.77
7.2 5 9.06 82.10 48.48
i
E st (Fada N'Gourma) 5 .0 4 4 .0 4 3 .4 90.16 84.16 67.46
Hauts-OBassins (Bobo) 10.11 19.07
20.1 188.63 105.40 198.81
Nord (Ouahigouya) 10.04 6.59 6.2 65.64 94.08 61.75
S ahel (D ori) 4 .8 0 2.06 0 .6 42.92 29.13 12.50
Sud-Ouest (Diebougoii) 7.12 6 .00 6.5 84.27 108.33 91.29
V o lta N oire (Dedougou) 10.09 12.49 11.8 123.79 94.48 116.95
Abroad (Iv o ry C oast)
? ?
5 .5
T o ta l 100
N =l,140,749
100
N=114,634
100
N=626
100 100 100
N ote. From Reforme de 1 'E d u c a tio n -D o s sie r I n i t i a l , 1976 (elem en tary sc h o o l d a ta s t a t i s t i c s of 1974)
By M inistfere de 1 'E d u c a tio n N a tio n a le e t de l a C u ltu r e . For u n i v e r s i t y e n ro llm e n t d a t a , th e
p r e s e n t stu d y su rv ey sample d a ta were u sed .
e x a m in a tio n o f t h e s e in d e x e s , th e d i f f e r e n c e s b etw een s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s
due to d i f f e r e n c e s i n s t u d e n t s ' p e rfo rm a n c e on s t a t e e x a m in a tio n s ,
a r e q u i t e r e l a t i v e l y m in im a l in c o m p a riso n to th e d i f f e r e n c e s due to
i n i t i a l u n e q u a l s c h o o l i n g . In d e x 11, f o r e x am p le, i n d i c a t e s a v e r y
homogeneous l e v e l o f p e rfo rm a n c e by s t u d e n t s from th e d i f f e r e n t e l e
m e n ta ry s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s . The ra n g e i s o n ly 1 4 .6 and th e s ta n d a r d
d e v i a t i o n as s m a ll as 4 . 6 . S i m i l a r l y th e ra n g e s b etw een th e s e l e c t i v
i t y in d e x e s (6 , 7, 8) o f th e d i f f e r e n t s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s to th e j u n i o r
h ig h s c h o o l e n t r a n c e c o m p e titio n a r e r e l a t i v e l y s m a ll (a b o u t 60%), and
th e s ta n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s rem a in s m a ll ( 1 9 .7 , 1 7 .6 , and 1 4 . 4 ) . However
th e u n e q u a l s c h o o lin g b etw een d i s t r i c t s i s i l l u s t r a t e d by a huge ra n g e
(163 f o r in d e x 10 c o n c e rn in g th e r a t e o f s c h o o li n g in eac h s c h o o l d i s
t r i c t ) . In d e x 9 makes i t c l e a r t h a t th e i n i t i a l u n e q u a l s c h o o li n g is
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e s u b s e q u e n t u n e q u a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t
s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s o f s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l s . In d e x 9 and 10 p r e s e n t th e same
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and b o th c o n firm th e h y p o th e s is t h a t o n ly i n i t i a l
s c h o o lin g i n e q u a l i t i e s a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e u n e q u a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
o f s t u d e n t s from d i f f e r e n t l o c a l i t i e s . They a l s o c o n firm a t t h e same
tim e as th e y a r e c o n firm e d by th e f i n d i n g in th e n e x t s e c t i o n t h a t
t h e r e i s no aca d em ic d i f f e r e n c e b etw ee n u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s from d i f
f e r e n t g e o e th n ic and s o c i a l o r i g i n s .
H owever, to sa y t h a t th e h i s t o r i c a l f a c t o r s of u n e q u a l s c h o o l
in g c a r r y t h e i r i n i t i a l e f f e c t s o v e r eac h s t a g e of s c h o o lin g does n o t
mean t h a t th e s e f a c t o r s a r e s t a t i c . The a n a l y t i c a l p r e s e n t a t i o n o f
t h e s e f a c t o r s , p r e s e n te d f o r re a s o n s o f c l a r i t y , may be m is le a d in g i n
t h a t r e s p e c t and may h id e th e v e r y d i a l e c t i c a l movement w hich has b een
175
t a k i n g p la c e b etw een th e g e o e th n ic phenomenon and th e p r o c e s s o f s o c i a l
c l a s s f o r m a t io n , a d i a l e c t i c a l movement w h ich te n d s to a t t e n u a t e o r
a g g r a v a te th e c o n se q u e n c e s o f b o th th e u n e q u a l g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u
t i o n o f e d u c a tio n f a c i l i t i e s and th e s o c i a l c l a s s e s .
I n d e e d , a lth o u g h no a c c u r a t e c o m p u ta tio n h as b een done to
r e s e a r c h t h i s h y p o t h e s i s , i t i s r e a s o n a b l e t o su p p o se t h a t th e c o n c e n
t r a t i o n of s c h o o l f a c i l i t i e s i n th e few c i t i e s w here th e b u r e a u c r a t s
and th e w e a lth y t r a d e r s l i v e , com bined w ith th e r e s t r i c t i v e m ix tu re of
acad em ic and ag e r e q u ir e m e n ts im posed on so n s o f p e a s a n t and w o rk e r
g ro u p f a m i l i e s s h o u ld hav e l e d , i n th e v e r y s h o r t r u n , to a more b l a t a n t
u n d e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e s e g ro u p s a t th e d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f e d u c a
t i o n i n g e n e r a l and a t th e u n i v e r s i t y l e v e l in p a r t i c u l a r . B ut t h i s i s
n o t th e c a s e ; and one may be s u r p r i s e d to f i n d o u t t h a t , d e s p i t e a l l
th e o b s t a c l e s e r e c t e d a c r o s s t h e i r e d u c a t i o n a l r o a d , c h i l d r e n o f p e a s
a n t s s t i l l c o n s t i t u t e th e a b s o l u t e m a j o r i t y a t a l l e d u c a tio n l e v e l s .
Once we r u l e o u t t h e i r s u p e r i o r i n t e l l i g e n c e - - i n f a c t w hat th e p r e s e n t
d a t a does i n d i c a t e i s th e a b s e n c e o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s u p e r i o r i t y o f any
s o c i a l g ro u p --w e m ust s e e k an a l t e r n a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r th e f a c t .
The p r e s e n t s tu d y s u g g e s ts t h a t t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n may be found
in th e dynam ic i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een g e o e t h n i c i t y and s o c i a l c la s s e s ,
i n th e im p act of e t h n i c i t y on th e p r o c e s s o f s o c i a l c l a s s e t h n i c g ro u p s
and r e p r o d u c t i o n th ro u g h e d u c a t i o n .
The Im p ac t o f G e o e th n i c it y on th e R e p ro d u c tio n
o f S o c ia l C la s s e s th ro u g h E d u c a tio n
I t i s a w ell-k n o w n s o c i o l o g i c a l phenomenon t h a t p l u r a l s o c i e t i e s
176
te n d to c r e a t e a p o l a r i z a t i o n o f econom ic o r p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t i e s
a c c o r d in g t o g e o e th n ic l i n e s ( C o l l i n s , 1979; Young, 1 9 7 6 ). The m ix in g
o f p r e v i o u s l y s e p a r a t e and r e l a t i v e l y autonom ous s o c i a l g roups le a d s
to a r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of th e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s so t h a t th e g ro u p s who
hav e a r e l a t i v e s u p e r i o r i t y in one o r a n o t h e r c u l t u r a l econom ic o r
p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y te n d s to s p e c i a l i z e i n i t , i n th e lo n g r u n , to
m o n o p o lize i t a g a i n s t g ro u p s o f l e s s e r im p o rta n c e o r com petence i n t h a t
s p e c i a l a c t i v i t y . The c o n d i t i o n s o f s u c h p o l a r i z a t i o n , s p e c i a l i z a t i o n ,
o r m o n o p o liz a tio n depend on a v a r i e t y of f a c t o r s ; among w hich th e g e o
g r a p h i c a l f a c t o r s ( la n d , l o c a t i o n ) f a v o r a b l e f o r th e c o n c e rn e d a c t i v i t y
and th e n u m e ric a l im p o rta n c e and c o h e s iv e n e s s o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i a l
g ro u p s .
T h is i s t r u e o f E uropean^arid A m erican s o c i e t i e s , a s C o ll in s
a r g u e s . I t i s t r u e r o f A f r i c a n s o c i e t i e s i n g e n e r a l and th e V o lta n
s o c i e t y in p a r t i c u l a r .
I n U pper V o lta , f o r i n s t a n c e , th e F u la n i p o p u la tio n i s e s s e n
t i a l l y a n o m a d ic, c a t t l e - b r e e d i n g p o p u l a t i o n . The D io u la and Y arse
a r e s p e c i a l i z e d in t r a d e ; w h ile th e Bobo, Bwaba, and S enoufo a r e e s s e n
t i a l l y t i l l e r s and a r e a l s o p r o g r e s s i v e l y s p e c i a l i z i n g in c a s h - c r o p p in g
u n d e r th e a c t i o n o f some governm ent p r o j e c t s su ch a s th e ’’P r o j e c t
O u est V o lta " f o r c o t t o n .
I t i s n o t th e n s u r p r i s i n g t h a t as T a b le 22 i n d i c a t e s , th e c o n
f i g u r a t i o n of th e s t u d e n t p o p u la tio n r e f l e c t s t h i s c o n v e rg e n c e o f
o c c u p a tio n and e t h n i c i t y .
The a g r i c u l t u r a l and more p a r t i c u l a r l y th e b u r e a u c r a t i c o c c u p a
t i o n s r e p r e s e n t th e more v a r i e d g e o e t h n ic c o n s t i t u t e n t s . B u t, as
177
178
Table 22
R e la tio n s h ip between E th n ic ity and O ccupation among Ouagadougou U n iv e rsity S tu d e n ts' P a re n ts
O c c u p a t i o n
E t h n i c G r () u p s
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 T o ta l
C a ttle -b r e e d e r .4 35.0 -- 1.3 -- --
9
1.4
T rader 3.2 - - 7.7 7.8 - - --
19
3.0
C ash-cropper 7.1 10.2 10.3 31.0 15.7 17.5 9.7
10.5
71
11.3
B u re a u c ra ts /
E n trep ren eu rs
31.4 25 .0 22.4 42.3 36.2 27.5 45.0 45.2 47 .4
213
34.0
O ther ( p e a s a n ts ,
w o rk ers, a r t i s a n s )
5 7 .9 40.0 67.3 38.5 32.8 49.0 37.5
i
45.2 42.1
314
50.2
T o ta l
280 20 49 78 58 51 40 31 19 686
44.7 3.2 7.8 12.5 9.3 8.1 6 .4 5 .0 3 .0 100.0
N o te , x2 = 230.2; p = .0001.
Legend: 1. M ossi; 2. F u la n i; 3. L o b i-D a g a rti; 4 . Sam o-Safing-D ioula;
5 . Bobo-Bwaha; 6. Senoufo; 7. G ourounsi; 8. Boussance; 9. Gourmantche.
a l r e a d y s t a t e d i n C h a p te r IV , p r e s e n t l y i t i s th e b u r e a u c r a t i c o c c u p a
t i o n (more p r e c i s e l y i t s u p p e r s t r a t a ) w hich i s th e m ost c o v e te d ,
aro u n d w h ich g e o e th n ic c o n f l i c t s a r e th e m ost m o b iliz e d and e x p r e s s e d ,
and w here e d u c a tio n i s th e p r i v i l e g e d m e d ia to r o f th e s e c o n f l i c t s .
I n d e e d , a s th e 1976 s p e c i a l co m m ittee has r i g h t l y p o in te d o u t ,
c o n t r a r y t o w hat h as lo n g been b e l i e v e d by some E u ro p ean o r A f r ic a n
i n t e l l e c t u a l s , t r i b a l i s m i s more c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f e d u c a te d th a n o f
u n e d u c a te d p e o p le , and n o t a k in d of s u r v i v a l o f t r a d i t i o n a l p sy c h o -
s o c i o l o g i c a l a t t i t u d e s b ro u g h t o v e r to m odern tim e and c i v i l i z a t i o n .
The s e n s i t i v i t y (o r a w a re n e s s ) to t h i s p ro b lem o f th e i n t e l l e c
t u a l m i l i e u i s e v id e n c e d by th e f a c t t h a t more th a n 80 p e r c e n t o f th e
r e s p o n d e n ts t o th e p r e s e n t s u rv e y q u e s t i o n n a i r e s a y t h a t t r i b a l i s m i s
an im p o r ta n t A f r ic a n c u r r e n t p ro b le m , a g a i n s t l e s s th a n 12 p e r c e n t
s a y in g t h a t i t i s a m inor o r a r t i f i c i a l p ro b le m . A bout th e same p r o
p o r t i o n s o f re s p o n d e n ts d e c l a r e t h a t th e c h o ic e o f one n a t i o n a l l a n
guage from among th e v a r io u s sp oken th r o u g h o u t th e c o u n try i s l i k e l y
to have d i s r u p t i v e e f f e c t s on th e V o lta n s o c i e t y in term s o f a n e g a t iv e
r e s p o n s e from th e s o - c a l l e d m i n o r ity g ro u p s w hose la n g u a g e s w ould have
been l e f t a s i d e .
T a b le s 23 and 24 g iv e a p i c t u r e o f th e re s p o n s e s o f th e s t u d e n t
sam ple to th e two q u e s ti o n s c o n c e rn in g t h e i r o p in io n s a b o u t t r i b a l i s m .
Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , t h i s s e n s i t i v i t y i s g r e a t e r among th e m in o r
i t y g ro u p o f s t u d e n t s th a n among th e m a j o r i t y g ro u p o f s t u d e n t s .
T a b le 25 th u s c o n firm s th e e m p i r i c a l o b s e r v a ti o n o f th e S p e c i a l Com
m i t t e e t h a t co m p la in s a b o u t th e s o - c a l l e d u n e q u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
h i g h e r r a n k in g b u r e a u c r a t i c p o s i t i o n s to t h e i r d is a d v a n ta g e w ere
179
T a b le 23
D i s t r i b u t i o n o f R esp o n ses to th e Q u e s tio n
C o n c e rn in g T r i b a lis m a
R esp o n ses P e r c e n ta g e
V ery im p o rta n t 4 6 .8
Im p o rta n t 2 8 .4
M inor 15 .8
A r t i f i c i a l 8 .2
D on' t know 0 .2
No answ er 0 .6
3 .
The q u e s t i o n r e a d as f o ll o w s : " I n m ost A f r ic a n c o u n t r i e s , i n c l u d
in g U pper V o l t a , w hich a r e e x p e r i e n c in g c u l t u r a l p l u r a l i s m , i t is d i f
f i c u l t to ch o o se one of t h e n a t i o n a l la n g u a g e s as o f f i c i a l and th e
te a c h in g la n g u a g e . The r e a s o n f o r t h i s i s , so i t i s b e l i e v e d , th e
f e a r t h a t o th e r c u l t u r a l g ro u p s m ig h t f e e l n e g l e c t e d o r 'c o l o n i z e d ' by
th e g ro u p whose la n g u a g e w ould have b een c h o sen as th e o f f i c i a l l a n
g u ag e. Do you t h i n k t h a t t h i s p ro b lem i s r e a l and im p o rta n t? R a te
th e d e g re e o f t h i s im p o r ta n c e ."
T a b le 24
D i s t r i b u t i o n o f R esp o n ses
C o n c e rn in g th e I s s u e
to th e Q u e s tio n
o f T r i b a l i s m a
R esp o n ses P e r c e n ta g e
A v e ry im p o r ta n t i s s u e 5 8 .3
An im p o r ta n t i s s u e 2 8 .8
A m in o r i s s u e 8 .9
An a r t i f i c i a l i s s u e 2 .6
No an sw er 1 .4
T o t a l 1 0 0 .0 (N=626)
S i
The s t u d e n t s w ere a s k e d w h e th e r, a c c o r d in g to them , t r i b a l i s m i s
an im p o r ta n t A f r ic a n i s s u e .
180
T a b le 25
Breakdown o f T a b le 23a
C h o ice o f One
N a ti o n a l Language
Groups
M a jo r i ty M in o r ity T o t a l
V ery im p o r ta n t 3 7 .5 5 4 .3
4 6 .8
(2 9 3 )b
I m p o rta n t 2 7 .5 2 9 .2
2 8 .4
(178)
M inor 2 2 .9 1 0 .1
1 5 .8
(99)
A r t i f i c i a l 1 1 .1 5 .8
8 .1
(51)
Don1t know - - 0 .3
0 .2
(1)
No an sw er 1 .1 0 .3
0 .6
(4)
T o t a l
4 4 .3
(280)
55 .3
(5 5 .3 )
1 0 0 .0
(626)
N o te . y2 = 33; p < .0 0 0 1 .
The p r o p o r t i o n s o f re s p o n d e n ts c l a s s i f i e d i n t o " m in o r i ty g ro u p s t u
d e n t s " and " m a j o r i t y g roup s t u d e n t s " who c o n s i d e r t h a t t h e c h o ic e o f
one n a t i o n a l la n g u a g e i s l i k e l y to h av e d i s r u p t i v e e f f e c t s and
n e g a t i v e re s p o n s e s on t h e p a r t o f c u l t u r a l groups whose la n g u a g e
w ould n o t have b een c h o s e n .
k
Number of r e s p o n s e s .
181
I
p a r t i c u l a r l y v o ic e d by t h e s o - c a l l e d m i n o r i t y g ro u p i n t e l l e c t u a l s .
C h a p te r IV has t r i e d to p o i n t o u t th e m echanism by w hich t r i b a l l o y a l t y
h as b een m o b iliz e d by th e b u r e a u c r a t s an d t h e i r o c c a s i o n a l a l l i e s , th e
t r a d i t i o n a l c h i e f s , i n o r d e r to c o n s o l i d a t e t h e i r own so c io e c o n o m ic
power th ro u g h e l e c t i o n s o r a p p o in tm e n ts to im p o r ta n t d e c is io n - m a k in g
p o s i t i o n s .
I t m ust be added h e r e t h a t th e t r i b e , e t h n i c m em bers, a r e n o t
alw ays in n o c e n t v i c t i m s o f t h e s e d i s r u p t i v e p r a c t i c e s . In d e e d , th e y
o f t e n manage to ta k e a d v a n ta g e o f t h i s e t h n i c l o y a l t y and s o l i d a r i t y
to ad v an c e t h e i r own i n d i v i d u a l i n t e r e s t s , one o f w hich i s a c c e s s to
th e s c a r c e e d u c a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s .
I f r e g i o n a l i s m o r t r i b a l i s m i s u se d t o a s s u r e o r r e i n f o r c e
s o c i a l c l a s s e s , i t a l s o has t h e u n e x p e c te d e f f e c t o f b l u r r i n g th e e f
f e c t s o f th e s e s o c i a l c l a s s e s on th e d i f f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s to e d u c a tio n
o f s t u d e n t s from th e s e c l a s s e s a n d , t h e r e b y , t h e i r r e p r o d u c t i o n . I t
a p p e a r s , f o r ex am p le, t h a t a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n o f s t u d e n t s
from p e a s a n t o r i g i n s a t t e n d p r i v a t e h ig h s c h o o ls o r p u b l i c h ig h s c h o o ls
w ith o u t b e n e f i t i n g from a s t a t e s c h o l a r s h i p . In 1970 t h i s in c lu d e d 29
p e r c e n t o f th e s t u d e n t s who came from p e a s a n t o r ig i n s ; i n 1975 t h i s
re a c h e d 35 p e r c e n t and i n 1980, 46 p e r c e n t .
I n s t r i c t l y econom ic te rm s , t h i s seems im p o s s ib l e , g iv e n th e
v e r y low a n n u a l p e r c a p i t a incom e o f p e a s a n ts ($60) and th e r e l a t i v e l y
h ig h c o s t o f t u i t i o n i n th e s e p r i v a t e s c h o o ls ($ 2 0 0 -$ 3 0 0 ), and th e c o s t
o f m a in te n a n c e in th e c i t i e s f o r a s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g s t u d e n t (a b o u t $200
t o $300 p e r y e a r ) even i n p u b l i c s c h o o l s . The l a b o r , eco n o m ic, and
e d u c a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s and o r g a n i z a t i o n s a r e s u c h t h a t i t i s p r a c t i c a l l y
182
im p o s s ib le f o r a s t u d e n t t o f i n d a p a r t - t i m e jo b w h ile a t t e n d i n g s c h o o l,
com pared t o t h i s q u i t e common p r a c t i c e i n d e v e lo p e d c o u n t r i e s su c h as
th e U n ite d S t a t e s .
What i s n o t e x p l a i n a b l e i n s t r i c t l y econom ic te rm s , ho w ev er,
becomes e x p l a i n a b l e when one ta k e s i n t o a c c o u n t th e f a m ily and e t h n i c
s t r u c t u r e s o f V o lta n s o c i e t y , m arked by a v e r y dem anding s o l i d a r i t y
among k ir is h ip and e t h n i c g ro u p m em bers, who a r e n o t alw ays aw are o f th e
co n se q u e n c e s o f th e a g g r e g a tio n o f t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r i s t i c c la im s and
demands upon a s t a t e b u r e a u c r a t - - e r g o th e p o t e n t i a l s o u rc e o f b u r e a u
c r a t i c c o r r u p t i o n ( P r i c e , 1 9 7 8 ).
I t i s n o t i n f r e q u e n t , in d e e d , to s e e a c i v i l s e r v a n t o r an
u rb a n w o rk e r s u p p o r t i n g , i n a d d i t i o n to h i s own n u c l e a r f a m ily m em bers,
two o r t h r e e v i l l a g e r e l a t i v e s e n t r u s t e d t o him f o r s c h o o l a t t e n d a n c e ,
g e n e r a l l y from th e f i r s t t o th e 1 2 th g r a d e , i f n o t b ey o n d . Each y e a r
p u b l i c s c h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s e s p e c i a l l y a r e c o n f r o n te d w ith th e p ro b lem
o f t h e i r t e a c h e r s o r o t h e r s t a t e b u r e a u c r a t s , in c lu d in g th e M i n i s t e r s
th e m s e lv e s , r e q u e s t i n g e x t r a p la c e s in a l r e a d y overcrow ded c la s s r o o m s ,
in o r d e r to r e l i e v e th e m s e lv e s from th e f i n a n c i a l b u rd e n t h a t th e s e
v i l l a g e r e l a t i v e s r e p r e s e n t f o r them .
I f s o f a r m ost c i v i l s e r v a n t s and c i t y d w e lle r s have managed to
com ply w ith t h e i r t r i b a l o b l i g a t i o n s v i s - a - v i s t h e i r r u r a l k i n and t r i b e
m em bers, i t i s n e v e r t h e l e s s q u e s t i o n a b l e as t o how t h i s s i t u a t i o n i s
g o in g to c o n t i n u e . T here i s some d o u b t a b o u t i t s c o n t i n u a t i o n , s i n c e
th e c o n j u n c tio n of th e w o rse n in g econom ic s i t u a t i o n w ith th e e v e r -
r i s i n g c o s t o f l i v i n g and e d u c a t i o n a l e x p e n d i tu r e s makes i t h a r d e r and
h a r d e r f o r th e c i v i l s e r v a n t s th e m s e lv e s t o s u r v iv e and ta k e c a r e o f
t h e i r own g e n e r a l l y a b u n d a n t o f f s p r i n g . 183
9
The B a c c a la u r e a t E x a m in a tio n
D i f f e r e n t i a l R a te s o f S u ccess
o f S tu d e n ts from D i f f e r e n t
S o c ia l O r ig in s
I t has n o t b een p o s s i b l e , i n th e fram ew ork o f th e p r e s e n t s tu d y ,
to g e t r e l i a b l e s t a t i s t i c s on th e s u c c e s s r a t e i n th e b a c c a l a u r e a t
e x a m in a tio n f o r th e d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l g ro u p s o v e r a lo n g p e r io d o f tim e .
Such s t a t i s t i c s a r e n o t r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e , and t h e i r a c c u m u la tio n w ould
have ta k e n a p e r io d o f tim e th e p r e s e n t s tu d y c o u ld n o t a l lo w , due p a r
t i c u l a r l y to th e f a c t t h a t o f f i c i a l docum ents r e q u i r e d f o r r e g i s t r a t i o n
t o ta k e th e h ig h s c h o o l l e a v in g e x a m in a tio n do n o t p r o v id e in f o r m a tio n
a b o u t th e s t u d e n t s ' s o c i a l o r i g i n s .
By u s in g an i n d i r e c t , i n f e r e n t i a l m eth o d , co m p arin g th e s o c i a l
9
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f th e h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t p o p u la tio n i n 1980 and th e
s o c i a l o r i g i n s o f fre sh m e n e n r o l l e d i n th e U n i v e r s i t y o f Ouagadougou
as w e l l as a b r o a d , i t has b een p o s s i b l e t o come up w ith some rou g h
a p p r o x im a tio n s . Any e r r o r s a r e due to th o s e r e l a t i v e l y few p e rs o n s who
do n o t go to th e u n i v e r s i t y a f t e r g r a d u a t in g from h ig h s c h o o l .
T a b le 26 i n d i c a t e s t h a t , in g e n e r a l , s t u d e n t s from p e a s a n t and
a r t i s a n f a m i l i e s have r e l a t i v e l y h i g h e r p e r c e n ta g e s o f s u c c e s s (a b o u t
60%) th a n s t u d e n t s from c i v i l s e r v a n t , t r a d e r , and l i b e r a l p r o f e s s i o n
f a m i l i e s ( l e s s th a n o n e - t h i r d o f th e c a n d i d a t e s ) .
A n o th e r i n f e r e n t i a l m ethod u se d t o come to some a p p ro x im a tio n
o f th e d i f f e r e n t i a l r a t e s o f s u c c e s s o f d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l g r o u p s ' s t u
d e n ts c o n s i s t e d i n co m p arin g th e r a t e s o f s u c c e s s among s c h o l a r s h i p
h o ld e r s and n o n - s c h o l a r s h i p h o l d e r s . I f we su p p o se t h a t s c h o l a r s h i p
h o ld e r s i n h ig h s c h o o l come from d o m in a te d c l a s s f a m i l i e s and n on-
184
T ab le 26
D i f f e r e n t i a l R a te s o f S u c c e ss on th e B a c c a la u r ^ a t E x a m in a tio n
o f S tu d e n ts from D i f f e r e n t S o c ia l O r ig in s ( S e s s io n o f 1980)
F a t h e r 's O c c u p a tio n
N o. o f
C a n d id a te s
Number
A d m itte d
P e r c e n ta g e o f
S u c c e ss
P e a s a n t 660 363 5 5 .0 0
A r t i s a n / c a t t l e - b r e e d e r 50 33 6 6 .0 0
T ra d e r 106 24 2 2 .6 4
C i v i l s e r v a n t 390 156 4 0 .0 0
L i b e r a l p r o f e s s i o n a l 62 19 30 .6 5
P r i v a t e s e c t o r
em ployees
75 36 4 8 .0 0
M i l i t a r i e s 91 51 5 6 .0 4
W orkers 67 28 4 1 .7 9
T r a d i t i o n a l c h i e f s
?
6
?
U n d eterm in ed 40 17 4 2 .5 0
T o t a l 1 ,5 4 1 733 4 7 .5 7
185
s c h o l a r s h i p h o l d e r s from d o m in an t c l a s s f a m i l i e s , th e d i f f e r e n c e s o b
s e rv e d i n th e r a t e s o f s u c c e s s on th e b a c c a l a u r ^ a t e x a m in a tio n o f th e
two c a t e g o r i e s o f s t u d e n t s may t e l l us so m e th in g a b o u t th e d i f f e r e n t i a l
p e rfo rm a n c e s o f th e two b ro a d s o c i a l c a t e g o r i e s r e p r e s e n t e d .
F o r t h i s c o m p a ra tiv e p u rp o s e , th e r e s u l t s o f b a c c a l a u r ^ a t e x
a m in a tio n s a c h ie v e d by s c h o l a r s h i p and n o n - s c h o l a r s h i p h o ld e r s from
th e l a r g e s t p u b l i c h ig h s c h o o l , th e ly c e e P h i l i p p e Z in d a K ab o re, w ere
e x a m in e d .
T a b le 27 i n d i c a t e s t h a t in g e n e r a l , s c h o l a r s h i p h o ld e r s te n d to
be more s u c c e s s f u l th a n n o n - s c h o l a r s h i p h o ld e r s i n p u b l i c i n s t i t u t i o n s .
T h is i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g , i n s o f a r a s th e fo rm e r have b een s u b m itte d t o
more s e l e c t i o n th a n th e l a t t e r , a lth o u g h t h e o r e t i c a l l y i n p u b l i c s c h o o ls
a l l s t u d e n t s m ust have m et th e same acad em ic r e q u i r e m e n t s . The p r e v i
ous s e c t i o n s have exam ined how t h e s e fo rm a l r e g u l a t i o n s a r e v i o l a t e d by
th e b u r e a u c r a t s r e s u l t i n g i n th e a d m is s io n o f s t u d e n t s o f lo w e r i n t e l
l e c t u a l c a l i b e r com ing from b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s f a m i l i e s - - a n d a l s o r e
s u l t i n g i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e num ber o f n o n - s c h o l a r s h i p
h o ld e r s com ing from l o w e r - c l a s s f a m i l i e s .
T h is v i o l a t i o n of e s t a b l i s h e d r e g u l a t i o n s by th e b u r e a u c r a t s anc
th e r e s u l t i n g s i t u a t i o n o f th e s o c i a l c o m p o s itio n o f th e h ig h s c h o o l
p o p u l a t i o n make i t v e r y d i f f i c u l t to r e l y on th e i n f e r r e d e x a m in a tio n
r e s u l t s a s a m easure o f th e d i f f e r e n t i a l r a t e s o f acad em ic s u c c e s s
among th e d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l c l a s s e s and g ro u p s o f c a n d i d a t e s .
To be s u r e , th e d o m in a te d c l a s s e s ' s t u d e n t s do n o t re m a in p a s
s i v e i n t h i s s t r u g g l e f o r s c h o o l s u r v i v a l . Those who have b e e n e x
c lu d e d from th e s c h o o l sy ste m ( p u b l i c o r p r i v a t e ) have so f a r r e s o r t e d
186_
T ab le 27
D i f f e r e n t i a l R a te s o f S u c c e s s i n th e B a c c a l a u r ^ a t E x a m in a tio n
o f S c h o l a r s h i p H o ld e rs and N o n - S c h o la r s h ip H o ld e rs a t th e
L yc^e P h i l i p p e Z in d a K abor£ f o r 1977, 1979, and 1980,
A l l S tream s
No. o f C a n d id a te s
P r e s e n t e d
Number
A d m itte d P e r c e n t a g e 2 /1 - 1 0 0
0 0 4
o ♦ H
• H J 3
J J CO CO
cd (C C O
c o cd u
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o
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1977 128 88 216 100 65 165
1978 127 112 239 78 51 129
1980 144 123 267 86 55 141
7 8 .1 3 7 3 .8 6 7 6 .3 9
6 1 .4 2 4 5 .5 4 5 3 .9 7
5 9 .7 2 4 4 .7 2 5 2 .8 1
T o t a l 399 323 722 264 171 435 6 6 .1 7 5 2 .9 4 6 0 .2 5
N o t e . D ata o b ta i n e d from th e L yc£e P h i l i p p e Z in d a K abord a r c h i v e s .
187
to an a l t e r n a t i v e way f o r g a i n in g a c c e s s to th e u n i v e r s i t y . T h is a l
t e r n a t i v e c o n s i s t s i n p r e p a r i n g and t a k i n g th e u n i v e r s i t y e n t r a n c e
e x a m in a tio n ( b a c c a l a u r ^ a t ) a s " f r e e " i n d i v i d u a l c a n d i d a te s a s opposed
to " r e g u l a r " c a n d i d a te s from th e s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l s .
The in f o r m a l p a th s to w ard th e u n i v e r s i t y ( th ro u g h r e l a t i v e s
p a y in g t u i t i o n in p r i v a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s o r th ro u g h p r e p a r i n g f o r th e
b a c c a l a u r ^ a t e x a m in a tio n a s a f r e e i n d i v i d u a l c a n d i d a te ) b ro u g h t more
and more c a n d i d a te s to th e d o o rs o f th e u n i v e r s i t y .
T h ere has been a c o n s t a n t p r e o c c u p a tio n among e d u c a t i o n a l
b u r e a u c r a ts a b o u t th e gro w in g num ber o f c a n d i d a te s f o r e n t r y i n t o th e
u n i v e r s i t y f o r a r e l a t i v e l y c o n s t a n t number of p la c e s a v a i l a b l e b o th
i n th e u n i v e r s i t y and i n t h e c i v i l s e r v i c e .
T h u s, e d u c a t i o n a l b u r e a u c r a t s co m p lain e d t h a t
t h e r e have b een many more d e g re e s g r a n te d th a n e x p e c te d . . . .
F o r th e p e r io d 1 9 6 8 -1 9 7 0 , 3 ,2 1 6 j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l - l e a v i n g
c e r t i f i c a t e s i n s t e a d o f 2 ,7 6 0 , an i n c r e a s e o f 17%; 622 b a c c a -
l a u r ^ a t d e g re e s i n s t e a d o f 3 4 0 , an i n c r e a s e o f 83%.
In 1971 an d 1972 a l s o , th e e s t i m a t e s o f th e " P la n C adre"
docum ent c o n c e r n in g th e number o f b a c c a l a u r e a t h o l d e r s w i l l be
l a r g e l y e x c e e d e d .
The b lo c k a g e o f e n r o llm e n t h as f a i l e d . One n o te s a t th e end
o f th e p la n an i n c r e a s e o f 2,1 9 5 h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s i n s t e a d o f
1 ,1 8 6 , a n i n c r e a s e by 85.5% a s com pared to th e e s t i m a t e s .
(MENC, S e r v ic e de P l a n i f i c a t i o n , 1971, p . 2)
I n 1976, th e e d u c a t i o n a l b u r e a u c r a t s e x p r e s s e d th e same c o n c e rn :
I n 1974, th e V o lta n h ig h s c h o o l s y ste m h as p ro d u ced more b a c -
c a l a u r ^ a t d e g re e h o ld e r s (472) th a n e x i s t e d i n a l l th e c o u n tr y
(457) i n 1968. . . . The p ro b lem of a c c e s s to h i g h e r e d u c a tio n
w i l l be more and more a c u t e . . . .
From 1964 t o 1974, th e num ber o f u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s has
i n c r e a s e d from 210 (9 fe m a le s ) to 1,9 7 3 (266 f e m a l e s ) . . . . The
e s t i m a t e s f o r 1974 (1 ,1 0 5 ) h av e b een e x ce ed ed by 56%. (MENC,
D i r e c t i o n de l a P l a n i f i c a t i o n , 1976, p p . 2 6 -2 7 )
188
The s o l u t i o n to th e p ro b lem o f e v e r i n c r e a s i n g num bers o f
c a n d id a te s f o r th e u n i v e r s i t y has b e e n s o u g h t th ro u g h th e re fo rm of
th e b a c c a l a u r e a t e x a m in a tio n . The o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s re fo rm h as b een
t o make i t more d i f f i c u l t f o r th e c a n d i d a t e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e f r e e
i n d i v i d u a l c a n d i d a t e s , t o p a ss th e b a c c a l a u r e a t , w h ich s e r v e s a s a
u n i v e r s i t y e n t r a n c e e x a m in a tio n .
The C la s s N a tu re o f th e 1978 B a c c a la u r e a t
E x a m in a tio n R eform
The c l a s s n a t u r e o f th e r e c e n t (1978) b a c c a l a u r e a t re fo rm i s
e v id e n c e d by th e ty p e o f s t u d e n t s ( th o s e a t t e n d i n g fo rm a l i n s t i t u t i o n s )
and th e ty p e of know ledge ( w r i t t e n ) i t f a v o r s .
From 1968 t o 1978, th e b a c c a l a u r e a t e x a m in a tio n c o m p rise d t h r e e
w r i t t e n t e s t s and t h r e e o r a l t e s t s , each w ith a b o u t th e same im p o rta n c e
a s f a r a s g r a d in g was c o n c e rn e d . The F re n c h t e s t was ta k e n a y e a r ah ea d
and was a l s o c o m p rise d o f a w r i t t e n and an o r a l p a r t . The s t u d e n t was
d e c l a r e d a d m itte d " f o r th e f i r s t s t r i k e " when he t o t a l l e d a g ra d e p o i n t
a v e ra g e o f 12 o u t o f 2 0 . He was th e n g iv e n a s p e c i a l d i s t i n c t i o n
( " f a i r , " " g o o d ," o r " e x c e l l e n t , " a c c o r d in g t o t h i s s c o r e ) . I f th e s t u
d e n t d id n o t t o t a l 12, b u t was b etw ee n 12 and 8 , he was g iv e n a seco n d
ch ance to r e t a k e th e t e s t s h e had f a i l e d , t h i s tim e o n ly th e o r a l s . The
b e s t mark o f th e two a t te m p t s was k e p t f o r th e c o m p u ta tio n .of th e new
s c o r e . The s t u d e n t was th e n d e c l a r e d a d m itte d when he re a c h e d a n a v e r
age s c o r e o f 10 o u t o f 20 and was g iv e n a d i s t i n c t i o n , w h ic h , ho w ev er,
m ig h t n o t be h ig h e r th a n " f a i r " even i f h e had s c o r e d h i g h e r th a n 12 o u t
o f 20 a t h i s s e c o n d -c h a n c e e x a m in a tio n .
189
The 1978 re fo rm d e c re e d a l l t e s t s m ust be p a s s e d d u r in g th e same
y e a r . I t a l s o a b o l i s h e d th e o r a l p a r t s o f th e s e t e s t s , e x c e p t f o r e i g n
la n g u a g e s ( e . g . , German, S p a n is h , and A r a b i c ) . The c a n d i d a te was imme
d i a t e l y to be d e c l a r e d a d m itte d when h i s a v e ra g e s c o r e i s a t l e a s t e q u a l
t o 10 o u t o f 20 p o i n t s . I f a s t u d e n t f a i l e d t o a c h ie v e t h i s minimum,
b u t s t i l l s ta y e d som ewhere betw een 10 and 8 , he w ould be g iv e n a seco n d
ch an ce w ith an o r a l e x a m in a tio n . However, t h i s tim e , i n s t e a d of t a k i n g
th e c a n d i d a t e 's b e s t m a rk s, a l l m arks f o r b o th f i r s t and seco n d a tte m p ts
would be com puted f o r th e f i n a l s c o r e . I t h a s become th e n v e ry d i f f i
c u l t f o r th e c a n d i d a te t o make up f o r a bad mark o b ta in e d a t th e f i r s t
e x a m in a tio n ; w h ile th e fo rm e r e x a m in a tio n sy ste m gave th e c a n d i d a te th e
ch ance t o do s o - - o r a t l e a s t n o t t o be p e n a l i z e d by a p r e v io u s poor
p e r f o r m a n c e .
The r a t i o n a l e f o r th e re fo rm i s th u s o b v i o u s . I t aim s to
e l i m i n a t e a g r e a t e r num ber o f c a n d i d a t e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th o s e who have
o r a l e x p r e s s io n a b i l i t i e s b u t n o t l i t e r a r y o r w r i t t e n e x p r e s s io n a b i l i
t i e s .
O f f i c i a l l y , h o w ev er, th e r e fo rm i s s a i d t o aim to m ore e f f i
c ie n c y and o b j e c t i v i t y . The u n i v e r s i t y a u t h o r i t i e s a rg u e d t h a t th e
p r e v io u s b a c c a l a u r e a t fo rm u la f a v o r e d o r a l t e s t s a g a i n s t w r i t t e n o n e s ,
and t h a t i t was e a s i e r to c h e a t i n o r a l t e s t s th a n i n w r i t t e n t e s t s
w here an o n y m ity c o u ld be k e p t .
The fo rm u la e x i s t i n g u n t i l 1977, t h e d i r e c t o r o f th e b a c c a l a u r e a t
o f f i c e e x p l a i n s , fa v o re d o r a l t e s t s . T h is r e p r e s e n t e d no d ra w
b ack a s lo n g a s one c o u ld g u a r a n te e th e a n o n y m ity o f th e c a n d i
d a t e s . But i n U pper V o lta w here t h e r e a r e o n ly two e x a m in a tio n
c e n t e r s , th e e x a m in e rs and exam inees know e a c h o t h e r , and th e
o b j e c t i v i t y e x p e c te d from th e ex a m in e rs i s no lo n g e r g u a r a n t e e d .
The r e s u l t s o f th e e x a m in a tio n do n o t c o rre s p o n d to th e r e a l
190
l e v e l o f th e c a n d i d a t e s , so t h a t th e id e a of o r g a n iz in g a p t i t u d e
t e s t s f o r th e e n t r y t o th e u n i v e r s i t y was g o in g i t s w ay. I t was
th e n n e c e s s a r y t o f i n d a way t o g iv e b a c k t o th e b a c c a l a u r e a t ,
th e f i r s t u n i v e r s i t y d e g r e e , a l l i t s v a l u e . E m p h a siz in g w r i t t e n
t e s t s , i t was th o u g h t , w ould p r o v id e a means f o r th e e x a m in e rs
to a c h ie v e th e r e q u i r e d o b j e c t i v i t y . T h is i s why a lm o s t a l l th e
t e s t s , w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f th o s e c o n c e rn in g th e seco n d o r t h i r d
f o r e i g n la n g u a g e , have become w r i t t e n t e s t s . (U.O. O f f ic e du
b a c c a l a u r e a t , r a p p o r t , 1 9 7 7 -1 9 7 8 , p . 3)
I t i s t r u e t h a t b y t e s t i n g a c a n d i d a te th ro u g h s e v e r a l w r i t t e n
t e s t s o f t h r e e o r f o u r h o u rs d u r a t i o n e a c h , i t i s more l i k e l y t h a t
one m ig h t ccane up w i t h a b e t t e r a p p r a i s a l of hi's i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t y
th a n th ro u g h a s h o r t , 2 0 -m in u te o r a l e x a m in a tio n t e s t ; i t i s a l s o p o s
s i b l e t o e l i m i n a t e th e im p a c t of th e s u b j e c t i v e im p r e s s io n made by a
c a n d i d a te on an i n d i v i d u a l e x a m in e r. B ut i t m ust be n o te d t h a t : f i r s t ,
th e r e f o r m h as n o t e f f e c t i v e l y s u p p r e s s e d th e s o - c a l l e d u n r e l i a b l e o r a l
t e s t s , b u t i n s t e a d has s im p ly t r a n s f e r r e d them t o th e seco n d e f f o r t
w here th e y become d e c i s i v e f o r a p p a r e n t l y m e d io c re c a n d i d a t e s ; s e c o n d ,
th e r e a l p ro b lem of c h e a t i n g and f a v o r i t i s m on th e p a r t o f some ex am in
e r s i s n o t s o lv e d by th e r e f o r m s i n c e i t i s g e n e r a l l y d u r in g th e c o r r e c
t i o n of th e w r i t t e n t e s t t h a t m o st p r e s s u r e s a r e e x e r t e d on ex a m in e rs
2
b y th e to p b u r e a u c r a t s . Som etim es even f r a u d o c c u rs b e f o r e th e ex am i
n a t i o n i s g iv e n i n th e form o f le a k s c o n c e rn in g th e w r i t t e n t e s t s . T h is
h as b een d e m o n s tra te d by th e 1979 f r a u d i n th e b a c c a l a u r e a t e x a m in a tio n
and th e 1981 f r a u d i n th e s e n i o r h ig h s c h o o l e n t r a n c e e x a m in a tio n .
The r e f o r m , t h e n , does n o t seem to p r o v id e a d e q u a te means to
s o lv e t h e c h e a t i n g p ro b le m i t i s o f f i c i a l l y s a i d to s o l v e . But i t does
s o lv e p roblem s w h ich a r e n o t e x p l i c i t l y f o r m u la te d by th e b u r e a u c r a t s ,
b u t w hich a r e o f r e a l c o n c e rn f o r them . T hese p ro b lem s a r e th e p r e s e r
v a t i o n o f th e b u r e a u c r a t i c c u l t u r e and p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s b a s e d on
191
w ritte n , co m m u n ica tio n , and th e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f th e b u r e a u c r a t s 1 c a r e e r
i n t e r e s t s th ro u g h th e l i m i t a t i o n o f th e number o f p o t e n t i a l c a n d i d a te s
f o r u n i v e r s i t y e d u c a t i o n , a n d , c o n s e q u e n t ly , f o r b u r e a u c r a t i c p o s i t i o n .
The re fo rm f a v o r s th e b u r e a u c r a t i c mode o f a c q u i r i n g know ledge
and com m unicating r a t h e r th a n th e m a s s e s ' mode o f a c q u i r i n g and communi
c a t i n g k n o w led g e, i n a c o u n try w here th e o r a l t r a d i t i o n i s s a i d to be
so im p o r ta n t t h a t i t h a s become an acad em ic d i s c i p l i n e .
The rem ark s above a r e , o f c o u r s e , m ere s p e c u l a t i o n s . More s y s
te m a ti c s t u d i e s a r e n eed ed to t e s t th e v a l i d i t y o f th e h y p o th e s i s s u g
g e s te d h e r e . But one t h i n g i s c e r t a i n ; th e re fo rm o f th e b a c c a l a u r e a t
p r i n c i p a l l y h i t th e i n d i v i d u a l " f r e e " c a n d i d a t e s - - t h o s e who hav e n o t
g r a d u a te d from a fo rm a l s c h o o l b u t whose i n t e l l e c t u a l and s o c i a l m a tu r
i t y a llo w s them to m a s te r th e v e r b a l e x p r e s s io n and th e r e b y to p e rfo rm
r e l a t i v e l y w e ll on o r a l e x a m in a tio n t e s t s .
The u n i v e r s i t y b u r e a u c r a t s acknow ledge t h i s f a c t and c h e e r i t a s
a m a jo r a c h ie v e m e n t of th e re fo rm :
I n f a c t th e new b a c c a l a u r d a t r e f l e c t s more th e r e a l l e v e l o f th e
c a n d i d a te s a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e i r s c h o o l r e c o r d s . F a i l u r e s c o n
c e r n weak c a n d i d a te s and i n d i v i d u a l f r e e c a n d i d a t e s . (U.O. H is -
t o r i q u e , 1979, 0 . 1)
F ig u r e 2 shows th e d r a s t i c d e c r e a s e i n th e r a t e s o f s u c c e s s i n
th e b a c c a l a u r d a t f o llo w in g th e 1978 r e f o r m , f o r a l l c a n d i d a te s i n g e n
e r a l and more p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r th e s o - c a l l e d i n d i v i d u a l " f r e e " c a n d i
d a t e s .
The r a t e o f s u c c e s s f o r th e l a t t e r , w hich p a s s e d from 22 p e r c e n t
i n 1974 and 1975 to 30 p e r c e n t i n 1976 and 1977, f e l l t o 12 p e r c e n t i n
1978 to s t a b i l i z e a ro u n d 17 p e r c e n t th e l a s t two y e a r s . T h is r e p r e s e n t s
192
Z*s«
ZCOO.
X 500
1 000
A4T»
T o t a l c a n d i d a te s
- - - C a n d id a te s from p r i v a t e
and p u b l i c s c h o o ls
F r e e i n d i v i d u a l c a n d i d a te s
T o ta l can d id ates
C andidates from
high sch o o l
•HW'
-ion.--'
W i - A 0 ?'*''' Hew
b a cca la u rea t
form ula
F ree In d iv id u a l
, ca n d id ates
T o ta l adm ission s
*30
Hi8h sc h o o l stu -
d en ts adm itted
., .v.X /^5
w b*55
65
lot*. •
Free in d iv id u a l
ca n d id a tes
adm itted
11 71 73 7V 7 f 76 77 7* 73
8o
Y^ars
F ig u r e 2 . E v o l u tio n o f b a c c a l a u r e a t e x a m in a tio n r e s u l t s from
1970 t o 1980, and co m p a riso n s a c c o r d in g to c a t e
g o ry of c a n d i d a t e s .
S o u rc e : U .O ., H i s t o r i q u e , 1 9 8 0 -1 9 8 1 , p . 3 .
193
a d e c r e a s e o f a b o u t 50 p e r c e n t o f th e a n t e - r e f o r m r a t e s o f s u c c e s s .
The r a t e o f s u c c e s s f o r th e s o - c a l l e d " r e g u l a r " c a n d i d a t e s ,
th e h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s , w hich i n c r e a s e d from 51 p e r c e n t i n 1974 and
1976 t o 74 p e r c e n t i n 1976 and 1977 f e l l to 40 p e r c e n t i n 1978 and s t a
b i l i z e d a ro u n d 46 p e r c e n t th e l a s t two y e a r s . T h is h a s r e p r e s e n t e d a
d e c r e a s e o f a b o u t 25 t o 28 p e r c e n t , n o t a b l y l e s s th a n t h a t o b s e rv e d
f o r t h e s o - c a l l e d i n d i v i d u a l f r e e c a n d i d a t e s .
The i n d i v i d u a l f r e e c a n d i d a te s h i t by th e b a c c a l a u r e a t re fo rm
g e n e r a l l y come from lo w er c l a s s f a m i l i e s who c a n n o t a f f o r d th e t u i t i o n
in p r i v a t e h ig h s c h o o ls w here th e d o m in an t b u r e a u c r a t o r t r a d e r c l a s s e s
send t h e i r c h i l d r e n who a r e n o t a d m itte d t o o r d ro p o u t o f th e p u b l i c
i n s t i t u t i o n s . The s t a t i s t i c a l in f o r m a tio n o b ta in e d from th e O uagadougou
U n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t sam ple i n d i c a t e d t h a t 72 p e r c e n t o f th e 109 i n d i v i d
u a l f r e e c a n d i d a te s w ere from p e a s a n t o r i g i n s . T a b le 28 i n d i c a t e s th e
s o c i a l o r i g i n s o f th e s o - c a l l e d i n d i v i d u a l f r e e c a n d i d a te s r e g i s t e r e d
a t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f Ouagadougou f o r th e acad em ic y e a r 1 9 8 0 -1 9 8 1 .
I t m ust b e n o te d t h a t th e s o - c a l l e d r e g u l a r c a n d i d a te s h a v e ,
b e f o r e and a f t e r th e re f o r m , th e a d v a n ta g e of h a v in g a s c h o o l r e c o r d .
I n c a s e o f e x a m in e r s ' d e l i b e r a t i o n on w h e th e r to p a ss o r f a i l , ' a c a n d i
d a t e who f e l l a few p o i n t s s h o r t o f th e r e q u i r e d minimum, a r e c o r d show
in g a n a v e ra g e y e a r l y p e rfo rm a n c e w ould w in a p o s i t i v e d e c i s i o n f o r th e
c a n d i d a t e . The f r e e i n d i v i d u a l c a n d i d a te w ith o u t a s c h o o l r e c o r d m ust
n e c e s s a r i l y m eet th e minimum p a s s in g s c o r e .
To b e s u r e , i f th e s o - c a l l e d i n d i v i d u a l f r e e c a n d i d a te s a r e e f
f e c t i v e l y th e m ost a f f e c t e d by th e 1978 r e f o r m , th e y a r e n o t th e o n ly
ones to s u f f e r from t h i s r e f o r m w hich aim ed a t an o v e r a l l r e d u c t i o n o f
194
T a b le 28
S o c i a l O r ig in s o f th e I n d i v i d u a l F re e C a n d id a te s E n r o l le d a t th e
U n i v e r s i t y o f O uagadougou d u r in g th e A cadem ic Y ear 1980-1981
Number o f F r e e
F a t h e r ’s O c c u p a tio n I n d i v i d u a l C a n d id a te s P e r c e n ta g e
P e a s a n ts
79 72 .4 8
C a t t l e - b r e e d e r
0 0
A r t i s a n
0 0
T ra d e r
4 3 .6 7
C i v i l s e r v a n t
17 1 5 .6 0
M i l i t a r y
3 2 .6 0
L i b e r a l p r o f e s s i o n
0 0
P r i v a t e s e c t o r em ployee
0 0
W orkers
2 1 .8 3
N o n - i d e n t i f i e d
4 3 .6 7
T o t a l 109 1 0 0 .0 0
195
th e r a t e o f s u c c e s s in t h e b a c c a l a u r e a t . T h is o v e r a l l d e c r e a s e was
s o u g h t by th e b u r e a u c r a t s a s a way t o p r e s e r v e th e m a rk e t- v a lu e o f th e
b a c c a l a u r e a t w hich was t h r e a t e n e d w ith d e v a l u a t i o n by th e grow ing num
b e r o f b a c c a l a u r e a t d e g re e h o l d e r s .
I n d e e d , th e r e p o r t a d v o c a tin g th e r e fo rm was a c l e a r h i n t of
th e b u r e a u c r a t s ' d e t e r m i n a t i o n to p r o t e c t th e m a rk e t v a lu e o f th e b a c
c a l a u r e a t . The r e p o r t s a i d t h a t th e p r e v io u s b a c c a l a u r e a t fo rm u la was
th e more i n a p p r o p r i a t e a s , to th e la c k o f com plem entary s t r u c
t u r e s f o r p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g , i s added th e c o n c e p tio n in o u r
c o u n t r i e s t h a t any d ip lo m a i s p e r c e iv e d a s e n t i t l i n g i t s h o ld e r s
n o t o n ly to th e p u r s u i t o f s t u d i e s b u t a l s o to s o c i a l a d v a n t a g e s .
(R .H .V ., CM Mars 1977, p . 1)
The r e a l M a lth u s ia n p u rp o s e o f th e b a c c a l a u r e a t re fo rm h ad b een
s p e l l e d o u t by th e u n i v e r s i t y f a c u l t y and p a r t i c u l a r l y by th e R e c to r o f
th e u n i v e r s i t y . In a 1976 u n i v e r s i t y a s se m b ly s e s s i o n , t h e l a t t e r d e
c l a r e d t h a t
i t i s n e c e s s a r y to r e v i s e th e fo rm u la o f th e b a c c a l a u r e a t . The
A ssem bly i s i n v i t e d to make p r o p o s i t i o n s i n t h i s r e s p e c t . Then
i f i t i s p ro v e d t h a t i n some t r a i n i n g t h e r e i s s a t u r a t i o n , th e
u n i v e r s i t y w ould be le d to a c c e p t o n ly a l i m i t e d number o f s t u
d e n t s , and w ould be o b lig e d t o r e s o r t to t e s t s [ i n a d d i t i o n to
th e b a c c a l a u r e a t e x a m in a t io n ] . (U.O. A sse m b ie e , PV November
1976, p . 12)
I t s h o u ld be n o te d t h a t th e s u s p e c te d b a c c a l a u r e a t fo rm u la had
a l r e a d y b e e n m o d ifie d i n 1971 from th e o r i g i n a l v e r s i o n i n h e r i t e d from
F r a n c e . The V o lta n e d u c a t i o n a l b u r e a u c r a t s found t h a t t h i s o r i g i n a l
v e r s i o n made i t to o e a s y f o r th e s t u d e n t t o p a ss h i s e x a m in a tio n by
h a v in g two s e s s i o n s w ith two ch a n c e s each f o r th o s e who d id n o t g e t th e
r e q u i r e d minimum p a s s in g s c o r e .
The two s t r i k e s o f th e 1971 f i r s t e x a m in a tio n s e s s i o n had i n
d eed a d m itte d 342 s t u d e n t s o u t o f 745 c a n d i d a t e s , t h a t i s 46 p e r c e n t .
I t was th e n f e a r e d t h a t w ith a se c o n d s e s s i o n t h e number o f s u c c e s s f u l
196
g r a d u a te s w ould r e a c h 450 w ere th e same s u c c e s s r a t e o f 5 8 .3 p e r c e n t
a s th e p r e c e d in g y e a r t o be r e c o r d e d . The O c to b e r (s e c o n d ) s e s s i o n
was c a n c e l l e d , th u s m a in ta i n in g th e s u c c e s s r a t e a t 46 p e r c e n t u n t i l
1976, when i t jumf>ed to 5 3 .3 p e r c e n t .
C o n c lu sio n
I t i s th e n c l e a r t h a t th e V o lta n e x a m in a tio n sy ste m i s n o t d e
s ig n e d t o t e s t th e s o - c a l l e d i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t i e s of s t u d e n t s , b u t
i n s t e a d t o c o n t r o l th e flo w o f th e b u r e a u c r a t i c jo b ^ o s t u l a h t s . I t is
a l s o c l e a r , from th e d a t a so f a r a v a i l a b l e , t h a t th e m ost im p o r ta n t
a s p e c t o f th e s e l e c t i o n i s n o t so much t h i s o p e r a te d i n s i d e th e e d u c a
t i o n a l s y s te m p e r se a s t h i s o p e r a te d o u t s i d e t h i s s y s te m , u n d e r th e
form o f u n e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f a c c e s s to e d u c a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s .
In d e e d , we h av e s e e n t h a t in g e n e r a l s t u d e n t s from l o w e r - c l a s s f a m i l i e s
a r e more s u c c e s s f u l on t h e i r e x a m in a tio n th a n s t u d e n t s from dom inant
c l a s s f a m i l i e s . I f th e s e l e c t i o n o f th e s t u d e n t s th r o u g h o u t th e e d u
c a t i o n a l sy ste m w ere b a s e d o n ly on t h e i r a ca d em ic a c h ie v e m e n t, one
sh o u ld e x p e c t a g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n o f th e s t u d e n t s o f l o w e r - c l a s s f a m i
l i e s th a n a c t u a l l y o b t a i n e d . B u t, as a l r e a d y s e e n , th e s t u d e n t s from
d o m in an t c l a s s e s a r e n o t s e l e c t e d o n ly on th e b a s i s of t h e i r acad em ic
a c h ie v e m e n t, b u t a l s o on th e b a s i s o f t h e i r s o c i a l and econom ic o r i g i n s .
They c a n , in d e e d , b y -p a s s th e b a r r i e r c o n s t i t u t e d by th e e x a m in a tio n s
and pay t u i t i o n i n p r i v a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s .
A cu rso ry e x a m in a tio n o f T a b le 26 ( c o n c e rn in g th e e f f e c t s o f th e
s c h o o l i n t e r n a l s e l e c t i o n on d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l g r o u p s ) , and T a b le 10
( c o n c e rn in g th e e f f e c t s o f th e e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s o f s e l e c t i o n on th e s e
197
g ro u p s ) i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s o f s e l e c t i o n hav e g r e a t e r
e f f e c t s on d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l c l a s s e s th a n d o es th e s c h o o l i n t e r n a l s e
l e c t i o n . W hile th e r a t e o f s u c c e s s on th e b a c c a l a u r e a t e x a m in a tio n o f
s t u d e n t s from p e a s a n t o r i g i n s i s o n ly 15 p e r c e n t h i g h e r th a n th e r a t e
o f s u c c e s s on th e same e x a m in a tio n o f s t u d e n t s from b u r e a u c r a t i c o r i
g i n s , th e r a t e o f th e s i x t h - g r a d e e n r o llm e n t o f th e l a t t e r , i n 1980,
i s 315 p e r c e n t h ig h e r th a n th e r a t e o f e n r o llm e n t o f th e s t u d e n t s from
p e a s a n t o r i g i n s .
T h a t means t h a t even i f th e s t u d e n t s from p e a s a n t o r i g i n s have
a 100 p e r c e n t r a t e o f s u c c e s s on th e b a c c a l a u r e a t e x a m in a tio n , th e y
c a n n o t b r id g e t h e huge gap o f u n e q u a l i t y c r e a t e d b etw ee n them and s t u -
*
d e n ts fro m b u r e a u c r a t i c f a m i l i e s by th e e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s o f s e l e c t i o n .
T h a t a l s o means t h a t th e d r a s t i c s e l e c t i o n t o w hich low -incom e
f a m i l i e s ' s t u d e n t s a r e s u b m itte d i n th e p u b l i c s c h o o ls ( j u n i o r and
s e n i o r h ig h s c h o o l e n t r a n c e c o m p e t i t i o n s , and h ig h r e p e t i t i o n r a t e s )
h as l i t t l e f u n c t i o n a l e f f e c t on t h e s e s t u d e n t s ' s u b s e q u e n t acad em ic
a c h ie v e m e n t.
H ow ever, more r e s e a r c h on th e e f f e c t o f th e s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l
s e l e c t i o n s y ste m on s t u d e n t s ' ac a d e m ic p e rfo rm a n c e i s n eed e d to s u b
s t a n t i a t e t h i s s p e c u l a t i v e c o n c l u s i o n on o u r p a r t .
The O b je c t iv e C o n s t r a i n t s to E d u c a tio n a l D evelopm ent
and T h e i r P o l i t i c a l S o lu ti o n s
The O b je c t iv e C o n s t r a i n t s
Of c o u r s e , th e b u r e a u c r a t s i n g e n e r a l an d t h e i r r u l i n g f a c t i o n
i n p a r t i c u l a r hav e o b v io u s e x c u s e s f o r th e u n e q u a l i t y and d e f i c i e n c y
o f s c h o o li n g among th e p o p u l a t i o n ; and th e y j u s t i f y th e m e a su re s ta k e n
198
to s o lv e th e s e problem s by th e o b j e c t i v e c o n s t r a i n t s th e y e n c o u n te r i n
th e d ev elo p m en t and d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n o f t h e s c h o o l s y ste m .
The l i m i t e d r e s o u r c e s . The m ost im p o r ta n t o f t h e s e c o n s t r a i n t s
o f t e n evoked i s th e l i m i t e d r e s o u r c e s t o f a c e a mass s c h o o li n g w h ic h ,
a s a p r o o f o f th e b u r e a u c r a t s ' good f a i t h and w i l l , i s e m p h a tic a ll y
w r i t t e n i n th e c o n s t i t u t i o n ( s ) .
I t can b e n o t e d , in d e e d , t h a t a l r e a d y a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e s h a r e
o f t h e c o u n t r y 's r e s o u r c e s goes to e d u c a t i o n . S in c e in d e p e n d e n c e ,
U pper V o lta h as b een d e v o tin g a b o u t 25 p e r c e n t o f th e n a t i o n a l and
l o c a l b u d g e t to e d u c a tin g o n ly 10 p e r c e n t o f i t s s c h o o l a g e p o p u l a t i o n .
E d u c a tio n and f in a n c e b u r e a u c r a t s a r e th e n prom pt i n show ing th e a b s u rd
p e r s p e c t i v e o f a u n i v e r s a l mass s c h o o li n g t h a t w ould sw a llo w tw ic e th e
a c t u a l n a t i o n a l b u d g e t, w ith o u t c o u n tin g th e i n d i v i d u a l f a m i l y 's c o n
t r i b u t i o n to s c h o o l i n g , and th e n e c e s s a r y in v e s tm e n t f o r th e b u i l d i n g
and e q u ip m en t o f s c h o o l s , w h ich h av e s o f a r r e l i e d on th e l o c a l commu
n i t y ( f o r t h e e le m e n ta r y sy ste m ) and on f o r e i g n p a r t i c u l a r l y F re n c h
a i d f o r th e o t h e r l e v e l s o f th e e d u c a t i o n a l s y s te m .
L im ite d ( b u r e a u c r a t i c ) j o b s . The se c o n d -m o s t im p o r ta n t y e t
l e s s in v o k e d c o n s t r a i n t to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a f a i r s c h o o l sy ste m i s
th e la c k o f jo b s o f f e r e d t o t h e p o t e n t i a l g r a d u a t e s .
As s e e n i n th e p r e c e d in g c h a p t e r , th e p u b l i c s e c t o r is th e
l a r g e s t em p lo y er o f s c h o o l , and p a r t i c u l a r l y u n i v e r s i t y , g r a d u a t e s .
The p r i v a t e s e c t o r , i n a r e l a t i v e l y s t a t i o n a r y s t a t e o f d e v e lo p m e n t,
d oes n o t n eed th e s e g r a d u a t e s , n o t , a s o f t e n s t a t e d , b e c a u se th e l a t t e r
do n o t p o s s e s s th e p r a c t i c a l s k i l l s r e q u i r e d by th e p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e s ,
199
b u t p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e th e s e e n t e r p r i s e s , m o s tly co m m ercial o r im p o r t-
s u b s t i t u t i o n - d e a l e r s , have no s t r u c t u r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n r e q u i r i n g lo w er
o r m id d le l e v e l t e c h n i c a l s k i l l s , arfd p r e f e r t o r e l y on f o r e i g n e x p e r
t i s e f o r h ig h e r s k i l l s .
T h ese a r e th e two m ain g e n e r a l c o n s t r a i n t s w hich n e g a t i v e l y
w eigh on th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e e d u c a t i o n a l s y s te m .
S p e c i f i c c o n s t r a i n t s on U n i v e r s i t y d e v e lo p m e n t. A t th e u n i v e r
s i t y l e v e l , th e o b j e c t i v e c o n s t r a i n t s a r e s t i l l more s e v e r e , a lth o u g h
so f a r d im in is h e d by f o r e i g n a i d o f d i f f e r e n t k i n d s : e n r o llm e n t i n
f o r e i g n i n s t i t u t i o n s , g r a n t i n g o f s c h o l a r s h i p s , and in v e s tm e n t i n
b u i l d i n g and e q u ip p in g th e n a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n .
U n t i l v e r y r e c e n t l y , more th a n t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f th e V o lta n
s t u d e n t p o p u l a t i o n was e n r o l l e d i n f o r e i g n , A f r i c a n , and m o s tly F re n c h
h ig h e r e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . The p r e s e n t aca d em ic y e a r b ro u g h t
t h i s p r o p o r t i o n down t o 55 p e r c e n t ; and i t i s p r e v i s i b l e t h a t t h i s
p r o p o r t i o n w i l l c o n tin u e t o s h r i n k , n o t a s a r e s u l t o f an y p o l i t i c a l
w i l l on th e p a r t o f th e b u r e a u c r a t s to d e v e lo p th e n a t i o n a l u n i v e r s i t y ,
b u t m o s tly a s a r e s u l t o f an i n t e r n a t i o n a l s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l c o n j u n c tu r e
o b li g in g ' th e V o lta n b u r e a u c r a t s to ta k e t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s .
The movement s t a r t e d by th e m id -1 9 6 0 s when th e o r i g i n a l r e
g io n a l u n i v e r s i t i e s (D akar and A b id ja n ) b eg an c h a n g in g t h e i r s t a t u t e s
and becom ing n a t i o n a l u n d e r t h e p r e s s u r e o f t h e i r em erg in g young i n t e l
l e c t u a l b o u r g e o i s i e who p ro v o k ed and u s e d th e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s b etw ee n
th e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r and com ponent o f th e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s and
t h e i r own a s p i r a t i o n s and power a m b i t i o n s .
200
T h u s, u s in g a s a p r e t e x t s t u d e n t p r o t e s t s a g a i n s t m e asu re s
ta k e n to s o lv e th e p ro b lem o f an i n c r e a s i n g num ber o f c a n d i d a te s f o r
s t a t e s c h o l a r s h i p by r e d u c i n g th e i n i t i a l am ount o f th e s c h o l a r s h i p ,
th e S e n e g a le s e governm ent p r a c t i c a l l y n a t i o n a l i z e d t h e r e g i o n a l u n i v e r
s i t y o f D akar and l i m i t e d th e number o f " f o r e i g n " s t u d e n t s t o b e a d
m i t t e d t o th e i n s t i t u t i o n (ASV, memorandum, 1 9 6 8 ).
Two y e a r s l a t e r , i n 1970, th e I v o r i a n governm ent e x p e l l e d th e
s o - c a l l e d " f o r e i g n " A f r i c a n s t u d e n t s o f whom some 210 V o lta n s t u d e n t s
w ere a c c u se d o f b e in g tr o u b l e - m a k e r s . The p r e t e x t f o r t h i s e x p u l s i o n
had b een a s t u d e n t d e m o n s tr a tio n a g a i n s t P o rtu g u e s e i m p e r i a l i s t a g g r e s
s i o n a g a i n s t th e a p p a r e n t l y p r o g r e s s i v e G uinean re g im e (AEVCI, memor
andum, 1 9 7 0 ).
By t h a t tim e , th e h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n a l c e n t e r o f O uagadougou was
o n ly a c e n t e r f o r th e s tu d y o f h u m a n i t i e s . I t had no b u i l d i n g s o f i t s
own and t e m p o r a r i l y h o u se d i t s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o f f i c e s i n some two o r
t h r e e s m a ll c la s s ro o m s made a v a i l a b l e by th e e le m e n ta r y t e a c h e r t r a i n
in g s c h o o l , w h ile th e s t u d e n t s to o k t h e i r c o u r s e s in th e c la s s ro o m s
o f t h e E c o le N a ti o n a le d* A d m i n i s t r a t i o n (ENA).
F ra n c e was th e n th e o n ly r e s o r t f o r th e a b s o r p t i o n o f th e u n
e x p e c te d flo w o f s t u d e n t s com ing b ack from th e A f r i c a n r e g i o n a l u n i v e r
s i t i e s . F ra n c e h as i t s own p ro b lem s r e s u l t i n g from th e d r a m a tic u n r e s t
o f May 1968 by s t u d e n t s dem anding more d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n o f th e u n i v e r
s i t y . I n t r y i n g to s o lv e i t s own h ig h e r e d u c a t i o n a l p ro b le m s , F ra n c e
was d is c o u r a g i n g th e e n t r y o f f o r e i g n , A f r i c a n s t u d e n t s from o v e r s e a s .
The P a u l i a n m i s s i o n , s e n t t o t h e F r e n c h - s p e a k in g c o u n t r i e s i n e a r l y
1970, was t o c o n v in c e A f r i c a n le a d e r s n o t t o r e l y any more on a t r a u -
201
m a tiz e d , s o u l - s e a r c h i n g m e t r o p o l i s . R e c to r P a u l i a n was th e n a d v o c a t
in g an antonom ous d ev elo p m en t o f A f r ic a n i n s t i t u t i o n s u r g in g them to
o p t f o r a re g im e o f e q u iv a le n c e of t h e i r d e g r e e s t o th e F re n c h d e g r e e s ,
3
i n s t e a d o f s e e k in g th e f u l l v a l i d i t y o f th e s e r e s p e c t i v e d e g r e e s .
To be s u r e , th e o b j e c t i v e o f th e P a u li a n m is s io n was n o t o n ly
t o h e l p th e few e m erg in g A f r ic a n h ig h e r e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s to
d e v e lo p , e v e n t u a l l y i n a new r e g i o n a l c o o p e r a t i v e fram ew ork ( N ig e r,
Togo, and U pper V o l t a ) , b u t a l s o to l i m i t th e A f r i c a n s t u d e n t m i g r a ti o n
t o F r a n c e , w h ich had b een c o n s id e r e d a s e x c e s s i v e b etw een 1968 and
1970 a f t e r th e c l o s i n g o f th e d o o rs o f th e r e g i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s of
D akar and A b id ja n t o th e m ost num erous s t u d e n t s u b - p o p u l a t i o n s , nam ely
th e D ahom eans, th e M a lia n s , and th e V o l t a n s . F ra n c e th e n i n s i s t e d t h a t
no A f r ic a n s t u d e n t s h o u ld be s e n t t o F ra n c e f o r s t u d i e s w hich e x i s t e d
on A f r i c a n s o i l . A com plex b u r e a u c r a t i c sy ste m o f p r e - r e g i s t r a t i o n i n
F re n c h i n s t i t u t i o n s made i t h a rd f o r th e V o lta n e d u c a t i o n a l o f f i c i a l s
to send s t u d e n t s t o F r a n c e .
To make th i n g s w o rs e , th e new ly opened n a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s
a t Niamey i n N ig e r and Lome' i n Togo a l s o e x p e l l e d th e s o - c a l l e d " f o r
e i g n 1 1 s t u d e n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e V o lh a n s , a g a i n a c c u s e d o f b e in g
tr o u b le - m a k e r s by th e s e m i l i t a r y re g im e s a n x io u s to p r e s e r v e i n t e r n a l
o r d e r and d o m e s t ic a t e t h e i r n a t i o n a l i n t e l l e c t u a l y o u th . The r e l a
t i v e l y i n s u b o r d i n a t e , c r i t i c a l V o lta n s t u d e n t s , u se d to f r e e s e l f -
e x p r e s s i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y d u r in g th e 15 y e a r s o f l a i s s e z - f a i r e of P r e s i
d e n t L a m iz a n a 's r e g im e , w ere n o t welcom ed a t t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s w here
th e y w ere s u s p e c te d o f p ro p a g a n d iz in g th e n a t i o n a l s t u d e n t b o d i e s .
T h u s, 200 V o lta n s t u d e n t s e n r o l l e d i n th e U n i v e r s i t y o f Niamey
202
w ere e x p e l l e d i n 1979, and m ore th a n 400 o t h e r s w ere t h r e a t e n e d i n 1981
/
w ith e x p u l s i o n from th e U n i v e r s i t y o f B e n in i n Togo f o llo w in g a b e n ig n
arg u m e n t b etw ee n a V o lta n s t u d e n t and a T o g o le s e s t u d e n t o v e r th e l o c a
t i o n o f th e l a t t e r ' s b u c k e t .
F o r 10 y e a r s now, e a c h new a ca d em ic y e a r h as b een a n ig h tm a re
f o r th e s t u d e n t p e r s o n n e l o f f i c e r s c h a rg e d w ith th e p la c e m e n t o f some
two th o u sa n d V o lta n s t u d e n t s i n f o r e i g n i n s t i t u t i o n s . I t i s n o t u n
u s u a l to s e e s t u d e n t s w a n d e rin g a b o u t th e s t u d e n t p e r s o n n e l o f f i c e by
J a n u a r y o r F e b r u a r y ( t h a t i s t h r e e m onths a f t e r th e b e g in n in g o f th e
a ca d em ic y e a r ) w a i t i n g f o r a p la c e i n a n i n s t i t u t i o n . More o f t e n th a n
n o t , th e d i r e c t i n t e r v e n t i o n o f th e h ead o f s t a t e h im s e lf b e g g in g
p la c e s from h i s c o l le a g u e s i n n e i g h b o r i n g c o u n t r i e s i s n e c e s s a r y to
s o lv e th e p ro b lem ( B . I . O . , R a p p o rt s u r l a R e n tre ^ S c o l a i r e , 1 9 8 0 -1 9 8 1 ).
To make t h i n g s s t i l l w o rs e , th e i n t e r n a t i o n a l econom ic s i t u a
t i o n c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a runaw ay i n f l a t i o n h as le d t o an e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g
f i n a n c i a l e f f o r t to e n r o l l V o lta n s t u d e n t s i n f o r e i g n i n s t i t u t i o n s .
The V o lta n g o v e rn m e n t's c o n t r i b u t i o n t o th e r u n n in g o f s t u d e n t
w e l f a r e o f f i c e s ( o e u v re s u n i v e r s i t a i r e s ) d o u b le d i n 1974, g o in g from
th e p r e v io u s 5 0 ,0 0 0 f r a n c s CFA to 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 a y e a r a t th e u n i v e r s i t i e s
o f A b id ja n , Lome, and D ak ar; and i t i s p r o j e c t e d t h a t t h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n
w i l l be i n c r e a s e d t o 3 0 0 ,0 0 0 f r a n c s i n th e v e r y n e a r f u t u r e . The t u i
t i o n i n t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s p r e v i o u s l y s y m b o lic (2 ,5 0 0 t o 4 ,0 0 0 f r a n c s
CFA), h as s k y r o c k e te d t o 5 0 ,0 0 0 f r a n c s C FA --out o f r e a c h o f t h e i n d i v id
u a l s t u d e n t 's p u r s e , th u s i n c r e a s i n g th e s t a t e e d u c a t i o n a l c h a r g e s .
The F re n c h a u t h o r i t i e s f o r t h e i r p a r t h av e im posed a minimum
f e e f o r th e m a in te n a n c e o f a n i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t , and h as b u i l t i n
203
r e g u l a r a d ju s tm e n ts to a l lo w f o r th e i n f l a t i o n r a t e . As a r e s u l t of
th e s e p r e s s u r e s , th e s c h o l a r s h i p r a t e i n F ra n c e c lim b e d from 3 2 ,5 0 0
f r a n c s CFA i n 1972 t o 4 5 ,0 0 0 f r a n c s CFA i n 1976 and 7 5 ,0 0 0 i n 1979,
w h ile th e c o s t p a id f o r s e r v i c e s t o t h e s t u d e n t p e r s o n n e l m anagement
ag e n c y (OCAU) jum ped i n 1976 from a f i x e d r a t e o f 2 p e r c e n t o f th e
g l o b a l s c h o l a r s h i p fu n d s e n t r u s t e d to th e OCAU, t o a f i x e d am ount o f
5 2 ,0 0 0 f r a n c s CFA p e r s t u d e n t (a b o u t 10 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l s c h o l a r
s h i p ) . R e c e n tly , th e F re n c h governm ent h as r e q u e s t e d a n o t h e r i n c r e a s e
o f th e m a in te n a n c e a llo w a n c e to b r i n g i t t o 9 0 ,0 0 0 CFA, j u s t h a l f th e
minimum s a l a r y o f a F re n c h w o rk e r, b u t more th a n th e s a l a r y o f a h ig h
r a n k in g c i v i l s e r v a n t b e g in n in g h i s c a r e e r (7 5 ,0 0 0 CFA p e r m onth) i n
Upper V o l t a .
F re n c h g o v ern m en t s o u g h t to e l i m i n a t e and e x p e l n o n - b u r s a r y
f o r e i g n s t u d e n t s who w ere n o t h o ld i n g s c h o l a r s h i p s , by r e q u e s t i n g t h a t
a l l s t u d e n t s h o ld a s p e c i a l v i s a a u t h o r i z i n g t h e i r s t a y i n F r a n c e .
So f a r , i n d e e d , by v i r t u e o f s p e c i a l c o o p e r a t i o n a g re e m e n ts b etw een
F ra n c e and h e r fo rm e r c o l o n i e s , no v i s a was r e q u i r e d to t r a v e l from
th e s e c o l o n ie s t o F ra n c e and v i c e v e r s a . Some s t u d e n t s to o k a d v a n ta g e
o f t h i s a rra n g e m e n t t o t r a v e l to F ra n c e on t h e i r own an d work w h ile
s tu d y i n g .
F re n c h b o u r g e o i s i e to o k th e s e m e a su re s i n o r d e r t o m eet th e
i n t e r n a l p r e s s u r e s e x e r t e d on i t by i t s own w o rk in g c l a s s , c la im in g
more jo b s ( i n c l u d i n g th e h a n d - d i r t y i n g o nes so f a r l e f t to f o r e i g n
ch ea p m anpow er), and more s o c i a l b e n e f i t s w h i c h . t h i s ' c l a s s w ro n g ly o r
r i g h t l y p e r c e iv e d t h r e a t e n e d by m ig r a n t w o r k e r s .
204
M ean w h ile , t h e r e h as b een no in v e s tm e n t fu n d s f o r th e d e v e lo p
m ent o f th e n a t i o n a l u n i v e r s i t y l e f t i n th e s t a t e b u d g e t, w hich h a s been
d e v o te d a lm o s t e n t i r e l y to p a y in g th e c i v i l s e r v a n t s and t h e i r o f f i c e
m a t e r i a l s . The r e l a t i v e l y im p o r ta n t in v e s tm e n t i n u n i v e r s i t y b u i l d i n g
made s i n c e 1970 h a s b een p r o v id e d m o s tly by t h e F r e n c h - - t h e V o lta n g o v
ern m e n t i n t e r v e n i n g s i g n i f i c a n t l y o n ly d u r in g th e l a s t t h r e e y e a r s .
T a b le 29 i n d i c a t e s th e r e l a t i v e im p o rta n c e o f f o r e i g n (F re n c h )
in v e s tm e n t in b u i l d i n g th e U n i v e r s i t y o f O uagadougou.
T a b le 29
t
S o u rc e and Im p o rta n c e o f th e In v e s tm e n t in B u ild in g
th e U n i v e r s i t y o f O uagadougou from 1970 t o 1981
Amount o f In v e s tm e n t
S o u rce o f In v e s tm e n t ( i n CFA f r a n c s ) P e r c e n ta g e
4 4 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 4 3 .5 3
3 6 7 ,8 8 5 ,0 0 0 3 6 .9
1 1 5 ,8 6 3 ,3 0 0 1 1 .4 6
7 7 ,1 5 5 ,7 5 6 7 .6 3
10,000^,000 .99
T o t a l 1 ,0 1 0 ,9 0 4 ,6 5 6 1 0 0 .0 0
N o te . From U.O. A c c o u n tin g o f f i c e .
U n t i l 1972, th e f a c u l t y was a lm o s t e n t i r e l y F r e n c h , and even in
1981 th e F re n c h p e r s o n n e l (66) o utnum bered th e n a t i o n a l ( 5 5 ) , w ith o u t
c o u n tin g o t h e r f o r e i g n p e r s o n n e l , m o s tly B e l g i a n s , A m e ric a n s , R u s s ia n s ,
and D utch ( a p p r o x im a te ly 2 4 ) .
205
F ra n c e
U pper V o lta
U.O. ( i . e . , F ra n c e +
U pper V o lta )
UNESCO ( f o r INAFEC)
U.O. E x t r a S a v in g s
E ach y e a r , i t i s a r e a l d i p l o m a t i c dem arche when th e V o lta n
u n i v e r s i t y b u r e a u c r a t s n e g o t i a t e w i t h t h e i r F re n c h c o u n t e r p a r t s o v e r
s l i g h t in c re m e n ts in t h e number o f te a c h in g s t a f f and th e am ount o f
t h e c u r r e n t e x p e n d i t u r e s , o r i n th e d is b u r s e m e n t of a p ro m ise d i n v e s t
m ent f u n d . The m in u te s o f th e b i l a t e r a l c o m m itte e 's m e e tin g s b etw ee n
F re n c h an d V o lta n d e l e g a t e s a r e r e v e a l i n g a b o u t th e h u m i l i a t i n g p o s i
t i o n o f th e V o lta n n e g o t i a t o r s who a r e bound t o j u s t i f y i n th e s l i g h t e s t :
d e t a i l s th e u se o f th e a n n u a l fu n d s a l l o c a t e d , and th e r a t i o n a l e f o r
p ro p o s e d o p e n in g s o f t r a i n i n g p ro g ra m s--b o u n d a l s o t o f l u c t u a t e b e c a u se
o f th e F re n c h econom y.
I l l u s t r a t i v e o f t h i s i s th e 1979 m e e tin g when b o th p a r t s e x
p r e s s e d t h e i r m u tu a l d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n and c o n c e rn a b o u t th e way c o o p e r a
t i o n b etw ee n th e two c o u n t r i e s was b e in g c a r r i e d o u t . N o tin g th e
g r a d u a l and u n i l a t e r a l d e c r e a s e and ch an g e s i n F r a n c e 's c o n t r i b u t i o n
t o t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e U n i v e r s i t y o f O uagadougou, th e h ead o f th e
V o lta n d e l e g a t i o n c a l l e d on th e f r i e n d s h i p b etw een th e two c o u n t r i e s
and th e o b l i g a t i o n o f " r e c i p r o c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n and m u tu a l r e s p e c t f o r
th e d i g n i t y o f e a c h p a r t n e r " im p lie d i n f r i e n d s h i p .
He made i t c l e a r t h a t , i n h i s v ie w , w h at h a s b e e n h a p p e n in g so
f a r d oes n o t seem t o co n fo rm to th e s e two im p e r a ti v e s of c o n - f
s i d e r a t i o n and r e s p e c t f o r th e d i g n i t y o f e a c h o t h e r .
F ra n c e g iv e s th e im p r e s s io n t h a t U pper V o lta p r e s e n t s no more
i n t e r e s t t o H e r, w h ile on th e V o lta n s i d e t h e r e i s a te n d e n c y
to t h i n k t h a t t h e r e i s a t l e a s t some human i n t e r e s t .
r t h e h ead o f th e F re n c h d e l e g a t i o n re sp o n d e d to th e s e c h a rg e s
by a r g u in g t h a t ] th e o r g a n i z a t i o n and d ev elo p m en t o f A f r i c a n
u n i v e r s i t i e s on th e F re n c h m odel a r e n o t r e a s o n a b l e b e c a u se
th e y do n o t alw ay s c o r r e s p o n d to r e a l em ploym ent o p p o r t u n i t i e s .
The p r e s e n t h a r d s h ip s le a d F ra n c e to c o n s i d e r o n ly u s e f u l and
c o n c e n t r a t e d a s s i s t a n c e . I t i s U pper V o l t a 's r i g h t to have
206
d i f f e r e n t o b j e c t i v e s , b u t i t i s a l s o F r a n c e 's r i g h t to h e l p in
t h i s o r t h a t s e c t o r r a t h e r th a n a n o t h e r . (U.O. Com m ission M ix te ,
F d v ie r 1977, PV, p p . 1 -3 )
A l l th e problem s m e n tio n e d above c o n s t i t u t e c o n s t r a i n t s t o be
fa c e d by th e V o lta n b u r e a u c r a t s . The l a t t e r p r e s e n t t h i s s i t u a t i o n as
a n a t u r a l g iv e n , j u s t l i k e c l im a t e and g e o g ra p h ic l o c a t i o n ; w h ile , to
be s u r e , th e y s h a r e q u i t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r i t s
e x i s t e n c e i f o n ly b e c a u s e th e k in d o f d e v e lo p m e n t th e y w an t t o prom ote
g e n e r a te s th e s e p r o b le m s .
H ow ever, w hat i s more im p o r ta n t i s n o t t h i s o b j e c t i v e s i t u a
t i o n , p e r sje, b u t th e ( p o l i t i c a l ) c h o ic e s made t o s o lv e i t , p o l i t i c a l
c h o ic e s w h ich im p ly a new, s u b j e c t i v e r e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h i s s i t u a t i o n .
The P o l i t i c a l S o lu ti o n s
The fa k e d m e r i t o c r a c y - - s o c i a l econom ic f a c t o r s a s s e l e c t i o n
f a c t o r s . The o f f i c i a l p h ilo s o p h y f o r p o l i t i c a l c h o ic e s is to make a
r a t i o n a l u s e o f th e l i m i t e d r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e , w h ile g u a r a n t e e in g to
e v ery o n e an e q u a l ch an c e t o b e n e f i t fro m th e s e m eager r e s o u r c e s . I t
i s s a i d t h a t n a t i o n a l c o m p e titio n o r , when t h i s i s n o t p o s s i b l e , th e
a p p e a l t o th e d ra w in g o f l o t s f o r s e l e c t i n g e le m e n ta r y s t u d e n t s , a s
s u r e s th e b a s e s o f th e m e r i t o c r a t i c s o c i e t y th e b u r e a u c r a t s p r e te n d
to b u i l d u p . We have s e e n how th e s e m e a s u re s , b e s id e s p a r t i a l , a r e
w o rk in g a g a i n s t th e d o m in a te d c l a s s e s , and i n f a v o r o f th e d o m in an t
o n e s , nam ely th e b u r e a u c r a t s and t h e i r u rb a n w e a lth y t r a d e r a l l i e s .
The so c io e c o n o m ic f a c t o r s , n o t th e s o - c a l l e d i n d i v i d u a l a b i l i t i e s and
m e r i t s , a r e th e m ain s e l e c t i o n c r i t e r i a .
207
The a ca d em ic p e o p l e 's b u r e a u c r a t i c a t t i t u d e s an d c a r e e r i n t e r
e s t s a s a m a jo r s o u r c e o f some o f th e s p a c e and p e r s o n n e l s h o r t a g e s .
To be s u r e , th e s o - c a l l e d la c k o f p h y s i c a l s p a c e and t e a c h i n g p e r s o n n e l
(w hich j u s t i f i e s th e u n i v e r s i t y ' s h ig h s e l e c t i v i t y ) i s g r e a t l y due to
b u r e a u c r a t i c c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , a t t i t u d e s and i n t e r e s t s on t h e p a r t o f th e
u n i v e r s i t y a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a u t h o r i t i e s and th e t e a c h i n g s t a f f a s w e ll
a s s t u d e n t s th e m s e lv e s .
The l a t t e r p a r t i c u l a r l y a r e v e r y r e l u c t a n t t o a c c e p t th e e x p e d i
e n t s o l u t i o n s fro m th e u n i v e r s i t y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o n c e r n in g th e p ro b lem
o f b u i l d i n g s . The f a c t t h a t s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l c la s s ro o m s o r r e n t e d p r i
v a t e h o u se s a r e u se d a s l e c t u r e rooms c o n s t i t u t e s f o r th e s t u d e n t s
p r o o f o f th e b u r e a u c r a t s ' w i l l i n g n e s s t o s a b o ta g e t h e i r t r a i n i n g . I n
a p am p h let i s s u e d d u r in g th e 1979 campus u n r e s t , th e y w ro te a b o u t th e
a g r i c u l t u r a l i n s t i t u t e t h a t
H astily opened i n 1973, t h i s i n s t i t u t e h a s p r e s e n t l y o n ly 3 c l a s s
rooms an d a g a ra g e u se d a s a le c t u r e - r o o m . . . . An i n s t i t u t e
w hich s h o u ld h av e a t l e a s t 8 l e c t u r e rooms h a s a c t u a l l y o n ly 3
and a g a r a g e . To s o lv e t h i s d i f f i c u l t p ro b le m , th e r e a c t i o n a r y
a u t h o r i t i e s have e l e c t e d f o r s t u d e n t nomadism th r o u g h o u t th e
tow n. T h u s, th e s t u d e n t s t r a v e l a c r o s s th e town lo o k in g f o r
l e c t u r e room s: a t th e v e t e r i n a r y c l i n i c , a t th e e le m e n ta ry
t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g s c h o o l ( i n a fo rm e r r e f r e s h i n g ro o m ), and
even a t th e R otonde C hurch y a r d . (AEVO, J u n e 1979, p . 2)
I n th e same m a n n e r, s t u d e n t s a r e show ing a r a t h e r p e t t y -
b o u r g e o is a t t i t u d e when th e y s c o r n f a c u l t y members p r o v id e d t o them i n
th e fram ew ork o f some c o o p e r a t i o n a g r e e m e n ts , on t h e m ere b a s i s o f t h e i i
o r i g i n a l p r o f e s s i o n a l o c c u p a tio n s i n t h e i r home c o u n t r i e s . Thus f o r
ex am p le, s t u d e n t s p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t th e f a c t t h a t one o f t h e i r econom
i c s t e a c h e r s i n 1979 was a p e a c e - c o r p s v o l u n t e e r and d id n o t sp e a k
F re n c h v e r y w e l l , t h a t a n o t h e r t e a c h e r h ad b een a swimming c o a c h , and
208
t h a t fo rm e r "A m erican t a x i - d r i v e r s and F re n c h fa rm e rs a r e members o f
th e U n i v e r s i t y o f O uagadougou f a c u l t y " - - a s i f i n th e r e f e r r e d c o u n t r i e s ,
nam ely th e U n ite d S t a t e s and F r a n c e , th e i n c r i m i n a t e d p r o f e s s i o n s w ere
l i k e t h e i r V o lta n c o u n t e r p a r t s , synonymous o f i l l i t e r a c y .
To be s u r e , h o w ev er, i t seems t h a t t h e r e was no n eed f o r th e
V o lta n b u r e a u c r a t s t o a n t a g o n iz e t h i s s t u d e n t s ' p e t t y - b o u r g e o i s a t t i t u d e
by r e c r u i t i n g a p p a r e n t l y f o r e i g n n o n -a c a d e m ic s w h ile n a t i o n a l s who a r e
f o r m a l ly q u a l i f i e d e x i s t , b u t a r e r e f u s e d by th e u n i v e r s i t y b u r e a u c r a t s
on v e r y q u e s t i o n a b l e g r o u n d s .
The l a s t t h r e e y e a r s , a b o u t te n a p p l i c a t i o n s from " d o c t o r a t de
0
3 c y c l e " h o l d e r s h av e b een tu r n e d down by th e u n i v e r s i t y e i t h e r b e
c a u s e th e " p r o f i l e " o f th e c a n d i d a te was n o t n eed e d ( p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e
a F re n c h e x p a t r i a t e was a l r e a d y t e a c h in g h i s s p e c i a l i t y ) o r b e c a u se th e
t h e s i s o f th e c a n d i d a te was d e c l a r e d o f i n f e r i o r s t a n d a r d by th e g ro u p
o f f a c u l t y members c h a rg e d w ith e x a m in in g th e a p p l i c a t i o n .
I n f a c t i n m ost c a s e s - - a n d t h i s has~f\been c o n f e s s e d by m ost
t e a c h e r s i n t e r v ie w e d f o r th e p r e s e n t s t u d y - - i t i s a m a t t e r o f p o l i t i c a l
s u p p o r t by some do m in an t f a c t i o n s o r c l a n s c o n t r o l l i n g th e c o n c e rn e d
d e p a rtm e n t o r o f p o l i t i c s w i t h i n th e M i n i s t r y o f H ig h e r E d u c a tio n i t
s e l f o r b e t t e r s t i l l o f p o l i t i c a l s u p p o r t by f o r e i g n (F re n c h ) ac a d e m ic s
o r b o u r g e o i s i e . ^
A dvancem ent in th e V o lta n a ca d em ic h i e r a r c h y i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y
a f u n c t i o n o f th e p o l i t i c a l s u p p o r t a c a n d i d a te can m o b iliz e from th e s e
F re n c h a c a d e m ic s . U n t i l 1978, in d e e d , c a n d i d a te s f o r th e aca d em ic
r a n k o f " m a 'itre a s s i s t a n t " ( t h e A m erican e q u i v a l e n t o f a s s o c i a t e p r o
f e s s o r , th e f i r s t te n u r e d a ca d em ic p o s i t i o n ) had to r e g i s t e r on a
209
s p e c i a l a p t i t u d e t e s t c o n t r o l l e d by th e F re n c h M i n i s t r y o f H ig h e r Edu
c a t i o n ( a c c o r d in g to t h e c o o p e r a tio n a g re e m e n t b etw ee n F ra n c e an d Upper
V o lta o b l i g i n g b o t h V o lta n and F re n c h f a c u l t y members to f o llo w th e
same s e l e c t i o n p ro c e d u r e s an d p a t t e r n s ) . S in c e 1978 th e c o n t r o l o f th e
a p t i t u d e l i s t h a s b e e n t r a n s f e r r e d to t h e A f r i c a n and M alag a sy C o u n c il
f o r H ig h e r E d u c a tio n (CAMES). B ut th e r e a l i t y o f F re n c h c o n t r o l o v e r
th e l i s t h a s n o t ch an g ed i n s o f a r a s th e CAMES i t s e l f i s f i r m l y c o n
t r o l l e d by F ra n c e and u s e s th e same acad em ic s t a n d a r d s f o r r e c r u i t i n g
and p ro m o tin g F ra n c o p h o n e s c h o l a r s . Some A f r i c a n F ran co p h o n e c o u n t r i e s
l i k e Gabon h av e e l i m i n a t e d th e CAMES c o n t r o l o v e r th e r e c r u i t m e n t o f
t h e i r u n i v e r s i t y f a c u l t y , b u t n o t Upper V o lta (w h ic h , i n a d d i t i o n ,
h o u se s th e o r g a n i z a t i o n and p r o v id e s i t s s e c r e t a r y g e n e r a l ) .
I t i s som ew hat s t r i k i n g t h a t th e u n i v e r s i t y t e a c h e r s r e f u s e d
te n u r e d p o s i t i o n s a s ’’ M a 'i t r e - A s s i s t a n t " o r "M aT tres de c o n f e r e n c e s "
come from th e same p o l i t i c a l c i r c l e , a g ro u p c r i t i c a l o f F re n c h c o n t r o l
o v e r th e c o u n tr y i n g e n e r a l and th e u n i v e r s i t y i n p a r t i c u l a r .
The p o l i t i c a l a s p e c t and r e a l i t y o f th e F re n c h i n f l u e n c e s on
th e r e c r u i t m e n t and p ro m o tio n o f th e V o lta n a c a d e m ic s i s shown i n th e
c r e a t i o n o f th e "P alm es A cad im iq u es" d i s t i n c t i o n and i t s r i t u a l i s t i c
g r a n t i n g to s c h o l a r s who had n o t p u b l i s h e d , w h ile th e d e c l a r e d p u rp o s e
o f th e d i s t i n c t i o n was t o rew ard and e n c o u ra g e p u b l i c a t i o n and s c i e n
t i f i c r e s e a r c h by s c h o l a r s .
T h a t th e p o l i t i c a l l o y a l t y c r i t e r i o n i s th e m ost im p o r ta n t i n
th e r e c r u i t m e n t and p ro m o tio n o f th e O uagadougou U n i v e r s i t y f a c u l t y i s
f u r t h e r h i g h l i g h t e d by t h e a b s e n c e o f a s y ste m o f s u p e r v i s i o n and c o n
t r o l o v e r th e a c a d em ic work and p e rfo rm a n c e o f th e f a c u l t y m em bers.
210
The d e c r e e r e g u l a t i n g th e r e c r u i t m e n t , w o rk in g and s a l a r y c o n d i t i o n s
o f th e l a t t e r d o es s t i p u l a t e t h a t f a c u l t y members a r e n o t to be s u p e r
v i s e d o r g ra d e d ( A r t i c l e 29 o f D ecree n . 7 7 .3 7 3 o f S eptem ber 1 9 7 7 ).
I f th e f a c u l t y members a r e n o t s u p e r v is e d i n t h e i r w o rk , on
w hat b a s i s , th e n , a r e th e y g r a n te d te n u r e o r p ro m o tio n , b e s id e s th e
p o l i t i c a l l o y a l t y to th e u n i v e r s i t y b u r e a u c r a t s o r th e r u l i n g f a c t i o n
o f th e b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s ?
One i s even more j u s t i f i e d i n s a y in g t h i s s i n c e , r e c e n t l y ,
t e a c h e r s p u b l i c l y r e c o g n iz e d a s in c o m p e te n t by t h e s t u d e n t s - - a n d
s e c r e t l y by th e u n i v e r s i t y b u r e a u c r a t s t h e m s e l v e s - - a r e r e t a i n e d i n
t h e i r p o s i t i o n s ; w h ile o th e r s h av e b een f i r e d s im p ly b e c a u se o f th e
p o l i t i c a l o p in io n s th e y e x p r e s s e d d u r in g th e s t u d e n t u n r e s t o f 1979.
The c h a rg e s w r i t t e n a g a i n s t some o f them r e a d : "U ses th e s t u d e n t s as
canon f o d d e r 1 1; and v e r b a l l y some b u r e a u c r a t s o f th e M i n i s t r y o f E d u c a
t i o n c o n f e s s e d t o d is m is s e d te a c h e r s t h a t th e c h a rg e s a g a i n s t them w ere
t h e i r s u p p o r t o f th e s t u d e n t s .
Y e t, th e U n i v e r s i t y o f O uagadougou has r e c e n t l y i s s u e d a c h a r t
o f aca d em ic freed o m s t i p u l a t i n g t h a t :
I n no c a s e , a f a c u l t y member c o n v ic te d f o r h i s p o l i t i c a l id e a s
s h o u ld be rem oved from h i s p o s i t i o n f o r th e s e m o t i v e s .
( A r t i c l e 37 o f D ecree n . 77 .3 7 3 o f S eptem ber 2 6 , 1977)
The v e r y c o n d i t i o n s o f r e c r u i t m e n t make i t d i f f i c u l t f o r th e
U n i v e r s i t y o f Ouagadougou to have th e num ber o f n a t i o n a l t e a c h e r s n e c e s
s a r y to o p e r a t e , w h i l e , b a s i c a l l y th e r e c r u i t m e n t c o n d i tio n s p r o t e c t
th e i n t e r e s t s o f th e a l r e a d y c h o sen t i n y m i n o r i t y o f f a c u l t y members
and th e u n i v e r s i t y and s t a t e b u r e a u c r a t s .
211
T h is la c k o f acad em ic p e r s o n n e l i s f u r t h e r a g g r a v a te d by th e
b l a t a n t underem ploym ent o f th e e x i s t i n g f a c u l t y .
The U n i v e r s i t y o f O uagadougou h a s , once a g a i n , fo llo w e d th e
F re n c h r e g u l a t i o n s c o n c e r n in g th e te a c h in g lo a d o f th e f a c u l t y , w i t h
o u t th e s o c i a l , c u l t u r a l and s c i e n t i f i c c o n t e x t i n w hich th e y em erged
i n F r a n c e . The te a c h in g lo a d s a r e r e s p e c t i v e l y 4 h o u rs a week f o r a
f u l l p r o f e s s o r ; 6% h o u rs a week f o r th e a s s o c i a t e ; and 7% h o u rs f o r th e
a s s i s t a n t ; w ith a s y s te m o f b a la n c e b etw een l e c t u r e s and w orkshops
(one h o u r o f l e c t u r e e q u a l l i n g two h o u rs o f w o rk s h o p ).
I n th e F re n c h s y s te m , t h i s s c h e d u le i s in te n d e d t o a llo w some
s p a r e tim e f o r th e f a c u l t y t o a d v i s e th e s t u d e n t s and s u p e r v i s e r e
s e a r c h w ork by g r a d u a t e s . I n Upper V o lta t h e r e a r e no g r a d u a te g r a d u
a t e s to b e a s s i s t e d , e x c e p t i n a few d e p a rtm e n ts ( h i s t o r y , g e o g ra p h y ,
F r e n c h , an d a g r i c u l t u r e ) . T h e re i s a lm o s t no s t r u c t u r e of r e s e a r c h to
w hich te a c h e r s c o u ld d e v o te t h e i r e x t r a tim e , a l th o u g h th e u n i v e r s i t y ' s
b u d g e t p r o v id e s fu n d s f o r s u c h r e s e a r c h .
As a r e s u l t o f t h i s in c o n g ru e n c e , th e f a c u l t y h as b een d e v o tin g
t h e i r e x t r a tim e t o m aking money by l e c t u r i n g i n o t h e r , r e g i o n a l h ig h e r
e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s (su c h a s th e EIER) o r p r o f e s s i o n a l s c h o o ls
(su c h a s th e ENA) o r i n p r i v a t e h ig h s c h o o l i n s t i t u t i o n s o r i n t h e i r
own r e s p e c t i v e d e p a r t m e n t s .
The R e c to r o f th e u n i v e r s i t y more th a n once c r i t i c i z e d t h i s
p r a c t i c e . In 1976 he w ro te to th e h ead s o f th e u n i v e r s i t y d e p a r tm e n ts :
On s e v e r a l o c c a s io n s I c a l l e d y o u r a t t e n t i o n to th e p ro b lem o f
e x t r a - h o u r s te a c h e r s a r e d o in g e i t h e r a t th e u n i v e r s i t y o r
o u t s i d e th e u n i v e r s i t y . T h is p ro b lem r e l a t e s , c o n s e q u e n t ly ,
to t h e p ro b lem c o n c e r n in g th e r e s e a r c h and th e s t a t u s o f t e a c h e r s -
r e s e a r c h e r s .
212
As e a r l y a s O c to b e r th e 2 0 th 1976, I b r o u g h t to y o u r a t t e n
t i o n th e f a c t t h a t th e t e a c h e r s - r e s e a r c h e r s o f th e u n i v e r s i t y
h ad r e q u e s t e d a s t a t u t e t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e i r tw in v o c a t i o n .
A d r a f t o f s t a t u t e h e e d in g t h i s r e q u e s t h a s b e e n s u b m itte d
t o th e g o v ern m e n t; and i f i t h a s n o t been a d o p te d y e t , I m ust
p o i n t o u t t h a t i t h a s b een a c t u a l l y a p p l i e d s in c e th e c r e a t i o n
o f th e u n i v e r s i t y , a t l e a s t as f a r as te a c h i n g lo a d s and a d v a n
ta g e s a t t a c h e d t o th e s t a t u s o f t e a c h e r s - r e s e a r c h e r s ( r e s e a r c h
a w a rd s , t r a v e l f o r s t u d i e s , m is s io n s f o r f i e l d w ork, e t c .* * * )
a r e c o n c e rn e d .
T h e r e f o r e , i t d o es n o t seem to be v e r y lo g ic a .1 , t o g e t i t
i n th e f a c t s - - a n d b e n e f i t i n g from l i g h t e n e d s c h e d u l e s - - t o d e
v o te o n e s e l f t o m oney-m aking te a c h in g a c t i v i t i e s e ls e w h e r e ,
a t th e v e ry moment when one s h o u ld be b u sy r e s e a r c h i n g .
(U .O ., C i r c u l a r , 1977)
A g ain i n 1979, th e R e c to r w arned th e h e a d s o f th e d e p a rtm e n ts
t h a t :
I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o a d m it t h a t , in th e same m a jo r, some f a c u l t y
members have n o t t h e i r n o rm al te a c h i n g l o a d s , w h ile some o t h e r s
a r e m aking e x t r a h o u r s . (U .O ., C i r c u l a r , 1979)
Were th e s t a t u t e s o f th e O uagadougou U n i v e r s i t y f a c i l i t y n o t
more d e s ig n e d to p r o t e c t th e c a r e e r s o f th e t e a c h e r s th a n to prom ote
e f f i c i e n t te a c h i n g c o n d i t i o n s , th e p ro b le m o f p e r s o n n e l w ould be s o lv e d
to a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t . So w ould be s o lv e d th e p ro b lem o f p h y s i c a l
s p a c e . I t i s n o t c e r t a i n , in d e e d , t h a t th e u n i v e r s i t y b u r e a u c r a t s
r e a l l y make and a r e w i l l i n g t o make e f f e c t i v e u s e o f t h e i r m e a n s.
The u n i v e r s i t y l e c t u r e rooms may be c o n s id e r e d as o p e r a t i n g a t
maximum c a p a c i t y i f one i s c o n t e n t w i t h th e r e g u l a r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
s c h e d u le (7 a .m . t o 12 a .m . and 3 to 7 p . m . ) . From 12 to 3 p.m . and
fro m 7 to 10 p.m . t h e r e i s an am ount o f tim e w h ich i f u se d c o u ld a lm o s t
d o u b le th e c a p a c i t y o f th e u n i v e r s i t y a t t e n d a n c e .
Of c o u r s e , t h e r e a r e many o b j e c t i o n s t h a t can be r a i s e d a g a i n s t
th e l a t t e r s c h e d u le , p a r t i c u l a r l y on th e p a r t o f th e s t u d e n t s and
t e a c h e r s who m ig h t b e s c h e d u le d f o r th o s e h o u rs (h o t te m p e r a tu r e s o f
213
th e m id d ay , and i n th e l a t e e v e n in g s s a f e l y and s e c u r i t y r i s k s f o r
s t u d e n t s la c k i n g campus h o u s in g f a c i l i t i e s ) . B u t, i t i s n o t c e r t a i n
t h a t th e s e o b j e c t i o n s c o u n t e r b a la n c e th e a d v a n ta g e s t h a t c o u ld be
g a in e d from th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f th e s u g g e s te d e x te n d e d s c h e d u l e , p a r
t i c u l a r l y f o r th o s e s t u d e n t s r e f u s e d f o r la c k o f s p a c e o r th o s e t e a c h
e r s r e f u s e d f o r la c k o f te a c h in g l o a d .
B u t, such s o l u t i o n s , i f a p p l i e d , w o u ld , i n th e lo n g r u n , j e o p
a r d i z e th e w hole b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s ' s s o c i a l p r i v i l e g e s draw n from th e
s e l e c t i v e and e l i t i s t c h a r a c t e r o f th e e d u c a t i o n a l s y ste m ; p r i v i l e g e s
t h a t th e u n i v e r s i t y b u r e a u c r a t s an d a c a d em ics a r e t r y i n g t o p r o t e c t by
p r e v e n t in g w hat th e y c a l l " s a t u r a t i o n in some d e p a r t m e n t s ."
C onclus io n
The b u r e a u c r a t s and t h e i r t r a d e r a l l i e s a r e t a k i n g s u b s t a n t i a l
a d v a n ta g e s o v e r th e o t h e r s o c i a l c l a s s e s i n th e c o m p e tit io n f o r s c h o o l
s e l e c t i o n .
The c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s c a r c e s c h o o l f a c i l i t i e s i n th e u rb a n
a r e a s by i t s e l f c o n s t i t u t e s a m a jo r a d v a n ta g e f o r th e u rb a n d w e l l e r s ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y th e b u r e a u c r a t s . H owever, i n a d d i t i o n t o t h i s , th e b u re a u
c r a t s hav e c r e a t e d r e s e r v e d s c h o o ls (s u c h a s th e ly c ^ e s m u n ic ip a u x
and th e PMK) f o r th e e n r o ll m e n t o f t h e i r o f f s p r i n g s . T hese r e s e r v e d
s c h o o ls r e p r e s e n t an a d v a n ta g e i n t h a t th e y a llo w th e c h i l d r e n o f th e
b u r e a u c r a t s to b y p a ss th e h ig h l y s e l e c t i v e c o m p e tit io n f o r e n t r y to
s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l s , w hich a p p ly to c h i l d r e n o f l o w e r - c l a s s f a m i l i e s .
A n o th e r im p o r ta n t a d v a n ta g e ta k e n by th e b u r e a u c r a t s an d t h e i r
t r a d e r a l l i e s i n th e c o m p e tit io n f o r s c h o o l s e l e c t i o n c o n s i s t s i n s e n d
214
in g t h e i r c h i l d r e n to p r i v a t e e le m e n ta r y and s e c o n d a ry i n s t i t u t i o n s .
N ot o n ly do th e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s o f f e r more s p a c e f o r th e c h i l d r e n o f
t h e b u r e a u c r a t s and w e a lth y t r a d e r s , th e y a l s o f a c i l i t a t e t h e i r sm ooth
p r o g r e s s i o n th ro u g h th e e d u c a t i o n a l s y s te m . I n d e e d , th e y hav e a lo w er
r a t e o f r e p e t i t i o n th a n th e p u b l i c s c h o o l s . M ost im p o r t a n t l y , th e
p r i v a t e e le m e n ta ry s c h o o ls e n r o l l s t u d e n t s a t a r e l a t i v e l y y o u n g e r age
th a n th e p u b l i c s c h o o l s . A ge, in d e e d , a s th e n e x t c h a p t e r s w i l l f u r t h e r
i n d i c a t e , i s an im p o r ta n t f a c t o r i n th e e d u c a t i o n a l s e l e c t i o n and o c c u
p a t i o n a l t r a c k i n g o f s t u d e n t s .
215
NOTES
D ata c o n c e rn in g th e e le m e n ta r y s c h o o l e n r o llm e n t o f c i t i e s as
opposed t o c o u n t r y s i d e w ere com puted from s i t u a t i o n de 1 'E n se ig n e m e n t
du P re m ie r D egre a n l e J a n v i e r 1976 by th e D i r e c t i o n o f E le m e n ta ry
E d u c a t i o n .
S t a t i s t i c s f o r th e u n i v e r s i t y e n r o llm e n t r a t i o s f o r c i t i e s and
c o u n t r y s i d e come from s t u d e n t s ' r e s p o n s e s to th e s u rv e y q u e s t i o n n a i r e
r e p o r t i n g th e r e s i d e n c e of t h e i r p a r e n t s .
2
The S e c o n d a ry and U n i v e r s i t y T e a c h e r s ' U nion (SUVESS) denounced
th e a t te m p t s o f b r i b e r y o f e x a m in e rs on th e p a r t o f a p p a r e n t l y to p
b u r e a u c r a t s . The u n io n r e p o r t e d t h a t " th e s i t u a t i o n [ o f c o r r u p t i o n ]
i s th e more sa d t h a t i t i s som etim es th e f a c t o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s from
whom one m ig h t have e x p e c te d t h a t t h e i r l e v e l o f i n s t r u c t i o n w ould
p r e v e n t them from d o in g su c h th i n g s [ a t t e m p t s o f b r i b e r y ] " (L 'E d u c a tio n
N o u v e lle , J u i l l e t 1973, p . 1 6 ) .
The SUVESS t h r e a t e n e d t o " p u b l i s h , r e t r o a c t i v e l y , th e many
known c a s e s
How ever, th e o n ly much p u b l i c i z e d c a s e s o f f r a u d a t t e m p t to
th e b a c c a l a u r ^ a t e x a m in a tio n was r e p o r t e d by a g ro u p o f t h r e e e x a m in e rs
i n 1976. The r e p o r t i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e f r a u d was th e f a c t o f a r e l a
t i v e l y w e a lth y m i d d l e - l e v e l b u r e a u c r a t s u s in g h i s money and lu x u r i o u s
c a r to b r i b e th e e x a m in e rs i n t o g e t t i n g h i s d a u g h te r p a s s e d ( l e t t e r o f
J u l y 2 , 1976, a d d r e s s e d to th e S e c r e t a r i a t o f J u r y N° 1 3 , by Ms. T a ll
and M M B a d in i and C o u l i b a l y ) .
3
As S e c r e t a r y G e n e ra l o f th e H ig h e r E d u c a tio n C e n te r (C-ESup) ,
th e r e s e a r c h e r a t t e n d e d th e m e e tin g w i t h th e d e l e g a t i o n c o n d u c te d by
R e c to r P a u l i a n on F e b ru a ry 10, 1970.
4
Such p o l i t i c a l r a l l i e s h av e alw ay s e x i s t e d a l th o u g h th e y seldom
s u r f a c e d and became a n a t i o n a l c o n c e rn a s i t d id f o r th e c a s e o f a
c a n d i d a te who i n 1978 p u b l i c l y p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t th e f a c t t h a t th e
M i n i s t e r o f H ig h e r E d u c a tio n r e f u s e d t o h eed th e reco m m en d atio n s o f
th e c a n d i d a t e 's f r i e n d s i n c o n t r o l o f th e d e p a rtm e n t f o r w h ich he
a p p l i e d . The f r u s t r a t e d c a n d i d a t e s o u g h t s u p p o r t fro m h i g h e r p o l i t i c a l
a u t h o r i t i e s su c h a s th e P rim e M i n i s t e r . The SUVESS was e v e n t u a l l y
m o b iliz e d i n d e f e n s e o f "com rades x . . and y . . a r b i t r a r i l y r e f u s e d f o r
a u n i v e r s i t y te a c h in g p o s i t i o n " (SUVESS, "Le SUVESS s o u t i e n t l a j u s t e
l u t t e du SNEAHV," O c to b e r 1 3 , 1 9 8 0 ).
I t m ust be n o te d t h a t some SUVESS m i l i t a n t s c o m p la in e d t h a t
t h e i r u n io n n e v e r p r o t e s t e d a g a i n s t s i m i l a r c a s e s o f " a r b i t r a r y " r e
f u s a l s o f a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r a te a c h in g p o s i t i o n a t th e u n i v e r s i t y from
216
e q u a l l y d e s e r v in g c a n d i d a te s a s th o s e m e n tio n e d by th e u n io n . T hese
m i l i t a n t s c o m p la in e d t h a t th e u n io n was b e in g u se d f o r p e r s o n a l and
f a c t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s , a s i t h appened t h a t th e c a s e s r e f e r r e d to by th e
SUVESS c o n c e rn e d th o s e m i l i t a n t s who p o l i t i c a l l y c o n t r o l l e d th e u n io n .
T h is h i g h l i g h t s m ore th e p o l i t i c a l s t r u g g l e s s u r r o u n d in g th e
a p p o in tm e n t o f O uagadougou U n i v e r s i t y f a c u l t y .
217
CHAPTER VI
SOME BACKGROUND REMARKS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENTS AND THE TRACKING SYSTEM
E d u c a tio n i n A f r i c a i s n o t j u s t s o m e th in g y o u r p a r e n t s w ant you
to h av e and w h ich you go on g e t t i n g u n t i l you can d e c e n t l y g iv e
i t u p . . . . R a t h e r , i t i s a means t o an e a s y , e a s e f u l l i f e ,
away from th e t o i l and s o i l e d h an d s and m onotony o f l i f e i n th e
v i l l a g e . I t makes a p e r s o n m o d ern , u p - t o - d a t e , e n a b le s a man
to w ear g l o v e s , c a r r y a b r i e f c a s e , and lo o k l i k e th e young men
i n th e a d v e r t i s e m e n t s . B ut a s k an y A f r i c a n t e a c h e r t r a i n e e why
he i s o n e , and th e an sw er comes p a t , "B ecau se I w ant to h e l p
my p e o p l e ." (W. G. P a r t r i d g e as q u o te d by W. J . and J . L . H anna,
"The C y n ic a l N a t i o n a l i s t s , " i n W. J . Hanna ( E d . ) , U n i v e r s i t y S tu
d e n ts and A f r i c a n P o l i t i c s . New Y ork and London: A f r i c a n P u b
l i s h i n g Company, 1975. P . 6 1 .)
The p r e s e n t c h a p t e r i s c o n c e rn e d w ith th e e x a m in a tio n o f th e
c r i t i c a l f a c t o r s w h ich e x p l a i n th e c r e a t i o n o f th e u n i v e r s i t y d e p a r t
m ents and th e human a l l o c a t i o n p r o c e s s w i t h i n t h e s e d e p a r tm e n ts .
T h ese f a c t o r s can be i d e n t i f i e d as th e c a r e e r i n t e r e s t s o f th e
b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s a s a w h o le . I t w i l l be a rg u e d t h a t th e d e v elo p m en t
o f th e O uagadougou U n iv e r s it y * s d e p a rtm e n ts i s p r i n c i p a l l y d e te rm in e d
by th e p r e s e r v a t i o n o r d e v e lo p m e n t o f c a r e e r i n t e r e s t s by th e b u r e a u
c r a t s . B u t, s i n c e th e b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s i s n o t a hom ogenous, i n t e
g r a t e d g ro u p th e s e i n t e r e s t s a r e , o f c o u r s e , c o n f l i c t i n g , a l th o u g h th e
c o n f l i c t s r e v o lv e a ro u n d a c e n t r a l common i n t e r e s t - - t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o r
d ev elo p m en t of b u r e a u c r a t i c c a r e e r s .
T h u s, th e r u l i n g f a c t i o n h a s , t o p u t i t t a u t o l o g i c a l l y , p o l i t i
c a l i n t e r e s t s . T h ese i n t e r e s t s im p ly , a s a b a s i c g o a l , th e c a p t u r e ,
218
p r e s e r v a t i o n , and s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f p o l i t i c a l pow er, e i t h e r th ro u g h
s e d u c t i v e o p e r a t i o n s ( e l e c t o r a l p ro m ise s) o r r e p r e s s i v e a c t i o n s ( e l i m i
n a t i o n o f a c t u a l o r p o t e n t i a l o p p o n e n ts from w i t h i n o r w i t h o u t ) . T hese
p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s a r e p r e s e r v e d m a in ly th ro u g h th e s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f
th e s t a t e a p p a r a t u s . They a r e i d e a l l y b e t t e r p r e s e r v e d th ro u g h a t o t a l
m o n o p o liz a tio n o f t h i s a p p a r a tu s and th e d e c is io n - m a k in g p r o c e s s f o r
th e a l l o c a t i o n o f s e r v i c e s and human r e s o u r c e s t o d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l
g r o u p s .
As we hav e s e e n i n th e s e c t i o n on th e h i s t o r y o f th e p o l i t i c a l
economy o f b u r e a u c r a c y , when a t o t a l m o n o p o liz a tio n i s n o t p o s s i b l e ,
th e r u l i n g f a c t i o n r e s o r t s to c o l l a b o r a t i o n w ith o r c o o p t a t i o n o f some
members o f r i v a l f a c t i o n ( s ) , t o s h a r e th e d e c is io n - m a k in g pow er.
The s t r e n g t h o f r i v a l f a c t i o n s comes g e n e r a l l y from t h e i r c o n
t r o l l i n g o f s p e c i a l r e s o u r c e s (human a s w e l l a s m a t e r i a l and f i n a n c i a l )
p e r c e iv e d by th e r u l i n g f a c t i o n as v i t a l f o r i t , b o th a s a r u l i n g f a c
t i o n an d a p a r t o f th e same b r o a d e r do m in an t c l a s s .
How ever, c o l l a b o r a t i o n o r c o o p t a t i o n i s n o t a lw a y s p o s s i b l e o r
even a t te m p t e d , d e p e n d in g on th e r e l a t i v e s t r e n g t h o f r i v a l g ro u p s and
th e c i r c u m s ta n c e s , so t h a t o v e r t c o n f r o n t a t i o n som etim es s e t t l e s th e
i s s u e s .
The fo rth c o m in g c h a p t e r w i l l fo c u s on th e m echanism th ro u g h
w h ich th e c a r e e r i n t e r e s t s o f th e b u r e a u c r a t s a r e d e v e l o p in g , c o n f l i c t
in g , and b e in g p r e s e r v e d th ro u g h t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f O uagadougou.
219
The D evelopm ent o f th e U n i v e r s i t y D ep artm en ts
i n a B u r e a u c r a t i c P e r s p e c t i v e
In t h i s s e c t i o n i t w i l l be a rg u e d t h a t th e c r e a t i o n o f O uaga
dougou U n i v e r s i t y d e p a rtm e n ts was d e te rm in e d by th e b u r e a u c r a t s 1 c a r e e r
i n t e r e s t s , and t h a t th e d i f f i c u l t i e s e n c o u n te re d i n t h i s c r e a t i o n come
from th e c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r e s t s o f d i f f e r e n t g ro u p s o f th e b u r e a u c r a c y ,
nam ely th e r u l i n g f a c t i o n o r p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o i s i e , th e
t e a c h e r s and w o u ld -b e t e a c h e r s , th e u n i v e r s i t y and n o n - u n i v e r s i t y
e d u c a te d b u r e a u c r a t s , and o t h e r g ro u p s o u t s i d e th e b u r e a u c r a c y , nam ely
th e F re n c h b o u r g e o i s i e as an im p e r ia l pow er, th e em erg in g b u s in e s s
b o u r g e o i s i e , and th e p e a s a n t r y a s p r o v id e r s o f th e b a s i c r e s o u r c e s o r
c o n c e rn e d g ro u p s by th e n eed s e x p r e s s e d a n d / o r r e c o g n i z e d .
T h is s e c t i o n w i l l exam ine how th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r
g e o i s i e t r i e s to p r e s e r v e i t s p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s by m aking th e u n i
v e r s i t y an in s tr u m e n t o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l a g a i n s t a r e b e l l i o u s s t u d e n t
body who c o u ld p la y a r o l e o f p o l i t i c a l o p p o s i t i o n b e c a u se o f t h e i r
s tu d y in g i n i n s t i t u t i o n s a b ro a d , o u t s i d e o f th e r e a c h o f th e p o l i t i c o -
b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o i s i e i n U pper V o lta .
A t t e n t i o n w i l l a l s o be g iv e n to s tu d y i n g how th e p o l i t i c o -
b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o i s i e t r i e s to p r e s e r v e , r e p r o d u c e , and mold th e
e x i s t i n g s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s by p r o v i d i n g , th ro u g h th e u n i v e r s i t y t r a i n
in g p ro g ra m s , s e r v i c e s to s o c i a l g ro u p s i t deems u s e f u l f o r th e s u r
v i v a l o f th e s o c i a l sy ste m and t h e r e f o r e i t s own s u r v i v a l - - t h e b u s i
n e s s s e c t o r , t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g , and a g r i c u l t u r a l w o r ld .
C o n f l i c t s w hich a r i s e b etw ee n d i f f e r e n t f a c t i o n s o f th e b u r e a u
c r a t i c c l a s s d e r i v e from o p p o s i t i o n to th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r
g e o i s i e from o t h e r b u r e a u c r a t s su c h a s th e t e a c h e r s , th e a g r i c u l t u r a l
220
e n g i n e e r s , a s p o s s e s s o r s o f s p e c i a l s k i l l s n eed e d by th e r u l i n g f a c t i o n
f o r th e im p le m e n ta tio n o f i t s e d u c a t i o n a l and a g r i c u l t u r a l p o l i c i e s .
Exam ples o f th e s e d i v e r g e n t i n t e r e s t s a r e p ro v id e d by th e c r e a t i o n o f
d e p a rtm e n ts w hich do n o t o f f e r th e te a c h e r s o r th e a g ro n o m is ts many
c a r e e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s in te rm s o f s t a t u s a t t a c h e d t o th e p o s i t i o n th u s
c r e a t e d . T h is d iv e r g e n c e o f i n t e r e s t s h as a l s o b een th e c a s e f o r m ost
u n i v e r s i t y d e p a r t m e n t s - - a g r i c u l t u r e , s h o r t - c y c l e b u s in e s s a d m i n i s t r a
t i o n , m o v ie-m ak in g , and t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g c e n t e r s .
The f u l l d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e d e p a rtm e n ts o f Law and Econom ics
i n t o p r o f e s s i o n a l s c h o o ls f o r th e t r a i n i n g o f m a n a g e r ia l p e r s o n n e l,
th e c o re o f th e V o lta n b u r e a u c r a c y , h a s b een c u r t a i l e d by th e e x i s t e n c e
o f a s t r o n g g ro u p o f n o n - u n i v e r s i t y - e d u c a t e d b u r e a u c r a t s t r y i n g to
p r e s e r v e t h e i r c a r e e r i n t e r e s t s by p r e v e n t in g th e u n i v e r s i t y from
m o n o p o liz in g a c c e s s t o h i g h e r b u r e a u c r a t i c (m a n a g e r ia l) p o s i t i o n s .
I n sum, th e s e c t i o n w i l l exam ine how th e i n t e r e s t s o f b u r e a u
c r a t i c p r o f e s s i o n a l g ro u p s c o n v e rg e o r c o n f l i c t w ith eac h o t h e r and
how th e s e c o n v e rg e n c e s o r c o n f l i c t s le a d t o th e im p le m e n ta tio n o f
t r a i n i n g program s w hich s e r v e th e i n t e r e s t s o f g ro u p s d i f f e r e n t from
th e ones th e y w ere t h e o r e t i c a l l y and o f f i c i a l l y su p p o se d t o s e r v e
( e . g . , th e i n t e r e s t s o f th e p e a s a n t s , b u s in e s s m e n , a r t i s t s , and th e
s t u d e n t s ) .
The d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e c u r r ic u lu m o f th e U n i v e r s i t y o f O uaga
dougou p a r a l l e l s somewhat th e p o l i t i c a l economy o f th e V o lta n b u r e a u
c r a c y , r e f l e c t i n g and r e i n f o r c i n g m ost o f i t s c o n t r a d i c t i o n s and i t s
c l o s e , y e t am biguous t i e s , w ith th e F re n c h b o u r g e o i s i e and b u r e a u c r a t s ,
and an em erg in g n a t i o n a l b u s in e s s b o u r g e o i s i e f a c t i o n .
221
A lth o u g h th e c o o p e r a tiv e a g re e m e n t on h ig h e r e d u c a tio n s ig n e d
b etw ee n F ra n c e and Upper V o lta i n 1961 s t i p u l a t e d t h a t F ra n c e w ould
h e l p U pper V o lta i n c r e a t i n g and d e v e lo p in g a n a t i o n a l u n i v e r s i t y , i t
was n o t u n t i l 1963 t h a t th e a g re e m e n t b eg an t o be im p le m e n te d , y e t n o t
i n i t s f u l l te rm s . I n s t e a d o f a u n i v e r s i t y o f f e r i n g v a r i o u s k in d s o f
t r a i n i n g p ro g ra m s, o n ly a t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g c e n t e r was s t a r t e d . I t was
a c a d e m i c a ll y li n k e d t o th e U n i v e r s i t y o f A b id ja n i n th e I v o r y C o a st
and l a t e r (1968) to th e U n i v e r s i t y o f Amiens i n F r a n c e .
T h is i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g when we c o n s id e r t h a t F re n c h h ig h e r e d u
c a t i o n a l p o l i c y in W est A f r i c a c o n s i s t e d o f d e v e lo p in g and s t r e n g t h e n
in g a r e g i o n a l u n i v e r s i t y , n am ely th e r e l a t i v e l y r e c e n t U n i v e r s i t y o f
D ak ar, c r e a t e d i n 1954 i n th e c a p i t a l o f th e th e n F re n c h W est A f r i c a
(A O F )--th e c r e a t i o n o f th e U n i v e r s i t y o f A b id ja n h a v in g b e e n h a s te n e d
by F ra n c e i n 195 9 i n th e fram ew ork of a g e n e r a l p o l i c y a im in g to
c o u n t e r th e f e d e r a l i s t a t te m p t s le d by p r e s i d e n t s S enghor and M odibo
K e i t a , th e r a d i c a l l e a d e r o f M a l i - - a t t e m p t s t h r e a t e n i n g F re n c h i n f l u
en ce i n W est A f r i c a . F ra n c e was n o t r e a d y t o s c a t t e r i t s f i n a n c i a l
and c u l t u r a l e f f o r t s o v e r s m a ll n a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y
s i n c e th e r e l a t i v e l y t i n y number o f s t u d e n t s (4 ,9 3 0 i n 1964) i n F r a n c o
phone W est A f r i c a i n g e n e r a l , and in each new ly in d e p e n d e n t c o u n tr y i n
p a r t i c u l a r d id n o t s u p p o r t th e c la im s f o r th e c r e a t i o n o f n a t i o n a l u n i
v e r s i t i e s .
But A f r i c a n g o v ern m en ts and th e V o lta n governm ent i n p a r t i c u l a r
w ere e x p e r i e n c in g p r e s s u r e s w hich made them d i s r e s p e c t f u l o f t h i s c o l o
n i a l r a t i o n a l i t y . One o f th e s e p r e s s u r e s was th e p r e s t i g e a n a t i o n a l
u n i v e r s i t y ad d ed to th e v i s i b l e s ig n s o f new ly g r a n te d s o v e r e i g n t y .
222
R i t u a l l y , th e p r e s i d e n t s o f th e new s t a t e s commit th e m s e lv e s t o c r e a t e
a u n i v e r s i t y among th e th o u s a n d -a n d -o n e o t h e r goods p ro m ise d t o v o t e r s
and p e o p le in th e way o f d o m e s t i c a t i o n . A n o th e r im p o r ta n t o b j e c t i v e
s o u g h t by t h e V o lta n gov ern m en t w ith th e c r e a t i o n o f a n a t i o n a l u n i v e r
s i t y was th e c o n t r o l and d o m e s t ic a t io n o f a s t u d e n t body w h ich had
e a r l i e r p la y e d a r o l e o f p o l i t i c a l o p p o s i t i o n to a reg im e on th e ro a d
to a u t o c r a c y . A t a tim e when a l l p o l i t i c a l o p p o n e n ts w ere e i t h e r
e x i l e d o r a s s i m i l a t e d i n t o a s i n g l e - p a r t y s y s te m , th e V o lta n S tu d e n t
A s s o c i a t i o n (UGEV) s to o d up to th e re g im e , c r i t i c i z i n g i t s d o m e stic
and f o r e i g n p o l i c i e s th ro u g h p a m p h le ts , a n d , b e f o r e t h e i r i n t e r d i c t i o n
i n l a t e 1962, c o n g r e s s e s ( S k in n e r , 1974, p . 2 5 8 ) . S tu d e n ts c o u ld do so
b e c a u s e th e y w ere o u t s i d e th e c o u n t r y , o u t o f th e r e a c h o f th e c o n
t e s t e d p o l i t i c a l p o w er. I f a u n i v e r s i t y was e s t a b l i s h e d on th e n a t i o n a l
s o i l , th e n th e d e s i r e d p o l i t i c a l " i n t e g r a t i o n " s t r i v e n f o r w ould be
much e a s i e r to s e c u r e .
H ow ever, b etw ee n t h i s p o l i t i c a l g o a l and th e f i n a n c i a l and t e c h
n i c a l r e s o u r c e s o f th e new s t a t e , t h e r e was a huge gap w hich c o u ld be
o n ly p a r t l y b r id g e d by a com prom ise w ith th e F re n c h b o u r g e o i s i e .
The D evelopm ent o f th e
T e a c h e r - T r a i n in g C e n te r
The com prom ise came i n th e form of a t e a c h e r - t r a i n i n g c e n t e r ,
th e c h e a p e s t u n i v e r s i t y t r a i n i n g w h ic h c o u ld s a t i s f y th e V o lta n
p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o i s i e a t th e same tim e a s i t w ould a l l e v i
a t e F ra n c e from th e b u rd e n o f s e n d in g F re n c h t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e p e r
s o n n e l to V o lta n s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l s . F ra n c e was somewhat i r r i t a t e d t o
s e e t h a t v e r y few V o lta n n a t i o n a l s w ere g o in g t o t e a c h , a l th o u g h th e y
223
had th e a ca d em ic c r e d e n t i a l s f o r t e a c h i n g , and th o u g h , a c c o r d in g to
F re n c h e x p e r t s , th e n eed f o r s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l te a c h e r s was m ore a c u t e
th a n th e n eed f o r p e r s o n n e l i n th e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s e c t o r w hich m ost
s t u d e n t s w ere r u s h in g t o e n t e r . S k in n e r (1974) r e p o r t e d t h a t :
F o r e x am p le, i n 1964 t h e r e w ere o n ly 5 A f r ic a n t e a c h e r s o u t o f
a t o t a l o f 47 t e a c h e r s i n th e L yc^e P h i l i p p e Z in d a K abore', and
o f 213 m ale and 68 fe m a le te a c h e r s i n th e h ig h s c h o o ls o f U pper
V o lta i n 1967-68 o n ly 67 w ere A f r i c a n m a les and 5 A f r i c a n f e
m ales . Of c o u r s e , t h i s i s a s much due to F r a n c e 's w i l l i n g e n e s s
to h e l p as i t i s to th e i n a b i l i t y o f U pper V o lta t o l u r e i t s own
p e o p le home. I n 1967 t h e r e w ere a t l e a s t 17 V o l t a i c s w ith t e a c h
in g q u a l i f i c a t i o n s i n F ra n c e o r w o rk in g a t more re m u n e r a tiv e jo b s
e ls e w h e r e . (p . 241)
F o r t h i s r e a s o n , th e id e a o f a t e a c h e r - t r a i n i n g c e n t e r was
welcomed by th e F re n c h g o v e rn m e n t, and a t th e same tim e i t p ro v id e d
th e V o lta n b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o i s i e w ith a b a s i c in s tr u m e n t f o r i t s
s o c i a l and econom ic p o l i c y . The V o lta n p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o i
s i e was w e l l aw are t h a t e d u c a tio n i n g e n e r a l , and th e t r a i n i n g o f
t r a i n e r s i n p a r t i c u l a r , was a k ey f a c t o r o f i t s d e v e lo p m e n t p o l i c y and
a l s o a means o f l e s s e n i n g i t s d ep en d e n cy from F ra n c e i t c o u ld n o t
e x p e c t to be alw ay s r e s p o n s iv e t o i t s gro w in g n e e d s . The t h e n - M i n i s t e r
o f E d u c a tio n s t a t e d t h i s c l e a r l y when p r e s e n t i n g to h i s c o l le a g u e s a
r e p o r t a d v o c a tin g th e c r e a t i o n o f th e t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g f a c i l i t y , th e
" I n s t i t u t S u p e r ie u r P o ly te c h n iq u e de F o rm a tio n P r o f e s s i o n n e l l e " :
Among th e p ro b lem s e n c o u n te r e d i n th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f e d u c a tio n
in U pper V o l t a , n o n e , f o r s u r e , i s m ore s e r i o u s th a n t h a t o f th e
t r a i n i n g o f t e a c h e r s . . . .. The s c h o o li n g p la n f o r e s e e s i n th e
n e a r f u t u r e th e y e a r l y o p e n in g o f 35 c l a s s r o o m s .
The m id d le l e v e l h ig h s c h o o l te a c h e r s a r e p r o v id e d , in a n
a r c h i c a l c o n d i t i o n s , and i n t i n y q u a n t i t i e s , by u n i v e r s i t i e s and
some A f r i c a n t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g c e n t e r s . H ig h e r l e v e l te a c h e r s
a r e e n r o l l e d i n F ra n c e o r a t D akar and seld o m r e c e i v e an a p p r o p r i
a t e p r a c t i c a l , p e d a g o g ic a l t r a i n i n g . . . . I t i s n o t t h e r e f o r e
s u r p r i s i n g t h a t U pper V o lta m u st c o n tin u e to r e s o r t t o more and
more num erous f o r e i g n p e r s o n n e l . A lth o u g h th e number o f t h i s
224
p e r s o n n e l h a s n o t v a r i e d th e l a s t y e a r s i n th e e le m e n ta r y
s c h o o l s , . . . th e s e c o n d a ry e d u c a t i o n a l s y s te m , h o w ev er, i s
90% d e p e n d e n t on th e s e f o r e i g n t e a c h e r s : o u t o f 157 s e c o n d a ry
e d u c a tio n te a c h e r s i n th e p u b l i c s c h o o l s , o n ly 16 a r e Vo1t a n s .
The s i t u a t i o n i s even w o rse i n th e p r i v a t e s c h o o ls w h ich com
p r i s e o n ly 6 n a t i o n a l s o u t o f a t o t a l o f 88 teachers. . . .
I n s u p p o s in g t h a t th e p r i v a t e e d u c a tio n sy ste m c o n t in u e s to
r e c r u i t eac h y e a r some f i f t e e n h ig h s c h o o l g r a d u a t e s o r b a c h e lo r
d e g re e h o l d e r s , t h e r e s t i l l w i l l be some 35 te a c h e r s t o f i n d f o r
th e p u b l i c s e c t o r ; and i t seem s im p o s s ib le t o p r o v id e n a t i o n a l s
f o r more th a n o n e - f o u r t h o f th e n eed e d p e r s o n n e l . As i t i s f a r
from b e in g c e r t a i n t h a t o r g a n i z a t i o n s p r o v id i n g f o r e i g n p e r s o n n e l
w ould be a b l e to p r o v id e y e a r l y 20 t o 30 new t e a c h e r s , o n ly f o r
s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l s , th e p r o g r e s s i o n of s c h o o li n g and th e r e a l i z a
t i o n o f t h e p la n o b j e c t i v e s f o r th e t r a i n i n g o f n a t i o n a l c a d r e s
a r e l e f t a t th e m ercy o f c h a n c e . (R e p u b lic o f U pper V o lta ,
C .M ., 1965)
The o r i g i n a l p r o j e c t was q u i t e a m b i t i o u s , a im in g to g a t h e r in
one s i n g l e i n s t i t u t i o n a l l m anner o f t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g p ro g ra m s , from
e le m e n ta r y t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g to th e t r a i n i n g o f e le m e n ta r y s c h o o l d i s
t r i c t s u p e r v i s o r s , i n c l u d i n g th e t r a i n i n g o f h ig h s c h o o l t e a c h e r s .
H ow ever, o n ly th e l a t t e r pro g ram was a c t u a l l y im p lem en ted a t th e " E c o le
N orm ale S u p e r ie u r e " (EN S).
T e c h n i c a l l y , t h e ENS was com posed o f two s e c t i o n s - - a s h o r t -
c y c le s e c t i o n d e s ig n e d to t r a i n i n two y e a r s th e m i d d l e - l e v e l te a c h e r s
f o r th e j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l s , th e " p r o f e s s e u r s d e CEG," and a lo n g - c y c l e
s e c t i o n o n ly to b e i n i t i a t e d a t O uagadougou and to c o n tin u e i n o t h e r
A f r i c a n o r F re n c h u n i v e r s i t i e s . T h is l a t t e r was f o r th e t r a i n i n g of
h i g h e r l e v e l te a c h e r s f o r th e s e n i o r h ig h s c h o o ls ( a t l e a s t f o r l i t e r
a r y d i s c i p l i n e s ) .
B ut s e r i o u s c o n t r o v e r s i e s a r o s e o v e r th e o r i e n t a t i o n o f th e
c e n t e r , t h r e a t e n i n g i t s v e r y e x i s t e n c e . The c o n t r o v e r s i e s c o n c e rn e d
th e la c k o f d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n o f c a r e e r s open to th e ENS s t u d e n t s , th e
q u a l i t y o f s t u d e n t s tr a c k e d to w ard t e a c h i n g , an d t h e f o r c e d c h a r a c t e r
225
o f t h i s t r a c k i n g w h ich c ru s h e d i n d i v i d u a l m o t i v a t i o n s .
Some members o f th e N a t i o n a l C om m ittee f o r th e G ra n tin g o f
S c h o la r s h i p s (CNACB), whose im p o rta n c e w i l l be s e e n i n th e n e x t s e c
t i o n s , a r t i c u l a t e d t h e i r d is a g r e e m e n t c o n c e r n in g th e v o c a t i o n a l o r i e n
t a t i o n o f th e t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g c e n t e r a s f o llo w s :
S e v e r a l members o f th e C om m ittee do n o t a p p ro v e o f th e f a c t t h a t
a l l ENS s t u d e n t s a r e tr a c k e d to w ard te a c h in g c a r e e r s a lth o u g h
some o f them h av e no c a l l i n g f o r t h i s c a r e e r . The C om m ittee
members t h e r e f o r e s t r o n g l y recommend t h a t th o s e who a r e n o t
m o tiv a te d f o r te a c h in g be a llo w e d to c h o o se o t h e r c a r e e r s .
(CNACB, m in u te s , J u l y 1967, p . 28)
T h is was e x a c t l y th e p o i n t o f v ie w o f th e ENS s t u d e n t s them
s e l v e s who w ere s t r u g g l i n g t o do away w ith th e s p e c i f i c a l l y p e d a g o g ic a l
o r i e n t a t i o n o f th e c e n t e r . They a rg u e d t h a t t h i s o r i e n t a t i o n was n o t
i n tu n e w ith t h e i r i n t e l l e c t u a l m o t iv a t io n s and p r o f e s s i o n a l a s p i r a
t i o n s , and t h a t th e y had b e e n a r b i t r a r i l y tr a c k e d to w ard an d f o r c e d
i n t o te a c h i n g p o s i t i o n s .
To th e s e c h a r g e s , t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and a c a d em ic a u t h o r i t i e s
o f th e ENS r e p l i e d t h a t t h e r e was n o th i n g su c h a s " m o tiv a tio n " o r
" a s p i r a t i o n " an d t h a t , in a n y c a s e , th e n a t i o n 's n e e d s w ere t o ta k e
p ace o v e r th e p e r s o n a l d e s i d e r a t a o f i n d i v i d u a l members o f th e s o c i e t y .
I n d i v i d u a l s , th e arg u m en t r a n , a r e a t th e d i s p o s a l o f th e n a t i o n ; and
p e o p l e - p a r t i c u l a r l y th o s e o f th e im m ed iate p o s t- in d e p e n d e n c e g e n e r a
t i o n - - m u s t s a c r i f i c e th e m s e lv e s f o r th e n a t i o n 's s a k e .^
The b e g in n in g s of th e U n i v e r s i t y o f O uagadougou w ere h i g h
l i g h t e d by a t te m p t s o f a l l k in d s on th e p a r t o f s t u d e n t s in o r d e r to
e s c a p e t h e i r l o t and by m e a su re s by a l l k in d s by te a c h in g a n d a d m in is
t r a t i v e s t a f f s to k e e p th e s t u d e n t s i n t h e i r t r a c t s .
The m ost im p o r ta n t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e m easu re was a c o n t r a c t p e r
s o n a l l y s ig n e d by th e s t u d e n t t o s e r v e a s a t e a c h e r i n p u b l i c s c h o o ls
f o r a 1 0 - y e a r p e r i o d . I n ex ch an g e f o r t h i s c o n t r a c t , th e s t u d e n t was
226
■ -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
g r a n te d th e t i t l e o f " c i v i l s e r v a n t i n t r a i n i n g " and p a id a " P r e -
s a l a r y " (w hich was s l i g h t l y h i g h e r th a n th e am ount o f th e s c h o l a r s h i p
o f o t h e r " r e g u l a r " s t u d e n t s ) .
The te a c h in g s t a f f , m o s tly F r e n c h , r e i n f o r c e d t h i s a d m i n i s t r a -
r i v e a rra n g e m e n t by s y s t e m a t i c a l l y d e c l a r i n g th e s t u d e n t s u n a b le to
u n d e r ta k e s t u d i e s o t h e r th a n th o s e o f f e r e d a t th e ENS. The m in u te s o f
th e m e e tin g s o f th e " C o n s e il de P e r f e c tio n n e m e n t P e d a g o g iq u e " o f th e
ENS a r e i n s t r u c t i v e i n t h i s r e s p e c t . H ere i s how, f o r e x am p le, th e
aca d em ic d i r e c t o r ( a l s o t e a c h e r ) o f th e ENS p ro p o se d th e t u r n i n g down
o f a p p l i c a t i o n s i n t r o d u c e d by two s t u d e n t s a s k in g t o change t h e i r
a c t u a l o r i e n t a t i o n :
A l l t h a t Mr. X i s lo o k in g f o r i s to le a v e O uagadougou [ f o r E N S ]--
m e d ic in e o r law i s j u s t a p r e t e x t . . . . Mr. Y w an ts to s tu d y
s o c io l o g y w h ile he h as b e e n tr a c k e d to w ard F r e n c h . To be s u r e ,
he i s u n a b le t o s tu d y s o c io l o g y and w i l l ta k e th e p la c e o f
a n o t h e r , y o u n g e r s t u d e n t , s i n c e t h e r e i s a l i m i t e d number of
s t u d e n t s to se n d f o r s t u d i e s in s o c i o l o g y . . . . B e s id e s , I
m ust m e n tio n t h a t Y h as p r e v i o u s l y r e q u e s te d t o s tu d y law and
t h a t th e C o u n c il had tu r n e d down t h i s r e q u e s t a t i t s m e e tin g
o f J u n e . Y i s t r y i n g t o e s c a p e from t e a c h i n g . S o c io lo g y
w ould a llo w him to do s o . (ENS, C o n s e il de P e r f e c t i o n n e m e n t ,
O c to b e r 1967, p . 4)
M ost s t u d e n t s r e s o r t e d to v e r b a l p r o t e s t s and fo rm a l r e q u e s t s
f o r c h a n g in g t h e i r m a jo r; b u t som e, b o ld e r and s t r e n g t h e n e d by t h e
s u p p o r t o f g overnm ent members and e d u c a t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s d id n o t
h e s i t a t e to b o y c o t t th e a c a d em ic y e a r , f a i l t h e i r e x a m in a tio n s and
ta k e o c c u r r e n c e o f t h i s f a i l u r e a s a d e v ic e f o r r e q u e s t i n g t h e i r
r e o r i e n t a t i o n to w ard o t h e r d i s c i p l i n e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y Law.
The c o n t e s t i n g of th e t r a c k i n g s y s te m was more i n t e n s e on th e
p a r t o f s t u d e n t s tr a c k e d to w ard th e s h o r t - c y c l e s e c t i o n , and t h e r e w ere
good r e a s o n s f o r t h i s . In e f f e c t , th e o r i e n t a t i o n to w ard t h i s s e c t i o n
was b a s e d on u t t e r l y n e g a t i v e c r i t e r i a and c o n c e iv e d o f a s se c o n d -h a n d ,
n o n -a c a d e m ic t r a i n i n g . The d e c r e e c r e a t i n g t h e ENS d id s t i p u l a t e t h a t
227
-----------------------------------------------------------------
th e "CEG" s e c t i o n was d e s ig n e d f o r an y of t h e f o ll o w i n g c a t e g o r i e s of
s t u d e n t s :
1 . th o s e c o n s id e r e d t o h av e s c o r e d p o o r ly (no more th a n 11 o u t
o f 20) a t th e " b a c c a l a u r e a t " e x a m in a tio n . N ote t h a t th o s e who s c o re d
h ig h e r th a n 11 o u t o f 20 r e p r e s e n t 20 p e r c e n t o f th e s t u d e n t sam ple
s u rv e y e d f o r th e p r e s e n t s tu d y and r e p r e s e n t e d o n ly o n e - t h i r d o f th e
c a n d i d a te s a d m itte d to th e " b a c c a l a u r e a t " e x a m in a tio n and 23 p e r c e n t
o f th e t o t a l c a n d i d a te s s i t t i n g f o r th e e x a m in a tio n i n 1969 and 1970,
two r e l a t i v e l y good y e a r s f o r s t u d e n t s ;
2 . th o s e c o n s id e r e d to o o ld t o b e n e f i t fro m a " r e g u l a r " s c h o l
a r s h i p , t h a t i s , more th a n 23;
3 . th o s e who f a i l e d th e p a r t i c u l a r l y s e l e c t i v e f i r s t y e a r of
th e u n i v e r s i t y e x a m in a tio n . The l a t t e r c o n d i t i o n h ad b een s e t as a
c o n c e s s io n t o th e f i r s t s t u d e n t s who had r e q u e s te d t h a t th e t r a c k i n g
be s e t a t t h e end i n s t e a d o f th e v e ry b e g in n in g of th e f i r s t y e a r ,
b e c a u s e t h e r e was no e v i d e n t c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw e e n h ig h s c h o o l p e r f o r
mance and u n i v e r s i t y p e rfo rm a n c e .
The "CEG" s e c t i o n s tu d e n t s w ere th u s d o u b ly f r u s t r a t e d - - f i r s t
f o r b e in g tr a c k e d to w ard t e a c h i n g , a n d se c o n d f o r b e in g tr a c k e d i n t o
th e lo w e s t l e v e l of t h i s unw anted j o b - - t h e V o lta n " G u la g ," inasm uch as
th e CEG j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o ls w ere a lm o s t e x c l u s i v e l y l o c a t e d i n th e
c o u n t r y s i d e , f a r from c i t y f a c i l i t i e s . D u rin g th e f i r s t two y e a r s of
th e ENS, d e f e c t i o n s from th e CEG s e c t i o n w ere r e l a t i v e l y n u m erous,
c o m p ris in g o n e - t h i r d o f th e e n r o l l m e n t s . The f i n a n c i a l p e n a l t i e s
(re im b u rse m e n t o f th e a llo w a n c e s r e c e i v e d ) p ro v id e d f o r i n c a s e th e
t e a c h in g c o n t r a c t s ig n e d by an i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t was b ro k e n w ere n o t
228
a p p l i e d b e c a u s e th e e d u c a t i o n a l b u r e a u c r a t s had no p r a c t i c a l means and
no w i l l i n g n e s s t o do t h e w ork th e y c o n s id e r e d n o t t o be t h e i r r e s p o n s i
b i l i t y , b u t i n s t e a d t h a t o f t h e f i n a n c e o r j u s t i c e m i n i s t r i e s (CPES,
C o n s e il de P e r f e c t i o n n e m e n t , O c to b e r 1968, p . 5 ) . M ost i n t e r e s t i n g ,
o u t o f t h e 20 c a s e s r e p o r t e d by th e "B ureau o f I n f o r m a tio n and O r i e n t a
t i o n " o f s t u d e n t s d e c l a r e d a c a d e m i c a ll y weak by th e ENS f a c u l t y and who
d e f e c t e d to u n d e r ta k e l o n g - c y c le s t u d i e s , o n ly two ( i . e . , 10 p e r c e n t )
c o n firm e d th e f a c u l t y ' s v e r d i c t by f a i l i n g i n t h e i r new m a jo r s .
"A n y th in g e x c e p t t e a c h i n g ." P r o g r e s s i v e l y , h o w ev er, a s more
n a t i o n a l te a c h e r s j o i n e d th e f a c u l t y and i d e n t i f i e d t h e i r w o rse n in g
s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s w ith th o s e o f t h e i r f u t u r e c o l le a g u e s ( t h e r e was n o t
a s e p a r a t e s t a t u t e f o r u n i v e r s i t y f a c u l t y u n t i l 1 9 7 7 ), th e u n i v e r s i t y
f a c u l t y b eg an t o a l l y w ith s t u d e n t s and t r y t o f i n d o u t ways to im prove
t h e i r common d e c l i n i n g p r o f e s s i o n .
T e a c h in g w as, in d e e d , c o n s id e r e d by e v e ry b o d y , i n c l u d i n g e d u c a
t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s th e m s e lv e s , a s th e w o r s t c a r e e r , a p p r o p r i a t e f o r
o n ly th e w o r s t h ig h s c h o o l g r a d u a t e s . S y s t e m a t i c a l l y , "b a d " s t u d e n t s
from h ig h s c h o o ls w ere t r a c k e d to w ard th e te a c h in g s e c t i o n s o f th e u n i
v e r s i t y , so t h a t th e te a c h i n g and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s t a f f s o f th e s e s e c
t i o n s co m p la in e d a b o u t th e " in a d e q u a te num ber o f s t u d e n t s , c o n s i s t i n g
p a r t i c u l a r l y o f th e i n t e l l e c t u a l l y weak e l e m e n t s , t r a c k e d to w ard th e
n a t i o n a l u n i v e r s i t y and i t s l i t e r a r y d e p a rtm e n ts ( ' b r a i n - d r a i n ' tow ard
la w , i n p a r t i c u l a r , and c o n s e q u e n t ly , o u t s i d e th e c o u n t r y ) ." The
f a c u l t y w en t on c o m p la in in g a s f o ll o w s :
They n o t i c e d t h a t s i n c e th e c r e a t i o n o f th e c e n t e r o f H ig h e r E du
c a t i o n and th e l i t e r a r y c o l l e g e , th e e x a c t o b j e c t i v e s o f th e
229
c u r r ic u lu m h av e n e v e r b een s u b m itte d t o th e r e f l e c t i o n o r a d v ic e
o f th e t e a c h e r s , m ost o f th e tim e e x p a t r i a t e s . . . .
We r e q u e s t t h a t a t th e o r i e n t a t i o n s e s s i o n f o r new s t u d e n t s ,
th e f a c u l t y , r e p r e s e n t e d by a t l e a s t th e d i r e c t o r (and e v e n t u a l l y
h e a d s o f d e p a r tm e n ts ) be a s s o c i a t e d , a t l e a s t as a c o n s u l t a n t ,
a b o u t th e d e f i n i t i o n o f th e f u t u r e o f new s t u d e n t s . The c u r r i c u
lum o f f e r i n g s a t th e l i t e r a r y c o l l e g e m ig h t a l s o be " v a l u e d " - -
p a r t i c u l a r l y th e D ep artm en t o f L i n g u i s t i c s ( a p p l i e d A f r ic a n l e t
t e r s ) w hich i s b u i l d i n g up; th e I n s t i t u t e of A rc h e o lo g y [ n o t y e t
e s t a b l i s h e d b u t u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n ] ; h i s t o r y and g eo g rap h y
( p o s s i b i l i t i e s of t r a i n i n g f o r n o n - te a c h in g c a r e e r s i n g e o g ra p h y --
new c h a n n e ls su c h a s u rb a n is m , r u r a l d e v e lo p m e n t p r o j e c t s , e t c . ) .
(U.O. CLU, 1975, p . 2)
N a t i o n a l t e a c h e r s , a s s e e n i n C h a p te r IV , w ere th e m s e lv e s
s t r i v i n g t o f l e e from t h e i r p o s i t i o n s to w ard a d m i n i s t r a t i v e jo b s a p p a r
e n t l y more p r e s t i g i o u s and f i n a n c i a l l y more r e w a r d in g . As a r e s u l t ,
and c o n t r i b u t i n g to th e low s o c i a l s t a t u s o f th e t e a c h e r s , h ig h s c h o o l
s t u d e n t s d e c l a r e d th e m s e lv e s r e a d y t o do " a n y th in g e x c e p t t e a c h i n g , "
and w ro te t h i s on t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n form s f o r s c h o l a r s h i p s , a c c o r d in g
t o th e te s tim o n y o f o r i e n t a t i o n co m m ittee m em bers. The d r a s t i c d e c l i n e
o f th e t e a c h i n g c a r e e r s t a t u s i n f a v o r o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c a r e e r s t a t u s
i n th e e s te e m o f h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s has b e e n o b v io u s .
C om paring th e d a t a o f a s u rv e y c o n d u c te d i n 1964 on a sam ple
o f 81 " s e c o n d e " (1 0 th ) g ra d e ly c e e s t u d e n t s o f O uagadougou c o n c e rn in g
t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n a l c h o i c e s , w ith t h e d a t a c o n c e rn in g th e a c t u a l d i s
t r i b u t i o n o f th e 301 s t u d e n t s e n r o l l e d d u r in g th e a c a d em ic y e a r 1966-
1967 i n d i f f e r e n t m a jo rs p r e p a r i n g f o r th o s e p r o f e s s i o n s , S k in n e r (1974)
found
a c e r t a i n c o n g ru e n c e b etw een th e s p e c i a l i t i e s p u rs u e d by V o l t a i c
s t u d e n t s i n i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h ig h e r e d u c a tio n and th e r e s p o n s e s
o f Lyc^e s t u d e n t s o f O uagadougou when a sk e d a b o u t c a r e e r p r e f e r
e n c e s . . . . I n r e s p o n s e to th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e , th e h i g h e s t num
b e r o f L y c ie s t u d e n t s (25) i n d i c a t e d th e p r o f e s s i o n o f " P r o f e s
s o r " o r " T e a c h e r" a s f i r s t c h o i c e . The h i g h e s t number o f g r a d u
a t e s t u d e n t s (161) a r e s tu d y in g l e t t e r s , s c i e n c e s , and m a th ,
230
s p e c i a l i t i e s w hich le a d t o a te a c h in g c a r e e r . The seco n d h i g h
e s t number o f L ycee s t u d e n t s (16) p r e f e r r e d m e d ic in e , b u t t h i s
p r o f e s s i o n ra n k s t h i r d in number o f s t u d e n t s (28) p u r s u in g i t .
The s tu d y o f e n g i n e e r in g was c h o sen i n t h i r d p la c e by th e L ycee
s t u d e n t s and ra n k s f o u r t h among p r o f e s s i o n s b e in g s t u d i e d by
th e u n i v e r s i t y g ro u p . The b i g g e s t s u r p r i s e was t h a t law and
econom ics w hich few s t u d e n t s (1) i n d i c a t e d an i n t e r e s t i n w ere
a c t u a l l y b e in g s t u d i e d by th e seco n d h i g h e s t number o f u n i v e r
s i t y s t u d e n t s ( 5 2 ) . The r e a s o n s f o r t h i s a r e unknown.
(p p . 2 3 9 -2 4 0 )
S k in n e r w ould n o t hav e b een s u r p r i s e d had he a sk e d th e 1966-1967 u n i
v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s th e m s e lv e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e 25 L e t t e r s s t u d e n t s o f
th e ENS o f O uagadougou, w h at th e y a c t u a l l y f e l t a b o u t t h e i r c a r e e r
. „ . 2
o r i e n t a t i o n .
The s u rv e y o f th e s t u d e n t s e n r o l l e d a t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f
O uagadougou f o r th e aca d em ic y e a r 1980-1981 c o n d u c te d f o r th e p r e s e n t
s tu d y i n d i c a t e s t h a t o n ly 5 .3 p e r c e n t o f th e s t u d e n t s had c h o s e n th e
te a c h in g p r o f e s s i o n , a lth o u g h a c t u a l l y 2 1 .3 p e r c e n t o f th e s t u d e n t
p o p u l a t i o n had b een tr a c k e d to w ard te a c h in g and t h a t 4 8 .9 p e r c e n t o f
th e s t u d e n t sam ple had i n d i c a t e d Econom ics and L a w - r e la te d p r o f e s s i o n s
a s t h e i f f i r s t c a r e e r c h o i c e , w h ile a c t u a l l y o n ly 2 8 .4 p e r c e n t had been
t r a c k e d to w ard su ch p r o f e s s i o n s .
N ot s u r p r i s i n g , th e m a j o r i t y (70%) o f th e few s t u d e n t s who
c h o se a te a c h in g c a r e e r came from th e l i t e r a r y s e c t i o n s w h ich h av e
few jo b p r o s p e c ts b e s id e s te a c h in g (MEN, p l a n i f i c a t i o n , 1975, p . 2 7 ) .
I n s c i e n c e , and p a r t i c u l a r l y i n M ath and P h y s ic s w h ere a r e g e n e r a l l y
found th e b e s t s t u d e n t s and g r e a t e r c a r e e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s , a lm o s t n o
body (1.5%) s e e s t e a c h in g as a s e r i o u s c a r e e r . O r i g i n a l l y , s t u d e n t s
a p p l y in g f o r a s c h o l a r s h i p to s tu d y th e s e d i s c i p l i n e s - - a s i n l i t e r a r y
d i s c i p l i n e s b e f o r e th e c r e a t i o n o f th e ENS i n 1965--w e re n o t e x p r e s s l y
231
r e q u i r e d t o p r e p a r e th e m s e lv e s f o r te a c h i n g ; b u t e d u c a tio n o f f i c i a l s
e x p e c te d some, in d e e d a s i g n i f i c a n t num ber o f them , to r e t u r n a t th e
end o f t h e i r s t u d i e s t o " e a t th e c h a l k . " Blit a f t e r a few p r e -
in d e p e n d e n c e s t u d e n t s had re s p o n d e d to t h i s e x p e c t a t i o n , and a s y e a r s
p a s s e d , m ost M ath and P h y s ic s s t u d e n t s l e f t t h e i r b a s i c d i s c i p l i n e s
f o r E n g in e e r in g o r S t a t i s t i c s a p p l i e d t o E co n o m ics. T h u s, 15 y e a r s
a f t e r in d e p e n d e n c e , t h e r e w ere o n ly two V o lta n n a t i o n a l M ath te a c h e r s
and e i g h t V o lta n P h y s ic s t e a c h e r s w ith a b a c h e lo r d e g re e o u t o f a t o t a l
t e a c h in g s t a f f num bered as 107 Math t e a c h e r s and 55 P h y s ic s t e a c h e r s .
F u r t h e r , i t i s e s ti m a t e d t h a t i n th e n e x t 10 y e a r s , d o u b le th e number
o f th e e x i s t i n g s c i e n c e t e a c h e r s w i l l be n e e d e d i n th e d ev elo p m en t o f
e x i s t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s , w ith o u t th e n e c e s s a r y c r e a t i o n o f new ones and
th e p r o j e c t e d em phasis on th e t r a i n i n g o f s c i e n t i f i c an d t e c h n i c a l ,
p e r s o n n e l (RHV, CM, 1 9 7 5 ).
The I n s t i t u t e o f M ath and P h y s ic s (IMP) w hich was c r e a t e d i n
1975 e s s e n t i a l l y to d e a l w ith t h i s b l a t a n t s h o r t a g e o f M ath and P h y s ic s
te a c h e r s (and s e c o n d a r i l y to p r e p a r e some s t u d e n t s f o r e n t r y i n t o
E u ro p ean e n g i n e e r in g s c h o o ls ) does n o t seem , h o w ev er, to have b e n e
f i t e d much from th e e l d e r ENS's e x p e r i e n c e .
I t i s t r u e t h a t th e IMP t e a c h e r s e c t i o n was t r y i n g to make i t s
c u r r ic u lu m more a t t r a c t i v e to s t u d e n t s . T h u s, i n s t e a d o f th e fo rm e r
# *
two y e a r s h o r t - c y c l e , i t d e v e lo p e d a t h r e e - y e a r c y c l e f o r th e "CEG"
te a c h e r s (who had s u c c e e d e d i n g e t t i n g a b e t t e r h i e r a r c h i c a l c l a s s i f i
c a t i o n i n th e c i v i l s e r v i c e , m aking them a lm o s t e q u a l to th e s e n i o r
h ig h s c h o o l t e a c h e r s a s f a r as f i n a n c i a l a d v a n ta g e s w ere c o n c e rn e d ;
232
t h i s dep en d ed on th e c o n d i t i o n , h o w ev er, t h a t t h e i r t r a i n i n g sp a n s
t h r e e y e a r s ) .
The IMP i s a l s o d e v e lo p in g f o r th e s e n i o r h ig h s c h o o l te a c h e r s
program s o f f o u r y e a r s ( l o n g - c y c l e I " o r , commonly, " s e m i- lo n g c y c l e " )
and f i v e y e a r s ( " lo n g - c y c l e I I " o r , more commonly, " lo n g c y c l e " ) , r e
s p e c t i v e l y , f o r s e m i - q u a l i f i e d and f u l l y q u a l i f i e d s e n i o r h ig h s c h o o l
t e a c h e r s . The lo n g - c y c le o f f e r s th e s t u d e n t s a f u l l y e a r o f a c a d em ic
t r a i n i n g fo llo w e d by a n o t h e r y e a r o f p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g . H ow ever,
th e u n i v e r s i t y has no q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n n e l f o r su c h p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n
i n g , s i n c e th e u n i v e r s i t y f a c u l t y i t s e l f h av e no p r a c t i c a l e x p e r ie n c e
o r t h e o r e t i c a l know ledge f o r te a c h in g i n s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l. S p e c i a l
a rra n g e m e n ts a r e made w ith s i m i l a r F re n c h i n s t i t u t i o n s ( e . g . , th e
" E c o le N orm ale de F o n te n a y -a u x -R o s e s " ) t o o f f e r th e s t u d e n t s o p p o r t u n i
t i e s to t r a v e l an d s e e how t h e i r F re n c h c o l le a g u e s a r e d o in g i n t h e i r
j o b s . I t i s t h i s way t h a t th e s t u d e n t s m ig h t a c q u i r e th e p r a c t i c a l
t r a i n i n g t h e u n i v e r s i t y a d v e r t i s e s b u t i s a c t u a l l y u n a b le t o p r o v i d e .
B u t, on th e w h o le , th e same p a t t e r n o f s o c i a l c o n t r o l re m a in s
a t th e I M P - - it i s u s in g th e same i n c e n t i v e - c o e r c i v e m easu res as th e
ENS i n o r d e r t o a t t r a c t and r e t a i n s t u d e n t s i n te a c h i n g t r a c k s e x p e r i
e n c in g th e same d i s a f f e c t i o n a s b e f o r e . A d e t a i l e d s c a l i n g s y s te m h as
b e e n d e v is e d t o t r a c k i n t o lo w e r s e c t i o n s o f th e t r a i n i n g program s
(CEG" an d " s e m i- lo n g " s e c t i o n s ) w hoever f a i l s one o f th e y e a r l y ex am i-
a t i o n s . T h a t th e academ ic s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i s r e l a t e d t o s o c i a l s t r a t i f
i c a t i o n i s e v i d e n t i n th e f a c t t h a t th e e n a c tm e n t o r g a n i z i n g th e
aca d em ic program and re g im e s o f s t u d i e s s ta t e s - - s o m e w h a t q u i t e u n -
e x p e c t e d l y - - t h e s o c i a l and m a t e r i a l a d v a n ta g e s t o w hich th e d i f f e r e n t
233
l e v e l s o f s t u d i e s th e d i f f e r e n t s e c t i o n s e n t i t l e . F o r ex a m p le , i t i s
s a i d t h a t g r a d u a t e s from th e ’’s e m i- lo n g " and " lo n g ” s e c t i o n s b e n e f i t ,
r e s p e c t i v e l y , from one to two e c h e lo n s o f g overnm ent r a n k more th a n
t h e i r c o l le a g u e s w i t h j u s t th e b a c h e lo r d e g re e ( A r t i c l e s 6 and 7,
A r r e t£ No. 6 5 /7 7 du 29 J u i l l e t 1977 f i x a n t l e re g im e p a r t i c u l i e r des
E tu d es a l ’IMP, f o r m a tio n des p r o f e s s e u r s ) . A ls o , th e s h o r t - c y c l e
s e c t i o n s o f th e t e a c h in g t r a i n i n g program a r e u se d as p u n i t i v e d e v ic e s
a g a i n s t n o t o n ly a c a d e m i c a ll y weak s t u d e n t s b u t a l s o r e b e l l i o u s e l e
m ents a s h a s b een d e m o n s tr a te d by th e s e n d in g t o t h e s e s e c t i o n s o f th e
s t u d e n t s who w ere e n r o l l e d i n lo n g - c y c l e s e c t i o n s b u t had b o y c o tte d
th e 1979 e x a m in a t io n s . The fo rm e r d i r e c t o r o f th e IMP, now M i n i s t e r
o f H ig h e r E d u c a tio n , r e p o r t e d l y t h r e a t e n e d a s t u d e n t w ith s e n d in g him
to th e "CEG" s e c t i o n i f he c o n tin u e d to be r e b e l l i o u s (AEVO, L ’E t u d i a n t
V o lta iq u e a O uagadougou, 1981, p . 9 ) . F u r t h e r , h a l f o f th e 70 s t u d e n t s
r e g i s t e r e d a t th e IMP t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g s e c t i o n come from th e " E c o le
N o rm a le ," a s e c o n d a ry v o c a t i o n a l s c h o o l d e s ig n e d t o t r a i n e le m e n ta ry
s c h o o l t e a c h e r s . The E c o le N orm ale was o b l i g e d , two y e a r s a g o , t o
c l o s e i t s d o o rs as s u c h and become an o r d i n a r y s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l b e
c a u s e o f c o n tin u o u s r e s i s t a n c e to th e v o c a t i o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n o f th e
s c h o o l; m ost g r a d u a te s r e f u s i n g to h o n o r t h e i r i n i t i a l c o n t r a c t t o go
i n t o te a c h i n g p o s i t i o n s . The IMP r e p r e s e n t s f o r th e s e " E c o le N orm ale"
s t u d e n t s a p o s s i b i l i t y o f upw ard y e t u n s a t i s f a c t o r y m o b i l i t y . The
t y p i c a l an sw e r o f E c o le N orm ale s t u d e n t s to q u e s ti o n s c o n c e r n in g t h e i r
c a r e e r p r e f e r e n c e s i s " I am doomed t o t e a c h i n g . I come from E c o le
N orm ale, so I h av e no c h o i c e , you s e e . "
234
C o n c l u s i o n . What th e h i s t o r i c a l d ev elo p m en t o f th e t e a c h e r
t r a i n i n g u n i v e r s i t y program s i n d i c a t e s i s :
F i r s t , th e s ta u n c h d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f th e s t a t e b u r e a u c r a t s t o
r e p ro d u c e th e m s e lv e s by a s s u r i n g th e p r o d u c ti o n o f th e n e e d e d r e p r o
d u c e r s , th e te a c h e r s a t th e lo w e s t c o s t p o s s i b l e f o r them . The t r a i n
in g i n s t i t u t i o n s and program s a r e th e c h e a p e s t and th e l e a s t p r e s t i
g i o u s . The " q u a l i t y 1 1 o f th e p e r s o n n e l tr a c k e d i n t o th e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s
i s among th e lo w e s t, and th e c a r e e r p e r s p e c t i v e s o f f e r e d t o th e s e
i n d i v i d u a l s a r e t h e l e a s t a p p e a lin g and th e l e a s t s o c i a l l y and f i n a n
c i a l l y re w a r d in g .
S eco n d , e d u c a t i o n a l b u r e a u c r a t s a c t as c u s to d i a n s t o k eep
s t u d e n t s i n u n d e s ir e d y e t n e c e s s a r y t r a c k s . The f a c u l t y members a l s o
do so a s lo n g as t h e i r own p r o f e s s i o n a l i n t e r e s t s a r e n o t c o n c e rn e d
( f o r ex am p le, F re n c h e x p a t r i a t e s a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e E c o le N orm ale
S u p ^ r i e u r e ) . B ut p r o f e s s o r s a l l y w ith w o u ld -b e t e a c h e r s to b a t t l e
f o r im p ro v in g t h e i r common c a r e e r i n t e r e s t s a g a i n s t e d u c a t i o n a l a d
m i n i s t r a t o r s and o t h e r s t a t e b u r e a u c r a t s .
A way f o r t e a c h e r s t o im prove t h e i r c a r e e r i n t e r e s t s i s th ro u g h
i n c r e a s e d c o n t r o l o v e r th e p r o c e s s o f s o c i a l r e p r o d u c t i o n - - a c o n t r o l
o v e r th e s c h o o l s y s te m , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e s e l e c t i o n s y ste m and th e c u r
r ic u lu m d ev elo p m en t p r o c e s s . The n e x t s e c t i o n o f t h i s c h a p t e r w i l l
exam ine f u r t h e r how th e te a c h e r s and u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r s a c h ie v e
t h i s g o a l o f c o n t r o l l i n g th e s e l e c t i o n and t r a c k i n g s y s te m .
The D evelopm ent o f th e U n i v e r s i t y
I n s t i t u t e o f T ec h n o lo g y (IUT)
The " I n s t i t u t U n i v e r s i t a i r e de T e c h n o lo g ie " (IUT) was c r e a t e d
235
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
i n 1970 f o r th e t r a i n i n g o f m i d d l e - l e v e l m anagers and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
e x e c u t i v e s , m o s tly f o r th e p r i v a t e s e c t o r , b u t a l s o f o r p u b l i c a d m in is
t r a t i o n . The 1970s was th e p e r io d when th e V o lta n p o l i t i c o -
b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o i s i e was t r y i n g to s t i m u l a t e p r i v a t e b u s in e s s
e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p and i n i t i a t e th e " V o l t a i z a t i o n " p r o c e s s to be o f f i
c i a l i z e d f o u r y e a r s l a t e r . The IUT may be c o n s id e r e d as th e c h a n n e l
b etw ee n th e u n i v e r s i t y , th e V o lta n s t a t e b u r e a u c r a t s , and b o th l o c a l
and f o r e i g n p r i v a t e b u s i n e s s . The p e c u l i a r i t y of t h i s d e p a rtm e n t i s
i t s g r e a t f l e x i b i l i t y and i t s more p ra g m a tic a p p ro a c h to p e r c e iv e d
p ro b le m s . A p a r t o f th e c u r r ic u lu m c o n s i s t s o f c a s e s t u d i e s of V o lta n
e n t e r p r i s e s , and e a c h s t u d e n t i s r e q u i r e d t o ta k e p r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g i n
l o c a l e n t e r p r i s e s d u r in g th e summer v a c a t i o n f o ll o w i n g th e f i r s t o f th e
two y e a r s o f th e p ro g ram . The c u r r ic u lu m i s in te n d e d t o be and rem a in s
p r a c t i c a l , ta u g h t by n o n -a c a d e m ic te a c h in g s t a f f draw n from p r a c t i
t i o n e r s and b u s in e s s m e n . T h is s t a f f , m o re o v e r, a c t s as a a d v i s o r y com
m i t t e e f o r l o c a l e n t e r p r i s e s , h e l p i n g them o r g a n iz e an d d e v e lo p new
a c t i v i t i e s and p r o s p e c t p o t e n t i a l m a r k e ts , j u s t as th e ’’O f f ic e p o u r l a
P ro m o tio n de l ’E n t r e p r i s e V o lta iq u e " (OPEV) d oes f o r th e s e e n t e r p r i s e s .
The d i f f e r e n c e i s t h a t th e IUT i s more c o n c e rn e d w ith m anagem ent p r o b
le m s, w h ile th e OPEV i s d e s ig n e d to a l s o b r i n g m a t e r i a l s u p p o r t f o r th e
c r e a t i o n a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e e n t e r p r i s e s .
The IUT p ro g ra m , h o w ev er, h as n o t b een immune from th e te m p ta
t i o n o f " a c a d e m iz a tio n ," p a r t i c u l a r l y a s i t s g r a d u a t e s s e e k em ploym ent
i n th e c i v i l s e r v i c e and th e s ta te - o w n e d e n t e r p r i s e s , w here r e c r u i t
m ent i s b a s e d on aca d em ic d ip l o m a s . As lo n g a s th e p r i v a t e s e c t o r
e x p e r ie n c e d some d e v e lo p m e n t, t h a t i s from 1974 t o 1978, i t was e a s y
236
f o r th e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a u t h o r i t i e s o f t h e IUT t o c o n v in c e s t u d e n t s o f
th e w a s te o f tim e and money t h a t lo n g e r t r a i n i n g w ould r e p r e s e n t f o r
them . But w ith th e w o rse n in g econom ic s i t u a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e
1978, t h i s became more d i f f i c u l t . The te a c h i n g s t a f f i t s e l f w ould hav e
l i k e d to s t r e t c h th e program o v e r t h r e e y e a r s b e c a u s e , i t s a y s , o f th e
u n ev en b ack g ro u n d o f th e s t u d e n t body r e c r u i t e d from a l l t r a c k s o f
h ig h s c h o o l . The t e a c h in g lo a d i s one o f th e h e a v i e s t i n th e u n i v e r
s i t y - .-35 h o u rs a week a g a i n s t a mean o f 22 h o u rs a week i n o t h e r d e
p a rtm e n ts (U .O ., I . U . T . , 1975 , p . 6 ) .
The p ro b le m o f c h a n g in g o r d e v e lo p in g th e IUT c u r r ic u lu m i s ,
ho w ev er, n o t o n ly an aca d em ic p ro b le m . I t i s e s s e n t i a l l y a p ro b lem o f
em ploym ent by th e p r i v a t e o r s e m i - p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e s w hich l i k e to
h i r e p r a c t i c a l l y q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n n e l f o r p o s i t i o n s in w hich th e y can
do h i g h e r l e v e l j o b s , b u t w ith o u t t h e n e c e s s a r y acad em ic c r e d e n t i a l s
th e y h av e no b a s i s f o r dem anding p ro m o tio n i n t o t h e s e p o s i t i o n s and
r e c e i v i n g s a l a r i e s a t t a c h e d to them . A lo n g e r t r a i n i n g p e r io d w ould
mean a h i g h e r d e g re e and t h e r e f o r e t h e s e g r a d u a te s w ould c la im th e
r i g h t to h i g h e r p o s i t i o n s and s a l a r i e s w hich w ould n o t b e , h o w ev er, a
g u a r a n te e o f g r e a t e r e f f i c i e n c y .
The f u t u r e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e IUT i s l a r g e l y a f u n c t i o n o f th e
d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e p r i v a t e s e c t o r . The l a s t t h r e e y e a r s h av e n o t b een
v e r y p ro m is in g i n t h i s r e s p e c t s i n c e U pper V o l t a , more th a n m ost d e
v e l o p in g c o u n t r i e s , i s e x p e r i e n c in g a s e v e r e econom ic r e c e s s i o n t h r e a t
e n in g t o p u t th e m ost im p o r ta n t e n t e r p r i s e s (b o th p r i v a t e and p u b l i c )
o u t o f b u s i n e s s . T h is g rim econom ic p e r s p e c t i v e makes th e IUT s t u
d e n ts more s e n s i t i v e t o unem ploym ent p ro b le m s . They c o n s t i t u t e d
237
80 p e r c e n t o f th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e s p o n d e n ts who s p o n ta n e o u s ly m e n tio n ed
t h i s p ro b lem a s one o f t h e i r m ost im p o r ta n t c o n c e r n s . I t i s e v i d e n t
t h a t i n th e p r e s e n t V o lta n so c io e c o n o m ic s i t u a t i o n , h o ld e r s o f aca d em ic
d e g re e s have r e l a t i v e l y more c h a n c e s t o r e t a i n a c i v i l s e r v i c e p o s i t i o n
(w hich w ro n g ly o r r i g h t l y i s su p p o se d t o s u r v i v e a l l econom ic c r i s e s )
th a n do p e o p le who do n o t h o ld acad em ic d e g re e s . E conom ics and Law
s t u d e n t s a r e th u s in a b e t t e r p o s i t i o n th a n th e IUT s t u d e n t s , p a r t i c u
l a r l y a s th e u n i v e r s i t y a d m i n i s t r a t i v e and a ca d em ic a u t h o r i t i e s show
l i t t l e w i l l i n g n e s s t o f i g h t f o r th e s u r v i v a l o f th e I n s t i t u t e . I t i s
q u i t e re m a rk a b le t h a t w h ile th e IUT i s su p p o se d to p r e p a r e p e r s o n n e l fo r
l o c a l e n t e r p r i s e s , a lm o s t no V o lta n c a d r e i s i n t e r e s t e d i n te a c h i n g in
th e I n s t i t u t e w hich i s s t a f f e d m o s tly by F re n c h e x p a t r i a t e s who do n o t
3
s t a y Tong enough to know V o lta n econom ic p ro b le m s . T h is la c k o f i n
t e r e s t i n th e IUT on th e p a r t o f V o lta n a c a d em ics i s a t t r i b u t a b l e to the
lo w er s t a t u s o f t h i s s h o r t c y c l e , n o n -a c a d e m ic e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n .
I t i s a phenomenon w h ich i s n o t p e c u l i a r to Upper V o lta o n ly . A s tu d y
c o n d u c te d by th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l B u reau o f E d u c a tio n i n d i c a t e d t h a t :
T e a c h e rs from s h o r t - c y c l e h i g h e r e d u c a tio n a t t e n d i n g an OECD
sym posium i n G re n o b le c o m p la in e d a b o u t th e low e s te e m i n w hich
th e p u b l i c and i n d u s t r y h e l d t h i s k in d o f e d u c a tio n i n c o m p a ri
so n w ith th e p r e s t i g e th e y a t t a c h e d to th e u n i v e r s i t i e s . T e a c h
e r s i n s h o r t - c y c l e e d u c a tio n have n e i t h e r th e same q u a l i f i c a
t i o n s , th e same w o rk in g c o n d i t i o n s , n o r th e same pay s c a l e s a s
th o s e i n u n i v e r s i t i e s . The c o u r s e i s s h o r t e r , o f c o u r s e , b u t
a l s o o f a lo w e r s t a n d a r d ; no r e s e a r c h i s done and th e s t u d e n t s
th e m s e lv e s f e e l th e y a r e s e c o n d - c l a s s c i t i z e n s , w hence an i n
f e r i o r i t y co m p lex . (Thom as, 1975, p . 66)
The D evelopm ent o f th e S c h o o ls
o f Econom ics and Law
The r e c e n t c r e a t i o n o f a D ep artm en t o f E conom ics i n 1975 and a
D ep artm en t o f Law i n 1977 r e s u l t s from th e b e l i e f on th e p a r t o f V o lta n
238
b u r e a u c r a t s t h a t i n U pper V o l t a , and p o s s i b l y e ls e w h e re i n t h e w o r ld ,
t h e s e d i s c i p l i n e s a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y im p o r ta n t w i t h th e gro w in g d e v e l o p
m ent o f th e t e r t i a r y s e c t o r . The M i n i s t e r o f E d u c a tio n , i n p ro p o s in g
th e c r e a t i o n o f th e s e d e p a r t m e n t s , s t a t e d :
Econom ics i s to d a y somewhat l i k e m a th e m a tic s , a k ey d i s c i p l i n e
f o r d e v e lo p m e n t. I t i s th e s u p p o r t f o r th e t r a i n i n g o f m ost
h ig h e r ra n k in g c a d r e s o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n - f i n a n c i a l i n s p e c t o r s ,
custom s i n s p e c t o r s , econom ic a d v i s o r s , s p e c i a l i s t s o f m anage
m ent and m a r k e tin g , e t c . . . .
The same i s t r u e f o r la w . Law i s th e b a s i s f o r th e t r a i n
in g o f a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , m a g i s t r a t e s , i n s p e c t o r s o f co m m u n icatio n
s e r v i c e s , p o l i c e c o n s t a b l e s , e t c . (R .H .V ., C .M ., A ugust 1975,
p p . 2 -3 )
I t may be s u r p r i s i n g , h o w ev er, t h a t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f O uaga
d ougou, w h ich p r i d e s i t s e l f as c o m p ris in g o n ly " e c o l e s , " t h a t i s , p r o
f e s s i o n a l l y o r i e n t e d d e p a r t m e n t s , e s t a b l i s h e s g e n e r a l econom ic and
l e g a l e d u c a tio n and le a v e s th e p r o f e s s i o n a l s p e c i a l i z a t i o n to l o c a l
n o n - u n i v e r s i t y i n s t i t u t i o n s su ch a s th e " E c o le N a ti o n a le d 'A d m i n i s t r a -
t i o n " (ENA) o r c o l o n i a l n o n - u n i v e r s i t y I n s t i t u t i o n s su c h a s th e " I n s t i -
t u t I n t e r n a t i o n a l d 'A d m i n i s t r a t i o n P u b liq u e " (IIA P ) i n P a r i s , i n s t e a d
o f i n t e g r a t i n g acad em ic and p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g . I n f a c t , F ra n c e
w ould h av e l i k e d , f o r f i n a n c i a l r e a s o n s , to s e e th e new Econom ics and
Law d e p a rtm e n ts ta k e o v e r and r e p l a c e th e ENA. The l a t t e r i s a c c u s e d
o f b e i n g , l i k e m ost s i m i l a r i n s t i t u t i o n s i n A f r i c a , i n e f f e c t i v e by
F ra n c e ( M in is te r e de 1 'E d u c a tio n N a t i o n a l e , Com m ission m i x t e , F e b r u a r y
1978, p p . 4 - 5 ) . F ra n c e w ould h av e a l s o l i k e d to s e e th e IUT i n t e g r a t e
th e econom ics d e p a rtm e n t a s one o f i t s p r a c t i c a l , s h o r t - c y c l e s e c t i o n s .
The V o lta n b u r e a u c r a t s , h o w ev er, s t r o v e to c o n v in c e th e F re n c h d o n o rs
o f th e n e c e s s i t y o f k e e p in g s e p a r a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e ENA
and th e new D e p a rtm e n ts o f Law and E c o n o m ic s. The o f f i c i a l arg u m en t
239
was t h a t th e y w ere to be co m p le m e n ta ry . B u t, i n f a c t , t h e s i t u a t i o n
i s th e e x p r e s s i o n o f an i n t e r n a l power s t r u g g l e w i t h i n th e V o lta n
b u r e a u c ra c y i n w h ich th e young and a g g r e s s i v e u n i v e r s i t y - e d u c a t e d
b u r e a u c r a t s a r e o p p o sin g th e o l d e r , d e f e n s i v e b u r e a u c r a t s from c o l o n i a l
p r o f e s s i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s .
To be s u r e , th e u n i v e r s i t y b u r e a u c r a t s s h a r e th e v ie w o f t h e i r
F re n c h c o u n t e r p a r t s a b o u t th e n e c e s s a r y t a k e - o v e r o r r e p la c e m e n t o f th e
ENA by th e D e p a rtm e n ts o f Law and E co n o m ics. The a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a u
t h o r i t i e s o f th e ENA had e x p r e s s e d t h e i r c o n c e rn and f e a r a t s u c h a
p r o s p e c t and p ro p o s e d a g e n t le m e n 's a g re e m e n t w ith th e u n i v e r s i t y a d
m i n i s t r a t i v e a u t h o r i t i e s f o r th e p e a c e f u l c o e x i s t e n c e o f t h e i r r e s p e c -
4
t i v e i n s t i t u t i o n s . So f a r , th e u n i v e r s i t y - e d u c a t e d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
p e r s o n n e l comes from th e F re n c h c o l o n i a l p r o f e s s i o n a l s c h o o ls s t i l l
o p e r a t i n g i n P a r i s f o r F ra n c o p h o n e A f r i c a , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e IIA P , th e
S c h o o l o f M a g i s t r a t u r e and th e " C e n tr e d 'E tu d e s F i n a n c i e r e s , Econom iques
e t - B a n c a i r e s " (CEFEB) w hich a d m it th e u n i v e r s i t y g r a d u a t e s "on t i t l e , "
t h a t i s , w ith o u t an y f u r t h e r e n t r a n c e e x a m in a tio n o r c o m p e t i t i o n . Only
a f e w - - a p p r o x im a te ly t h r e e p e r y e a r - - L e t t e r s s t u d e n t s from th e U n iv e r
s i t y o f O uagadougou hav e b e e n a d m itte d to th e ENA, g e n e r a l l y a f t e r th e
f i r s t two y e a r s o f th e u n i v e r s i t y and a s e v e r e c o m p e tit io n among th e
num erous c a n d i d a t e s . The arg u m e n t f o r t h i s h ig h s e l e c t i v i t y was t h a t
th e h u m a n itie s d oes n o t c o n s t i t u t e a s sound a p r e p a r a t i o n f o r A d m in is
t r a t i o n a s do Law and E co n o m ics. I t i s e v i d e n t t h a t th e p re s e n c e on
n a t i o n a l s o i l o f th e s e d i s c i p l i n e s may mean i n th e lo n g r u n a r a d i c a l
change i n t h e r e c r u i t m e n t p o l i c y and c u r r ic u lu m o f th e ENA. I f , so
f a r , th e u n i v e r s i t y - e d u c a t e d a d m i n i s t r a t o r s do n o t hav e t o com pete f o r
240
p r o f e s s i o n a l s e l e c t i o n and t r a i n i n g , i t i s b e c a u s e o f th e r e l a t i v e l y
s m a ll number o f c a n d i d a te s i n r e g a r d t o th e p e r c e iv e d n eed s f o r ad m in
i s t r a t o r s - - t h e v e ry p e r c e p t i o n o f th e s e n e e d s b e in g o b s t r u c t e d by th e
fra g m e n te d ways in w h ich th e y a r e d e a l t w ith by i n d i v i d u a l m i n i s t e r i a l
d e p a r t m e n t s . Were th e number o f a p p l i c a n t s f o r h i g h e r l e v e l a d m in is
t r a t i v e jo b s to become l a r g e r o r , m ore p r e c i s e l y , to be p e r c e iv e d a s
s u c h , r e c r u i t m e n t o f o t h e r , n o n - u n i v e r s i t y e d u c a te d c a n d i d a te s m ig h t
d i e o f f , th u s s u p p r e s s i n g w hat had come t o be c o n s id e r e d by i t s b e n e
f i c i a r i e s a s a r i g h t , w h ile i n i t i a l l y i t was c o n s id e r e d a s a f a v o r - - t h e
upw ard m o b i l i t y o f lo w er and m id d le l e v e l c i v i l s e r v a n t s from o u t s i d e o f
th e u n i v e r s i t y s y s te m . Even a ssu m in g t h a t a c o m p e tit io n m ig h t be open
t o u n i v e r s i t y an d n o n - u n i v e r s i t y e d u c a te d c a n d i d a t e s , i t i s l i k e l y t h a t
t h e l a t t e r w ould be i n a d is a d v a n ta g e d p o s i t i o n inasm u ch a s th e t e s t s
w ould p r o b a b ly n o t be b a s e d on p r a c t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e b u t b o o k is h t h e o
r e t i c a l k n o w led g e. The m a s s iv e e n t r y o f b a c h e l o r 's d e g re e h o ld e r s i n t o
th e h i g h e r l e v e l s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l s c h o o ls w ould b r i n g a b o u t ch an g es in
th e r e q u ir e m e n ts f o r e n t r y to lo w er l e v e l s , a lo n g th e l i n e s o f u n i v e r
s i t y s t r a t i f i c a t i o n .
The u n i v e r s i t y b u r e a u c r a t s have b a c k e d - o f f f o r th e tim e b e i n g .
The i n s t i t u t i o n a l s y s te m on w hich th e ENA r e l i e s i s p r e s e n t l y to o s o l i d
t o p u l l down. B ut one n eed s n o t be a p ro p h e t t o f o r e s e e th e com ing
b a t t l e f o r th e ta k e - o v e r o f t h i s p r o f e s s i o n a l c i t a d e l by th e u n i v e r s i t y
T h is m ig h t b e a m a t t e r o f l i f e o r d e a t h f o r th e D e p a rtm e n ts o f Law and
E c o n o m ic s. As we s h a l l s e e i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n o f th e p r e s e n t s tu d y ,
p la n n e r s f o r e c a s t im p en d in g unem ploym ent among g r a d u a t e s from th e s e
d e p a r tm e n ts , and t h i s h a s a d i r e c t c o r r e l a t i o n w ith th e d o u b le s y ste m
241
o f r e c r u i t m e n t o f h i g h e r l e v e l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p e r s o n n e l .
The D evelopm ent o f th e H ig h e r
P o l y t e c h n i c a l I n s t i t u t e (ISP)
The d r a m a tic d ro u g h t w hich h i t th e S a h e l ia n r e g i o n b etw ee n 1969
and 1973 came a s a re m in d e r to th e V o lta n b u r e a u c r a t s o f t h e i r b a s i c
dep en d e n ce on a r u r a l s e c t o r w h ich f e e d s a l l th e p o p u l a t i o n , p r o v id e s
60 p e r c e n t o f th e g r o s s n a t i o n a l p r o d u c t, and em ploys 92 p e r c e n t o f th e
a c t i v e p o p u l a t i o n . I t made p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p a r e n t th e s i t u a t i o n o f
d e r e l i c t i o n to w h ich th e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n had d e c l i n e d s i n c e in d e p e n
d en ce and th e n e g a t i v e e f f e c t s o f th e f o r e i g n a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s e a r c h
i n s t i t u t e s and o r g a n i z a t i o n s , m o s tly p re o c c u p ie d w ith d e v e lo p in g c a sh
c ro p s and s e l l i n g t h e i r a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c ts f o r th e s h a r e d b e n e f i t
o f th e V o lta n b u r e a u c r a c y and th e F re n c h b o u r g e o i s i e . A v i s i b l e s i g n
o f th e n e g l e c t o f th e r u r a l s e c t o r by th e s t a t e b u r e a u c r a t s was th e
r e l a t i v e l y i n s u f f i c i e n t number o f q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n n e l , p a r t i c u l a r l y a t
th e e n g i n e e r and t e c h n i c i a n l e v e l s , t o draw up a g r i c u l t u r a l d ev elo p m en t
p l a n s , c o n d u c t e x p e r im e n ts , and o r g a n iz e th e p e a s a n t s so t h a t th e y
c o u ld im prove t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n . In 1972, U pper V o lta had o n ly 13 a g r i
c u l t u r a l e n g i n e e r s , 9 a g r i c u l t u r a l t e c h n i c i a n s , and 5 7 " c o n d u c te u r s des
T rav a u x a g r i c o l e s 1 1 ( i . e . , l o w - l e v e l f i e l d p r a c t i t i o n e r s ) . I n 1977
t h e r e w e re , r e s p e c t i v e l y , 14 a g r i c u l t u r a l e n g i n e e r s , 7 t e c h n i c i a n s ,
and 54 " c o n d u c te u r s d es T rav a u x a g r i c o l e s " ( M in is te r e du P la n e t du
D evelopm ent R u r a l , D .S .A ., 1972, 1 9 7 7 ). T h is s i t u a t i o n r e s u l t e d in
p a r t fro m th e la c k of m o t i v a t i o n o f s t u d e n t s to w ard t h e s e jo b s and
m o s tly b e c a u s e o f th e F re n c h e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y n o t a d m i t t i n g f o r e i g n
( A f r ic a n ) s t u d e n t s i n t o F re n c h a g r i - b u s i n e s s s c h o o l s . The e n t r a n c e to
242
th e s e s c h o o ls was s u b j e c t e d t o a v e ry s e l e c t i v e c o m p e t i t i o n . L ess
s e l e c t i v e i n s t i t u t i o n s e x i s t ( f o r exam p le, th e " E c o le d 'A g r i c u l t u r e de
B e a u v a i s " ) , b u t th e y have b e e n l o c a l and n o n - p r e s t i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s
g r a n t i n g d ip lo m a s w ith o u t s i g n i f i c a n t m a rk e t v a l u e f o r t h e i r h o l d e r s .
The c u r r ic u lu m o f f e r e d by t h e more p r e s t i g i o u s a g r i c u l t u r a l s c h o o l s ,
su c h a s th e " X n s t i t u t N a t i o n a l d ' A gronom ie" o f P a r i s and o t h e r u n i v e r
s i t y a g r i c u l t u r a l d e p a r tm e n ts was o n ly t a n g e n t i a l l y r e l e v a n t f o r a d e -
i I
v e l o p i n g , su b s i s t e n c e - f a r m i n g o r i e n t e d c o u n tr y l i k e U pper V o l t a . Of
c o u r s e , t h e r e was a s o - c a l l e d s p e c i a l c o u r s e on " t r o p i c a l " a g r i c u l t u r e ,
b u t i t was m o s tly d e s ig n e d to b r i e f F re n c h e x p a t r i a t e s g o in g to do
t h e o r e t i c a l s t u d i e s i n d e v e lo p in g b an an a c o u n t r i e s , n o t to s o lv e p r a c
t i c a l pro b lem s o f s u b s i s t e n c e f a r m in g . A l l th e s e r e a s o n s e x p l a i n th e
r a t h e r h a s t y c r e a t i o n i n 1973 o f an a g r i c u l t u r a l d e p a rtm e n t a t th e
U n i v e r s i t y o f O u a g a d o u g o u --th e " I n s t i t u t S u p e r ie u r P o ly te c h n iq u e " (IS P )
d e s ig n e d t o t r a i n s p e c i a l i s t s in f a r m in g , c a t t l e b r e e d i n g , a n d , l a t e r
(1 9 7 5 ), i n r u r a l d e v e lo p m e n t e n g i n e e r i n g .
F ra n c e w ould have l i k e d t o s e e U pper V o lta s e n d i t s s t u d e n t s
to N ig e r w here i t in te n d e d t o open an a g r i c u l t u r a l d e p a r tm e n t th e same
y e a r (1 9 7 3 ), b u t th e V o lta n b u r e a u c r a t s had s e v e r a l b ad e x p e r ie n c e s
w ith t h e o r e t i c a l l y r e g i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s w h ich d id n o t t r a i n th e q u a n
t i t y o f p e r s o n n e l n e e d e d and w h ich w ere p ro n e t o d is m is s " f o r e i g n "
s t u d e n t s on th e s l i g h t e s t p r e t e x t . The E c o le I n t e r - E t a t s de l 'E q u i p e -
ment R u r a l (E IE R ), c r e a t e d i n 1968 by th e 13 OCAM member c o u n t r i e s , and
s e a t e d i n O uagadougou b e c a u s e o f i t s l i m i t e d e n r o ll m e n t p o s s i b i l i t i e s
to o k a r e l a t i v e l y s m a ll num ber o f s t u d e n t s p e r c o u n tr y (tw o i n 1970,
f i v e s i n c e 1975) a f t e r a r a t h e r s e l e c t i v e c o m p e tit io n r e m i n i s c e n t o f
243
i t s F re n c h o r i g i n s . An i n v e s t i g a t i o n c o n d u c te d by th e U n i v e r s i t y in
1974 and a d d r e s s i n g th e M i n i s t r y o f R u ra l D ev elo p m en t, th e ORDs, and
o t h e r s e r v i c e s u s in g a g r i c u l t u r a l p e r s o n n e l , p o in t e d o u t a n eed f o r
183 a g r i c u l t u r a l e n g in e e r s f o r th e n e x t d e c a d e (U.O. CR, 1975) .
C o n f l i c t s a r o s e b etw ee n th e F re n c h governm ent an d th e V o lta n
b u r e a u c r a t s a s t o th e ty p e o f c u r r ic u lu m t o im plem ent and th e k in d o f
p e r s o n n e l t o t r a i n . W hile F ra n c e was a d v o c a tin g a s h o r t , t w o - t o - t h r e e
y e a r p r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g o f f i e l d t e c h n i c i a n s , V o lta n a c a d em ics and b u
r e a u c r a t s o f th e M i n i s t r y o f R u ra l D evelopm ent p r o g r e s s i v e l y i n s i s t e d
on and o b ta in e d a lo n g , f o u r , th e n f i v e y e a r t r a i n i n g pro g ram f o r " c o n
c e p t i o n " e n g i n e e r s , w ith o u t r e j e c t i n g th e F re n c h fo rm u la w hich w ould
be r e s e r v e d f o r l e s s a b l e s t u d e n t s . The arg u m e n ts o f th e F re n c h fund
d o n o rs w ere t h a t i t was n e c e s s a r y t o p r o v id e th e p e a s a n ts w ith q u a l i
f i e d e x t e n s i o n a g e n ts l i v i n g c l o s e t o th e d a y - to - d a y p ro b lem s w ith th e
p e a s a n ts and a b l e to b r i n g a b o u t p r o g r e s s i v e im provem ents i n th e a g r i
c u l t u r a l t e c h n i q u e s . T h is k in d o f p e r s o n n e l , th e arg u m en t w ent o n , was
n eed e d i n r e l a t i v e l y la r g e q u a n t i t y and a t th e b e s t and lo w e s t p o s s i b l e
c o s t . The F re n c h p r o j e c t , t h e arg u m e n t c o n c lu d e d , w ould m eet th e r e
q u ir e m e n ts o f q u a n t i t y , q u a l i t y , and p r i c e . The b u r e a u c r a t s o f th e
M i n i s t r y o f R u r a l D evelopm ent s u s p e c te d th e F re n c h e x p e r t s w ould t r y
to m a in ta i n t h e i r t e c h n i c a l d o m in a tio n o v e r th e p ro p o s e d a g r i c u l t u r a l
t r a i n i n g p ro g ram , th ro u g h t h e i r h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n a l c r e d e n t i a l s , a t a
moment when th e y ( th e V o lta n s ) w ere p r e p a r i n g to e x te n d t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s
( c r e a t i o n o f th e " A u to r ite / de 1 'Amenagement d es V a lle e s de l a V o lta "
(A W ), i n 1974, to prom ote th e r u r a l d ev elo p m en t o f r i c h la n d s p r e
v i o u s l y u n e x p l o i t a b l e due to o n c h o c e r c o s is w hich h a s b een r e c e n t l y
244
e r a d i c a t e d ; " P r o j e t de D eveloppem ent A g r ic o le de l a B o u g o u rib a " ;
" P r o j e t de D eveloppem ent A g r ic o le de 1 'O u e s t- V o lta " i n 1976; " P r o j e t
du Fonds de D eveloppem ent R u r a l " ; w ith o u t c o u n tin g th e a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g
ORDs to d e v e lo p q u a n t i t a t i v e l y and q u a l i t a t i v e l y ) .
To be s u r e , th e p o s i t i o n o f th e M i n i s t r y o f R u r a l D e v e lo p m e n t's
b u r e a u c r a t s f l u c t u a t e d o v e r th e y e a r s a s t o th e ty p e o f program s th e y
w an ted t o im p le m e n t. W hile th e y r e j e c t e d th e F re n c h fo rm u la b e c a u s e ,
th e y w ere w o rk in g w ith th e UNDP on a s i m i l a r p r o j e c t a t M a to u rk o u , th e y
i n i t i a l l y a c c e p te d a f o u r - y e a r program p ro p o s e d by u n i v e r s i t y a c a d e m ic s,
w ith th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f e x te n d in g i t t o f i v e y e a r s , i n o r d e r t o a s s u r e
th e p ro m o tio n o f g r a d u a t e s t o h ig h e r p o s i t i o n s in th e h i e r a r c h y o f th e
r u r a l d e v e lo p m e n t p r o f e s s i o n . The g r a d u a te s w ith f o u r y e a r s o f t r a i n
in g w ere in te n d e d , a c c o r d in g t o th e r u r a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f f i c i a l s , to f i l l
w hat th e y c a l l e d a "g a p " b e tw e e n th e " c o n c e p tio n " e n g in e e r s t r a i n e d in
f i v e y e a r s and a ssu m in g a d m i n i s t r a t i v e f u n c t i o n s i n o f f i c e s , and th e
r u r a l d e v elo p m en t t e c h n i c i a n s t r a i n e d in t h r e e y e a r s and assu m in g t e c h
n i c a l f u n c t i o n s on th e f i e l d (U.O. com pte R endu, 1975, p p . 3 - 4 ) . But
p r o g r e s s i v e l y th e b u r e a u c r a t s o f th e M i n i s t r y o f R u r a l D evelopm ent came
to s e e k a f i v e y e a r s o f t r a i n i n g a s a r e s u l t o f th e grow ing c a r e e r
o p p o r t u n i t i e s a t t a c h e d to th e r u r a l d e v e lo p m e n t p r o j e c t s m e n tio n e d
a b o v e . I n 1977 th e y e v a l u a te d th e n eed f o r r u r a l d e v e lo p m e n t e n g in e e r s
a t " t h i r t y p e r y e a r and p e r ORD f o r th e n e x t t e n y e a r s " and a d m itte d
t h a t "more and more a g r i c u l t u r a l e n g in e e r s t r a i n e d i n f i v e y e a r s m ust
be s e n t to th e f i e l d " (U .O ., U n i v e r s i t y A ssem b ly , 1977, p . 1 7 ) .
O f f i c i a l s o f th e M i n i s t r y o f C i v i l S e r v ic e had w arned t h a t f o u r
y e a r s o f t r a i n i n g w ould c r e a t e a p ro b lem f o r i t s b e n e f i c i a r i e s i n s o f a r
245 :
a s t h i s ty p e o f t r a i n i n g w ould n o t e n t i t l e i t s b e n e f i c i a r i e s t o a h i e r
a r c h i c a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o t h e r th a n A 2 --lo w e r th a n th e h i g h e r r a n k in g
c a t e g o r y A1 r e s e r v e d f o r t h e to p c i v i l s e r v a n t s . The s t u d e n t s them
s e l v e s w ere n o t w i l l i n g to be l i m i t e d t o s h o r t - n o n - p r e s t i g i o u s t r a i n
i n g , a s th e y had a l r e a d y made c l e a r w ith th e "CEG" te a c h e r t r a i n i n g ,
and a s th e y w ould l a t e r c o n firm by o p p o sin g th e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a s h o r t
c y c l e i n 1980, when th e s t a t e b u r e a u c r a t s deemed s u f f i c i e n t th e number
o f h i g h e r l e v e l e n g i n e e r s in t r a i n i n g . As f o r th e a c a d e m ic s , i t was i n
t h e i r i n t e r e s t s to c la im a " f u l l " u n i v e r s i t y t r a i n i n g program i n s o f a r
a s t h i s w odld i n c r e a s e t h e i r jo b p e r s p e c t i v e s and en h an c e t h e i r s o c i a l
p r e s t i g e . B ut th e y th e m s e lv e s seemed somewhat e m b a rra s s e d w ith th e
p r o c e d u r e s w hich c o n s i s t e d o f f i r s t s e t t i n g th e d u r a t i o n o f th e t r a i n i n g
b e f o r e d e s ig n i n g th e t r a i n i n g program i t s e l f . One f a c u l t y member a s k e d
" w h e th e r i n e d u c a t i o n a l sy ste m s o t h e r th a n F re n c h , a g r i c u l t u r a l e n g i
n e e r s t r a i n e d i n f o u r y e a r s p ro v e d t o b e l e s s e f f e c t i v e th a n th o s e
t r a i n e d i n f i v e y e a r s ? " The R e c to r o f th e u n i v e r s i t y h i m s e l f e x p r e s s e d
h i s d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith th e i r r a t i o n a l and w h im s ic a l c h a r a c t e r o f th e
p r o c e d u r e . He n o te s t h a t " a t th e b e g in n in g he had p ro p o se d a d o u b le -
b a r r e l e d t r a i n i n g p ro g ra m --o n e o f t h r e e y e a r s a f t e r th e h ig h s c h o o l
l e a v in g c e r t i f i c a t e , and a n o t h e r o f f i v e y e a r s . The e m p lo y e rs [ o f
a g r i c u l t u r a l e n g i n e e r s ] had p r e f e r r e d th e t h r e e - y e a r t r a i n i n g p ro g ra m .
One y e a r l a t e r th e y a s k e d f o r f o u r y e a r s ' t r a i n i n g ( t h a t i s , one y e a r
m o re ). Now, th e y w ant f i v e - y e a r t r a i n i n g p ro g ra m s . Why n o t s i x - y e a r
t r a i n i n g ? " (U.O. U n i v e r s i t y A ssem b ly , 1977, p . 1 7 ) . Why su c h a lo n g
t r a i n i n g program i n s t e a d o f a s h o r t e r one? The fo rm e r d i r e c t o r o f th e
IS P , a F re n c h e x p a t r i a t e , and t h e new d i r e c t o r , a n a t i o n a l , won th e
246
c a s e o v e r t h e i r c o n t e s t i n g c o l le a g u e s by a r g u in g t h a t t h e f i v e y e a r
t r a i n i n g pro g ram th e y w ere a d v o c a tin g was a c t u a l l y a u n i v e r s a l trend?:1
M. B r o u s s a l r e f e r s t o a docum ent i n d i c a t i n g t h a t , in E u ro p e ,
th e e n g in e e r s a r e more and more t r a i n e d in f i v e y e a r s . . . .
M. K abre c o n firm s th e E u ro p ea n te n d e n c y to t r a i n e n g in e e r s
i n f i v e y e a r s a f t e r th e b a c c a l a u r i a t w ith th e B e lg ia n exam ple
w h ich may be a w o rld te n d e n c y (exam ple o f th e U .S .A .)?
(U.O. U n i v e r s i t y A ssem b ly , 1977, p . 18)
The r u l i n g f a c t i o n o f b u r e a u c r a t s d id n o t i n t e r v e n e to g iv e
d i r e c t i v e s and p u t a n end to th e h e s i t a t i o n o f th e o f f i c i a l s and a c a
dem ics from d e p a rtm e n ts em p lo y in g a g r i c u l t u r a l e n g i n e e r s . The r u l i n g
f a c t i o n was w i l l i n g t o r e l y on t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l f a c t i o n ' s t e c h n i c a l
com petence to s o lv e a s o c i a l p ro b lem d e f in e d i n t e c h n i c a l te rm s , and
anyway th e r u l i n g f a c t i o n was bu sy p r e p a r i n g f o r th e fo rth c o m in g e l e c
t o r a l c o n t e s t . The o n ly p r e o c c u p a tio n shown by th e M i n i s t e r o f A g r i c u l
t u r e was t o make s u r e t h a t th e ISP w ould n o t e n c ro a c h on a g r i c u l t u r a l
r e s e a r c h c o n s id e r e d by F re n c h i n s t i t u t e s a s t h e i r r e s e r v e d f i e l d . The
m in u te s o f th e M i n i s t e r s ' C o u n c il w h ich d e c id e d th e c r e a t i o n o f th e ISP
re a d s a s f o ll o w s :
The M i n i s t e r o f A g r i c u l t u r e i n t e r v e n e s to a s k w h e th e r th e r e
s e a r c h r o l e o f t h i s i n s t i t u t e w ould c o v e r r e s e a r c h e s i n a g r i
c u l t u r e .
The M i n i s t e r o f E d u c a tio n and C u lt u r e r e p l i e s n e g a t i v e l y .
The p ro p o se d d e c r e e i s a d o p te d by th e C o u n c il. (RHV, CM, PV,
November 1973, p . 8)
The h e s i t a t i o n and u n c e r t a i n t y o f r u r a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f f i c i a l s
and a ca d em ics had l e d them t o p ro p o s e and im plem ent t r a i n i n g in t h e i r
own im age and c a p a b i l i t i e s - - f o r th e b u r e a u c r a t i c managem ent o f th e
r u r a l w o r ld , e m p h a s iz in g th e b u s in e s s a s p e c t s o f th e p r o d u c ti o n w h ich
th e e x i s t i n g r u r a l d e v e lo p m e n t i n s t i t u t e s and ORD's h av e a l s o been
e m p h a s iz in g .
247
The a c a d e m ic s , a l l h o ld e r s o f g e n e r a l s c i e n t i f i c e d u c a tio n
d e g r e e s , i n s i s t e d on g i v i n g a " s o l i d s c i e n t i f i c b a s i s " to th e p ro g ram .
T h u s, th e f i r s t two y e a r s a r e e n t i r e l y d e v o te d t o g e n e r a l s c i e n t i f i c
e d u c a t i o n , w i t h th e e x c e p tio n o f some i n i t i a t i o n i n t o r u r a l law and
econom ics and to p r a c t i c a l E n g l is h i n t r o d u c e d i n th e se c o n d y e a r (52
h o u rs o u t o f a t o t a l o f 759 h o u rs o f c o u r s e s ) . The s p e c i a l i z e d t h e o
r e t i c a l t r a i n i n g p r o g r e s s i v e l y ta k e s p la c e i n th e f o llo w in g two y e a r s ,
w ith a f i f t h y e a r d e v o te d t o i n d i v i d u a l r e s e a r c h r e s u l t i n g i n th e m as
t e r ' s t h e s i s w h ich c o n c lu d e s th e p ro g ram . The p r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g ,
s p o n so re d by th e r u r a l d e v e lo p m e n t i n s t i t u t e s and ORD's, h as b een
s c h e d u le d and d e f in e d as f o ll o w s :
- i n th e f i r s t y e a r , t h e s t u d e n t i s r e q u i r e d t o do one m onth o f
f i e l d work to l e a r n a b o u t th e e n v iro n m e n t and th e c o n s t r a i n t s
to i t s im provem ent;
- i n th e s e c o n d y e a r , he i s r e q u i r e d to c o m p le te a n o t h e r m onth
o f p r a c t i c a l s tu d y o f f a c t o r s l i n k e d t o p r o d u c ti o n ( d i s t r i b u
t i o n , c o m m e r c i a liz a ti o n , c r e d i t s y s te m s , r e s e a r c h , e t c . ) ;
- i n t h e t h i r d y e a r , th e s t u d e n t is r e q u i r e d to ta k e two m onths
o f i n t e r n s h i p a t one o r a n o t h e r r u r a l d e v e lo p m e n t i n s t i t u t e ;
- d u r in g th e f o u r t h y e a r , th e s t u d e n t i s r e q u i r e d to c o m p le te a
s ix -m o n th i n t e r n s h i p a t one o f th e s e r u r a l d ev elo p m en t i n s t i
t u t e s o r c e n t e r s to l e a r n a b o u t i t s m ethods f o r im p ro v in g th e
f
e n v iro n m e n t and th e sy ste m s o f p r o d u c ti o n (U.O. R eu n io n I n t e r
m in is t e r i e l l e , 1976, p . 3 ) .
T h e re i s a n e x p e r im e n ta l s t a t i o n a t K am boinse, f i v e m ile s from
th e u n i v e r s i t y , e n co m p assin g 200 h e c t a r e s w here s t u d e n t s go d u r in g
24’8
t h e i r i n t e r n s h i p . Once a week th e s e s t u d e n t s go t o v i s i t a g r i c u l t u r a l
s i t e s t o f a m i l i a r i z e th e m s e lv e s w ith th e l o c a l p ro b lem s to o b t a i n d a t a
w hich th e y u se i n t h e i r p r a c t i c a l w orkshop s e s s i o n s , s i n c e th e o v e r
w helm ing m a j o r i t y o f th e f a c u l t y , m o s tly F re n c h e x p a t r i a t e s , do n o t
know t h e s e p ro b le m s .
The s h o r ta g e o f n a t i o n a l t e a c h in g p e r s o n n e l f o r th e p r a c t i c a l
t r a i n i n g ( a g r i c u l t u r a l e n g i n e e r in g ) i s n o te w o r th y . So f a r , th e n a
t i o n a l f a c u l t y members a r e " s p e c i a l i s t s " i n g e n e r a l s c i e n t i f i c e d u c a
t i o n , w h ile F re n c h and A m erican e x p a t r i a t e s a r e c h a rg e d w ith a g r i c u l
t u r a l and zoo t e c h n i c a l t e a c h i n g and p r a c t i c a l f i e l d t r a i n i n g . The
r e a s o n f o r t h i s s i t u a t i o n , th e V o lta n ac a d e m ic s in t e r v ie w e d e x p l a i n ,
i s t h a t n a t i o n a l a g r i c u l t u r a l e n g in e e r s a r e n o t w i l l i n g to j o i n th e
u n i v e r s i t y b e c a u s e o f th e s o c io e c o n o m ic a d v a n ta g e s th e y g e t a t th e
ORDs and o t h e r r u r a l d e v e lo p m e n t p r o j e c t s , w hich a r e f a r b e t t e r th a n
th o s e th e y w ould g e t a t th e u n i v e r s i t y . W hile t h i s arg u m e n t i s p a r t l y
t r u e , i t does n o t , h o w ev er, t e l l t h e w hole s t o r y . Some a g r i c u l t u r a l
e n g in e e r s o f th e m i n i s t r y o f r u r a l d e v e lo p m e n t s a y t h a t th e y w ould
g l a d l y j o i n th e u n i v e r s i t y te a c h i n g s t a f f w ere i t n o t f o r th e aca d em ic
r e q u ir e m e n ts (a d ip lo m a o f " e n g i n e e r - d o c t o r " o r " d o c t o r - e n g i n e e r " )
e m p h a siz in g t h e o r e t i c a l e x p e r t i s e o v e r t e c h n i c a l c o m p e te n c e . A g r i c u l
t u r a l e n g in e e r s j o i n i n g th e u n i v e r s i t y f a c u l t y w ith o u t a p p r o p r i a t e
a ca d em ic c r e d e n t i a l s h a v e , in d e e d , no m a t e r i a l i n c e n t i v e and a r e e x
p o sed to th e f r u s t r a t i o n com ing from a c a d e m ic s ' d i s d a i n f o r p e r s o n n e l
n o t h o ld i n g th e s e c r e d e n t i a l s . B u t, f o r th e tim e b e i n g , nobody seems
t o be w i l l i n g to do a n y th in g a b o u t t h i s n o n s e n s i c a l s i t u a t i o n w h ich i s
j e o p a r d i z i n g th e e n t i r e a g r i c u l t u r a l t r a i n i n g p r o j e c t by l e a v i n g i t s
249
c o re i n th e hands o f e x p a t r i a t e s .
T h u s, th e t e c h n i c a l know ledge g iv e n to th e s t u d e n t s a b o u t th e
r u r a l w o rld i s s u b o r d in a t e d to th e w o rk in g o b j e c t i v e s and c o n d i t i o n s
o f th e e x i s t i n g r u r a l d e v e lo p m e n t i n s t i t u t e s and a g e n c i e s - - - o b j e c t i v e s
and c o n d i t i o n s w h ich hav e n o t a d a p te d th e m s e lv e s t o th e d r a m a tic
ch an g e s o f th e r u r a l w o rld w h ic h s p u r r e d th e c r e a t i o n o f th e IS P . A
s u r v e y o f th e V o lta n econom ic s i t u a t i o n c o n d u c te d j o i n t l y by F re n c h
c o o p e r a t i o n e x p e r t s and V o lta n p la n n e r s and e c o n o m is ts , i n 1979, s t a t e d :
I t i s [ t h e n ] c o t t o n w hich so f a r b e n e f i t e d th e m ost from e f f o r t s
made to im prove th e a g r i c u l t u r a l m e th o d s . H ow ever, th e draw backs
o f th e s e e f f o r t s on th e g ro w in g o f c e r e a l s m ust be n o te d .
I n 1976, c o t t o n s t i l l r e c e i v e d 61% o f th e t o t a l q u a n t i t y o f
f e r t i l i z e r u se d i n U pper V o l t a . T h is f i g u r e i s n o t e x p e c te d to
d e e p s i g n i f i c a n t l y inasm uch as th e u s e o f f e r t i l i z e r s f o r o t h e r
c ro p s ru n s i n t o th e p ro b lem s o f a g r i c u l t u r a l c r e d i t s and s t a f f
i n g . P h y t o s a n i t a t i o n i s d e v e lo p in g b u t re m a in s a lm o s t e n t i r e l y
d e v o te d t o th e g ro w in g o f c o t t o n . The u s e o f m odern a g r i c u l t u r a l
m a t e r i a l i s s p r e a d i n g , b u t w ith n o t a b l e r e g i o n a l d i s p a r i t i e s . In
e f f e c t , th e a c q u i s i t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r a l m a c h in e ry im p lie s r e g u l a r
m o n e ta ry incom es ( c r e d i t s ) , a phenomenon r a t h e r r a r e i n th e
N o r th e r n r e g io n s w here incom es from a g r i c u l t u r e a r e u n c e r t a i n .
(R .H .V . M i n i s t e r e de l a c o o p e r a t i o n , 1979, p . 31)
One v i s i b l e c h a n g e , h o w ev er, i s t h a t th e num ber o f r u r a l d e v e lo p m e n t
b u r e a u c r a t s jum ped from 14 i n 1977 to 80 i n 1981, w i t h ISP c o n t r i b u t i n g
80 p e r c e n t o f t h i s i n c r e a s e .
The D evelopm ent o f th e A f r i c a n I n s t i t u t e
f o r F ilm M aking (INAFEC)
The " I n s t i t u t A f r i c a i n d 'E d u c a t i o n C in 4 m a to g ra p h iq u e u (INAFEC)
was c r e a t e d i n 1977 by UNESCO, w h ich h eed e d c o m p la in ts v o ic e d by A f r ic a r
f i l m m akers who m eet e v e ry o t h e r y e a r a t O uagadougou f o r a f i l m f e s t i
v a l c a l l e d FESPACO. The f i l m m akers h ad r e q u e s t e d from t h e i r g o v e r n
m ents th e c r e a t i o n o f a c e n t e r f o r th e t r a i n i n g o f s p e c i a l i s t s i n th e
250
h a n d lin g o f c a m e ra s , p r o j e c t o r s , and a l l th e l o g i s t i c a l m a t e r i a l c a p a b le
to h e lp them im prove th e q u a l i t y o f th e m ovies th e y w ere t r y i n g to make
i n A f r i c a . To be s u r e , m ost o f th e s o - c a l l e d A f r i c a n m o v ie-m ak ers a r e
a lm o s t i l l i t e r a t e , good n e i t h e r in fra m in g s c e n a r i o s and e x p r e s s in g
i d e a s , n o r i n t a k i n g good p i c t u r e s , so t h a t th e q u a l i t y o f th e r e a l i z a
t i o n s p r e s e n t e d a t th e FESPACO i s u s u a l l y v e r y p o o r .
The INAFEC was v iew ed by th e s e a p p r e n t i c e m o v ie-m ak ers a s a
means to prom ote th e m s e lv e s th ro u g h e i t h e r th e im proved q u a l i t y o f
t h e i r p r o d u c tio n s o r th e l i f t i n g o f t h e i r e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l s - - w h i c h
now g iv e s them an i n f e r i o r i t y com plex s i n c e th e A f r i c a n e d u c a te d b u
r e a u c r a t s do n o t h id e t h e i r d i s d a i n f o r th e low fo rm a l e d u c a t i o n a l
l e v e l deemed r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e p o o r q u a l i t y o f t h e i r w ork.
UNESCO i s fu n d in g th e c o n s t r u c t i o n and p a r t o f th e c u r r e n t e x
p e n d i t u r e s o f th e I n s t i t u t e , p r i m a r i l y as a r e s u l t o f th e la c k o f r e a l
i n t e r e s t A f r i c a n b u r e a u c r a t s a r e show ing f o r w h a te v e r a c t i v i t y w hich
d o es n o t b e a r im m ed iate s u b s t a n t i a l m o n e tary r e t u r n s - - e x c e p t , o f c o u rs e ,
i n t h e i r own e x t e n s i o n . C o n tr a r y t o t h e i r W este rn c o u n t e r p a r t s who
a r e m aking b u s in e s s an d r e l a t i v e l y b ig p r o f i t s o u t o f c u l t u r a l a c t i v i
t i e s , A f r ic a n a r t i s t s , in d e e d , a r e c o n s id e r e d a s p a r a s i t e s , consum ing
r a t h e r th a n p ro d u c in g r e s o u r c e 's . H ence, th e s i t u a t i o n o f a b s o l u t e
d e r e l i c t i o n i n w h ich m ost d e p a rtm e n ts o f c u l t u r e a r e ig n o r e d by A f r ic a n
b u r e a u c r a t s . Where a t t e n t i o n i s g iv e n to th e s e d e p a r t m e n t s , a s , f o r
ex am p le, i n G u in e a , Togo, and S e n e g a l, i t i s m o s tly in c o u n t r i e s w here
th e s o - c a l l e d c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s a r e u sed a s a means o f p ro p a g a n d a ,
mass m o b i l i z a t i o n a t th e s e r v i c e o f a s t r o n g s i n g l e - p a r t y s y s te m , o r
w here t h e h e a d o f s t a t e t r i e s to s u b ju g a t e a w hole c o n t i n e n t to h i s
251
c u l t u r a l f a n t a s i e s , and w here th e s e p ro p a g a n d a a c t i v i t i e s h av e g iv e n
r i s e to a r e l a t i v e l y s t r o n g c o rp s o f c u l t u r e b u r e a u c r a t s a ro u n d th e
s o - c a l l e d "M aisons des J e u n e s e t de l a C u lt u r e " o r "T ro u p es A r t i s t i q u e s
N a t i o n a l e s ." The m ost g l a r i n g exam ple o f th e d e r e l i c t s i t u a t i o n o f
c u l t u r a l d e p a rtm e n ts and o r g a n i z a t i o n s i s g iv e n by th e A f r i c a n C u l t u r a l
I n s t i t u t e (ICA) c r e a t e d i n 1972 and s e a t e d a t D a k a r, w ith a r e g i o n a l
t r a i n i n g c e n t e r f o r c u l t u r a l a c t i o n (CRAC) e s t a b l i s h e d a t Lome i n Togo.
T h is i n s t i t u t e and i t s s p e c i a l i z e d c e n t e r hav e b e e n , s i n c e t h e i r c r e -
t i o n , s t r u g g l i n g f o r t h e i r s u r v i v a l b e c a u se o f n o n -p ay m en t by th e
i n d i v i d u a l g o v ern m en ts in v o lv e d o f t h e i r f i n a n c i a l o b l i g a t i o n s . The
v e r y s u r v i v a l o f th e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s dep en d s on th e b u r e a u c r a t s who ru n
them and s e e i n them a b r e a k th r o u g h i n t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l c a r e e r s i n
b e t t e r - o f f c u l t u r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , su ch a s UNESCO, w hich a r e e x e r t i n g
p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e on A f r i c a n g o v ern m en ts t o g e t them to com ply w ith
t h e i r " i n t e r n a t i o n a l o b l i g a t i o n s . "
The c u r r ic u lu m o f th e INAFEC i s n o t y e t c l e a r l y s e t , p a r t i c u
l a r l y b e c a u se o f a s h o r ta g e o f q u a l i f i e d p e r s o n n e l t o sh a p e i t and b e
c a u s e o f c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r e s t s b etw een th e " p r o f e s s i o n a l s " s e e k in g an
i n - t r a i n i n g program f o r s o c i a l m o b i l i t y p u r p o s e s , an d th e a ca d em ic
b u r e a u c r a t s and w o u ld -b e s t a t e b u r e a u c r a t s t r y i n g to make th e i n s t i t u t e
a n e x t e n s i o n o f th e V o lta n M i n i s t r y o f I n f o r m a tio n f o r th e t r a i n i n g o f
T .V . and r a d i o program m ers and r u r a l d e v e lo p m e n t s p e c i a l i s t s . B ecause
o f th e s e d i v e r g e n t o b j e c t i v e s , th e l e v e l s o f fo rm a l e d u c a tio n o f th e
c a n d i d a te s s e e k in g e n t r y t o th e i n s t i t u t e a r e n o t hom ogenous, an d th e
INAFEC ac a d e m ic s h av e s e t a t e s t t o s e l e c t c a n d i d a te s f o r s t u d i e s l e a d -
252
in g to th e g r a n t i n g of a b a c h e lo r d e g r e e , m o s tly b a se d on a g e n e r a l
e d u c a tio n i n s o c i a l s c i e n c e .
I t i s q u e s t i o n a b l e , h o w ev er, w h e th e r th e i n s t i t u t e w ould s u r
v iv e w ith o u t th e f i n a n c i a l and p o l i t i c a l s u p p o r t o f UNESCO. INAFEC,
in d e e d , c o n s t i t u t e s a d u p l i c a t i o n o f a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g , y e t p o o r ly
o p e r a t i n g , i n s t i t u t i o n s s u c h a s th e N a ti o n a l F ilm C e n te r and th e I n t e r -
S t a t e C e n te r f o r R u ra l D evelopm ent R ad io o f Ouagadougou (CIERRO), a
d u p l i c a t i o n w hich i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e i r r a t i o n a l i t y o f th e new
A f r ic a n b u r e a u c r a c i e s and t h e i r c u l t u r e o f c a r e e r i s m . I t i s in d e e d
n o te w o rth y to m e n tio n t h a t th e p r e s e n c e on V o lta n s o i l o f some r e g i o n a l
e d u c a t i o n a l o r c u l t u r a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s (su c h a s , f o r e x a m p le , th e EIER,
I n t e r - S t a t e S ch o o l f o r R u ra l E q u ip m en t, th e CA M ES--A frican and M alag asy
C o u n c il f o r H ig h e r E d u c a tio n ) e x e r t s i n d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e on V o lta n a c a
dem ics 1 p r e s e n t b e h a v io r and c a r e e r p e r s p e c t i v e s . Some o f t h e s e e f
f e c t s h av e b een m e n tio n e d i n th e p r e c e d in g c h a p t e r .
C o n c lu s io n
The d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e U n i v e r s i t y of O uagadougou m ig h t be
v iew ed i n a f u n c t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e . I n d e e d , i t seems to hav e b een
v e ry p r a g m a tic , r e s p o n d in g t o p e r c e iv e d n eed s by m aking com prom ises
b etw ee n w hat i s d e s i r e d and w hat i s p o s s i b l e i n term s o f t e c h n i c a l and
f i n a n c i a l r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e and e x t e r n a l p r e s s u r e s from th o s e who
b r i n g th e fu n d s a n d , t h e r e f o r e , t r y t o i n f l u e n c e th e V o lta n d e v e l o p
m ent p o l i c i e s . The u n i v e r s i t y seems t o h av e b e e n s e n s i t i v e t o p r e s e n t
n e e d s , o p e n in g t r a i n i n g f o r p r a c t i c a l p u rp o s e s and c l o s i n g them as so o n
as th e n eed s h av e b een s a t i s f i e d . Thus "CEG" t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g , opened
253
i n 1966, was c l o s e d down in 1973 when i t was th o u g h t t h a t t h e r e w ere
enough M CEGM te a c h e r s f o r th e e x i s t i n g s t a t e o f d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e
e d u c a t i o n a l s y s te m . The s c i e n t i f i c s e c t i o n o f t h i s t r a i n i n g was r e
opened l a t e r , f o r M ath and P h y s i c s , i n 1977 when s h o r t - c y c l e s c i e n t i f i c
t e a c h e r s w ere n e e d e d i n r e g a r d to th e s c i e n t i f i c em p h asis o f th e e d u c a
t i o n a l s y s te m . I t i s q u i t e p r o b a b le t h a t t h i s s e c t i o n to o m ig h t be
c lo s e d a s so o n a s th e " n e e d s ” a r e s a t i s f i e d . S i m i l a r l y , th e t r a i n i n g
D ep artm en t f o r S o c i a l S c ie n c e s and P h ilo s o p h y te a c h e r s was c l o s e d down
i n 1968 when i t was e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e r e w ere enough te a c h e r s i n th e s e
d i s c i p l i n e s . The d e p a rtm e n t has b een r e c e n t l y (1980) re o p e n e d b e c a u se
n eed s f o r i t s g r a d u a t e s have r e a p p e a r e d i n e d u c a t i o n , a s w e ll a s in
o t h e r , new, s e c t o r s su ch as p r i v a t e and i n t e r n a t i o n a l d e v e lo p m e n t r e
s e a r c h a g e n c ie s (SAED, ID E P ), and n a t i o n a l r u r a l d e v elo p m en t a g e n c i e s .
T h e i r re o p e n in g was p re c e d e d by i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f th e p o t e n t i a l n eed
f o r g r a d u a te s to be p ro d u c e d . A s i m i l a r i n v e s t i g a t i o n h as b e e n c o n
d u c te d to f i n d o u t th e n e e d f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l e n g i n e e r s t o be t r a i n e d
a t th e IS P . The IUT i s th e p r o to t y p e o f p ra g m a tism i n th e u n i v e r s i t y ,
a d j u s t i n g i t s o f f e r i n g s to th e demands o f th e e m p lo y e r s .
H ow ever, one m u st n o t be d e c e iv e d by t h i s a p p a r e n t p ra g m a tism
i n t o s a y in g t h a t th e u n i v e r s i t y i s a " s e r v i c e s t a t i o n " f o r th e V o lta n
s o c i e t y 's " n e e d s " d e f i n e d a s a h y p o t h e t i c a l c o l l e c t i o n o f th e n eed s
e x p r e s s e d by a l l t h e s o c i a l g ro u p s c o n c e r n e d . To be s u r e , t h e r e i s no
d ia lo g u e b etw een th e u n i v e r s i t y an d i t s s u r r o u n d in g e n v iro n m e n t, b u t
r a t h e r a m onologue by s t a t e b u r e a u c r a t s u n i l a t e r a l l y p e r c e i v i n g and
s a t i s f y i n g t h e i r own n e e d s and c a r e e r i n t e r e s t s .
Even t r a i n i n g s , w hich seem to r e f e r th e m ost t o s e c t o r s n o t
254
d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to th e s t a t e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a p p a r a t u s , s u c h a s b u s i
n e s s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and a g r i c u l t u r a l e n g i n e e r i n g , a r e n o t s e r v i n g th e
s e c t o r s c o n c e rn e d , b u t o n ly th e b u r e a u c r a t s ' c o n c e rn s f o r th e s e s e c
t o r s . T h u s , th e a g r i c u l t u r a l e n g i n e e r in g d e p a rtm e n t i s n o t t r a i n i n g
p e o p le to become fa rm e rs th e m s e lv e s o r t o be h i r e d by f a r m e r s . I n s t e a d
i t s g r a d u a t e s a r e s t a t e em ployees w hose jo b i s t o t e l l th e p e a s a n t s t o
em p h asize c a s h c r o p p in g and to c o l l e c t a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c ts f o r s a l e
th ro u g h th e ORDs. The o n ly known c a s e o f a V o lta n a g r i c u l t u r a l e n g i
n e e r becom ing a fa rm e r i s a G e rm a n -e d u c a te d e n g i n e e r who was to o o ld
anyway w ith r e s p e c t t o th e C i v i l S e r v i c e 's r e c r u i t m e n t age l i m i t s .
V ery few IUT g r a d u a te s a c t u a l l y s o u g h t and fou n d jo b s i n p r i
v a t e e n t e r p r i s e s , and th e s e w ere g r a d u a t e s o f th e e a r l i e r p e r i o d o f
th e " V o l t a i z a t i o n " o f f o r e i g n p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e s . M ost IUT g r a d u a t e s
a r e , i n f a c t , em ployed by s ta te - o w n e d e n t e r p r i s e s o r e n t e r p r i s e s w ith
m a j o r i t y s t a t e p a r t i c i p a t i o n , o r r e g i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s . They a r e
c o n s id e r e d t o b e em ployed i n th e p r i v a t e s e c t o r s im p ly b e c a u se th e y
a r e n o t r e g i s t e r e d a s c i v i l s e r v a n t s .
A c c o rd in g t o r e c e n t (1977) e s t i m a t e s by th e M i n i s t r y o f P l a n
n in g , 91 p e r c e n t o f th e u n i v e r s i t y g r a d u a t e s a r e em ployed by th e s t a t e .
The o r d in a n c e e n a c te d i n 1967 t o r e g u l a t e th e c o n d i t i o n s f o r b e n e f i t i n g
from a s t a t e s c h o l a r s h i p was r e v i s e d i n 1976 to g iv e p r i o r i t y t o th e
s t a t e f o r th e r e c r u i t m e n t o f u n i v e r s i t y g r a d u a t e s , and o f t e n s t a t e
b u r e a u c r a t s o f th e N a t i o n a l O r i e n t a t i o n C om m ittee, th e im p o rta n c e o f
w h ich w i l l be s e e n f u r t h e r on, show r e l u c t a n c e to t r a i n s t u d e n t s f o r
s e c t o r s o th e r th a n th e p u b l i c . ^ M ost im p o r ta n t , th e m onopoly o f s t a t e
b u r e a u c r a t s in a l l o c a t i n g s t u d e n t s to th e d i f f e r e n t u n i v e r s i t y d e p a r t -
255
merits a n d , t h e r e b y , t o d i f f e r e n t so c io e c o n o m ic s e c t o r s i s a m a jo r
i n d i c a t o r o f th e c o n t r o l by s t a t e b u r e a u c r a t s o v e r th e u n i v e r s i t y and
th e i n t e r e s t s i t s e r v e s .
The t r a c k i n g s y ste m i s v e r y im p o r ta n t and t e l l s more a b o u t th e
b u r e a u c r a t s 1 p o l i c y o f ( e d u c a t i o n a l ) d ev e lo p m e n t th a n m ere s y l l a b u s
d e v e lo p m e n t. T hrough th e c o n f l i c t s e x p r e s s e d a t t h a t l e v e l b o th by
a c t u a l b u r e a u c r a t s and by w o u ld -b e b u r e a u c r a t s , th e r e a l im p o rta n c e o f
p a r t i c u l a r t r a c k s and c u r r ic u lu m o f f e r i n g s i s h i g h l i g h t e d . I t i s ,
t h e r e f o r e , a t t h a t l e v e l t h a t th e r e a l n a t u r e o f th e n e e d s and i n t e r
e s t s s e r v e d by th e u n i v e r s i t y and th e b u r e a u c r a t s a r e b e t t e r u n d e r -
s t o o d .
The T ra c k in g S ystem and th e Power S tr u g g le
o v e r I t s C o n tr o l
P a r a l l e l i n g th e s t r u g g l e f o r th e c o n t r o l o f d e c is io n - m a k in g
power o v e r d e f i n i t i o n o f th e t r a i n i n g p ro g ram s t o be im p le m e n te d ,
th e r e i s th e s t r u g g l e f o r th e c o n t r o l o v e r th e human a l l o c a t i o n p r o
c e s s . E ach b u r e a u c r a t i c g ro u p i s t r y i n g t o c o n t r o l t h i s p r o c e s s
th ro u g h : (1) th e c o n t r o l o f th e l e g a l s t a t e i n s t i t u t i o n i n c h a rg e o f
th e a l l o c a t i o n o f s t u d e n t s i n t o e a c h t r a i n i n g p ro g ram and (2) th e
c r i t e r i a t o em p h asize a s g u i d e l i n e f o r c a r r y i n g on th e a l l o c a t i o n
p r o c e s s .
t
In t h i s s e c t i o n i t w i l l be a rg u e d t h a t th e b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s
a s a w hole d o es n o t know and d o es n o t seem t o be w i l l i n g t o l e a r n th e
b r o a d e r s o c i e t y ' s n e e d s , a l th o u g h th e s e n eed s a r e o f f i c i a l l y s e t as
th e m ain c r i t e r i a f o r th e human a l l o c a t i o n p r o c e s s . I t w i l l be a rg u e d
25 6
t h a t th e o n ly n e e d s th e b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s knows a r e th o s e r e l a t e d to
i t s own p r o f e s s i o n a l g ro u p s and s t r u c t u r e s , i . e . , t h e i r c a r e e r a d v a n c e
m ent in te rm s o f p r e s e r v a t i o n o r e x p a n s io n o f p r o f e s s i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s ,
s o c i a l and f i n a n c i a l a d v a n ta g e s , and th e p r e s e r v a t i o n o r enhan cem en t
o f th e h i e r a r c h i c a l p o s i t i o n o f e a c h p r o f e s s i o n a l g ro u p i n th e c i v i l
s e r v i c e .
I t a l s o w i l l be a rg u e d t h a t th e d i f f e r e n t c r i t e r i a u se d to
a l l o c a t e s t u d e n t s t o d i f f e r e n t t r a i n i n g p ro g ram s h av e no " f u n c t i o n a l "
n e c e s s i t y , b u t a r e o n ly means f o r a s s u r i n g th e c o n t r o l o f th e a l l o c a
t i o n p r o c e s s by th e g ro u p w h ich p o s s e s s e s th e m ost i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d
means ( " s k i l l s " ) o f c o n t r o l o v e r th e c r i t e r i a f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g p r i o r
i t i e s - - e . g . , " n a t i o n 's n e e d s " o r "eco n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t im p e r a ti v e s "
f o r o f f i c i a l s o f th e M i n i s t r y o f P la n n i n g , "a c a d e m ic a b i l i t y " f o r
t e a c h e r s , and " a g e " f o r o th e r b u r e a u c r a t i c g r o u p s .
The h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t i n w h ich th e b u r e a u c r a t s to o k o v e r s t a t e
power i n U pper V o lta le d them t o t r a i n th e p e r s o n n e l th e y deemed n e c e s
s a r y f o r th e im p le m e n ta tio n o f t h e i r s o c io e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t p o l i c i e s ;
t h a t i s , u l t i m a t e l y n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e i r own r e p r o d u c t i o n . H ence, th e
g r e a t c o n c e rn o f th e p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o i s i e i n n o t o n ly
e s t a b l i s h i n g and d e v e lo p in g th e t r a i n i n g s t r u c t u r e s deemed n e c e s s a r y ,
b u t a l s o i n t a k i n g c h a rg e o f th e t r a i n i n g e x p e n s e s , i n c l u d i n g p a r t i c u
l a r l y th e m a in te n a n c e o f th e i n d i v i d u a l t r a i n e e th r o u g h a s t a t e s c h o l a r
s h i p s y s te m .
T h e re i s a c o v e r t d e b a te g o in g on b etw ee n s t u d e n t s and b u r e a u
c r a t s a b o u t th e n a t u r e o f t h i s s c h o l a r s h i p . Now t h a t some i n i t i a l
c o n d i t i o n s h av e c h a n g e d , th e V o lta n b u r e a u c r a t s te n d t o m in im ize i f
257
n o t to f o r g e t th e o b j e c t i v e c o n s t r a i n t s w hich e x p l a i n th e s t a t e s c h o l a r
s h ip s y s te m . They te n d t o em p h asize th e s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r o f th e l a t t e r ,
and p r e s e n t i t a s an a i d t o low -incom e f a m i l i e s ' s t u d i e s . The s t u d e n t s ,
f o r t h e i r p a r t , have alw ay s had a much c l e a r e r u n d e r s ta n d i n g o f th e
p ro b lem i n p r e s e n t i n g th e s c h o l a r s h i p n o t a s an a i d , b u t as a " d u e ,"
a " p r e - s a l a r y " to be p a id t o th e i n - t r a i n i n g o f f i c i a l s .they c o n s id e r
th e m s e lv e s to b e .
S in c e 1960 U pper V o lta h a s b een d e v o t in g a b o u t 25 p e r c e n t o f
i t s b u d g e ta r y r e s o u r c e s , o r 2 . 6 p e r c e n t o f i t s GNP, t o e d u c a t i o n .
H ig h e r e d u c a tio n h as b e e n t a k i n g 32 p e r c e n t o f t h e s e r e s o u r c e s , m o s tly
f o r th e paym ent o f s t u d e n t s ' s c h o l a r s h i p s . T hese f i g u r e s , h o w ev er, do
n o t g iv e th e f u l l d im e n s io n o f th e " in v e s tm e n t" i n h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n ,
insom uch a s th e y do n o t i n c lu d e f o r e i g n a i d f o r th e b u i l d i n g s , s c h o l a r
s h ip s g r a n te d t o s t u d e n t s and t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e p e r s o n n e l s e n t t o
th e c o u n t r y o r p r o v id e d t o th o s e s t u d e n t s e n r o l l e d i n f o r e i g n u n i v e r s i
t i e s . They a l s o do n o t in c lu d e t h e w a s te " n e c e s s a r y " to p ro d u c e a
s i n g l e s t u d e n t , s i n c e o n ly 9 p e r c e n t o f p rim a ry s c h o o l s t u d e n t s go t o
s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l , and o n ly th e same p r o p o r t i o n o f h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s
r e a c h th e u n i v e r s i t y .
The A bsence of P la n n in g o f Human
R e s o u rc e s D evelopm ent
One m ig h t e x p e c t th e V o lta n b u r e a u c r a c y , w h ich i s d e v o tin g
r e l a t i v e l y huge am ounts o f i t s b u d g e ta r y r e s o u r c e s t o th e t r a i n i n g of
a l a b o r f o r c e i t s a y s i t so b a d ly n e e d s , t o s e t up c a r e f u l p la n s t o
d e v e lo p t h i s l a b o r f o r c e a t th e m ost e f f i c i e n t c o s t . B u t t h i s i s n o t
th e c a s e , and one i s s t r u c k by th e t o t a l a b s e n c e of su c h a p l a n .
258
Of c o u r s e , t h e r e a r e th e t r a d i t i o n a l f i v e - y e a r d e v elo p m en t
p la n s w hich r i t u a l l y e m p h asize th e n e c e s s i t y o f a d j u s t i n g t r a i n i n g to
em ploym ent o p p o r t u n i t i e s . But th e s e p la n s th e m s e lv e s a r e c o n c e iv e d of
to be o n ly " i n d i c a t i v e , 1 1 n o t " i m p e r a t i v e , " eac h m i n i s t e r i a l d e p a rtm e n t
c a r r y i n g o u t i t s u s u a l t a s k s i n t o t a l ig n o r a n c e o f th e d i r e c t i v e s p r o
v id e d by th e p l a n s . B e s id e s , t h e s e p la n s a r e u s u a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d as
c a t a lo g u e s o f u n c o o r d in a te d m i n i - p r o j e c t s q u i c k l y g a th e r e d by th e
m i n i s t e r i a l d e p a rtm e n ts o r more p r e c i s e l y t h e i r to p b u r e a u c r a t s .
A n o th e r im p o r ta n t f a c t o r w h ich e x p l a i n s th e i n e f f i c i e n c y o f
manpower p l a n n i n g - - a t l e a s t th e t r a i n i n g o f u n i v e r s i t y - l e v e l p e r s o n n e l- -
may be a t t r i b u t e d to th e a p p a r e n t d i s p r o p o r t i o n b e tw e e n th e huge n eed s
f o r h i g h e r l e v e l p e r s o n n e l and th e a p p a r e n t l y s m a ll number o f p o t e n t i a l
c a n d i d a te s f o r th e em ploys ' a t th e ev e o f in d e p e n d e n c e . T h is f a c t ,
added to th e i d e o l o g i c a l s ta n d o f l i b e r a l i s m on th e p a r t o f th e
p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u r g e o i s i e , le d to a s i t u a t i o n o f " l a i s s e z
f a i r e " i n th e a r e n a o f u n i v e r s i t y t r a i n i n g a s w e l l as i n o t h e r s o c i o
econom ic a r e a s .
The C i v i l S e r v ic e D e p a rtm e n t h as lo n g b e e n c o n t e n t w ith r e g i s
t e r i n g and m a t r i c u l a t i n g th e new r e t u r n i n g u n i v e r s i t y - d i p l o m a h o ld e r s
lo o k in g f o r jo b s i n th e m i n i s t e r i a l d e p a r t m e n t s . The M i n i s t r y o f Edu
c a t i o n l i m i t e d i t s e l f to e n r o l l i n g s t u d e n t s i n d i f f e r e n t f o r e i g n u n i
v e r s i t i e s and s o l v i n g p r a c t i c a l , m a t e r i a l p ro b lem s ( h o u s in g , paym ent
o f s c h o l a r s h i p s ) when th e y c o u ld n o t be s o lv e d by in t e r m e d i a r y a g e n c ie s
su c h a s th e famous " O f f i c e de C o o p e r a tio n e t d 'A c c u e i l U n i v e r s i t a i r e s "
(OCAU) i n P a r i s on w h ich th e V o lta n g o v ern m en t had lo n g r e l i e d to ta k e
c a r e o f s t u d e n t s e n r o l l e d i n F r a n c e . T h ere was no r e a l f o llo w - u p on
25 9
t h e s t u d e n t s . B ecau se o f t h i s n e g l e c t and th e am biguous c o n t r a c t term s
b etw ee n th e V o lta n gov ern m en t and OCAU c o n c e rn in g th e e x a c t r o l e and
power o f th e l a t t e r i n a s s u r i n g th e r e g i s t r a t i o n o f V o lta n s t u d e n t s i n
F re n c h u n i v e r s i t y i n s t i t u t i o n s , i t had o f t e n h ap p en ed t h a t th e OCAU
o f t e n a p p l i e d i t s own p o l i c y , c h a n g in g a t w i l l th e i n i t i a l t r a c k i n g o f
th e V o lta n s t u d e n t s e n t r u s t e d to i t , a r g u in g t h a t i t was n e c e s s a r y ,
g iv e n t h e i r s o - c a l l e d i n a b i l i t y t o u n d e r ta k e th e s t u d i e s f o r w h ich th e y
had b een s e n t o v e r s e a s U n t i l v e r y r e c e n t l y (1 9 7 9 ), th e V o lta n s tu d e n t
p e r s o n n e l o f f i c e r s w ere u n a b le to p r o v id e th e e x a c t in f o r m a tio n a b o u t
t h e s e s t u d e n t s , th e m a jo rs i n w h ich th e y w ere a c t u a l l y e n r o l l e d , th e
l e v e l t h e y had r e a c h e d , and t h e p r o b a b le tim e when th e y w ould be
r e t u r n i n g home.
I n c o h e r e n t p o l i c i e s o f s u c c e s s i v e h ead s o f th e e d u c a tio n d e
p a rtm e n t d id n o t h e l p i n th e p la n n in g of th e manpower t r a i n i n g . F o r
ex am p le, i n o r d e r to f i l l p o s i t i o n s i t deemed b a d ly n e e d e d , p a r t i c u
l a r l y i n e d u c a t i o n , th e m i l i t a r y g o v e rn m e n t, by 1 9 6 7 -1 9 6 9 , c a l l e d b ack
num bers o f good s t u d e n t s who hap p en ed to h av e b e e n r e l a t i v e l y f a s t i n
c o m p le tin g th ese u n d e r g r a d u a te p ro g ra m s . But th e c i v i l i a n governm ent
w h ich s u c c e e d e d th e m i l i t a r y i n 1970 d id n o t h eed t h i s p o l i c y and l e t
r e l a t i v e l y l e s s a b l e o r d i s o b e d i e n t e le m e n ts go on f o r f u r t h e r h ig h e r
7
p ro g ra m s, a n d , t h e r e f o r e , b e t t e r p o s i t i o n s . T h is made i n e f f e c t i v e
some m e asu re s ta k e n by th e s t u d e n t p e r s o n n e l o f f i c e r s i n o r d e r to g e t
th e s t u d e n t s th e m s e lv e s to r e p o r t t h e i r p r o g r e s s . S tu d e n ts th e n
te n d e d t o g iv e w rong in f o r m a tio n (som etim es w i t h th e c o m p lic i ty o f
t h e i r t e a c h e r s ) i n o r d e r t o s t a y a b ro a d lo n g e r , s i n c e once r e t u r n e d
260
home, th e p r o s p e c t o f a c h i e v in g h i g h e r l e v e l s t u d i e s was u n c e r t a i n .
A n o th e r im p o r ta n t s o u r c e o f d i f f i c u l t i e s e n c o u n te re d i n p l a n
n in g th e t r a i n i n g o f h ig h e r l e v e l manpower h as stemmed from th e d i f f e r
in g p o l i c i e s o f f o r e i g n d o n o rs o f s c h o l a r s h i p s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e E a s te r n
E u ro p ea n c o u n t r i e s . The S o v i e t U n io n , f o r i n s t a n c e , g r a n te d s c h o l a r
s h ip s n o t o n ly th ro u g h th e o f f i c i a l c h a n n e l o f th e V o lta n g o v e rn m e n t,
b u t a l s o th ro u g h th e u n o f f i c i a l c h a n n e ls o f t r a d e - u n i o n s , d i f f e r e n t
a s s o c i a t i o n s such a s th e W om en's, and ev en d i r e c t l y to i n d i v i d u a l s .
I t was n o t u n t i l 1976 t h a t th e V o lta n g o v ern m en t t r i e d to g e t c o n t r o l
o v e r t h e s e u n o f f i c i a l c h a n n e l s . H ow ever, ev en th e o f f i c i a l s c h o l a r s h i p
c h a n n e ls a r e n o t much b e t t e r c o n t r o l l e d , t h e i r g r a n t i n g b e in g g e n e r a l l y
r e s e r v e d t o h ig h s c h o o l g r a d u a t e s who d id n o t m eet th e ag e l i m i t r e
q u ire m e n ts f o r b e n e f i t i n g from a s c h o l a r s h i p f o r s t u d i e s i n w h at th e
s t a t e b u r e a u c r a t s c o n s id e r " r e g u l a r " ( i . e . , W e ste rn ) u n i v e r s i t i e s .
The p roblem s m e n tio n e d above e x p l a i n some o f th e d i f f i c u l t i e s
e n c o u n te r e d i n th e manpower p la n n in g , d i f f i c u l t i e s w h ich r e s u l t e d i n a
la c k o f c o n t r o l o v e r th e t r a i n i n g i n s tr u m e n t o f t h i s m anpow er. But
th e g r e a t e s t d i f f i c u l t y h a s r e s i d e d i n th e la c k o f w i l l t o c o n t r o l t h i s
t r a i n i n g , s i n c e i t was i m p l i c i t l y assum ed t h a t th e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s e r
v ic e s c o u ld i n t e g r a t e and a b s o rb an y g r a d u a t e . I t was n o t b e f o r e 1974
t h a t a N a ti o n a l O f f ic e f o r th e P ro m o tio n o f Manpower (ONPE) was c r e a t e d
w ith th e c h a rg e of f o r e c a s t i n g th e em ploym ent m a rk e t, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n
t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r , and a l lo w in g f o r m i g r a t i o n . Even s o , i t i s s t i l l
p r a c t i c a l l y im p o s s ib le to o b t a i n e s t i m a t e s o f th e em ploym ent n e e d s f o r
a p e r io d o f f i v e y e a r s . The o n ly n eed s w h ich h a v e b een c o r r e c t l y e s t i
m ated so f a r have b een th o s e r e q u i r e d f o r th e " V o l t a i z a t i o n " o f a l r e a d y
261
e x i s t i n g p o s i t i o n s i n th e f o r e i g n p r i v a t e s e c t o r . T h ese n e e d s a r e
r e l a t i v e l y e a s y to c a l c u l a t e , f o r c o n t r a r y t o s t a t e b u r e a u c r a c i e s and
e n t e r p r i s e s , th e f o r e i g n p r i v a t e e n t e r p r i s e s a r e n o t s e l f - e x p a n d i n g ,
d e p e n d e n t as th e y a r e on f o r e i g n c a p i t a l w h ich i s more c o n c e rn e d w ith
im m ediate p r o f i t s e a rn e d r a t h e r th a n em ploym ent p r o b le m s .
R e g u l a r l y , th e N a t i o n a l O r i e n t a t i o n C om m ittee (CNO) g r i e v e s
o v e r th e la c k o f r e l i a b l e in f o r m a tio n f o r d o in g i t s jo b ; t h a t i s , th e
t r a c k i n g of s t u d e n t s to w ard t r a i n i n g r e c o g n iz e d a s n e c e s s a r y f o r th e
d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e c o u n t r y . The c o u n t r y 's n eed s a r e o f f i c i a l l y s e t
a s th e m ain c r i t e r i o n f o r t h e o r i e n t a t i o n p r o c e s s , o t h e r c r i t e r i a b e in g
th e a p p l i c a n t 's acad em ic a b i l i t y and h i s m o t i v a t i o n . The r e l a t i v e and
c h a n g in g im p o rta n c e of t h e s e c r i t e r i a w i l l be a n a ly z e d f u r t h e r , as w e ll
a s th e i n t e r n a l power s t r u g g l e g o in g on b etw een th e s t a t e b u r e a u c r a t s
f o r th e c o n t r o l of th e o r i e n t a t i o n c o m m itte e , m a in ly com posed of th o s e
s t a t e b u r e a u c r a t s p a r t i c u l a r l y fro m m i n i s t e r i a l d e p a rtm e n ts s u p p o s e d ly
in v o lv e d i n t r a i n i n g ( m i n i s t r i e s o f e d u c a t i o n , p l a n , c i v i l s e r v i c e , and
f i n a n c e ; e x t e r n a l members b e in g a few r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f p r i v a t e sch o o ls
and S tu d e n ts P a r e n t s ' A s s o c i a t i o n ) .
H ere a r e some exam ples of w hat th e b u r e a u c r a t s s a y a b o u t th e
p la n n in g o f th e s o c a l l e d n a t i o n 's n e e d s . I n 1971, th e CNO members
co m p la in e d t h a t :
A c i r c u l a r l e t t e r i s s e n t e a c h y e a r to e a c h m i n i s t e r i a l d e p a r t
m ent i n o r d e r t o c o l l e c t i t s p e r s o n n e l n e e d s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y ,
n o t a l l d e p a rtm e n ts an sw e r th e l e t t e r , so t h a t th e b i g g e s t t a s k
r e l i e s on th e c o m m itte e w h ich o f t e n e n c o u n te r s s e r i o u s p ro b le m s .
The s e s s i o n p r e s i d e n t a d v i s e s t h a t th e M i n i s t r y o f P la n n in g
ann o u n ced i n 1970 t h a t a c e n su s of t h e s e n e e d s had n o t b e e n e s
t a b l i s h e d y e t , b u t had p ro m ise d t o g e t i t done f o r th e com ing
y e a r s o r p r e c i s e l y f o r 1971. (C .N .O ., M in u te s , 1971, p . 2)
262
The same c o m p la in t was v o ic e d 10 y e a r s l a t e r , i n 1980, by th e
same c o m m itte e :
Mr. X . . . ( d i r e c t o r ) o f th e IMP w onders w h e th e r a t l a s t th e
N a t i o n a l O f f ic e f o r th e P ro m o tio n o f Employment h as b een a b l e
to p u b l i s h th e s t a t e ' s p r i o r i t i e s , and w h e th e r th e d i f f e r e n t
m i n i s t r i e s hav e e s t a b l i s h e d t h e i r n e e d s f o r t r a i n i n g ; f o r , he
s a y s , one c a n n o t go on t r a c k i n g s t u d e n t s w ith o u t a d e f i n i t e
p o l i c y . . . .
The r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e M i n i s t r y o f P la n n in g who i s a l s o
c o n c e rn e d w i t h th e work o f p r i o r i t i e s ' d e f i n i t i o n , th i n k s t h a t
one m ust be c o n t e n t w ith w hat i s d e s i r a b l e and w hat e x i s t s ,
b e c a u se th e M i n i s t r y o f P la n n in g a l s o h as t r i e d to s e t th e s e
p r i o r i t i e s b u t many d e p a rtm e n ts d id n o t an sw er i t s c i r c u l a r
l e t t e r . The p a r t i a l answ ers c o l l e c t e d a l lo w , h o w ev er, to
g iv e th e f o llo w in g a p p ro x im a te f i g u r e s o f p r i o r i t i e s - - t e a c h
in g , m e d ic a l and s o c i a l c a r e , a g r i c u l t u r e , p u b l i c w o rk s,
e t c . . . . I n any c a s e i t w ould be b e t t e r to a d d r e s s th e
S e r v ic e o f S t a t i s t i c s and D em ography. (C .N .O . M in u te s , 1980,
p . 2)
I n t h e a b s e n c e o f in f o r m a tio n a b o u t th e c o u n t r y 's n e e d s , th e
g e n e r a l te n d e n c y f o r t h e o r i e n t a t i o n co m m ittee h as b een to e x p l o r e and
s a t i s f y th e demands e x p r e s s e d b y , o r p e r c e iv e d f o r , each m i n i s t e r i a l
d e p a rtm e n t o f p e r s o n n e l n e c e s s a r y t o e x te n d -its a c t i v i t i e s .
C o n t r o v e r s i e s o v e r th e e s t i m a t e s o f n eed e d p e r s o n n e l f o r e a c h
s e c t o r o f a c t i v i t i e s (more p r e c i s e l y , m i n i s t e r i a l d e p a r tm e n ts ) r e g u
l a r l y un d erm in e th e e f f o r t s o f s p o n ta n e o u s p la n n in g by th e o r i e n t a t i o n
co m m ittee e s p e c i a l l y a s t h e s e c o n t r o v e r s i e s a r e c o v e r t and n o t o p e n ly
d e b a te d among b u r e a u c r a t s on b e h a l f o f th e autonom y and s o v e r e i g n t y o f
e a c h m i n i s t e r i a l d e p a r tm e n t. The la c k o f e s t a b l i s h e d and e n f o r c e d
so c io e c o n o m ic p r i o r i t i e s , o r t h e i r a b u n d a n c e , le a d s e a c h m i n i s t e r i a l
o f f i c i a l t o d e f i n e a t w i l l , and g e n e r a l l y on th e s p o t , th e p e r c e iv e d
n eed s o f h i s r e s p e c t i v e d e p a r tm e n t, i n c o n t r a d i c t i o n w ith " c e n t r a l "
p la n n in g s e r v i c e s o r o t h e r t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s ( u n i v e r s i t y , e d u c a tio n
o f f i c i a l s ) - - t h e m s e l v e s n o t immune from g ro u p i n t e r e s t s . F o r ex am p le,
263
d u r in g a r e c e n t (F e b ru a ry 1981) o r i e n t a t i o n s e s s i o n , th e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
o f t h e M i n i s t r y o f P la n n in g s o le m n ly p r e s e n t e d th e n a t i o n 's n e e d s f o r
th e n e x t f i v e y e a r s . The e m p h a s is , he s a i d , w i l l be on th e t r a i n i n g of
s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l p e r s o n n e l ( a r c h i t e c t s , p u b l i c w orks e n g i n e e r s ,
and t e c h n i c i a n s , and p a r t i c u l a r l y e l e c t r i c i a n s ) , th e t r a i n i n g o f t e a c h
e r s and m e d ic a l d o c t o r s . A s e r i o u s slow -dow n was e x p e c te d , he s a i d , i n
th e t r a i n i n g o f a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , la w y e r s , and s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s w ith th e
e x c e p tio n o f p l a n n e r s . I n f o r m a t io n from th e D i r e c t o r o f P u b l i c Works
S e r v ic e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e em ploym ent o f m ost e l e c t r i c i a n s i n d i c a t e d
t h a t t h e r e was a c t u a l l y underem ploym ent o f t h e s e e l e c t r i c i a n s by th e
p u b l i c s e c t o r , w h ich i s by f a r t h e i r b i g g e s t e m p lo y e r. The D i r e c t o r
G e n e ra l o f s e c o n d a ry and t e c h n i c a l e d u c a tio n r e v e a l e d t h a t i n f a c t
t h e r e was a g r e a t n eed f o r te a c h e r s o n ly i f t h e r e w ere a s i g n i f i c a n t
i n c r e a s e i n t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f e d u c a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s ; o th e r w i s e ,
g iv e n p r e s e n t s c h o o l p l a n t s and s t u d e n t e n r o l l m e n t s , t h e r e was a l s o
a n underem ploym ent o f s e c o n d a ry t e a c h e r s i n some s u b j e c t m a t t e r s su c h
a s H i s t o r y , F re n c h , and N a t u r a l S c ie n c e s w here th e a v e r a g e te a c h in g
lo a d was a b o u t 10 h o u rs a week i n s t e a d o f th e o f f i c i a l lo a d r e q u i r e
m ent s e t a t 17 t o 18 h o u rs a week f o r b a c h e l o r 's d e g r e e h o l d e r s , and
24 f o r j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l ("CEG") t e a c h e r s .
M ost o r i e n t a t i o n co m m itte e members p o in t e d o u t th e c o n t r a d i c
t i o n b etw ee n th e f a c t t h a t th e t r a i n i n g o f s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s was to be
slo w ed down and th e f a c t t h a t t h e r e was n eed f o r p la n n e r s i n s o f a r a s ,
a t l e a s t i n th e F re n c h e d u c a t i o n a l s y s te m , th e l a t t e r a r e draw n from
s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s (e co n o m ics) s p e c i a l i z i n g i n p l a n n i n g . I t was a l s o
p o in t e d o u t t h a t t h e r e was no a d d i t i o n a l n eed f o r p la n n e r s s i n c e a
264
d o zen young p la n n e r s had b een r e c r u i t e d f o u r y e a r s ago and l a t e r found
th e m s e lv e s unem ployed i n th e M i n i s t r y o f P la n n i n g . B e s id e s , some y e a r s
b a c k , when d i s c u s s i n g w i t h u n i v e r s i t y o f f i c i a l s th e o p p o r t u n i t y to open
th e D e p a rtm e n ts o f Law and E co n o m ics, th e D i r e c t o r o f th e N a ti o n a l
S ch o o l of A d m i n i s t r a t i o n (ENA) q u e s ti o n e d th e f i g u r e s on th e n eed f o r
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , e c o n o m is ts , and la w y e rs p ro p o s e d by th e f i v e y e a r s '
d ev elo p m en t p la n (1 9 7 2 -1 9 7 6 ). He a rg u e d t h a t th o s e f i g u r e s w ere t h r e e
tim e s l e s s th a n th o s e p o in t e d o u t i n a s u r v e y he p e r s o n a l l y c o n d u c te d
i n s i x m i n i s t e r i a l d e p a r t m e n t s . As f o r th e n eed f o r la w y e r s , th e ENA
d i r e c t o r d e c l a r e d t h a t n e a r l y 95 p e r c e n t o f th e n e e d s w ere n o t c o v e re d
i n th e p r o j e c t i o n s o f th e n e c e s s a r y and r a p i d e x t e n s i o n o f m odern law
t o th e r u r a l a r e a s (U .O ., Compte R endu, M arch 1 975, p . 4 ) . T hese a r g u
m ents w ere f a i t h f u l l y r e p e a t e d by th e M i n i s t e r o f E d u c a tio n i n a d v o c a t
in g th e c r e a t i o n o f a Law s c h o o l and a s c h o o l o f E co n o m ics, w ith an
a d d i t i o n a l i d e o l o g i c a l n o te th e n p r e v a i l i n g among e c o n o m is ts and
la w y e rs t h a t th e s e d i s c i p l i n e s w ere " k e y d i s c i p l i n e s f o r d e v e lo p m e n t."
N ote t h a t th e e s t i m a t e s ?fro m th e v e r y m i n i s t r i e s em p lo y in g Law S p e c i a l
i s t s ( M i n i s t r i e s o f I n t e r i o r and S e c u r i t y , o f J u s t i c e , and o f F o r e ig n
A f f a i r s ) f o r t h e same p e r io d a r e f a r below t h o s e i n d i c a t e d by t r a i n i n g
and p la n n in g i n s t i t u t i o n s . T h u s, th e e s t i m a t e s o f th e p e r s o n n e l n eed e d
f o r th e n e x t f i v e y e a r s (1 9 7 1 -1 9 7 5 ) a d d r e s s e d t o th e N a t i o n a l O r i e n t a
t i o n C om m ittee by th e t h r e e c o n c e rn e d m i n i s t r i e s i n d i c a t e d a t o t a l need
f o r 12 la w y e r s , 5 a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , and 2 p o l i c e c o n s t a b l e s (C .N .O ,
M in u te s , A p r i l 1971, p . 6 ) .
C l e a r l y , t h e b u r e a u c r a t s do n o t know t h e n a t i o n 's n e e d s w hich
a r e su p p o se d t o b e th e m ain c r i t e r i o n f o r t r a c k i n g s t u d e n t s . T h e re i s
265
no u n iq u e s o u r c e o f i n s p i r a t i o n to i d e n t i f y o r d e f i n e th e s e n e e d s . In
n o rm al s i t u a t i o n s , th e M i n i s t r y o f P la n n in g has no more pow er o r c o n
t r o l o v e r th e d e f i n i t i o n o f th e s o - c a l l e d n a t i o n 's n eed s ( o r , more
s i g n i f i c a n t l y , " s t a t e ' s p r i o r i t i e s " ) th a n o t h e r m i n i s t e r i a l d e p a rtm e n ts
a c t i n g as f e u d a l l o r d s o v e r d e l i m i t e d and m o n o p o liz e d t e r r i t o r i e s o f
s o c i a l l i f e . T h e re a r e e x c e p t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n s , momentums, when th e
M i n i s t r y of P la n n i n g , l i k e an y o t h e r d e p a rtm e n t ( F in a n c e , f o r i n s t a n c e )
may h av e r e l a t i v e l y more p o w er. T h e re have o c c u r r e d , f o r ex am p le,
moments o f econom ic h a r d s h i p (1 9 6 6 , 1972, 1980) o r p o l i t i c a l c o n t e s t s
fo llo w e d by th e a p p o in tm e n t o f new members t o th e r u l i n g b o a r d . B ut
t h e s e a r e e x c e p t i o n a l , a l th o u g h p o t e n t i a l , o c c u r r e n c e s o f some m a jo r
c o n se q u e n c e f o r s p e c i f i c i n t e r e s t g r o u p s . B u t, and a s we s h a l l s e e i n
th e fo rth c o m in g s e c t i o n , th e b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s a s a w h o le , an d th e
to p b u r e a u c r a t s as t h e b ack b o n e o f t h i s c l a s s , have th e r e s o u r c e s and
th e pow er to a l t e r v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t l y an y o f th e s e a p p a r e n t l y m a jo r
s o c i a l ch an g e s w hich may o c c u r i n t h e s e e x c e p t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n s . More
b a s i c f o r c e s a r e a t work s u c h as th e c a r e e r i n t e r e s t s o f th e b u r e a u
c r a t s .
The p r e v io u s s e c t i o n h a s i n d i c a t e d how d i f f e r e n t f o r c e s have
b een w o rk in g i n th e c r e a t i o n o f u n i v e r s i t y d e p a r t m e n t s - - n o t t o s a t i s f y
r e a l s o c i a l n e e d s , b u t , more p r e c i s e l y , c a r e e r i n t e r e s t s . The p r e s e n t
s e c t i o n a l s o has t r i e d t o show how th e t r a c k i n g o f s t u d e n t s to w ard d i f
f e r e n t aca d em ic d i s c i p l i n e s d oes n o t depend on some h y p o t h e t i c a l n a
t i o n ' s n e e d s . The p r e s e n t s tu d y h y p o th e s i z e s t h a t t h i s t r a c k i n g depends
more on th e c a r e e r p e r s p e c t i v e s and i n t e r e s t s a s th e y a r e p e r c e iv e d by
s t a t e b u r e a u c r a t s .
266
More e v id e n c e i s n eed e d t o t e s t t h i s h y p o t h e s i s . C h a p te r IV
t r i e d to exam ine w h at t h e s e c a r e e r p e r s p e c t i v e s and i n t e r e s t s a r e and
how th e y a r e p e r c e iv e d by th e b u r e a u c r a t s b e s i d e s and beyond t h e i r
o f f i c i a l s t a t e m e n t s . C h a p te r I i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e c a r e e r p e r s p e c t i v e s
a r e c l o s e l y li n k e d to th e h ig h s c h o o l t r a c k s . I t i s now n e c e s s a r y to
exam ine how th e b u r e a u c r a t s and w o u ld -b e b u r e a u c r a t s m anoeuvre t o p r e
s e r v e o r a s s u r e t h e i r c a r e e r i n t e r e s t s by m a n ip u la t in g th e s e h ig h
s c h o o l t r a c k s .
The M a n ip u la tio n o f th e H igh S c h o o l T r a c k s .
S tu d e n ts and T e a c h e r s 1 M anoeuvres t o A ch iev e
T h e i r C a r e e r G oals and P r e s e r v e T h e i r
C a re e r I n t e r e s t s
The p ro b lem s o f c a r e e r c h o ic e f o r th e s t u d e n t , and o f manpower
" p la n n i n g 1 1 f o r th e s t a t e o f f i c i a l s , i s s u b o r d in a t e d t o th e p ro b lem o f
h ig h s c h o o l t r a c k i n g w h ich h e a v i l y r e l i e s on th e e d u c a t i o n a l b u r e a u
c r a t s and t e a c h e r s . I t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y a t t h i s l e v e l o f t r a c k i n g t h a t
t h e s o - c a l l e d p la n d i r e c t i v e s , when th e y e x i s t , can be s u b s t a n t i a l l y
a l t e r e d , s i n c e th e c r i t e r i a u s e d on b o th s i d e s a r e n o t alw a y s c o n g r u e n t.
The manpower p la n n e r s c a n , o f c o u r s e , i n a c r i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n ,
m o b iliz e s t a t e pow er to im pose th e k in d s o f t r a c k s to e m p h asize f o r a
s p e c i f i c p e r io d o f tim e ; b u t , th e y h av e n o t th e i n s t i t u t i o n a l and u n i
v e r s a l l y t r a d i t i o n a l power to d e c id e who i s g o in g t o go w h e re , who may
be d e c l a r e d a b l e t o do w hat s t u d i e s , i n s h o r t , how th e p la n i s g o in g
to be a c t u a l l y c a r r i e d o u t . They w ould s a y t h a t t h i s i s n o t t h e i r c o n
c e r n . T h is i s th e p r i v i l e g e o f e d u c a t i o n a l s p e c i a l i s t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y
th e t e a c h e r s who a r e v e s t e d w ith th e i n s t i t u t i o n a l and t r a d i t i o n a l
pow er to s e t norm s o f p e rfo rm a n c e , and who do u se t h i s pow er, n o t to
267
h eed some " b u r e a u c r a t i c " ( r e a d " p l a n n e r s " ) d e c i s i o n s , b u t t o en h an ce
t h e i r own g ro u p i n t e r e s t . One m a jo r i n t e r e s t o f th e t e a c h e r s ' g ro u p
i s t o s e t s t a n d a r d s of p e rfo rm a n c e so h ig h t h a t v e r y few can s a t i s f y
them . T h is adds to th e s o c i a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l p r e s t i g e o f th e c o rp s
o f t e a c h e r s (and o t h e r s t a t e b u r e a u c r a t s li n k e d to t h e i r d i s c i p l i n e s ) ,
a t th e same tim e i t a s s u r e s them some m a t e r i a l a d v a n ta g e s a s a g ro u p
c o n t r o l l i n g r a r e s k i l l s and t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e . I t i s in d e e d n o t i n
f r e q u e n t t o h e a r t e a c h e r s c o m p la in in g a b o u t th e low ac a d e m ic l e v e l of
t h e i r s t u d e n t s and p r o u d ly d e c l a r i n g t h a t o n ly two o r t h r e e o u t o f some
50 s t u d e n t s g o t 50 p e r c e n t o f th e an sw ers r i g h t on t h e i r t e s t s and
e x a m in a tio n s . J u s t a s i t i s n o t i n f r e q u e n t t o s e e a s t a t e b u r e a u c r a t
r e f u s e th e s e l e c t i o n o f s t u d e n t s i n h i s s p e c i a l i z a t i o n f i e l d , a r g u in g
t h a t t h e i r l e v e l i s to o low f o r th e h i g h l y s e l e c t i v e t r a i n i n g i n s t i t u
t i o n he h im s e lf h a s come fro m , j u s t t o e n jo y a s lo n g a s p o s s i b l e th e
p r i v i l e g e o f b e in g th e o n ly e x p e r t i n h i s d e p a r tm e n t.
I t i s t r u e t h a t many s t u d e n t s a r e n o t h ig h l y i n t e l l i g e n t who
c h o o se to e n t e r a t r a c k , n o t b e c a u s e th e y h av e th e o b j e c t i v e a b i l i t i e s
t o u n d e r ta k e th e s t u d i e s th e t r a c k o f f e r s , b u t m o s tly b e c a u s e o f th e
s o c i a l and m a t e r i a l p r o s p e c t s to w h ich th e t r a c k i s s u p p o se d to le a d .
T hus, i t i s a c t i v e m an o eu v rin g on th e p a r t of s t u d e n t s o r , more o f t e n ,
t h e i r i n f l u e n t i a l r e l a t i v e s i n o r d e r to m a n ip u la te th e e d u c a t i o n a l o f
f i c i a l s and g e t th e d e s i r e d t r a c k , even i n th e e v i d e n t a b s e n c e o f c o r
re s p o n d in g ac a d e m ic a b i l i t i e s . I t i s known, f o r ex a m p le , t h a t th e s o -
c a l l e d " s c i e n t i f i c " t r a c k s (C and D) open more c a r e e r d o o rs th a n th e
s o - c a l l e d " l i t e r a r y " t r a c k s , p a r t i c u l a r l y A w hich i s s a i d to "doom" i t s
l o l d e r s to th e m u c h -fe a re d t e a c h in g c a r e e r . The m a n ip u la t io n o f t r a c k
268
r e q u ir e m e n ts b o th by te a c h e r s and by s t u d e n t s o f t e n r e s u l t s i n r u i n i n g
th e c r e d i b i l i t y o f i n f l a t e d t r a c k s and th e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f c o n c e rn e d
s t u d e n t s o r manpower p l a n n e r s .
T h u s, f o r ex am p le, a n em p h asis had b e e n p u t on t h e d ev elo p m en t
o f s c i e n t i f i c t r a c k s , D, C, and E , s i n c e 1972 when th e f i v e - y e a r p la n
recommended i t b e c a u s e o f th e f o rth c o m in g n e e d f o r s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h
n i c a l p e r s o n n e l i n th e p r o j e c t e d o p e n in g o f some e x t r a c t i o n m ines
(Tambao P r o j e c t ) , a g r i - b u s i n e s s u n i t s (SOSUHV f o r s u g a r p r o d u c t i o n ) ,
and th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e ORDs . The s c i e n t i f i c an d t e c h n i c a l s tre a m s
(53% o f th e t o t a l o f 578 s t u d e n t s r e g i s t e r e d i n th e 1 2 th g ra d e ) w ere
a p p r o x im a te ly i n b a la n c e w ith th e l i t e r a r y s tre a m s (4 7 i n l i t e r a r y
s e c t i o n s ) , b u t th e fo rm e r grew t o a d o m in a n t p o s i t i o n (65%, a g a i n s t 35%
i n 1975, and 60% a g a i n s t 40% s i n c e th e n , w i t h th e D s tr e a m m aking up
th e t h r e e - f o u r t h s o f th e t o t a l s c i e n t i f i c s tr e a m p o p u l a t i o n ) . B u t,
n u m e r i c a l ly d o m in an t as th e s e s c i e n t i f i c t r a c k s may b e , th e y h av e n o t
p r o v id e d th e u n i v e r s i t i e s w ith th e number o f w o u ld -b e s c i e n t i s t s and
t e c h n i c i a n s t h e p la n n e r s s a y th e c o u n tr y n e e d s . The r e a s o n s f o r t h i s
a r e com plex and a r e m o s tly r e l a t e d t o t h e i n f l a t i o n o f aca d em ic s tre a m s
m e n tio n e d a b o v e .
I n e x p l a i n i n g th e s i t u a t i o n , one m ust r u l e o u t th e h y p o th e s i s
t h a t th e r a t e o f s u c c e s s i n th e " b a c c a l a u r ^ a t " m ig h t be lo w e r f o r th e
s c i e n t i f i c s tr e a m th a n f o r l i t e r a r y s t r e a m s . A c t u a l l y , th e s u c c e s s
r a t e i n S c ie n c e s from 1972 to 1979 (42%) i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t
from t h a t i n H u m a n itie s (44%); and th e a b s o l u t e number o f c a n d i d a te s
a d m itte d f o r t h i s p e r io d i n s c i e n t i f i c s e c t i o n s (2 ,8 6 6 ) outnum bered
th o s e i n H u m a n itie s ( 2 ,0 6 1 ) .
269
One o f th e r e a s o n s why s t u d e n t s from s c i e n t i f i c s e c t i o n s a r e
n o t e n r o l l e d i n s c i e n t i f i c program s i n u n i v e r s i t i e s comes from th e f a c t
t h a t th e u n i v e r s i t i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e U n i v e r s i t y o f O uagadougou, u n
o f f i c i a l l y s e t s t a n d a r d s and r e q u ir e m e n ts t h a t th e s t u d e n t s , p a r t i c u
l a r l y th o s e from th e D s tr e a m , a r e u n a b le to s a t i s f y , w ith v e r y few
e x c e p t i o n s . F o r i n s t a n c e , m ost a p p l i c a n t s f o r m e d ic a l s t u d i e s a r e
r e f u s e d b e c a u s e o f t h e i r l e v e l i n m a th e m a tic s w h ich i s d e c l a r e d to o low
f o r su c h s t u d i e s . In d e e d , m e d ic a l s c h o o ls i n W est A f r i c a and p a r t i c u
l a r l y i n F ra n c e have e s t a b l i s h e d a h i g h l y s e l e c t i v e f i r s t c y c l e o f two
y e a r s w here s e l e c t i o n i s b a s e d on p e rfo rm a n c e i n M ath and P h y s i c s , a l
th o u g h s u b s e q u e n t c y c l e s o f s t u d i e s em p h asize B io lo g y and c l i n i c a l
p r a c t i c e . A t th e U n i v e r s i t y o f O uagadougou, many s t u d e n t s a r e d e
c l a r e d i n e p t i n M ath and P h y s ic s s t u d i e s , a l th o u g h th e y r e c e i v e d th e
l e g a l l y ( w r i t t e n i n th e u n i v e r s i t y b u l l e t i n ) a p p r o p r i a t e " b a c c a l a u r e a t
C ."
S i m i l a r l y , d e p a r tm e n ts s u c h a s Econom ics and G eography c o n s i d
e r e d so f a r and e ls e w h e re a s p r e d o m in a n tly l i t e r a r y , s o c i a l s c i e n c e
d i s c i p l i n e s , a r e r e f u s i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s from l i t e r a r y " b a c c a l a u r e a t "
h o ld e r s and lo o k in g f o r s c i e n t i f i c t r a c k s t u d e n t s . Even th e " b a c c a la u -
r ^ a t B" w hich h as b e e n s p e c i f i e d t o be an "eco n o m ics b a c c a l a u r e a t , " and
w hich i s l i s t e d i n f i r s t p o s i t i o n among th e o f f i c i a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e
" b a c c a l a u r e a t " s tre a m s r e q u i r e d by th e D ep artm en t o f E co n o m ics, i s n o t
i n f a c t a c c e p te d by t h i s l a t t e r . I t i s s a i d t o h av e a weak m a th e m a tic s
com ponent an d t h a t econom ics i s becom ing more and more " m a th e m a tiz e d ."
G eography, t o o , i s s a i d to become more and more " s c i e n t i f i c , " moving
from th e human a s p e c t s to th e p h y s i c a l a s p e c t s o f i t s r e a lm . To m ark
270
t h i s c h a n g e , th e s e c t i o n w h ich was u n t i l 1976 c o n n e c te d w ith th e H i s
t o r y s e c t i o n i n a s i n g l e d i s c i p l i n e ( H is to r y - a n d - G e o g r a p h y ) , h a s b een
d i s c o n n e c t e d . The g eo g ra p h y s e c t i o n r e c r u i t s m a in ly from s c i e n t i f i c
" b a c c a l a u r e a t " h o l d e r s , no more from l i t e r a r y s tre a m s a s th e H i s t o r y
s e c t i o n c o n tin u e s to d o , a lth o u g h m ost G eography te a c h e r s a t th e u n i
v e r s i t y th e m s e lv e s h o ld l i t e r a r y c r e d e n t i a l s and d e s p i t e th e f a c t t h a t
t e a c h e r s i n h ig h s c h o o ls a r e r e q u i r e d to te a c h G e o g ra p h y -a n d -H is to ry
a s a s i n g l e s u b j e c t a r e a .
T w o - th ird s o f th e 212 s t u d e n t s r e g i s t e r e d i n th e D ep artm en t o f
Econom ics f o r th e a ca d em ic y e a r 1980-1981 h o ld a s c i e n t i f i c (C and
m o s tly D) " b a c c a l a u r e a t , " and o n ly o n e - t h i r d h o ld th e s o - c a l l e d
"E conom ics b a c c a l a u r e a t " (B) o r th e " B u s in e s s Management b a c c a l a u r e a t "
( G ) . The o n ly s i n g l e " b a c c a l a u r e a t " (A) found i n t h i s d e p a rtm e n t i s
h e l d by a b u r e a u c r a t w ith a Law d e g re e w o rk in g i n th e c u s to m s .
Out o f 125 s t u d e n t s r e g i s t e r e d i n th e D ep artm en t o f G eography
f o r th e p r e s e n t ac a d e m ic y e a r , 80 (64%) h o ld a " b a c c a l a u r e a t " D o r C,
15 (12%) h o ld a " b a c c a l a u r e a t " B, and o n ly 27 (21.6% ) h o ld a " b a c c a
l a u r e a t " A - - th e re m a in in g 3 h av e b e e n a d m itt e d on s p e c i a l e x a m in a tio n
b a s i s , p r o b a b ly s c i e n t i f i c .
T hese r e q u ir e m e n ts by th e u n i v e r s i t y a r e u n o f f i c i a l , a lth o u g h
m ost o f t e n l a r g e l y d i s c u s s e d and s e t up in o f f i c i a l co m m itte e s ( e . g . ,
th e u n i v e r s i t y d e p a r t m e n t s ' a s s e m b l ie s o r th e u n i v e r s i t y a s s e m b ly ) .
They a r e made known o n ly by t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of th e u n i v e r s i t y d e
p a r tm e n ts a t th e N a ti o n a l O r i e n t a t i o n C om m ittee s e s s i o n s w here th e s e
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s e n jo y a s u b s t a n t i a l pow er and a r e t r y i n g to g e t m ore.
A s e c o n d , im p o r ta n t re a s o n why s c i e n t i f i c t r a c k s t u d e n t s a r e
271
n o t e n r o l l e d i n s c i e n t i f i c t r a i n i n g program s a s p la n n e r s w ould have
l i k e d them t o b e , i s r e l a t e d t o th e f i r s t r e a s o n j u s t exam ined and to
th e m anoeuvres o f i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t s i n o r d e r to ' ' f a l l 1 1 i n t o th e r i g h t
c a r e e r t r a c k .
M ost s t u d e n t s s e e k in g r e g i s t r a t i o n i n a D t r a c k a r e n o t t h a t
i n t e r e s t e d i n s c i e n t i f i c s t u d i e s an d a r e m e re ly happy w ith th e f a c u l t y ' s
d e c i s i o n to se n d them t o s e m i - s c i e n t i f i c d e p a rtm e n ts su c h as E conom ics,
w h ic h , we have s e e n , h as b e e n o f f e r i n g th e m ost a t t r a c t i v e c a r e e r s ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e th e m id -1 9 7 0 s. A s u rv e y o f a l l 1 2 th g r a d e r s ' c a r e e r
o r i e n t a t i o n s o v e r th e l a s t t h r e e y e a r s (1 9 7 8 -7 9 , 1 9 7 9 -8 0 , 1980-81) i n
d i c a t e s t h a t 25 p e r c e n t o f th e D s tr e a m s t u d e n t s w ould l i k e to e n t e r a
B u s in e s s o r Econom ics s c h o o l , 6 l p e r c e n t a Law s c h o o l , 25 p e r c e n t a
M e d ic a l, V e t e r i n a r y , D e n t i s t r y , o r C h e m is try p r o f e s s i o n , 25 p e r c e n t
v a r io u s s e c t i o n s o f E n g i n e e r in g , and o n ly 5 . 6 p e r c e n t a M ath o r e x p e r i
m e n ta l s c i e n c e s d e p a r tm e n t, t h a t i s p r o b a b ly a t e a c h i n g p r o f e s s i o n .
T h u s, th e u n i v e r s i t y f a c u l t y ' s em phasis on a ca d em ic s ta n d a r d s f o r
s c i e n t i f i c s t u d i e s d o es s e r v e th e c a r e e r g o a ls o f t h i s k in d o f s t u d e n t .
I n a s i m i l a r w ay, th e em p h asis o f th e f a c u l t y on acad em ic
s ta n d a r d s i n th e D ep artm en t o f H u m a n itie s h a s th e c o n t r a d i c t o r y e f f e c t
o f s e r v i n g th e c a r e e r g o a ls o f low p e r f o r m e rs from l i t e r a r y s tre a m s by
t r a c k i n g them to w ard d e p a rtm e n ts su ch a s Law w h ich has no p r e r e q u i s i t e s
from th e h ig h s c h o o l c u r r i c u l u m . T h is t r e n d was s y s t e m a t i c when t h e r e
was no Law p r o f e s s o r s i t t i n g a t th e co m m ittee s e s s i o n s an d a r g u in g f o r
some a c a d em ic s t a n d a r d s . The o l d e r , c l a s s i c a l H u m a n itie s ' p r o f e s s o r s
and t h e i r a l l i e s i n t h e s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l had b een s u c c e s s f u l i n c o n
v in c in g th e c o m m itte e t h a t some "A b a c c a l a u r e a t " h o ld e r s have no a b i l -
272
i t y f o r s tu d y in g H u m a n itie s and i n s u g g e s t i n g t h a t th e y b e s e n t t o Law
s c h o o l . T h is c o n tin u e d u n t i l th e day when th e co m m ittee members
(m o s tly t e a c h e r s ) r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e s e s t u d e n t s w ere a c t u a l l y g e t t i n g
t h e i r f i r s t c a r e e r c h o ic e by t h i s e l i m i n a t i o n p r o c e d u r e , and t h a t th e
b r i g h t s t u d e n t s f o r c e d i n t o H u m a n itie s w ere c o m p la in in g a b o u t t h e i r l o t
a s com pared w ith t h a t o f t h e i r l e s s s u c c e s s f u l f e ll o w s t u d e n t s . Such
c o m p la in ts gave th e o c c a s io n t o m o st c o m m itte e members to ta k e a lo o k
a t th e u n e x p e c te d c o n se q u e n c e s o f t h e i r b u r e a u c r a t i c t r e a t m e n t of
s o c i a l p ro b le m s , t o open a c o n s c io u s eye on some s o c i a l r e a l i t i e s and
c h a n g e s . F o r e x a m p le , w h ile i n 1971 30 p e r c e n t o f th e A s tr e a m s t u
d e n ts w ere w i l l i n g to e n t e r Law s c h o o l , and 35 p e r c e n t t o e n t e r v a r i o u s
l i t e r a r y s e c t i o n s , from 1978 t o 1980 46 p e r c e n t o f th e A s tr e a m s t u
d e n ts w ere p la n n in g t o e n t e r a Law s c h o o l and o n ly 6 p e r c e n t a l i t e r a r y
s e c t i o n ; t h a t i s , m ost p r o b a b ly a te a c h in g p r o f e s s i o n .
The em p h asis on ac a d e m ic s ta n d a r d s and a b i l i t i e s i s ' n o t a new
phenom enon, p a r t i c u l a r l y on th e p a r t o f t e a c h e r s - - t h e c o n t r a r y w ould
be r a t h e r s u r p r i s i n g . What i s new , h o w ev er, i n th e p r e s e n t c a s e i s
t h a t t h i s em p h asis on academ ic a b i l i t y i s becom ing i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d
and s y s t e m a tiz e d f o r e n t r y to th e U n i v e r s i t y o f O uagadougou. What is
aew i s t h a t t h e em p h asis on a ca d em ic a b i l i t i e s i s n o t d e r iv e d fro m h ig h
sc h o o l t e a c h e r s , b u t u n i v e r s i t y f a c u l t y m em bers. T h is r e p r e s e n t s som e
th in g new f o r th e N a t i o n a l O r i e n t a t i o n C o m m itte e --th e e x p r e s s i o n o f th e
r i s i n g pow er o f th e f a c u l t y i n th e C om m ittee; a s h i f t i n th e r e l a t i v e
Im p o rtan ce o f c r i t e r i a u se d by th e C om m ittee f o r o r i e n t i n g s t u d e n t s ;
and th e r e s u l t o f power s t r u g g l e to be a n a ly z e d i n more d e t a i l b e lo w .
i
273
S tr u g g l e f o r Power a t th e N a t i o n a l
O r i e n t a t i o n C om m ittee
The U n i v e r s i t y f a c u l t y i s le a d in g a pow er s t r u g g l e w i t h i n th e
N a t i o n a l O r i e n t a t i o n C om m ittee i n o r d e r to g e t t o t a l c o n t r o l o v e r d e
c i s i o n s c o n c e rn in g t h e t r a c k i n g o f s t u d e n t s ; t h a t i s , u l t i m a t e l y , th e
sy ste m o f s o c i a l r e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e b u r e a u c r a t i c s o c i e t y . T h is s t r u g
g le i s d o u b l e - b a r r e l e d , c o n s i s t i n g i n o b t a i n i n g f o r th e O r i e n t a t i o n
C om m ittee th e m onopoly o v e r th e p r o c e s s o f o r i e n t a t i o n ( t r a c k i n g ) , and
g iv i n g th e f a c u l t y t o t a l c o n t r o l o v e r th e p r o c e s s w i t h i n th e c o m m itte e .
CNO v e r s u s CNACB. The O r i e n t a t i o n C om m ittee (CNO) a s a w hole
i s le a d i n g a pow er s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t i t s l e g a l l y s u p e r i o r , y e t r i v a l
i n s t i t u t i o n - - t h e N a ti o n a l C om m ittee f o r th e G r a n tin g and C o n t r o l l i n g o f
S c h o la r s h i p s (CNACB). I n p r i n c i p l e th e O r i e n t a t i o n C om m ittee i s o n ly
a t e c h n i c a l i n s tr u m e n t a t th e d i s p o s a l o f th e CNACB, w h ic h h a s th e
pow er t o g r a n t o r r e f u s e s c h o l a r s h i p s to s t u d e n t s p r e v i o u s l y o r i e n t e d
by th e CNO, and t o a l t e r p r o p o s i t i o n s made by th e l a t t e r c o n c e r n in g
i n d i v i d u a l c a s e s i f i t deems i t n e c e s s a r y . Such a l t e r a t i o n s h av e o f t e n
o c c u r r e d i n some i n d i v i d u a l c a s e s ( g e n e r a l l y u n d e r p r e s s u r e from o t h e r
b u r e a u c r a t s p le a d i n g t h e i r r e l a t i v e s 1 c a s e s ) , t o th e g r e a t d i s s a t i s f a c
t i o n and a n g e r o f th e O r i e n t a t i o n C om m ittee m em bers. The l a t t e r com
p l a i n e d a b o u t th e s i t u a t i o n , c h a r g in g t h a t i t was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e
h ig h r a t e of f a i l u r e among fre sh m e n s tu d e n t s tr a c k e d to w ard m a jo rs f o r
w h ich th e y had n o t t h e r e q u i r e d ac a d e m ic a b i l i t i e s , and t h a t th e a l t e r
a t i o n s i n th e " d e c i s i o n s " of th e O r i e n t a t i o n C om m ittee was r e s p o n s i b l e
f o r th e a n a r c h i c s i t u a t i o n i n th e manpower p la n n in g (CNO, PV, 1980,
p p . 2 - 3 ) .
274
The O r i e n t a t i o n C om m ittee th o u g h t t h a t t h e r e w ere no r a t i o n a l
e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r s u c h i n t e r f e r e n c e i n i t s f i e l d o f co m p eten ce by th e
CNACB, b e s id e s th e f a c t t h a t th e CNO m eets o n ly once a y e a r ( g e n e r a l l y
i n F e b ru a ry o r M a rc h ), w h ile t h e CNACB m eets e v e ry q u a r t e r , th u s g i v
in g to s t u d e n t s d i s s a t i s f i e d w ith t h e i r o r i e n t a t i o n th e p r e t e x t to r e
in t r o d u c e t h e i r c a s e b e f o r e t h e o n ly o p e r a t i n g i n s t i t u t i o n - - t h e CNACB.
To p reem p t s u c h a p r e t e x t , th e CNO d e c id e d i n 1980 " u n a n im o u sly ” to
m eet tw ic e a y e a r a n d , t h e r e b y , m o n o p o liz e th e t e c h n i c a l r o l e o f ex am in
in g a l l a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r o r i e n t a t i o n o r r e - o r i e n t a t i o n .
Thi.s s t e p was im m e d ia te ly fo llo w e d by a n o t h e r , i n 1981, c o n
s i s t i n g o f t r y i n g to make th e O r i e n t a t i o n C om m ittee a n i n s t i t u t i o n
d i s t i n c t from th e CNACB. I n a r e c e n t l e t t e r a d d r e s s e d to th e O r i e n t a
t i o n C o m m ittee, th e M i n i s t e r o f H ig h e r E d u c a tio n , p r e s i d e n t of b o th th e
CNACB and th e CNO, h e e d in g t h e c la im s o f th e l a t t e r , made i t c l e a r t h a t
m e a su re s w ere u n d e r way t o g iv e th e O r i e n t a t i o n C om m ittee f u l l d e c i s i o n
m aking pow er f o r t r a c k i n g s t u d e n t s , w i t h o u t any p o s s i b l e a l t e r a t i o n by
th e CNACB (MESRS, l e t t r e , 1 9 8 1 ). To u n d e r s ta n d th e m eaning o f th e
pow er s t r u g g l e g o in g on b etw ee n th e CNACB and th e CNO, and th e a p p a r
e n t l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y p o s i t i o n o f th e M i n i s t e r o f H ig h e r E d u c a tio n p l a y
in g th e CNO a g a i n s t th e CNACB w h ile p r e s i d i n g o v e r b o th c o m m itte e s ,
one m ust lo o k a t th e c o m p o s itio n o f e a c h c o m m itte e .
The CNACB has a b r o a d e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . I t in c lu d e s r e p r e s e n
t a t i v e s o f m i n i s t r i e s su p p o se d t o be in v o lv e d i n t r a i n i n g and manpower
p roblem s (E d u c a tio n , P la n n i n g , and C i v i l S e r v i c e ) , two r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s
o f th e h ig h s c h o o l S t u d e n t s ' P a r e n t s A s s o c i a t i o n , two r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s
o f u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s , two r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f th e N a t i o n a l A ssem b ly ,
275
1 r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e h e a d o f s t a t e , and 1 r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e
head o f g o v e rn m e n t. The two l a t t e r and a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e u n i v e r
s i t y s t u d e n t s ' u n io n j o i n th e f o u r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f th e m i n i s t r i e s
m e n tio n e d ab o v e t o c o n s t i t u t e a p erm an en t S e c r e t a r i a t o f th e C o m m ittee.
The e x a c t a t t r i b u t i o n s o f t h i s p erm an en t S e c r e t a r i a t had n o t b een d e
f i n e d i n t h e new ly r e v i s e d d e c r e e c o n c e r n in g th e CNACB, b u t th e fo rm e r
p erm a n en t S e c r e t a r i a t ( th e n r e s t r i c t e d t o th e f o u r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f
th e m i n i s t r i e s o f E d u c a tio n , P la n n i n g , F in a n c e , an d C i v i l S e r v ic e )
h e l d th e r e a l d e c is io n - m a k in g pow er, exam ined th e a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r
s c h o l a r s h i p s b e f o r e th e y a r e p r o c e s s e d t o th e C om m ittee as a w h o le .
The l a t t e r was c o n t e n t w ith ex am in in g o n ly c a s e s w h ich had n o t r e c e iv e d
a p o s i t i v e d e c i s i o n on th e p a r t o f th e p erm a n en t S e c r e t a r i a t . The f o u r
members o f th e p e rm a n e n t S e c r e t a r i a t had th e same v e t o pow er a g a i n s t
any d e c i s i o n ta k e n by th e C om m ittee as a w h o le; th e p red o m in an ce o f
th e M i n i s t r y o f E d u c a tio n in th e p erm a n en t S e c r e t a r i a t and th e CNACB
come o n ly from th e f a c t t h a t , a s p r e s i d e n t , i t made th e d e c i s i o n in
c a s e o f a s p l i t v o t e .
The O r i e n t a t i o n C o m m ittee, f o r i t s p a r t , a l th o u g h s t i l l i n c l u d
in g th e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f th e h e a d s o f s t a t e and g o v e rn m e n t, c o m p rise s
more e d u c a tio n b u r e a u c r a t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y from th e u n i v e r s i t y s i n c e 1979.
A ll h e a d s o f u n i v e r s i t y d e p a rtm e n ts ( e i g h t f o r th e tim e b e in g ) a r e mem
b e r s o f th e O r i e n t a t i o n C o m m ittee, w ith o t h e r h i g h e r e d u c a tio n b u r e a u
c r a t s ( R e c t o r , D i r e c t o r o f S tu d e n t P e r s o n n e l o f f i c e , D i r e c t o r o f S c ie n
t i f i c and T e c h n ic a l R e s e a r c h , and th e M i n i s t e r of H ig h e r E d u c a tio n h im
s e l f p r e s i d i n g ) . The u n i v e r s i t y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s c o n s t i t u t e an o v e r
w helm ing m a j o r i t y (12 o u t o f a t o t a l o f 17 m em bers); e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e
276
th e d e c i s i o n s w i t h i n th e O r i e n t a t i o n C om m ittee a r e made by a n a b s o l u t e
m a j o r i t y o f th e members who a l l e n jo y th e same v o t i n g and d e c i s i o n
m aking pow er (RHV, d e c r e t 7 9 -3 9 6 , a r t i c l e 1 3 ) .
The r i s e o f th e u n i v e r s i t y f a c u l t y . (1) U n i v e r s i t y f a c u l t y
v e r s u s s e c o n d a ry e d u c a tio n t e a c h e r s and b u r e a u c r a t s - - t h e r e d e f i n i t i o n
o f a ca d em ic a b i l i t y . T e a c h e rs an d e d u c a tio n b u r e a u c r a t s have so f a r
r e p r e s e n t e d th e o verw helm ing m a j o r i t y i n th e O r i e n t a t i o n C om m ittee b e
c a u s e o f a g e n e r a l b e l i e f t h a t o r i e n t a t i o n i s m a in ly a m a t t e r o f e v a l u
a t i n g s t u d e n t s ' a b i l i t i e s t o u n d e r ta k e a ca d em ic s t u d i e s , once th e
n a t i o n 's g e n e r a l n eed s h a v e b e e n made known. Members from o t h e r d e p a r t
m ents came t o th e O r i e n t a t i o n C om m ittee s e s s i o n s r e l u c t a n t l y and p r e
f e r r e d t o w a i t f o r th e CNACB s e s s i o n s , w hich w ere p e r c e iv e d as more
im p o r ta n t s i n c e i t was t h e r e t h a t d e c i s i o n s w ere ta k e n f o r g r a n t i n g o r
r e f u s i n g s c h o l a r s h i p s to new as w e l l a s i n - t r a i n i n g s t u d e n t s .
What i s new i n th e p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n , h o w ev er, i s th e f a c t t h a t
th e p r o f e s s i o n a l q u a l i t y o f e d u c a tio n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s on th e C om m ittee
h a s c h a n g e d , p a s s in g from s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l t o u n i v e r s i t y b u r e a u c r a t s
and a c a d e m ic s . The w o rk in g m ethods and c o n c e p ts hav e a l s o c h a n g e d .
Academic a b i l i t y h a s b e e n r e d e f i n e d from i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t 's a c h i e v e
m ents t o g l o b a l f i t n e s s o f h ig h s c h o o l t r a c k s .
The c r e a t i o n , i n 1978, o f a M i n i s t r y o f H ig h e r E d u c a tio n s e p a
r a t e from th e M i n i s t r y o f E d u c a tio n now l i m i t e d t o s e c o n d a ry and e l e
m e n tary p ro b le m s , has q u ic k e n e d t h i s p r o c e s s o f ta k e - o v e r of th e O r i e n
t a t i o n C om m ittee by th e u n i v e r s i t y f a c u l t y , e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e s u c c e s s i v e
heads o f th e M i n i s t r y o f H ig h e r E d u c a tio n have th e m s e lv e s b e e n f a c u l t y
277
members and k e e p on te a c h in g a t th e u n i v e r s i t y w h ile i n o f f i c e . They
h av e to do s o i f th e y w ant t o p r e s e r v e t h e i r aca d em ic c a r e e r , p r e s e n t l y
more s t a b l e and s e c u r e th a n a governm ent o f f i c e . I n d e e d , c o n t r a r y to
o t h e r c i v i l s e r v a n t s who k e e p t h e i r p o s i t i o n s and th e a d v a n ta g e s a t
ta c h e d t o them i n t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n s w h ile i n a gov ern m en t o f f i c e , u n i
v e r s i t y f a c u l t y a r e bound t o l o s e t h e i r p o s i t i o n a l t o g e t h e r , and th e
a d v a n ta g e s a t t a c h e d t h e r e t o i f th e y s t e p o u t o f th e u n i v e r s i t y f o r any
o t h e r s o c i a l v e n t u r e - - a p p o in tm e n t t o th e f a c u l t y b e in g s u b j e c t e d t o th e
a v a i l a b i l i t y o f a c o r r e s p o n d in g te a c h i n g p o s i t i o n , n o t a p e rm a n e n t t i t l e
and r i g h t .
U n t i l 1979, s e c o n d a ry e d u c a tio n p e r s o n n e l made up th e o v e r
w helm ing m a j o r i t y o f th e O r i e n t a t i o n ..Com m ittee. A lth o u g h t h e i r num bers
v a r i e d o v e r th e y e a r s , th e y c o n s t i t u t e d a b o u t t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f th e
co m m ittee m em bers, g a t h e r i n g m o s tl y p r i n c i p a l s o f s e n i o r h ig h s c h o o l s ,
p r i v a t e and p u b l i c a l i k e , and s e n i o r te a c h e r s ( " p r o f e s s e u r s p r i n c i p a u x " )
o f eac h s u b j e c t m a t t e r a r e a . D e c is io n s w ere made on th e b a s i s o f t e a c h
e r s ' g r a d e s , p r i n c i p a l s and c l a s s c o u n c i l s ' e v a l u a t i o n s g iv e n t o an
i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t o v e r th e l a s t two y e a r s . S in c e 1979, th e h ead s of
th e u n i v e r s i t y d e p a rtm e n ts h av e r e p la c e d th e h ig h s c h o o l p r i n c i p a l s and
t e a c h e r s and c h a lle n g e d t h e w hole h ig h s c h o o l te a c h in g an d g r a d in g s y s
tem by p u t t i n g s e v e r e r e s t r i c t i o n s on w hole t r a c k s a s u n s u i t a b l e t r a i n
in g f o r t h e e n t r y t o some u n i v e r s i t y d e p a r tm e n ts .
The f a c u l t y , and o t h e r b u r e a u c r a t s o f th e C o m m ittee, f e e l more
i n c l i n e d t o c a s t a g e n e r a l d i s t r u s t on th e p re v io u s m ethod o f o r i e n t a
t i o n as no homogenous g r a d in g s y s te m e x i s t s f o r th e d i f f e r e n t s e c o n d a ry
s c h o o ls , and a s n o t a b l e d i s c r e p a n c i e s h av e b e e n o b s e r v e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y
278
b e tw e e n p u b l i c and p r i v a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s . I t h a s b e e n n o te d t h a t th e
l a t t e r had a te n d e n c y t o i n f l a t e g ra d e s and e v a l u a t i o n s o f t h e i r s t u
d e n t s so t h a t th e y c o u ld g e t t h e b e s t jo b s and th e r e b y enhance th e
s o c i a l p r e s t i g e o f t h e i r "alm a m a tr e s " (CNO, M arch 1979, p . 5 4 ) .
On th e o th e r h a n d , th e r e s t r i c t i o n s p u t b y t h e f a c u l t y on c e r
t a i n k in d s o f h ig h s c h o o l t r a c k s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e D t r a c k , a r e n o t
t o t a l l y a r b i t r a r y . The c o m b in a tio n o f t e s t s and t h e i r w e ig h tin g makes
i t e a s y f o r a s o - c a l l e d s c i e n t i f i c t r a c k s t u d e n t t o be a d m itte d t o h i s
e x a m in a tio n th a n k s o n ly to th e l i t e r a r y com ponents o f th e s e t o f t e s t s ,
com ponents r e n d e r e d e a s i e r a s th e y a r e n o t th e m a jo r fo c u s o f th e
t r a c k . S tu d e n ts th u s p a s s in g t h e i r e x a m in a tio n s c a n n o t r e a s o n a b l y be
e x p e c te d t o p u rs u e s c i e n t i f i c s t u d i e s - - a n d , a g a i n , may n o t be w i l l i n g
t o . Some s t u d e n t s o f D t r a c k r e g i s t e r e d a t t h e IMP f o r s t u d i e s i n
P h y s ic s a n d s e e k in g r e o r i e n t a t i o n to w ard Econom ics j u s t c o n firm th e
f a c u l t y ' s p o s i t i o n a s to th e r e s t r i c t i o n s p u t on th e D t r a c k . One,
f o r i n s t a n c e , w ro te i n Ju n e 1978: " I was i n a D t r a c k b u t had b e e n
tr a c k e d to w ard IMP. So I c a n n o t k e e p up w ith s t u d i e s i n M ath, P h y s i c s ,
g
an d C h e m is try . I t h e r e f o r e r e q u e s t my r e o r i e n t a t i o n to w ard Econom ics."
The q u e s t i o n w hich th e n a r i s e s is why th e u n i v e r s i t y , l e g a l l y
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f th e " b a c c a l a u r e a t , " and w h ich a l
r e a d y re fo rm e d t h i s e x a m in a tio n t o make i t more s e l e c t i v e , does n o t
ta k e m e asu re s to a d j u s t th e h ig h s c h o o l t r a c k s and c u r r ic u lu m t o th e
U n i v e r s i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s , as i t has b e e n r e q u e s t e d t o do by some com
m i t t e e members (CNO, PV, 1979, p . 5 4 ) .
The b e s t e x p l a n a t i o n to t h i s a p p a r e n t l y i n c o h e r e n t a t t i t u d e on
th e p a r t o f th e f a c u l t y and u n i v e r s i t y b u r e a u c r a t s i s t h a t th e y a r e n o t
279
p r e s e n t l y r e a d y o r w i l l i n g t o u n d e r ta k e d e e p re fo rm s o f th e f a u l t y
e d u c a t i o n a l s y ste m as a w h o le , w ith a p o t e n t i a l r i s k f o r t h e i r aca d em ic
c a r e e r i n t e r e s t s , and p a r t i c u l a r l y t o a n t a g o n iz e th e F re n c h b o u r g e o i
s i e . As a l r e a d y s a i d , th e " b a c c a l a u r e a t " i s c o p ie d fro m , s p o n s o re d ,
and " g u a r a n te e d " by F r a n c e . The F re n c h c u r r ic u lu m and e d u c a t i o n a l s y s
tem i s c o n s id e r e d t o be th e s t a n d a r d c u r r ic u lu m and e d u c a t i o n a l s y ste m
by V o lta n b u r e a u c r a t s i n c l u d i n g th e w o u ld -b e o n e s . I n d e e d , 5 6 .4 p e r
c e n t o f th e s t u d e n t sam ple s u rv e y e d f o r th e p r e s e n t s tu d y re s p o n d e d
t h a t th e y p r e f e r r e d th e p r e s e n t l e g a l v a l i d i t y of V o lta n d ip lo m a s w ith
F re n c h d ip lo m a s , i n c l u d i n g i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s a b o u t th e i d e n t i t y o f c u r
r ic u lu m and e d u c a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e . O nly 4 1 .5 p e r c e n t w ould l i k e th e
a l t e r n a t i v e o f th e e q u i v a le n c y s y ste m w ith more autonom y i n th e c u r r i c
ulum and e d u c a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s . As a l r e a d y s a i d i n C h a p te r I , th e
f u l l v a l i d i t y o f V o lta n u n i v e r s i t y d ip lo m a s i n c l u d i n g th e b a c c a l a u r e a t
w ith F re n c h d ip lo m a s h a s b e e n p r e f e r r e d by t h e V o lta n e d u c a t i o n a l b u
r e a u c r a t s t o th e e q u i v a le n c e o f t h e s e r e s p e c t i v e d ip lo m a s p ro p o s e d by
F ra n c e i n 1970. I f F ra n c e c a n be e x p e c te d to a d m it s l i g h t re fo rm s
t o s o lv e i n t e r n a l s o c i a l c o n t r o l p ro b le m s , a s i t d id f o r th e 1978 r e
form (exam ined -in t h e p r e v io u s c h a p t e r ) , i t i s n o t c e r t a i n t h a t i t
w ould a c c e p t d e e p e r re fo rm s and s t i l l a c c e p t th e f u l l v a l i d i t y o f th e
V o lta n d ip lo m a s . I n d e e d , F ra n c e had a c c e p te d th e 1978 r e fo rm as
e a s i l y as i n f a c t i t had b e e n p r e s e n te d to i t by th e V o lta n u n i v e r s i t y
a n d s t a t e b u r e a u c r a t s a s e s s e n t i a l l y a im in g t o r e i n f o r c e F re n c h i n th e
1 2 th g ra d e (U .O ., C om m ission M ix te , 1 9 7 9 ). As f o r th e F t r a c k ( i n d u s
t r i a l e n g i n e e r in g ) w h ich c o n s t i t u t e s f o r th e C om m ittee members an em
b a r r a s s m e n t i n c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f th e l e v e l and rh y th m o f i n d u s t r i a l i z a
280
t i o n o f th e c o u n t r y , i t m ust b e n o te d t h a t i t s re fo rm w ould r u n i n t o
th e i n t e r n a t i o n a l pow ers s p o n s o r in g th e E u ro p e a n D evelopm ent Fund (FED)
and UNESCO. T h ese two o r g a n i z a t i o n s h av e i n v e s t e d fro m 1974 t o 1976
as much fu n d (1 .5 b i l l i o n CFA f r a n c s ) f o r th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e v o c a
t i o n a l h ig h s c h o o l , and p a r t i c u l a r l y t h i s F t r a c k a s th e y had e v e r
i n v e s t e d i n th e w h o le V o lta n e d u c a t i o n a l s y s te m i n 12 y e a r s (a b o u t
1 ,555 b i l l i o n CFA f r a n c s by th e FED and th e UNDP, from 1960 t o 1971)
(MEN, P l a n i f i c a t i o n , 1976, p . 3 0 ) .
(2) A cadem ic a b i l i t y v e r s u s a g e . I n t h e i r a t te m p t s to c o n t r o l
th e O r i e n t a t i o n C om m ittee and im pose t h e i r own norm s, th e u n i v e r s i t y
f a c u l t y and b u r e a u c r a t s a n t a g o n iz e o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l g ro u p s , p a r t i c u
l a r l y th e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e p la n n in g d e p a rtm e n t and th e s t u d e n t
p e r s o n n e l o f f i c e r s . The two l a t t e r g ro u p s a r g u e t h a t th e c r i t e r i a
u s e d by th e u n i v e r s i t y (and som etim es m o tiv a te d by la c k o f s p a c e , as
we h av e a l r e a d y s e e n ) a r e to o s e l e c t i v e i n c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f th e n eed s
e x p r e s s e d b o th by th e p la n and by th e num ber o f s t u d e n t s who a r e t o be
t r a c k e d e ls e w h e re s i n c e th e y m eet th e o f f i c i a l r e q u ir e m e n ts t o b e n e f i t
from a s t a t e s c h o l a r s h i p .
The u n i v e r s i t y f a c u l t y deem t h e s e r e q u ir e m e n ts to o l o o s e , and
th e M i n i s t r y o f H ig h e r E d u c a tio n i s p r e s e n t l y w o rk in g on s t i l l more
s e l e c t i v e c r i t e r i a b a s e d on h i g h e r ac a d e m ic a c h ie v e m e n t s i m i l a r to
th o s e p r e v i o u s l y r e q u i r e d f o r th e l o n g - c y c l e t r a c k o f th e ENS, f o r th e
o b t a i n i n g o f a s c h o l a r s h i p .
The e n t r y of t h e u n i v e r s i t y f a c u l t y i n t o th e O r i e n t a t i o n Com
m i t t e e an d t h e i r em p h asis on aca d em ic a b i l i t y and a c h ie v e m e n t, a l
th o u g h in c o n g r u e n t and somewhat m a n i p u l a t i v e , r e p r e s e n t s a new and
281
im p o r ta n t e le m e n t i n o r i e n t a t i o n p o l i c y fo llo w e d so f a r by th e s t a t e
b u r e a u c r a t s and adds a new d im e n s io n to th e pow er s t r u g g l e g o in g on
b etw ee n th e s e b u r e a u c r a t s an d th e r e s t o f th e p o p u l a t i o n and among
th e s e b u r e a u c r a t s th e m s e l v e s .
A g a in , th e c r i t e r i o n d e c l a r e d to be th e m ost im p o r ta n t i n th e
t r a c k i n g of s t u d e n t s i s th e s o - c a l l e d n a t i o n n e e d s . The p o l i t i c a l
r u l i n g f a c t i o n o f th e b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s and th e p r o f e s s i o n a l g ro u p o f
p la n n e r s r i t u a l l y r e f e r to t h i s c r i t e r i o n , a lth o u g h a l l know t h a t i t i s
n o t b a se d on r e l i a b l e in f o r m a tio n a b o u t w hat th e s e n e e d s a r e .
Once t h i s c r i t e r i o n i s q u ic k ly m e n tio n e d and i t s a b s e n c e r i t -
u a l i s t i c a l l y bem ourned, th e b u r e a u c r a t s i n c h a rg e o f t r a c k i n g th e
w o u ld -b e b u r e a u c r a t s r u s h to th e c r i t e r i o n o f a ca d em ic a b i l i t y , once
a g a i n to f i n d o u t t h a t t h e i r own t e s t i n g in s tr u m e n ts a r e n o t r e l i a b l e
enough and a r e n o t i n tu n e w ith o f f i c i a l l y p ro c la im e d o b j e c t i v e s .
A t h i r d c r i t e r i o n a l s o u se d i s t h e s t u d e n t 's e x p r e s s e d c h o ic e
o f , o r " m o ti v a ti o n " f o r a c a r e e r . We h av e s e e n i n th e exam ple of ENS
and IMP s t u d e n t s how t h i s c r i t e r i o n i s d e a l t w ith b o th by s t u d e n t s ,
s t a t e b u r e a u c r a t s , and a c a d e m ic s . The n e x t c h a p t e r w i l l g iv e an o v e r
v iew o f th e r e l a t i v e im p o rta n c e o f th e t h r e e o f f i c i a l c r i t e r i a f o r
s t u d e n t o r i e n t a t i o n . F o r t h e tim e b e i n g , s u f f i c e t o s a y t h a t " m o tiv a
t i o n " i s th e c r i t e r i o n l e a s t ta k e n i n t o a c c o u n t f o r th e t r a c k i n g o f
s t u d e n t s to w ard th e d i f f e r e n t p r o f e s s i o n s a v a i l a b l e .
In r e g a r d to th e i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f th e o f f i c i a l c r i t e r i a f o r
o r i e n t a t i o n , th e s t a t e b u r e a u c r a t s d e v e lo p e d an u n o f f i c i a l one w hich
so f a r has b een more e f f e c t i v e th a n th e o f f i c i a l o n e s . T h is u n o f f i c i a l
282
c r i t e r i o n i s th e age o f th e a p p l i c a n t f o r a s c h o l a r s h i p and an o r i e n t a
t i o n .
T h e re i s a d e c r e e s e t t i n g th e age l i m i t s f o r b e in g e l i g i b l e f o r
a s t a t e s c h o l a r s h i p and f o r th e d i f f e r e n t c y c l e s o f s t u d i e s --1 4 y e a r s
maximum f o r th e e n t r y to th e " ly c ^ e " ( lo n g - c y c l e h ig h s c h o o l ) ; 15 y e a r s
f o r th e e n t r y to th e "CEG" o r " c o u r s norm aux" ( s h o r t - c y c l e h ig h s c h o o l ) ;
22 y e a r s maximum f o r e n t r y to th e u n i v e r s i t y ; and 27 f o r g r a d u a te s t u d
i e s . B ut t h e r e a r e no s i m i l a r d i s p o s i t i o n s f o r t r a c k i n g u n i v e r s i t y
s t u d e n t s to w ard th e d i f f e r e n t m a jo rs and p r o f e s s i o n s - - e x c e p t f o r th e
s h o r t - c y c l e o f th e t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s . H ow ever, th e members of
th e O r i e n t a t i o n C om m ittee h av e b e e n c o n s t a n t l y and u n t i l r e c e n t l y r e
f e r r i n g t o a g e a s a n im p o r t a n t , i n f a c t f o r a lo n g w h i l e , th e m ost im
p o r t a n t c r i t e r i o n f o r c a r e e r o r i e n t a t i o n . T y p ic a l o f th e a g e - b a s e d
w o rk in g m ethod o f th e co m m ittee i s th e f o ll o w i n g s t a t e m e n t c o n ta in e d
i n th e m in u te s o f th e c o m m itte e m e e tin g s : "The d i r e c t o r o f th e B ureau
o f I n f o r m a t io n and O r i e n t a t i o n a s k e d w h e th e r , as i n th e p a s t two y e a r s ,
young s t u d e n t s m ig h t g e t th e t r a i n i n g r e q u e s te d i n th e f i r s t p o s i t i o n "
(CNO, PV, M arch 1979, p . 2 ) .
The d i r e c t o r i s r e f e r r i n g to th e p r a c t i c e he found a t h i s a r
r i v a l a t th e o f f i c e two y e a r s b e f o r e and had b e e n e x p e r i e n c in g s i n c e
th e n ; b u t , i n f a c t , th e p r a c t i c e goes back beyond t h a t . E v a l u a ti o n s
by te a c h e r s found i n s t u d e n t s ’ a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r s c h o l a r s h i p i n 1965,
1967, and 1971 r e a d "young s t u d e n t . Can u n d e r ta k e lo n g s t u d i e s " ;
" A v e ra g e , b u t may go f u r t h e r i n h i s s t u d i e s b e c a u s e o f h i s young a g e . "
The arg u m e n t i s t h a t ag e i s i m p l i c i t l y c o r r e l a t e d w ith a ca d em ic p e r
fo rm a n c e , p a s t a s w e ll as f u t u r e . T e a c h e rs and e d u c a tio n a d m i n i s t r a t o r s
283
c o n s i d e r t h a t y o u n g e r s t u d e n t s h av e done b e t t e r i n t h e i r p r e v io u s
s c h o o l e x p e r ie n c e th a n o l d e r e l e m e n t s , a n d , t h e r e f o r e , a r e l i k e l y t o
do b e t t e r i n th e f u t u r e .
How ever, a s w i l l be s e e n in th e n e x t c h a p t e r , t h i s a s s u m p tio n
on th e p a r t o f t e a c h e r s and e d u c a tio n a d m i n i s t r a t o r s i s n o t s u p p o r te d
by th e d a t a a v a i l a b l e c o n c e r n in g th e a ca d em ic a c h ie v e m e n t o f s t u d e n t s
o f d i f f e r e n t ag es .
A n o th e r r e a s o n why e d u c a t i o n a l and o t h e r s t a t e b u r e a u c r a t s
a t t a c h an im p o rta n c e to ag e i s t h e i r d e s i r e to h av e young s t u d e n t s who
would d e v o te a l a r g e r s h a r e o f t h e i r a c t i v e l i f e t o th e c i v i l s e r v i c e .
The age l i m i t f o r r e c r u i t m e n t i n t o th e c i v i l s e r v i c e i s 30 y e a r s . The
t r a i n i n g o f an a d m i n i s t r a t o r , a la w y e r o r a n e n g i n e e r ta k e s a t l e a s t
s i x y e a r s . The t r a i n i n g o f a m e d ic a l d o c t o r ta k e s one more y e a r , and
two to t h r e e more y e a r s f o r f u l l u n i v e r s i t y t e a c h e r s , i f th e s t u d e n t
does n o t r e p e a t an a ca d em ic y e a r . As m ost s t u d e n t s b e g in t h e i r u n i v e r
s i t y s t u d i e s a t 2 2 , i t i s e a s y to u n d e r s ta n d t h a t th e y hav e t r o u b l e in
m e e tin g th e ag e l i m i t re q u ir e m e n ts f o r r e c r u i t m e n t i n t o th e c i v i l s e r
v i c e . T h is was p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e i n th e e a r l i e r p e r io d o f in d e p e n
d e n c e . E x c e p tio n a l m e a su re s w ere th e n ta k e n to s e t t h i s age l i m i t a t
33 f o r u n i v e r s i t y - e d u c a t e d c a d r e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e p h y s ic i a n s and
u n i v e r s i t y t e a c h e r s a n d , c o n c o m ita n tly , th e r e t i r e m e n t age a t 60 i n
s t e a d o f 5 5 , th e n o rm al ag e f o r o t h e r c i v i l s e r v a n t s . B u t, i n a d e v e l
o p in g A f r i c a n c o u n tr y l i k e U pper V o lta w here l i f e e x p e c ta n c y is r a t h e r
low (35 y e a r s i n 1960 and 39 in 1 9 7 7 ), th e s e m e asu re s do n o t s o lv e th e
r e a l p ro b lem o f ag e and tim e t o d e v o te to an i n s t i t u t i o n .
H ow ever, one can q u e s t i o n th e r a t i o n a l e f o r d raw in g th e s e l e c -
284
t i o n l i n e f o r u n i v e r s i t y s t u d i e s a t 23 i n s t e a d o f 24 o r 2 5 , p a r t i c u
l a r l y when a p p a r e n t l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y m e asu re s a r e ta k e n to s e t th e
minimum s c h o o l ag e a t s e v e n i n th e p u b l i c s c h o o ls and e n f o r c e i t o n ly
on c h i l d r e n from r u r a l a r e a s and w o rk in g c l a s s m i l i e u .
I n f a c t , th e p r a c t i c e a llo w s them t o l e g i t i m i z e th e a u t h o r i t a
t i v e im p o s i t i o n o f l e s s a t t r a c t i v e tho u g h n e c e s s a r y an d v i t a l jo b s on
s t u d e n t s from d o m in a te d c l a s s e s and t o g r a n t m ore freed o m o f c h o ic e t o
s t u d e n t s from d o m in an t c l a s s e s .
C u r io u s ly , th e s t u d e n t s 1 u n io n , w h ich l i k e s to s e e i t s e l f as
a r a d i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , h as b een b a t t l i n g a g a i n s t th e p r i n c i p l e o f ag e
a s an im p o r ta n t c r i t e r i o n f o r g r a n t i n g a s c h o l a r s h i p b u t n o t f o r t r a c k
in g s t u d e n t s . H ere i s t h e c l e a r e s t s ta t e m e n t o f t h e i r p o i n t o f v ie w .
C o n s id e r in g t h a t t h e s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l , s o c i o - c u l t u r a l and s o c i o
econom ic d e v e lo p m e n t i s b a s i c a l l y a f u n c t i o n o f th e d ev elo p m en t
and th e r a i s i n g o f th e l e v e l o f e d u c a tio n i n d e v e lo p in g c o u n
t r i e s l i k e U pper V o l t a , - - c o n s i d e r i n g t h a t we h av e w i t n e s s e d ,
w ith th e g r e a t e s t i n d i g n a t i o n , t h a t th e O r i e n t a t i o n C om m ittee
g e n e r a l l y t r a c k s th e l e a s t a b l e h ig h s c h o o l g r a d u a te s s t a y i n g
i n th e a g e - l i m i t s to w ard te a c h i n g in th e C E G ;- - c o n s id e r in g t h a t
s t u d e n t s 23 o r 24 y e a r s o l d , who may h av e b e e n b r i g h t e le m e n ts ,
a r e n o t g r a n te d s c h o l a r s h i p ; - - c o n s i d e r i n g on th e one hand t h a t
th e CEG t e a c h e r i s t r a i n e d i n o n ly two y e a r s ; and c o n s i d e r i n g
on th e o t h e r hand t h a t th e CEG te a c h e r m ust be a b l e to te a c h
a l l s c i e n t i f i c and l i t e r a r y s u b j e c t m a t t e r , a c c o r d in g to h i s
s p e c i a l t y ; We, V o lta n s t u d e n t s , r e q u e s t w ith i n s i s t e n c e t h a t
th e C om m ittee f o r th e G r a n tin g o f S c h o la r s h i p s do w h a te v e r n e c
e s s a r y t o g e t th e O r i e n t a t i o n C om m ittee t o r e v i s e th e c r i t e r i a
u se d f o r t r a c k i n g to w a rd CEG t e a c h i n g , so t h a t h ig h s c h o o l
g r a d u a t e s 23 o r 24 y e a r s o ld who h a v e p e rfo rm e d w e l l d u r in g
th e l a s t two y e a r s , be o r i e n t e d to w ard CEG t e a c h i n g . T h is i s
n e c e s s a r y i f we a r e to p r e v e n t th e CEG's from becom ing t r a s h
i n s t e a d o f b e in g e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s w here th e s t u d e n t
r e c e i v e s an e d u c a tio n and i n s t r u c t i o n c o r r e s p o n d in g to th e
e x p e c t a t i o n s o f h i s p a r e n t s and th e e n t i r e n a t i o n . (CNACB,
PV, J u l y 1970, p . 16)
The p r o p o s a l by th e s t u d e n t s 1 u n io n w a s, i n f a c t , f i v e y e a r s
l a t e b e c a u s e o f f i c i a l m e a su re s had b een ta k e n " i n f a v o r " n o t o n ly o f
285
th e s t u d e n t s tr a c k e d to w ard th e "CEG" s e c t i o n , b u t o f a l l s t u d e n t s
tr a c k e d to w ard te a c h in g i n g e n e r a l in o r d e r to k eep th e p r o f e s s i o n from
d y in g f o r la c k o f v o l u n t a r y e n r o l l m e n t s .
Summary
The c r e a t i o n o f t h e Ouagadougou U n i v e r s i t y d e p a rtm e n ts and th e
a l l o c a t i o n o f s t u d e n t s in th e s e d e p a rtm e n ts a r e n o t sm ooth p r o c e s s e s .
They a r e r a t h e r a h i g h l y c o n f l i c t u a l p r o c e s s o p p o sin g v a r i o u s i n t e r e s t
g ro u p s s t r u g g l i n g to p r e s e r v e and en h an ce t h e i r c a r e e r i n t e r e s t s and
a d v a n ta g e s .
The d u r a t i o n , n a t u r e , and c o n t e n ts o f th e c o u rs e o f f e r i n g s o f
th e u n i v e r s i t y d e p a rtm e n ts a r e d e te rm in e d i n f u n c t i o n o f th e c a r e e r
o p p o r t u n i t i e s th e s e t r a i n i n g s o f f e r to th e c o n c e rn e d b u r e a u c r a t s and
a c a d e m ic s . They a r e n o t d e te rm in e d i n f u n c t i o n o f th e s p e c i f i c p r o b
lems to be s o lv e d f o r th e b e n e f i t o f s u p p o s e d ly c o n c e rn e d s o c i a l g ro u p s
( p e a s a n t s , b u s in e s s m e n , and s t u d e n t s ) .
The s t r u g g l e f o r a d v a n ta g e s b etw een th e v a r i o u s i n t e r e s t g ro u p s
e x p r e s s e s i t s e l f th ro u g h d i f f e r e n t m anoeuvres on th e p a r t o f th e s e
g ro u p s t o c o n t r o l th e l e g a l in s tr u m e n t o f o c c u p a tio n a l t r a c k i n g and
im pose th e c r i t e r i a to be u se d f o r t h i s t r a c k i n g .
In th e a b s e n c e o f o b j e c t i v e c r i t e r i a f o r t r a c k i n g s t u d e n t s
to w ard d i f f e r e n t o c c u p a t i o n s , th e age c r i t e r i o n has b een th e d o m in an t
f a c t o r o f t r a c k i n g ; t h i s c r i t e r i o n i s , i n f a c t , th e one w h ich b e s t
s e r v e s th e b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s ' s i n t e r e s t s . In d e e d , a s s e e n i n C h a p te r
V, th e c h i l d r e n o f th e b u r e a u c r a t s a r e more l i k e l y to r e a c h th e u n i v e r
s i t y a t a y o u n g e r age th a n th e c h i l d r e n o f th e p e a s a n ts and w o r k e r s .
286
The l a t t e r a r e p r e v e n te d from e n t e r i n g th e p u b li c s c h o o l b e f o r e a
r e l a t i v e l y o l d e r a g e , and a r e , t h e r e f o r e , l i k e l y to be a s s i g n e d th e
unw anted l o w e r - s t a t u s o c c u p a t i o n s .
287
NOTES
The f i r s t ENS s t u d e n t s p a r t i c u l a r l y r e c a l l a much h e a te d d e
b a t e t h a t to o k p la c e a t th e C ours N orm al d es J e u n e s F i l l e s (CNJF) by
m id -J a n u a ry 1966 b etw een s t u d e n t s and e d u c a t i o n a l b u r e a u c r a t s (nam ely
th e CNJF d i r e c t o r and th e ENS p e d a g o g ic a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d i r e c
t o r s ) . The e d u c a t i o n a l b u r e a u c r a t s th e n t r i e d t o c o n v in c e th e s t u
d e n ts t h a t i t was i n th e b e s t i n t e r e s t o f th e c o u n tr y t h a t th e y become
"CEG" t e a c h e r s , b e c a u s e t h i s k in d o f t e a c h e r was more n eed ed th a n
" s o p h i s t i c a t e d h e a r t - s u r g e r y s p e c i a l i s t s . "
I t m ust be n o te d t h a t su c h a d i s c u s s i o n was n o t th e p rim a ry
o b j e c t i v e o f th e m e e tin g in te n d e d t o h e l p s t u d e n t s draw w ith th e
f a c u l t y some p e d a g o g ic a l le s s o n s from t h e i r one w e e k 's i n t e r n s h i p as
w o u ld -b e te a c h e r s i n d i f f e r e n t h ig h s c h o o l c l a s s e s o f th e c a p i t o l c i t y .
2 /
S k i n n e r 's s u rv e y o f L ycee P h i l i p p e Z in d a K abore s t u d e n t s was
done a t a moment when t h e r e was l i t t l e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n b etw ee n th e
d i f f e r e n t c a r e e r s o f f e r e d to u n i v e r s i t y g r a d u a t e s and when s t u d e n t s
had r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r fre e d o m f o r t h e i r c a r e e r c h o i c e .
T h is r e l a t i v e freed o m may be a t t r i b u t e d to th e f a c t t h a t th e
r u l i n g f a c t i o n o f th e b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s was a c t u a l l y more p r e o c c u p ie d
w ith r e i n f o r c i n g i t s p o l i t i c a l pow er th a n i n r e p r o d u c in g i t s e l f .
The p ro b lem o f r e p r o d u c t i o n o f th e b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s was
r e a l l y p o sed w ith th e c o o p t a t i o n by th e r u l i n g f a c t i o n o f u n i v e r s i t y -
e d u c a te d b u r e a u c r a t s o f th e e a r l i e r p o s t- in d e p e n d e n c e p e r i o d , th o s e
v e r y i n t e l l e c t u a l s who w ere b l a s t i n g th e reg im e j u s t a c o u p le o f y e a r s
b e f o r e .
T h ese u n i v e r s i t y - e d u c a t e d b u r e a u c r a t s w ere w e ll p la c e d to
r e a l i z e th e im p o rta n c e o f c o n t r o l l i n g th e p r o c e s s o f s o c i a l and p o
l i t i c a l r e p r o d u c t i o n o f th e fo rth c o m in g pow er e l i t e .
T h u s, S k in n e r la c k e d - - a n d t h i s was i n e v i t a b l e - - a h i s t o r i c a l
p e r s p e c t i v e t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e - d r a s t i c ch an g es t h a t o c c u r r e d b etw ee n
th e two p e r io d s o f c o l l e c t i o n o f h i s s e t s o f d a t a .
3
G e n e r a l ly , t h e s e e x p a t r i a t e s s t a y f o r o n ly two y e a r s .
The p r e s e n t d i r e c t o r o f th e IUT, M r. B e ld a , i s th e one who
h as s ta y e d th e l o n g e s t - - 7 y e a r s . I t m ust be n o t e d , h o w ev er, t h a t he
i s an A s s o c i a t e P r o f e s s o r o f Econom ics and i s th e o n ly r e g u l a r f a c u l t y
member o f th e i n s t i t u t i o n . He p ro v id e d m ost o f th e in f o r m a tio n a b o u t
th e pro b lem s fa c e d by th e IUT t h a t he h a s b een d i r e c t i n g s i n c e i t s
c r e a t i o n i n 1974.
288
The m in u te s of th e m e e tin g g a t h e r i n g u n i v e r s i t y b u r e a u c r a t s and
th e d i r e c t o r o f o t h e r p u b li c and p r i v a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s c o n s id e r e d as
p o t e n t i a l em p lo y ers of th e p r o j e c t e d law and econom ics d e p a rtm e n ts r e a d
as f o llo w s :
The D i r e c t o r o f th e E c o le N a ti o n a le d 1A d m i n i s t r a t i o n r a i s e s
th e p ro b le m o f th e s o - c a l l e d c o m p e tit io n b etw ee n th e u n i v e r s i t y
and h i s i n s t i t u t i o n s , th e n c l e a r l y s t a t e s t h a t su ch a c o m p e ti
t i o n c a n n o t e x i s t . . . . He p ro p o s e s t h a t th e U n i v e r s i t y and
th e ENA a d o p t a common p o s i t i o n a t th e n e x t m e e tin g o f th e J o i n t
F r a n c o - V o lta n C om m ission f o r H ig h e r E d u c a tio n . F ra n c e w ould be
th e re b y o b li g e d to a c c e p t to c r e a t e f o r t h e U n i v e r s i t y p o s i t i o n s
o f a s s o c i a t e and a s s i s t a n t p r o f e s s o r s , who, h o p e f u l l y , w ould
g i v e some l e c t u r e s t o th e ENA. ( U n i v e r s i t y de O uagadougou,
com pte re n d u de l a r e u n io n du Samedi 25 Mars 1975, p . 5)
The n a i v e t y o f t h i s p r o p o s i t i o n a p p e a rs when one r e a l i z e s t h a t
t h i s s t r a t e g y t o c o u n t e r F r a n c e 's r e s i s t a n c e t o h e l p th e ENA i s d i s
c u s s e d i n f r o n t o f t h r e e F re n c h e x p a t r i a t e s , one o f whom assum ed th e
r o l e of s e c r e t a r y f o r th e m e e tin g . The l a t t e r was m a n i f e s t l y a p p o in te d
a t th e U n i v e r s i t y a s a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f F re n c h i n t e r e s t s a s S e c r e t a r y
G e n e r a l, th e n t o th e u n d e f in e d p o s i t i o n o f " a d v i s o r t o th e R e c t o r " - -
he i s an e le m e n ta r y s c h o o l s u p e r v i s o r and h o ld s no acad em ic o r h ig h e r
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c r e d e n t i a l s f o r b o th p o s i t i o n s .
^An i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h i s i s fou n d i n th e M in u te s o f th e s e s s i o n
o f th e N a t i o n a l O r i e n t a t i o n C om m ittee, M arch 1980, w here i t can be r e a d
as f o ll o w s :
A C om m ittee member w ondered w h e th e r i t was a d v i s a b l e t o t r a c k
s t u d e n t s to w ard l i b e r a l p r o f e s s i o n s w h ile th e s t a t e w h ich g r a n ts
s c h o l a r s h i p s was i t s e l f b a d ly n e e d y . (C om m ission N a tio n a le
d 1 O r i e n t a t i o n , P ro c e s v e r b a l , Mars 1980, p . 55)
^ O f f i c e r s o f th e B u re a u d 1 I n f o r m a tio n e t d 1 O r i e n t a t i o n r e p o r t e d
v e r b a l l y many o f su c h c a s e s c o n c e r n in g p a r t i c u l a r l y s t u d e n t s s e n t f o r
e n g i n e e r i n g . T h is i s one of th e r e a s o n s why th e I n s t i t u t de M athe-
m a tiq u e s e t de P h y s iq u e i s o f f e r i n g p r e p a r a t o r y c o u r s e s f o r th e s tu d y
o f e n g i n e e r i n g .
S tu d e n ts p r o t e s te d -- a g a i n s t th e ch an g es o f o r i e n t a t i o n by OCAU
(AEVO, "1 1 Decembre 1976: 16e A n n i v e r s a i r e du N e o - c o lo n ia lis m e en
H a u te - V o lt a ," p p . 2 - 3 ) .
^ I l l u s t r a t i v e of t h e s e i n c o h e r e n t p o l i c i e s o f s t u d e n t p e r s o n n e l
i s t h i s s ta t e m e n t by t h e N a t i o n a l C om m ittee f o r th e G ra n tin g o f S c h o l
a r s h i p s :
G iven th e s t a t e ' s n e e d s f o r h i g h e r l e v e l c a d re s im m e d ia te ly
u s a b l e , th e members o f th e C om m ittee d id n o t exam ine th e new
289
a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r s p e c i a l i z a t i o n s ; an d r e f e r r e d them t o th e
a p p r e c i a t i o n o f th e m i n i s t e r s , p r e s i d e n t and v i c e - p r e s i d e n t
o f th e C o m m itte e .
H owever, th e C om m ittee members hav e exam ined a p p l i c a t i o n s
o f th o s e s t u d e n t s a l r e a d y engaged i n a s p e c i a l i z a t i o n [ w ith o u t
p r i o r a u t h o r i z a t i o n from th e C o m m itte e ], deem ing t h a t t h e s e
s t u d e n t s s h o u ld be l e t p u rs u e t h e i r s p e c i a l i z a t i o n . (C om m ission
N a t i o n a l e d 'A t t r i b u t i o n e t de C o n tr o le des B o u rs e s , P r o c e s -
v e r b a l de l a s e s s i o n du 27 and 29 J u i l l e t 1970, p . 9) .
g
I n f o r m a tio n o b ta in e d from s t u d e n t s ' f i l e s h e ld by t h e B u reau o f
I n f o r m a t io n and O r i e n t a t i o n .
290
CHAPTER VII
EDUCATIONAL SELECTION AND OCCUPATIONAL TRACKING
IN THE UNIVERSITY
P r e v io u s a n a l y s e s have d e s c r i b e d th e pow er c o n f l i c t w i t h i n th e
N a ti o n a l O r i e n t a t i o n C o m m ittee. C o n cern h as a l s o b een e x p r e s s e d a b o u t
th e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f th e c o n f l i c t i n g p o i n t s o f v iew and p o l i c i e s a d v o
c a te d by d i f f e r e n t b u r e a u c r a t i c g r o u p s , and th e s t r a t e g i e s a d o p te d to
im pose th e s e p o l i c i e s . B ut i t m ig h t be t h a t th e s e v e r b a l a r t i c u l a t i o n s
and s t r a t e g i c m anoeuvres a r e n o t e f f e c t i v e l y t r a n s l a t e d i n t o a c t i o n o r
have no e f f e c t .
The q u e s t i o n to be a d d r e s s e d a t t h i s p o i n t i s th e f o ll o w i n g :
What a r e th e e f f e c t s o f th e pow er s t r u g g l e among b u r e a u c r a t s , a c a d e m ic s ,
and s t u d e n t s f o r th e c o n t r o l o f th e t r a c k i n g sy stem ?
More s p e c i f i c a l l y , w hat c a r e e r s a r e s t u d e n t s a s k in g f o r ? What
i s th e e f f e c t o f th e b a c c a l a u r ^ a t s tr e a m r e q u ir e m e n t and m a n ip u la tio n s
m e n tio n e d above on s t u d e n t s ' c a r e e r e x p e c t a t i o n s ? What i s th e e f f e c t
o f th e s t u d e n t s ' s o c i a l o r i g i n s on th e s e c a r e e r e x p e c t a t i o n s ? What i s
th e e f f e c t of b a c c a l a u r ^ a t s tr e a m , a g e , h ig h s c h o o l a c h ie v e m e n t, and
b u r e a u c r a t i c c a r e e r i n t e r e s t s on th e c a r e e r t r a c k s o b ta in e d by s t u d e n t s
from th e N a ti o n a l O r i e n t a t i o n C om m ittee?
F i n a l l y , w hat a s s e s s m e n t can be made o f th e r e l e v a n c e o f h ig h
s c h o o l a c h ie v e m e n t, s o c i a l o r i g i n s , and age as c r i t e r i a f o r p l a c i n g
291
s t u d e n t s i n t o d i f f e r e n t e d u c a t i o n a l an d o c c u p a tio n a l t r a c k s ? What k in d
o f s t u d e n t s s u c c e e d s a t th e u n i v e r s i t y f i n a l e x a m in a tio n s ?
C a r e e r s C hosen by S tu d e n ts
I n t r y i n g to f i n d o u t th e p o t e n t i a l f a c t o r s w hich m ig h t d e t e r
m ine an i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t 's c a r e e r c h o i c e , th e p r e s e n t s u rv e y came to
t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t th e b a c c a l a u r e a t s tr e a m , th e b u r e a u c r a t i c r a n k in g
o f th e d i f f e r e n t p r o f e s s i o n s , and t h e i r d i v i s i o n a c c o r d in g t o s e x l i n e s ,
a r e th e m ost im p o r ta n t f a c t o r s t o th e e x c l u s i o n o f s o c i a l o r i g i n s , i n
o r i e n t i n g and l i m i t i n g a s t u d e n t 's c a r e e r c h o i c e .
T a b le s 30 and 31 i n d i c a t e th e a b s e n c e o f c o r r e l a t i o n b etw een
s t u d e n t s ' f a m ily b a c k g ro u n d s and t h e i r c a r e e r p r e f e r e n c e s .
G ender p la y s a r o l e i n s t u d e n t s ' c a r e e r o r i e n t a t i o n i n s o f a r as
some p r o f e s s i o n s s u c h a s s e c r e t a r y , s o c i a l w o r k e r s , and m id w ife a r e
c o n s id e r e d a s e s s e n t i a l l y , i f n o t e x c l u s i v e l y , fe m in in e ; and some o th e rs
su c h as e n g i n e e r i n g and th e arm y, a r e c o n s id e r e d a s e s s e n t i a l l y m ascu
l i n e , a lth o u g h U pper V o lta c r e a t e d i t s fe m in in e s e c t i o n o f th e army
f i v e y e a r s a g o .
W ith t h e s e e x c e p t i o n s , no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was n o te d in
th e p a t t e r n o f c a r e e r o r i e n t a t i o n among m ale and fe m a le s t u d e n t s .
G e n e ra l ch an g e s i n s t u d e n t s ' c a r e e r p r e f e r e n c e s a r e i n d i c a t e d
i n T a b le 3 2 . As a l r e a d y n o te d , t h e m a jo r tr e n d in th e s e ch an g es h a s
b een away from te a c h i n g c a r e e r s to w ard econom ics and la w -b a s e d p r o f e s
s io n s .
Thus w h ile i n 1964, th e te a c h in g p r o f e s s i o n c o n s t i t u t e d th e
f i r s t c a r e e r c h o ic e o f s t u d e n t s , by 1971 econom ics and la w -b a s e d p r o -
292
T a b le 30
C a r e e r C h o ic e s o f S tu d e n ts by S o c ia l O r ig in s ( F a t h e r f s O c c u p a tio n )
f o r O uagadougou U n i v e r s i t y
S o c i a l O rig in s
P r o f e s s io n s
Chos en P e a s a n ts W orkers
A r t i s a n s /
T ra d e rs
Lower
B u re a u .
U pper B u r . /
E n t r e p r e . T o t a l
Econom ics 2 9 .1 3 4 .6 3 4 .1 2 7 .7 1 7 .9
2 8 .6
(163)
Law 2 3 .9 2 6 .9 2 6 .8 3 1 .0 4 1 .0
2 7 .4
(15 6)
J o u r n a lis m 5 .8 3 .8 9 .8 7 .7 1 0 .3
6 .8
(39)
E n g in e e r in g 1 7 .8 3 .8 4 . 9 1 7 .4 15 .4
1 6 .0
(91)
M ed icin e 9 .1 2 3 .1 12 .2 7 .1 5 .1
9 .1
(52)
T e a c h in g /
R e s e a rc h
1 4 .2 7 .7 12.2 9 .0 1 0 .3
1 2 .1
(69)
T o t a l
5 4 .2
(309)
4 .6
(26)
7 .2
(41)
2 7 .3
(155)
6 .8
(39)
1 0 0 .0
(5 70)
N o te . x2 = 25 .9 5 ; p = .1 6 8 .
293
T able 31
.C a re e r C h o ic e s o f S tu d e n ts by F a t h e r 's L e v e l o f F orm al E d u c a tio n
f o r O uagadougou U n i v e r s i t y
F a t h e r 's L e v e l o f F o rm al E d u c a tio n
P r o f e s s i o n s
C hosen
No
E d u c a tio n
P rim a ry
E d u c a tio n
S eco n d ary
E d u c a tio n
U n i v e r s i t y
E d u c a tio n T o t a l
Econom ics 3 0 .6 2 9 .1 2 2 .0 1 7 .6
2 8 .7
(164)
Law 25 .7 2 4 .3 3 2 .9 5 2 .9
2 7 .3
(156)
J o u r n a li s m 6 .0 7 .8 9 .8 5 .0
6 .8
(39)
E n g in e e r in g 1 5 .4 1 4 .6 2 0 .7 1 1 .8
1 5 .9
(91)
M e d ic in e 8 .7 15 .5 4 .9 0 .0
9 .1
(52)
T e a c h in g /
R e s e a rc h
1 3 .6 8 .7 9 .8 1 1 .8
1 2 .1
(69)
T o t a l
64.5
(369)
1 8 .0
(103)
1 4 .4
(82)
3 .0
(17)
1 0 0 .0
(5 71)
N o t e . y2 = 2 1 .2 4 ; p = 13.
294
T a b le 32
E v o l u tio n o f S t u d e n t s ’ C a r e e r P r e f e r e n c e s s i n c e 1964
( P e r c e n ta g e o f S tu d e n ts by C a re e r C h o ic e )
P e r io d
P r o f e s s i o n s 1964 1971 1980
E c o n o m ic s - r e la te d c a r e e r s 1 6 .1 2 2 3 .7 7
L a w - r e l a te d c a r e e r s 3 .9 0 1 2 .3 0 2 1 .9 2
C i v i l e n g i n e e r in g 1 8 .1 8 1 0 .9 3 1 0 .1 0
A g r i c u l t u r a l e n g i n e e r i n g 1 0 .3 9 1 4 .4 8 8 .7 4
M e d ic i n e - h e a l th 3 1 .1 7 1 8 .5 8 1 7 .1 2
Tea ch in g -L e t t e r s 1 0 .3 8 3 .6 9
T e a c h in g s c ie n c e s 35 .06 1 2 .0 2 1 .6 0
R e s e a rc h
0 .8 2 4 .9 3
M is c e lla n e o u s 1 .3 0 4 .3 7 8 .1 3
T o t a l N=77 N=366 N=812
N o t e . From A f r i c a n U rban L i f e : The T r a n s f o r m a tio n o f O uagadougou by
E . S k in n e r . P r i n c e t o n , N . J . : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1974,
p p . 2 3 9 -4 0 1 . O th e r d a t a was com puted from th e B . I . O . ’s c o l l e c
t i o n o f s t u d e n t s ’ a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r s c h o l a r s h i p and o r i e n t a t i o n .
f e s s i o n s had a l r e a d y begun to ta k e f i r s t p la c e w ith 2 8 .4 2 p e r c e n t o f
th e s t u d e n t s c h o o s in g them , e n g i n e e r in g came i n s e c o n d (2 5 .4 1 % ), f o l
low ed by te a c h in g (2 2 .4 % ), and m e d ic in e (1 8 .5 8 % ). I n 1980, th e tr e n d
shows more th a n h a l f o f t h e s t u d e n t p o p u l a t i o n w a n tin g to p r e p a r e f o r
p r o f e s s i o n s r e l a t e d to econom ics and la w , o n e - f i f t h e x p r e s s i n g i n t e r e s t
i n m e d ic in e and h e a l t h - r e l a t e d p r o f e s s i o n s , o n ly 5 . 3 p e r c e n t w i l l i n g to
engage i n a c t i v e t e a c h i n g p r o f e s s i o n s , and a b o u t th e same p r o p o r t i o n
s e e k in g t o en g ag e i n r e s e a r c h a c t i v i t y .
The ch an g es i n s t u d e n t s ’ c a r e e r c h o ic e s w i t h i n each h ig h s c h o o l
t r a c k h av e b e e n s t i l l more i m p r e s s i v e , p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n c e rn in g th e A
295
and D t r a c k s , each t r a c k a c t i n g a s a p r e - p r o f e s s i o n a l s p e c i a l i z a t i o n
f i e l d - - A s tr e a m f o r l e g a l c a r e e r s , B and G f o r e c o n o m ic s , C and E f o r
e n g i n e e r i n g , D b e in g r e l a t i v e l y e v e n ly d i s t r i b u t e d b etw ee n ec o n o m ic s,
e n g i n e e r i n g , and m e d ic a l p r o f e s s i o n s T a b le s 3 3 , 3 4 , and 35 i n d i c a t e
th e s e ch an g es f o r 1971 and 1981, f o r a l l V o lta n s t u d e n t s and f o r s t u -
d e n ts e n r o l l e d i n th e home u n i v e r s i t y f o r th e a ca d em ic y e a r 1980 -1 9 8 1 .
T a b le 33
S t u d e n t s ' C a r e e r P r e f e r e n c e s in 1971 by B a c c a l a u r e a t S tre a m
B a c c a la u r e a t
S tream s
A B&G C&E D
T o t a l
P r o f e s s i o n s % % % % N %
Econom ics and
r e l a t e d c a r e e r s
5 .2 6 8 9 .4 7 2 .3 3 1 .1 7 59 1 6 .1 2
Law and r e l a t e d
c a r e e r s
3 4 .7 4 7 .0 2 4 .6 5 3 .5 1 45 1 2 .3 0
C i v i l e n g i n e e r in g 5 8 .1 4 8 .7 7 40 1 0 .9 3
A g r i c u l t u r a l
e n g i n e e r in g
1 1 .6 3 2 8 .0 7 53 1 4 .4 8
Med i c i n e , h e a 1 t h -
r e l a t e d c a r e e r s
5 .26 6 .9 8 35 .09 68 ^18 .58
T e a c h i n g - L e t t e r s 3 6 .8 4 1.75 1 .1 7 38 1 0 .3 8
T e a c h in g s c i e n c e s 1.05 1 6 .2 8 21 .0 5 44 1 2 .0 2
R e s e a rc h 2 .1 1 0 .5 8 4 3 0 .8 2
M is c e lla n e o u s 14 .74 1.75 0 .5 8 4 16 4 .3 7
T o t a l N=95 N=5 7 N=43 N=171 366 1 0 0 .0 0
296
T a b le 34
S tu d e n ts 1 C a re e r P r e f e r e n c e s i n 1980 by B a c c a l a u r e a t S tre a m
B a c c a l a u r e a t
S tre a m
A B&G C6eE D
T o ta l
P r o f e s s i o n s % 7 o 7, 7 o N %
E conom ics and
r e l a t e d c a r e e r s
1 .3 2 45 .05 1 9 .1 8 2 7 .4 2 193 23.71
Law and r e l a t e d
c a r e e r s
4 7 .1 4 2 7 .2 3 2 .7 4 4 .5 2 178 21.92
C i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g 4 7 .9 5 15 .16 82 10.1C
A g r i c u l t u r a l
e n g i n e e r i n g
1 5 .0 7 1 9 .3 5 71 8.7^
M e d ic in e , h e a l t h -
r e l a t e d c a r e e r s
1 2 .7 8 8 .9 1 1 2 .3 3 2 6 .7 7 139 17.12
T e a c h i n g - L e t t e r s 7 .3 3 2 .9 7 1 .1 2 9 30 3.65
T e a c h in g s c i e n c e s 2 .7 4 3 .5 5 13 1.6C
R e s e a r c h 1 3 .3 7 4 .4 6 1 .1 2 9 40 4 .92
M is c e lla n e o u s 1 8 .0 6 1 1 .3 9 0 .6 5 66 8 . 1:
T o t a l N=227 N=202 N=73 N=310 N=812 1 0 0 .0C
N o t e .
S c h o o ls S u rv e y e d f o r : A S tre a m B S tre a m C S tre a m D S tre a m
L yc4e Z in d a K abore LZK LZK LZK LZK
N o tr e Dame de K ologh Naba NDK AVENIR EN0 ENO
C o lle g e l a V o lta VOLTA VOLTA SALLE SALLE
L y ce e O u e z z in C o u l i b a l y LOCB LOCB LOCB LOCB
L yc^e Newton NEWTON NEWTON NEWTON NEWTON
P r y ta n e e M i l i t a i r e PMK ST JOSEPH PMK PMK
de K ad io g o
C. PR0T-
V0LTA
297
T able 35
C a re e r P r e f e r e n c e s o f S c h o l a r s h i p H o ld e rs a t Ouagadougou U n i v e r s i t y
i n 1980 by B a c c a la u r ^ a t S tre a m
B a c c a la u r e a t
S tre a m
A B&G C&E D
T o t a l
P r o f e s s i o n s % % % % N %
Econom ics and
r e l a t e d c a r e e r s
5 .3 5 2 .7 8 2 2 .8 3 2 .9 148 2 9 .0 0
Law and r e l a t e d
c a r e e r s
6 2 .3 25 .69 6 .5 142 2 7 .9 0
C i v i l e n g i n e e r in g 2 6 .3 33 6 .4 8
A g r i c u l t u r a l
e n g i n e e r in g
2 2 .8 2 0 .0 44 8 .6 4
M e d ic in e , h e a l t h -
r e l a t e d c a r e e r s
3 .3 3 .4 7 3 .5 1 6 .1 37 7 .2 4
T e a c h in g ( l e t t e r s
and s c i e n c e s )
3 .3 1 .3 9 8 .8 1 .3 14 2 .7 5
R e s e a rc h 1 0 .9 3 .4 7 1 .8 1 .3 26 5 .1 1
M is c e lla n e o u s o r
u n d e c id e d
13 .9 1 1 1 .1 1 1 4 .0 4 1 0 .3 0 65 1 2 .7 7
T o t a l N=153 N=144 N=5 7 N=155 N=509 1 0 0 .0 0
F o r a c o m p le te p i c t u r e , we m u st add th o s e n o n - s c h o l a r s h i p h o l d
e r s who a p p l i e d f o r d i f f e r e n t d e p a rtm e n ts and d id n o t g e t s a t i s f a c t i o n
f o r r e a s o n s ( l a c k o f s p a c e and g o v e rn m e n t’s crac k -d o w n on s t u d e n t s ,
f o ll o w i n g th e 1979 e x a m in a tio n b o y c o t t ) .
298
T ab le 36
C a r e e r P r e f e r e n c e s by N o n - S c h o la r s h ip H o ld e rs t o th e
U n i v e r s i t y o f Ouagadougou f o r 1980-1981
C a r e e r P r e f e r e n c e N 7 o
Econom ics 35 1 5 .4 2
Law 123 34 .4 5
C i v i l E n g in e e r in g 12 3 .3 6
Agronomy 21 5 .88
L e t t e r s 108 30 .2 5
R e se a rc h ( s o c i a l s c i e n c e s ) 38 1 0 .6 4
T o t a l 357 1 0 0 .0 0
The m ain d e t e r m in a n ts o f th e ch an g e s i n s t u d e n t s ' c a r e e r p r e f
e r e n c e s a r e , a g a i n , th e p a r a l l e l changes i n th e s o c i a l s t a t u s and f i
n a n c i a l l y re w a rd in g p o t e n t i a l i t i e s o f th e d i f f e r e n t c a r e e r s w hich have
o c c u r r e d i n th e l a s t d e c a d e , to th e b e n e f i t o f econom ics and la w -b a s e d
( b u r e a u c r a t i c , m a n a g e r ia l) c a r e e r s , and a t th e d is a d v a n ta g e of " s o c i a l
u t i l i t y " c a r e e r s . A n o th e r d e te r m in in g f a c t o r i s t h e ch an g e i n th e
aca d em ic r e q u ir e m e n ts by th e u n i v e r s i t y f a c u l t y c o n c e r n in g t h e i r r e s p e c
t i v e f i e l d s o f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n and th e r e s u l t i n g m a n ip u la tio n o f h ig h
s c h o o l t r a c k s . The a s s e s s m e n t o f th e r a t i o n a l e b e h in d th e ch an g es in
th e aca d em ic r e q u ir e m e n ts i s open to s p e c u l a t i o n . H ow ever, th e p r e s e n t
s tu d y a rg u e s t h a t th e y a r e b e t t e r u n d e r s to o d when c o r r e l a t e d w ith th e
p a r a l l e l ch an g es in th e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n o f th e b u r e a u c r a t i c c a r e e r s
p r e p a r e d f o r in th e d i f f e r e n t a ca d em ic m a jo r s . We have s e e n how th e
299
b u r e a u c r a t s do n o t h e s i t a t e to lo w er th e r e q u ir e m e n ts (b o th acad em ic
and ag e) i n o r d e r to f o r c e th e maximum num ber o f s t u d e n t s i n t o c a r e e r s
p e r c e iv e d a s s o c i a l l y u s e f u l , v i t a l , y e t th e l e a s t d e s i r a b l e ( s h o r t -
c y c le s e c t i o n s of t e a c h i n g , a g r i c u l t u r a l e n g i n e e r in g ) a n d , c o r r e s p o n d
i n g l y , i n r a i s i n g th e r e q u ir e m e n ts f o r th e e n t r y i n t o c a r e e r s p e r c e iv e d
as r e s e r v e d , p r i v i l e g e d c a r e e r s . I t i s t r u e t h a t t h e r e i s no a u to m a tic
harm ony among a l l b u r e a u c r a t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y b etw een th e o f f i c e b u r e a u
c r a t s as su c h and t h e a c a d em ic p e o p le i n c h a rg e o f c a r r y i n g o u t th e
p r o c e s s o f s o c i a l r e p r o d u c t i o n o f th e b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s . But th e m is
m a tc h in g i s o n ly a m in o r and te m p o ra ry phenom enon. I n t r y i n g to a d j u s t
t h e i r own w o rk in g and c a r e e r s i t u a t i o n s t o th e c o n se q u e n c e s o f ch an g es
i n s o c i a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , u n i v e r s i t y f a c u l t y m e re ly l e g i t i m i z e and r e
i n f o r c e th e s e c h a n g e s . F o r e x am p le, th e d e s i r e on th e p a r t o f th e
r u l i n g f a c t i o n o f th e b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s to h av e m i d d l e - l e v e l m anage
ment p e r s o n n e l t r a i n e d a t th e s h o r t - c y c l e U n i v e r s i t y I n s t i t u t e of
T ec h n o lo g y j(IUT) b ro u g h t a b o u t tw ic e a s many s t u d e n t s as th e i n s t i t u t e
c o u ld a c t u a l l y a c c e p t . The u n i v e r s i t y b u r e a u c r a t s and a c a d em ics s o lv e d
t h i s p ro b le m by g r a n t i n g p r i o r i t y o f r e c r u i t m e n t t o h o ld e r s o f some (G)
b a c c a l a u r e a t d ip lo m a s and th ro u g h th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a s p e c i a l t e s t
t o s e l e c t th e t r a i n e e s . H aving b een s e l e c t e d th ro u g h an a d d i t i o n a l
t e s t i n g s y s te m gave th e t r a i n e e s some f e e l i n g s o f s u p e r i o r i t y and an
arg u m en t f o r c la im in g b e t t e r s a l a r i e s from t h e i r e m p lo y e rs , a l th o u g h
i n i t i a l l y a good number of t h e s e s t u d e n t s w ould h av e r e g i s t e r e d i n a
" r e g u l a r " a ca d em ic (eco n o m ics) c o u rs e (U .O ., L e t t e r , 1 9 7 4 ).
A s t r i c t l y aca d em ic r a t i o n a l e f o r th e new u n i v e r s i t y r e q u i r e
m ents i s d i f f i c u l t to f i n d , s e p a r a t e from th e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n s y s te m a t
300
work i n th e b u r e a u c r a t i c V o lta n s o c i e t y . C l e a r l y th e em p h asis on
p h y s i c a l a s p e c t s of g eo g ra p h y and th e s u b s e q u e n t change i n and r a i s i n g
of aca d em ic re q u ir e m e n ts f o r th e e n t r y to t h i s d e p a rtm e n t have b een
m a in ly m o tiv a te d by th e acad em ics* d e s i r e to b ro a d e n th e c a r e e r p e r
s p e c t i v e s o f th e c o u r s e o f f e r i n g s , i n o r d e r to s u r v i v e t h e m s e l v e s .
What th e e v o l u t i o n o f s tu d e n ts * c a r e e r c h o ic e s o v e r th e y e a rs
and o v e r th e h ig h s c h o o l t r a c k s i n d i c a t e s i s th e s u c c e s s o f b u r e a u c r a t s
and a c a d em ics i n g e t t i n g s t u d e n t s to i n t e r n a l i z e th e new r e q u ir e m e n ts
and a d j u s t t h e i r c a r e e r e x p e c t a t i o n s t o them . I t can be n o te d , f o r
ex am p le, t h a t th e A t r a c k s t u d e n t s a r e l i m i t i n g t h e i r c h o ic e s m a in ly
t o Law (47.14% ) and a v o id in g Econom ics (1 .3 % ), n o t b e c a u s e th e y do n o t
w ant E c o n o m ic s - r e la te d c a r e e r s , b u t b e c a u s e th e y h av e b e e n f o r c e d i n t o
b e l i e v i n g t h a t th e s e c a r e e r s a r e n o t f i t t e d to t h e i r t r a c k , t h e i r a c a
dem ic a b i l i t i e s . More D t r a c k s t u d e n t s h av e b een a s k in g t o s tu d y E co
n o m ic s , n o t o n ly b e c a u s e o f th e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f th e c a r e e r s o f f e r e d by
t h i s d i s c i p l i n e , b u t a l s o b e c a u s e th e t r a c k th e y come fro m h as b een
d e c l a r e d to b e th e m ost s u i t a b l e f o r s t u d i e s i n E co n o m ics, a lth o u g h
m ost D t r a c k s t u d e n t s know n o th i n g a b o u t Econom ics and c a n n o t , t h e r e
f o r e , c h o o se i t on r a t i o n a l , a ca d em ic g ro u n d s . C o n v e rs e ly , B and G
t r a c k s t u d e n t s h av e b e e n p r o g r e s s i v e l y e n d o c t r i n a t e d i n t o lo o k in g f o r
some d i s c i p l i n e s " s o f t e r " th a n econom ics and have b een t u r n i n g tow ard
Law. W hile i n 1971, 8 9 .5 p e r c e n t o f B and G ("E co n o m ics") t r a c k s t u
d e n ts w ere c h o o s in g E c o n o m ic s - r e la te d c a r e e r s , i n 1980 o n ly 45 p e r c e n t
w ere t r y i n g t h e i r c h a n c e s by a s k in g t o p r e p a r e f o r th e s e c a r e e r s , and
more th a n 27 p e r c e n t ch o se Law, a g a i n s t 7 p e r c e n t 10 y e a r s b e f o r e .
N o tin g th e s e c h a n g e s , th e N a t i o n a l O r i e n t a t i o n C om m ittee, q u i t e c u r -
301
i o u s l y , co m p lain e d t h a t "W hile th e B s tr e a m s h o u ld n o rm a lly p r e p a r e
s t u d e n t s f q r s t u d i e s i n e c o n o m ic s, i t a p p e a r s t h a t s t u d e n t s from t h i s
t r a c k sh u n t h i s d i s c i p l i n e " (CNO, PV, 1979, p . 5 4 ) .
A c t u a l l y , i t i s n o t t h a t th e B and G t r a c k s t u d e n t s shun E co
n o m ic s, b u t t h a t th e y h av e b een f r i g h t e n e d away from t h i s d i s c i p l i n e
by th e u n i v e r s i t y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s s i t t i n g i n t h e O r i e n t a t i o n C om m ittee,
a s one C om m ittee member p o in t e d o u t:
The p r i n c i p a l o f th e Lyd^e P h . Z in d a th e n p o i n t s o u t t h a t th e y
[ t h e p r i n c i p a l and h i s c o l l e a g u e s ] had t o w arn s t u d e n t s a g a i n s t
t h i s d i s c i p l i n e , g iv e n t h e i r l e v e l i n m a th e m a tic s . The U n iv e r
s i t y had p ro m ise d to p ro d u c e a m a th e m a tic p r o f i l e [ p r e r e q u i s i t e ]
f o r s t u d e n t s i n e c o n o m ic s, b u t so f a r t h i s p r o f i l e h as n o t y e t
b een e s t a b l i s h e d . (CNO, PV, 1979, p . 54)
I t m ust b e n o te d , h o w ev er, t h a t m ost o f th e Econom ics t e a c h e r s , e x
p a t r i a t e s , h av e th e m s e lv e s come from t h e s e B and G t r a c k s o r ev en th e
fo rm e r e q u i v a l e n t o f th e p r e s e n t A t r a c k , th e " P h ilo s o p h y " b a c c a l a u r e a t
t r a c k , an d t h a t in F ra n c e a l l t h e s e t r a c k s a r e s t i l l c o n s id e r e d v a l i d
re q u ir e m e n ts f o r a p p l y in g to Econom ics d e p a r tm e n ts . Of c o u r s e , t h i s
i s so in U pper V o l t a , t o o . A t l e a s t , in t h e o r y , s i n c e o f f i c i a l U n i
v e r s i t y r e g u l a t i o n s c o n c e r n in g th e h ig h s c h o o l r e q u ir e m e n ts f o r r e g i s
t e r i n g i n th e d i f f e r e n t d e p a rtm e n ts make p r o v i s i o n s f o r even th e A
t r a c k s t u d e n t s to a p p ly f o r econom ic o r s c i e n t i f i c s t u d i e s on recom m en
d a t i o n by th e u n i v e r s i t y f a c u l t y . B u t, i n p r a c t i c e t h i s seld o m h a p
p e n s . In a n y c a s e , th e b a r r i e r s b etw ee n acad em ic m a jo rs a r e so t i g h t
t h a t t h e r e i s no hope f o r an A t r a c k s t u d e n t e v e n t u a l l y to make up f o r
h i s s o - c a l l e d m a th e m a tic s d e f i c i e n c i e s b e f o r e o r w h ile a t t e n d i n g
c o u r s e s i n e c o n o m ic s. The aca d em ic s y s te m , in d e e d , f u n c t i o n s a s a
b r o n c o - b u s tin g t e s t to g e t r i d of s h a k in g s t u d e n t s q u ic k ly and does
302
n o th in g t o r e c o v e r th e m - - e x c e p t i n th e g a rb a g e can s t y p i f i e d by th e
s h o r t - c y c l e t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s .
C a r e e r T ra c k s O b ta in e d by S tu d e n ts from th e
N a t i o n a l O r i e n t a t i o n C om m ittee
F o r th e i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t i t i s one t h i n g t o be w i l l i n g to
p u rs u e su c h s t u d i e s and i t i s a n o t h e r t h i n g t o g e t c o n g ru e n c e o f c a r e e r
c h o ic e s w ith c a r e e r t r a c k a s s ig n e d by th e O r i e n t a t i o n C om m ittee r e s p o n
s i b l e f o r th e t r a c k i n g o f s c h o l a r s h i p h o l d e r s , t h a t i s , th e l a r g e ma
j o r i t y o f th e s t u d e n t s .
As e x p la in e d i n C h a p te r I I I , to m easu re th e d e g re e o f c o n g r u
en ce o f s t u d e n t s ' c a r e e r c h o ic e w ith c a r e e r t r a c k , a s c a l e ra n g in g from
f u l l c o n g ru e n c e (1) to la c k o f c o n g ru e n c e (3) was d e v i s e d . G e n e r a l ly ,
s t u d e n t s a r e r e q u i r e d t o i n d i c a t e up t o t h r e e c h o i c e s , ra n k e d i n o r d e r
o f t h e i r p r e f e r e n c e o r d e r . A s t u d e n t is c o n s id e r e d to h av e f u l l c o n
g ru e n c e when th e p r o f e s s i o n he i s p r e p a r i n g f o r i s th e same a s th e one
h e had i n d i c a t e d a s h i s f i r s t , p r e f e r r e d c a r e e r c h o ic e when a p p ly in g
f o r a s c h o l a r s h i p and an o r i e n t a t i o n . When th e a c t u a l p r o f e s s i o n a l
t r a c k c o r re s p o n d s to th e se c o n d o r t h i r d c h o ic e o f th e s t u d e n t , a s c a l e
v a lu e o f 2 was a s s ig n e d t o h i s d e g re e o f c o n g ru e n c e o f c a r e e r c h o ic e
w ith c a r e e r t r a c k . The v a l u e 3 on th e s c a l e i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e p r o
f e s s i o n a l t r a c k h as b een im posed on th e s t u d e n t and c o rre s p o n d s w ith
none o f h i s t h r e e c a r e e r c h o ic e s .
As T a b le 37 i n d i c a t e s , o n ly 1 8 .4 p e r c e n t o f th e s u rv e y sam ple
had f u l l c o n g ru e n c e o f c a r e e r c h o ic e w ith c a r e e r t r a c k , and 3 2 .2 p e r
c e n t found th e m s e lv e s i n p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a c k s th e y d id n o t w a n t.
303
304
T able 37
Distribution of Students According to the Degree Congruence of
Their Career Choices with Their Career Tracks
Baccalaur4at Stream A B C D G
Spec.
Ex.
Total
Degree of Congruence of Career
Choice with Career Track % % % % % % No. & %
Full congruence (1) 18.8 13.4 28.1 18.7 11.1 23.1
114
18.4
Partial congruence (2) 41.6 55.5 50.0 51.9 72.2 15.4
307
49.4
Lack of congruence (3) 39.6 31.1 21.9 29.4 16.1 61.5
200
32.2
Total: N = 202
32.5%
119
19.2%
64
10.3%
187
30.1%
36
5.8%
13
2.1%
621
100.0%
Note. x2 = 28-8J P = 0.0013.
N ot s u r p r i s i n g l y , th e d e g re e o f c o n g ru e n c e o f c a r e e r c h o ic e w ith
c a r e e r t r a c k i s d i r e c t l y c o r r e l a t e d w ith th e b a c c a l a u r e a t s tre a m s and
th e p r o f e s s i o n s a s k e d f o r by s t u d e n t s .
As T a b le 37 i n d i c a t e s , i n g e n e r a l s c i e n t i f i c t r a c k s , p a r t i c u
l a r l y G t r a c k , s t u d e n t s h av e more ch a n c e s to g e t t h e i r f i r s t c a r e e r
c h o ic e (28.1% ) and n o t have an im posed c a r e e r o r i e n t a t i o n (2 1 .9 % ),
th a n l i t e r a r y t r a c k s , p a r t i c u l a r l y A t r a c k s t u d e n t s who te n d to have
a n o r i e n t a t i o n im posed on them (3 9 .6 % ).
The m i s f o r t u n e o f some t r a c k s (D, B, and G) a l r e a d y m e n tio n e d
i s h i g h l i g h t e d by th e f a c t t h a t few er s t u d e n t s from th e s e t r a c k s have
f u l l c o n g ru e n c e o f c a r e e r c h o ic e w ith c a r e e r t r a c k : 1 8 .7 p e r c e n t f o r
D t r a c k , a lm o s t l i k e th e A t r a c k , 1 3 .4 p e r c e n t and 1 1 .1 p e r c e n t , r e
s p e c t i v e l y , f o r B and G t r a c k s .
The s o c i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s t u d e n t s i n th e d i f f e r e n t b a c c a l a u r e
a t s tre a m s i s i n d i c a t e d by T a b le 3 8 . I t a p p e a rs t h a t , as f a r as O uaga
dougou U n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s a r e c o n c e r n e d , th e c h i l d r e n o f b u r e a u c r a t s
have a te n d e n c y to be e n r o l l e d i n l i t e r a r y s tr e a m s : 3 8 .1 p e r c e n t a r e
e n r o l l e d i n th e A t r a c k , w h ile th e g e n e r a l e n r o llm e n t mean i n t h i s
t r a c k i s 3 2 .5 p e r c e n t . C h il d r e n o f p e a s a n ts te n d to p re d o m in a te
s l i g h t l y i n D t r a c k w here 3 6 .1 p e r c e n t of them a r e r e g i s t e r e d , f o r a
g l o b a l r e g i s t r a t i o n mean o f 3 0 .1 p e r c e n t . The G t r a c k i s a b o u t e q u a l l y
d i s t r i b u t e d among d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s , e x c e p t f o r c h i l d r e n o f t r a d e r s who
p r e f e r th e B and C (econom ics and b u s in e s s m anagem ent) t r a c k s .
What h as b een s a i d a b o u t th e way th e u n i v e r s i t y f a c u l t y t r e a t s
h ig h s c h o o l p e rfo rm a n c e i s f u r t h e r i l l u s t r a t e d by th e f a c t t h a t th e
d e g re e o f c o n g ru e n c e o f c a r e e r c h o ic e w ith c a r e e r t r a c k b e a r s no c o r -
305
306
Table 38
D is tr ib u tio n of Ouagadougou U n iv e rs ity S tudents in the D if f e r e n t B a c c a la u r^ a t Streams
A ccording to T h e ir S o c ia l O rig in s
S o c ia l O rig in s
B a c c a la u r^ a t
Streams
P easan ts
% >
Workers
%
A r tis a n s /
T raders
%
Low & In term .
B u reau c rats
%
Higher Ranking
B u re a u c ra ts /
E n trep ren eu rs
%
T o ta l
No. and %
A 29.9 23.3 26.2 38.0 4 3 .6
201
32.5
B 17.5 26.7 33.3 18.7 15.4
119
19.2
C 11.5 10.0 4 .8 9.4 10.3
64
10.3
D 36.1 26.7 21.4 23.4 20.5
187
30.1
G 3 .6 10.0 14.3 7.0 7.7
36
5 .8
Sp. Ex. 1.5 3.3 0 .0 3.5 2 .6
13
2.1
T o tal N = 338 30 42 171 39 620
54.5% 4.8% 6.8% 27.5% 6.3% 100.0%
N ote, x2 = 37; p > .05.
r e l a t i o n w ith t h i s p e rfo rm a n c e , as m easu red by s p e c i a l g ra d e d i s t i n c
t i o n s (" m e n tio n s ” ) o b ta in e d on th e b a c c a l a u r ^ a t e x a m in a tio n as T a b le
39 i n d i c a t e s .
T a b le 39
D egree o f C ongruence o f C a r e e r C h o ic e w ith C a r e e r T ra c k A c c o rd in g
t o th e D i s t i n c t i o n O b ta in e d i n th e B a c c a la u r e a t E x a m in a tio n
B a c c a la u r ^ a t D i s t i n c t i o n s
Honors
D egree o f C ongruence No D i s t i n c t i o n ( F a i r , Good,
o f C a r e e r C hoice (Minimum P a s s in g ) E x c e l l e n t ) T o t a l
w ith C a r e e r T ra c k % % No. & %
107
F u l l c o n g ru e n c e 1 8 .6 1 8 .4 1 8 .6
283
P a r t i a l c o n g ru e n c e 4 9 .2 4 8 .8 4 9 .1
186
Lack of c o n g ru e n c e 3 2 .2 3 2 .8 3 2 .3
T o t a l N = 451 125 576
78.3% 21.7% 100.0%
N o t e . x 3 = *019; p = .9 9 .
I t i s , h o w ev er, p o s s i b l e t h a t th e in s tr u m e n t u se d i n th e p r e s
e n t s u rv e y does n o t c o r r e s p o n d e x a c t l y to t h a t u se d by th e O r i e n t a t i o n
C om m ittee. The l a t t e r u s e s h ig h s c h o o l g ra d e s and t e a c h e r s ’ e v a l u a
t i o n s o f s t u d e n t s , n o t th e r e s u l t s o f th e b a c c a l a u r e a t e x a m in a tio n as
th e p r e s e n t s tu d y d o e s . The p ro b lem i s , n e v e r t h e l e s s , c r u c i a l f o r th e
f o llo w in g r e a s o n s : (1) th e b a c c a l a u r e a t d i s t i n c t i o n s h av e b e e n u sed i n
th e r e c e n t p a s t to t r a c k s t u d e n t s tow ard th e d i f f e r e n t c y c l e s o f
t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g p ro g ra m s , (2) th e acad em ic a u t h o r i t i e s a r e s e e k in g to
e x te n d th e p r a c t i c e o f g r a n t i n g o f s c h o l a r s h i p s f o r s t u d i e s i n a l l
307
o t h e r u n i v e r s i t y d e p a r t m e n t s , an d (3) th e b a c c a l a u r e a t i s th e o n ly
n a t i o n a l e x a m in a tio n s u s c e p t i b l e t o y i e l d s t a n d a r d i z e d m easu rem en ts o f
s t u d e n t s ’ h ig h s c h o o l p e rfo rm a n c e s , and th e r e b y a v o id s u b j e c t i v e e v a l u
a t i o n s and g r a d in g a c c o r d in g t o i n d i v i d u a l h ig h s c h o o ls o r , e v e n ,
w i t h i n e a c h h ig h s c h o o l , by i n d i v i d u a l t e a c h e r s . I f th e b a c c a l a u r e a t
e x a m in a tio n r e s u l t s u sed i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y a r e o b je c te d to on th e
ground t h a t th e y do n o t r e f l e c t th e a c a d em ic a b i l i t i e s o f th e s t u d e n t s ,
th e n we s h o u ld d i s c a r d th e e n t i r e V o lta n e d u c a t i o n a l s y s te m and i t s
t e s t i n g m ethods in p a r t i c u l a r .
B a c c a la u r e a t d i s t i n c t i o n s seem to be e q u a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d among
d i f f e r e n t t r a c k s and d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l g r o u p s , a l th o u g h a s l i g h t a d v a n
ta g e can be n o te d f o r s c i e n t i f i c t r a c k s G, E, F , and D (23.4% o f th e
c a n d i d a te s i n th o s e t r a c k s g o t an " h o n o rs " d i s t i n c t i o n f o r an o v e r a l l
mean o f 20.5% o f th e b a c c a l a u r e a t c a n d i d a te s g e t t i n g su c h d i s t i n c t i o n ) .
A s i m i l a r s l i g h t a d v a n ta g e i s a l s o o b s e rv e d i n f a v o r o f th e
so n s o f b u r e a u c r a t s , 2 5 .6 p e r c e n t o f them g e t t i n g an " h o n o rs " d i s t i n c
t i o n . T a b le s 40 and 41 i n d i c a t e th e s e f i g u r e s .
B a c c a la u r e a t d i s t i n c t i o n was fo u n d to be c o r r e l a t e d w ith a g e ,
y o u n g e r s t u d e n t s g e t t i n g b e t t e r d i s t i n c t i o n s th a n e l d e r s t u d e n t s , as
s e e n i n T a b le 4 2 . H ow ever, h ig h s c h o o l t r a c k , s o c i a l o r i g i n s , and age
o f i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t s as w e ll as th e p r o f e s s i o n s a s k e d f o r , w ere
fo u n d to be r e l a t i v e l y in d e p e n d e n t f a c t o r s i n th e d e g re e o f c o n g ru e n c e
o f c a r e e r c h o ic e w ith a c a r e e r t r a c k .
T h is d e g r e e o f c o n g ru e n c e i s a f u n c t i o n o f th e c a r e e r s s t u d e n t s
a s k f o r . I t may be n o te d t h a t a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e number o f D t r a c k
s t u d e n t s a s k f o r s t u d i e s i n M e d ic in e , w ith a r e l a t i v e l y low ch an ce of
308
T a b le 40
D i s t r i b u t i o n o f D i s t i n c t i o n s A c c o rd in g to
D i f f e r e n t H igh S c h o o l T ra c k s
H igh S ch o o l T ra c k s
D is t i n c t i o n
A
%
B
%
C,E,F
%
D
%
T o t a l
No. & %
None 7 8 .1 8 6 .7 7 6 .3 7 6 .8
380
79.5
H onors 2 1 .9 1 3 .3 2 3 .7 2 3 .2
98
2 0 .5
T o t a l N = 151 113 5 9 155 478
31.6% 23.6% 12.4% 32.4% 100.0%
N o te . x2 = 4 .7 0 ; p = .2 0 .
T a b le 41
D i s t r i b u t i o n o f D i s t i n c t i o n s among S tu d e n ts
from D i f f e r e n t S o c i a l O r ig in s
S o c i a l O r ig in s
D i s t i n c
t i o n
P e a s a n ts
%
W orkers
%
T r a d e r s /
A r t i s a n s
%
Low R anking
B u r e a u c r a ts
%
H igh R ank
in g
B u r e a u c r a ts
%
T o t a l
$ S e %
None 8 1 .8 90.5 7 8 .8 7 3 .4 7 8 .1
381
7 9.5
H onors 1 8 .2 9.5 2 1 .2 2 6 .6 2 1 .9
98
2 0 .5
T o t a l N = 269 21 33 124 32 479
56.1% 4.6% 6.9% 25 .9% 6.7% 1 0 0 .0
N o t e , x2 = 5 . 3 ; p = .2 5 .
309
T a b le 42
D i s t r i b u t i o n o f B a c c a la u r ^ a t D i s t i n c t i o n s among
D i f f e r e n t Age Group S tu d e n ts
(Minimum P a s s i n g and H onors)
Age Groups
D i s t i n c t i o n
19 o r
L ess
%
20-21
%
22-2 3
%
24
%
T o t a l
No. S c %
Minimum p a s s in g
Honors
6 7 .9
3 2 .1
8 2 .1
1 7 .9
9 0 .3
9 .7
3 3 .3
6 6 .7
382
7 9 .6
98
2 0 .4
T o t a l N = 134
27.9%
240
50.0%
103
21.5%
3 480
0 . 6% 1 0 0 . 0%
N o te , x2 = 2 3 .3 7 ; p = .0 0 1 .
g e t t i n g th e d e s i r e d t r a c k . F o r e x am p le, 16 p e r c e n t of th e sam ple s u r
v ey ed had e x p r e s s e d i n t e r e s t i n M e d ic in e and none had o b ta in e d t h i s
t r a c k ; 24 p e r c e n t o f th e 1980 acad em ic y e a r fre sh m e n had ch o se n M edi
c i n e , b u t o n ly 10 p e r c e n t h av e b een e f f e c t i v e l y o r i e n t e d to w ard t h i s
p r o f e s s i o n . The m ain r e a s o n f o r th e h ig h s e l e c t i v i t y i n M e d icin e h as
a l r e a d y b een m e n t i o n e d - - i t i s , b e s id e s th e a ca d em ic a c h ie v e m e n t, th e
ag e r e q u ir e m e n ts (b e in g 20 y e a r s o ld a t m o st) t h a t m ost s t u d e n t s c a n
n o t m e e t. F o r e x am p le, i t i s r e q u i r e d t h a t s t u d e n t s be a t m ost 20
y e a r s o l d - - t h i s ag e even b e in g i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d by some u n i v e r s i t i e s
su ch a s D akar w here V o lta n b u r e a u c r a t s have b een s e n d in g t h e i r m e d ic a l
s t u d e n t s . T h ese m e asu re s a r e q u i t e r e c e n t (1 9 7 7 ), so t h a t t h e i r f u l l
s o c i a l im p a c t i s n o t y e t f u l l y f e l t , b u t i t i s c l e a r t h a t by e m p h a siz -
310
in g th e ag e f a c t o r f o r e n t r y to some p r o f e s s i o n s , A f r i c a n b u r e a u c r a t s
a r e p r e p a r i n g th e ro a d to w ard th e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f m odern s o c i a l c a s t e s ,
inasm uch as more and m o re, o n ly some d o m in an t s o c i a l g ro u p s , su c h as o f
th e u p p er l e v e l b u r e a u c r a t s , can m eet th e a g e r e q u ir e m e n ts th e y s e t
a g a i n s t o t h e r s o c i a l g r o u p s .
S tu d e n ts a s k in g f o r Agronomy o r T e a c h in g as t h e i r f i r s t c a r e e r
p r e f e r e n c e s a r e more l i k e l y t o o b t a i n t h i s t r a c k (by a b o u t 31%) and n o t
be im posed w ith an unw anted t r a c k (20% and 24%); w h ile s t u d e n t s , more
num erous f o r re a s o n s a l r e a d y e x p l a in e d , s e e k in g an Econom ics o r Law-
b a s e d c a r e e r a r e more l i k e l y to be f r u s t r a t e d i n t h e i r e x p e c t a t i o n s .
F o r th e p r e s e n t s a m p le , o n ly 14 and 21 p e r c e n t o f th o s e s e e k in g E co
nom ics o r L aw -based p r o f e s s i o n s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , h av e o b ta in e d th e d e
s i r e d t r a c k s a n d , r e s p e c t i v e l y , 24 and 34 p e r c e n t of th e s e s t u d e n t s
found th e m s e lv e s i n unw anted t r a c k s . The f i g u r e s f o r Law c a n d i d a te s
a r e ev en w o rse th a n th o s e f o r s t u d e n t s in Econom ics i f one com putes th e
n o n - s c h o l a r s h i p h o ld e r s who have b een r e f u s e d f o r th e p r e s e n t acad em ic
y e a r , o n ly 6 o u t o f 106 b e in g a d m i t t e d . T a b le 43 i n d i c a t e s in d e t a i l
th e s h u f f l i n g o f human r e s o u r c e a l l o c a t i o n c a r d s by th e V o lta n b u r e a u
c r a t s .
What a b o u t s o c i a l o r i g i n s ? The d a t a a n a l y s i s o f th e r e l a t i o n
s h ip s b etw een s t u d e n t s ' s o c i a l o r i g i n s as m e asu re d by th e f a t h e r 's
o c c u p a tio n d id n o t y i e l d s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e a s d id th e e d u c a
t i o n a l d e t e r m i n a n t s . T a b le 44 i n d i c a t e s th e d i f f e r e n t p r o p o r t i o n s o f
s t u d e n t s from d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l o r i g i n s b e in g g iv e n o r r e f u s e d t h e i r
c a r e e r p r e f e r e n c e .
311
T a b le 43
D egree of C ongruence o f C a r e e r C h o ic e w ith C a r e e r T ra c k
A c c o rd in g t o P r o f e s s i o n s A sked F o r by S tu d e n ts
( i n p e r c e n ta g e s )
D egree o f Con
P r o f e s s i o n s Asked f o r
g ru e n c e o f C a re e r T e a c h /
w ith O r i e n t a t i o n E c o n . Law J o u r n . . Eng. Med. R e s e a rc h T o t a l
F u l l co n g ru e n c e 1 4 .0 2 1 .8 2 0 .5 2 9 .7 0 .0 3 1 .9
114
2 0 .0
P a r t i a l co n g ru e n c e 6 2 .2 4 3 .6 6 4 .1 5 0 .5 6 3.5 4 3 .5
304
5 3 .2
L ack o f c o n g ru e n c e 2 3 .8 3 4 .6 1 5 .4 1 9 .8 3 6 .5 2 4 .6
153
2 6 .8
T o t a l N = 164 156 39 91 52 69 571
28.7% 27.3% 6.8% 16.0% 9.1% 12.1% 1 0 0 .0
N o te , v2 = 4 0 . 8 4 ; p = 0 .0 0 0 1 .
T a b le 44
D egree o f C ongruence of C a r e e r C h o ic e w ith C a r e e r T ra c k
O b ta in e d by S tu d e n ts from D i f f e r e n t S o c i a l O r ig in s
( in p e r c e n ta g e s )
S o c i a l O r ig in s
D egree o f Con
H ig h e r
g ru e n c e o f C a re e r Lower B u r e a u .
C h o ice w ith A r t i s a n s / B u re a u - E n t r e
C a r e e r T ra c k P e a s a n ts W orkers T r a d e rs c r a t s p r e n e u r s T o t a l
F u l l c o n g ru e n c e 2 0 .4 12 .5 10.5 2 3 .7 25 .7
105
2 0 .5
P a r t i a l c o n g ru e n c e 5 2 .9 54 .2 5 7 .9 5 5 .6 6 0 .0
279
5 4 .5
L ack o f c o n g ru e n c e 2 6 .8 33 .3 3 1 .6 2 0 .7 1 4 .3
128
25 .0
T o t a l N = 280 24 38 135 35 512
56.7% 4 .7% 7.4% 26.4% 6.8% 1 0 0 .0
N o te . xf = 8 .4 4 ; p = 0 .3 9 .
312
I f o u r d a t a d id n o t y i e l d a n e a t s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e , i t
i s b e c a u se o f th e s p re a d o f th e s o c i a l g ro u p s w h ich seem s t o h av e no
m eaning as f a r a s h ig h e r e d u c a t i o n a l p ro b le m s , f o r th e tim e b e i n g , a r e
c o n c e rn e d . In f a c t , th e d i v i d i n g l i n e l i e s b etw een two l a r g e g r o u p s - -
th o s e who have e d u c a t i o n a l c r e d e n t i a l s and h o ld a b u r e a u c r a t i c p o s i t i o n
i n s o c i e t y ( th e d o m in an t g ro u p ) and th o s e who h av e no e d u c a t i o n a l c r e
d e n t i a l s ( th e d o m in a te d g r o u p ) . When we draw t h i s l i n e , i t c l e a r l y
a p p e a rs t h a t th e so n s o f ( e d u c a te d ) b u r e a u c r a t s have more c h a n c e s to
have f u l l c o n g ru e n c e o f c a r e e r c h o ic e w ith c a r e e r t r a c k th a n th e so n s
o f u n e d u c a te d p e a s a n t s , w o r k e r s , a r t i s a n s , c a t t l e - b r e e d e r s , and p e t t y
t r a d e r s . T a b le 45 i l l u s t r a t e s th e d i f f e r e n c e s b etw ee n th e two g ro u p s .
The r e a s o n why s t u d e n t s from e d u c a te d p a r e n t s te n d t o g e t more
s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith t h e i r c a r e e r o r i e n t a t i o n i s tw o f o ld . F i r s t o f a l l ,
th e s e s t u d e n t s te n d t o c o m p le te h ig h s c h o o l a t a r e l a t i v e l y y o u n g er ag e
th a n s t u d e n t s from u n s c h o o le d (an d ) d o m i n a te d - c la s s f a m i l i e s ; and th e r e
i s a s t r o n g c o r r e l a t i o n b etw ee n ag e and th e d e g re e o f co n g ru e n c e o f
c a r e e r c h o ic e s w i t h c a r e e r t r a c k . T a b le s 46 and 47 i l l u s t r a t e th e s e
r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
The p r e c e d in g c h a p t e r on s e l e c t i o n i n th e h ig h s c h o o ls h as
e x p la in e d th e s o c i a l m echanism by w h ich t h i s h as o c c u r r e d , n o t as a
r e s u l t o f some c u l t u r a l a d v a n ta g e s on th e p a r t o f th e d o m in an t b u r e a u
c r a t i c g ro u p , b u t as a r e s u l t o f i t s d i r e c t s o c i a l c o n t r o l o v e r th e
d i f f e r e n t i a l ag e l i m i t s to w hich th e d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l g ro u p s g a in
a c c e s s t o e d u c a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s .
When age i s c o n t r o l l e d f o r d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l g r o u p s , we n o te
t h a t t h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e b etw ee n th e s e g ro u p s a s f a r a s s a t i s f a c t i o n
313
T a b le 45
D egree of C ongruence o f
T ra c k s A c c o rd in g
S t u d e n t s 1 C a r e e r C h o ices w ith T h e ir C a r e e r
t o F a th e r * s L e v e l o f F orm al E d u c a tio n
( i n p e r c e n ta g e s )
L e v e l o f F a t h e r 1s F orm al E d u c a tio n
D egree o f C ongruence
o f C a re e r C h o ice
w ith C a r e e r T ra c k
No o r P rim a ry
E d u c a tio n
S eco n d ary and
U n iv e rs i t y
E d u c a tio n T o t a l
F u l l co n g ru e n c e 1 9 .0 9 26 .6
104
2 0 .4 7
P a r t i a l co n g ru e n c e 5 3 .9 4 5 7 .4 5
280
5 4 .5 8
L ack o f c o n g ru e n c e 2 6 .9 7 15 .0
128
24.95
T o t a l N = 419
81.7%
94
18.3%
513
1 0 0 .0 0
N o te , -y 2 = 6 .7 ; p < .0 5 .
T a b le 46
R e l a t i o n s h i p b etw ee n Age a t E n tr y to U n i v e r s i t y and D egree
C ongruence o f C a r e e r C h o ic e w ith C a re e r T ra c k o f
Ouagadougou U n i v e r s i t y S c h o la r s h i p H o ld e rs
( i n p e r c e n ta g e s )
o f
D egree o f C ongruence
o f C a re e r C h o ice
w ith C a re e r T ra c k
Age a t E n tr y to U n i v e r s i t y
19-21 22-23 T o t a l
F u l l c o n g ru e n c e 2 3 .0 1 1 .9
105
2 0 .5
P a r t i a l c o n g ru e n c e 5 1 .6 6 4 .4
280
5 4 .6
L ack o f c o n g ru e n c e 25 .3 2 3 .7
128
25 .0
T o t a l N = 395
77.0%
118
23.0%
513
1 0 0 .0
N o te , y2 = 8 . 3 4 ; p < 0 .0 1 5 .
314
T a b le 47
D i f f e r e n t i a l Ages a t E n tr y to U n i v e r s i t y o f S tu d e n ts from E d u c a te d and
U n sch o o led F a m i lie s (O uagadougou U n i v e r s i t y S c h o la r s h i p H o ld e rs )
( i n p e r c e n ta g e s )
S o c i a l O r ig in s
P e a s a n ts /W o r k e r s /
Age a t E n tr y P e t t y T r a d e r s / B u r e a u c r a ts /B i g
t o U n i v e r s i t y A r t i s a n s E n t r e p r e n e u r s T o t a l
19-21 7 3 .4 8 4 .1
2 2-23 2 6 .6 1 5 .9
395
7 7 .0
117
2 3 .0
T o t a l N = 342 170 512
66.8% 33.2% 1 0 0 .0
N o te . x2 = 7 .2 ; p < .0 1 .
i n o r i e n t a t i o n o f y o u n g er (1 9 -2 1 y e a r o ld ) s t u d e n t s i s c o n c e rn e d . But
t h e r e s t i l l i s a n o t a b l e d i f f e r e n c e b etw ee n th e d i f f e r e n t g ro u p s when
i t comes to th e t r a c k i n g o f o l d e r s t u d e n t s ( th o s e a t th e age l i m i t ,
2 2 -2 3 , f o r b e in g e l i g i b l e f o r a s c h o l a r s h i p ) . F o r th e s e s t u d e n t s ,
th o s e com ing from th e b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s te n d to r e c e i v e th e same
ch a n c e s (25%) a s y o u n g er e le m e n ts o f g e t t i n g t h e i r f i r s t c a r e e r c h o i c e ,
w h ile th e s e c h a n c e s a r e s u b s t a n t i a l l y l e s s (below 8%) f o r s t u d e n t s
from p e a s a n t s , w o r k e r s , o r p e t t y t r a d e r s , a r t i s a n s , and c a t t l e - b r e e d e r s 1
f a m i l i e s . T a b le s 48 and 49 i n d i c a t e th e d i f f e r e n t i a l t r e a t m e n t of
s t u d e n t s o f d i f f e r e n t a g e s and from d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l g r o u p s .
T h ese t a b l e s i l l u s t r a t e w h at h as b een s a i d i n p r e v io u s s e c
t i o n s c o n c e rn in g th e em p h asis on th e age c r i t e r i o n by th e O r i e n t a t i o n
C om m ittee and i t s u se as a s o c i a l c o n t r o l d e v ic e by b u r e a u c r a t s
a g a i n s t o t h e r s o c i a l g r o u p s . The p ro b le m f o r s t u d e n t s from th e s e
315
T a b le 48
D egree o f C ongruence o f C a re e r C h o ice w ith C a re e r T ra c k f o r Y ounger
(1 9 -2 1 Y ear O ld) S tu d e n ts from D i f f e r e n t G roups
C l a s s i f i e d i n t o D om inated and Dom inant
( i n p e r c e n ta g e s )
D egree o f C ongruence
o f C a r e e r C h o ice
w ith C a re e r T ra c k
S o c ia l O r ig in s
D om inated
S o c i a l G roups
D ominant
S o c i a l Groups T o t a l
F u l l c o n g ru e n c e 2 2 .7 2 3 .8
91
2 3 .1 0
P a r t i a l co n g ru e n c e 5 0 .2 5 3 .8
203
5 1 .5 2
L ack of co n g ru e n c e 2 7 .1 2 2 .4
100
2 5 .3 8
T o t a l N = 251
63.7%
143
36.3%
334
1 0 0 .0 0
N o te . y2 = 0 . 9 3 : p = .6 8 .
T a b le 49
D egree o f C ongruence o f C a r e e r C h o ice w ith C a r e e r T ra c k f o r
(2 2 -2 3 Y ear O ld) S tu d e n ts from D i f f e r e n t Groups
C l a s s i f i e d i n t o D om inated and D om inant
( i n p e r c e n ta g e s )
E l d e r
D egree o f C ongruence
o f C a r e e r C h o ic e
w i t h C a r e e r T ra c k
S o c ia l O r ig in s
D om inated
S o c i a l Groups
D om inant
S o c ia l G roups T o t a l
F u l l co n g ru e n c e 7 .7 25 .9
14
1 1 .9
P a r t i a l co n g ru e n c e 6 2 .6 7 0 .4
76
6 4 .4
Lack o f c o n g ru e n c e 2 9 .7 3 .7
28
2 3 .7
T o t a l N = 91
77.1%
27
22.9%
118
1 0 0 .0
N o te . y2 = 1 1 . 9 4 ; p < .0 0 2 5 .
316
d o m in a te d g r o u p s , t h e n , i s t o g a i n a c c e s s to and le a v e o f th e e d u c a
t i o n a l s y ste m a t t h e same ag e a s s t u d e n t s from th e d o m in an t g r o u p s .
I t i s h e r e , as h as b een s e e n , t h a t much of th e p ro b le m l i e s .
A se c o n d r e a s o n why s t u d e n t s from d o m in a n t, e d u c a te d g ro u p s
h av e r e l a t i v e l y more c h a n c e s t o g e t th e d e s i r e d p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a c k s
i s t h a t th e s e g ro u p s do n o t h e s i t a t e to v i o l a t e t h e i r own r e g u l a t i o n s
i n o r d e r to a s s u r e t h e i r own p h y s i c a l r e p r o d u c t i o n th ro u g h t h e i r o f f
s p r i n g by d i r e c t l y u s in g t h e i r s o c i a l power t o a l t e r unw anted d e c i s i o n s
f o r t h e i r c h i l d r e n . T h is a b u se o f t h e i r pow er i s a w id e s p re a d phenom e
non w h ich th e M i n i s t e r o f E d u c a tio n den o u n ced i n r a t h e r m ild te rm s when
he w ro te in a r e p o r t : "E ach y e a r we a r e b e s ie g e d by p a r e n t s who w ant
us to se n d t h e i r k id s to F ra n c e r a t h e r th a n to A f r i c a n u n i v e r s i t i e s "
(MENC, r a p p o r t , November 1 9 7 7 ).
I n f a c t , th e Ouagadougou U n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s a r e n o t a good
sam p le i n show ing th e e f f e c t o f t h i s power i n f l u e n c e e x e r t e d by mem
b e r s o f th e r u l i n g f a c t i o n o f th e b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s (g o v e rn m e n t,
p a r li a m e n t m em bers, and s e r v i c e d i r e c t o r s ) . I f one lo o k s a t th e s u b
sam p les o f fre sh m e n e n r o l l e d a b ro a d (F r a n c e , S e n e g a l, Togo, and th e
Iv o r y C o a s t ) , one n o te s a h i g h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f b u r e a u c r a t s i n g e n
e r a l and in some s p e c i f i c p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a c k s (E co n o m ics, Law, and
M e d ic in e ) i n p a r t i c u l a r . T h u s, w h ile th e so n s o f b u r e a u c r a t s r e p r e s e n t
29 p e r c e n t o f th e O uagadougou U n i v e r s i t y fre sh m e n s u b p o p u la t io n , th e y
r e p r e s e n t 41 p e r c e n t o f th e fre sh m e n e n r o l l e d i n F r a n c e , Togo, th e
Iv o r y C o a s t, and S e n e g a l. As T a b le 50 i n d i c a t e s , th e p e a s a n t s and
w o r k e r s , who r e p r e s e n t , r e s p e c t i v e l y , 5 7 and 5 p e r c e n t o f th e home
u n i v e r s i t y fresh m en s u b p o p u la t io n , a r e , r e s p e c t i v e l y , o n ly 45 and 2
317
p e r c e n t o f th e fre sh m e n e n r o l l e d i n th e s e f o r e i g n u n i v e r s i t i e s .
T a b le 50
D i s t r i b u t i o n o f 1980-1981 F reshm en i n Home and F o r e ig n U n i v e r s i t i e s
A c c o rd in g t o T h e ir S o c i a l O r ig in s
( i n p e r c e n ta g e s )
U n i v e r s i t i e s o f E n ro llm e n t
S o c i a l O r ig in s o f U n i v e r s i t y o f A broad
S tu d e n ts Ouagadougou
P e a s a n ts 5 7 .7 5 4 5 .1 0
W orkers 5 .2 5 2 .1 0
A r t i s a n s / T r a d e r s 7.75 1 1 .5 4
B u r e a u c r a ts 29.25 4 1 .2 6
T o t a l N = 400 299
Of a l l fre sh m e n e n r o l l e d a b ro a d d u r in g th e a ca d em ic y e a r 1980-
1981, th e b u r e a u c r a t s r e p r e s e n t more th a n 52 p e r c e n t o f th o s e e n r o l l e d
i n Law, more th a n 42 p e r c e n t o f th e Econom ics s t u d e n t s , and 47 p e r c e n t
o f th e m e d ic a l s t u d e n t s . T a b le 51 shows th e d i f f e r e n t p r o p o r t i o n s o f
fre sh m e n e n r o l l e d i n Law, E conom ics, and M e d ic in e a t th e home u n i v e r
s i t y and a b r o a d , a c c o r d in g t o t h e i r s o c i a l o r i g i n s . T a b le 52 shows
th e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n t i a l e n r o llm e n ts from 1975 t o 1980.
I n some c a s e s , t h e r e i s no need f o r a to p c i v i l s e r v a n t to
i n f l u e n c e th e e d u c a t i o n a l b u r e a u c r a t s i n o r d e r to g e t t h e d e s i r e d p r o
f e s s i o n a l t r a c k f o r h i s s o n ( s ) o r d a u g h t e r ( s ) . Some to p c i v i l s e r
v a n t s have s u f f i c i e n t l y e n r ic h e d th e m s e lv e s t o be a b l e to s u p p o r t
t h e i r c h i l d r e n i n f o r e i g n i n s t i t u t i o n s , a t l e a s t f o r a w h i l e , th e
tim e n e c e s s a r y to w r e s t o u t from th e s t a t e a s c h o l a r s h i p , by a r g u in g
th e " 4 t a t de f a i t s " o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n b e in g a l r e a d y s u c c e s s f u l l y
318
T a b le 51
P r o p o r tio n s o f F reshm en S tu d e n ts from D i f f e r e n t S o c i a l O r ig in s
E n r o l l e d i n Law, E conom ics, and M e d ic in e
a t th e Home U n i v e r s i t y and A broad
U n i v e r s i t y o f
Ouagadougou
1
A broad (F r a n c e ,
Iv o r y C o a s t,
S e n e g a l,
Togo)
Law Econom ics Law Econom ics M e d ic in e
P e a s a n ts 6 1 .0 5 1 .1 6 4 2 .1 1 3 5 .0 0 3 7 .3 5
W orkers 4 .6 5 4 .8 2
A r t i s a n s / T r a d e r s 4 . 9 13.95 5 .2 6 2 2 .5 1 0 .8 3
B u r e a u c r a ts 3 4 .1 3 0 .2 3 5 2 .6 2 4 2 .5 4 6 .9 8
N=4l N=43 N=38 N=40 N=83
T a b le 52
E v o l u tio n o f th e
D i f f e r e n t
R e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f D i f f e r e n t S o c i a l Groups i n
P r o f e s s i o n a l T ra c k s from 1975 t o 1980
1975 1980
Law E c o n . Med. Law E c o n . Med.
P e a s a n ts
W orkers
A r t i s a n s /
T r a d e rs
6 1 .5 9
.61
6 .7 0
5 7 .0 0
3 .0 0
1 5 .0 0
5 2 .1 0
2 .5 2
1 5 .9 7
5 0 .6 3
4 .2 0
4 3 .4 7
2 .4 1
1 8 .0 7
3 7 .3 5
4 .8 2
1 0 .8 3
B u r e a u c r a ts 3 1 .1 0 2 5 .0 0 2 2 .6 9 4 3 .0 4 3 8 .1 4 4 6 .9 8
N=164 N=172 N=119 N=7 9 N=83 N=83
en g ag ed i n t h e s e t r a c k s . O f te n , to o , th e s t u d e n t s 1 a s s o c i a t i o n (AEVO)
h as h e lp e d su ch e n t e r p r i s e s by s y s t e m a t i c a l l y s u p p o r t i n g t h e i r f e ll o w
s t u d e n t s who had r e f u s e d t h e i r i n i t i a l o r i e n t a t i o n and had t h e r e f o r e
b een r e f u s e d a s c h o l a r s h i p f o r r e a s o n o f " i n s u b o r d i n a t i o n . " The AEVO
h a s r e c e n t l y made a fo rm a l r e q u e s t " t h a t i n s u b o r d i n a t i o n be no lo n g e r
319
ta k e n i n t o a c c o u n t a f t e r [ t h e c o n c e rn e d s t u d e n t h as c o m p le te d ] two
y e a r s " (AEVO, 1980, p . 8 ) . N ote t h a t a l r e a d y i n 1955 t h e r e w ere q u i t e
a s u b s t a n t i a l num ber o f so n s o f w e a lth y b u r e a u c r a t s and t r a d i t i o n a l
c h i e f s s tu d y in g i n F ra n c e a t th e e x p e n se o f t h e i r p a r e n t s . N ine o u t
o f 36 w ere in t h i s s i t u a t i o n . They w ere so n s o f c o l o n i a l a u x i l i a r y
c a d re s (3) and army u p p e r-m id d le ra n k in g o f f i c e r s ( 1 ) , so n s o f t e a c h
e r s ( 1 ) , n u r s e s ( 1 ) , c a n to n c h i e f s ( 3 ) , and c a t e c h i s t s ( 1 ) , th e l a t t e r
b e in g an in d e p e n d e n t s e lf - m a d e s t u d e n t , y e t s u p p o r te d by l o c a l p a r l i a
ment m em bers.
W ith th e u n i v e r s i t y f a c u l t y * s em phasis on aca d em ic r e le v a n c e
and a c h ie v e m e n t, s ig n s o f ch an g es a r e a l r e a d y p e r c e p t i b l e , c h a r a c t e r
iz e d by a c o r r e l a t i v e d e -e m p h a sis on a g e . W hile ag e p la y e d a r e l a i
t i v e l y s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e in th e d e g re e o f c o n g ru e n c e o f a s t u d e n t 's
c a r e e r c h o ic e w ith h i s c a r e e r t r a c k t h r e e o r f o u r y e a r s ago ( b e f o r e
th e ta k e o v e r o f th e O r i e n t a t i o n C om m ittee by th e f a c u l t y ) , i t s r o l e
h a s b een d e c l i n i n g s i n c e . T a b le 53 i n d i c a t e s t h i s c h a n g e .
How f a r t h i s t r e n d i s g o in g to be m a in ta in e d o r r e i n f o r c e d i s ,
h o w ev er, a m a t t e r o f s p e c u l a t i o n . I t d ep en d s on th e c a r e e r p e r s p e c t i v e
open to and p e r c e iv e d by th e b u r e a u c r a t s . We h av e a l r e a d y m e n tio n ed
some r e s t r i c t i o n s p u t on some c a r e e r s (E co n o m ics, Law, and s o c i a l s e r
v i c e i n g e n e r a l ) and a v o l u n t a r i s t , a u t h o r i t a r i a n move to w ard th e
s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f some o t h e r s (M e d ic in e , T e a c h in g , and E n g i n e e r i n g ) .
T hese p la n o r i e n t a t i o n s a r e l i k e l y to be c a r r i e d o u t w i t h more d e t e r m i
n a t i o n th a n o t h e r p r e v io u s s i m i l a r m e a s u r e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y as a r e s u l t
o f th e n a t i o n a l econom ic s i t u a t i o n b e in g s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t e d by w o rld
i n f l a t i o n and th e g e n e r a l s t a g n a t i o n o f th e s o - c a l l e d p r o d u c t i v e s e c -
320
T ab le 53
E v o lu tio n o f th e Im portance o f the Age F a cto r in S tu d en ts'
Career T racking by th e N a tio n a l O rie n ta tio n Committee
Degree o f Congru
ence o f Career Age
1980
a t Entry to U n iv e r sity Age
1979
a t Entry to U n iv e r sity
Career Track 19 20-21 22-23 T o ta l 19 20-21 22-23 T o ta l
F u ll congruence 25 .0 2 0 .6 1 0 .8
31
16.5
4 1 .7 2 1 .9 1 4 .7
35
2 1 .9
P a r t ia l congruence 5 0 .0 55 .7 6 5 .1
112
5 9 .6
3 3 .3 4 9 .1 6 1 .8
81
5 0 .6
Lack o f congruence 2 5 .0 - 2 3 .7 2 4 .1
45
2 3 .9
25 .0 2 8 .9 23.5
44
27.5
T o ta l N - 8 97 83 188 12 116 34 160
4.3% 51.6% 44.1% 100.0% 7.5% 71.32% 21.32% 1 0 0 .0
N o te , x3 “ 3 .7 6 ; p * .4 4 . X 3 “ 4 .8 5 ; p * .3 0 .
Degree o f Congru
ence o f Career
1978
Age a t Entry
U n iv e r sity
to
1977
Age a t Entry
U n iv e r sity
to
1976-1977
Age a t Entry to
U n iv e r sity
C hoice w ith
Career Track 19 20-21 T o ta l 19 20-21 T o ta l 19
F u ll congruence 3 0 .8 1 2 .1
16
2 2 .2
2 5 .5 0 .0
12
2 1 .8
11
2 8 .9
P a r t ia l congruence 5 6 .4 6 0 .6
43
5 8 .3
4 8 .9 3 7.5
26
5 0 .7
19
5 0 .0
Lack of congruence 12 .8 2 7 .3
14
. 1 9 .4
25 .5 6 2 .5
17
3 0 .9
8
2 1 .1
T o ta l N - 39 33 72 47 8 55 38
54.2% 45.8% 100.0% 85 .5% 14.5% 100.0% 100.0%
N o te . yf “ 4.77; p » .0 9 . X 2 ■ 5
.25; p « .0 7 .
321
t o r s . S u c c e s s iv e m is s io n s o f e x p e r t s from i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s
(W orld B ank, in p a r t i c u l a r ) and F re n c h e c o n o m ists have b e e n s t i g m a t i z
in g th e im b a la n c e b etw ee n th e econom ic r e a l i t i e s and th e l a b o r s t r u c t u r e
d o m in ated by a " p l e t h o r i c " c i v i l s e r v i c e . The s tu d y c o n d u c te d by V o lta n
and F re n c h e c o n o m is ts in 1979 on th e econom ic s i t u a t i o n ‘o f U pper V o lta ,
and a l r e a d y m e n tio n e d , c o n c lu d e d t h a t "Employment w i l l re m a in , i n th e
fo rth c o m in g y e a r s , one o f th e m a jo r p ro b lem s o f U pper V o lta " ( M in is te r e
du P l a n , 1979, p . 8 3 ) . D i s t r u s t f u l a b o u t th e V o lta n b u r e a u c r a t s ' a b i l
i t y t o fa c e t h i s s i t u a t i o n w hich r e g u l a r l y , f o r th e p r e v io u s t h r e e
y ears,, had f o r c e d th e V o lta n M i n i s t e r o f F in a n c e t o r e s o r t to th e F re n c h
t r e a s u r y , th e F re n c h governm ent h as b e e n t r y i n g t o g a in c o n t r o l o v e r
th e manpower p la n n in g and r e s h u f f l i n g p r o c e s s , th ro u g h th e u n i v e r s i t y .
H owever, th e V o lta n b u r e a u c r a t s do n o t seem re a d y t o g iv e up t o e x t e r n a l
c o n t r o l th e b a s i s o f t h e i r so c io e c o n o m ic pow er. D is a g re e m e n ts c o u ld be
p e r c e iv e d th ro u g h th e m in u te s o f th e 1979 s e s s i o n o f th e F ra n c o -V o lta n
c o o p e r a tio n co m m ittee:
The V o lta n d e l e g a t i o n a g r e e s to sen d a m is s io n o f e v a l u a t i o n
and p la n n in g f o r th e d e v elo p m en t of th e u n i v e r s i t y , as t h i s
had b e e n s u g g e s te d by M. Bounamou a t th e Decem ber m e e tin g .
F o r th e F re n c h d e l e g a t i o n , th e o b j e c t i v e o f th e p la n n in g m i s
s i o n w ould be t o p r o j e c t th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e U n i v e r s i t y o v er
th e n e x t d e c a d e and t o a d j u s t p ro m o tio n and em ploym ent com ing
up w ith th e em ploym ent p e r s p e c t i v e s o f h ig h e r c a d r e s . The V o l
t a n d e l e g a t i o n s a y s t h a t f o r i t s p a r t , th e o b j e c t i v e o f th e m is
s i o n w i l l be to e s t a b l i s h th e n eed s o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y f o r e q u i p
m e n t, g iv e n th e s e r i o u s p ro b lem s r e s u l t i n g from th e o u s t i n g o f
V o lta n s t u d e n t s from n e ig h b o u r in g c o u n t r i e s ' u n i v e r s i t i e s , th e
p ro m o tio n -em p lo y m en t a s p e c t t o be p o stp o n e d f o r a s u b s e q u e n t
s t e p . (U .O ., Com m ission de C o o p e r a tio n , 1979, p . 2)
I t i s n o t c e r t a i n t h a t th e U n i v e r s i t y a ca d em ics and b u r e a u c r a t s w i l l
keep t h e d o m in an t p o s i t i o n th e y h av e b een a c q u i r i n g th e l a s t two y e a rs
i n f i x i n g th e c r i t e r i a f o r p r o f e s s i o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n ,
322
A n o th e r f a c t o r w hich m ig h t i n t e r v e n e t o a l t e r s u b s t a n t i a l l y
th e a t te m p t s by s t a t e ( p la n n in g ) b u r e a u c r a t s , u n i v e r s i t y a c a d e m ic s ,
and th e F re n c h n e o - c o l o n i a l b o u r g e o i s i e to g e t c o n t r o l o v e r th e rh y th m
o f c r e d e n t i a l i n f l a t i o n and t h a t i s th e e v e n t u a l r e a c t i o n o f th e V o lta n
p e t t y b o u r g e o i s i e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i t s b u s in e s s f a c t i o n . T h is f a c t i o n h as
b een show ing i t s e l f t o be more and more a g g r e s s i v e i n c a p t u r i n g th e
c u l t u r a l m a rk e t th ro u g h th e c r e a t i o n of p r i v a t e s c h o o l i n s t i t u t i o n s .
I t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t th e c o n v e rg e n c e o f t h i s b u s in e s s f a c t i o n ’ s
t h i r s t f o r pow er and th e grow ing d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n o f th e p r o l e t a r i z e d
i n t e l l e c t u a l f a c t i o n ( p a r t i c u l a r l y th e t e a c h e r s ) c o u ld le a d t o th e
c r e a t i o n o f p r i v a t e u n i v e r s i t y i n s t i t u t i o n s e n f o r c i n g t h e i r own s t a n
d a rd s f o r r e c r u i t m e n t . U n le ss th e b u r e a u c r a t i c r u l i n g f a c t i o n u n d e r a
v a r i e t y o f p r e s s u r e s ( b o th d o m e s tic and f o r e i g n ) d e c id e s to m o n o p o lize
th e c u l t u r a l m a rk e t from th e to p down th ro u g h an e d u c a tio n r e f o r m .
T h is re fo rm h a s b een r i t u a l i s t i c a l l y t a l k e d a b o u t f o r two d e c a d e s now
and i s c o n s t a n t l y p o s tp o n e d b e c a u s e o f e l e c t o r a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . I n
d e e d , an e v e n t u a l r e fo rm w i l l b r i n g a b o u t s e r i o u s d i s c o n t e n t on th e
p a r t o f a l l c o n c e rn e d g ro u p s i n c l u d i n g th e b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s a s a
w hole w h ich c o n s id e r s e d u c a tio n a s a p r i v i l e g e d in s tr u m e n t f o r i t s
s o c i a l r e p r o d u c t i o n .
Some F a c t o r s o f S e l e c t i o n I n s i d e th e U n i v e r s i t y
In t r y i n g to i d e n t i f y th e f a c t o r s d e te r m in in g th e p ro c la im e d
aca d em ic s u c c e s s o f s t u d e n t s , th e p r e s e n t s tu d y came t o th e c o n c l u s i o n
t h a t th e u n i v e r s i t y d e p a r t m e n t s , an d t o a c e r t a i n d e g r e e , t h e l e v e l o f
s t u d i e s , t h a t i s u l t i m a t e l y th e c a r e e r s p r e p a r e d f o r , th e b u r e a u c r a t s
323
and a c a d e m ic s 1 c a r e e r i n t e r e s t s , w ere th e m a jo r f a c t o r s i n th e r a t e s
o f " f a i l u r e " o r " s u c c e s s " among th e s t u d e n t s .
T a b le s 54 and 55 i n d i c a t e th e d i f f e r e n t i a l r a t e s o f s u c c e s s a t
th e d i f f e r e n t d e p a rtm e n ts and l e v e l s o f s t u d i e s .
The U n i v e r s i t y o f Ouagadougou h as k e p t th e F re n c h U n i v e r s i t y
t r a d i t i o n t h a t th e f i r s t y e a r m ust be a " p r o b a ti o n a r y " o n e , w ith a
h i g h e r d e g re e o f s e l e c t i v i t y . T h u s, a s T a b le 55 i n d i c a t e s , f o r an
o v e r a l l r a t e o f s u c c e s s i n e x a m in a tio n s e s ti m a t e d o v e r s i x y e a r s a t
5 6 .7 p e r c e n t , t h e r a t e o f s u c c e s s among th e fre sh m e n i s o n ly 4 3 .1 p e r
c e n t a g a i n s t 5 9 .6 p e r c e n t f o r s e c o n d - y e a r s t u d e n t s , 56 p e r c e n t f o r
t h i r d - y e a r s t u d e n t s , and 58 p e r c e n t f o r f o u r t h - y e a r s t u d e n t s . The r a
t i o n a l e f o r su ch h ig h s e l e c t i v i t y i n th e f i r s t y e a r o f u n i v e r s i t y i s
t o make s u r e t h a t th o s e s u c c e s s f u l l y p a s s in g th e o r d e a l w i l l be a b l e to
p r o g r e s s sm o o th ly i n t o th e h ig h e r e d u c a t i o n a l s y s te m .
H owever, one may be s k e p t i c a l a b o u t t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n , p a r t i c u
l a r l y a s th e s e l e c t i v i t y i s m a in ta in e d a t a r e l a t i v e l y h ig h l e v e l
th r o u g h o u t a l l s u b s e q u e n t y e a r s , e s p e c i a l l y i n some d e p a rtm e n ts su c h
a s L e t t e r s and S c ie n c e s . I n f a c t , when we g e t i n t o d e t a i l s o f i n d i v i d
u a l d e p a r tm e n ta l r a t e s o f s u c c e s s , we n o te t h a t th e s u c c e s s r a t e f o r
th e f i r s t y e a r (43.1% ) i s th e a v e ra g e r a t e f o r th e d e p a rtm e n ts o f L e t
t e r s (45.5% f o r a l l y e a r s ) and S c ie n c e s (41% f o r a l l y e a r s ) , w ith v e ry
l i t t l e v a r i a t i o n th r o u g h o u t th e f o u r y e a r s (a b o u t 40% f o r th e f i r s t ,
s e c o n d , and f o u r t h y e a r s , o n ly th e t h i r d y e a r show ing b e t t e r r e s u l t s
w ith 50% i n L e t t e r s ) .
T a b le 56 i n d i c a t e s t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l r a t e o f s u c c e s s o f th e d i f
f e r e n t d e p a rtm e n ts by l e v e l o f s t u d i e s .
324
T ab le 54
R a te s of S u c c e ss i n U n i v e r s i t y E x a m in a tio n
by D ep artm en t from 1966 to 1980
( i n p e r c e n t a g e s ) 3.
Y ear
l e t t e r s
A g ricu l
tu re
B usiness
Adm.
Economics
Math
\ \
Cinema
Law
T o ta l
1966 4 6 .4 3 4 6 .4 3
1967 5 4 .1 7 5 4 .1 7
1968 6 0 .3 2 6 0 .3 2
1974 4 5 .1 3 2 9 .4 1 6 8 .1 8 45 .02
1975 . 4 7 .4 6 4 1 .0 7 8 2 .1 9 5 2 .4 9
1976 4 7 .6 1 8 2 .0 9 8 6 .6 7 7 3 .0 8 5 9 .0 1
1977 5 1 .1 6 8 1 .7 2 9 3 .8 6 5 8 .5 1 4 3 .2 1 6 8 .4 1 5 9 .9 6
1978 3 3 .9 8 5 8 .6 0 6 3 .3 1 3 8 .3 1 3 3 .0 0 9 2 .1 0 4 6 .6 4
1979 3 3 .6 0 8 0 .7 7 7 7 .6 1 7 3 .5 3 3 5 .1 4 9 1 .3 0 79 .1 7 5 0 .0 0
1980 5 7 .5 8 8 2 .6 4 7 3 .3 8 7 1 .5 4 4 9 .4 9 9 1 .1 1 8 4 .2 1 6 8 .0 0
T o t a l 45 .53 6 7 .1 4 7 9 .0 6 5 8 .1 8 4 1 .0 1 8 8 .0 0 8 3 .1 9 55 .55
N=2,5 72 N=633 N=616 N=464 N=317 N=125 N=119 N=4,841
N o te . Computed from s t a t i s t i c s from th e r e g i s t r a r ' s o f f i c e . R e s u l t s
o f e x a m in a tio n s by d e p a r tm e n t. The s t a t i s t i c s f o r th e 1979
e x a m in a tio n s a r e b a s e d on s t u d e n t s who e f f e c t i v e l y s a t f o r th e
e x a m in a tio n s a t th e e x c l u s i o n o f th o s e who r e g i s t e r e d b u t d id
n o t show up b e c a u s e o f th e b o y c o t t .
c l
O v e r a ll means a r e w e ig h te d .
325
T a b le 55
R a te s of S u c c e ss i n U n i v e r s i t y E x a m in a tio n by L e v e l o f S tu d ie s
( i n p e r c e n ta g e s ) o v e r S ix Y ears (1 9 7 4 -1 9 7 9 )
L e v e l o f S tu d ie s
1 s t Y ear 2nd Y ear 3 rd Y ear 4 th Y ear 5 t h Y ear
P e r c e n t o f ^ ± 59 6 5 6 .1 8 6 7 .9 4 5 6 .7
S u c c e ss
N o te . From U.O. R e g i s t r a r 's O f f i c e . The d a t a f o r th e a g r i c u l t u r a l
d e p a rtm e n t f i f t h y e a r a r e n o t in c lu d e d h e r e .
The s t a t i s t i c s f o r th e 1979 e x a m in a tio n w ere com puted f o r a l l
s t u d e n t s r e g i s t e r e d in c l u d i n g th o s e who a f t e r w a r d d id n o t show
up f o r th e e x a m i n a t i o n s .
326
T a b le 56
H a te s o f S u ccess i n U n i v e r s i t y E x a m in a tio n s by D ep artm en ts and
L e v e l o f S t u d i e s , C a l c u l a t e d o v e r S ix Y ears (1 9 7 4 -1 9 7 9 ,
U nw eighted M eans)
D ep artm en ts
L e v e l
o f
S tu d ie s
L e t te r s
A g ric u l
tu re
B usiness
Adm.
Economics
Math-
P hysics
Cinema
Law
T o ta l
1 s t y e a r 3 7 .8 6 3 7 .7 7 70.75 35 .26 25 .25 65 .00 28 .3 5 4 3 .1 0
2nd y e a r 3 6 .8 1 7 9 .9 3 7 3 .2 7 5 0 .1 2 4 8 .4 9 6 9 .0 0
__
5 9 .6 0
3 rd y e a r 4 9 .9 7 8 1 .8 1 - - 3 8 .7 8 3 7 .6 4 7 2 .6 0 5 6 .1 8
4 t h y e a r 3 8 .8 8 9 7 .0 0 - -
—
6 7 .9 4
T o t a l 4 0 .8 8 74.12 72 .01 4 1 .7 2 3 7 .2 3 6 8 .9 0 28 .35 5 6 .7 0
N o te . Computed from U.O. R e g i s t r a r 's O f f ic e " R e s u l t a t s aux Examens
(Regus s u r i n s c r i t s ) , " 1981. The row and colum n t o t a l s a r e n o t
th e sam e, b e c a u se u n w e ig h te d means w ere u se d f o r th e co m p u ta
t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t t o t a l s .
327
The D ep artm en ts o f B u s in e s s A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ( s h o r t - c y c l e ) and
Cinema a r e t h e l e a s t s e l e c t i v e , w ith a s u c c e s s r a t e o f a b o u t 80 p e r
c e n t , fo llo w e d by th e D ep artm en t o f A g r i c u l t u r e (a b o u t 70%)- - t h e d a t a
f o r th e D ep artm en t o f Law a r e n o t r e l i a b l e inasm u ch as th e y c o n c e rn
th e p e r io d o f 1979 and 1980 w hich was m arked by th e e x a m in a tio n b o y
c o t t and i t s a f t e r m a t h .
A common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f th e l e a s t s e l e c t i v e d e p a rtm e n ts,,
p a r t i c u l a r l y th e s h o r t - c y c l e B u s in e s s A d m i n i s t r a t i o n D ep artm en t and
th e Cinema D e p a rtm e n t, i s (1) t h e i r lo w e r " a c a d e m ic " c o n t e n t and (2)
t h e i r c l o s e r g e a r i n g t o s p e c i f i c e x p e c t a t i o n s on th e p a r t o f th e b u -
r e a c r a t s . C h a p te r VI h as a l r e a d y e x p la in e d th e lo w e r com m itm ent of
a ca d em ics t o th o s e d e p a rtm e n ts p ie c e d o u t to re sp o n d to th e b u r e a u
c r a t s 1 c o n c e rn s w ith th e b u s in e s s w o rld and th e c u l t u r a l w o r ld , more
p r e c i s e l y th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C u l t u r a l A f f a i r s ta k in g c h a rg e o f movie
m a k e rs 1 i n t e r e s t s . N ot o n ly i s th e c o n t e n t of th e s e t r a i n i n g program s
n o t w e l l - d e f i n e d , b u t th e s ta n d a r d s o f p e rfo rm a n c e and t h e i r t e s t i n g
m ethods a r e a l s o n o t y e t w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d , r e l y i n g b a s i c a l l y on a n o n
p r o f e s s i o n a l te a c h in g s t a f f . I n th e a b s e n c e o f any acad em ic t r a d i t i o n ,
th e r e i s a te n d e n c y f o r th e new, n o n -a c a d e m ic d e p a rtm e n ts to be l e s s
s e l e c t i v e
T h is h y p o th e s i s i s f u r t h e r e v id e n c e d by th e f a c t t h a t th e h ig h
r a t e s o f s u c c e s s o b s e rv e d i n th e d e p a rtm e n ts o f s h o r t - c y c l e B u s in e s s
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n and M ovie a r e a l s o o b s e rv e d i n th e s h o r t - c y c l e of th e
T e a c h e r T r a i n i n g d e p a rtm e n ts ( th e fo rm e r ENS and th e p r e s e n t IM P).
To be s u r e th e s e s h o r t - c y c l e s t u d e n t s a r e a l r e a d y and g e n e r a l l y c o n
s i d e r e d a s acad em ic f a i l u r e s , s i n c e th e y a r e r e c r u i t e d from among th o s e
______________________________________________________________________________________ 328
who f e l l below a c e r t a i n s c o r e (8 /2 0 a t t h e IM P), and t h e r e f o r e a r e
ju d g e d i n e p t f o r f u r t h e r s t u d i e s in t h e i r o r i g i n a l l o n g - c y c le d e p a r t
m ents .
The s u c c e s s r a t e f o r th e s h o r t - c y c l e L e t t e r s d e p a rtm e n ts (ENS)
c a l c u l a t e d f o r th e a ca d em ic y e a r s 1 9 6 6 -1 9 6 7 , 1 9 6 7 -1 9 6 8 , and 1969-1970
was 7 2 .7 3 p e r c e n t ; and th e s u c c e s s r a t e f o r th e s c ie n c e s (Math and
P h y s ic s ) s h o r t - c y c l e d e p a rtm e n t f o r th e s t u d e n t s e n r o l l e d a t th e U n i
v e r s i t y o f O uagadougou o r th e aca d em ic y e a r 1980-1981 i s 8 1 .8 2 p e r c e n t .
T h is le a d s us t o r e p e a t th e c o n c l u s i o n re a c h e d i n C h a p te rs IV an d V I,
t h a t th e b u r e a u c r a t s and a c a d em ics do n o t h e s i t a t e t o lo w er th e s t a n
d a rd s o f p e rfo rm a n c e r e q u i r e d i n o r d e r to s a t i s f y t h e i r p e r c e iv e d n eed s
i n manpower f o r jo b s deemed v i t a l b u t g r a n te d lo w e r s t a t u s and f i n a n
c i a l re w a rd by th e b u r e a u c r a t i c s o c i a l o r d e r .
A p a rt from t h i s common a c c u l t u r a t i o n e x p e r ie n c e f o s t e r e d by
th e u n i v e r s i t y e x a m in a tio n sy ste m and a c c o u n tin g f o r th e d i f f e r e n t i a l
r a t e s o f s u c c e s s i n d i f f e r e n t d e p a r tm e n ts , th e p r e s e n t s tu d y d id n o t
f i n d any c u l t u r a l b ack g ro u n d d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t m ig h t g iv e to some s o c i a l
c l a s s e s o r g ro u p s an a d v a n ta g e o v e r o t h e r c l a s s e s o r g ro u p s i n te rm s
o f b e t t e r p e rfo rm a n c e on e x a m in a t io n s . W hatever th e aca d em ic d is c i p l i n e :
an d th e l e v e l o f s t u d i e s , no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was fou n d b etw een
s t u d e n t s fro m d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l c l a s s e s o r g ro u p s and d i f f e r e n t s o c i o
c u l t u r a l b ack g ro u n d s a s m easu red by th e f a t h e r ' s l e v e l o f fo rm a l e d u
c a t i o n , th e s t u d e n t 's e t h n i c , g e o g r a p h i c a l , r e l i g i o u s , o r s e x o r i g i n .
T a b le 5 7 i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s a b s e n c e o f a r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw ee n
s t u d e n t s ' s o c i a l o r i g i n s a s m easu red by f a t h e r ' s o c c u p a tio n and t h e i r
aca d em ic a c h ie v e m e n t.
329
T a b le 57
D i f f e r e n t i a l R a te s o f S u c c e ss i n F i n a l E x a m in a tio n s o f
U n i v e r s i t y S tu d e n ts from D i f f e r e n t S o c i a l O r ig in s
(a s M easured by F a t h e r 's O c c u p a tio n )
( i n p e r c e n ta g e s )
S t u d e n t 's S o c i a l O r ig in s ( F a t h e r 1s O c c u p a tio n )
A cadem ic S u c c e ss
(Number o f
R e p e t i t i o n s )
P easan ts
Workers
A rtis a n s /T ra d e rs
C a ttle -b r e e d e r s
Lower B u reau crats
|
Upper B u re a u c ra ts/
E n tre p re n e u rs
Undetermined
T o ta l
No r e p e t i t i o n
1 r e p e t i t i o n
2 r e p e t i t i o n s
3 o r more r e p e t i t i o n s
5 7 .3
3 8 .6
5 .6
4 .8
6 0 .7
35 .7
0 .0
3 .6
55 .3
3 2 .6
0 .0
1 1 .6
55 .0
3 6 .0
4 .1
5 .0
5 8 .1
3 2 .3
3 .2
6.5
6 1 .0
2 5 .3
7 .3
2 .4
515
5 3 .1
35 9
3 7 .0
47
4 .8
49
5 .1
T o t a l
585
60.3%
28
.2 .9 %
43
.4.4%
242
24.9%
1
3.2%
41
4.2%
370
100.0%
N o te , y2 = 1 2 . 9 5 ; p = .6 0 6 1 .
S o u rc e : D ata o b ta in e d
O uagadougou.
from th e R e g i s t r a r 's O f f ic e , U n i v e r s i t y o f
330
Q u ite i n t e r e s t i n g l y , th e p r e s e n t s t u d y d id n o t f in d a p o s i t i v e
r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw ee n aca d em ic s u c c e s s and th e ag e a t w hich a s t u d e n t
e n t e r s th e u n i v e r s i t y . Nor d i d i t f i n d a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw ee n
aca d em ic s u c c e s s an d h ig h s c h o o l p e rfo rm a n c e a s m easu red by b a c c a l a u r ^ a t
d i s t i n c t i o n . On th e c o n t r a r y , and q u i t e s u r p r i s i n g l y , th e s tu d y found
t h a t th o s e s t u d e n t s who had had no d i s t i n c t i o n on th e b a c c a l a u r ^ a t
te n d e d t o p a s s t h e i r u n i v e r s i t y e x a m in a tio n more f r e q u e n t l y th a n th o s e
who had g o t "A ssez B ie n ," " B ie n ," o r " T re s B ie n 1 1 d i s t i n c t i o n on th e
b a c c a l a u r e a t , w h a te v e r th e m a jo r.
T a b le s 58 and 5 9 i n d i c a t e t h i s a b s e n c e o f p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n
s h i p . N ote t h a t th e b a c c a l a u r e a t "G" s tre a m and th e u n i v e r s i t y s p e c i a l
e n t r a n c e e x a m in a tio n have no p a r t i c u l a r d i s t i n c t i o n s .
I n th e p r e c e d in g c h a p t e r i t was fo u n d t h a t y o u n g e r s t u d e n t s
te n d e d to g e t more d i s t i n c t i o n s i n t h e i r b a c c a l a u r e a t e x a m in a tio n r e
s u l t s th a n o l d e r s t u d e n t s . Q u ite c l e a r l y t h i s tr e n d i s n o t m a in ta in e d
a t th e u n i v e r s i t y l e v e l w here e l d e r s t u d e n t s te n d to o u tp a c e y o u n g e r
s t u d e n t s by s u c c e e d in g more r e g u l a r l y i n t h e i r f i n a l e x a m in a tio n s .
More s t u d i e s a r e n e c e s s a r y to d e te r m in e th e r e a s o n s o f t h i s b r e a k
b etw ee n h ig h s c h o o l and u n i v e r s i t y i n U pper V o l t a , w h ile i n g e n e r a l
i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s t h e r e seems to be a f a i r l y p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n b e
tw een th e two l e v e l s o f e d u c a tio n (Haveman & W est, 1952; H o lla n d 6 c
N ic h o l s , 1964, p p . 5 5 -5 6 ; W egner, 1969, p p . 154-169; and f o r a good
summary o f th e l i t e r a t u r e , C o l l i n s , 1979, p p . 1 9 - 2 1 ) . One can a l r e a d y
s p e c u l a t e , h o w ev er, t h a t th e ty p e of e x a m in a tio n u se d to t e s t h ig h
s c h o o l s t u d e n t s i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r y i e l d i n g m easu rem en ts of a c h ie v e m e n t
w h ich do n o t c o rre s p o n d t o th e s t u d e n t s ' i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t i e s . I f
331
T a b le 58
D i f f e r e n t i a l R a te s o f S u c c e ss in F i n a l E x a m in a tio n s f o r S tu d e n ts
Who O b ta in e d D i f f e r e n t D i s t i n c t i o n s t o T h e i r B a c c a la u r ^ a t
(High S c h o o l) E x a m in a tio n s ( i n p e r c e n ta g e s )
A cadem ic S u c c e ss
(Number o f
R e p e t i t i o n s )
B a c c a la u r ^ a t D i s t i n c t i o n s
Minimum
Pas s in g Honors G S tre a m T o t a l
No r e p e t i t i o n 5 3 .5 4 9 .7 5 6 .1
511
5 3 .0
1 r e p e t i t i o n 3 7 .0 3 8 .7 3 3 .3
358
3 7 .1
2 r e p e t i t i o n s 4 .7 5 .5 4 .5
47
4 . 9
3 o r more r e p e t i t i o n s 4 .7 6 ,1 6 .1
49
5 .1
T o t a l
718
74.4%
181
18.8%
66
6.8%
965
100.0%
N o te . x2 = 1 . 7 3 ; p > .9 4 .
S o u r c e : D ata o b ta in e d fro m th e R e g i s t r a r ’s O f f i c e , U n i v e r s i t y o f
O uagadougou.
332
T a b le 5 9
D i f f e r e n t i a l R a te s o f S u c c e ss in F i n a l E x a m in a tio n s f o r
S c h o la r s h i p H o ld e rs 3- Who E n te r e d th e U n i v e r s i t y
a t D i f f e r e n t Ages ( i n p e r c e n ta g e s )
A cadem ic S u ccess
(Number o f
R e p e t i t i o n s )
Age a t E n tr y t o U n i v e r s i t y
18 19 20 21 22 T o t a l
No r e p e t i t i o n
5 2 .4 5 2 .4 5 1 .9 5 4 .4 7 2 .7
413
5 3 .4
1 r e p e t i t i o n
3 9 .0 4 1 .7 4 1 .0 3 8 .6 21.2
306
3 9 .6
2 r e p e t i t i o n s
1.8 2.8 6 .7 7 .0 6.1
34
4 . 4
3 r e p e t i t i o n s
6 .7 3 .2 0 .5 0.0 0.0
20
2.6
T o t a l
164
21.2
252 •
3 2 .6
210
2 7 .2
111
1 4 .7
33
4 .3
773
100.0
N o t e . X2 - 3 2 .6 5 ; p = .0 0 1 .
S o u rc e : D ata o b ta in e d from th e R e g i s t r a r ' s O f f i c e , U n i v e r s i t y of
O uagadougou.
T h is in c lu d e s a l l s t u d e n t s who b e n e f i t e d from a s t a t e s c h o l a r
s h i p even i f t h i s s c h o l a r s h i p was w ith d ra w n f o llo w in g p oor academ ic
p e r f o r m a n c e .
333
t h i s h y p o th e s i s p ro v e s t o be t r u e , i t w ould c o n firm th e g e n e r a l b e l i e f
among V o lta n s t u d e n t s t h a t s u c c e s s i n th e h ig h s c h o o l - l e a v i n g e x am in a
t i o n i s m o s tly a m a t t e r o f c h a n c e . I n d e e d , a s u rv e y c o n d u c te d by th e
e d u c a t i o n a l p la n n in g o f f i c e i n 1973 among h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s i n d i
c a t e d t h a t
s i x t y p e r c e n t o f th e 12t h g r a d e r s in t e r v ie w e d s a y t h a t e x am in a
t i o n s a r e u s e l e s s b e c a u s e , on th e one h a n d , th e d ip lo m a does n o t
e x p r e s s q u a l i t y n o r c o m p e te n c e , a n d , on th e o t h e r h a n d , s u c c e s s
i n an e x a m in a tio n i s a m a t t e r o f c h a n c e , a n d , f i n a l l y , b e c a u se
w hat i s r e q u i r e d on th e e x a m in a tio n day does n o t c o rre s p o n d t o
th e e f f o r t s done o v e r a f u l l y e a r . (MENC, "Reform e de 1 ’E d u c a
t i o n , " 1976, p . 64)
The s u rv e y o f O uagadougou U n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s how ever i n d i c a t e s
t h a t , i n g e n e r a l , u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s have more c o n f id e n c e i n t h e i r
e x a m in a tio n s y s te m , even i f th e y c o m p lain a b o u t i t s " s u p e r - s e l e c t i v e "
c h a r a c t e r . I n t e l l i g e n c e , h a rd w ork, and memory w ere m e n tio n e d by th e
q u e s t i o n n a i r e re s p o n d e n ts as th e m ain f a c t o r s o f s u c c e s s i n e x a m in a tio n
T a b le 60 i n d i c a t e s th e r a t i n g o f d i f f e r e n t f a c t o r s s u g g e s te d a s p o s
s i b l e d e te r m in a n ts o f s u c c e s s i n e x a m in a tio n .
The f i n d i n g c o n c e r n in g t h e a b s e n c e of a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p
b etw ee n b a c c a l a u r ^ a t d i s t i n c t i o n s and s u b s e q u e n t acad em ic a c h ie v e m e n t
v i n d i c a t e s th e ENS s t u d e n t s ’ p r o t e s t a g a i n s t th e u s e o f b a c c a l a u r ^ a t
d i s t i n c t i o n s as a c r i t e r i o n f o r t r a c k i n g . I t a l s o c o n firm s th e p r e s e n t
te n d e n c y o f O uagadougou U n i v e r s i t y f a c u l t y ' s p o s i t i o n w h ich te n d s to
ig n o r e th e s e d i s t i n c t i o n s in t r a c k i n g s t u d e n t s . A t th e same tim e i t
m ust be a w a rn in g to th e u n i v e r s i t y b u r e a u c r a t s a g a i n s t th e c o n c r e t i z a -
t i o n o f th e p r o j e c t e d r e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f b a c c a l a u r ^ a t d i s t i n c t i o n s as a
s e l e c t i o n and t r a c k i n g i n s t r u m e n t .
334
T a b le 60
R a tin g by S tu d e n ts o f D i f f e r e n t F a c t o r s I n f l u e n c i n g
T h e i r S u c c e ss i n E x a m in a tio n s ( i n p e r c e n ta g e s )
- D egrees o f Im p o rta n c e
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I n t e l l i g e n c e 0.8 5 .1 5 9 .7 3 2 .7 1.6 100.0
Hard work 0 .5 2.6 22.8 7 3 .6 0 .5 100.0
Memory 2.6 8.6 5 8 .0 2 9 .8 1.1 : 100.0
S t y l e 5 .4 1 3 .3 5 6 .7 22.8 1.8 100.0
P e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p
w ith i n s t r u c t o r
3 6 .6
. . i
4 0 .7 1 5 .2 6.1 1 .4 100.0
335
Summary and C o n c lu s io n
The f i n d i n g s o f th e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r c l e a r l y s u p p o r t th e h y p o th
e s i s t h a t th e b u r e a u c r a t s m a n ip u la te th e e d u c a t i o n a l s e l e c t i o n and o c
c u p a t i o n a l t r a c k i n g i n o r d e r t o p r e s e r v e t h e i r c a r e e r i n t e r e s t s and
p a ss them a lo n g t o t h e i r o f f s p r i n g .
The e v o l u t i o n o f s t u d e n t s ' c a r e e r p r e f e r e n c e s o v e r th e l a s t
two d e c a d e s (m arked by a c l e a r p r e f e r e n c e f o r Econom ics and Law, and
an a v o id a n c e o f te a c h in g ) p a r a l l e l s somewhat th e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e
r e l a t i v e s o c i a l and econom ic power e x p e r ie n c e d by th e d i f f e r e n t b u -
r e a c r a t i c g r o u p s .
T h is i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g s i n c e th e s t u d e n t s , as w o u ld -b e b u r e a u
c r a t s , p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e s t r u g g l e f o r a d v a n ta g e s le d by th e s e d i f f e r
e n t b u r e a u c r a t i c g r o u p s . I n f o r m a l an d d i f f u s e c h a n n e ls ( u n io n s , new s
p a p e r s , p a r e n t s and r e l a t i v e s , g o s s i p and m ere o b s e r v a ti o n ) t r a n s m i t
in f o r m a tio n a b o u t th e s o c i a l s t a t u s o f each p r o f e s s i o n a l g ro u p , eac h
c a r e e r . T hese c h a n n e ls a r e more im p o r ta n t i n in fo rm in g th e s t u d e n t s
th a n th e o f f i c i a l c h a n n e l ( D i r e c t i o n de 1 ' I n f o r m a tio n e t de 1 ’O r i e n t a
t i o n S c o l a i r e e t P r o f e s s i o n n e l l e o r B ureau de 1 ' I n f o r m a t io n e t de
1 ’O r i e n t a t i o n ) e s t a b l i s h e d by th e b u r e a u c r a t s o f th e M i n i s t r y o f Edu
c a t i o n and w hich a r e i n f a c t d o in g a q u i t e u s e l e s s jo b when o r g a n iz in g
t h e i r y e a r l y ro u n d t r i p i n th e 12th g ra d e s i n o r d e r t o b r i e f p o t e n t i a l
c a n d i d a te s a b o u t th e c a r e e r p e r s p e c t i v e s opened to them .
S tu d e n ts seem to be e q u a l l y a m b itio u s i n te rm s o f t h e i r c a r e e r
e x p e c t a t i o n s , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s o c i a l o r i g i n s . H owever,
th e s e s o c i a l o r i g i n s p la y an a p p a r e n t l y s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n th e p r o b
a b i l i t y f o r an i n d i v i d u a l s t u d e n t o f o b t a i n i n g h i s c a r e e r p r e f e r e n c e
336
from th e N a ti o n a l O r i e n t a t i o n C om m ittee, th e b u r e a u c r a ts * in s tr u m e n t
f o r o c c u p a tio n a l t r a c k i n g .
The d a t a made a v a i l a b l e by th e p r e s e n t s u rv e y d id n o t , h o w ev er,
a llo w us to f u l l y a p p re h e n d th e e x t e n t to w hich s o c i a l o r i g i n s p la y a
r o l e i n th e t r a c k i n g s y s te m . I t h a s a p p e a r e d , in d e e d , t h a t a r e l a
t i v e l y l a r g e number o f s t u d e n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y fro m b u r e a u c r a t i c f a m i
l i e s , w ere e n r o l l e d i n f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s 1 u n i v e r s i t i e s . T h is f a c t in
i t s e l f c o n s t i t u t e s a c e r t a i n e v id e n c e s u p p o r tin g th e h y p o th e s i s o f th e
p r e s e n t s tu d y i n s o f a r a s th e b u r e a u c r a t s p r e f e r to e n r o l l t h e i r , c h i l
d re n in f o r e i g n , p a r t i c u l a r l y F re n c h u n i v e r s i t i e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h i s
e v id e n c e n e e d s to be f u l l y e s t a b l i s h e d by a c t u a l s u rv e y o f s t u d e n t s
e n r o l l e d a b r o a d .
What C h a p te r V II h as c l e a r l y p o in t e d o u t i s th e m a n ip u la tiv e
c h a r a c t e r o f th e d em o g ra p h ic r e q u ir e m e n ts f o r b e n e f i t i n g from a s t a t e
s c h o l a r s h i p and o b t a i n i n g th e d e s i r e d o c c u p a tio n a l t r a c k .
From th e f i n d i n g s o f th e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r , t h e r e seems to be no
e v id e n c e t h a t y o u n g e r s t u d e n t s p e rfo rm b e t t e r th a n o ld e r s t u d e n t s in
th e u n i v e r s i t y , a lth o u g h th e y seem to do so i n th e s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l.
The a p p a r e n t d i s c o n t i n u i t y b e tw e e n h ig h s c h o o l acad em ic
a c h ie v e m e n t and u n i v e r s i t y acad em ic a c h ie v e m e n t f u r t h e r s u g g e s ts t h a t
some i n t e r v e n i n g f a c t o r s to be i n v e s t i g a t e d o t h e r th a n age o r " i n t e l l i
g en ce " may e x p l a i n th e a p p a r e n t l y b e t t e r r e s u l t s o b ta in e d by y o u n g er
s t u d e n t s in th e s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l.
The n e x t c h a p t e r makes some reco m m en d atio n s f o r f u r t h e r r e
s e a r c h n e c e s s a r y to b e t t e r a s s e s s th e im p a c t o f th e b u r e a u c r a t s 1
337
c o n t r o l o v e r th e e d u c a t i o n a l s e l e c t i o n and o c c u p a tio n a l t r a c k i n g on
d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l c l a s s e s and g r o u p s , and th e s o c i e t y i n g e n e r a l .
338
NOTES
I t h a s b een s a i d t h a t th e t r a i n i n g program s o f th e l e a s t s e l e c
t i v e d e p a rtm e n ts a r e n o t w e l l - d e f i n e d and t h a t t h i s m ig h t e x p l a i n t h e i r
lo w er s e l e c t i v i t y . By s a y in g s o , we a r e a d o p tin g th e v ie w p o in t o f th e
acad em ic p e o p le who p e r c e iv e th e c o n t e n t o f th e s e program s as n e e d in g
more d e f i n i t i o n i n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e i r own f i e l d o f c o m p eten c e, t h e i r
own acad em ic c u l t u r e s h a p e d i n f o r m a l, t r a d i t i o n a l d i s c i p l i n e s . B u t,
from a n o th e r c r i t i c a l p o i n t o f v ie w , th e s e s o - c a l l e d t r a d i t i o n a l , w e l l -
d e f in e d d i s c i p l i n e s th e m s e lv e s a r e n o t a t a l l w e l l - d e f i n e d . T h is i s
p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e f o r L e t t e r s and h o ld s a l s o f o r th e g e n e r a l s c i e n t i f i c
e d u c a tio n p ro g ra m s .
The s y l l a b u s may w e ll s t a t e t h a t th e s tu d y program f o r t h i s
s p e c i f i c l e v e l of s t u d i e s i n th e D ep artm en t o f L e t t e r s in c lu d e s th e
s tu d y o f s p e c i f i c w r i t e r s , s p e c i f i c g ra m m a tic a l r u l e s t o u n d e r s ta n d ;
b u t t h i s i s n o t enough t o make a l i t e r a r y program d e f i n i t e n o r i s a
s c i e n t i f i c program d e f in e d when th e s y l l a b u s s t a t e s t h a t i t c o m p rise s
th e s tu d y o f a g iv e n s e t o f m a th e m a tic a l and s c i e n t i f i c t h e o r i e s .
T h e re a r e th e s p e c i f i c e x p e c t a t i o n s on t h e p a r t o f th e p r o f e s
s o r s w hich make th e b o u n d a r ie s o f th e s y l l a b u s somewhat h a z y an d q u i t e
s u b j e c t i v e , th e r e b y g i v i n g way t o a r e d e f i n i t i o n of th e " o b j e c t i v e "
r e q u i r e m e n t s , norms o f p e r f o r m a n c e .
To be s u r e i n th e D ep artm en t o f L e t t e r s o f th e U n i v e r s i t y o f
O uagadougou ev en th e s y l l a b u s s e t t i n g th e fo rm a l re q u ir e m e n ts i s n o t
a v a i l a b l e t o s t u d e n t s . T h e re i s no th o r o u g h , w e l l - i n t e g r a t e d t r a i n i n g
pro g ram en co m p assin g th e t h r e e o r f o u r y e a r s th e s t u d e n t h as to spend
i n r e s i d e n c e i n o r d e r t o g e t h i s b a c h e lo r d e g re e o r h i s " m a r t r i s e . "
F o r m a lly , o f c o u r s e , th e i n s t r u c t o r s , as w e l l as th e s t u d e n t s ,
know t h a t to e a r n a b a c h e lo r * s d e g re e a s t u d e n t m ust c o m p le te a c e r t a i n
number o f s o - c a l l e d c o r e u n i t s and a n o t h e r number of s o - c a l l e d e l e c
t i v e s , a c c o r d in g to th e F re n c h h i g h e r e d u c a tio n re fo rm o f 1968 w hich
bo rro w ed from th e A m erican e x p e r i e n c e . B u t, beyond t h i s fo rm a l r e q u i r e
m e n t, nobody knows w hat a r t i c u l a t i o n of c o u r s e c o n t e n ts b e s t p r e p a r e s a
s t u d e n t to be a L e t t e r s s p e c i a l i s t p r e p a r e d f o r h ig h s c h o o l te a c h in g o r e
s p e c i a l i s t i n o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l a r e a s su c h a s j o u r n a l i s m o r A d m in is
t r a t i o n .
The n o t i o n o f a g e n e r a l c u l t u r e to g iv e to th e L e t t e r s s t u d e n t
i s th e g u id in g n o t i o n f o r th e w hole t r a i n i n g " p ro g ra m ." B ut a t no
moment i n th e u n i v e r s i t y * s h i s t o r y h as t h i s n o t i o n b een s u b m itte d to
some r e f l e c t i o n and c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n . I m p l i c i t l y , t h e r e i s th e u n
c r i t i c a l a c c e p ta n c e o f th e F re n c h t r a d i t i o n an d c o n c e p t o f " th e c u l t i
v a te d man" by th e f a c u l t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y as a r e l a t i v e m a j o r i t y o f t h i s
f a c u l t y a r e F re n c h
Of c o u r s e , t h e r e h as b e e n th e a lig n m e n t w ith th e 1968 A f r i c a n i -
339
z a t i o n movement o f th e u n i v e r s i t i e s , m aking some room f o r A f r i c a n
l i t e r a t u r e , p o e t r y , and t h e a t r e . B u t, t h e a c c u m u la tio n o f s t u d i e s i n
A f r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e does n o t l e a d , n e c e s s a r i l y , to an y i n t e l l e c t u a l
c u l t i v a t i o n . Y e t, w h at i s c a l l e d th e t r a i n i n g program i n Ouagadougou
U n i v e r s i t y 's D ep artm en t o f L e t t e r s am ounts to th e c o l l e c t i o n o f p ie c e s
o f A f r i c a n l i t e r a t u r e , more p r e c i s e l y , th e j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f e a c h i n d i
v i d u a l f a c u l t y m em ber's s p e c i a l t y . A lth o u g h th e u n i v e r s i t y f a c u l t y
s t a t u t e s s t a t e t h a t a p r o f e s s o r c a n n o t be a p p o in te d w ith o u t an e x i s t
in g te a c h in g p o s i t i o n , i n th e L e t t e r s d e p a rtm e n t th e t e a c h i n g p o s i t i o n
i s i n f a c t p i e c e d - o u t f o r an e x i s t i n g c a n d i d a te b e c a u se o f th e la c k of
d e f i n i t e te a c h in g program s t o w h ich th e c o r r e s p o n d in g te a c h in g p o s i
t i o n s m ig h t be g e a r e d . The U n i v e r s i t y A ssem bly v o ic e d c o m p la in ts a b o u t
t h i s s i t u a t i o n a s k in g t h a t :
A
The i n v e n to r y o f n eed s i n p e r s o n n e l be e s t a b l i s h e d a c c o r d in g to
th e p ro g ra m s, and n o t th e c o n t r a r y . T h is b a s i c recom m endation
h o ld s f o r a l l l e v e l s o f s t u d i e s and f o r a l l s e c t i o n s . (U.O. A s
se m b ly , PV, 1 9 7 6 -7 7 , p . 3)
The A ssem bly a l s o e x p r e s s e d i n 1977 i t s d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o g e t th e
u n i v e r s i t y d e p a rtm e n ts to
g iv e up c o n v e n ie n t b u t i r r e g u l a r p r a c t i c e s c o n s i s t i n g in e s t a b l i s h
in g t h e program s th ro u g h more o r l e s s o f f i c i o u s m e e tin g s a t d e p a r t
m e n ta l l e v e l , w ith o u t an y o f f i c i a l t e x t f i x i n g them .
The r e s u l t o f s u c h p r a c t i c e s , th e a s se m b ly w en t o n ,
i s t h a t th e s t u d e n t s do n o t know so f a r w hat program s th e y a r e
g o in g t o f o llo w s : from one y e a r t o a n o t h e r , some c o u r s e s a r e
c a n c e l l e d w h ile some o th e r s a r e o f f e r e d ; th u s c o u r s e e l e c t i v e s
t h i s y e a r become co m p u lso ry th e n e x t y e a r and v i c e - v e r s a . . . .
Such p r a c t i c e s h av e b e e n t o l e r a t e d so f a r . I t i s now tim e to
exam ine th e p ro g ra m s , c o d i f y and f i x them a t th e l e v e l of th e
U n i v e r s i t y A ssem bly, a l l o f w h ich am ounts t o d e te r m in in g w hat
k in d s o f men a r e to be t r a i n e d . (U.O. A ssem b ly , PV, 1976, p . 2)
The D ep artm en t o f L e t t e r s had s e v e r a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r c l e a r l y
( r e ) d e f i n i n g i t s o b j e c t i v e . The m ost im p o r ta n t o f th e s e o p p o r t u n i t i e s
was i n 1974 when th e te a c h in g s t a f f co m p lain e d a b o u t th e N a ti o n a l
O r i e n t a t i o n C o m m itte e 's te n d e n c y f o r t r a c k i n g w hat th e te a c h e r s c a l l e d
" t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l l y weak e le m e n ts " to w ard s th e d e p a r tm e n t, and when
th e d e p a rtm e n t e x p r e s s e d i t s d e s i r e to p a r t i c i p a t e i n th e o r i e n t a t i o n
p r o c e s s and to o f f e r s t u d e n t s c a r e e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s o t h e r th a n t e a c h i n g .
In e f f e c t , some ch an g es w ere in t r o d u c e d u n d e r th e form of em phasis on
s c i e n t i f i c b a c c a l a u r ^ a t s tre a m s r a t h e r th a n l i t e r a r y f o r a d m is s io n to
some s e c t i o n s , G eography, f o r i n s t a n c e . B ut t h i s h a s b een done w ith o u t
an y o v e r a l l ( r e ) t h i n k i n g o f th e v o c a t i o n o f t h e d e p a r tm e n t, l e a d i n g to
some in c o n g r u e n c ie s a l r e a d y n o te d b etw een t h e d e p a r t m e n t 's t r a i n i n g
and th e c a r e e r s to w hich some s e c t i o n s o f t h i s t r a i n i n g a c t u a l l y l e d .
340
P a r a l l e l t o t h i s a b s e n c e o f a d e f i n i t e t r a i n i n g p ro g ram , and
r e i n f o r c i n g i t , t h e r e i s th e a b s e n c e o f d i d a c t i c m a t e r i a l . The u n i
v e r s i t y l i b r a r y i s p o o r ly endow ed, m o s tly w ith g e n e r a l r e f e r e n c e v o l
umes o r F re n c h l i t e r a t u r e g e n e r o u s ly p ro v id e d by th e F re n c h Em bassy.
Sim ply s e l l i n g books in g e n e r a l to u n i v e r s i t y c u sto m e rs i s n o t a p r o f i t
a b l e b u s in e s s f o r th e l o c a l b o o k s e l l e r s . T hese b o o k s e l l e r s w i l l o r d e r
some r e q u i r e d te x tb o o k s from a f o r e i g n b o o k sh o p , b u t t h a t w i l l be a l l .
S tu d e n ts th e m s e lv e s a r e som ewhat r e l u c t a n t t o buy books from a m a in te
n a n c e a llo w a n c e th e y deem i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r t h e i r s u b s i s t e n c e - - a l t h o u g h
a good num ber o f them sp en d a r e l a t i v e l y s u b s t a n t i a l p r o p o r t i o n o f t h i s
a llo w a n c e f o r p u r c h a s in g H i- F i s t e r e o s , and o t h e r consum er g a d g e t s .
T h is la c k o f d i d a c t i c m a t e r i a l a v a i l a b l e f o r a s t u d e n t t o au to n o m o u sly
c u l t i v a t e h i m s e l f , added to th e la c k o f a d e f i n i t e t r a i n i n g program
r e s u l t s i n a p e d a g o g ic a l im p e r ia l is m by th e te a c h e r s by g iv i n g them a
trem endous p e d a g o g ic a l pow er o v e r th e s t u d e n t s i n c o m p a riso n w ith w h at
may e x i s t i n E u ro p e , o r more p a r t i c u l a r l y i n N o rth A m eric a, f o r i n
s t a n c e .
The l a c k o f books c r e a t e s an i n t e l l e c t u a l d e s e r t o v e r w hich th e
f a c u l t y e s t a b l i s h t h e i r pow er, u n le s s t h i s power has to be c o n s id e r e d
a s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l d e s e r t . I n an y c a s e , th e s tu d e n t s
o f O uagadougou U n i v e r s i t y r e l y h e a v i l y on th e i n s t r u c t o r ' s l e c t u r e f o r
t h e i r t r a i n i n g . N i n e t y - f o u r p e r c e n t o f them s a y t h a t l e c t u r e n o te s a r e
th e m ost im p o r ta n t s tu d y a i d , a g a i n s t 80 p e r c e n t s a y in g t h a t l i b r a r i e s
and p e r s o n a l docum ents a r e im p o r ta n t s tu d y a i d s . A c t u a l l y l i b r a r i e s
a r e m o s tly u se d f o r th e w r i t i n g o f te rm p a p e r s , n o t t o com plem ent th e
t e a c h e r 's l e c t u r e s .
The im p o rta n c e o f l e c t u r e s f o r s t u d e n t s im poses on V o lta n t e a c h
e r s th e o b l i g a t i o n o f s p e n d in g h o u rs w r i t i n g t h e i r l e c t u r e s , t h a t i s ,
m ore o f t e n th a n n o t , t r y i n g to t r a n s l a t e i n t o t h e i r own words w hat
o t h e r m anual w r i t e r s have a l r e a d y s a i d i n b o o k s . T h is c o n s e q u e n tly
tr a n s f o r m s th e t e a c h i n g - l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s i n t o m onologue w ith th e
t e a c h e r t r y i n g to im p ress h i s l i s t e n e r s r a t h e r th a n m aking s u r e t h a t
h i s m essage h a s b een c o r r e c t l y u n d e r s to o d - - a g e n e r a l f e a t u r e o f F re n c h
e d u c a t i o n a l sy ste m s w e l l d e s c r i b e d by B o u rd ie u and P a s s e r o n (1 9 7 7 ).
The d i r e c t co n se q u e n c e o f t h i s tr u n c a t e d p e d a g o g ic a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e
tw een te a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s on th e e x a m in a tio n sy ste m i s t h a t th e p r o
f e s s o r s ' b i a s e s and mood add a c o n s i d e r a b l e y e t u n m e a su ra b le w e ig h t in
e v a l u a t i n g and g r a d in g s t u d e n t s ' p a p e r s .
The p r e p a r a t i o n o f f i n a l e x a m in a tio n s a p p e a rs t o be a c a t - a n d -
mouse game b etw een th e s t u d e n t s t r y i n g to f i g u r e o u t th e i n s t r u c t o r s '
b i a s e s on w h ich to b u i l d a cram ming s t r a t e g y , and th e i n s t r u c t o r s t r y
in g to f i g u r e o u t th e w eak n esses o f s t u d e n t s on w hich t o b u i l d e x am i
n a t i o n q u e s t i o n s . I n f a c t , th e s e e x a m in a tio n q u e s t i o n s a r e d e s ig n e d
more to t e s t p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s ( " i n t e l l i g e n c e , " " s m a r t n e s s ," " i n v e n
t i v e n e s s " ) th a n to t e s t th e m a t e r i a l s le a r n e d from th e t e a c h e r . Of
c o u r s e , i t can be o b j e c t e d t h a t th e u l t i m a t e o b j e c t i v e o f g e n e r a l
e d u c a t i o n , g iv e n th ro u g h h u m a n itie s c o u r s e s , i s to d e v e lo p t h e s t u
d e n t 's a b i l i t y to t h i n k by h i m s e l f , h i s c r i t i c a l m ind, and h i s a b i l i t y
341
t o e x p r e s s h i s id e a s in th e m ost e l e g a n t w a y --h e n c e th e i n s i s t e n c e on
d i s s e r t a t i o n m odels and e s s a y s . B u t, to be s u r e , i t i s q u e s t i o n a b l e
w h e th e r th e p e d a g o g ic a l m ethods u se d a t t h i s end a c t u a l l y a llo w th e
s t u d e n t t o r e a c h th e d e s i r e d o b j e c t i v e . What i s s u r e , ho w ev er, i s t h a t
th e te a c h e r * s way o f t h i n k i n g i s th e o n ly means f o r e v a l u a t i n g th o s e
q u a l i t i e s o f i n t e l l e c t u a l " s m a r tn e s s " and g ro w th th e s t u d e n t i s s u p
p o sed to d e m o n s tr a te . T hese q u a l i t i e s a r e n o t a c t u a l l y ta u g h t in th e
s e n s e o f b e in g f o r m a l ly t r a n s m i t t e d i n se q u e n c e d l e a r n i n g p a c k a g e s .
The s t u d e n t i s r a t h e r ex p o sed to them th ro u g h th e p e r s o n a l i t y o f th e
te a c h e r and t h e i r a c q u i s i t i o n i s much l i k e an i m i t a t i o n p r o c e s s . They
a r e n o t a p a r t o f th e fo rm a l c u r r ic u lu m , b u t r a t h e r a p a r t o f t h e h i d
den c u r r ic u lu m th ro u g h w h ic h , a s B o u rd ie u and P a s s e r o n s a i d , th e p r o
c e s s o f c u l t u r a l and s o c i a l r e p r o d u c t i o n i s a c h ie v e d . T h is i s why i t
i s d i f f i c u l t f o r th e s t u d e n t s t o d e v e lo p r e a l s k i l l s in l i t e r a r y d i s
c i p l i n e s , and why e x a m in a tio n s r e s u l t s a r e g e n e r a l l y f r u s t r a t i n g g iv e n
t h e i r low r a t e s of s u c c e s s and th e v a r i a t i o n in th e s e r a t e s o v e r th e
y e a r s , i f n o t from one s e s s i o n to a n o t h e r ( t h a t i s , g e n e r a l l y w i t h i n
t h r e e m o n th s ) .
T h u s, f o r exam p le, w h ile th e o v e r a l l r a t e o f s u c c e s s f o r th e
1977 e x a m in a tio n s i n th e D ep artm en t o f L e t t e r s was 50 p e r c e n t o f th e
c a n d i d a t e s , th e r e s u l t s o f th e f i r s t (Ju n e ) s e s s i o n s t i r r e d some r e
a c t i o n even among th e U n i v e r s i t y a ss e m b ly members by t h e i r e x c e p t i o n
a l l y low r a t e . Out of 563 s i t t i n g f o r t h i s f i r s t s e s s i o n , o n ly 5 9,
t h a t i s 1 0 .3 p e r c e n t , w ere d e c l a r e d a d m i t t e d . "The A ssem bly re c o r d e d
th e s e r e s u l t s o f th e D ep artm en t o f L e t t e r s w ith th e m ost i n d i g n a t i o n ,
f o r i t f i n d s i t in c o m p re h e n s ib le t h a t th e s t u d e n t s m ig h t become so bad
o n ly one y e a r from a n o t h e r " (U.O. A ssem bly, J u l y 1977, p . 7 ) . What i s
s t i l l more in c o m p re h e n s ib le i s t h a t w i t h i n t h r e e m onths th e same s t u
d e n ts became r e l a t i v e l y so good t h a t 35 p e r c e n t more s u c c e e d e d in t h e i r
O c to b e r o r seco n d s e s s i o n .
What h as j u s t b een s a i d f o r H u m a n itie s h o ld s a l s o f o r S c ie n c e s ,
more p r e c i s e l y f o r s c i e n t i f i c g e n e r a l e d u c a tio n o f f e r e d a t th e IMP and
th e two f i r s t y e a r s in th e A g r i c u l t u r e D ep artm en t ( I S P ) . I t i s re m a rk
a b l e t h a t th e lo w e s t r a t e s o f s u c c e s s i n th e e x a m in a tio n a r e r e c o r d e d
in th e s e g e n e r a l e d u c a tio n s e c t i o n s ; a l s o th e lo w e s t g ra d e s a r e r e
c o rd e d in th e s e s e c t i o n s . T h e re seems to be a k in d o f b u i l t - u p c o n
s e n s u s t h a t th e p a s s in g mark (10 o u t o f 20) i s th e d i v i d i n g l i n e
b etw een s t u d e n t s c o n s id e r e d "good" and th o s e c o n s id e r e d " b a d ." An
e x a m in a tio n copy p r a i s e d by th e t e a c h e r a s " e x c e l l e n t " w ould n o t r e
c e i v e more th a n 14 o u t o f 2 0 . T h e re i s a jo k e w hich a c t u a l l y e x p r e s s e s
th e te a c h e r * s p r e j u d i c e t h a t 1 6 /2 0 i s a m ark to be g iv e n t o God and
1 5 /2 0 a mark to be g iv e n t o th e t e a c h e r h i m s e l f .
The s u c c e s s o f p r o f e s s o r s i n t r a n s m i t t i n g t h i s u n e x p la in e d i n
t r i n s i c d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith H u m a n itie s s t u d e n t s 1 p e rfo rm a n c e i s shown
by th e f a c t t h a t s e c o n d a ry t e a c h e r s t r a i n e d u n d er th e s e p e d a g o g ic a l
m ethods u se t h e same norms to e v a l u a t e t h e i r h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s .
342
CHAPTER V I I I
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The f i n d i n g s o f th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h a r e c o n s i s t e n t w ith th e
b a s i c h y p o th e s i s t h a t th e p u r s u i t th e m ost s o c i a l l y and f i n a n c i a l l y
re w a rd in g c a r e e r s i n th e s t a t e b u r e a u c ra c y i s p a r t o f th e d o m in an t c u l
t u r e among th e d o m in an t b u r e a u c r a t s s o c i a l c l a s s i n U pper V o l t a .
C a re e ris m has been th e v a lu e sy ste m o f t h i s c l a s s in d e v e l o p
in g th e U n i v e r s i t y d e p a r tm e n ts , a l l o c a t i n g s t u d e n t s i n th e s e d e p a r t
m ents and s e l e c t i n g them th ro u g h o u t th e e d u c a t i o n a l sy s te m .
C h a p te r IV .h as exam ined how th e s t a t e b u r e a u c r a t s r o s e to a
do m in an t p o s i t i o n o f power in p o s t in d e p e n d e n c e V o lta n s o c i e t y , and
how th e y d e v e lo p e d a s o c io e c o n o m ic sy ste m w h ich s e r v e s m a in ly t h e i r
c a r e e r i n t e r e s t s (by s t i f l i n g th e d ev elo p m en t o f o t h e r s o c i a l c l a s s e s ,
p e a s a n ts a s w e l l as b o u rg e o is e n t r e p r e n e u r s ) .
The c a r e e r s e n c o u ra g e d by th e b u r e a u c r a t i c s o c i a l s y s te m a r e
n o t th o s e o f f i c i a l l y p ro c la im e d by th e b u r e a u c r a t s a s th e m ost u s e f u l
f o r th e d e v elo p m en t o f th e c o u n tr y i n a m o d e rn iz a tio n p e r s p e c t i v e ,
nam ely s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l c a r e e r s ; b u t , i n s t e a d , th e m a n a g e r ia l,
b u r e a u c r a t i c c a r e e r s .
C h a p te r V has p ro v id e d e v id e n c e on t h e p r o c e s s by w hich th e
b u r e a u c r a ts t r y to p r e s e r v e t h e i r c a r e e r i n t e r e s t s and p a s s them a lo n g
to t h e i r o f f s p r i n g s . The c h a p t e r h as d i s c l o s e d th e m echanism th ro u g h
w hich i t hap p en s t h a t c h i l d r e n of b u r e a u c r a t s e n t e r th e U n i v e r s i t y
343
in r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r num bers and a t a r e l a t i v e l y y o u n g e r ag e th a n th e
c h i l d r e n o f p e a s a n ts and w o r k e r s , as a r e s u l t of b u r e a u c r a t s ' monopo
l i z a t i o n o f e d u c a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s and m a n ip u la tio n o f d em o g ra p h ic and
acad em ic r e q u ir e m e n ts f o r t h e i r a c c e s s . I t h as a p p e a re d t h a t w h a te v e r
m e asu re s th e b u r e a u c r a t s come up w ith t o s o lv e th e e d u c a t i o n a l p r o b
lem s th e y fa c e d ( la c k o f f i n a n c i a l , m a t e r i a l , and human r e s o u r c e s ;
la c k o f jo b o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r s c h o o l g r a d u a t e s ) w ere d e te rm in e d by
t h e i r o b s e s s i o n a l w i l l i n g n e s s t o p r e s e r v e t h e i r own c a r e e r i n t e r e s t s
as b u r e a u c r a t s and p a s s them a lo n g to t h e i r o f f s p r i n g s .
C h a p te r VI d is c u s s e d th e g e n e r a l b ack g ro u n d of th e c r e a t i o n o f
th e u n i v e r s i t y d e p a r tm e n ts . The l e n g t h , n a t u r e , and c o n t e n ts o f th e
c o u r s e o f f e r i n g s o f th e s e d e p a rtm e n ts a r e d e te rm in e d to s e r v e th e
c a r e e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s su c h t r a i n i n g s o f f e r t o th e c o n c e rn e d b u r e a u c r a t s
and a c a d e m ic s , and n o t to s o lv e th e s p e c i f i c problem s f o r th e b e n e f i t
o f s u p p o s e d ly c o n c e rn e d s o c i a l g ro u p s ( p e a s a n t s , b u s in e s s m e n , o r
s t u d e n t s ) . The c o n t r o v e r s i e s t h a t s u rro u n d e d th e c r e a t i o n o f th e d e
p a rtm e n ts o f a g r i c u l t u r e and t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g h av e b een p a r t i c u l a r l y
i l l u s t r a t i v e in t h i s r e s p e c t . The c h a p t e r has a l s o re v ie w e d some o f
th e m anoeuvres o f d i f f e r e n t b u r e a u c r a t s , a c a d e m ic s , and s t u d e n t s in
o r d e r t o a c h ie v e t h e i r c a r e e r g o a ls by m a n ip u la tin g th e re q u ir e m e n ts
f o r a c c e s s t o d i f f e r e n t d e p a rtm e n ts a c c o r d in g to th e s t a t u s o f th e
c a r e e r s p r e p a r e d i n th e s e d e p a rtm e n ts and n o t a c c o r d in g t o r e a l l e a r n
in g n e c e s s i t y .
The e x a m in a tio n o f th e c r i t e r i a u se d f o r t r a c k i n g s tu d e n ts
tow ard d i f f e r e n t d i s c i p l i n e s r e v e a l e d t h a t th e s o - c a l l e d n a t i o n a l
n e e d s r i t u a l i s t i c a l l y p u t fo rw a rd a s th e m ain g u i d e l i n e f o r t h i s
344
tr a c k i n g w ere i n f a c t th e l e a s t ta k e n i n t o a c c o u n t by th e b u r e a u c r a t s .
The l a t t e r c o n f e s s n o t t o know w hat th e s e n a t i o n a l n eed s a r e and do n o t
seem to make an y e f f o r t t o i d e n t i f y them . In p la c e o f th e s o - c a l l e d
n a t i o n a l n e e d s , th e b u r e a u c r a t s have b een s e r v i n g t h e i r own s u b -
b u r e a u c r a c i e s ' n eed s a s p e r c e iv e d by t h e i r to p p e r s o n n e l who im pose
t h e i r norm s f o r th e q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y o f r e c r u i t s f o r t h e i r r e
s p e c t i v e f i e f s .
The p h y s ic a l r e p r o d u c t i o n o f th e b u r e a u c r a t s h a s b een so f a r
a s s u r e d th ro u g h th e im p o s itio n o f th e age c r i t e r i o n u se d t o t r a c k
s t u d e n t s tow ard d i f f e r e n t t r a i n i n g p ro g ra m s, and c o n s e q u e n tly c a r e e r s .
C a re e rs w ith h i g h e r s t a t u s and f i n a n c i a l re w a rd s a r e r e s e r v e d f o r
y o u n g er e le m e n ts , t h a t i s f o r so n s o f b u r e a u c r a t s who e n t e r th e u n i
v e r s i t y a t a y o u n g e r age r a t h e r th a n so n s o f p e a s a n ts and w o rk ers
a s s ig n e d th e lo w er s t a t u s and re w a rd c a r e e r s b e c a u se o f t h e i r o ld e r
a g e .
C h a p te r V II h as p ro v id e d e v id e n c e on th e r e s u l t s o f th e b u r e a u
c r a t s ' m a n ip u la tio n s of th e e d u c a t i o n a l s e l e c t i o n and o c c u p a tio n a l
t r a c k i n g o f s t u d e n t s . I t has c o n firm e d th e a s s u m p tio n s and g e n e r a l
o b s e r v a ti o n s made i n t h r e e p r e v io u s c h a p t e r s ( I , IV , and V I ) .
I t h as a p p e a re d t h a t th e b u r e a u c r a t s h av e b e e n e f f e c t i v e l y
s u c c e s s f u l i n a s s u r i n g t h e i r p h y s ic a l r e p r o d u c t i o n . S tu d e n ts from
p r i v i l e g e d b u r e a u c r a t i c f a m i l i e s w ere found t o h av e o b ta in e d b e t t e r
o c c u p a tio n a l t r a c k s th a n s t u d e n t s from o t h e r s o c i a l c l a s s e s , a lth o u g h
no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was fo u n d in th e s t u d e n t s ' m o tiv a tio n s (as
e x p r e s s e d i n t h e i r c a r e e r e x p e c t a t i o n s and a m b i t i o n s ) , and acad em ic
a c h ie v e m e n t e i t h e r a t th e u n i v e r s i t y o r in th e h ig h s c h o o l.
345
An i n t e r e s t i n g f i n d i n g i n t h i s c h a p t e r h a s b e e n th e a p p a r e n t
a b se n c e o f r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n a s t u d e n t 's age and h i s academ ic
a c h ie v e m e n t. A g a in , t h i s f i n d i n g g iv e s some s u p p o r t t o th e r e c e n t
p o s i t i o n ta k e n by th e a c a d em ics te n d in g t o f a v o r aca d em ic a c h ie v e m e n t
o v e r a g e .
H ow ever, th e f i n d i n g t h a t t h e r e d oes n o t seem to be any s i g n i f
i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n b etw ee n h ig h s c h o o l acad em ic a c h ie v e m e n t (a s m easured
by b a c c a l a u r 4 a t d i s t i n c t i o n s ) and s u b s e q u e n t acad em ic a c h ie v e m e n t
in th e u n i v e r s i t y i n v i t e s us t o some p r e c a u t i o n i n th e u s e o f th e s o -
c a l l e d c r i t e r i o n o f aca d em ic a c h ie v e m e n t i n h ig h s c h o o l.
The i n t r i g u i n g t h i n g i s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p found b etw een t h i s
h ig h s c h o o l acad em ic a c h ie v e m e n t and th e ag e o f s t u d e n t s . Y ounger
s t u d e n t s w ere found t o be more s u c c e s s f u l th a n o l d e r s t u d e n t s in th e
h ig h s c h o o l s , w h ile a r e v e r s a l o f t h i s tr e n d was o b s e rv e d i n th e
u n i v e r s i t y .
Our r e s e a r c h has s p e c u l a t e d t h a t th e d i s c o n t i n u i t y betw een
h ig h s c h o o l and u n i v e r s i t y academ ic a c h ie v e m e n ts may be due to th e
n a t u r e o f th e e x a m in a tio n t e s t s . I t was s p e c u l a t e d t h a t s u c c e s s in
th e b a c c a l a u r 4 a t e x a m in a tio n may be a m a t t e r o f c h a n c e , w h ile s u c c e s s
in th e u n i v e r s i t y f i n a l e x a m in a tio n s may depend on more s t a b l e a p t i
tu d e s su c h a s i n t e l l i g e n c e , memory, and h a rd w ork.
However, th e b a s i s f o r su c h s p e c u l a t i o n s i s in c o m p le te ( s t u
d e n t s ' t e s t i m o n i e s and ju d g m en ts on t h e i r e x a m in a t io n s ) . I t i s q u i t e
e v i d e n t t h a t more and s y s t e m a t i c r e s e a r c h i s n eed ed to d e te rm in e th e
r e a s o n s f o r th e o b s e rv e d d i s c o n t i n u i t y b etw ee n h ig h s c h o o l acad em ic
a c h ie v e m e n t and u n i v e r s i t y acad em ic a c h ie v e m e n t.
346
Some m a rg in a l f i n d i n g s o f th e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h (n o t r e p o r t e d
h e r e ) s u g g e s t t h a t th e s tu d y c o n d i t i o n s m ig h t be one p o t e n t i a l f a c t o r
a c c o u n tin g f o r th e d i s c o n t i n u i t y o b s e rv e d b etw een h ig h s c h o o l acad em ic
a c h ie v e m e n t and u n i v e r s i t y acad em ic a c h ie v e m e n t.
C o n tra ry to u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s who c a n be c o n s id e r e d t o be
in th e same acad em ic c o n d i tio n s when a t t e n d i n g a u n i v e r s i t y d e p a r tm e n t,
h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s e x p e r ie n c e q u i t e h e te ro g e n o u s acad em ic c o n d i t i o n s .
We have s e e n i n C h a p te r V how some i n s t i t u t i o n s r e c r u i t t h e i r s t u d e n t s
on th e b a s i s o f t h e i r s o c i a l o r i g i n s (PMK, L ycees M un icip au x ) o r
econom ic c o n d i t i o n s ( p r i v a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s ) .
The p r e s e n t s tu d y d id n o t i n v e s t i g a t e th e e f f e c t s o f th e seem
i n g l y h e te ro g e n o u s s tu d y in g c o n d i t i o n s o f h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s on t h e i r
a ca d em ic a c h ie v e m e n ts . H owever, c u r s o r y e m p i r i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n p o i n t s
to some d i f f e r e n c e s betw een p u b l i c b o a r d in g s c h o o ls ( th e PMK i n p a r
t i c u l a r , and th e E c o le N orm ale b e f o r e i t s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t o a d a y
tim e i n s t i t u t i o n in 1 9 7 9 ), and o t h e r p u b li c d a y -tim e s c h o o ls ( th e Lyce'e
P h i l i p p e Z in d a K abore f o r i n s t a n c e ) as f a r a s s u c c e s s r a t e s on th e b a c -
c a l a u r e a t e x a m in a tio n s a r e c o n c e rn e d . T h ese s u c c e s s r a t e s c a l c u l a t e d
o v e r e i g h t y e a r s (1973-1980) a r e h i g h e r f o r th e PMK (65%)) and th e
E c o le N orm ale (61%) th a n f o r th e L ycee Z in d a Kabore7 (55%) .
H owever, th e C o lle g e de l a S a l l e , a s t a t e - s u p p o r t e d p r i v a t e
i n s t i t u t i o n , w hich i s a d a y - tim e i n s t i t u t i o n , h as a 6 7 .5 p e r c e n t s u c
c e s s r a t e f o r th e same p e r i o d . But th e c o l l e g e de l a S a l l e s h a r e s
w ith th e E c o le N orm ale and th e PMK some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s such a s th e
s m a ll s i z e o f c l a s s e n r o llm e n ts (20 p e r c l a s s - - a g a i n s t an a v e ra g e 12t h
g ra d e e n r o llm e n t o f 45 i n o th e r p u b l i c i n s t i t u t i o n s ) .
347
B e s id e s th e l i v i n g c o n d i tio n s o f th e s t u d e n t s , one sh o u ld a l s o
i n v e s t i g a t e th e n a t u r e o f th e i n s t i t u t i o n s , th e " q u a l i t y " o f th e t e a c h
e r s , th e s t u d e n t s , th e r a t i o o f s t u d e n t s t o t e a c h e r s . One sh o u ld a l s o
i n v e s t i g a t e th e e f f e c t o f p u b l i c s c h o o l t e a c h e r s ' d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith
t h e i r s o c i a l p o s i t i o n on t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s .
I t h a s b een n o te d in d e e d t h a t by 1966 th e p u b l i c h ig h s c h o o ls
w ere p e rfo rm in g b e t t e r th a n th e s t a t e s u p p o r te d p r i v a t e h ig h s c h o o l s .
The s u c c e s s r a t e i n th e b a c c a l a u r ^ a t e x a m in a tio n w e re , r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
36 p e r c e n t f o r th e p u b l i c i n s t i t u t i o n s and 22 p e r c e n t f o r th e s t a t e -
s u p p o r te d p r i v a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s . But s in c e 1972, th e l a t t e r have o v e r
ta k e n th e fo rm er w ith a s u c c e s s r a t e o f 60 p e r c e n t from 1973 t o 1981,
a g a i n s t 55 p e r c e n t f o r th e p u b l i c s c h o o l s . The p e r i o d b etw een 1972
and 1981 c o rre s p o n d s to th e d e c l i n e o f th e t e a c h e r s ' g ro u p , t h e i r i n
c r e a s i n g m i l i t a n c y and in v o lv e m e n t in e x t r a m oney-m aking o p e r a t io n s
i n th e em erg in g p r i v a t e m oney-m aking i n s t i t u t i o n s .
In sum, w h ile th e p r e s e n t s tu d y has been l i m i t e d to th e m a cro
a n a l y s i s o f th e u n e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f a c c e s s to e d u c a t i o n a l f a c i l i
t i e s and o c c u p a tio n a l t r a c k s b etw een d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l c l a s s e s , t h e r e
i s a need f o r a s tu d y w h ich w ould fo c u s on a m i c r o a n a l y s i s o f th e
v a r io u s f a c t o r s w h ich a c c o u n t f o r i n t e r n a l e d u c a t i o n a l s e l e c t i o n . I t
w i l l be p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g t o i n v e s t i g a t e f u r t h e r th e im p a c t o f
th e r e c e n t b a c c a l a u r ^ a t re fo rm on d i f f e r e n t k in d s of c a n d i d a te s ( r e g u
l a r c a n d i d a te s from h ig h s c h o o ls o r f r e e i n d i v i d u a l c a n d i d a t e s ) .
I t h as b een n o te d t h a t th e re fo rm h i t more th e f r e e i n d i v i d u a l
c a n d i d a te s th a n th e r e g u l a r c a n d i d a te s from s c h o o l s . The p r e s e n t
r e s e a r c h s p e c u l a t e d t h a t t h i s was so b e c a u se o f th e d i f f e r e n c e i n th e
348
m a t u r i t y and s k i l l s o f th e s e two k in d s o f c a n d i d a t e s . But th e e v id e n c e
f o r t h i s s p e c u l a t i o n was r a t h e r l i m i t e d , and r e q u i r e s f u r t h e r and s y s
t e m a ti c r e s e a r c h i n th e i n t e l l e c t u a l p r e p a r a t i o n o f th e c a n d i d a te s
and t h e i r d i f f e r e n t s k i l l s . I t i s n e c e s s a r y to exam ine th e e f f e c t s
o f a l l th e s e d i f f e r e n t c o n d i tio n s o f h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s t o s e e w hich
ones re m a in o r v a n i s h when th e c o n d i t i o n s change a t th e e n t r y t o th e
u n iv e r s i t y .
I t w i l l be p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g to a s s e s s th e r e l a t i v e
r e le v a n c e o f some F re n c h e d u c a t i o n a l t h e o r i e s c o n c e rn in g th e d i f f e r e n -
1
t i a l r a t e s o f s u c c e s s among s t u d e n t s from d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l o r i g i n s .
B o u rd ie u (1973) has a rg u e d t h a t i n th e s p e c i f i c Case o f F re n c h
s t u d e n t s , th e c u l t u r a l b ack g ro u n d o f s t u d e n t s from u p p e r c l a s s e s , p a r
t i c u l a r l y th o s e o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s ( p r o f e s s o r s and h ig h l y e d u c a te d p r o
f e s s i o n a l s ) was a d e te r m in a n t o f t h e i r r e l a t i v e l y b e t t e r p e rfo rm a n c e
i n c o m p a riso n t o s t u d e n t s w ith p o p u la r c u l t u r a l b ack g ro u n d w hich i s
n o t th e c u l t u r e u sed a t and f o s t e r e d by th e u n i v e r s i t y . T h u s, a c c o r d
in g t o B o u rd ie u , c u l t u r a l c a p i t a l i s th e m ain s e l e c t i o n and s o c i a l
r e p r o d u c t i o n in s tr u m e n t i n th e F re n c h u n i v e r s i t i e s .
B i s s e r e t (1974) h as o f f e r e d an a l t e r n a t i v e v iew to B o u r d ie u 's
t h e s i s . She a rg u e d t h a t th e econom ic f a c t o r s w ere th e m ost s i g n i f i c a n t
s e l e c t i o n f a c t o r s i n th e h u m a n itie s d e p a rtm e n t she s t u d i e d . When th e
econom ic d i f f e r e n c e s b etw een s t u d e n t s from d i f f e r e n t so c io e c o n o m ic
o r i g i n s a r e c o n t r o l l e d , th e arg u m en t g o e s, t h e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e i n
th e p e rfo rm a n c e and s u c c e s s r a t e s b etw een s t u d e n t s from d i f f e r e n t
s o c i a l o r i g i n s .
B i s s e r e t and B o u rd ie u a r e r e f e r r i n g t o u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s .
349
B ut i f t h e i r t h e o r i e s a r e c o r r e c t th e y may b e v e r i f i e d i n th e s e c o n d a ry
s c h o o l. In f a c t th e s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l r e p r e s e n t s a b e t t e r t e s t i n g
ground f o r th e s e two t h e o r i e s th a n th e u n i v e r s i t y .
The u n i v e r s i t y is n o t w here c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s a r e more
l i k e l y t o e x p re s s t h e m s e lv e s . Betw een th e f a m ily home and e a r l y i n
fa n c y on th e one hand and th e u n i v e r s i t y on th e o t h e r hand t h e r e i s a
la r g e sp a n o f tim e f i l l e d up by v a r i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s , among w hich i s
s c h o o l a t te n d a n c e i t s e l f t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t l y a l t e r s th e e f f e c t o f f a m ily
b a c k g ro u n d . T h is f a m ily b ack g ro u n d is more l i k e l y t o i n f l u e n c e s t u d e n t
b e h a v io r a t th e v e r y s t a r t o f th e e le m e n ta ry o r s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l, and
i s l i k e l y t o d e c r e a s e a s s t u d e n t s engage i n l a r g e r and l a r g e r c u l t u r a l
e x p e r ie n c e s o u t s i d e th e f a m i l y ‘c i r c l e .
On th e o th e r h a n d , th e O uagadougou U n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s a r e n o t
p ro b a b ly a good t e s t i n g ground f o r B i s s e r e t * s a l t e r n a t i v e th e o ry of
econom ic f a c t o r s a s d e te r m in a n t f a c t o r s in s t u d e n t s ' acad em ic p e r f o r
m ance. In d e e d , th e m a j o r i t y o f t h e s e s tu d e n t s l i v e i n a b o u t th e same
econom ic s i t u a t i o n inasm uch as 80 p e r c e n t of them b e n e f i t - - o r had
b e n e f i t e d - - f r o m a s t a t e s c h o l a r s h i p and t h a t th o s e who n e v e r b e n e f i t e d
from t h i s c h o l a r s h i p r e p r e s e n t a r e l a t i v e m i n o r ity (7 .2 5 % ), i f we
c o n s id e r s a l a r i e d s t u d e n t s (10.75% ) as a p a r t i c u l a r c a s e .
B ut as we move away from th e u n i v e r s i t y down t o s e c o n d a ry an d
e le m e n ta r y e d u c a tio n a l l e v e l s , th e im p act o f th e so c io e c o n o m ic d i f f e r e n
t i a t i o n betw een s t u d e n t s becomes more and more o b v io u s , w ith b u r e a u
c r a t s n o t h e s i t a t i n g to ta k e g ro s s m easu res t o f a v o r t h e i r o f f s p r i n g
and p r o t e c t t h e i r own c a r e e r i n t e r e s t s a g a i n s t th e g ro w in g mass of
p o t e n t i a l r i v a l s from th e lo w er ( p e a s a n t ) c l a s s e s .
350
A n o th e r a r e a o f f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n p o in te d o u t by th e
p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h i s th e e f f e c t o f th e a c t i o n s o f v a r io u s o c c u p a tio n a l
and i n t e r e s t g ro u p s , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e u n i v e r s i t y g r a d u a t e s , on th e
s e l e c t i o n and t r a c k i n g s y s te m , and on th e s o c io e c o n o m ic sy ste m in
g e n e r a l .
C h a p te r VI h a s d e s c r ib e d some o f th e a c t i o n s ta k e n by th e E c o le
N orm ale S u p e r ie u r e s t u d e n t s and f a c u l t y members from th e D ep artm en t
o f L e t t e r s to re sp o n d t o s e l e c t i o n and t r a c k i n g p o l i c i e s th e y deemed
d is a d v a n ta g e o u s f o r them . A lso m e n tio n e d h a s b e e n th e r e a c t i o n o f th e
n o n - u n i v e r s i t y e d u c a te d b u r e a u c r a t s from th e E c o le N a ti o n a le d ’A d m in is-
t r a t i o n a g a i n s t a p o t e n t i a l m o n o p o liz a tio n o f a c c e s s to h ig h e r ad m in
i s t r a t i v e p o s i t i o n s by th e D ep artm en ts o f Law and E conom ics.
B ut th e a c t i o n s and r e a c t i o n s d e s c r i b e d i n th e p r e s e n t s tu d y
a r e o n ly p a r t i a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of a d e e p e r , more s y s t e m a t i c , s t r u g g l e
f o r pow er and a d v a n ta g e s t o b e f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t e d . We need t o know
more a b o u t th e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and i d e o l o g i c a l m echanism s th ro u g h w hich
t h i s s t r u g g l e i s c a r r i e d o u t , and th e outcom e t h a t m ig h t be e x p e c te d .
C h a p te r IV h as d e s c r i b e d th e r i s e and d e c l i n e o f v a r io u s
u n i v e r s i t y - e d u c a t e d b u r e a u c r a t s , and th e c o n s e q u e n t i a l i n c r e a s e i n th e
p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i s m o f th e f r u s t r a t e d g r o u p s . The c h a p t e r h a s a l s o
p o in te d o u t some e m p i r i c a l o b s e r v a ti o n s a b o u t th e a p p a r e n t c o r r e l a t i o n
b etw ee n t h e i n d i v i d u a l c a r e e r s i t u a t i o n and t h e d e g re e o f r a d i c a l i z a -
t i o n d e f in e d a s a c o m p le te a l i e n a t i o n from t h e e x i s t i n g do m in an t
so c io e c o n o m ic s y s te m .
The b r i e f e x a m in a tio n o f th e e v o l u t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t V o lta n
p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s s i n c e in d e p e n d e n c e seem s to i n d i c a t e t h a t , i n a
351
b u r e a u c r a t i c s o c i e t y , th e p o l i t i c a l id e o lo g y and a c t i v i s m a r e f u n c
t i o n s o f th e c a r e e r s i t u a t i o n w h ic h , in t u r n , i s l a r g e l y a f u n c t i o n
o f tim e . As tim e g o e s , th e i n d i v i d u a l b u r e a u c r a t moves up i n h i s
o r g a n i z a t i o n 's l a d d e r , a c c u m u la te s s o c i a l and econom ic pow er, and
i n t e g r a t e s th e so c io e c o n o m ic sy ste m i n p l a c e . T h i s , i t was s p e c u l a t e d
i n C h a p te r IV , may e x p l a in t h e f a c t t h a t th e p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s in
U pper V o lta seem to be form ed a c c o r d in g to a g e , " g e n e r a t io n " l i n e s ,
and seem t o e v o lv e from an o r i g i n a l l y r a d i c a l s t a n c e to w ard a more
m o d e ra te s t a n c e .
An i n t r i g u i n g f e a t u r e o f th e V o lta n p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s , in d e e d ,
i s n o t o n ly t h e i r b u r e a u c r a t i c com ponent, b u t a l s o t h e i r common o r i g i
n a t i o n from a s o c i a l i s t id e o lo g y .
The r e a s o n s f o r th e a t t r a c t i v e n e s s o f s o c i a l i s m f o r T h ird
W orld i n t e l l e c t u a l s in g e n e r a l and A f r ic a n i n t e l l e c t u a l s in p a r t i c u l a r
h av e b een d i v e r s e l y i n t e r p r e t e d by A m erican s c h o l a r s .
T h u s, A n d e rso n , M ehden, and Young (1967) a t t r i b u t e t h i s a t t r a c
t i v e n e s s t o th e F re n c h s c h o l a r s ' i n f l u e n c e on th e s e i n t e l l e c t u a l s th e y
t r a i n e d i n t h e i r u n i v e r s i t i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y d u r in g th e p e r i o d f o l l o w
in g W orld War I I when th e f i r s t l e a d e r g e n e r a t i o n w ere e n r o l l e d in
F re n c h i n s t i t u t i o n s and F ra n c e u n d e r th e charm o f th e P o p u la r F r o n t .
A n o th e r r e a s o n th e t h r e e a u t h o r s s a y to a c c o u n t f o r th e a t t r a c t i v e n e s s
o f s o c i a l i s m to A f r ic a n s i s th e h i s t o r i c a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f c a p i t a l i s m
w ith c o l o n i a l i s m and th e s h o r t - c u t t h a t s o c i a l i s m seem ed to r e p r e s e n t
f o r t h e d ev elo p m en t o f r e l a t i v e l y backw ard c o u n t r i e s a s e x e m p lif ie d
by th e R u s s ia n and C h in e se c a s e s (A n d erso n , Mehden, & Y oung, 1967,
p p . 1 9 4 -2 0 6 ).
352
A lth o u g h th e s e e x p l a n a ti o n s seem t o a c c o u n t f o r th e f i r s t
g e n e r a t i o n A f r ic a n i n t e l l e c t u a l s , th e y a r e n o t s u f f i c i e n t to a c c o u n t
f o r th e p e r s i s t e n c e of th e phenomenon a f t e r d e c a d e s m arked by b l a t a n t
f a i l u r e s and tu r n o v e r s o f m ost reg im es b u i l t on s o c i a l i s t id e o lo g y i n
A f r i c a . T h ese e x p l a n a ti o n s do n o t a c c o u n t f o r th e p e r s i s t e n c e o f th e
a t t r a c t i v e n e s s o f t h i s id e o lo g y among th e new g e n e r a t i o n o f i n t e l l e c
t u a l s .
P ro b a b ly so b e c a u s e A nderson e t a l . (1967) d id n o t ta k e s e r i
o u s ly , a lth o u g h th e y m e n tio n ed i t , r a t h e r q u i c k l y , th e r e l a t i o n s h i p
b etw een th e i n t e r e s t s of A f r ic a n i n t e l l e c t u a l s a s a c l a s s and th e
s o c i a l i s t ty p e o f s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , as r e c e n t s c h o l a r s d o .
Konrad and S z e l e n y l (1979) i n p a r t i c u l a r have d e v e lo p e d a th e o ry
w hich seems q u i t e c o n v in c in g i n show ing how th e i n t e r e s t s o f th e i n t e l
l e c t u a l s a r e c l o s e l y li n k e d to a r e d i s t r i b u t i v e ty p e of s o c i a l o r g a n i
z a t i o n o r s o c i a l i s m , in w h ic h , as p o s s e s s o r s o f s p e c i a l t e c h n i c a l
s k i l l s , th e y p la y th e r o l e o f r e d i s t r i b u t o r s and can th e r e b y i n c r e a s e
t h e i r s o c i a l and econom ic pow er.
Q u ite s i m i l a r l y , G o u ld n er (1979) e x p l a i n s th e p e r v a s iv e n e s s o f
s o c i a l i s t id e o lo g y among w hat he c o n s id e r s to be th e r i s i n g c l a s s of
i n t e l l e c t u a l s a ro u n d th e w o rld by th e f a c t t h a t , i n rem oving th e means
o f p ro d u c tio n from i n d i v i d u a l owners and c e n t r a l i z i n g them in th e
hands o f th e s t a t e , s o c i a l i s m s e r v e s th e c a r e e r g o a ls and i n t e r e s t s
o f th e i n t e l l e c t u a l s , th e new c l a s s . G o u ld n er s a y s t h a t :
I n t r a n s f e r r i n g th e means o f p r o d u c tio n to s t a t e c o n t r o l , th u s
s w e lli n g th e b u r e a u c r a t i c a p p a r a tu s o f th e s t a t e , s o c i a l i s m
e x te n d s th e dom ain w i t h i n w hich th e new c l a s s ' s c u l t u r a l c a p i
t a l h o ld s sw ay. I t i s p r e c i s e l y b e c a u se c o n t r o l o f th e means
o f p r o d u c tio n by th e s t a t e i s a m echanism a d v a n ta g in g th e new
353
c l a s s t h a t t h i s i s s u p p o r te d by them r a t h e r th a n d e m o c r a tiz in g
th e means o f p r o d u c ti o n . S o c ia lis m , th e n , i s a way o f e x t e n d
in g th e new c l a s s ' s c u l t u r a l c a p i t a l - - t h a t i s , e n l a r g i n g th e
s p h e r e w ith i n w hich i t s c u l t u r a l c a p i t a l i s a s s u r e d in c o m e s .
(p . 61)
A g a in , f o r G o u ld n er (1979) and B en-D avid (1 9 6 4 ), p o l i t i c a l a c
t i v i s m and s u b s e q u e n t r e v o l u t i o n s a r e th e r e s u l t o f th e o v e r p r o d u c tio n
o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s and a d is c r e p a n c y b etw een t h e i r e l i t i s t c u l t u r e and
s t a t u s e x p e c ta t io n s on th e one h a n d , and th e l i m i t e d o c c u p a tio n a l
c h o ic e s and s t a t u s o f f e r e d to them on th e o t h e r h a n d .
I f t h i s th e o ry i s t r u e , we can p r e d i c t t h a t , f o ll o w i n g th e
C o n g o le se an d Dahomean e x a m p le s, th e V o lta n b u r e a u c r a t i c s o c i e t y i s on
t h e v e rg e o f a s o c i a l chan g e t o b r in g a b o u t a r e d i s t r i b u t i v e s o c i e t y .
In d e e d , r e c e n t s t u d i e s o f th e so c io e c o n o m ic s i t u a t i o n o f Upper V o lta
c o n s i s t e n t l y p o i n t to th e em ploym ent p ro b le m s , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r u n i
v e r s i t y g r a d u a t e s , as th e m ain i s s u e o f th e f u t u r e (W orld B ank, 1979,
M i n i s t e r e du P la n e t de l a C o o p e r a tio n , 1977, 1 9 7 9 ).
But th e fu n d a m e n ta l c o n t r a d i c t i o n i n th e V o lta n s o c i e t y w ould
n o t be s o lv e d by a s o c i a l ch an g e t h a t w ould sim p ly mean a r e in f o r c e m e n t
o f th e c o n t r o l by a b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s f i n a l l y u n i f i e d . In d e e d , as
t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y h a s b een t r y i n g to p o i n t o u t , and c o n t r a r y to a c u r
r e n t r h e t o r i c among r a d i c a l i n t e l l e c t u a l s , th e b a s i c c o n t r a d i c t i o n in
th e V o lta n s o c i e t y i s n o t b etw ee n e x t e r n a l i m p e r i a l f o r c e s a n d / o r a
b o u r g e o is i e on th e one hand and th e V o lta n s o c i e t y as a w hole on th e
o t h e r h a n d , b u t i n s t e a d b etw ee n a c l a s s of b u r e a u c r a ts and th e p e a s a n t r j
and w o rk in g c l a s s w hich i t e x p l o i t s and o p p r e s s e s .
We h av e s e e n th e m echanism s th ro u g h w hich t h i s o p p r e s s io n is
e x e r t e d a t th e e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l by e r e c t i n g fo r m id a b le o b s t a c l e s a c ro s s
354
th e ro a d o f th e p e a s a n t s ' c h i l d r e n , w h ile th e b u r e a u c r a t s b y -p a s s th e s e
o b s t a c l e s and v i o l a t e t h e i r own r e g u l a t i o n s i n o r d e r t o p r e s e r v e t h e i r
c a r e e r i n t e r e s t s and p a ss them a lo n g to t h e i r o f f s p r i n g s .
At th e so c io e c o n o m ic l e v e l th e b u r e a u c r a ts e x p l o i t th e p e a s a n ts
and w o rk e rs by d i s t o r t i n g th e s u b s i s t e n c e fa rm in g on w hich, th e r u r a l
p o p u la tio n s l i v e by t r y i n g t o tr a n s f o r m i t i n t o c a s h c ro p p in g t o p r o 7
v id e c u r r e n c y to th e b u r e a u c r a t s , w h ile r u r a l p o p u la tio n s a r e s t a r v i n g
a s a r e s u l t of su c h a p o l i c y ; a l s o by i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z i n g th e s e l l i n g
f
of manpower from th e r u r a l a r e a s t o n e ig h b o rin g c o u n t r i e s , i n o r d e r
to b a la n c e t h e i r paym ents f o r im p o rte d lu x u r y goods . ^
The b r i e f e x a m in a tio n of th e h i s t o r y o f th e V o lta n p o l i t i c a l
economy s i n c e in d e p e n d e n c e i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e b u r e a u c r a t s do n o t w ant
th e d ev elo p m en t o f any o t h e r c l a s s th a n t h e i r s , even i f t h e r e is no
a g re e m e n t among them a s to th e way to a c h ie v e t h i s c l a s s pow er. I n
d e e d , i t i s n o t o n ly th e c l a s s o f p e a s a n ts whose d ev e lo p m e n t i s ham
p e re d by th e b u r e a u c r a t s . The d ev elo p m en t o f a n a t i o n a l b o u rg e o is
c l a s s i s a l s o c u r t a i l e d by th e c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r e s t s w i t h i n th e b u r e a u
c r a c y . I f a f a c t i o n o f th e b u r e a u c r a c y , nam ely th e r u l i n g o n e , seems
t o be m ost f a v o r a b l e t o t h e d ev elo p m en t of s u c h a b o u rg e o is c l a s s , i t
does s o - i n s o f a r as i t s own members c a n b e n e f i t from t h i s c r e a t i o n and
c o n v e r t th e m se lv e s i n t o b o u rg e o is w ith o u t l o s i n g c o n t r o l o v e r th e a d
m i n i s t r a t i v e a p p a r a tu s and i n f a c t by p lu n d e r in g r e s o u r c e s m o n o p o lized
th ro u g h t h i s a p p a r a t u s .
The p o l i t i c o - b u r e a u c r a t i c b o u rg e o is know v e r y w e l l th ro u g h
e x p e r ie n c e t h a t th e new c l a s s th e y a r e t r y i n g t o c r e a t e and c o n v e r t
th e m s e lv e s i n t o i s n o t c o n c e iv a b le w ith o u t s t a t e s u p p o r t f o r th e
355
f i n a n c i a l r e s o u r c e s and th e e l a b o r a t i o n o f r e g u l a t i o n s f a v o r a b l e t o
e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p . The dilem m a th e n c o n s i s t s in b e in g a b l e to manage
th e s e c o n t r a d i c t o r y demands on th e s t a t e th e y c o n t r o l . F or th e s t a t e ,
a t th e same tim e i t w ould be t r y i n g to cede some econom ic s e c t o r s to
p r i v a t e e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p , m ust a l s o a s s u r e i t s p o l i t i c a l pow er and
le g itm a c y by m a x im izin g i t s r e s o u r c e s t o a s s u r e i t s own c o n t i n u i t y
th ro u g h th e r u n n in g o f i t s huge b u r e a u c r a t i c a p p a r a tu s and i t s b u d g e t-
e a t i n g army o f c i v i l s e r v a n t s and s o l d i e r s . And th e o n ly way to do so
i s th ro u g h in c r e a s e d in v o lv e m e n t i n econom ic a c t i v i t i e s and m o n o p o liz a
t i o n o f im m e d ia te ly p r o f i t a b l e o p e r a t i o n s s u c h a s th e c e r e a l t r a d e and
i m p o r t - s u b s t i t u t i o n —a l s o c o v e te d by p r i v a t e e n t r e p r e n e u r s .
As f o r o t h e r b u r e a u c r a t s , we h av e s e e n how t h e i r i n t e r e s t s a r e
more c l o s e l y t i e d to in c r e a s e d s t a t e in v o lv e m e n t i n econom ic a c t i v i t i e s
a s a means to a s s u r e t h e i r own s u r v i v a l a s b u r e a u c r a t s and a means to
com pete e f f e c t i v e l y w ith t h e i r r u l i n g f a c t i o n more and more a c c u se d
o f in c o m p e te n c e . Even when th e h ig h e r r a n k in g c i v i l s e r v a n t s c la im
th e c r e a t i o n of p a r a s t a t a l s i n o r d e r to s t i m u l a t e p r i v a t e e n t r e p r e
n e u r s h i p , a s i n 1976, th e y w an t th e m s e lv e s t o be th e b e n e f i c i a r i e s o f
th e o p e r a t i o n w ith o u t l o s i n g th e s e c u r i t y com ing from s t a t e ’s b a c k in g
o f t h e i r econom ic v e n t u r e s . As we have s e e n , g e n e r a l l y su c h v e n t u r e s
a r e s h o r t - l i v e d , p a r t l y b e c a u s e o f th e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s th e y g e n e r a te
w i t h i n th e b u r e a u c ra c y a s a w h o le , and p a r t l y b e c a u s e of th e i n s e c u r i t y
i n w hich th e d i r e c t o r s o f th e s e s t a t e owned e n t e r p r i s e s g e n e r a l l y l i v e
( f e a r o f b e in g f i r e d and r e p la c e d by one o f t h e i r many p o t e n t i a l
r i v a l s ) , w h ich le a d s them to em b ezzle f o r n o n - in v e s tm e n t p u rp o s e s ( i n
356
c a s e o f c o n t r o l and c o n v i c t i o n w ith f r a u d u l e n t a c t i v i t i e s , su c h i n v e s t
m ents m ig h t be ta k e n a w a y ).
As a r e s u l t o f th e s e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s w i t h i n th e b u r e a u c ra c y ,
o n ly th e l a t t e r r e a l l y d e v e lo p s i t s e l f a t th e e x p e n se o f a l l o th e r
s o c i a l c l a s s e s , and a s a m ere consum er in c a p a b le o f r e a l econom ic d e
v elo p m en t .
Im p e r ia lis m w hich th e V o lta n i n t e l l e c t u a l s c la im to be th e
fu n d a m e n ta l o b s t a c l e a c r o s s th e h arm onious d ev elo p m en t of th e s o c i e t y
f i n d s i t s way i n t h i s s o c i e t y th ro u g h th e b u r e a u c r a t i c c l a s s i t s e l f and
t h e gap opened b etw een i t and th e r e s t o f th e p o p u l a t i o n . The fu n d a
m e n ta l gap betw een th e V o lta n i n t e l l e c t u a l s and th e m asses r e s i d e s in
th e l i f e s t y l e d i f f e r e n c e s w hich make th e fo rm e r a r e p l i c a t i o n and
a p p e n d ix of th e W este rn consum er s o c i e t i e s and th e l a t t e r th e g h e t t o
p e o p le d o u b ly e x p l o i t e d (by i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l f o r c e s ) , and w o n d er
in g w h e th e r and when "in d e p e n d e n c e " ( t h a t i s th e b u r e a u c r a t i c s o c i o
econom ic sy stem ) w i l l e n d .
35 7
NOTES
1
I n a r e c e n t ( J u ly 10, 1981) p r e s s c o n f e r e n c e th e M i n i s t e r of
Commerce and P r i c e s made t h i s s e l f - e x p l a n a t o r y d e c l a r a t i o n :
I w ould l i k e our countrym en t o know t h a t i n 1980, we b o u g h t from
a b ro a d goods f o r a b o u t 76 b i l l i o n s [ o f CFA f r a n c s ] . In exchange
we s o l d a b ro a d f o r o n ly 19 b i l l i o n s , w hich r e p r e s e n t s a b a la n c e
o f 25%.
I w ould a l s o l i k e them t o know t h a t o u r p u rc h a s e o f o i l p r o d
u c t s r e p r e s e n t e d a b o u t 9 b i l l i o n s f o r th e same p e r i o d . The p u r
c h a s e p r o j e c t i o n s f o r 1983-84 a r e a b o u t 15 b i l l i o n s .
I w ould l i k e them t o know t h a t th e [ p u r c h a s e ] f i g u r e s w ere
1 .6 b i l l i o n f o r [c o o k in g ] o i l , 3 b i l l i o n s f o r cem en t, and 4 b i l
l i o n s f o r c e r e a l s .
The 19 b i l l i o n s from th e p r o d u c ts we s o ld a b ro a d w ould have
s e rv e d e x a c t l y t o pay f o r 4 p r o d u c ts = h y d ro c a rb o n s , o i l , cem ent
and c e r e a l s . (L ^ b s e r v a t e u r , N° 2135, du 20 J u i l l e t 1981, "Com
m erce e t P r i x . H au sse , H o m o lo g atio n e t A u t r e s , 1 1 pp. 6 -9 , p . 7)
I t s h o u ld be n o te d t h a t th e c e r e a l s r e f e r r e d t o by th e M i n i s t e r
o f Commerce and P r i c e s a r e th o s e im p o rte d f o r th e co n su m p tio n o f th e
w e a lth y u rb a n d w e l l e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y r i c e from P a k i s t a n , C hina and a l s o
th e r i c e g iv e n a s a g i f t by th e F e d e r a l R e p u b lic o f Germany. T h is
r i c e from th e FRG i s s o ld by th e s t a t e o f f i c e o f c e r e a l (OFNACER) in
o r d e r , s o i t i s s a i d , to c o v e r th e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n e x p e n s e s . S t a t e b u
r e a u c r a t s have p r i v i l e g e d a c c e s s to t h i s r i c e p r e f e r r e d t o th e l o c a l
o n e .
358
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M i n i s t e r e de 1 'E d u c a tio n N a ti o n a le e t de l a C u ltu r e [MENC].
- R a p p o rt au C o n s e il des M i n i s t r e s s u r l e s p roblem es de 1*E d u c a tio n
N a tio n a le e t de l a C u l t u r e , November 1977.
D i r e c t i o n de l a P l a n i f i c a t i o n
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- S t a t i s t i q u e s s c o l a i r e s . P u b l i c a t i o n s de 1961 a 1980
S e r v ic e de P l a n a f i c a t i o n
- B i l a n d * e x e c u tio n du P la n C adre en m a tie r e d 'E d u c a t i o n , 1971.
M i n i s t e r e de 1 'E n se ig n e m e n t S u p e r ie u r e t de l a R ech e rch e S c i e n t i f i q u e
[MERS] .
- L e t t r e N° 0259/ESRS/BID/B du 3 Mars 1981. A d d re sse e aux membres
de l a Com m ission N a tio n a le d 'O r i e n t a t i o n r e l a t i v e au fo n c tio n n e m e n t
de l a C om m ission.
M i n i s t e r e du P la n e t de l a C o o p e r a tio n .
/ ^
- S i t u a t i o n econom ique e t f i n a n c i e r e de l a H aute V o lta , en c o l l a b o r a
t i o n a v e c l e M i n i s t e r e F r.an ^ ais de l a C o o p e r a tio n , O uagadougou,
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365
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R e p u b liq u e de H a u te - V o lta .
R a p p o rts au C o n s e il des M i n i s t r e s :
- du 19 J u i l l e t 1965 ( s e s s i o n du 9 Septem bre 1965) r e l a t i f a l a
c r e a t i o n de l ' I n s t i t u t S u p e r ie u r de F o rm a tio n P ed ag o g iq u e [IS FP ]
- du 6 A out 1975 r e l a t i f a l a c r e a t i o n de l ' I n s t i t u t de M athem atiques
e t des S c ie n c e s P h y s iq u e s [IM P ], de l 'E c o l e s u p e r i e u r e des S c ie n c e s
Econom iques [ESSEC] e t de l 'E c o l e S u p e r ie u r e de D r o it [ESD] .
- du 10 Mars 1977 r e l a t i f a l a r e o r g a n i s a t i o n des e p re u v e s du b a c -
c a l a u r e 'a t (p re m ie r e t deuxiem e g ro u p e s ) .
P ro c e s v e r b a l des S eances du C o n s e il d es M i n i s t r e s :
- S eance du 7 O c to b re 1970
- Seance du 7 Novembre 1973
366
R e p u b liq u e de H a u te - V o lta . P la n c a d re de d ev elo p p em en t econom ique e t
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/ / /
S o c ie te A f r i c a i n e d 'E tu d e s p o u r de D eveloppem ent [SAED],
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[SUVESS].
\
- L ’E d u c a tio n n o u v e l l e . T rav a u x du 2 eme C ongres te n u l e s 3 -4 -5 e t
6 J u i l l e t 1973 a O uagadougou.
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6 A out 1980.
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29 e t 30 Novembre 1976, 6 Decembre 1976 e t 17 J a n v i e r 1 9 7 7 .
b . C o lle g e L i t t e r a i r e U n i v e r s i t a i r e [CLU]
- R a p p o rt de p r e s e n t a t i o n e t d ' a c t i v i t i e s 1 9 7 3 -1 9 7 4 /
6 . Com m ission M ix te F ra n c o - V o lta iq u e en m a tie r e d 'E n s e ig n e m e n t
S u p e r ie u r
- P r o c e s - v e r b a l de l a Com m ission M ix te F r a n c o - V o lta iq u e en
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" P r o c e s - v e r b a l de l a Comm ission M ix te F r a n c o - V o l t a i q u e .
F e v r i e r 1 9 7 8 .
~ R a p p o rt s u r l a p re m ie re re u n io n de l a Com m ission de c o o p e r a
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d . E c o le s u p e r i e u r e des L e t t r e s e t des S c ie n c e s Humaines [ESLSH]
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e . O f f ic e du b a c c a l a u r e a t
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368
f . R e c t o r a t
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des h e u re s s u p p l e m e n t a i r e s .
~ C i r c u l a i r e N° 7 9 /0 4 /4 0 /R du 8 Mars 1979 r e l a t i v e aux. in d e m n ite s
pour, c o u rs c o m p le m e n ta ire s e t prim es de r e c h e r c h e .
- C om pte-rendu de l a re u n io n du sam edi 29 Mars 1 9 7 5 .
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S e r v ic e s te c h n iq u e s du M i n is te r e du P la n , du D eveloppem ent
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f o r m a tio n des I n g e n ie u r s des T ech n iq u es du D eveloppem ent
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14 O c to b re 1 9 7 4 .
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369
APPENDIX
£TUDY OF THE ACADEMIC CULTURE AT OUAGADOUGOU UNIVERSITY
Ques t i o n n a i r e
1 . Age _______ y e a r s 1----- 19 o r l e s s -------------- 5 ----- 26-27
2----- 20-21 6--- 28-29
3----- 22-23 7--- 30-35
4------24-25 8 --- 36 o r o v er
9 no answ er
2 . Sex 1 m ale
2 fem ale
3 . M ajor: 1 ----- A g r i c u l t u r a l E n g in e e r in g
2 B u s in e s s A d m in i s t r a ti o n
3----Econom ics
4 F o r e ig n L anguages (E n g lis h )
5 Law
6----F re n c h
7----Math & P h y sic s
8----H is to r y
9----no answ er
-4 .— L e v e l— o f_ s.tu d ies':__ 1-----fresh m an c l a s s _____________ _______
2----sophom ore c l a s s
3----j u n i o r c l a s s
4----s e n i o r c l a s s
5----g ra d u a te
9----no an sw er
370
5 . Number o f y e a r s a l r e a d y s p e n t a t U n i v e r s i t y :
1 f i r s t y e a r
2 se c o n d y e a r
3 t h i r d y e a r
4 f o u r t h y e a r
5 f i f t h y e a r
6 s i x t h y e a r
7 s e v e n th y e a r
6 . F o r w hich p r o f e s s i o n a r e you s tu d y in g ? ___________________________________
7 . Have you a s c h o l a r s h i p ?
1 yes
2 - - -no
8 . When a p p ly in g f o r a s c h o l a r s h i p , you i n d i c a t e d , by p r e f e r e n c e o r d e r
t h r e e o c c u p a tio n s you w ould l i k e to p r e p a r e f o r a t U n i v e r s i t y .
P le a s e l i s t th e s e th r e e c h o ic e s i n th e same p r e f e r e n c e o r d e r :
1__________________________________
2 ________________________________
3__________________________________
9 . Have you changed y o u r mind a b o u t th e s e o c c u p a tio n s a n d / o r t h e i r
p r e f e r e n c e o rd e r?
1 yes
2 no
I f y e s , i n d i c a t e th e new o c c u p a -
________________________________________ t i o n s a n d / o r t h e i r p r e f e r e n c e
o r d e r :
1_________________________________________
2______________________________________
3 _____ ________ _
371
10. What c o n d i tio n s m ust an o c c u p a tio n m e e tS in o r d e r t o be c o n s id e r e d
a s i d e a l f o r you? P le a s e r a t e th e f o llo w in g s u g g e s te d c o n d i t i o n s :
v e r y i n d i f f e r - n o t a t a l l
im p o r ta n t im p o r ta n t e n t im p o rta n t
s o c i a l u t i l i t y
1 2 3 4
s o c i a l p r e s t i g e
i n t e l l e c t u a l c h a lle n g e
h ig h s a l a r y
p e r s o n a l f u l f i l l m e n t
jo b s e c u r i t y
1 1. How do you l i k e y o u r m ajor?
1 ---v e r y much
2-- much
3 --n o t so much
4 --n o t a t a l l
1 2 . How do you f i n d y o u r s t u d i e s ?
1 ---v e r y d i f f i c u l t
2 --d i f f i c u l t
3 --e a sy
4 - - - v e r y e a s y
0 -----d o n ’ t know
372
13. In w hich o f th e f o llo w in g s u g g e s te d c o u n t r i e s w ould you l i k e to
s t u d y , i f you had th e c h o ic e ? P le a s e r a t e y o u r p r e f e r e n c e s :
v e r y much much n o t so much n o t a t a l l
1 2 3 4
F ra n c e ________ ____________ ______________ ____________
Canada
Germany (F «R)
Upper V o lta
U .S.A .
U .S .S .R .
Any A f r ic a n c o u n try
O th e r ( p le a s e s p e c i f y )
373
14. How im p o rta n t a r e th e f o llo w in g m a t e r i a l s and o p p o r t u n i t i e s i n
y o u r acad em ic work?
v e r y n o t n o t a t a l l
im p o r ta n t im p o r ta n t im p o rta n t im p o r ta n t
N o tes from l e c t u r e s
R e q u ire d te x tb o o k s
U n i v e r s i t y l i b r a r y
P u b lic l i b r a r i e s
P e r s o n a l docum ents
O th e r s t u d e n t s
15. What i s y o u r m o th er la n g u ag e?
16. Do you f e e l t h a t th e f a c t t h a t F re n c h i s n o t y o u r n a t i v e la n g u a g e
c o n s t i t u t e s a h a n d ic a p i n y o u r s t u d i e s ? P le a s e r a t e th e d e g re e
o f y o u r d i f f i c u l t y :
1 b i g h an d icap
2 s m a ll h a n d ic a p
_ _ 3= - - n o 'h a n d ic a p -------------------------- —-----------------------
0 d o n 't know
17, How im p o rta n t a r e e x a m in a tio n s i n s t i m u l a t i n g you i n y o u r s t u d i e s ?
1 v e ry im p o rta n t
2 im p o rta n t
3 i n d i f f e r e n t
4 i n h i b i t i n g
0; d o n 't know
374
1 8. How f a i r do you t h i n k e x a m in a tio n s a r e i n e v a l u a t i n g y o u r
academ ic work?
1 v e r y f a i r
2 f a i r
3 u n f a i r
4 v e r y u n f a i r
0 d o n ’ t know
19 . How w ould you e v a l u a t e y o u r academ ic p e rfo rm a n c e ( i n term s o f
s u c c e s s in f i n a l e x a m in a tio n s )?
1 E x c e lle n t
2 Good
3 A bout a v e ra g e
4 P oor
2 0 . How im p o r ta n t a r e g ra d e s f o r you?
1 v e r y im p o r ta n t
2 im p o rta n t
3 n e g l i g i b l e
2 1 . In y o u r o p in i o n , how im p o r ta n t a r e th e f o llo w in g f a c t o r s in
d e te r m in in g s u c c e s s i n e x a m in a tio n s ?
v e r y v e ry
im p o r ta n t im p o r ta n t n e g l i g i b l e n e g l i g i b l e
4 3 2 1
I n t e l l i g e n c e ___________ ___________ ____________ ____________
Hard w o rk in g
Memory
E x p r e s s io n ( s t y l e )
P e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s
w ith i n s t r u c t o r
375
2 2 . I n m ost A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s in c lu d in g Upper V o lta , w ith c u l t u r a l
( e t h n i c ) p l u s a l i s m , t h e r e i s a d i f f i c u l t y i n c h o o s in g one la n g u ag e
f o r o f f i c i a l u se and i n s t r u c t i o n i n s c h o o l s . The r e a s o n seems
to be th e f e a r t h a t t h e o t h e r c u l t u r a l g ro u p s m ig h t f e e l n e g l e c te d
o r " c o lo n iz e d " by th e group whose la n g u a g e would be c h o se n .
How r e a l and im p o r ta n t do you th in k th e p ro b lem is ?
1 v e r y im p o rta n t
2 im p o rta n t
3 m inor
4 a r t i f i c i a l
0 d o n f t know
2 3 . The f o llo w in g problem s e x i s t in v a r y in g d e g re e s in A f r i c a to d a y .
P le a s e s t a t e how im p o r ta n t you t h i n k th e s e problem s a r e :
v e ry
im p o rta n t im p o rta n t m inor a r t i f i c i a l
1 2 3 4
P ro m o tin g u n i t y and
c o o p e r a tio n on th e
A f r ic a n c o n t i n e n t ___________ ___________ ____________ ____________
E l im in a tin g
t r i b a l i s m ________________________________ ___________ ____________ ____________
E l im i n a ti n g th e econom ic
e x p l o i t a t i o n o f A f r ic a
by f o r e i g n powers ___________ ___________ ____________ ____________
I n v e n ti n g a g e n u in e A f r i
can way o f dev elo p m en t ___________ ___________ ____________ ____________
D e v e T o p i n g t h e - n a t i o n a l ---------------------------------------------------------------------_ _ _ _ _ _ _
econom ics ___________ ___________ ____________ ____________
E l im i n a ti n g i n e q u a l i t y
among A f r ic a n s ___________ ___________ _____________ ___________
O th e r
( s p e c if y ) _____________________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ____________
376
2 4 . Some p e o p le s a y t h a t A f r i c a n i n t e l l e c t u a l s do n o t c o n t r i b u t e to
th e dev elo p m en t o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c o u n t r i e s . How do you f e e l
a b o u t su ch a judgm ent?
1 - - - s t r o n g l y a g re e
2 a g r e e
3 d i s a g r e e
4 s t r o n g l y d is a g r e e
25. T h ere i s among th e V o lta n i n t e l l e c t u a l m i lie u th e f e e l i n g t h a t
t e c h n i c a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l c o m p e te n c ie s a r e n o t f i n a n c i a l l y and
s o c i a l l y rew ard ed to t h e i r j u s t v a l u e . In y o u r o p in io n , th e
i n t e l l e c t u a l s a r e on t h i s p r e c i s e p o i n t :
1 a b s o l u t e l y r i g h t
2 r i g h t
3 wrong
4 - - a b s o l u t e l y wrong
2 6 . How im p o rta n t do you t h i n k i s th e r o l e o f s t u d e n t s i n i n f l u e n c i n g
th e n a t i o n a l p o lic y ?
1 v e r y im p o rta n t
2 im p o rta n t
3 n e g l i g i b l e
4 v e ry n e g l i g i b l e
2 7 . R a te th e d e g re e o f im p o rta n c e t h a t th e f o llo w in g problem s r e p r e
s e n t f o r you.
m ost mos t
l i k e l y l i k e l y u n l i k e l y u n l i k e l y
1 2 3 4
N a tio n a l p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s __________ __________ __________ ________
I n t e r n a t i o n a l is s u e s
A cadem ic a f f a i r s
( c u r r ic u lu m ,
a d m is sio n p o li c y )
S tu d e n t l i v i n g c o n d i tio n s
O th er
( s p e c i f y )
377
2 8 . Some p e o p le s a y t h a t th e le a d e r s of a n a t i o n s h o u ld have a s u b
s t a n t i a l l e v e l o f fo rm a l e d u c a tio n . How do you f e e l a b o u t t h i s
o p in io n ?
1 s t r o n g l y a g r e e
2 a g re e
3 d i s a g r e e
4 s t r o n g l y d i s a g r e e
2 9. Iv a n I l l i c h (1970) p ro p o s e s th e d e s c h o o lin g o f s o c i e t y b e c a u se
s c h o o l s , i n h i s o p in io n , p re v e n t th e d ev elo p m en t o f c r e a t i v e
im a g in a tio n and f o s t e r co n su m p tio n a t t i t u d e s h a rm fu l t o s o c i e t y .
What do you t h i n k o f su ch a d ia g n o s i s o f th e s c h o o l system ?
1 s t r o n g l y a g re e
2 a g r e e
3 d i s a g r e e
4 - - s t r o n g l y d i s a g r e e
«
3 0 . I t i s o f te n s a i d , p a r t i c u l a r l y by A f r ic a n g o v e rn m e n ts, t h a t u n i
v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s a r e " p r i v i l e g e d " i n c o m p ariso n to th e r e s t o f
th e p o p u l a t i o n .
How do you f e e l a b o u t such a judgm ent?
1 s t r o n g l y a g re e
2 a g r e e
3 -d is a g re e
4 s t r o n g l y d i s a g r e e
3 1 . Some p e o p le s a y t h a t m ost s t u d e n t s abandon t h e i r p r o f e s s e d id e a s
once th e y le a v e ' th e u n i v e r s i t y . ~
How do you f e e l a b o u t su ch an a p p r e c i a t i o n ?
1 s t r o n g l y a g re e
2 a g re e
3 d i s a g r e e
4 - - s t r o n g l y d i s a g r e e
378
3 2 . T h ere a r e some c o n t r o v e r s i e s a b o u t th e d e g re e o f c o o p e r a tio n
b etw een p r o f e s s o r s and s tu d e n t s a s f a r a s academ ic w ork i s
c o n c e r n e d .
In th e s p e c i f i c c a s e o f th e U n i v e r s i t y of O uagadougou, can you
s a y t h a t t h i s c o o p e r a tio n i s :
1 v e ry s t r o n g
2 s tr o n g
3 weak
4 i n e x i s t e n t
33. Do you t h i n k t h a t V o lta n p r o f e s s o r s a r e more c o o p e r a tiv e w ith
s tu d e n t s th a n t h e i r f o r e i g n E u ro p ean c o lle a g u e s ? P le a s e r a t e
th e d e g re e o f t h i s d i f f e r e n c e :
1 much more c o o p e r a tiv e
2 more c o o p e r a tiv e
3 no d i f f e r e n c e
4--- l e s s c o o p e r a tiv e
5--- much l e s s c o o p e r a tiv e
34. Are young p r o f e s s o r s ( l e c t u r e r s and a s s i s t a n t s ) more c o o p e r a tiv e
th a n o ld e r p r o f e s s o r s ( a s s o c i a t e s and f u l l p r o f e s s o r s ) ?
1 much more c o o p e r a tiv e
2 more c o o p e r a tiv e
3 no d i f f e r e n c e
4----l e s s c o o p e r a tiv e
5----much l e s s c o o p e r a tiv e
-35-;— A f r ic a n — u n iv e rs itie s _ _ m u st_ c h o ose b etw een th e sy ste m o f e q u iv a le n c e
o f t h e i r d e g re e s t o th o s e from f o r e i g n u n i v e r s i t i e s (on th e b a s i s
o f e q u a l i t y o f l e v e l of s t u d i e s ) , and th e sy stem o f l e g a l v a l i d i t y
o f th e d e g re e s (w ith th e c o r o l l a r y c o n d i t i o n t h a t th e s t r u c t u r e s
a n d , o f t e n , th e t r a i n i n g program s and m ethods be i d e n t i c a l i n th e
r e s p e c t i v e u n i v e r s i t i e s ) . I n d i c a t e y o u r p r e f e r e n c e f o r one of th e
a l t e r n a t i v e sy ste m s:
1 l e g a l v a l i d i t y
2 e q u iv a le n c e
379
3 6. I n d i c a t e th e r e l a t i v e im p o rta n c e of th e f o llo w in g m a t e r i a l in
y o u r academ ic t r a i n i n g .
v e r y v e ry
im p o rta n t im p o r ta n t n e g l i g i b l e n e g l i g i b l e
1 2 3 4
L e c tu r e s ___________ ___________ ____________ _______
P e r s o n a l work and r e a d i n g ___________ ___________ ____________ _______
D is c u s s io n s w ith
p r o f e s s o r s
D is c u s s io n s w ith o th e r
s tu d e n t s
O th er
( s p e c if y )
3 7 . (a) What i s (was) y o u r f a t h e r 's o c c u p a tio n ?
(b) I f y o u r f a t h e r i s (was) em ployed in th e p u b li c o r p r i v a t e
s e c t o r , p le a s e i n d i c a t e h i s c a te g o r y in t h i s s e c t o r :
P u b lic s e c t o r c a te g o r y _____________________ •
P r i v a t e s e c t o r c a te g o r y _________________________
(c) I f y our f a t h e r i s (was) a s e lf - e m p lo y e d , p le a s e s p e c i f y how
he o p e r a t e s ( o p e r a te d ) h i s b u s i n e s s , shop o r w orkshop:
1 by h im s e lf
2 w ith h i r e d p e r s o n n e l ( i n d i c a t e number______ )
(d) I f y o u r f a t h e r i s (was) a p e a s a n t , p le a s e s p e c i f y w h e th e r he
p r a c t i c e s ( p r a c t i c e d ) :
1 c a s h c ro p p in g
2 s u b s i s t e n c e a g r i c u l t u r e o n ly
38. (a) What i s (was) y o u r m o th e r 's o c c u p a tio n ? __________________________
(b) I f y o u r m o th er i s (was) em ployed i n th e p u b l i c o r p r i v a t e
s e c t o r , p le a s e i n d i c a t e h e r c a te g o r y in t h i s s e c t o r :
P u b l i c s e c t o r c a te g o r y __________________________
P r i v a t e s e c t o r c a te g o r y _________________________
380
(c ) I f y o u r m o th er i s (w as) a . s e lf - e m p lo y e d , p le a s e s p e c i f y how
she o p e r a te s ( o p e r a te d ) h e r b u s i n e s s , sh o p , o r w orkshop:
1 -----by h e r s e l f
2 -----w ith h i r e d p e r s o n n e l ( i n d i c a t e number )
(d) I f y o u r m o th er i s (was) a p e a s a n t , p le a s e s p e c i f y w h e th e r sh e
p r a c t i c e s ( p r a c t i c e d :
1 ---- c a s h c ro p p in g
2 -----s u b s i s t e n c e a g r i c u l t u r e o n ly
3 9 . Did y o u r f a t h e r a t t e n d s c h o o l?
1 -----yes
2 -----no
>
I f y e s , w hat l e v e l ( s ) d id he com p lete?
Answer a l l q u e s t i o n s .
-E le m e n ta ry s c h o o l : 1 -----y e s ; 2 -----no
- J u n io r h ig h s c h o o l: 1-----y e s ; 2 -----no
- S e n io r h ig h s c h o o l: 1 -----y e s ; 2 -----no
- B a c h e lo r’s program : 1 -----y e s ; 2 -----no
4 0 . Did y o u r m o th er a t t e n d s c h o o l?
1 ---- yes
2 -----no
i
f
I f y e s , w hat l e v e l ( s ) d id she co m p lete?
Answer a l l q u e s t i o n s .
-E le m e n ta ry s c h o o l : 1 -----y e s ; 2 -----no
- J u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l: 1 -----y e s ; 2 -----no
-S e n io r h ig h s c h o o l: 1---- y e s ; 2 -----no
- B a c h e lo r ’s program : 1 -----y e s ; 2 -----no
381
4 1 . What ty p e o f s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l ( s ) d id you a t te n d ?
1 p r i v a t e - n o n - r e l i g i o u s
2 p r i v a t e - r e l i g i o u s
3 s t a t e - s u p p o r t e d
4 p u b li c
5----p u b li c and p r i v a t e - n o n - r e l i g i o u s
6 p u b li c and s t a t e - s u p p o r t e d
4 2 . B a c c a la u r e a t
(a) S tream 1 -----A
2 B
3 ---C
4 D
(b) Y ear o f a t ta in m e n t
1-----1980
2 — 1979
3 ---1 9 7 8
4 -----1977
(c) D i s t i n c t i o n
1 minimum p a s s in g ( " p a s s a b le ” )
2----F a i r ("A ssez B ie n ” )
3----Good ( ”B ie n ")
4 E x c e l l e n t (”T re s B ie n ” )
8 No d i s t i n c t i o n e x i s t s f o r s tre a m (G on s p e c i a l
e x a m in a tio n )
4 3 . Were you on s c h o l a r s h i p when a t te n d in g h ig h sc h o o l?
1----yes
2----no
3----yes o n ly f o r th e 1s t c y c le
4----yes o n ly f o r th e 2n<^ c y c le
382
5 - - - E
6 F
7 G
8 S p e c ia l u n i v e r s i t y
e n tr a n c e e x a m in a tio n
5-----1976
6-----1975
7 ---1 9 7 4
8 -----1973 e t a n te
4 4 . What i s y o u r r e l i g i o n ?
1 C a t h o lic
2----Mus 1 im
3 P r o t e s t a n t
4----A nim is t
5----No r e l i g i o n
9----No answ er
4 5 . R e s id e n c e of y o u r p a r e n t s : ________________
4 6 . I n d i c a t e w h e th e r y o u r p a r e n t s r e s i d e in
1 t - - u r b a n a r e a
2 s e m i-u rb a n a r e a
3 r u r a l a r e a
383

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Asset Metadata

Creator Sanou, Fernand (author)

Core Title African universities in search of their identities: A study of the culture of careerism at the University of Ouagadougou (Upper Volta)

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, higher,education, sociology of,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-493452

Unique identifier UC11247093

Identifier usctheses-c26-493452 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP24797.pdf

Dmrecord 493452

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Sanou, Fernand

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA