University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

The evolution of a continuing teacher education program at Ethiopia's Haile Sellassie I University : A case study with a proposed model

(USC Thesis Other)

The evolution of a continuing teacher education program at Ethiopia's Haile Sellassie I University : A case study with a proposed model

PDF

Download

Open document

Flip pages

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content THE EVOLUTION OF A CONTINUING TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAM AT ETHIOPIA’S HAILE SELLASSIE I UNIVERSITY: A CASE STUDY WITH A PROPOSED MODEL by Tilahun Workineh A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Education) Ph.D. September 1978 Ed '79 W926 1978a 1 UMI Number: DP24685 Ail rights reserved INFORM ATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publi shing UMI DP24625 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml .48106- 1346 U N I V E R S I T Y O F SOUT HE RN CA LJ FOR NI A T H E GRADUATE fC H O O L UN IVERSITY PARK L O S A N G E LE S. C A L IFO R N IA 8 0 0 0 7 T h is dissertation, w ritte n by ______ Tilahun Worklneh under the direction o f A .is.-. D issertation Com - m ittee, and approved by a lt its members, has been presented to and accepted by T he G raduate School, in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t o f requirem ents o f the degree o f D O C T O R O F P H IL O S O P H Y D e a n ] S o U j L C > > Ph. D. ! _ C T w* >7cj W r £ & 0 0 & DISSERTATION COMMI ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am indebted to my Dissertation Committee, Professor Leslie E. Wilbur, Chairman, Professor John Gerletti and Professor William Hideout for their encourage ment, understanding, guidance and assistance* I am specially grateful to Professor William Rideout for his particular interest in and assistance during the disserta tion writing. I am very grateful to all my friends and colleagues at Haile Sellassie X University for their help in supplying the necessary information. Special mention should be made of the staff of the Inservice Teacher Education for their quick and detailed responses to my questions and correspondences. To Drs. Abaineh Workie, Aklilu Habte, Mulugeta Wodajo and Mr. Million Neqniq I owe much for their critique of the case study and the proposed model. Special thanks should be extended to Dr. William Maxwell of the Department of Higher and Postsecondary Education for his continued encouragement and constructive criticisms during the writing of the dissertation. I am also indebted to the staff of the Center for International/Intercultural Education for facilitating my - graduate study and for their help in many other areas. ii Special mention should be made of Mr. Paul Davis, a dear friend, who with his wife was very helpful to me and my family in more ways than I can list. Finally, I am very thankful to Mrs. Flora Acohido of the Department of Higher and Postsecondary Education for typing the dissertation and its earlier forms. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF CHARTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Page 11 vii LIST of tables viii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ix Chapter I* THE PROBLEM 1 Introduction Statement of the Research Problem Questions to be Answered Purpose of Study Significance of the Problem Procedure Sources of Material for the Study Delimitations Limitations Definitions of Terms Used Organizational Plan of the Study II. EDUCATION IN ETHIOPIA ........... ...... 12 The Country Modern Education Control, Structure and Financing of Formal Education Growth and Problems of Education Teachers and the Teaching Profession in Ethiopia Summary iv Chapter III. REVIEW OF LITERATURE RELATED TO UNIVERSITY PUBLIC SERVICE. .............. 48 Conceptual Framework University Public Service in the Western World The Anglophone African University and Public Service Rationale for Continuing Teacher Education in Africa The Response of Anglophone African Universities Issues Summary IV. METHODOLOGY .......... . . . 74 The Nature of the Study Questions to be Answered Source of Information The Procedure Followed V. A CONTINUING TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAM AT ETHIOPIA’S HAILE SELLASSIE I UNIVERSITY: A CASE STUDY. .................. 86 Genesis and Development Assessment Findings Summary VI. A PROPOSED MODEL FOR CONTINUING TEACHER EDUCATION IN ETHIOPIA ........... 163 Conceptualization and Rationale Assumption^ Description and Operation of the Model Strengths of the Model Summary Chapter Page VII. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS * . . 18Q Summary Conclusions Recommendations REFERENCES................... 189 APPENDIXES. ......................................208 A. Course Offerings............ 209 B. Exchange Rate ................ 221 LIST OF CHARTS Chart Page 1. Development of' Ethiopian Higher Education Up to 1961. . ........................... 19 2. A Continuing Teacher Education Model............166 vii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Four Years of Growth of Education in Ethiopia. 24 2. Size of the Formal Education System in Ethiopia 1973-7*4. . . .......... 26 3. Salary Classes as at 1953 39 4. Teacher Education, Salary and Increment Ceilings.................. 40 5. CTEP Enrollment and Graduation 1958-1974. ♦ . 92 6. Provincial Quota Intake In CTEP 1972-74 . . . 115 7. CTEP Fees Beginning Summer 1971........... . 135 8. Number of Primary School Teachers and CTEP Enrollees and Graduates 1958-1974 ..... 143 viii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AAU - Addis Ababa University CGPA - Cumulative Grade Point Average CCTE - Council on Continuing Teacher Education CTEP - Continuing Teacher Education Program E. C. - Ethiopian Calendar ECA - Economic Commission for Africa ESR — Education Sector Review ESLCE - Ethiopian School Leaving Certificate Examination EUS - Ethiopian University Service GNP - Gross National Product GPA - Grade Point Average HSIU - Haile Sellassie I University ITEC - Inservice Teacher Education Committee ITEP - Inservice Teacher Education Program MEFA - Ministry of Education and Fine Arts NCE - National Commission for Education OITEP - Office of Inservice Teacher Education Program PEO - Provincial Education Office(r) PSVCC - Postsecondary Vacation Course Committee TAE - Teachers Association of Ethiopia TTI - Teacher Training Institute UCAA - University College of Addis Ababa WCOTP - World Confederation of Organizations of the Teaching Profession CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction Several areas of public service involvement have been identified for universities in developing countries* One most commonly mentioned is the provision for some type of adult education to meet vocational and professional needs of specialized groups (Bertelsen, 1965* Coles, 1972; Lowe, 1973; Raybould, 1957). One group of professionals requiring and needing service from universities is teachers. The participation of African universities in public service varies considerably according to country and institution. The participation of universities in adult education is a function of factors internal and external to the universities. The universities must be willing and must define their roles in relation to their capabilities. Furthermore, the socio-economic and political environment, and the educational needs of the society and the individual are critical considerations that must be recognized. University public service can be initiated from within and/or from without. As part of their publio service function, Anglophone African universities, in 1 cooperation with national and international organizations* have been offering inservice or continuing teacher edu cation programs, at least on a short-term basis* In Ethiopia, for example, the Haile Sellassie I University (HSIU), now Addis Ababa University, upon the request and initial sponsorship of the national Ministry of Education and Fine Arts (MEFA) had conducted a residential summer inservice or continuing teacher education program since 1958. By 197*1 this single program developed into four distinct tracks which, for the purpose of this studft are referred to as Continuing Teacher Education Program (CTEP)* CTEP was suspended after the 197*1 summer session* Statement of the Research Problem The subject of the case study was the Continuing Teacher Education Program at Haile Sellassie I University Education Faculty. The study was an explanatory analysis of the process by which CTEP was established and how and why it developed through summer 197*1* The CTEP analysis and review of related literature were the basis for proposing another CTEP model* Questions to be Answered The two broad questions of why and how CTEP was established and how it developed led to these specific questions* 2 1. When, by whom and for what purpose was CTEP established? How did the different tracks come into being? 2. How were the purposes, course offerings and target populations defined? 3. How were course participants selected? Why did they attend? H* Why did HSIU sponsor CTEP? How did CTEP fit into the university structure? 5. Why were fees introduced? What were the consequences of charging fees? 6. Why was the summer chosen as a time module? Why a series of summers instead of a one summer intensive program? What were the consequences of using only the summer time? 7. What were the strengths and weaknesses of CTEP? 8. What has been the CTEPfs impact on Ethiopian education? Purpose of Study The study proposed to: (1) provide an explanatory case study of the process through which CTEP was estab lished, (2) to examine its development through 1 9 7 and (3) to recommend a comprehensive CTEP model for Ethiopia on the basis of the case study, the issues and questions in literature about similar programs in Anglophone African universities and the experiences of the researcher in CTEP. _______________ 3 Significance of the Problem The lack of and need for research in the general field of adult education in developing countries has been pointed out several times. The literature on this subject stresses, albeit with varying degrees of emphasis, the focus and purpose of the research. Under the category of focus, such topics as process and content, administration and organization, student interest and reaction, basic facts about students and programs, and program goals and purposes were often mentioned (Axford, 1969; Coles, 1969; Coombs, 1968; Lowe, 1975; Prosser, 1970). Research into the various aspects of adult educa tion is needed for several reasons. First, such research will increase '.'understanding of the process by which adult education institutions adapt or fail to react to environ mental changes” (Axford, 1969, p. 214). Second, a study about and knowledge of the process of adult education pro grams will lead to developing new forms and spreading and adapting old ones to new environments where these may not have been recognized and appreciated (Prosser, 1970). Third, recording, preserving and making these observations available will help to (a) develop a tradition and an historical background, (b) prevent making the same mistakes again, and (c) provide a perspective on the whole field of adult education 4 It was hoped that this case study, on the national level, would be of value (a) as an historical document, where none existed before; (b) as a basis for evaluation and further research; and (c) as a basis for understanding the process of adult education for future program planning and implementing. It was further hoped that the proposed model would (a) bring into relief the major factors in the.process of continuing teacher education in Ethiopia, and (b) be the basis for future planning and operating a continuing education program for Ethiopian teachers. In view of the increasing demand for education in general, and continuing education in particular, both in Ethiopia and elsewhere in Africa, it was also hoped that this case study would (a) demonstrate the centrality of process in determining the life span of institutions and programs, Cb) help to appreciate their contribution or the lack thereof, (c) help to segregate which factors were dominant, and (d) demonstrate how programs succeeded or failed to adjust to changing environments. It was further hoped that this case study would be an addition to the existing knowledge about adult education, would facilitate the sharing of experiences, and would fill some of the gaps expressed earlier in this section. 5 Procedure The procedure designed to accomplish the objectives of the study included the following* 1. Review of relevant literature on: (a) univer sity public service in the western world and in Anglophone African in general, (b) Anglophone African university- sponsored inservice continuing teachor education programs in particular, and (c) Ethiopian education with special reference to teacher education, pre-service and inservice. 2. On the basis of the review, compose informa tion questions, segregate them and mail them out to Ethiopian educators, national organizations and interna tional and bilateral agencies^ all of which were formally associated with CTEP* 3* Using the information gathered through corre spondence, reports the researcher possessed or acquired, and his experiences, write the explanatory case study. 4. Construct a provisional model on the basis of (1) and (3). 5. Present the case study and the provisional model to a panel of Ethiopian educators for critique. Sources of Material for the Study The following primary and secondary sources were used: 6 1. Books, journal articles, dissertations and dissertation abstracts in libraries in the Los Angeles area, Michigan, Illinois, and Washington, D.C. 2. Reports, memoranda and correspondence on Tile at Haiie Sellassie I University, the Faculty of Education and the CTEP office, 3* Information obtained through correspondence with Ethiopian educators and institutions (foreign and national), 4, The experiences of the researcher as supple mentary to the documents in (2) and (3) and the literature. Delimitations This study was conducted with the following delimitations. 1. The study covered only one specific type of university public service, an adult education program principally for government elementary school teachers at Haile Sellassie I University. 2. The study of this program covered the period of summer 1958 to summer 197**. The review of literature on Ethiopian education also dealt with educational developments until 1974. 3. The study was general in that it did not focus on one specific aspect of CTEP, for example curricula, __________7 sponsorship, participant selection and motivation, funding, and evaluation. 4. The Ethiopian educators used as correspondents in this study were persons who were in leadership positions in the MEFA, HSIU and those who headed CTEP. Limitations The study was subject to these limitations: 1. The study was based on limited sources, incomplete and fragmentary documents, scanty literature, and correspondence. Recent events in Ethiopia made research travel unwise, delayed correspondence and made it difficult to obtain information from individuals and institutions there. 2. Reliance on correspondence had also some inherent problems. Some of the questions sent to corre spondents dealt with things of the past— almost 20 years ago. This was further complicated by the lack of records on CTEP, and for some correspondents, by the fact that they did not have their documents for consultation. Consequently, correspondents had to rely on memory. Some times this meant after-the-fact rationalizations. 3. This study also had the limitations of case studies in general: subjectivity and lack of generalizabi- lity. Possible observer (in this case correspondent and researcher) bias could not. be discounted altogether. 8 U. The general paucity of literature on CTEP in libraries accessible to the researcher was a formidable obstacle. 5. The proposed model was reviewed by relatively few Ethiopians. A broader circulation and participation would have strengthened the model. Definitions of Terms Used Anglophone Africa. In this study, the term Anglophone Africa was used to refer to countries whose principal second language and the medium of instruction in schools is English. Birr (B"). Birr refers to an Ethiopian unit of money whose denomination is equivalent to the United States dollar. Church. Church as used in this study refers to the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Continuing Teacher Education Program (CTEP). Continuing Teacher Education Program as used here refers to a summer residential educational provision for ele mentary school teachers, administrators and supervisors, and junior secondary school teachers at Haile Sellassie I University. "Vacation Course/ "Summer School," Inservice Teacher Education Program" were used interchangeably with the term CTEP. 9 Curriculum. Curriculum was used here to include admission criteria, specific course offerings, and instructional staff. Ethiopian Calendar. The Ethiopian Calendar consists of 12 months of 30 days each and an extra 5 or 6 days, and is seven or eight years behind the Gregorian Calendar. Haile Sellassie I University (HSIU). Haile Sellassie I University was the only institution of higher learning in Ethiopia; its colleges, faculties, institutes and programs offer only baccalaureate degrees and diplomas. Inservice Teacher Education Committee (ITEC)• Inservice Teacher Education Committee was the decision making organ of CTEP beginning in 1971-72. Sometimes the earlier term "Summer School Advisory Committee" was used in this study. Ministry of Education and Fine Arts (MEFA)• The Ministry of Education and Fine Arts was a national legal entity responsible for education in Ethiopia below the university level. Participant. Participant meant persons selected to study in any one of the CTEPfs tracks. Provincial Education Office (PEO). The Provincial Education Office was the organization responsible for the administration and supervision of education at the province (state) level. The District (county) Education Office is 10 the next lower administrative organization in the hierarchy. Track. The term "track" was used here to refer to a specific program of studies geared to one specific type of school personnel, e.g., elementary school teachers. Organizational Plan of the Study Chapter II is background information on Ethiopian education, teacher education, and the teaching profession in Ethiopia. Chapter III is a review of related literature on university public service in the western world and in Anglophone Africa with emphasis, in the latter part, on* inservice or continuing teacher education programs under Anglophone African universities• Chapter IV deals with the procedure used in conducting the study. Chapter V provides an explanatory analysis of the development of CTEP through 197** $ an assessment of CTEP and the findings from the case study. Chapter VI deals with a proposed model for a comprehensive continuing education program for Ethiopian teachers. Chapter VII presents the summary, conclusions, and recommendations. This is followed by references and appendixes. 11 CHAPTER II EDUCATION IN ETHIOPIA This chapter deals with Ethiopian education, and teachers and the teaching profession in Ethiopia until 197**. The Country This ancient African country of diverse peoples, languages, religions and cultures and geographic and climatic conditions had enjoyed an uninterrupted indepen dence for centuries except for the five-year Italian invasion during World War II (Pankhurst, 1955). Ethiopia’s 457,142 square mile area consists of huge and towering mountains and ranges, steep escarpments, gorges, canyons and deserts, all of which in the past had been part of Ethiopia's defense system and now present formidable challenges in highway engineering. The country was divided into 14 administrative provinces (states). Each province was further divided into awrajas (counties), weredas, and mikitil weredas. Only a small network of all weather roads connected Addis Ababa, the national capital, to 13 provincial capitals. One short railroad in the north, a longer one in the southeast and Ethiopian 12 Airlines link Ethiopia with other countries. The Ethiopian highlands, the populous and produc tive part, generally experience a long dry season and a shorter rainy one (June to September). The lowlands have temperature variations approaching those of a desert. The farmers and.Orthodox Christians are concentrated in the central highlands at about 30 persons per square mile. The Moslems and pastoral pagans and nomads live in the lowlands at about 5 persons per square mile. The general configura tion of settlement is pear-shaped and stretches from the southwest corner to the northeast corner of Ethiopia. Ethiopia is a rural nation. Agriculture, which accounts for more than half of the national output, is still primitive and subsistence level. Coffee, oil seeds, skins and hides are the principal exports. Mineral resources are largely unknown and unexplored. In 1974, the estimated per capita income was United States $84.00 (Haile and Yimer, 1970; World Bank, 1974). While rural Ethiopia is the backbone of the economy, it does not get its share of public services. All weather and dry weather roads serve only a small part of the country; the under developed and unreliable telephone, telegraph and postal communications reach few towns; the limited medical services, doctors and nurses are concentrated in few towns; radio, television and newspapers are available in few urban areas (Ginsberg and Smith, 1967; Niehoff and 13 Wilder, 1.974). According to WHO projections, infant mortality for 1970-72 was 162; and life expectancy for 1970-75 was 40 (World Bank, 1974). Ethiopia is both ancient and young. About 58 percent of the population, estimated at 28 million and growing at a 25 percent annual rate, were estimated to be between 5 and 24 years old; and only 9.7 percent were 50 and above (Statistical Abstract for Ethiopia 1972, 1973). The population consists of several Afro-Asiatic ethnic groups of which the Amhara, Galla, Guarage, Somali and Tigre are the major ones. There are over 70 different, languages and dialects, many unwritten and mutually unintelligible. Only Amharic, the national language, and Tigre had their own script and a rich literature (Bender, Bowen, Cooper and Furgeson, 1976). Orthodox and other Christians, Moslems and pagans live in Ethiopia. Since there has never been a national or sample census, categorizing the population by ethnic, linguistic and religious backgrounds in the past was based on estimates• Modern Education Limited Church and Koranic schools provided organized education before the introduction of western education into Ethiopia. Mission schools in Addis Ababa 14 and Harer predated government-sponsored western style, free but not compulsory, education which started about 1907. Government-sponsored education during the first three decades can be characterized as being small, only about 20 unevenly distributed schools, foreign and weak in control, and foreign in content. Furthermore some schools were two decades apart in opening. Worse still, the Italian invasion destroyed the educational embryo. After the war, the school system was built and in 19^1 a national Ministry of Education and Fine Arts (MEFA) replaced an Office of Education created in 1927. In December 1950, the first institution of postsecondary education, a junior college, the University College of Addis Ababa (UCAA) opened for instruction (Amare, 1975; Ashby, 1966; Bowen, 1976; Dagne, 1973> 1976; Hailu, 1968; Pankhurst, 1955, 1966; Trudeau, 1968). Control. Structure and Financing of Formal Education Control Ethiopian education below university level was primarily the responsibility of the MEFA. Other govern ment and non-government organizations also had educational programs, predominantly at the elementary level. Education under the MEFA was centrally controlled, administered and supervised through a hierarchy of education offices at the national, provincial, awraja and wereda levels. The MEFA 15 issued curricula, fixed calendars, hired and fired teachers, determined the sites and designs of its new schools (Alemayyehw, 19,6'91'Gabre Sellassie, 1964, Hailu, « - * 1968, 1975; . Shewaye' and Taylor, 1976; Talbot, 1955)* V - The non-government sector consisted of Church schools controlled by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church; mission schools under Catholic and Protestant missionary societies; and private schools operated by individuals, groups, or communities* These schools varied in quality, size, and the role they played in assisting to achieve different national education targets (Bjerkan, 1972; Dagne, 1976). Between 1969-70 and 1972-73 the non^govern- ment sector accounted for 28 percent of the primary school enrollment, 12 percent of the combined junior and senior secondary school enrollment, 45 percent of vocational and technical enrollment and 5 percent of the primary teacher training enrollment (MEFA, 1973# 1974). Structure Ethiopia’s formal education below university level, as of 1974, was divided into six years of elementary (for ages 7-12 normally); two years of junior secondary (13-14); and four years of senior secondary school (15-18). The flow of students between levels was controlled by three national examinations at the end of each stage. Schools ran on a uniform calendar of two semesters (about 200 days) 16 between late September and early July (Bjerkan, 1972; Gabre Sellassie, 196*4; Hailu, 1968; Klassen, 1963; Madsen, 1976; Shewaye and Taylor, 1976; Trudeau, 1968).. The elementary level had only Ethiopian teachers, used Amharic as the medium of instruction, and had a high student teacher ratio and a high drop-out rate. Second level education consisted of junior secondary schools, comprehensive senior secondary schools with five streams, academic,' the most popular, commercial, industrial, agri cultural and home economics; vocational and technical schools, and primary school teacher training Institutes (Bjerkan, 1972; ESR, 1972; Gabre Giorgis, 1971; MEFA, 1973). English was the medium of instruction beginning grade seven. The teaching staff at the second level consisted of expatriates and nationals, many of whom lacked pedogogical training or were trained for the lower level* The drop-out rate at the senior secondary level was high partly because there were institutions which skimmed off promising students at various levels* Second level voca tional/technical training under the MEFA was small (Bjerkan, 1972; Ginsberg and Smith, 1967; IBRD/IDA, 1970; MEFA, 1973, 1974; Niehoff and Wilder, 1974; Tesfaye, 1973; Trudeau, 1968) . Third level education included HSIU and several non-chartered, non-degree granting and less autonomous postsecondary institutions under government and 17 non-government aegis. HSIU's beginning goes back to 1950 when UCAA, the nucleus college, was opened with no affilia tion with any foreign university. However, because of the Canadian Jesuits1 leadership, UCAA had several elements of British higher education. Initially, UCAA had Faculties of Science and Arts with an Extension Department (Habte, Gebrehiwet, Kehoe, 1963; Han, 1966; Trudeau, 1968). During the decade (1950-1960) six other separate and different training programs, which were gradually elevated to college level, were opened in cooperation with bilateral and international agencies (see Chart 1). On the basis of earlier studies and recommendations by the Ethiopian government and a subsequent visitation and recommendation by a University of Utah team under contract with USAID, Haile. Sellassie I University was established in December 1961 incorporating the then six institutions with different traditions. Subsequently, other colleges were developed and in 1974, HSIU had eleven colleges, all but two in Addis Ababa, one Extension Divi sion and several other programs and institutes. In 1972- 73» HSIU had 5,180 full-time students and 541 teaching faculty of which 5*1 percent were Ethiopians. HSIU had a charter; and several university statutes were developed after 1961 (Ashby, 1964, 1966; Habte, 1969, 1974; HSIU, 1970, 1972, 1973; Trudeau, 1968). 18 Chart 1 Development of Ethiopian Higher Education Up to 1961 Institute Initial Purpose & duration/Beginning of Instruction Sponsor(s) Control & Adm. Executive Head(s) of Institutions University College of Addis Ababa Faculty of Arts Faculty of Science Law School Extension Dept. Two-year program 1950-51 1951-52 1953-54 . Independent Autonomous UCAA Board of Governors The Principal or President Dean of Arts College of Ehgineering Two-year diploma or certificate 1952-53 Ministry of Education & Fine Arts Ministry of Edu cation & Fine Arts Dean of fcllege College of Agriculture A model land grant college (under con tract with Oklahoma State University) 1953-54 Ministry of Agriculture & International Cooperative Adm. (Point IV) Ministry of Agri culture Imperial Ethiopian Agriculture Fund President (from Oklahoma State University) Director of Fund Dean Ethio-Swedish Institute. Three-year diploma postsecondary, technical course 1954 Ministry of Edu cation & The Swedish Govern ment The Minister of Education and The Swedish Ambassador The President Haile Sellassie I Che college level Public Health College program and Training Center Two second level programs 1954-55 Ministry of Public Health, WHO, UNICEF, ICA (Point IV) Joint Board: Ethiopia, WHO UNICEF President (American) and Associate Director (Ethiopian) Theological Train people for Church service 1960 Ethiopian Ortho dox Church Probably, the Church Dean (Armenian) and the MEFA Associate Dean (Indian) Source: Constructed from HSIU, 1970; Pankhurst9 1955; Tesfaye, 1973; Trudeau, 1968. H V0 Public service originated in the 1950*s at UCAA in the Colleges of Engineering, Agriculture and Public Health. Students also sponsored and conducted community service programs in the Addis Ababa, Alemaya and Gonder areas (Tesfaye, 1973; Trudeau, 1968). The idea of univer sity public service was underscored by the Chancellor and later by one of the Presidents of HSIU, according to whom the University’s role was n. . . .not only a search for the abstract truth, but an involvement in the problems of the society in which it is destined to serve and in which it functions" (Wedemeyer, Goodman and Balbir, 1973, P« 37). The University’s involvement in the community had several forms. The University had established programs like the Ethiopian University Service (EUS) and institutes like the Institute Development Research, and its faculty had served the community through inter-ministrial and inter-agency committees and commissions, the most recent of which was the Ethiopian Education Sector Review where faculty served as members and chairpersons for nine of the 14 task forces (Habte, 1969, 1974; Niehoff and Wilder, 1974). Colleges and other units of the University provided educational services to the community. Of all the outreach programs, the Extension Division, EUS and the Continuing Teacher Education Program of the College of Education were the most significant, visible and ongoing public service programs of HSIU. These three have earned 20 the University an international reputation (Bown, 1972; Korten, 1972). Financing In Ethiopia, government education, including univer sity education was free. The central government, semi- government agencies, the Church, and national and foreign private bodies financed education. The bulk of the govern ment's education budget went to the MEFA to finance first and second level educatio^. HSIU and government institu tions that ran educational programs received about 30 percent of the national education budget (IBRD/IDAj 1970). There were four sources of revenue for government education in Ethiopia: national taxes, the education tax earmarked for elementary education in the provinces, voluntary public contributions and international and bilateral assistance (Wolde Michael, 1976). Government expenditure on education in 1972 represented 20 percent of the national budget and 2.8 percent of the GNP. As a percentage of national budget and GNP, educational expenditures had increased over the years but did not keep up with enrollment growth (Bjerkan, 1972; World Bank, 1974). In 1972-73 elementary education received more than 50 percent of the MEFA’s budget; secondary education, less than 25 percent; vocational/ technical and teacher training about 10 percent. The government’s appropriation for the University had increased but lagged behind student enrollment. One impact of inadequate government allocations against an increasingly bulging student enrollment at the three levels was the * - progressive decline in the per capita cost of education at these levels for decades (Bjerkan, 1972; ESR, 1972; Ginsberg and Smith, 1967; Habte, 1969, 1974; HSIU, 1970; Lovegrove, 1973; Wolde Michael, 1976). Non-Formal Education Literacy in Ethiopia was estimated at less than 10 percent (World Bank, 1974) and was greater in urban areas and among females and much less in rural areas and among females (Brooks, 1970; Inquai, 1970; Tesfaye, 1973). Organized adult education at literacy and post- literacy levels was recent and very small. The earlier (1940*s) programs at post-literacy level came from the non-government sector, from interested individuals and groups, and offered academic programs for the urban educated. Among these were the Canadian Jesuits* program at the Berhan Zarenew Institute, the American Institute, UCAA, and programs by the Ethiopian Women Association, and governments ministries and agencies who had their own inservice programs (Lipsky, 1962; Pankhurst, 1955; Talbot, 1955; Trudeau, 1968; Wedemeyert et al., 1972). At the literacy level the start was even later and consisted of programs under the National Literacy 22 Organization created in 1962; Yimisratch Demitse Literacy Campaign by the Lutheran Church; the MEFA's Department of Adult Education set up in 1967, and a work-oriented functional program which was started in 1968 with the help of UNESCO and the Swedish International Development Agency (Niehoff and Wilder, 1974; Tesfaye, 1973). By 1974 there was'a panoply of uncoordinated adult education programs in both the modern and agricultural sectors. The providers were many; their purposes, different; and programs varied in size. There were 35 government and quasi-governmental organizations conducting adult education programs outside of the formal school structure. Those programs covered a wide variety of areas: adult literacy, work-oriented literacy, academic programs, vocational and technical programs, courses in economics and child care, hygiene, comprehensive community develop ment and agricultural programs (Brooks, 1970; ESR, 1972; Inquai, 1970; Niehoff and Wilder, 1974; Tesfaye, 1973). Growth and Problems of Education Quantitative growth of Ethiopian formal education in four years and its size in 1973-74 are shown in Tables 1 and 2 respectively. The participation rates in 1971 were 16.3, 4.1 and 0.2 percent respectively for elementary, secondary and university. The quantitative growth also 23 fcble 1 Four Years of Growth of Education in Ethiopia NUMBER STUDENTS TEACHERS SCHOOLS Level/ Non- Non- Non- Type Government Government Government Government Government Govemment El e r a . 430,758 1*19,687 8 ,1 7 * * 3,932 1,130 906 Jun. Sec. 5*1,839 * * , 3 7 6 1 , 6 1 ( 8 1 * 8 * * 232 99 o t — ( J \ Sen. Sec. 38,093 * * , 3 9 * 1 1 , 1 * 8 6 326 50 39 H ck Tech./Voc. 3,810 2,358 399 a i 38 39 v O cn r - l TTI 2,522 101 1 * * 7 l * t 5 5 3rd.Level* 163 1 * * 30 6 2 2 El era. **70,983 * 1 8 3 , * * * * * * 8,992 **, 5 22 1,190 1,107 H h^_ Jun. Sec. 63,*105 9,716 1,697 481 2 3 * * 108 OV t—t I Sen. Sec. **8,s a 3,715 1,578 359 52 * 1 7 o t - O N Tech./Voc. 3,705 2,315 383 220 32 ' 4 0 H TTI 2,696 96 142 16 * * 5 l * 3rd Level* 5 * * 7 30 69 8 * t 2 f \> * * ■ fa b l e 1 (Continued) NUMBER STUDENTS TEACHERS SCHOOLS Level/ Type___. . Government Non- Government Government Non- Government Government Non- Government Elem. .525,695 191,03l» 10,322 1,871 1,380 1,092 Jun. Sec. 67,7*17 11,591 1,981 518 212 126 g*Sen. Sec. 56,267 5,086 1,890 111 57 58 ± Tech./Voc. 3 , * 1 1 9 2,318 332 200 26 26 f e ttt 2,766 109 163 19 5 5 3rd Level* 8 1 ) 7 59 83 10 1 2 Elem. 556,95i» 205,732 12,101 5,099 1,151 1,152 Jun. Sec. 76,160 1H,199 2,291 617 251 135 g ; Sen. Sec. 66,326 1,156 2,011 359 61 11 ^ Tech./Voc. 3,191 2,217 292 231 20 36 & TTI 2,885 168 175 17 5 5 3rd Level* 1,122 13 128 16 7 2 •Does not include HSIU Source: Adapted from School Census for Ethiopia 1962-65 E.C. I N I Table 2 Size of the Formal Education System in Ethiopia 1973-74a Level Government Non-Government i c Students Teachers Schools Students Teachers Schools Eleme tary 644,998 198,027b 13.043 1.809 1,655 214,733 76,075b 5,603 803b 1,099 Jun. Sec. 8*1,601 23,367b 2,505 285b 281 16,508 7,l83b 627 93b 139 > » *4 Sen. Sec. 74,662 2,482 68 6,634 473 45 ( 0 •o c I6,363b 336b 2,853b 106b 0 a < D CO TTI 3,018 180 5 108 14 5 605b Voc./Tech . 3,835 l,215b 392 70b 26 1,692 827b 162 59b 33 aThlrd level and University not included. Female population out of the total. Source: Adapted from School Census for Ethiopia 1973-74. I V ) O' was unbalanced, one level increasing at the expense of another, four provinces dominating all levels of education, and schools in many awrajas serving too large an area (Bowen, 1976; ESR, 1972; Habte, 1974; Lovegrove, 1973)* On the international scale, Ethiopia was only one of the four African countries with less than 20 percent partici pation rate at the primary level (World Bank, 1974)* Among the major obstacles to educational growth were unwarranted changes in structure and curriculum, often with changes in leadership, the government's unwillingness to proportionately increase the education budget, the inadequacy of the outdated elementary education tax, and lack of teachers. These "universal problems" were compli cated by political, geographic, socio-economic, cultural and linguistic factors (Alemayyehw, 1969; Bjerkan, 1972; Gabre Sellassie, 1964; Hailu, 1968; Hedlund, 1975; Neqniq, 1958; Terefe, 1964; Tesfaye, 1973; Wolde Michael, 1976). In 1969» a National Commission for Education (NCE) was established to formulate aims and objectives of Ethiopian education, search for and design means of distributing educational opportunity and coordinate education at all levels (ESR, 1972). 27 Teachers and the Teaching Profession in Ethiopia Pre-Service Teacher Education Government school teachers were trained and certified by the MEFA, HSIU, other government and non government agencies. The MEFA trained primary school teachers in five teacher training institutes(TTI), junior secondary teachers in the Junior College of Teacher Education, teacher training instructors at the College of Pedogogy since 1972, and vocational/technical teachers at vocational/technical secondary schools and at an institute. The College of Pedogogy was also planned to provide inservice or continuing teacher education. There were plans to open two more TTI's (ESR, 1972; IBRD/IDA, 1970; Tesfaye, 1973; UNICEF, 1973). Although the interest here is on government primary teacher education, a word is in order about the non-govern ment sector which had remained very small. There were five non-government teacher training institutes between 1969-70 and 1973-74. Of these, one was Church sponsored; two missionary and two private. The combined enrollment and teaching faculty in 1973-74 were 108 and 14 respec tively. Qualitative aspects of these institutes such as admission criteria, duration of training, curriculum and faculty were unknown. 28 MEFA*s pre-service teacher education dates back to the early 1930fs. In 191 *2 *, the present Harer Teacher Training Institute opened, with British help, in Addis Ababa, as a Teacher Training College enrolling students with less than eight years of education (Pankhurst, 1955; Talbot, 1955). Since then several models of teacher training programs have been tried: summer programs to orient high school graduates, one-year programs to give professional training, and four-year programs to give academic and professional education. In the fifties, several secondary schools in Addis Ababa started to experiment, on their own initiative, with teacher education by adding teacher education streams to academic programs. There were no standard curricula and students were recruited from various grades. These students chiefly studied to pass college entrance examina tions. The teaching staff in these programs generally were niether qualified teachers nor teacher educators (Hedlund, 1975; Talbot, 1955; Tesfaye, 1973). Moreover, the MEFA, in an effort to meet the growing demand for teachers for the expanding school system, added to the uncoordinated teacher education programs by opening new ones. New one-year teacher education programs were started in the late I950rs for elementary school teachers, community school teachers, school administrators and for special teachers in handicraft, home economics, physical 29 education, etc. (Klassen, 1963; Pankhurst, 1958; Talbot, 1955; Tesfaye, 1973; Trudeau, 1968). By the end of the decade of the 1950*3 three types of teacher education programs emerged: four-year programs, one-year programs for special types of teachers and school personnel, both under the MEFA, and a four-year degree program at UCAA. These MEFA programs helped in improving the quality and increasing the quantity of teachers. Quantitatively these programs produced 2,619 teachers between 1952-53 and 1959 (Tesfaye, 1973)* The figure, however, was small when compared with teacher education enrollments (5,568) and teacher requirements during the same period. Qualitatively "whereas in 1953 teaphers with no secondary education totaled 97 percent of the.teaching population, in 1958 this figure had fallen to 52 percent . . . ." (Klassen, 1963, p. 98). The following decade was marked by movement toward centralization, standardization and strengthening of teacher education by MEFA. The short emergency courses and programs were temporarily abandoned or modified. The one-year elementary teacher training program at Haile Sellassie I Day School was discontinued. The Debre Berhan Community Teacher Training Center was converted into a regular teacher training institute; the other center was closed (Bowen, 1976; Tesfaye, 1973). 30 The Division of Secondary Education of the MEFA about the raid-1960*s produced the first set of policies and standards for teachers and teacher training institutes. Accordingly, teacher training programs began to offer two years of professional training after grade 10. Also, the teacher training institutes came to be considered vocational/professional, not academic (Shewaye and Taylor, 1976; Tesfaye, 1973)* The minimum requirements for teaching, according to this new policy, were 12 years of education for primary, two years of college for junior secondary and a baccalaureate for senior secondary (Tesfaye, 1973). Teacher production was low. By the end of the Second Five Year Plan (1962-63— 1967-68) all teacher training programs combined output was only 87*1 (1967-68 Figure), falling short by over 2,000 (Tesfaye, 1973). The MEFA’s partial and temporary response was (1) to continue to employ untrained persons, and (2) to reinstitute modified one-year emergency programs which.unlike their forerunner, offered one-year professional courses after grades 11 and 12. Over a three year period the total out put from these programs was 2,163. The three regular (10 +2) programs at Addis Ababa, Debre Berhan and Harer produced 3,97** during the same period. Still, the combined output of the emergency and regular programs (6,137) was short of the Third Five Year Development Plan (1967-68— 31 1972-73) target by 1,605 (Tesfaye, 1973). Inservice or Continuing Teacher Education Between the end of the 19**0 fs and late fifties there were several types of continuing education opportu nities available at three levels: at schools, in pro vincial capitals and centers, and at the national capital. First, there were evening academic classes which were conducted by individual school directors (many of them foreigners then). Second, there were compulsory refresher courses for teachers and seminars for provincial education officers in the provinces. Third, there was a three-month summer course in Addis Ababa for partially trained teachers selected nationally. The summer courses in Addis Ababa and in the provinces also catered to specialized groups: handicraft teachers, physical education teachers and school dressers (Pankhurst, 1955, 1958; Talbot, 1955). Moreover, the more fortunate and financially able teachers in Addis Ababa studied in evening programs at the Berhan Zarenew Institute, the American Institute and later, at. UCAA*s Extension Department (Pankhurst, 1958). In the sixties, these teachers could also enroll In correspondence courses from the United States, the United Arab Republic, Great Britain and Kenya (Edstrom, 1966). In 1955 the Long-Term Planning Committee of the MEFA, in a report entitled A Ten Year Plan for the ________________ ! __________________________________ ZZ. Controlled Expansion of Ethiopian Education, recommended that teachers with less than eight years of education and without a teaching certificate be given the opportunity to upgrade themselves through summer vacation courses In a six-year period (Trudeau, 1968)* The extent to which this recommendation was implemented was unknown but there were summer programs in the capital and in the provinces* There were also nationwide six-week special courses in subjects such as handicraft, elementary economics and physical edu cation (Lipsky, 1962; UNESCO, 1959). In 1963-6*4 a Joint Ethiopian government and UNESCO/ UNICEF undertaking called Plan of Operations was launched to qualitatively and quantitatively improve the stock of primary school teachers through improved and expanded pre-service education and inservice programs. Under this plan a five-year external assistance program was made available. The inservice component of the plan involved (1) surveying, identifying and categorizing teachers according to their level of and need for education, and (2) prioritizing and gradually phasing in and phasing out at least three major and different tracks for the different groups (MEFA, 196*4 E.C.). The curricula fdr these tracks was to be mainly academic, the area identified as the weakest. However, no new curricula were written; instead teachers used a combination of summer courses, home study, and challenge 33 examinations to coyer the prescribed curricula for ele mentary and secondary grades and sat for the national examinations to meet academic and professional require ments (MEFA, 1964 E.C.). Following a 1964-65 survey by the MEFA a program for teachers with less than grade eight education, a second one for home economics teachers, and a third for those teachers whose education ranged from nineth to eleventh grades were introduced, in that order, and conducted between 1965 and 1971* There were also smaller programs for various types of school personnel during the same period. Teachers who completed one level had the opportunity to proceed to the next higher level (MEFA, 1964 E.C.). Pre-Service Teacher Education at HSIU The Education Faculty of HSIU was for a long time the sole trainer of secondary school teachers. HSIU also trained vocational/technical teachers for secondary schools. UCAA started to offer an education major in the Faculty of Arts in 1953. Two years later, UCAA and the United States Operation Mission of the International Cooperative Administration jointly launched a secondary school teacher training program which, in 1959$ became a separate department and in 1962, HSIU's Faculty of 34 Education. A Department of Elementary Education was opened the same year (Pankhurst, 1958; Trudeau, 1968). In 1972-73 the Faculty had 24 full-time faculty members and 704 students (HSIU, 1973)* Although primarily responsible for training secondary school teachers, the Faculty of Education had responded to national needs by offering various programs for different kinds of school personnel since 1962. There was a one-year terminal program for elementary school directors and supervisors and two-year terminal programs for junior secondary school teachers and physical educa tion teachers and librarians (Bowen, 1976; Tesfaye, 1973; Trudeau, 1968). In 1962-63 the Faculty opened a new program popularly known as the Laboratory School which had secondary and elementary programs. The secondary programs siphoned-off students at the end of grade eleven and gave them one year of very intensive and remedial education in Addis Ababa, the successful completion of which guaranteed the students direct entry into the four-year program of the Faculty. This program recruited as many as 250 students for the^Faculty each year. The elementary program (Grades 1-6) was used for demonstration and practice teaching purposes (Bowen, 1976; Trudeau, 1968). In the early 1970fs the Faculty opened a two-year Technical/Teacher Education Department in Addis Ababa with a home economics 35 program at the College of Agriculture to train second level instructors (HSIU, 1973)* Because of lack of funds, general university conservatism, and factors related to the teaching profes sion in Ethiopia, the Faculty of Education had never been able to recruit, train and graduate the number of second ary school teachers needed. The junior secondary teacher training program was taken over by the MEFA in 1969 because under the University it was not producing teachers anywhere near the minimum number required (Bowen, 1976; Tesfaye, 1973). Between 1966 and 1971 the Faculty awarded only 383 degrees and 1^67 diplomas (HSIU, 1970) Elementary Teacher Quantity and Quality The demand for elementary school teachers had always surpassed the supply which was low because of the inability of teacher training programs to produce the 9 number needed and because of teacher attrition. Up to 1968,teacher training programs produced only 800-900 annually. In the sixties, about 50 percent of the new graduates were replacements (Bowen, 1976; Habte, 1967; Hailu, 1968; Tesfaye, 1973). For many decades the MEFA did not have a minimum teaching requirement. During the post-Italian war years, the MEFA recruited and employed anybody acquainted with 36 the three R*s in Araharic*. A good many teachers then were drawn from the Church (Habte, 1967; Hailu, 1968; Pankhurst, 1955). In 195375**, 90 percent of the elementary school teachers had a grade six or less education* Ten years later, 55 percent had education of grade 8 or less (Ginsberg and Smith, 1967)* The first official policy for minimum teaching requirement recommended by the Long Term Planning Committee of the MEFA in 1955 was a grade eight education and one year of teaching training* At that time only five percent of the elementary teachers had that minimum requirement; 6 percent had grade eight education but no pedogogical training and the rest had education of grade five to seven with no professional training (Klassen, 1963; Trudeau, 1968). This requirement was raised in 1962-63 and according to this policy, elementary school teachers had to have 12 years of education (10 academic and 2 profes sional). In 197**, about 70 percent of the teachers at this level had the minimum national requirement* Thus, by Ethiopian standards some 30 percent of the teachers were still unqualified for primary school teaching (Bowen, 1976; Hedlund, 1975; Tesfaye, 1973). 37 Status of Teachers Teachers In Ethiopia were civil servants. They were entitled to benefits and services available for the « civil service. Teachers contributed four percent of their monthly salary to a pension fund. They retired at 60. Unlike other civil servants, teachers were not generally subject to the six-month probationary period, and they had more than two months of paid leave annually (Alemayyehw, 1969; Hedlund, 1975; WCOTP, 196*4). The general teaching load was 30 —■ ^0 hours per week (Hailu, 1975). The first uniform salary scaie appeared in 1953 (see Table 3). This 16-scale salary schedule was tied to academic qualification and experience and had provisions for annual increments and ceilings. Another scale, proposed in 1955, was not implemented for lack of funds (Lipsky, 1962; Pankhurst, 1958; WCTOP, 1963)* In 1968, the second salary scale was established and implemented after a series of negotiations and discus sions involving the Emperor, the MEFA and the Teachers Association of Ethiopia (TAE). This scale, like the earlier one, tied educational qualification, experience and salaries together. The policy also had annual incre ments and ceilings for teachers with different levels and types of education (see Table *4). For example, a teacher with grade seven education started at a base salary of . ___________________________________________________________________38 Table 3 Salary Classes as at 1953 Montly Salary in Eth. Birr Class Educational Level ____ Minimum_____Maximum 16 Grades\ l-4a 40.00 70.00 15 Gradesi 5-7 50.00 90.00 14 Grade 8 60.00 110.00 13 Grade 9 or 8 + ib 110.00 170.00 12 Grade 10 140.00 200.00 11 Grade 9 + i 150.00 220.00 10 Grade 11 160.00 230.00 9 Grade 9 + ii or 10 ■ # • i 170.00 260.00 8 Grade 12 180.00 280.00 7 Grade 10 + ii or 11 + i 200.00 300.00 6 Grade 12 « • i 250.00 350.00 5 Grade 12 + ii 300.00 400.00 4 Grade 10 + 2 yrs. of college 350.00 450.00 3 BA 450.00 700.00 2 MA 550.00 800.00 1 Ph.D. 750.00 1,000.00 aArabic numbers = basic education year. bRoman numerals = years of teacher training education. Source: Ethiopia Observer. March 1958, ,2(4), p. 136• 39 ■table 4 Teacher Education, Salary and Increment Ceilings Monthly Salary in Eth. Birr Educational Level Minimum First Year Annual Increment Rate/ ________________ Salary Ceiling after 7 years 7s 90 5/125 8 100 5/135 9 120 5/155 10 150 5/185 11 170 5/205 12 (flailing) 180 5/215 12 (Passing) 200 5/235 8 + ib 130 10/200 9 ♦ i 170 10/240 9 + ii, 10 + i 210 10/280 8 + iv, 9 + ill, 10 + ii, 11 + i 250 15/355 12 + i 300 15/355 12 + ii 350 15/455 12 + iv 500 20/640 Master’s 600 20/740 Doctor’s 750 20/890 aArabic numbers = basic education years. kRoman numerals = years of teacher training or college education. Source: Education Sector Review. June 18, 1972, p. IV-A-1. 40 B 90.00 per month (see Appendix B for exchange rate) and after seven years in service stopped at the B 125.00 ceiling. Both the 1953 and 1968 salary policies provided strong incentives for teacher participation in continuing education programs (Hedlund, 1975; Trudeau, 1968). In the early 1970 *s, starting salary of elementary school teachers with 12 years of education was B 250.00 per month; the average monthly salary for these teachers was B 225.00 (ESB, 1972).which was about 12 times the national per capita income. Nevertheless both teachers and directors thought that their salaries were unfair for their levels of education (Bowen, 1976). Teaching in Ethiopia was a male profession. At the primary level, in 1971 *, less than Ik percent of the teachers were women and even less at the secondary level. According to Habte (1967) the teaching profession was relatively young, two-thirds being under 30 and inexperi enced; 50 percent had served for less than five years. They were dissatisfied and wanted to quit teaching at the earliest opportunity. Bowen*s (1970) survey of CTEPfs participants generally concurred with Habte*s conclusions about age, desire to leave and experience. Despite the demand for education and teachers, the Ethiopian society is ambivalent about teachers and teaching. In Amharic, the national language, two words, astemari and memhlr, are used to refer to the profession. **1 The former is, at best, neutral while the later has positive connotations. TAE used the latter in its title. Traditionally, the Church school teacher at lower levels was generally regarded as one whose intellectual ability was insufficient for higher monastic studies (Lipsky, 1962). An Amharic saying derides people who keep company with children and youth. At the opening ceremony of UCAA, the Emperor was heard entreating students to be obedient to their teachers (Pankhurst, 1955). In Eritrea, where the researcher spent one year of his EUS assignment, teachers were generally respected. Three occupational prestige studies provide additional attitudinal information. Shack (1957) asked high school students from eight different ethnic groups to rank 32 modern and traditional occupations. Teaching was ranked third or fourth by all ethnic groups except the Guarage and Galla, who ranked it sixth; Brown (1969) asked 200 HSIU students to rank, and give reasons for ranking, 90 modern and traditional occupations* School director ranked 33 and school teacher M3, preceded by electrician and auto mechanic. The reasons given related to power, authority iand money earned. Bowen (1970) asked participants of the HSIU CTEP to rate their profession against 22 other socio-economic and vocational groups. Both teachers and directors rated themselves very low. M2 These internal and external (to the profession) assessments show that teaching is not a very attractive career in Ethiopia. Other factors, internal to the profession, also contributed to the cultural bias. Teaching, as a labor- intensive industry, had always attracted more people, all of whom were not of high quality* In Ethiopia, this had been accelerated by the needs of an expanding educational system. The sheer number and the quality of teachers made teaching "cheap" in the eyes of the community. After all, there are not thjat many police officers, governors or * other types of public personnel from other sectors in a small village. Moreover, the use of very young persons as teachers in a society which respected age and associated it with wisdom added to the low image. It must also be remembered that these teachers were, in their own ways, "upsetting" long-established traditions, and under circum stances where teaching was considered a "subversive activity," community resentment could be understandable. In addition to the low status accorded them by the community, teachers left the profession for social, econo mic, educational and administrative reasons. Teachers quit teaching because they found better paying jobs (in banking, transportation and communications), generally in urban centers where the basic social services and opportunities, for education were relatively available *3 (Habte, 1967). Teachers were assigned to communities whose language they- did not know. Life became difficult for these teachers; seeking a transfer or quitting the Job was used to cope with these and other social problems. Another reason for the teacher drift related to the organizational and administrative set*up of the MEFA. Teachers complained about delays in salary payments, the use of untrained teachers, maltreatment by administrative and supervisory personnel, lack of supervisory and support services and poor working conditions, for example;lack of chalkboards (Bowen, 1976; Habte, 1967; Tesfaye, 1973)* Provisions for further education in the 1960*3. were unsatisfactory. The search for educational opportu nities for further education was one of the major motiva tions for quitting teaching (Habte, 1967). These factors made teacher retention an insur mountable problem for the MEFA. In the decade of the 50*s and‘60*s the MEFA was the main source of trained manpower for the country. Ethiopian teachers, like their counterparts elsewhere in Africa, waited and looked for "greener pastures." Surveys conducted by the MEFA and individuals indicated that MEFA lost Its qualified and experienced teachers to other organizations. Habte*s (1967) study showed that between 1952-53 anc* 1960-61 graduates from the three major TTI*s then had left the profession at an kk average rate of 31 percent. Ginsberg and Smith (1967), basing their estimate on past experience, concluded that there was a 7.5 percent annual attrition rate for elemen tary and secondary teachers. According to the two authors, attrition for TTI graduates was even higher, 15 percent per annum* These surveys and studies, however, focused only on external brain drain* There was no information on the internal brain drain; none of these studies showed how many teachers had been transferred to administrative and supervisory assignments within the school system. Also the number of persons who enrolled annually in educational institutions was unknown. These studies also were not up-to-date and did not show the extent to which the teacher attrition had improved or not in recent years. Teacher Organization The Teacher’s Association of Ethiopia initially had a social purpose and was confined to Addis Ababa teachers. TAE was. not a legal organization before 1965. TAE’s objectives were very broad and the Association was marginally engaged in teacher education and especially continuing education. The exact number of dues-paying members was not known, but WCOTP reported 5,000 in 1972. TAE was still concerned largely with basic needs relating 45 to salary and working conditions (Hedlund, 1975; WCOTP, 1965, 1974) over which it had twice organized strikes. TAE had its own problems of internal strife and lack of adequate funds and facilities (Hedlund, 1975)* Summary Western-style education was introduced into Ethiopia about seven decades ago. By 1961, a complete system of education from elementary to university was established and expanded under both government and non government aegis. Formal education below the university had a 6:2:4 structure and was Very small. Public expend!^ ture in 1971 represented 20 percent of the national budget. Even this limited educational development had been stunted by the Italian invasion, socio-economic, cultural, geographic, linguistic, and political factors, lack of continuity in educational philosophy and leader ship and the more familiar problems of finance, wastage, educational disparity, etc., which had plagued education in developing countries. Of all the problems, none^ perhaps, had been so serious for the MEFA as the supply and demand of teachers. The MEFA had tried a diversity of recruiting, training and retraining schemes and means to improve quantitatively and qualitatively the primary teaching stock. Worse still, many of the more qualified and experienced teachers, discouraged by the environment 46 surrounding their profession, lack of educational opportu nities , and also motivated by economic and non-econooiic factors, left the profession for other jobs at rates the MEFA found difficult to replace. CHAPTER III REVIEW OF LITERATURE RELATED TO UNIVERSITY PUBLIC SERVICE Conceptual Framework Literature on university public service, the conceptual framework of this study, is reviewed here under (1) university public service in the western world, (2) university public service in Anglophone African universities with special emphasis on the need and provisions for continuing teacher education, and (3) issues in Anglophone African university public service. For the purpose of this study, three concentric circles are visualized. The outermost circle represents the concept of university public service. The inner two circles depict adult education and continuing teacher education respectively. The relationship of one to the other is that public service is the all-encompassing concept; adult education is one aspect of public service; and continuing teacher education is still a more specific aspect of adult education. University public service is defined here as the extramural utilization of the material and intellectual resources of a university, undertaken singly or in MB cooperation with other groups or institutions, for the benefit of the community and its constituents. Public service can take the form of consulting, public use of institutional resources, and developing and providing educational programs and experiences outside of the formal university structure. "Adult education is organized programs of educa tion provided for the benefit of and adapted to the needs of persons not in the regular school or university and generally fifteen or older" (Lowe, 1975, p. 22). Continuing teacher education is a deliberate edu cational pursuit undertaken by an individual while on the job or provided by an institution, for self-improvement or resolving societal problems. University Public Service in the Western World There is a controversial hierarchical ordering of the three widely accepted functions of a university: teaching, research and public service. The hierarchy is a function of the historical development of the three functions and the value both academe and society attach to each. University public service is a relatively recent development and its status in the university is still debated• The three functions are creations of three civili zations. The earlier universities stressed teaching. **9 Plato's academy taught truth for its own sake; and German universities concentrated on research (Kerr, 1963). American universities in the twentieth century stimulated by the emergence of political, economic and educational elites, professional schools, the westward movement, the rise of a solid public school system, agricultural and industrial advances, and changes in the attitude of the public about the role of the university, made public service a university function. Nowhere was the concept and practice of public service popularized, institutional ized and made a reality better than in Land Grant Colleges and Universities such as the University of Wisconsin (Brubacher and Rudy, 1968; DeVane, 1968; Eddy, 1956; Hesburgh, Miller and Wharton, 1973). The practice of university public service evolved through similar stages both in England as well as in the United States of America. In both countries public service initially was an individual faculty undertaking. Professors who felt obligated to society went off-campus, and beyond and above the normal call of duty, shared their knowledge and expertise* In the United States, earlier extension offerings, upon request, catered to professional groups such as engineers, teachers, lawyers, etc. In England, Workers' Education Association (WEA) and Oxford and Cambridge collaborated to provide off-campus education to WEA's membership. Thus, public service moved from an 50 individual to a group and institutional cooperative effort (Carmichael, 1959; Eddy, 1956; Grattan, 1955; Gordon, 1959; Hesburgh, et al ., 1973; Houle, 1952; Kerr, 1963; Knowles, 1962; Ziegler, 1964). Although American higher education Is credited with creating the trinity, teaching, research and public service, there is a continuing and irresolvable debate over the proper place of public service in the university and whether or not a university should provide public service (Duke, 1976; Lerher, 1974). There is some lingering debate over teaching versus research (Elder, Elder, Olson, 1976); but the two are regarded as tradi tional functions of a university as inseparable as the two sides of the same coin. The debate, therefore, has shifted over to teaching and research versus public service (Flexner, 1968; Kerr, 1963; Newman, 1850; Perkins, 1966; Volpe, 1968). On one side of the debate are those who advocate a critical ivory tower and elitist institution approach and who revere ancient tradition and scholarship. Abraham Flexner and Robert Hutchins were critical of public service and the latter popularized the derogatory catch phrase "service stations" in reference to those institu tions with public service commitment (Ashby, 1964; Brubacher and Rudy, 1968; Hutchins, 1936, 1969). Abraham Flexner was not only critical but also warned that a 51 university could become a weather vane indiscriminatingly responding to all demands. This fear of becoming all things to all people is a recurring refrain in the litera ture on university public service, A narrow definition upheld by elitists allows services within the. traditional university structure only. Anything outside of this should be left to other organiza tions (Conely, 1955), A broad definition, however, advocates the universityfs direct and indirect involvement in both traditional and non-traditional areas e.g., training adult educators and teaching in illiteracy classes. Among the proponents of public service were Charles Van Hise, perhaps the major American architect of the idea, President Coffman of the University of Minnesota, Thompson, Ely, Wheeler, Perkins and Kerr. In 1904, Charles Van Hise said, "I shall never rest content until the beneficial influence, of the University. . .shall be made available in every home of the state” (Eddy, 1956, p. 114). Accord ing to him the university could serve the state by combin ing the* best features of the English tradition and the German university. For President Coffman of Minnesota, the state universities held ”no intellectual service too undignified for them to perform” (Brubacher and Rudy, 1968, p. 172). For Perkins (1966), public service is one of his organic trio: acquisition of knowledge, transmission of knowledge and application of knowledge. 52 Others like Kerr (1963), Chase (1968) and Re (1968) have argued for public service because this function is useful and complementary to the other two. To these and several others, a university is complete only when it has these three missions (Corson, 1968; DeVane, 1965; Eddy, 1956), The debate over public service stems principally from the historical development of the three functions, the slow manner in which universities got involved, fear that such involvement would dissipate institutional strength and value, and the lack of definition and criteria for faculty evaluation and reward. University involvement in public service in the western world rests on several social, economic and philo sophical grounds. First, there is the argument that the university is a social institution and as such, it should participate in helping society solve problems. As Ashby (197*0 and Whitehead (1929) said, response to social challenge is not new to universities. Second, public service is also believed to have a dialectic linkage mission between town and gown. Such a mission, it is argued, is beneficial both to the society and the university, one supporting and complementing the other (Bauer, 1962; Kerr, 1968; Shaw, 1969; Whitehead, 1929). Third, there is the gap-filling mission whereby the university is expected to intervene and provide . . . __________ 53 educational services where such are either not given or are limited. For example, this mission becomes one of providing educational and training services required by specialization, job mobility and technological changes * with which other agencies cannot cope. Fourth, university involvement in public service relates to the search for alternative modes of education in cut costs and/or to transfer them to the individual learner, especially at the tertiary level (Duke, 1976; Gordon, 1973)* A fifth reason for university public service relates to the philosophy of lifelong education which recently has gathered momentum. Education is no longer a "front-loading1 activity. For the individual, lifelong education holds a promise to seek and acquire knowledge that contributes both to personal and societal growth (Hesburgh, et al., 1973). For institutions of higher learning, lifelong education poses a challenge of recognizing and anticipating individual and group needs and restructuring themselves to facilitate entry and exit without penalty (Hesburgh, et al., 1973). Lastly, from the university's point of view, public service can be a means to an end: system maintenance. It is a kind of public relations activity, taking the university to the larger society through one central campus or satellite centers. It is a buffer zone which keeps the university responding to public opinion. Moreover, service is used as a mechanism whereby the 54 university receives funds for undertaking public service activities (Kerr, 1968; Penefield, 1975). The Anglophone African University and Public Service The University in Anglophone Africa Higher learning is both old and new to Africa* Quarwiyine University (859 A.D.) in Fez, Morocco, and the University of Al-Azahar (970 A.D*) in Cairo, Egypt, are examples of old universities. Coptic Christianity in Ethiopia has had a long-standing academic tradition* Furthermore, Africans have pursued higher education in other countries. A Ghanian, for example, received his Ph.D. in 1734 in Wittenberg, Germany (Bown, 1972). But universities, as known in the western world; are basically a post-World War II development. The late 1950's and the 1960's witnessed a "mushrooming" of universities in Africa after European and American models. For example, between I960 and 1966, eleven universities were established in Commonwealth nations of Africa alone. Anglophone African universities were largely creations of various British commissions (Asquith, Elliot, Lockwood, Ashby, etc.) in a special relationship with London University (Ashby, 1964; Beshir, 1973; Bown, 1972; Fafunwa, 1974; Raybould, 1957). Having inherited the basic functions of teaching, research and public service, these-universities are still ________. . 55 uncertain whether to emulate or innovate, to be relevant chiefly to their society or to the international academic community (Duke, 1976). The choice of doing and being one or the other is complicated in Africa by economic, sociological and historical milieu. The university is required to provide both the. diagnosis and cure for all pathologies of society— poverty, ignorance, disease, etc. Much is assigned to and is expected from African universities: to provide elite education, to live up to undefined international academic standards, to accelerate scientific and technological progress, to provide relevant education within the context of Africans* old and emerging civilization, to contribute to the cementing of the various religious, linguistic and ethnic groups intra- and inter-country; and to assist in equalizing and broadening educational opportunities. Next to governments, universities in Africa are looked up to and required to be all things to all people; to encompass a wide range of educational activities, to intervene in almost limitless areas and make the difference everywhere (Coleman, 1965; Cowan, 0fConnell and Scanlon, 1966; de Kiewiet, 1971; UNESCO, 1962; Yesufu, 1973). A decade or more after the establishment of many universities in Africa and after the Tananarive Conference on the Development of Higher Education in Africa (1966-1980] there is disagreement on whether these universities have 56 been relevant to their societies or the international academic community. De Kiewiet (1971) maintained that the forces which emphasized relevance to international academic standards were more powerful, but toward the end of the decade (of I960) there was a reversal of attitude toward relevance to the local environment. Leys (1971), on the other hand, argued that African universities in the 1960*3 were more responsive to local environments to the neglect of international academic standards* Rationale for Public Service In the western world, university involvement in public service was justified on the grounds of social, economic and technological changes, linkage and gap- filling missions, search for educational alternatives, movement toward lifelong learning, etc. In the African context, many of these functions assumed special and practical significance. First, the university in Africa represents a very large investment. It is^ therefore^ both educationally and economically sound to make efficient use of the available resources. In many developing countries, the university has human and non human resources almost unmatched by any other single institution. The special competence and resources should be maximally used for social, political and economic development of the larger society (Nyerere, 197*0. 57 Second, the mission of linking university and community through public service has two dimensions in the African context. The elite, whether educated in a home or foreign university, may be alienated and considered themselves as a special and privileged group with potential political and economic power over the masses, the illiter ate majority. Public service can be a vehicle for the elite meeting the masses (Hanson, 1962; Okeem, 1972; Ogunsheye, 1955; Raybould, 1957). Moreover, public service for African universities is not always a matter of choice. In many instances, public service may be a necessary prerequisite for public funding. Political and economic pressures are applied on universities to be involved in and committed to public service: In some countries, governments have reacted sharply to the detachment of universities by insisting that they become peculiarly concerned with community service or forfeit their support from public funds.. In other countries. . .there is nevertheless increasing governmental pressure to introduce an element of public service. Uni versities nowadays are so costly to maintain that no government can afford the luxury or letting them do what they please. (Lowe, 1973» p. 1) Third, the mission of intervening and filling gaps is very significant for developing countries where an educational void, with several interrelated dimensions, looms very large. The educational system in Africa is both limited and ill-distributed. Besides, the provision of education is largely government controlled. Therefore, profit and non-profit making organizations interested in __________ ____________________. _ _ sa establishing educational programs are either non-existent or limited to promoting their own economic interests. The few universities themselves are generally established and found in the major cities where they are visible to and serve the urban population (Coles, 1969; Duke, 1976; Okeem, 1972; Raybould, 1957)* Fourth, in the majority of African countries, higher education is a relatively recent phenomenon and there are persons who, through no fault of their own, missed the opportunity, but are desirous now of benefitting from the new institutions (Raybould, 1957; Okeem, 1972). The university should provide avenues for "catching up, keeping up and getting ahead." Fifth, African educational expansions of the 1960*3 have not only depleted financial resources, but have also brought about a high degree of disenchantment about the present quality and quantity of education (Coombs, 1968). Many African countries have been spending 20 to 25 percent of their national budget on education. An increase in the youth population, rising social demand for education and the scarcity of resources and mounting costs all combine to make it unlikely that the current allocation will substantially, if ever, be increased (Coles, 1972; Coombs, 1968). There is, therefore, the need to search for alternative models of education for Africa at all levels* 59 The last of the justifications relates to the African university itself. The university, especially in Africa, is a new institution less bureaucratic, more objective and autonomous, at least in the eyes of the public, than other public organizations. The university also enjoys prestige and status no other modern institution does. By embarking on public service activities, a new institution may wish to impress the government and the community for public relations purposes. These external and internal factors impel the university to venture irito some public service activity. Beginning of Public Service Adult education existed long before the introduc tion of extramural studies, which traces its origin to the experimental studies conducted by the Oxford Delegacy for Extramural Studies first in Ghana and Nigeria and later in the Sudan in the 1940*s (Ampene, 1977; Ogunsheye, 1955). When university colleges were established in. Africa, both the Elliot and Asquith Commissions, recommended that there be established one center for extramural studies in each colonial university (Ashby, 1964; Raybould, 1957). Initially, extramural studies had a comprehensive and ambitious conception in that they were to serve the illiterate, the semi-literate and the literate (Raybould, 60 1957). Gradually, however, at Ibadan and elsewhere, extramural departments yielded, to pressures for examina tion preparation, credit programs and for vocational preparation of members of professions like teaching and they gradually came to cater to the educated class (Raybould, 1957; ECA, 1973). The different roles of Anglophone African univer sities in adult education are classified partly on the basis of direct and indirect intervention. The use of the university library and other resources by the public; the advice and leadership provided by university faculty to agencies and organizations; the use of faculty in inter agency committees and task forces; research in adult educa tion and training of adult educators are all part of the indirect role. Offering educational programs to meet the varied needs of individuals and the community is a direct role (Berletsen, 1965; Bown, 1972; Coles, 1972; Lowe, 1975; Raybould, 1957; UNESCO, 1963; Yesufu, 1973). The direct roles Anglophone African universities have played, in turn, are classified on the basis of their curricular offerings. First, there are those universities, especially in West Africa, which have championed the pro vision of liberal education, offering subjects of interest to the public with no terminal certification or qualifi cation. Second, there are those universities which have focused on offering the traditional college curriculum, 61 and vocationally oriented programs leading to-qualification for the public through different delivery modes. Third, there are those universities which are "soiling their hands' in"illiteracy campaigns, mounting workshops, short courses, * seminars for,employers and employees, and programs of sub-university level and also have established adult edu cation as a field of study and research leading to qualifi cation, Some of the 93 countries of the world with such programs are in Africa: Kenya, Nigeria, Rhodesia, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia (Coles, 1972), In the past, some fundamental criticisms have been levelled at Anglophone African university adult education programs, mostly patterned after western models. First, they have catered to the already educated whose principal objective was to secure paper qualifications for better jobs and/or job advancement, thereby widening the gulf between the elite and the masses (Bown, 1972; |x>we, 1973; Nwokorie, 196M; Wandera, 1973)- Second, the offerings of these liberal or vocational programs have been accessible in the main to the urban population. Third, the universi ties themselves have treated these programs as second class (Coles, 1972; Duke, 1976). The counter argument has been that these universi ties have enabled a number of people to get university education who otherwise would not have had the opportunity. Also, many people have been brought in contact with 62 universities to study matters of concern to them (Bown, 1972). Moreover, these universities have helped build up a body of leaders for Africa like union leaders, journal ists, and teachers through refresher courses (Ogunsheye,* 1955)* By offering diploma and degree courses, adult edu cation programs have enabled the working adults to compete in the economic market with fresh graduates* From the university's point of view, adult education programs have spread the institutional image to the public. In the words of Ogunsheye (1955), "extramural studies took the colleges to the villages." Current Activities and Trends In the late sixties and early seventies, Anglophone African universities appeared to be moving toward diversi fied adult education provisions in an effort to relate their resources more directly to their countries' needs. Adult education programs in Nigerian and Ghanian univer sities were not limited to offering liberal education to a limited few, but assumed a much larger responsibility and now provide a variety of programs, vocational, pro fessional and liberal (Adedeji, 1977; Ampene, 1977; Bekoe, 1977; Bown, 1977; Doyle, 1969; Duke, 1976; Kabwasa, 1977). There are similar movements in several east and west countries. A number of country-case studies 63 presented to the 1973 Regional Seminar on University Level Continuing Education for Manpower Development in Africa in Addis Ababa evidenced program offerings of universities related to national development and at a sub-university level (ECA, 1973). Universities in Sudan, Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania had diversified programs of public service geared to national development (Court, 1975; ECA, 1973# Mancharia, 1973). There is, however, no agreement whether the direct or indirect role would emerge as the trend for the 1970*s and beyond. Coles (1972) predicted that university departments of adult education would emphasize research and training and de-emphasize direct educational provisions. Jessup, on the other hand, contended that universities would combine teaching, research and evaluation (Duke, 1976). Coles (1972) also predicted that university adult education would not only continue to grow but it would increasingly be concerned with’a person*s work or role in society; and this- would in turn require training andi retraining, through part-time and full-time study. Second, university adult education would be central to universities, and as it moved from the periphery to the center, its role would be critically examined. Third, there would be increasing focus on the study and teaching of adult educa tion as a field. 64 ---- Rationale for Continuing Teacher Education in Africa The need for continuing teacher education in Africa is a function of several factors. First, there is a philosophical force. One of the goals of education is to help the individual develop his potential and become independent, creative, productive and participating. Anything that increases opportunities toward this end is most desirable. Formal education, with all kinds of physical and temporal manifestations, has been the principal mechanism through which individual potential is developed. More recently, however, education as a once-and-for-all activity limited to youth and to certain kinds of physical and psychological environments has been challenged. There is a movement to shift the emphasis in education from a one time activity under the aegis of an institution to an ongoing activity undertaken by the individual for the individual (Faure, Herrera, Keddoura, Lopes, Petrovsky, Rohnema, Ward,1972; Gardner, 1963; Lengrand, 1973; UNESCO, 1975). Second, there is the nature of the teaching profes sion which wants to improve the quality of its membership. Moreover, teachers must meet standards which are constantly revised. Society is demanding more from the teacher; teacher training programs do not and cannot prepare teachers once and for all. There is, therefore, a need for 65 constant training and retraining to make the teacher comfortable on and proficient at his job (Coombs, 1968; Johnstone, 1971; Lewis, 1970; UNESCO, 1975). Third, there is the quality of teachers in African primary schools. In the mid-sixties many African primary schools were staffed with unqualified teachers. Continuing teacher education was and is needed by those who (a) have neither the pedagogic nor the academic requisites for teaching; (b) lack the basic general education but have little or no pedagogic preparation; (c) have adequate preparation both in an academic area and in pedagogy but want to keep abreast of new education research, technl~ ques, mass media, innovations, and policy; and (d) need further study for a degree. Most African teachers, Ethiopians included, fall into one of these categories (Bam, 1970; Erdos and Clark, 1970; Hedlund, 1975; Lewis, 1970; Tesfaye, 1973). The fourth is a political force* In many African countries teachers are relatively the most educated and constitute a iarge element in the public civil service. These teachers are aware of the social and economic values of further education and press for educational opportune ties. To ignore; or deny them "outlets and - opportunities is sufficient to cause dangerous instabilities within the nation" (Prosser, 1970, p. 3). 66 Lastly, continuing teacher education in Africa would reduce the continent-wide teacher exodus (Adams and Bjork, 1969; Hanson and Brembeck, 1966; WCTOP, 1963)* In Africa, those who join and/or stay in teaching do so partly because of the opportunities for educational advancement; they leave the profession when this is not forthcoming (Bansa and Takiyi, 1967; Habte, 1967; Hedlund, 1975, Morris, 1968; Mooers, 1968; Lewis, 1970). The Response of Anglophone African Universities Anglophone African universities have responded to the need for continuing teacher education by (1) providing indirect services, and (2) sponsoring and directing continuing teacher education programs. In very broad terms, African universities assist in planning, organizing, providing staff, evaluating and doing research in continu ing education programs for teachers. Directly, these universities have provided residen tial and correspondence programs for teachers through institutes or centers. Whether affiliated with universi ties or not, institutes of education house research, inservice training and other educational services. The Institute of Adult Education of the University of Ghana in Legon, has, since 19**8» been offering General Certificate Examination subjects where teachers once constituted 33 percent of the enrollees. In the Volta 67 Region in 1966-67, clerks and teachers were the largest group, 31 percent each, of all the students in an adult education program. In the Brong-Ahafo Region, teachers again were the largest single group (Lowe, 1970)* The Institute of Adult Studies of the University of Nairobi, in addition to other programs for teachers, started about 1966 to offer a certificate in adult studies which was primarily oriented to upgrading teachers and preparing them for mature age entry to university (Edstrom, 1970; Foley, 1975; Prosser, 1970). The Lagos education ministry in cooperation with the University of Ibadan conducted, in 1968, a science teaching inservice program for 1,975 elementary school teachers (Osiyale, 1970). In Lesotho, the education ministry in collaboration with the University of Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland, has been operating a three-tiered inservice program since the late 1960's (Bam, 1970). In Eastern Nigeria, where the University of Nigeria was founded in 1962, a non-degree program in "specialized teaching fields considered of high priority, inservice courses and institutes for poorly qualified teachers" was approved (Hanson, 1968, pp. 37-38). In the summer of 1968, the University and the Nigerian Teachers Union, using Canadian Teachers Federation and Peace Corps staff, offered a vacation course for 5^6 unqualified teachers from all over Nigeria. The program was repeated the 68 following two summers. This joint undertaking rescued teachers who were to be discharged because of their low qualification (Hanson, 1965). In Zambia, the University of Zambia offers only university level courses to candidates who meet regular university admission requirements (Okeem, 1972). In 1971 among those registered for such a formal program, teachers were the third largest group (Kabwasa and Kauda, 1973; Stabler, 1968). Between 1967 and 1970 several international conferences and seminars in Africa, Asia and Europe discussed and recommended the use of correspondence in inservice education for primary school teachers in develops ing countries. In five East African countries teachers were identified as the primary beneficiaries of correspon dence Education (Edstrom, 1966; Erdos and Clark, 1970). According to one survey conducted after the 1970 seminar in Abidjan, Ivory Coast, of African governments, universities arid non-profit organizations sponsoring correspondence education, universities in Zambia, Uganda, Nigeria, Kenya, Ghana, Botswana and Malawi all had a combination of correspondence and residential courses for elementary school teachers as well as for others. All of these programs had specific objectives both in curriculum and in the type of teachers to be served. These programs were scheduled to phase out once the target population was 69 covered (Alyidino and Hawes, 1971; Foley, 1975; Kabwasa and Kaunda, 1973; Kajubi, 1971; Russel, 1967; Vivan, 1968). In the Ethiopian University, where correspondence education nevex^ got beyond the talking or discussion stage ' ■ ’ * for more than 'a decade, preparation were underway by the Extension Division, between 1972-71 *, to offer the existing curriculum of the summer elementary teachers program through correspondence. Issues In its attempt to provide public service, the Anglophone African university confronts a host of complex old and new issues that are internal and external to the university. The first issue is whether and where the university should participate in public service. Universities have to decide at what level of continuing education they should and could be involved. They need to identify an area or areas and establish priorities to be effective. The identification and prioritizing of areas of involvement is very significant, given the traditional conception of universities and the scarcity of resources. One view is that there is no "current conception.of role which prevents universities from providing education at all levels" (Wandera, 1973 > p. 7). Another view is that universities ____________________________________________________________70 should only be involved in university level education* The debate goes on. A second issue relates to purpose, content and form of programs. Determination must be made as to what and whose purpose programs are to serve; what the educa tional training experience is going to be and how it is to be evaluated; who is to make the decision about aspects of programs: the employer, the trainer or the trainee; what delivery mode is going to be used: residential format, correspondence, single shot, courses, weekend courses, evening classes, seminars or workshops; how programs are to be funded, private or public. Third, there is the issue of time. This is both an internal and external problem to the university and has several interrelated strands: (1) programs should be offered when the existing facilities and resources can be maximally used and when the learners are relatively free, at least from their work schedule; (2) the duration of the complete program should not be too long to discourage new applicants and those in the pipeline. Nor should the complete program be too short to accomplish significant results or to make the learning experience unreasonably taxing. Sufficient time should be given for the learners to travel to and from the learning center(s). Moreover, a basic decision must be made as to when inservice educa tion should be introduced: After three years of teaching? 71 Ten. years? Fifteen years? (Cane, 1969; Johnston, 1971; Rogan, 1970). Fifth, where should a program of continuing education be given? The answer to this should take into account two facts. First, most Anglophone African univer sities are in the major towns, in many cases in the capital city. Second, many of the teachers are in rural areas. While it is not economically feasible and advisable for new universities to spread out by opening centers across the country, it must be realized that the cost and the accessibility of a program can be major barriers against participation (Cane, 1969; Johnston, 1971* Raybould, 1957; Shaw, 1969). There are several other issues. What admission procedure is going to be used? How is the program going to be organized and administered? Is continuing teacher education going to be voluntary or compulsory? Who is to teach in such an adult educational program? How can unnecessary changes and modifications be avoided? Summary Of the two rationales for higher education the world over, academic pursuit and social involvement, the latter provides the conceptual framework for this study. Both in Africa and in the United States, the place and extent of public service in the university are frequently debated. University public service is dictated by social, 72 economic and philosophical considerations. In Africa, the need for university public service is even more pervasive and urgent. The need for education at all levels in Africa is enormous. Anglophone African universities continue to meet the challenge by providing a wide range of general and specific adult education programs. Anglophone African universities * involvement in continuing teacher education provisions rests on the need to improve the teaching stock, to meet teachers1 desires to advance educationally, economically and socially, and the need to help teachers meet change in their profession. Anglophone African universities have responded to these needs through residen tial and correspondence education programs. Meeting educational needs of teachers has not been an easy task for Anglophone African universities. First, there is the persistent question of whether or not such an activity is an appropriate function for a university. Other problems relate to defining a philosophy and purpose for continuing teacher education programs, governance and structure, financing them, making them accessible to a larger constituency and getting staff of the right quality and quantity. 73 CHAPTER IV METHODOLOGY The Nature of the Study This case study was an explanatory analysis of the process of the establishment and subsequent development of a Continuing Teacher Education Program at the former Haile Sellassie I University Education Faculty in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia* Process, by definition, negates a static state. Therefore the dynamics of CTEP, some of the causative factors and their consequences as a whole were analyzed for the entire development period instead of one aspect of CTEP at a given time. To isolate and treat only one.of the factors was to forget the importance of the impact of the whole process; and to focus on only one time period was to discount the effects of the earlier years. The concept of university public service encompas sing adult education in general and continuing teacher education in particular provided the theoretical framework for the study. Both the general and specific questions listed below evolved out of the review of literature on university public service in the western world, Anglophone African universities, and the experiences of the researcher ______________________________________________ ZJL as a former participant and head of CTEP* The following categories were used in discussing and analyzing CTEP in Chapter V: the genesis, objectives and programs, institu tional sponsorship and calendar, decision making, curricula including admission, course offerings, instructional staff, recommendation to join a degree program, and funding* This first part was followed by an assessment of CTEP. The findings of the case study were also included in this chapter. Questions to be Answered The study was undertaken to provide answers to these very broad questions about CTEP: (1) how and why was it established? and (2) why did it develop the way it did through 197**? These questions in turn led to a number of specific sub-questions, set forth in Chapter I* Source of Information Information for the study was obtained from primary sources, correspondences, interviews and secondary sources* There were difficulties vis-a-vis both primary and secondary sources. Obtaining information from Ethiopia through correspondence was particularly difficult* The current state of affairs there made responding to letters a very low priority, calling for subsequent mailing of reminders. In addition, the mail was slow and, in several cases, it was lost. Secondly, the time lag between the CTEP’s establish ment and the conduct of the study, and the lack of records made the correspondents rely on their memories. The reliance on memories, and possibly the way the questions were made and the space left for answers, in turn accounted for inadequate answers. Several of the correspondents were also separated from whatever documents they might have had. Nonetheless^ answers to information questions given by those who were closely associated with CTEP and interviews with some of those in the United States were very useful sources of information. In addition, documents and annual reports of HSIU, the Education Faculty and CTEP* various memoranda on file with the Education Faculty and the CTEP office and the personal experiences of the researcher both as a CTEP participant and its head were used as primary sources. Copies of some of these documents the researcher had; others were sent to him subsequently. The difficulties related to secondary scources were different. First, limited funds and family responsi~ bility made it difficult for the researcher to travel outside of Los Angeles for an extended time to use libraries outside of the Los Angeles area. Second, the literature search showed there was almost nothing written about CTEP in particular, very little about HSIU in general, but the researcher had to work with what was available. 76 Books, journal articles, dissertations, and seminar papers, unpublished but acquired by the researcher found in the libraries of the University of Southern California, University of California at Los Angeles; Michigan State University in East Lansing, Michigan; Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois; and the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C*, provided the main secondary sources. The Procedure Followed The procedure for conducting this study consisted of (1) reviewing of related literature on university public service In the western world and in Anglophone Africa with special stress on provisions, in the case .of the latter, for continuing or inservice teacher education; (2) reviewing of literature on Ethiopian education with focus on teacher education, elementary school teachers and the teaching profession; (3) preparing and sending out information questions to those associated with CTEP and Anglophone African universities’ heads of adult educa tion or extramural departments; (*4) synthesizing the information and incorporating it into a Chapter V; (5) constructing a model; and (6) submitting Chapter V and the model to a panel of educators for critique. The balance of this chapter will deal with these steps. 77 The Review of Related Literature on University Public Service The review was conducted in two parts. The first » / * part dealt with the role of the universities and the > , . 4 evoluation of the concept of university public service in the western worid. The second part put stress on A n g lo * phone African universities: their development and their public service role* Out of the two sections emerged several major issues related to program content, funding, program duration, governance, etc. which provided the basis for (1) writing questions sent to correspondents and (2) discussing and analyzing CTEP; and (3) constructing a model* For the purpose of this study, Ethiopia was considered part of the Anglophone African community, mainly because Ethiopia has used English as a medium of instruc tion from junior secondary level on* Review of Literature on Ethiopian Education The review of the literature here covered govern ment education at primary, secondary and tertiary levels until 197^. Special stress was placed on elementary educa tion, the quality of teachers, teacher education and the teaching profession because CTEP participants were mainly elementary school teachers. Since the Continuing Teacher Education Program studied here developed in a university setting, the development of Haile Sellassie I University and its Education Faculty was also included. The name Haile Sellassie I University, as opposed to the more current name Addis Ababa University, was used here because that was its name until 197*1, which was also the cutoff date for this study. Preparing and Sending out Questions Questions for soliciting information about CTEP were based on the recurring themes in the area of univer sity public services both in the western world and in Anglophone Africa, on recurring themes in literature on Anglophone African universities sponsoring adult education programs, and on the personal experiences of this researcher. The questions used to obtain data were factual, explanatory and to some extent, evaluative. These questions dealt with the categories identified in this chapter and were similar to many of the research questions in Chapter I. However, not every correspondent received the same set . of questions in the form of a questionnaire. With the exception of three general questions which were asked of everybody, correspondents received a different set of questions relevant to their experiences. Nationals and foreigners, individuals and institu tions participated In the correspondence. Ethiopians in 79 Ethiopia, Europe and the United States who served and are still serving the MEFA and HSIU in various capacities and who were actively involved in CTEP formed the major pool of correspondents. There was also correspondence with institutions like the MEFA, HSIU Education Faculty and the Teachers Association of Ethiopia. Different questions were sent to these educators and institutions. Particular questions, for example dealing with the establishement of one track, were sent to the individual who was head of that track. Questions dealing with administrative matters were directed toward those who were in administrative positions in the Faculty of Education and in CTEP. Questions dealing with the initial purpose and establishment of CTEP were directed toward those in leadership positions then in UCAA and MEFA. Questions dealing with statistical data were directed to the offices of the Dean of Education and Assistant Dean of CTEP. International and bilateral agencies such as USAID, UNICEF and UNESCO Missions in Ethiopia and the Canadian Teachers Federation (CTF) were also sent questions. Questions to theseinstitutions dealt with the how, and why and when of their involvement in CTEP. These questions directed at national and interna tional correspondents were reviewed by the Chairman of the Dissertation Committee and with a cover letter from him 80 were mailed out early in June 1977. A reminder was sent out at the end of July 1977. Several informal reminders to the Ethiopian educators in Ethiopia were sent subse quently through friends of the researcher. During the third week of June 1977, letters of request for informa tion on similar programs in Anglophone African universities were sent to their departments of adult education, the Regional Council on Teacher Education in Nairobi, Kenya, the Secretary of the Association for Teacher Education in Africa in Lagos, Nigeria, and the Secretary of the Association of African Universities in Accra-North, Ghana. At the end of July 1977, a reminder was sent to 13 indi vidual heads of adult education programs in 12 institutions in 10 universities or,colleges in 9 different countries. The response from the correspondents, especially from the individuals and the CTEP office was very encouraging. Only two of the Ethiopian correspondents (out of a total of 12) did not respond at all* One of these was the first director of CTEP in 1958; the other was the Dean of Faculty of Education. Two CTF team leaders were also requested to answer to a set of questions; only one did. Of the five national and foreign institutions, only one, the Canadian Teachers Federation, answered the informa tion questions. USAID office in Addis Ababa said they did not have the relevant documents, the Washington, D.C. 81 office did not respond at all. The UNICEF Mission in Ethiopia said they did not have documents going back to 1958. The UNESCO Mission in Ethiopia, the Teachers Association of Ethiopia and the MEFA did not respond at all. The lack of response from these institutions might be attributed to (1) their having not' received the questions, (2) general bureaucratic non-responsiveness to individuals, and (3) lack of time and manpower to research and answer specific question. The response from Anglophone African institutions was negligible and there fore only secondary sources were used. Use of Information Obtained from Correspondence and Literature The factual, explantory and evaluative information collected through correspondence together with information secured from secondary sources was used in writing Chapter V, the case study. Where common questions were asked of different correspondents, the responses were almost identical; but there were disagreements too. A major part of the explanation in Chapter V however was provided by this researcher. A common question about the contributions of CTEP was asked to all correspondents. Here again, a general assessment emerged which was expanded and supple mented by this researcher, in relation to discrete areas of Ethiopian education* 82 Constructing a Model A tentative model for a comprehensive and well- planned program of continuing teacher education was developed on the basis of the case study and the review of literature on adult education and Ethiopian education. A schematic representation of the model with a brief descrip tion of its components was submitted to a panel of Ethiopian educators. Presentation to a Panel of Judges Goth the model and the case study were submitted to a four-man panel of judges of Ethiopian educators. The four Ethiopians were also part of the pool of correspon dents. These persons have worked for the MEFA and HSIU in various capacities. For example, one was the second director of CTEP in 1959, Chairman of the Department of Education, then Dean of Faculty of Education and finally Vice President and President of HSIU. Another, from the MEFA, has had several leadership positions in the organi zation, the last of which was Minister of State for Education. The criteria used to select these persons for the panel of judges were: (1) knowledge about CTEP and educa tion in Ethiopia; (2) accessibility to this researcher; and (3) willingness to participate as a panel member. 83 The purpose of submitting Chapter V to a panel was to minimize researcher and correspondents bias and to test the strength of the explanations given. A draft typewrit ten copy of the chapter was sent to the Ethiopian educa tors. A cover letter, reviewed by the Chairman of the Dissertation Committee, which suggested these questions as a reference for the critique, was also sent to the panel members; (1) Are the facts accurately presented? (2) Are the explanations adequate? (3) Have the different points of view been considered? (4) Are the conclusions substantiated? Additional thoughts on the chapter were also solicited. Both written and verbal comments were obtained from these persons. The verbal comments were obtained through meetings with these persons individually and in groups in East Lansing, Michigan, and Washington, D. C. The same persons were used to critique the model. The tentative model was presented at a meeting of three Ethiopians, one of whom came to participate on short notice, in Washington, D. C. in mid-April 1973. Two days later, the model was also presented to the fourth Ethiopian at Michigan State University in East Lansing. These two meetings with the Ethiopians also provided an opportunity for obtaining additional data, clarifying some of the correspondence and briefing the group about the purpose of the study* 8** These questions were put to the panel of judges. Considering the CTEP experience and projecting for a better continuing teacher education program in general, 1. Is the model comprehensive enough? 2. Is the model feasible? 3. Do you have any suggestions? 85 CHAPTER V • / 4 A CONTINUING TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAM AT ETHIOPIA’S HAILE SELLASSIE I UNIVERSITY: A CASE STUDY This chapter is divided into three parts. The first part deals with the opening and subsequent develop ment of CTEP. The second part is an assessment of CTEP. The last part presents the findings from the case study. Genesis and Development The Genesis CTEP’s beginning and the factors that led to its opening are least known. A Director General’s Study Committee of the MEFA appointed on June 4, 1957, passed a resolution calling for inservice courses for teachers who were above the twelfth grade level through a summer and extension programs (Bekele, 1961). Another source of information about CTEP’s opening is a report written to Mr. Million Neqniq, then Director General of Program in the MEFA, by a "Committee on Postsecondary Vacation Course for Elementary School Teachers" (PSVCC) some time in 1960-61. It must have been written then because it refers to "the experience of the last three vacation courses.” Finally, Trudeau (1968) has recorded that a vacation course for teachers was opened in 1958 at the 86 University College of Addis Ababa. Only partial explanations are offered about the circumstances under which CTEP was opened. First, CTEP was not started because of an Imperial or ministrial order. The researcher knows of no such order either instructing an institution to establish, a program or instructing teachers to attend it. Rather, CTEP seemed to have developed out of interests of the MEFA, UCAA and a foreign education advisors on the one hand and interests of teachers for advancement on the other. In the 1950*s and to some extent earlier, adult education opportunities were beginning to open up. In Addis Ababa adult education programs referred to in Chapter II were catering to the general and specialized needs of the public. The MEFA, individual school directors, and missionaries were also providing limited inservice train ing to teachers with minimal education. These adult educa tion activities most probably generated educational interests in better-educated teachers. In fact, Habte (1978) and Neqniq (1978) said that teachers had written letters and sent delegations to UCAA and MEFA officials requesting the opening of a continuing education program. There was also institutional interest both on the part of the UCAA and the MEFA. Ethiopian schools, especially at the secondary level, were dominated by expartiate teachers. UCAAfs Department of Education, whose 87 primary function was to train second level teachers, was attracting few students* So, said Habte (1977, 1978) and Neqniq (1978), CTEP was established to help Ethiopianise second level teaching. CTEP was conceived of as a short term summer crash program. CTEP was to be both a feeder program for UCAA and a source of secondary teachers in the shortest possible time. Other factors that contributed to CTEP’s birth and early developments included the presence of several Americans in the Faculty of Education under the USAID University of Utah Contract, perhaps the effects of the 1961 Addis Ababa Conference of African Ministers of Education where Ethiopiafs educational developments ranked second from the last, and the availability of funds and services through national and foreign agencies. It is generally accepted that the initiative for CTEP in 1958 came from the MEFA, the teachers themselves, and probably foreign education advisors interested in teacher education. Later on, members of the Faculty of Education played key roles in CTEPfs development (Habte, 1977, 1978; Mengesha, 1977; Neqniq, 1978; Workie, 1977» 1978; Yimtatu, 1977). 88 CTEP*s Objectives and Programs Objectives CTEP*s objective in 1958 was to train elementary school teachers for secondary school teaching (Habte, 1977% 1978; Neqniq, 1978). After I960, however, CTEP was "to help teachers become .better qualified elementary school teachers" (PSVCC Report, n.d., p. 1). CTEP was also to become relevant to the planned reorganization of elementary schools. The PSVCC also delineated three functions for CTEP: raise the general education of teachers, raise their professional competency, and provide for promising teachers an avenue for university education. The PSVCC Report neither defined what was general or academic and professional, nor suggested a balance between general and professional education. Subsequently, different interpretations and weights were attached to these areas. For some, the balance betweer the two was equal; for others, it was tilted toward the professional. Wodajo (1977), for example, said CTEP had a dual purpose of providing "refresher and upgrading courses for primary school teachers with the view of improving their proficiency in subject matter (content) as well as in professional (pedagogical) areas.” Abeje (1977) and Bekele (1977) also said that the two functions were of equal importance. 89 But* Habte, Yimtatu and Workie gave more weight to the professional component. According to Habte (1977) CTEP" was."largely designed to improve the professional * * ■ * v competence of teachers. . .and thirdly, perhaps in a minor way,to improve their academic subject matter competence." Yiratatu (1977) said "the inservice program started in 1958 as a 1 refresher* course to improve the professional (pedagogic) caliber of the poorly trained elementary school teachers in Ethiopia." Workie (1977) assigned a 3:2 ratio in favor of the professional component. CTEP was, from the beginning, designed to serve teachers who had completed high school education. This decision to use CTEP to cater to this class of teachers was influenced by four factors. First, there was a desire to replace expatriate secondary school teachers by nationals. CTEP was to be one source of qualified nationals. Second, a postsecondary program fell within the statutory provisions of the UCAA charter (Wodajo, 1978). Third, UCAA offering such education provided the basis for division of labor since the MEFA was conducting continuing teacher education programs below grade 12 (Habte, 1978; Neqniq, 1978; Wodajo, 1978). 90 Programs CTEP, in 1958, was only one program. By 1971 it had developed into the following four, which for the purpose of this study are identified as Tracks A, B, C and D (see Table 5 for enrollment figures). Track A: Elementary Teachers Program (1958) Track B: Directors/Supervisor Program (1968) Track C: Advanced School Administration (1971) Track D: Junior Secondary Teacher (Amharic/Maths) Program (1971) A: Elementary Teachers Program This was the largest and oldest track (see Table 6). Track A was open to government school teachers who had to meet academic and service requirements which were revised several times. After 1968, candidates have had to consider their financial capability before applying for CTEP. According to PSVCC recommendations, Track A was to be offered in two stages: Stage I of five summers and Stage II of four summers. But the course duration never tfas more than four summers, the period reached by 1970, 4hen it was reduced to three summers (OITEP Annual Report, 1975). Track A was administered by a series of national and foreign summer directors up to 1971-72. By 1966, Track A’s course offerings were also made available to 91 Table 5 CTEP Enrollment and Graduation 1958—1974 Year (Summer) Actual Enrollment Graduation Ethiopian Greg. A B C D Total A B C D Total 1950 1958 105 105 1951 1959 128 128 1952 I960 189 189 1953 1961 166 166 195*1 1962 192 192 1955 1963 233 233 1956 1969 351 351 1957 1965 517 517 10 10 1958 1966 512 512 13 13 1959 1967 887 887 35 35 1960 1968 799 19 2 1025 52 52 1961 1969 9**8 390 1318 93 93 1962 1970 1073 529 1602 135 172 307 \ o I N ) Table 5 (Continued) Year (Summer) Actual Enrollment Graduation Ethiopian Greg. A B C D Total A B C D total 1963 1971 1093 WO 55 52 1640 124 116 240 1961* 1972 1220 363 159 151 1893 194 165 357 1965 1973 1163 319 158 350 1990 458 105 53 45 661 1966 197<* 1096 U 352 94 277 1819 400 99 93 90 679 Source: Various annual reports in OITEP and the Dean's office. VO u> urban teachers through the Extension Division in Addis Ababa and other Extension centers. Teachers taking the course through Extension paid the prevailing fees. Upon graduation,* both the Summer and Extension enrollees were awarded an Advanced Teaching Diploma or an Advanced Diploma in Elementary School Teaching (Bekele, 1968; Report, 1963- 6*4; Wedemeyer, et al., 1973)* B: Directors/Supervisors The Directors/Inspectors Course, the forerunner of this track, had its origin in the 50rs at Haile Sellassie I Day School in Addis Ababa (Talbot, 1955)* At the request of the MEFA, Track B was opened as a one-year terminal diploma program in 1962-63 in the Faculty of Education (Abeje, 1977; Junge and Negewo, 1971; Yimtatu, 1977). In 1968, partly because of the financial drain the track caused on the MEFA, partly because the program took away persons who were needed in the schools, and partly because the program did not meet the needs and capabilities of the participants, it was made a summer operation. This was basically a three summer ”pre-service training” for elementary school teachers who were (1) classroom teachers with the potential for such leadership positions, (2) already exercising some kind of leadership 9 * 4 such as unit leaders while also teaching, or (3) in administrative assignments, for example: school directors, assistant directors or clerks. The admission requirements and course offerings of Track B were similar to those of Track A until 1972 (Negewo, 1971). After a 1972 Curricular Review Conference, several structural and curricular changes were introduced setting Tracks A and B farther apart. First, in the area of admissions, all Track B applicants had to have some type of administrative assignment during the year of candidacy. Second, provision was also made for two types of persons to apply for Track B: holders of Track A's diploma and those who were not. Track Bfs name was changed into "School Administration and Supervision." The third major change was curricular. The overlap in course offerings was very much reduced. Graduates of Track A re-enrolling in Track B could complete their studies in three summers; others took an additional summer for basic courses (OITEP Annual Report, 1973; Student Handbook, 1975). The graduates of Track B were awarded a Diploma in Elementary School I * Administration and Supervision. Between 1968 and 1971-72, Track B had a full-time staff directly reporting to the Dean of the Faculty of Education (Mengesha, 1977; Yimtatu, 1977). Track A was under the the Department of Elementary Education. This parallel administrative structure which continued through _________________________________________________ :____________________ 95- summer 1971, although an instance of duplication of efforts and a source of competition for resources, had a positive element in that it laid the foundation for CTEPfs indepen dence from the Facultyfs Department of Elementary Educa tion. C: Advanced School Administration Program There are two opinions about the origin of Track C. One opinion maintains that the principal force came from Track A and B graduates and other school personnel. With the minimal discussion between HSIU and MEFA, the program was started in 1971 (Habte, 1978; Neqnlq, 1978; Workie, 1971). The second opinion maintains that this was a Faculty of Education initiative and was opened in response to a well-recognized fact that graduates of Tracks A and B were being assigned to higher level admin istrative positions without adequate training (Negewo, 1978; Workie, 19-78). Considering the very high admission requirements (CGPA 2.00) and the short-life of the program (only 2 years), it appears that Track C was primarily opened in response to pressure from teachers. Tracks C and D were under one office* In 1971 and 1972, Track C provided a three summer "pre-service” training for high level administrators such as assistant provincial education officers, awraja educa tion officers, and other support personnel in the PEO's. ______________ 96 At a 1972 Curricular Review Conference, the MEFA argued for the discontinuation of Track C; consequently, Track C phased out at the end of summer 197U. The graduates of the first two intakes were given an Advanced Diploma in Elementary School Administration* D: Junior Secondary Teachers Program Upon, the request of the MEFA, the University Education Faculty operated a two-year terminal diploma program in Amharic and mathematics teaching up to June 1969* In September 1969» this program was handed to the MEFA. Beginning summer 1971, and supported by requests from the MEFA, and from teachers, the Faculty of Education "reinstituted" a Junior secondary teachers summer program (1) to supplement the MEFA program at the new Junior College of Teacher Education by providing "pre-service training" to teachers who, without sufficient training, were teaching in grades seven and eight, and (2) to accommodate teachers, who because of family and other reasons, could not become full-time students (Habte, 1978; Neqniq, 1978; Wodajo, 1978). Workie (1978) did not discount the pressure from teachers but maintained that the summer program was totally unrelated to the pre-1969 University-based program. For the first summer session, Track C was administered by the directors of Track A. 97 The admission requirements and the curriculum were almost identical to that of the pre-1969 two-year terminal program. Like Track C, this was short-lived. The Inservice Teacher Education Committee (ITEC) at its meeting of November 22, 1973* and in accordance with the recommendations of a 1972 Curricular Review Conference, agreed that inservice training for junior secondary school teachers should be provided by the new Junior College of Teacher Education. On completion of the course offerings, participants were given a Certificate in Junior Secondary Amharic/Maths Teaching. Sponsorship and Calendar Sponsorship CTEP was a MEFA program conducted at and in cooperation with UCAA (Habte, 1978; Neqniq, 1978). The MEFA*s interest in the continued support for CTEP rested on the MEFA* short-term objective of upgrading teachers needed for secondary schools. Perhaps CTEP was also part Of MEFA*s broader educational goals of (a) providing qualified teachers at all levels and at the same time creating a corps of dedicated and professional Ethiopian teachers and (b) convincing qualified teachers to aspire to remain in the profession. Several considerations, perhaps, led to the affilia tion of CTEP with UCAA. First, UCAA, from its inception, was to be the nucleus of the future HSIU; and therefore ; ; - 28- MEFA and UCAA authorities thought, perhaps for reasons of prestige, standard of course work etc., it better to attach CTEP to UCAA. Second, at UCAA there was a Depart ment of Education aspiring to become a College of Educa tion, and therefore, it would be logical and in the Department’s interest to house CTEP. Further, and more importantly, UCAA was the only institution with resources (e.g., library facilities and faculty) best suited for this task (Abeje, 1977; Habte, 1977; yimtatu, 1977)’* UCAA accepted the responsibility for CTEP primarily because (1) the cost of CTEP to the College initially was minimal, (2) its interest in using CTEP as a recruiting bas6wfor its degree- program, and (3) of a genuine interest or desire to establish a contact with and be of service to Ethiopian education* During the first three years, it seems that UCAA was largely responsible for the academic and administrative matters of CTEP. After the writing of the PSVCC Report in 1960-61, this arrangement was to have changed. Accord ing to one of the recommendations of the PSVCC, the MEFA was to assume academic and administrative responsibility over CTEP. Nevertheless, UCAA, and later HSIU, continued to assume full responsibility for CTEP (Abeje, 1977; Habte, 1977). CTEP was under UCAA’s Department of Education. The development of the Department and CTEP itself have subse quently required some administrative and organizational 99 changes. But in 1971-72 all four tracks were merged into one administration under the Deanfs office. While joint sponsorship did help CTEP, especially during the first decade, such an arrangement was not always in the best of CTEP's interests. The cooperation between the University and the MEFA had gaps and conflicts * was very broad, undefined, informal and ad hoc rather than specific and formal (Abeje, 1977; Habte, 1978; Workie, 1978). Sometimes the MEFA spoke out and HSIU heeded. For example, the MEFA objected to the use of written examina tions as a screening mechanism. In 1972 the MEFA again stated that Track C was not in their interest. The University's response was to discontinue both the examina tion and Track C. Other times HSIU ignored the MEFA. For instance, the MEFA wanted CTEP closed as of September 1973; HSIU continued to conduct CTEP (Mekuria, 1973)* Individually, too, the two institutions regarded and treated CTEP not as a priority area. The MEFA never budgeted for CTEP. MEFA annual contributions came from unused funds available toward the end of the fiscal year (Neqniq, 1978). These contributions required each year several memoranda from the Faculty of Education, and sometimes, were not available for CTEP untijl about the end of the summer session (Wodajo, 1968). More serious for CTEP was the amount available from the MEFA and HSIU. The 100 amount determined each year's new intake for example, Track A*s admission in 1968 and Track B'sin 1969 were limited by the financial capabilities of HSIU and MEFA respectively (Bekele, 1968; Wodajo, 1969). Without any policy on CTEP, HSIU administration continued to make financial contributions and provide support services for the operation of CTEP* Because of the lack of policy CTEP was never absorbed into the main stream of the University community and was regarded as a stepchild (Mengesha, 1977). Every year the President or his deputy had to call a meeting of all the support service department heads to request them or to remind them again to cooperate with CTEP administration (OITEP Annual Report, 1972, 1973). When such a meeting was not called the support services provided the assistance only because it was traditional. The University Registrar persistently refused to do anything with CTEP; so, the CTEP assumed the responsibilities of the Registrar. The University library required CTEP participants to pay a twenty Birr deposit fee which it did not require from the regular HSIU students. In terms of long-term University-wide planning, CTEP was not considered important. For example, the 1970 Report of the Planning Officer made no reference to the entire public service activities, including CTEP (HSIU, 1970). In some of the annual presidential reports and presentations at international meetings, CTEP and the 101 Extension Division were cited as significant aspects of the University#s commitment to the idea of public service. And yet, the University, for example, never trained before ' * 1974,,anyone to head CTEP or the Extension Division. In the academic area, too, CTEP was regarded as second class and in tiroes of crisis, it had a minimal priority. After about 1972, when the social and political pressures grew on the University for increased admission of high school students and as the number of ESLCE holders increased, the University imposed, for the first time, a quota on the number of CTEP participants who could be recommended to join the degree program (Wodajo, 1977). The Faculty of Education, however, considered CTEP an important activity and generally took the initiative every year to discuss and plan for the upcoming session with the MEFA . Beginning in 1971-72, it also appeared that the Faculty took CTEP even more seriously* Full-time administrative persons were employed. The different tracks were merged. Office space was made available. In November 1972, the position of Director of Summer School was raised to that of an Assistant Dean. Beginning 1971-72, ITEC became one of the standing committees of the Faculty. Nevertheless, the Faculty of Education was, to a large degree, also responsible for not involving the participants in planning and implementing CTEP, not main taining basic records and setting aside some office space 102 for about a decade, not attempting to evaluate and arti culate CTEP with TTI programs and MEFA needs, and not assigning a half-time or even a quarter-time person, prior to 1968, to be in charge of CTEP activities before the onset of each summer session. The Faculty of Education also allowed a parallel administrative structure to exist between 1968 and 1971-72. Moreover, one track was a full time Job and the other one, part-time* With one full-time or even part-time additional person and with a little bit of careful thinking on the part of the Faculty, Tracks A and B could have perhaps been combined under one office, starting in 1968. Calendar Applicants selected from the 15 educational pro vinces (Addis Ababa constituted one province for educational purposes) through an interview and/or examination took a prescribed course of study in Addis Ababa. CTEP was conducted on a residential basis at the main campus of HSIU during the long rainy summer vacation (July to the beginning of September) each year. A summer time module was chosen because it gave the advantages and conveniences of a traditional summer program such as convenience both to the institutions and the participants, relative accessi bility to more teachers, availability of facilities and resources, and provisions for testing new knowledge during 103 the following academic year* The original two-stage nine-summer program was progressively reduced to five, four and finally to three summers. Conventionally, each summer session was eight weeks long; in actual practice, however, it was six weeks and about 31-32 instructional days including test and examination times* Economic, institutional, cultural forces and pressures from participants seemed to have combined to reduce the number of summers and shorten the length of each summer session* The MEFA generally had conducted its inservice programs on a three summer basis* After nine or ten years, the MEFA and HSIU and foreign education advisors realized that a four or five summer program was an expensive proposition, especially in the face of educa tional expansions requiring more money. Consequently, when Track B opened in 1968, it was to be a three-summer program; Track A, however, continued as a four-summer program until 1970. From the point of view of the participants, Track A*s diploma was equivalent to Track B*s; and salary incre ments for both diplomas were identical* Moreover, tuition fees introduced in 1968 were going up. Participants of Track A, therefore, probably pressured HSIU and MEFA to make Track A three summers long. Such a change would give them a double advantage. First, they would save 104 transportation, food and lodging costs and tuition fees. Second, -they'could graduate earlier and by so doing, they would earn as much as Birr 600.00 annually from salary increments. Economic considerations, both on the part of the MEFA and the participants, led to making CTEP uniformly three summers long. The calendars of the MEFA and HSIU, the date on which the Ethiopian New Year falls, and other factors contributed -to shortening the summer session. MEFAfs schools closed after the first week of July and opened toward the end of September. The University was open from mid-September to the end of June. The earliest partici pants could arrive in Addis Ababa was mid-July. The University wanted its campus cleared by the end of the first week of September to prepare for the new academic year. The Ethiopian New Year falls on September 11. Participants and instructors from outside the city were anxious to join their families and friends for the festivities. Distance, mode of transportation and the rainy season also added to the anxiety. Consequently, CTEP always closed before the end of the first week of September. The gradual cutting of both the number of summers and the actual number of instruction weeks each summer had profound effects on CTEP’s curricula and administration, Courses were crowded and became intensive. The crowding 105 and intensiveness of course^, in turn, increased partici pants9 anxiety over grades so much that the instructors repeatedly complained about participants9 unparalleled preoccupation with grades, diplomas and improved salaries (OITEP Annual Report, 1972, 1973 f 1974). The shortening of the summer session also had repercussions in CTEP and the University administration. In order to save time, CTEP administration and the relevant service units of the University had, each summer, to register and clear so many students in Just two days. The work load was strenuous on the support services of the University. Sometimes, the University did its maintenance work during the summer and this interferred with the normal instructional activities of CTEP. One year, the cafeteria boiler was under repair and the participants, who had purchased meal tickets, had to travel at least a mile (one way) in heavy rain three times daily to be fed at another campus for almost three weeks (OITEP Annual Report, 1972). Another year, maintenance work on the stairway of a classroom building was very disturbing to classes in session (OITEP Annual Report, 1973)* Participants were also victimized by the short calendar. There were always some who, while travelling to Addis Ababa, were delayed by a bridge washed away by floods, slow-moving mules or horses, buses stuck in the mud, 106 aircraft not i^w»Tn^ <s s ? fag or vet and ^TBjgrgy landing strips- gagsaferrfc grouads sac& psrsaas were, unfortunate^.. ^jr iffg a*£?- The long ra£a»y swumwt was not ideal ter lae j«agti;Tir&3»n&s in aaottmr re^eet. To many of them. Ste tsm& of agf r e t a i n i n g tan ■taes," one in Addis Abate asm amoer s£ their wilta^, was financially draiTijmu anc jerams, psycbolcpcallf, m a i n taining two homes r H T T f f e * ts*m a a r fifd fpants* comffttffifiiriBtfafi n o studies. Decision Making Decision sgMfTng; vr.mffw.BEng acadeoie amdS man- academic matters aif odasiTely in nasmm* of the MEFA and H S Iij, - AiMBgjisw vroHfcing jointly, sametiees separately. Teactnas «nr Sgsr g^ r esentaU-TCs mere mot generally part of tarries- afcjsir policy decisiszBs ssewmiiig CTEP (objective, j^afSHrTLUdnfl seleeticm, coarse offerings, funding, etc-) were jggMare^Ty relegated to afl flung caannat— tees whose memi>errsTfri) rfwawiding no the < gnestiegsCn) involved, the disrate oif f p between tae tan institutions at a g^g°rf i tamiT, tibe stage of OS?*s development and tae S5ae ersgxsirsf to resolve ttte isstse. One of tte eassittees oa rgzxr a rf l a s the PSVCC, which was naaarw inw»g ay the Minister of gaftargtion and Fine Arts to s£mnr fgh» gamfetenEs of the IbttowmBary Vacation Course- TSte HSBCST sras made op of Dr. fficlila Eabte 107 (UCAA), Chairman, Dr. Mengesha Gebrehiwet (UCAA), Mr. Lovegrove (UNESCO), Mrs. Marshall (UCAA), Miss Sorenson (Point Four) and Mr. Bequele Getahun (MEFA). The PSVCC Report dealt with all aspects of CTEP but funding. In 1968, there was another MEFA-HSIU committee which discussed and made resolutions on the future funding of CTEP and the transfer of the Directors/Supervisors track into a summer operation (Bekele, 1968). In 1971 another MEFA-HSIU committee, at which the Vice Minister of Education and the Dean of the Faculty of Education were present, discussed a wide range of issues related to CTEP, made some recommendations and appointed an ad hoc committee specifically to establish criteria for selecting the 1972 participants and to establish a quota for each province. Specific and detailed decisions were left to the University. Here, depending on the issue at hand and the time, ad hoc committees, academic commissions or academic units of the University, an advisory body, the Dean of the Faculty of Education and/or CTEP*s head or heads controlled its day-to-day operations. In 1963» therq was a Planning and Review Committee for the 1963 session (Report, 1963-6*1). In 1968, there was a Curriculum Committee (Bekele, 1968). All academic matters were reviewed and approved by the Academic Commission of the Faculty of Education in cooperation with an academic unit 108 of the University where such was required. Beginning in the late 1960*3, a Summer School Advisory Committee came into the decision making picture (Workie, 1971, 1977). Slightly formalized and renamed Inservice Teacher Education Committee in 1971-72, it became an important and permanent decision- making organ for CTEP and a channel for handling intra and inter institution concerns (OITEP Annual Reports, 1972, 1973, 197*0. ITEC consisted of elected full-time faculty of the Faculty of Education and the MEFA*s representative and had the Assistant Dean of Inservice Teacher Education as its executive secretary. ITEC decisions were reviewed by the Dean and/or the Academic Commission before becoming policies. ITEC*s function as an advisory or policy making body was not altogether clear. Oddly enough, the Committee did not meet during the summer, the peak season. Either the members were not available because their terms had expired, or this was their free time and they could hot be required to come to meetings, or were inaccessible (OITEP Annual Report, 1972). A number of factors Including political, organiza tional and paternalistic attitudes perhaps combined to contribute to the non-participation of teachers in the decision making process. First, the teachers themselves did not really push or even raise the question of partici pation other than continually pressuring the institutions 109 to keep CTEP open (Habte, 1978; Neqniq, 1978; Wodajo, 1978). The Teachers Association of Ethiopia was not a legally recognized organization prior to 1965. To have invited such an organization to participate would have been politically unwise for the MEFA and HSIU. Also, by * university statutes, academic commission membership is restricted to University faculty and that precluded both the’MEFA and the participants from the academic decision making process. Besides, some committees and commissions were established and dissolved as circumstances dictated. With no formal mechanisms and given the transportation problems of the country, it was not feasible or practical to invite teachers to participate in committee meetings. There was also, perhaps on the part of the MEFA, HSIU and international organizations, the paternalistic belief that they knew what was good and important for the teachers- Within the Faculty of Education, CTEP was at best, a two-man operation (Dean and the head or heads of CTEP) for a long time. Even after the four tracks were merged, the areas of responsibility of the office, ITE Committee, rules and regulations governing staff and participants were either undefined or defined in very broad terms. 110 Curricula Admission Admission criteria and the selective mechanism were reviewed several times; but two basic admission requirements and two basic modes of selection were used to recruit CTEP participants. The academic and service requirements were defined by PSVCC: Teachers to be eligible for the Postsecondary Vacation Course should: (a) Have at least two years of teaching experience and should present a certifi cate to that effect, (b) Present a certificate testifying completion of grade 12 in either teacher training or academic secondary schools. (PSVCC Report, n.d., p. 9) Applicants who met these requirements had to, in addition, secure a PEO recommendation following an inter view and/or pass a University written examination. It appeared that for about the first seven years, applicants were primarily selected by the MEFA, through its PEO"s "on the basis of their academic qualification and meritorious service” (Abeje, 1977; Habte, 1977). This was not taxing on the PEO because the number of applicants initially was small; so, the PEO recommended and UCAA accepted. One advantage of this approach was that the PEOfs who were close to the teachers made the decision, not an examination. Another advantage was that financial and transportation problems, which applicants would have 111 experienced by travelling to and from Addia Ababa, were relatively minimized. The approach, however, did not take into account the provincial differences in the need for trained teachers. Perhaps the overriding concern then was to produce second level teachers for schools in Addis Ababa and two or three other provinces. After the mid-1960fs, the MEFA and HSIU jointly selected the participants. Applicants who were interviewed and recommended by the PEO, had to pass a University written examination which was given (a) to standardize the quality of the participants and (b) to counteract complaints about partiality and nepotism (Habte, 1978; Neqniq, 1978). While the second approach facilitated partnership between the two institutions, it did not make provisions for redressing provincial differences in quality of teachers. But the use of a screening examination could be challenged on several grounds. One very serious objection, at least for this researcher, was that the examination picked out the academically strong teachers who normally graduated two or three years earlier and excluded those with more years of service. In 1971-72, a return was made to selection by interviews by the MEFA. This change was made partly in response to the MEFA's criticism (A Summary Report, 1971); partly to give back to the PEOfs their lost leverage in 112 the process of selection (Wodajo, 1978); and partly to cut examination-related costs to the MEFA and HSIU, In 1971-72 some fundamental changes were also introduced in the admission criteria and procedures to (a) harness the increasing number of applicants (Habte, 1978), and (b) accommodate provincial needs for trained persons. The new academic requirement made a distinction between the TTI and the high school graduates. The latter had to have three "passes” in the ESLCE. The service requirement was raised to three years. Each province was assigned a quota of how many candidates it could recommend to CTEP. The quota, in theory, was to be based on the number of teachers in the province and its needs. In practice, however, only the size of the teaching force was partially considered. The University sent the MEFA general guidelines on the minimum requirements. The MEFA delegated the responsibility to the PEO where a committee of generally administrative personnel was established. The quota- intervlew combination was used for 1972, 1973 and 1971 * and the number recruited is shown in Table 6. The University also determined the size of new intake. The figure was communicated to the MEFA, which in turn brokedown the projected intake by province end track. Each PEO then accepted applications, screened and sent to the University a list of those chosen, with their creden tials. 113 The quota-interview combination used for the last three years was hot foolproof either. The major advantages and disadvantages of interviews by PEO were pointed out earlier. The use of a quota system put some control on the number of participants from each province. But the provincial quota was not based on accurate numbers of teachers in each province because such up-to-date informa tion was not available early in the year when decisions were made. Provinces which had different numbers of teachers were given the same quotas. The quota method, instead of balancing the quality of teachers in each province, perpetuated the existing imbalance because the four provinces, which dominate all levels of education, also dominated CTEP as shown in Table 6. These provinces1 generally had better trained and more experienced teachers. For example, Addis Ababa, which always got a large quota, had qualified and experienced teachers who were transferred in from the other provinces. More serious, perhaps, was that the quota idea was based on an incorrect assumption that teachers selected from province A would stay there, both during the three year training, and after graduation as well. Teachers transferred, and the reunion every summer facili tated this. Individual teachers petitioned for and received transfer while attending summer classes.. Teachers also made mutually agreeable provincial exchanges which 114 ( Table 6 " Provincial Quota Intake in CTEP 1972-74 Track A Track B Track C* Track D* Province * 72 *73 .'74 • 72 *73 •74 • 72 •73 .74 • 72 *73 • 74 Addis Ababa 50 20 40 6 2 5 10 9 18 Arusi 21 10 30 4 4 10 4 4 10 Bale 21 10 30 4 4 10 4 4 10 Begendir 28 10 30 6 6 10 6 6 12 Eritrea 50 20 40 11 11 12 10 2 2 0 0 11 20 2 0 Gemu Gofa 21 10 30 4 4 12 4 2 2 4 10 2 5 0 0 0 Gojjara 27 10 40 6 6 10 6 c t 6 11 K Harerge 50 20 40 11 11 11 11 H H 3 3 11 13 H 3 c t < + > c t Illubabor 21 10 30 4 4 10 4 p p * * X 4 10 f t ) X Kefa 27 14 30 6 12 10 6 ( f t ( f t 5 7 ( f t Shewa 50 20 30 11 11 11 10 10 19 Sidarao 28 10 30 5 5 10 5 5 11 Tigre 28 10 30 6 6 10 5 5 12 Wellega 28 10 30 5 5 10 5 5 11 Wollo 50 20 40 11 11 13 10 10 19 *In 1971, Track C had 55 participants and D, 52; but office records did not show breakdown by province. h Source: Various ITEP Reports O l were approved by the MEFA. The interview component of the selection method also had problems. Teachers or their representatives were not on the screening committee* Apart from the question of representation, the interview approach was financially draining for the applicants who had to stay in hotels both pre and post-interview. Third, the different criteria used by each provincial screening committee led to an unequal treatment of the national pool of applicants* By 1973» the quota-interview approach was criticized by both the PEOvs and the applicants. They both favored some form of modification (OITEP, A Summary Report, 197*0* The PEOfs said that the interview approach was very sub jective and time-consuming, especially when the number of applicants far exceeded the provincial quotas* The PEOfs wanted to reinstate a screening test and an interview combination* The applicants contended that the quota-interview approach became an instrument for bonding teachers to one province. There were some PEO^ who recommended only applicants who accepted and signed a contract to continue to serve in the province and in remote parts of the province. The applicants also charged that the interview approach was abused by the PEO’s who allegedly recommended their favorites. In the context of a multi-ethnic society this posed a serious accusation of partiality and nepotism. 116 Courses of Study A cursory look at CTEP participant course cards and UCAA course listings suggests, at least on the basis of course titles, that between 1958 and 1962, some CTEP courses were taken from the UCAA catalog* Judging by the sequence of courses on CTEP participant cards, the more practical or job-related courses in education, and there were not that many in the UCAA catalog, were given during the fourth and fifth summers (see Appendix A)* Such an arrangement had at least two shortcomings. First, only those participants who continued to attend to the fourth or fifth summer could benefit from the education courses. Second, such an arrangement made no provision for the participants to try the new knowledge and skills in their classes and later challenge the course in the next session. Attempts have been made to relate CTEP to the elementary system. In 1960-61, the PSVCC reacting to the experience of the previous three summers and cognizant of MEFA’s plan to reorganize the elementary school, identified core and optional course for CTEP (see Appendix A). The list indicated a departure from the earlier course offer ings; it appeared this was implemented; earlier courses continued to be offered. With the opening of a Department of Elementary Education in, HSIU in 1962-63 and the subsequent affiliation of CTEP with the new Department, another attempt seemed to 117 have been made to make CTEP relevant to the national ele mentary education system; at least on the basis of the course titles (see Appendix A). It was also about this time thatbCTEP underwent struetional adaptions. By 1964 the University-wide letter grading system was introduced into CTEP. Courses carried credits (Bekele, 1968; Report, 1963-64). Grades, promotion and graduation requirements were described in terms of the University system for t diploma programs. In short, the University academic structure was imposed on CTEP; and CTEP as an appendage institution had to adjust to this environment. By 1965, according to an analysis done by the 1965 Summer School Director, Mr. John Crnkovic, all CTEP courses were taken from the Elementary Education Degree program (Crnkovic, 1965). The effect of such a structural adaptation was manifold. Courses were segregated into credit and non credit courses. Credit courses had to meet the minimum number of instructional hours, and had to have instructors and textbooks approved through established academic channels. Later; when a tuition fee was introduced, parti cipants could not understand why they had to pay for non credit courses. Most important of all, the grades, graduation and promotion requirements, the use of a credit system, etc., all combined to distract CTEP from its original purpose by giving the participants the false and widespread impression that they were really doing college level work, when in fact "CTEP was not, at least during the initial years, college level (PSVCC Report, n.d., 1963-64). Beginning in 1968, CTEP diversified to include courses of study (shown in Appendix A) for school admin istrators and junior secondary school teachers. Track Cfs courses showed evidence of a multi-disciplinary approach in that there were courses in education, social work, political science and public administration. Track D's curriculum seemed to have been an ad hoc revised version of the two-year terminal program that preceded it. Track Dfs curriculum provided concentrations in Amharic and mathematics teaching and according to the judgement of of the instructors, and to a large extent, the participants themselves, was the most difficult course work, given the earlier education of the participants and the three summer six-week duration of the track (OITEP Annual Report, 1972, 1973, 1974). The latest attempt to make CTEP relevant to the elementary education system was undertaken following the November 1972 Curricular Review Conference where the MEFA, the TAE, the Junior Teachers College, University academic departments, and two CTEP participants, living near the site of the conference, were invited. The courses that evolved from the conference and subsequent committee works 119 (see Appendix A) appeared relevant, although it is too early to judge because these courses were introduced beginning summer 1973- The two most likely explanations for all these curricular changes since 1958 were (1) an unsuccessful attempt to respond to changes in the elementary schools (Bekele, 1977) and (2) perhaps, lack of clarity of objectives and functions for CTEP* These curricular changes can be criticized on two grounds* First, these curricular reviews were not based on any study but rather on the "educated opinions and guesses" of those concerned. Too often they were the work of a University committee or of committees and academic commissions where neither the MEFA nor the participants were represented* The second criticism relates to the consequences of these changes. Although they were believed to have been prompted by changes in the elementary schools, CTEP curricula in general remained academic and theoretical. "In many cases the courses were not based on the genuine needs of our schools and country" (Habte, 1977). Mengesha (1977) also agreed that the summer course experience was not relevant because "the curriculum was not designed to meet the needs of Ethiopian children and society." Workle (1977) assessment was while "the primary purpose was to upgrade the professional training of teachers, the emphasis on the academic component was considerable." The issue of what is academic and professional and the balance therein for CTEP has never been addressed. Instructional Staff Instructors In CTEP came from diverse sources: nationally from the University, government ministries, and internationally from the British Council, USAID (Teacher Corps, Peace Corps, University of Utah Contract team), UNESCO and the Canadian Teachers Federation in cooperation was TAE and WCOTP. Up to about the mid-1960,s University faculty constitute^ a large part of the teaching staff. The use of University faculty was expedient for CTEP and in the economic interest of the faculty. Between 1966 and 1971, HSIU and the MEFA were able to secure for CTEP substantial assistance in instructional personnel through international and bilateral agreements. The British Council helped for about two years. For about six years USAID supplied teams of Teacher Corps, Peace Corps and persons on the University of Utah Contract team. UNESCO offered assistance for two years. The Canadian Teachers Federation (CTF) helped, through TAE and WCTOP, by sending teams of various sizes for five years beginning in 1968. All of tHe teachers from these organizations were available for CTEP at no direct cost. The only exception was the CTEP team. The University provided each summer’s team with housing and utilities* 121 and transportation to and from work. No foreign assistance was sought after these phased out because of a determina tion on the part of HSIU and the MEFA to make CTEP self- sufficient (Habte, 1978; Neqniq, 1978; Wodajo, 1978). The use of instructional staff secured through and from international sources helped keep CTEP costs down. Moreover, these teachers added an international dimension not only to CTEP but to the teaching profession in general by exposing Ethiopian teachers to teachers and the teaching professions in other countries. Nevertheless, there were inherent problems in using such personnel. First, the Faculty of Education and CTEP had minimal control over the quality of the various foreign teams that came to teach. They were chosen by their sponsoring agencies. Second, these were generally people in a hurry. They were hurried by their home school calendars and the desire to travel, before, during, and after the summer session. For example, the CTEP team always left one week before the end of the summer session (OITEP Report, 1972). Third, new teams were sent to Ethiopia each year. That meant they had to learn before they could teach and adjust to a new academic, physical and social environment, none of which can hardly be done well in six to eight weeks. Nationally and outside the University, the school system, the Ministries of Agriculture, Public Health, and 122 National Community Development were the principal sources of teachers. Many of these institutions were requested to recommend and release capable persons to teach in CTEP. After 1971,. CTEP began to recruit aggressively instructors from outside of the University. At least four factors seemed to have contributed to this posture. First, and perhaps more importantly, there was a strong belief that carefully selected non-University persons could and would add to and strengthen the practical component of CTEP. Second, both the Faculty of Education and CTEP administration became aware of the trend in CTEP's enroll ment growth, and the need to look outside of the University for a corresponding increase in the instructional staff. The decline in the University faculty applying to teach in CTEP was also a factor. Third, CTEP had its own money, which not only gave CTEP administration the confidence to recruit aggressively but also provided the necessary funds. Fourth, there was a full-time administrative staff to plan and carry out the various phases involved in recruiting staff. The number of locally available non-University persons teaching in CTEP was increasing, perhaps much to the dismay of several University faculty who thought that teaching in University-sponsored programs was their prerogative or even birthright- This increase, however, had its benefits and problems. First, an increase in 121 non-University persons would help tilt the scale toward the practical component of CTEP. Second, a combined use of University and non-University persons, backed by sufficient funds, would increase the instructional staff, which in turn would help increase annual intakes and/or make class sizes smaller and improve student-teacher relations. Third, such a practice would increase the pool of applicants and contact persons who could represent CTEP all over Ethiopia if CTEP were decentralized. Fourth, such person^ paid by the hour, were economical for CTEP. A non-University person teaching 12 hours a week would earn 12 x 16 x 4 = Birr 760 in four weeks. A University person teaching.in CTEP would earn anywhere from Birr 700 - 1100 for the same load and period. In addition, the University person was normally paid for two whole months, whereas the non-University person's pay was dependent on the number of hours actually taught. The benefits that accrued from using non-University persons must be weighed against these costs. First, all such persons, unless released for the entire summer by their home institutions to teach, might not have adequate time to prepare for classes. Second, their teaching and service to CTEP participants would be less than adequate because of insufficient orientation about the University and lack of office space for studying and advising, Third, they were not easily accessible for consultation during the 124 planned period. Fourth, and from an administrative point of view, they were difficult to process, especially when the processing was done by faculty members who had a vested interest in CTEP positions. Lastly, they might be withdrawn from CTEP by their supervisors anytime during their teaching because of some urgent job they had to do for their home institutions. Selecting and appointing available persons for CTEP was generally informal for a long time. The Univer sity was small, CTEP was small and so the Deans of Educa tion, with CTEPfs head or an ad hoc committee helping, chose the persons "known to them to be useful to the program” (Workie, 1978). The selection and the appointment were usually conducted in late June and early July. -Beginning in 1971-72, there were two major thrusts in the area of recruiting instructional staff. The first was to open up more CTEP teaching positions to the general public and the second was to institutionalize the selection process which hitherto had been confined to one or two individuals. With the availability of funds and a full time CTEP administration, the first objective was well achieved. The second objective is yet to be achieved. The various screening committees, since 1972, have each year used different criteria. Nevertheless, a beginning had been made; the next step was to develop a fair selection mechanism that would serve the interests of CTEP. 125 The quality of the instructional staff recruited and appointed to teach in CTEP before the late 1960*3 and early 1970*3 seemed to have been influenced by the existing University-wide regulations. Habte (1978) and Workie (1978) therefore argued that nobody, national or foreigner, without the minimum BA degree was appointed to teach in dTEP. Beginning in 1972, the quality was controlled by the selective process at different levels of decision making from committees to the Vice-President*s office. For example, only 37 percent of the 103 persons appointed to teach -in the 1974 session had BA degrees. The rest had masters and doctorates. Also, only 21 percent of the 103 had a teaching experience of three years or less* Of course, these figures did not indicate how many of these persons were teacher-educators, an important consideration in any teacher education program. All non-voluntary instructional staff were paid from CTEP funds according to the University-wide practice. First, there was a flat hourly rate of B 12.50 which, in 1969, was raised to B 16.00 (Bekele, 1968, 1969)* Since 1970, however, a bimodal rate (one for University persons and another for outsiders) had been used. The outsiders continued to be paid B 16.00 an hour. The University persons were paid their monthly salary, a favorable rate for most of the faculty members, for teaching 12 hours a week or a prorated amount for a lesser load (Workie, 1970). 126 Recommendation to Join a Degree Program (Recommendation for Degree Study) The practice of recruiting and recommending CTEP participants for degree studies started right wfrom the beginning of CTEP. As a result the first recruits who enrolled for degree programs are the ones who gave marked leadership to the Education Ministry for a long period? (Habte, 1977). Three years after CTEP was opened this practice was formally identified as one of the functions thusly: Secondarily: (c) To equip a selected group of teachers who may be found capable [sic] and apt to continue a four year college level degree course at the University College (of Addis Ababa). But it is felt that the third reason should merely be incidental, for the major purpose is to help teachers become better qualified elementary school teachers. (PSVCC Report, n.d.f p. 2) Accordingly promising participants were recommended to join the University either before or after completing their course of study. Before 1965, participants, includ ing this researcher, with very good grades in their summer courses, were recommended to Join the Faculty of Education. In 1965, a cumulative grade point average of 2.5 was established, but not implemented, as a cut-off point for admission to a degree program in education (Crnkovic, 1965). Office records showed that the practice of recom mending participants before they completed their summer studies continued through 1970. Since 1971 only 127 participants with a cumulative grade point average of 2.5 or above at graduation had been recommended for a degree program. In 1972, the cutting-off point was raised to a CGPA of 3-00 or above. Together with the revisions in criteria for recommendation, there were changes in the number of parti cipants to be recommended each year which depended on available University places and, to some extent, on consi derations for manpower needs for schools. . . .up to 1968 or even 1969, the Faculty was not under any pressure to curtail admission from inservice program. We did nonetheless have our own in-house understanding that we should not select more than 100 of the participants (about 10 percent of the summer school enrollment). . . . (Wodajo, 1977) As the pressure from the high schools increased, after 1969-70,a quota was assigned for the Faculty as to how many it could recommend and register. But the number that actually enrolled was less the number recommended. For example, between 1967 and 1973, out of a total of 1,295 participants recommended to join the degree program in Elementary Education, only 272 did so during that period (memo, August, 197*0. Family and social commitments, the time and communication problems involved in receiving and responding to the invitation, the increased politicization of the University student body, the termination of a special family assistance fund, the bonding to education as against other faculties, and other factors combined to discourage 128 CTEP participants from enrolling as full-time students. The impact of the practice of recommending partici pants for higher education was significant. For the University, the practice ensured a steady flow of degree candidates. For the participants, the practice was one of the most attractive features of CTEP. The fierce competition to get a University place through CTEP was evident later on. Participants became preoccupied with grades (OITEP Annual Report, 1972, 1973, 1974). Such an avenue increased the individual’s potential for educational, economic and social advancement. On the curricular side, the practice probably contributed most to the continued drift of CTEP away from practicality and relevance to the educational system. For examplej in 1973 and 1974 and earlier, attempts were made, through formal and informal means, to get the participants’ thinking about the use of Amharic as a medium of instruc tion in some CTEP subjects. Among the reasons given by participants against such a switch was that Amharic would be a handicap in their educational advancement. Moreover, as Abeje (1977) and Wodajo (1977) indicated, the practice depleted the elementary school systems of its competent, qualified and experienced teachers many of whom went to higher leadership positions in the MEFA (Habte, 1977) and also left the teaching profession altogether after graduation. Some, including this ______________ 129 researcher, joined the rank and file of University faculty* There were other problems for schools. They were left without replacements when teachers left for the University; school property was not returned; and some teachers were reported collecting their salaries during the first semester at HSIU (OITEP Annual Report, 1974). Funding Funds and services provided by the MEFA, HSIU and bilateral and international agencies made CTEP free up to 1968* There was no direct cost to CTEP participants, including transportation to and from Addis Ababa, and food and lodging. Gradually, however, these services were reduced and tuition and other fees were introduced. For example, it appeared that participants had to pay their, own transportation beginning in 1966 (Araare, 1966, 1969; Abeje, 1977; Habte, 1977, 1978; Neqniq, 1978; Wodajo, 1978; Workie, 1978; Yimtatu, 1977). The rationale for public funding of CTEP during the first nine years is not easy to establish. Perhaps the objective of the program had something to do with it. CTEP was to provide a professionally-oriented updating experience and as such the MEFA took it upon itself to provide additional training and retraining to its employees< * i Such a provision was perhaps not financially draining on the MEFA because (1) the major cost of CTEP, salaries 130 was coming from, international sources; (2) the MEFA used its facilities such as high school dormitories to house CTEP participants (Amare, 1967); and (3) UCAA provided the instructional facilities and paid the administrative costs. Funding CTEP through contributions both in cash and kind continued up to 1971 and to some extent up to 197**. The fiscal records are incomplete and scattered and show only proposed budgets rather than actual revenues and expenses. The contributions of the parties throughout the 16 year period are difficult to determine. Documents on file with the Faculty of Education show that according to the proposed budgets for 1966 through 1969, the MEFA,s contribution was minimal, the University and international and bilateral agencies paying the major cost. And accord ing to one source, the major cost came from the University. Between 1964 and 1969 . . . .the program was financed almost entirely by the University. The Faculty of Education^ annual budget submission included support for the program. This was used to provide salary for the Ethiopian staff and to cover some of the operating costs (e.g., stationery). Staff of the Utah Team were fully funded by USAID. . . . (Wodajo, 1977) Correspondence files in the Office of the Dean of Education showed that the MEFA gave B 12,600.00, 15,069*00 and 22, 965.00 respectively for 1968, 1969 and 1970. The University was believed to have matched MEFA’s contribution each year. But Negewo (1978) said that the University*s 131 contribution in cash was never tested because CTEP had enough money. The University, however, claimed to have continued through 1971 * to absorb overhead costs of B 25,000.00 each year (1971-197*0 in service areas such as library, bookstore, cafeteria, utilities. The 1973-7U CTEP fiscal report issued by the University's Financial Services office did not show University contributions. The MEFA made its last contribution in 1971. Financial problems in both the MEFA and HSIU seem to have been the major factor in reducing or eliminating contributions for CTEP (Habte, 1978; Neqniq, 1978). To the researcher, early signs of extra funds were probably a factor too. (CTEP had some extra money since 1969)* There were several possible explanations for the MEFA's termination.of assistance. Perhaps this time more than ever before, as the CTEP's enrollment increased, the MEFA became increasingly cognizant that the cost of (1) provid ing additional training through CTEP, and (2) following that up by salary raises was becoming an expensive pro position especially in the context of an expanding system of education. Moreover, by 1971 the MEFA had perhaps become disenchanted with the usefulness of CTEP to the nation's schools. A third additional factor may have been the plan and belief in the soon-to-be opened College of Pedagogy of the MEFA,which by providing inservice training for elementary schools teachers,wouid preempt 132 CTEP. The University, too, had its financial problems. There was a decline in the per capita cost of University education in the 1970*s. Three different Presidential Commissions had recommended a student loan system for the University students. Moreover, since the University was collecting fees from its Extension Division students, it would have been.socially and politically unwise to continue to provide free education or to supplement the cost of such an education for teachers, as opposed to those studying Political Science, Business, Law, etc., in the Extension Division. The University would probably argue that there was no discrimination involved here because it was also providing similar assistance to the Extension Division, which has always argued otherwise. A decision to introduce fees was made on March 28, 1968 by the MEFA and HSIU. Although CTEP participants were not consulted, CTEP was financially, as of that summer, to become a tripartite enterprise whose support was shared by the MEFA, HSIU and the participants (Bekele, 1989). Whether the decision was made in the long term interest of CTEP, or out of a sudden realization that CTEPfs growth could not be matched by proportional annual fiscal increases, or by even a projected total withdrawal, or a combination of these, bannot be established. 133 Consequently, a nominal tuition fee of B 15.00 was collected from Track A participants in 1968. For the first two summers, it appeared that Track B participants were not charged fees. A memorandum from the Dean of Education to the Vice Minister of MEFA said: . . . .according to our previous agreement the Ministry of Education and the Haile Sellassie I University will share the balance of the cost, of training these people [directors and supervisors] when [sic] USAID pays the rest. (Wodajo, 1969)* Tuition fee was raised several times since 1968 and other fees like registration and transcript fees and fees -for repeating courses.were introduced (OITEP Annual Report, 1972, 1973* 1974). Table 7 shows CTEP fee schedule used by all tracks beginning the summer of 1971* Soon after these fees were introduced, CTEP started to have some extra funds* For example, after the 1969 summer session, CTEP had about B 45,000.00 and by 1974, it had over B 100,000.00 (Memorandum, November 13* 1969; Statement of Revenue and Expenditure, January 8, 1966 E.C.) The March 1968 decision was significant and very powerful. It was significant in that both the University and the MEFA committed themselves formally for the continued support of CTEP. For the researcher, the decision was significant from the point of view of social equity. In a subsistence level economy where the per capita income was less than U.S. $100.00 then, and where teachers averaged twelve times more, it was socially justifiable ________________ 134 Table 7 CTEP Fees Beginning Summer 1971 Category Amount in Ethiopian Birr A. Obligatory 1. Tuition fee (per student per summer session) 100.00 2. Registration fee a) New Students 10.00 b) Former Students * o o 3• Property Deposit fee (refundable) o o • o CM B. Optional 1, University Dormitory Rent (per month per student) 20*00 2* Meal Card (per month per student) «»0.00 135 to charge teachers for their education, especially when such an education was for their own advancement. The March 1968 decision was significant also because it pro vided financial security for CTEP and led to fiscal inde pendence. The March 1968 decision was also very powerful because it provided a safeguard against problems and uncertainties that often threaten this type of program* Sooner or later someone was bound to raise the question of whether or not such a program should continue to be paid for out of public funds. It is here that the objective of the program becomes critically important. If the program was meant for improvement of classroom instruction, then that might be an acceptable basis for continued public funding. If, however, the program was marginally contri buting to that goal, and there were indications that CTEP was becoming less and less relevant to the national educa tion needs, then there is room for the argument that whoever benefits should also pay at least part of the cost of his/her education. Second, complete or partial dependence on public funds is shrouded with uncertainties about the amount of the funding, its availability, and for how long such assistance is going to be forthcoming. Third, partial cr. complete dependence on public funds can be detrimental to a program. Public funding is detrimental in two respects: 136 qua1itative1y and quan titatively. The amount of money .available becomes the only criterion for deciding how many participants can be accommodated, how many teachers of a certain quality can be recruited, and how many students can be put to a class* Fourth, there is the danger or threat of sudden withdrawal of such funds* Public funds are subject to the whims of politicians* Such funding could be discontinued any time those in leadership positions regarded CTEP as not subservient to their interests. Finally, such adult education programs are also the first ones to go in times of financial crisis* The introduction of tuition and other fees was criticized on several grounds* First, the decision making process in 1968 did not involve the participants* Second, a tuition fee of B 100*00 per person per summer session was not based on any careful study of the cost of CTEP. At best, only the experiences of the past summers was used* The cost and benefit of the summer training to the partici pants was not considered either* Another major criticism was that the practice of charging a lump sum of B 100.00 had no sound basis* It could not be defended in terms of credits, contact hours or number of courses taken per summer because these categories varied from one track to another. In addition, such a practice was nowhere near the prevailing University tuition fee system. The Extension Division in 1972 charged B 6.00 per credit per month. Administratively, such a practice made it difficult to determine what should be assessed from individuals who did not carry the full summer load. Finally, from the Universityfs perspective, the practice of charging fees put the institution and the participants in a producer-consumer relationship, intro duced management and accountability problems, led the participants to believe that the University was making money, which in turn produced tensions and conflicts between participants and University service personnel. Internally, the management of CTEP funds remained a sensitive issue between CTEP administration and the College of Education and the Central University Treasury. The bookkeeping was casual, financial reports were often incomplete, irregular and late. Assessment This assessment of CTEP must be prefaced by the following caveats. The assessment is in very general terms because of (1) the lack of an agreed upon and ready-made instrument to gauge the social impact of CTEP, (2) the lack of an in-depth and systematic study on any aspect of CTEP including follow-up of the graduates and their performances in the schools, and (3) the short life of CTEP’s Tracks C and D. It would be premature to try to ________________138 evaluate programs that opened in 1971 and closed In 1972. This non-quantitative assessment is in part a synthesis of the prevailing opinion of those knowledgeable about CTEP, its contributions, strengths and weaknesses and problems. Despite the lack of any sort of formative or summative evaluation, CTEP is thought of as having been a factor in, and made a contribution to, the general improvement of education. This broad statement, however, needs further explication in relation to the different levels and aspects of Ethiopian education. CTEPfs Contributions The contributions of the Faculty of Education of Haile Sellassie I University in general, and CTEP in particular, are for convenience’s sake presented here under contributions to the individual teacher, the teaching profession, the University and the MEFA. However, no attempt is made to compartmentalize these neatly because they are parts of a larger system and sub-systems Ethiopiar education and the Ethiopian society. What is a contribu tion in one area is a contribution in another. For example, contributions to the individual teacher are also contributions to the teaching profession, the education system and the country. 131 To the Individual Teacher Contributions to the individual teacher were examined here from two bases: First, who or what type of teachers participated in CTEP and second, what economic and non-economic benefits did they get from CTEP? Demographic data on CTEP participants provide a useful profile* By the terms of the admission requirement, all participants had at least 12 years of education includ ing academic and professional training* CTEP participants were young, 30 years or' less, and mostly male (so was the elementary school teaching force in general) (Bowen, 1970; Wagaw and Wole, 1971). CTEP participants had generally served the MEFA three or more years. Nearly 70 percent of the participants earned a monthly salary of B 250 - 300 (Bowen, 1970; Wagaw and Wole* 1971)* A size able number were married. CTEP afforded teachers the opportunity to improve themselves without foregoing their jobs. From the MEFA1s point of view, the CTEP diploma was considered the equi valent of one year of college education. Consequently, CTEP graduates received salary increments ranging from B 25*00 to 50.00 per month which in turn improved the annual increment rate and pushed up the salary ceiling. These increments were larger for those who were recruited from academic secondary schools and were offered a low starting salary and for those who were employed relatively recently. In a country where salary differentials were based on academic paper qualifications, the possession of a University diploma was a very powerful base for salary negotiations. CTEP had also increased the individual teacher*s opportunity for vertical and horizontal mobility. With University training and a diploma teachers were often assigned to higher posts in the MEFA and/or were offered better pay outside the education sector. For those poli tically minded, University diplomas had also enhanced the teacher’s chance of winning elections for the Ethiopian parliament* CTEP also made it possible for many teachers, this researcher included, to undertake college and university studies in Ethiopia and abroad and work for the University or be assigned to leadership positions with the MEFA. CTEP, therefore* not only helped many teachers further secure their positions, but also enabled them to compete in the broader economic market* Moreover, CTEP was an avenue for increasing profes sional interest and professional exchange and the sharing of ideas and experiences not only with fellow Ethiopians but also with expatriates who taught in CTEP. Besides, CTEP gave the individual teacher a chance to come annually to Addis Ababa and become ’ ’immersed'’ in the social, poli tical, cultural and educational environment and benefit 141 from several social services, all of which the small village did not offer. * To the Teaching Profession One way of gauging CTEP's contribution to the teaching profession is to look at the number of graduates. CTEP graduation figures are incomplete, but between 1964- 1974, and as shown in Table 8, 2,317 teachers and school administrators received more education through CTEP than what they had at entry into the profession. The number represented a rise in the standard of education of an average of 232 persons annually. While the figure is small compared to the total teaching stock, the additional educa tion was very significant, particularly for those high school graduates who were first introduced into profes sional courses through CTEP and constituted an improvement in the teaching profession and education in general in Ethiopia. A comparison of CTEP*s annual enrollment and gradua tion rates with the total number of elementary school teachers with grade 12 education would give a more precise measure of CTEP#s contribution to the teaching profession* But such a comparison could not be made because of the unavailability of figures for 1958-1974 period. In 1965-66 there were 2,198 teachers in elementary schools with 12 years of schooling. In 1970-71 there were 7,903 such 142 Table 8 Number of Primary School Teachers and CTEP Ehrollees and Graduates 1958-1974 Calendar No. of Primary CTEP CTEP Ethiopian Gregorian School Teachers Enrollment Graduates (d) 1950 1957-58 3.895(a) 105 1951 1958-59 4,216 128 1952 1959-60 4,502 189 1953 1960-61 5,091 166 1954 1961-62 4,997 192 1955 1962-63 5,656 233 1956 1963-64 5,959 351 1957 1964-65 6,240 417 10 1958 1965-66 6,842 512 13 1959 1966-67 7,351 887 35 I960 1967-68 6.430(b) 1,025 52 1961 1968-69 7,035 1,318 93 1962 1969-70 8,147 1,602 307 1963 1970-71 8,960. 1,533 240 1964 1971-72 10,287 1,742 359 1965 1972-73 12,049 1,640 616 1966 1973-74 13.043(c) 1,542 592 Source: (a) Bejerkan, P., 1973i p. 165. Bejerkanfs figures do not segregate nationals from expatriates. (b) School Census for Ethiopia 1969/70-1972/73» P* 76. (c) School Census for Ethiopia 1973*74, p. III. (d) These figures which are taken from CTEP Office records do not include Track D enrol lees and graduates. 143 teachers (Tesfaye, 1973)* CTEP's enrollment for those two years was 512 and 1,488, or 4.3 and 5.3 percent respec tively. Again the percentage is small but it had increased with the growth in the number of teachers. CTEP also contributed to the profession by (1) increasing professional aspirations and moral (Habte, 1977; Wodajo, 1977), (2) perhaps creating a new image of the profession on the part of the community as a result of the economic and educational advances gained by members, (3) creating and promoting professional solidarity in TAE which held several extramural activities and discussed association problems, (4) increasing the profession's contact with the University in general and the Faculty of Education in particular, and (5) broadening the profes sional horizon of Ethiopian teachers through contacts with other teacher organizations like CTF. To the University For 16 years CTEP supplied the University and the Faculty of Education with a steady stream of mature, experienced students for its degree programs, both in the secondary and elementary departments. The rich experience these teachers brought with them, and this was identified as one of the strengths of the summer session by CTEP instructors, "no doubt added a dimension of reality and relevance to the foreign-text based theoretical lectures" 144 (Wodajo, 1977). CTEP has also helped HSIU become innovative from its early days in diversifying its source and mode of selecting University entrants, CTEP participants were not required to possess the traditional credential to join the Faculty of Education. Although CTEP entrants to the University were relatively small, they had "salutary effects" in a highly politicized University student move ment especially beginning in the mid-1960*s. In the main* CTEP recruits were also believed to perform academically better than their high school counterparts* Moreover, CTEP participants were a major source of basic research data on aspects of Ethiopian life. At least one University faculty member obtained his doctoral dissertation data while teaching in CTEP* Other research articles were written and published in national and inter national journals. CTEP was also a source of supplementary income for University faculty at the Addis Ababa campuses every summer. Despite the aggregate tax on two salaries, the summer earnings were substantial, considering that they were made with minimum direct-cost to the faculty who were not taken away from their regular habitats. For the Faculty of Education in particular and for HSIU in general, CTEP was perhaps a showcase for University public service and took University doctrine to 1M5 the far corners of Ethiopia, Many secondary school teachers and other persons from several agencies have taught in a University sponsored program and have returned to their home bases with some knowledge about HSIU. The participants themselves also have been a bridge between town and gown and have taken HSIU to the village school. To the MEFA If the assessment that CTEP has been of service to the education system is valid, then this service has been rendered at a minimum cost to the MEFA. CTEP made the MEFA aware of the significance and power of continuing teacher education (Bekele, 1977). CTEP increased professionalism and career commitment. The holding power of the profession was probably improved because of CTEP. The service and graduate requirements of CTEP combined to retain teachers for at least five to six years. (Teachers had to stay on the job in order to complete their studies). The increase in service years was significant when compared to a medium figure of 3.25 years in the I960*s. Many of the graduates of CTEP were in teaching and leadership positions in the school system (Habte, 1977). Track B was opened at a time of an expanding elementary school system and a dearth of educational leaders and therefore Track B met specific needs (Abeje, 1977; Wodajo, 1977; Yiratatu, 1977). In secondary school teaching, Track 1*46 D gave concentrations in Araharie and mathematics, two very important subjects both at the junior and senior secondary levels- CTEP increased the teacher’s knowledge of these subjects-. Many of the teachers at the junior secondary levels were teachers trained for the primary level. Of those teaching now at the junior level, there were many CTEP graduates who were assigned to this level because of the value attached to the CTEP experience. Moreover, because of the salary increments, chances for vertical mobility within the MEFA and improved community attitude to the profession, CTEP contributed to strengthen* ing the attractions of teaching as a career. In some small way, rural Ethiopian schools have possibly benefitted from the annual trips made to Addis Ababa by teachers, who upon return, took some of the cultural social and political and educational "outlook" of the country (of the city) to their schools and discussed these ideas in formal and non* formal situations. CTEP’s Weaknesses 1. One major weakness of CTEP was its twofold objective and function. CTEP vacilitated between a professional and an academic program; between upgrading elementary school teachers and preparing secondary school teachers. In general, it appears to have moved from a 1*7 conceptually practically oriented program to an opera tionally academically oriented one. Moreover, CTEPfs functions and objectives were not publicized to the teachers; nor were they fully known to those in charge* A clear definition Of objectives in terms of professional or academic or some combination of the two would have helped to determine the target population, whether or not CTEP fell within the scope of the Faculty of Education, whether or not it should have been publicly or privately funded, and what should have been the duration and content of the program. 2. An evaluation of CTEP, both formative and summative, was never conducted, except for the Junge and Negewo (1971) survey. While it was true that parts of CTEP had operated for too short a time to conduct any study, the Faculty of Education could have conducted general surveys at least on aspects of Track A; for example! the usefulness of its curriculum, its effects on classroom teaching, follow-up of graduates, etc. Studies of these and other areas of CTEP could have been conducted by using the participants themselves who made three trips to the University to complete their programs. The Junge and Negewo (1971) survey of Track B’s curriculum showed that "not all of the courses. . .were helpful in coping with school problems" (p. 79)* 1H8 3, CTEP was generally irrelevant and lacked articulation. While it is true that no study was conducted to find out whether or not CTEP had been relevant to the teacher's job, there is a general agreement that CTEP had in the main served perhaps only the economic and academic interests of the participants. Despite the several curri cular changes, CTEP did not keep up with changes in MEFA's policies and practices. CTEP had no articulation with the TTI's eitherr and articulation was generally thought to be one way of increasing relevance. TTI's curricula were never consulted i ■ in choosing courses for CTEP. TTI's staff were not used as resource persons in discussing and designing CTEP curri culum. As a result, there probably was some overlap in the pre-service and inservice education. 4. The non-participation of teachers and directors in planning and implementing CTEP was a serious weakness. However well meaning those in leadership positions might have been, they excluded, probably inadvertently, teachers and directors from the decision making process. The involvement of the participants would have facilitated evaluating CTEP and making it relevant. Participants should have been involved in the process because they, were the beneficiaries, they paid the cost of their education, and they could have articulated their instructional problems. Teachers and directors could 149 have participated through representatives when they came for courses, and through a form of newsletter. 5. CTEP was inaccessible. The accessibility had two dimensions. The most obvious one was that CTEP, operated from Addis Ababa, which was not easily accessible to participants in parts of the-country where transporta tion was very bad. Many teachers travelled as many as four days to get to Addis Ababa, on foot, by mule and by * bus or plane. Within the academic format CTEP catered only to persons with grade 12 education. That admission criterion excluded many less qualified teachers who probably needed the CTEP experience more than the others. The selection criteria also excluded those with long service and those who had been away from school for a long time. An even more serious weakness was that CTEP was never really opened to all teachers in Ethiopian elementary schools. Because CTEP was initially government sponsored, because it operated through government channels, and perhaps because the MEFA wanted to use CTEP as a leverage on its employees, because perhaps many of the teachers in the non-government sector were below grade 12, CTEP had excluded non-government teachers. In the early 1970*s the non-government sector accounted for 25 percent of the national school enrollment, most of it at the primary level. The children going to 150 these schools were largely Ethiopians. From a national perspective, therefore, the improvement of the quality of the teaching stock in that sector was just as important and the Faculty of Education and the MEFA should have invited, encouraged and persuaded these teachers to enroll - in CTEP for the following reasons. In the first place, the improvement of elementary school education in all sectors should have been the overriding concern of the two institutions, not in only one sector, however large it may have been. Also, poor quality instruction in the non-government sector at the primary level had serious repercussions for government sponsored secondary and teritiary instruction where pupils from non-government schools enrolled. Moreover, many of the teachers in the non-government sector were less quali fied Ethiopians. These Ethiopians should have been given the same opportunity made available to their fellow citizens. Those teachers had a right at least to apply for further education. 6. CTEP used one time module-summer. The summer session offered several conveniences, but other times like Christmas and Easter breaks, weekends, release times, afternoon and evening classes for teachers who were on the shift system, and other modes of study like home study and "challenge examinations** could have been used. These modes and times could also have been combined and used in the 151 interest of time and serving many more teachers. The use of these time modules, modes of study, residential and non-resideritial, or a combination of these could have helped in (1) serving more teachers, (2) making the summer loads lighter, (3) spreading course requirements over a practice and theoretical segment of residential and non-residential instruction, thus making the CTEP curriculum practical and relevant, and (*0 reducing the number of enrollees who needed to come to Addis Ababa every summer. 7. CTEP took a long time to begin to be institu tionalized. CTEP was not a formally defined cooperative undertaking of the MEFA and HSIU. No mechanism existed to coordinate the activities of the two institutions. CTEP was for the most part, a part-time activity. The result was lack of records, program evaluation, clarity of objectives and functions and lack of policies on staff recruitment, financial management and duties and responsi bilities of the CTEP administrative office. Over and above these weaknesses, CTEP had at least three major problems. A very serious problem for CTEP was its status in the University. CTEP was a stepchild. CTEP was left to individual initiative in the Faculty of Education and the MEFA. Because of this, CTEP suffered from many discontinu ities in many areas. As an appendage program for 16 years 152 in the University, CTEP had little effect but Was very much affected by the University structure. A second serious problem which became clearer after 1971 and 1972 was that- of size. While Xhe total CTEP enrollment was small compared with the teaching population, CTEP became too big for the Addis Ababa-based operation. Recruiting competent and experienced summer instructors in numbers required by the Increasing number of enrollees and the potentially growing enrollment was not an easy task. Registering and clearing about 2,000 participants in two days was a very taxing job for the various service units of the University. The short summer operation was not sufficient time to cover courses* contents and also demanded quick decisions and actions, both of which were not compliments of the University support system. The third and last problem, different from the other two, was one of brain drain, internal and external, from the elementary school system. It was in this respect, and as Wodajo (1977) and Abeje (1977) pointed out, that HSIU and the MEFA found themselves in a dilemma. Of course, the dilemma was built into CTEP from the beginning. CTEP was intended to groom elementary school teachers for second level teaching and for administrative posts*. The dilemma was that on the one hand the Faculty of Education provided and the MEFA helped in the process, 153 an avenue for upward mobility to desperate rural teachers* On the other hand, however, this upward mobility meant an internal and external brain drain on the elementary school teaching stock. Internally, teachers, after graduating from CTEP, became administrators or office personnel in general, secondary school teachers and University faculty. Externally, the competent and experienced were still leaving the education sector for better paying posts* While there was no reliable data to support these state* roents, it is safe to assume on the basis of past experience, that those with more education and experience tended to move or be moved out of the elementary school system. CTEPfs Strengths Many of the contributions covered in the preceding paragraphs constitute aspects of CTEP's strength. The focus here is, therefore, on the internal strength of CTEP as a program* as an institution. CTEP has been unorthodox in tapping diverse sources for its financial and manpower requirements, designing several different curricula, in meeting different needs, and in serving several groups of educators. CTEP, and the Faculty of Education in general, opened new tracks to accommodate new needs. These tracks were phased out when the need was either met or was thought to be better met through another avenue. The opening- and closing of Tracks C and D between __________________________________________ 1971 and 1972 were cases in point. CTEP served several groups of educators: elementary school teachers, junior secondary school teachers, school administrators and supervisors. An attempt was made to offer an appropriate curriculum to each group. CTEP used both national and international sources for money and instructional staff. Diversity and flexibility constituted internal strengths of CTEP. A second and major internal strength of CTEP was its financial solvency. Many adult education programs are short-lived principally because of lack of money. CTEP, however, because of fees introduced in 1968,not only paid for the major part of its cost but also grew without representing a drain on the national economy. A third and major internal strength of CTEP was the continuity--continuity in discontinuity. Despite the discontinuities in funding, curricula, program administra tion, and lack of policies and records, CTEP operated continuously for 16 years. This continuity was significant because many similar programs in other Anglophone African universities operated for a much shorter time, four to five years at the most. These programs operated on as-the-need- arises and as money-becomes-available bases. The fourth strength relates to the larger national concerns for equality of educational opportunity. CTEP was the single avenue for rural teachers as a group for 155 educational advancement. Because of CTEPy the rural teachers did not remain physically and intellectually isolated. Thousands of teachers earned a university diploma and some university degree through CTEP. All of these individuals would have been excluded from some form of postsecondary education by accident of their assignment in rural schools, economic status, by rigid traditional university admission requirements, and the urban bias of many adult education programs. A fifth strength of CTEP relates to lifelong or recurrent education. The Faculty of Education, through CTEP, took thousands of rural teachers one step further in their postsecondary educational advancement. Moreover, for many able teachers, CTEP increased their access to higher education via a non-traditional avenue and thereby CTEP helped them make another step in improving themselves. A sixth internal strength was CTEP*s commendable redeployment of public resources during the off-peak season. Facilities and resources of both the University and the MEFA were used to train and retrain school personnel through CTEP. Such a use of public resources kept CTEPfs costs down. CTEP began to be formalized at a time when HSIU was just established and when the various constituent colleges were making adjustments to a new academic and administrative structure. Although there were several 156 international academic traditions represented at HSIU, CTEP evolved its own unique characteristics without leaning heavily on any particular foreign model. CTEP's evolution amidst these academic traditions in a generally lukewarm University attitude, was strength of a very high quality. Findings This part presents the initial major findings that emerged from the case study. The statement of findings focused principally on the research questions in Chapter I. 1. CTEP was established in 1958.in Addis Ababa as a short term Joint project of the MEFA and the then UCAA to groom government elementary teachers with grade 12 education for second level teaching. School teachers applying pressure, the MEFA's need for qualified nationals, foreign education advisors pressing for improved teacher education, and a new Department of Education aspiring to become a college of education were dissimilar causative factors that led to the opening of CTEP at the UCAA. For almost a decade CTEP had one track— -the Elemen tary Teachers Program. Between 1968 and 1971, a Directors Supervisors Program, a Junior Secondary Teachers Program and an Advanced School Administration Program were opened in response to requests from the MEFA and pressure from teachers. These four tracks differed in objective, curri culum and target population. ______________________________________________________________ .157 2. The initial objective of CTEP, as defined by the MEFA and UCAA, was to upgrade elementary school teachers for second level teaching. Later efforts were made to gear Track A toward the improvement of elementary T* school instruction. The three tracks that opened beginning in 1968 were also intended to improve elementary school administration and junior secondary instruction in math and Amharic. In each case, whether the courses were to be academic or professional or both was not clear. The objectives and the nature of the course offerings of Track A were not clear even to those who administered it, much less to the participants and the general public. The administrators had different opinions about the objectives and the balance between academic and professional courses in Track A*3 offerings. 3- UCAA (and later HSIU) co-sponsored CTEP with the MEFA because: (a) as a postsecondary program, CTEP fell within the statuary framework of UCAA; (b) the institution was interested in using CTEP as a recruiting base for its degree programs in education; (c) the cost of CTEP to the institution was minimal; and (d) the institution had the resources, human and material, that could serve the requirements of CTEP. 4. After i960, the MEFA was to assume academic and administrative responsibility for CTEP and UCAA was to provide services. Nevertheless, HSIU was in charge of 158 CTEP. Mope responsibility was given to HSIU with the opening of Tracks B, C and D. Academic and administrative decisions were made in the HSIU alone and sometimes, in cooperation with MEFA. As a co-sponsored program, CTEP remained peripheral to the MEFA and HSIU, suffered from a poorly defined partnership and from expedient and ad hoc administrative, organizational and curricular decision making which was monopolized by the two institutions. The cooperation between MEFA and HSIU with regard to CTEP had gaps and was not always smooth. 5. Tuition and services were free for the first ten years. National and foreign agencies funded CTEP. The gradual phasing out of foreign assistance and the scarcity of MEFA and HSIU funds were the main considerations that led to the introduction of tuition and other fees in 1968. Subsequently, the participants felt that HSIU was using CTEP as a source of revenue. Nonetheless, charging fees to participants made CTEP financially secure and also helped in its development. CTEP riot only paid its costs but also accumulated some extra funds. 6. Although the school teachers did not directly participate in the decision making process, they played a significant role in CTEP's establishment, its continued operation, in broadening its curricula and audience and in CTEP’s financial self-sufficiency. 159 7. Teachers were motivated to study in CTEP by financial and educational incentives, including access to higher education built into CTEP, and also by the government salary structure which put a premium on academic qualifica tions. 8. To study in CTEP, applicants (a) had to meet academic and service requirements, and (b) had to pass either a screening interview or a University-written examination or both. Admission requirements were raised and the selection mechanism tightened as the number of applicants for CTEP increased. The requirements to join HSIU through CTEP were also tightened as the pressure on the University increased from high schools. 9. CTEP was a summer residential program conducted in Addis Ababa. Track A was originally conceived of as a two-phase nine-summer program. After the opening of new tracks in 1968 and 1971, CTEP became a three-summer program. Earlier experiences of the MEFA with three- summer operations and economic considerations led to a threersuramer model • The summer was chosen foir its tradi tional conveniences both to the participants and the sponsors* 10. CTEP used both nationals and foreigners for its instructional staff. Nationals were recruited from the University itself, the school system and from government organizations In Addis Ababa. Foreign instructors were 160 obtained, at no direct cost to CTEP or its co-sponsors9 through bilateral and international organizations. 11. CTEP was never evaluated. However, those that were intimately involved in CTEP agreed that it was generally academic instead of professional, and irrele vant to the elementary education system. 12. University academic environment, teachers* interest in only academic advancement, poor partnership, and lack of evaluation contributed to weaken CTEP*s power to become relevant to elementary schools. 13. Among CTEP*s weaknesses were the long time it took even to begin to be institutionalized, its inaccessi bility to many teachers, including those in non-government education, its lack of evaluation, non-participation of teachers in decision making, its irrelevance to improvement of elementary classroom teaching and lack of well-defined objectives. Among its problems was the internal and external brain drain it created in the elementary schools. CTEP's continuity, financial self-sufficiency, the opportunity it provided teachers for vertical and hori zontal mobility and the linkage CTEP provided between rural and urban Ethiopia were all CTEP*s strengths. 14. It is not evident that CTEP was Initially a university public service effort except in the sense that teaching and research would be included in such an effort. Nevertheless, the HSIU Faculty of Education demonstrated 161 its continued support for CTEP and by doing that, enriched not only the Faculty and the University, but also contri buted to education in Ethiopia, the teaching profession and the individual teacher*s socio-economic advancement. Summary The first part of this chapter dealt with the beginning, sponsorship, the constituent programs, funding, participant selection and teaching staff in CTEP from 1958 to *197*1. Each aspect of CTEP was examined and analyzed within the general context of Ethiopian education. The second part of this chapter was an assessment of CTEP— its contributions to education in Ethiopia and its weaknesses and strengths. The last part dealt with the findings of the case study, with a focus on the research questions, in Chapter I; 162 -CHAPTER VI A PROPOSED MODEL FOR CONTINUING TEACHER EDUCATION IN ETHIOPIA Conceptualization and Rationale Conceptualization The status of the MEFA's summer courses teachers after 1974 was known. CTEP, however, was suspended subsequent to a mass walkout by the participants after they registered for the 1975 session. The options con sidered by AAU in 1974-75 were to transfer CTEP to the MEFA or reopen CTEP only for those in the pipeline. It appeared that CTEP was scheduled to reopen in July 1978 for those in the pipeline (OITEP, 1976). Limited reliable and current information on Ethiopian education made it difficult to formulate and identify options for the provision of continuing teacher education. But the discontinuation of CTEP at AAU compounded the problems of continuing teacher education and added a sense of urgency to the task of reviving earlier programs and developing new ones if teachers were to keep abreast of changes in their profession and if these teachers were to participate fully in nation building. 163 The future of educational programs like CTEP is unknown. The MEFA might start Its own program similar to CTEP; AAU might elevate the pre-1974 CTEP into a degree program under the existing University structure or, both the AAU and MEFA with its TTI’s and the College of Pedagogy at Bahir Dar could join in a consortium and offer educa tional programs for the nation’s teachers. The model proposed in this study is only one of the several options that could be considered in tackling this important aspect of teacher education. The model does not directly answer the specific problems of CTEP as it was until 1971 *. While the solution of these problems is important, to concentrate on them alone would be a piecemeal approach. Useful and lasting answers can come out of a comprehensive consideration of the factors that determine the direction and operation of continuing teacher education programs* These problems should also be approached from a broader perspective. The whole area of continuing teacher education should be approached from a national perspective. The proposed model therefore addresses itself to this broader issue of provisions for a national continuing teacher education that are well planned and coordinated and possibly, part of or parallel to the national education system. The model recognizes the centrality of the process of continuing teacher education. An understanding of this 164 process, which is influenced by several factors is funda mental to the conception, operation and evaluation of a continuing teacher education program. Some of these factors come from relatively permanent and organized groups; others, from transient and diffused groups. The process of continuing teacher education should be linked to, and responsive to, the society from which it derives its substance or program content and life. The mechanism through which this linkage and responsiveness is to be achieved should be flexible to cope with changes. The process of continuing teacher education as shown in Chart 2 has three important and interrelated components, each of which has more than one variable. These variables * and the interplay between and among them determine the general direction and operation of continuing teacher education provisions. The model rests on the realization that the continued education, of teachers calls for designing a spectrum of programs, that are (1) different in purpose, for example, oriented toward new math teaching or to a hew MEFA policy, academic or professional; (2) different in instructional level, for example, elementary, secondary and postsecondary; (3) different in time and duration, for example, one day, one weekend, vacation periods, year found, combination of these; (4) different in delivery mode, for example, residential courses, home study and 165 m Chart 2 A CONTINUING TEACHER EDUCATION MODEL i L G O V E R N M E N T (C O U N C IL O F M H S T E R S ) p l a n s , r e s o u r c e s , C O N S T R A I N T S ------------------ 1 T F T ! M I N I S T R Y ^ E D U C A T I O N F I N E A R T S ■CONCERNED I - G O V E R N M E N T I D P M E N T A G E N - U N I V E R S I T Y - m i - T E A C H E R S A N D A S S O C I A T I O N . ; - N O N - G O V E R N M E N T I E D U C A T I O N ! - C O M M U N I T Y N A T I O N A L C O M M IS S IO N F O R E D U C A T I O N T INPUT C O U N C I L F O R C O N T I N U I N G T E A C H E R E D U C A T IO N ... L ^ U f C O N T t f U lN G T E A C H E R E D U C A T I O N S E C R E T A R I A T Y'OflRA O P E R A T I O N A L mUMUQN L E X T E R N A L T E A C H E R I N T E R N A L a .C O U N O L K E Y dEKistng [Qjproposed | Evaluation t communication Organizational itruotura and flow of formal communication 1 Input (pronuro, at tit tana*, In • formation) '['Informal ©oro- 'i'munioatioa • i j {Spoofol rola- I tHootNp O U T P U T M O* o \ may be correspondence; (5) different in sponsorship, for example, MEFA, HSIU, TAE: and (6) different as to target population, for example, elementary school teachers, secondary school teachers, vocational/technical teachers, school librarians, etc. The institutions and groups identified in the model have several roles to play. First, these are both a source of pressure and information for the Council on Continuing Teacher Education in formulating policies, general planning, implementing and evaluating educational provisions. Second, they can be sources of funds, facili ties and services. For example, the TAE as in the past, could obtain international assistance from WCTOP. The MEFA could allow the use of its facilities. Third, these insti tutions could sponsor specific programs. For example, the University could conduct continuing teacher education programs for secondary school teachers. Rationale What is proposed here is the creation of a Council for Continuing Teacher Education (CCTE) to study, plan, implement and coordinate the needs and activities related to the further education of teachers inservice. A model is proposed at the national level, partly to fill an exist ing void in this area, but more importantly because the tasl: of providing continuing teacher education programs for more ______________________ 167 than 1,300 elementary teachers alone is a huge and impor tant one that requires a serious commitment and compre hensive study, planning, implementing and evaluating by all concerned. The model recognizes continuing teacher education as an important and useful mechanism for improving teacher quality, and, to some extent quantity. Such an education will be needed more in Ethiopia in the future partly because teachers and their organizations have become a major force to be reckoned with, and partly because of the changing nature of the teaching profession. Experience has shown that (a) expedient measures were used to meet national teacher needs and (b) expen sive and extended teacher training methods have not been in the immediate national interest. Any plan to accelerate educational development in Ethiopia is likely to necessi tate the use of expedient recruitment and employment measures bringing inadequately prepared teachers into the classrooms in greater numbers than before. According to Ethiopian government sources, for example, under the Universal Primary Education plan, pre-service teacher edu cation for elementary school teachers would be given at the lower secondary cycle (grades 7-10). There would be, therefore a continual need for upgrading and updating both new and former teachers. 168 From an international perspective, according to the literature on African continuing teacher education programs conducted in cooperation with or under the direct sponsorship of Anglophone African universities, the approach to the provisions for further education of teachers can generally be characterized as crisis motivated, fragmented, expedient and short-lived. If this assessment is valid, the model suggests the need for a serious commitment on the part of those concerned and the need for a comprehen sive examination of the continuing teacher education provisions in proportion to the value attached to educa tion in these African and other developing countries. Assumptions 1. Tommorow's teachers will not only be instruc tional persons but also a medium of national development and this new role will require retraining on a cyclical basis. 2. Continuing teacher education programs may be used to meet societal and individual needs. 3- Relevant educational experiences may be designee if all concerned participate in planning and implementing continuing teacher education programs. U. All parties concerned will join in a genuine partnership in the provision of continuing teacher educa tion programs. 169 5. The Ethiopian political leadership is cognizant of the need for continuing teacher education, supportive of programs and plans in this area, and supportive of cooperative undertakings* Description and Operation of the Model Description The proposed model has three major components and elements within each component. The three components are: input, operational and output. The Input Component. The major elements in this are the government (Council of Ministers), the MEFA and concerned groups including some government development agencies. The input component is basic to the planning and implementing of a continuing teacher education program. The input (information, assistance and pressure) comes from sources that are different with respect to their political visibility, structure, organizational capability and interest. For example, the Council of Ministers was the main dispenser of public funds. Government agencies are the most visible. They command resources and are relatively easy to identify and approach. The Planning Commission, and the MEFA are two government agencies directly affecting teacher education. The Ministries of Agriculture, Community Development and Public Health have an interest in teacher education partly 170 because MEFA teachers facilitate the missions of these agencies. Both collectively and individually these represent national or governmental interests. They are powerful because they are organized arid have resources. Another major source of input is the concerned groups which also contrast among themselves. The teachers and their association, non-government education, the University and the community represent different capabi lities and interests. Teachers and their association are primarily concerned about individual further education for socio-economic advancement more than improved class room teaching. The community represents the practical educational problems of the lay citizen. Both teachers and the community give ideas, may have some funds but may not provide facilities for continuing teacher education programs. The non-government education sector is interested in participating in the continuing teacher education programs• The University too, is interested in continuing teacher education because (1) it is the sole provider of postsecondary teacher training and (2) what happens at the lower levels of the educational system has a direct bearing on the University’s curriculum. The University also has manpower and facilities to offer to help in the provision of continuing teacher education. 171 The Operational Component* The operational component embraces the National Commission for Education (NCE) and the proposed Council for Continuing Teacher Education with its secretariat and individual programs* The operational component is the heart of the proposal* It is here that policy decisions are made, plans formulated, executed and evaluated* The NCE, assumed still to exist, would be the initiator and overseer of the works of the proposed Council on Continuing Teacher Education* While the CCTE should logically report to the MEFA, it is pro posed here to be accountable to the NCE in order to reduce the undue control that the MEFA might have otherwise. It is suggested that the initial task of getting CCTE formed be assigned to the NCE* If the NCE does not exist, it is suggested that this CCTE have a special relationship with the MEFA, to be defined by the law creating CCTE and the initial task of forming CCTE could be done by a provisional ad hoc committee. The Council for Continuing Teacher Education (CCTE) would be established by government law. On the basis of the input of concerned groups or bodies and government plans, the CCTE makes broad policy decisions governing the continuing education of teachers, philosophy, objective, goals, plans and alternative strategies, areas of respon sibility, nature of programs, source of funds, evaluation of programs, and the use of resources under CCTE 172 jurisdiction. The more specific aspects of the various programs under different agencies would be left to them but would be reviewed and approved by the CCTE. The CCTE could obtain its funds from government, non-government, international and other sources. The CCTE membership should be drawn from represen- . tatives of government agencies and others identified in the model. The members should be nominated and elected by their constituency or appointed by government. It is recommended that CCTE’s size should not exceed 9 or 11 and the members serve, a three to five year term. As a policy making body, the CCTE meets as regularly as necessary but delegates the execution of the policy to the Continuing Teacher Education Secretariat. The Continuing Teacher Education Secretariat is the executive arm of the CCTE charged with the task of ensuring that CCTE policies and plans are implemented and evaluated. Other functions of the Secretariat will be defined by CCTE but will include the keeping of records, dissiminating information on programs, and in cooperation with sponsoring agencies, facilitating curriculum making, funding, participant selection, instruction, choice of delivery mode and evaluation. The chief officer of the Secretariat should be, in an ex-officio capacity, the secretary of CCTE. Whether this is going to be an appointee or elected position will be decided by the CCTE. _________-_________________. ____________ 173 Programs are continuing teacher activites under the supervision of the Secretariat but sponsored or conducted by different organizations* Evaluation is another critical aspect of the pro- posed model* Evaluation, formative or sumroative, is an essential and ongoing aspect of any educational program* The evaluation proposed here varies with respect to level and source, purpose, scope and frequency. Evaluation can be external and internal. In this proposal, external evaluation is that which is conducted by a body outside of the CCTE and its programs* For example, the government or the NCE using national or foreign experts conducts an evaluation of the entire CCTE undertaking or any one of the constituent programs. When the CCTE, however, conducts its own evaluation of its activities or a single program, that constitutes an internal evaluation* So, there is an internal evaluation at the CCTE level and another at the program level, as when a sponsoring agency evaluates its programs. The frequency with which evaluation is conducted depends on who is evaluating, what is being evaluated and for what purpose. External evaluation by the government is much less frequent than an internal evaluation of one specific program Under a sponsoring agency. The Output Component* The output component has only one element: teacher improvement. Teacher improvement : . • , _____________ m is a very critical, if not the most critical, component Of the process of continuing teacher education. Teacher improvement is, the focal point of the model; everything converges here. Teacher improvement is very much affected by and affects other factors in the process. In a way, it is both the beginning and end of the process of continu ing teacher education. Teacher improvement as a process addresses such considerations as: improvement in what, improvement for what and improvement how. These are vital questions. Teacher improvement can be achieved through academic training by providing secondary or postsecondary level instruction. Teacher improvement can be achieved through professional programs introducing teachers to new pedagogy and new educational policies, or both the academic and professional can also be mixed and provided. The purpose of teacher improvement can be societal, improved classroom teaching or individual i.e., helping teachers make socio-economic advances. The two objectives are not mutually exclusive, but the distinction is signifi cant where salaries are tied to academic qualifications or where attendance in continuing teacher education programs is a prerequisite for continued employment. The distinc tion also helps decide whether programs should be privately or publicly funded. 175 Another important variable in the output component is the voluntary or compulsory nature of a continuing teacher education program. Choice of one or the other has serious consequences on teacher morale, and in planning and implementing continuing teacher education programs. Compulsory programs are generally difficult to administer; voluntary ones are difficult to plan. Operation The intent here is not to prescribe how the components and variables should function. Rather, the purpose is to outline some of the fundamental aspects of the operation. The more specific details of the proposed Council for Continuing Teacher Education, its size and composition, responsibilities, term of office, powers and duties* etc., would be spelled out in the law creating CCTE and in the rules and regulation CCTE itself would develop to govern its activities and those of the Secretariat. The following conditions are essential to the operation of the model. First, the participation of all concerned must be sought and be an integral part of the decision making process. The CCTE should be neither so big as to become too cumbersome to work, nor so small as to restrict the input capability and to allow a small group to become too powerful. Moreover, there is a need for some criteria to determine the basis of representation so that government institutions are not over-represented and dominating. Second, the proposal also calls for a recognition and understanding of the factors acting on the educational provisions and a taking-account of these factors in the decision making process. Third, there must be as many communication channels as possible to offset any intentional or unintentional blockage of the flow of communication by any one group along the communication line. Fourth, the proposal also calls for a maximum degree of financial and structural independence necessary to operate continuing teacher education programs. Fifth, basic to the operation of the model is the identification of funding sources, identification and prioritization of needs, objectives and goals, and a serious planning and follow-up of the plan through imple mentation and evaluation. Lastly, there must be provisions for change, change in the nature of CCTE, and its programs. Strengths of the Model 1. The proposed model calls for a wider participa tion in the decision making process as opposed to the previous unilateral decision making by one or two 177 institutions. 2. The task of providing continuing teacher education programs is no longer the secondary responsbility of one or two willing institutions. It is to become a formally defined national cooperative effort and broader in scope. The task is to be assigned to a specific insti tution. 3. Accountability is one major characteristic of the model. The model identifies who is accountable to whom. Accountability was unheard of before. M. Important aspects of the process of continuing teacher education such as identification of input sources, identification of goals and objectives, planning and implementing, all of which were neglected before, are now identified• 5. The model calls for a comprehensive view of the entire area of continuing teacher education and the" process that is involved in planning and implementing it. 6. The model calls for a serious commitment on the part of all concerned for a iasting program. Summary A model that would make the continuing education of teachers a serious and comprehensive undertaking in Ethiopia, and possibly in other similar countries, was developed. _____________________________________; __________ 178 This chapter dealt with the operational conceptua lization of the model and its rationale, identification S ' and description of major,components and elements within each component, explanation of how these related to one another, and strengths of the model* 179 CHAPTER VII SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary Purpose Using the case study approach as a methodological base and university public service as a theoretical frame work, this study undertook (1) to provide an explanatory analysis of how and why a Continuing Teacher Education Program was established at the former Haile Sellassie I University, (2) to examine its development through 1974, and (3) to propose a model for an improved approach for the continuing education of Ethiopian teachers. Procedure To achieve these objectives, the steps undertaken consisted of reviewing related literature on university public service and Ethiopian education, with stress on teacher education. Several issues raised about university public service in the literature, and from the experiences of the researcher, formed the bases for soliciting relevant information about CTEP through interviews and correspondence 180 with individuals and agencies associated with CTEP. Based on the case study and review of literature, a provisional model for an improved approach to continuing education of teachers was developed. Both the case study and the model were submitted to a panel of four Ethiopian educators for critique* This model was recommended by the researcher as one of the options for avoiding piecemeal approaches, as in the past, allowing a broader participa tion, and making the continuing education experience relevant and useful both to society and the individual. Summary of Findings 1. Before CTEP expanded to include three programs for elementary school administrators and Junior secondary school teachers, it was jointly opened by the MEFA and UCAA in 1958 to upgrade elementary school teachers for second level teaching through a summer residential program. 2. Pressure from teachers was one of the principal factors in the establishment, continuity and financial self-sufficiency and diversification of course offerings of CTEP. 3- Tuition and other services were free until 1968. 4. CTEP had financial and educational incentives and only those who met entrance requirements studied in CTEP. 181 5. Although CTEP was never evaluated, there is a widespread belief that CTEP contributed to the improvement of education in Ethiopia. * , * ■ %. Conclusions The following conclusions, made within the llmita- a tions and delimitations of this study, are of two types. The first category consists of statements specific to the Continuing Teacher Education Program at the former Halle Sellassie I University. The second category of statements are theoretical conclusions about aspects of CTEP that might be generalizable to other similar programs in similar situations• Conclusions Specific to CTEP 1. In 1958, CTEP started as an elitist postsecon dary program and has remained so despite attempts to reorient it to the improvement of instruction in the elementary schools. Later, what was delineated by the 1960-61 Postsecon dary Vacation Course Committee as a third and incidental function of CTEP (providing access to higher education), appears to have become a central and dominating function of CTEP. This third function apparently was counter productive to the main objective of CTEP as defined In 182 1960-61. This third function was facilitated by CTEP’s continued affiliation with the University. 2. While the co-sponsorship between the MEFA and HSIU was very useful in getting CTEP initially started, the poorly defined co-sponsorship was detrimental to CTEP's development, especially in limiting annual admissions, in delaying CTEP’s institutionalization and in contributing to the lack of evaluation. 3. The co-sponsors agreed in March 1968 to pay two-thirds of the cost of CTEP while the participants paid the rest. It is very doubtful, however, that the co-spon- sors had any schedule of how long their assistance was to last and how it was to phase out. The result was continu ing increases in tuition and other fees between 1969 and 1971. 4. Regardless of its motivations and intent, the March 1968 decision by the MEFA and HSIU which ushered in a period of fiscal independence for CTEP, was the single most useful thing that occurred in CTEP’s entire develop ment. 5. It appears that CTEP and the co-sponsors had a symbiotic relationship. For the assistance the MEFA gave to CTEP, the MEFA did not only acquire some trained persons but perhaps more importantly, the MEFA was able to minimize the pressure coming from teachers for more education and display a good public image as an institution concerned - . 182 about its employees* For the support the University gave CTEP (use of its Seal and resources), the University was able (a) to minimize pressures for further education from teachers, (b) to display an image of a public service oriented institution visa vis its own community and the interna tional university community, (c) more concretely, to recruit able students into its education degree programs in sufficient members, and (d) to use CTEP as a vehicle to promote the University*s image in the remote corners of Ethiopia* 6. CTEP served the different underlying interests to the parties involved. To the co-sponsoring institutions, CTEP was a pattern-raaintenance mechanism, but to the pro gram participants, it was an avenue for social, economic arid educational advancement, not improved classroom teach ing. 7. The initial decision to use CTEP as a source of second level teachers appears to have been a political decision made by the MEFA and UCAA leadership to meet secondary school needs at the expense of elementary schools. In the 1950*s and even late 1960’s elementary schools were staffed with underqualified and undertrained Ethiopians and inservice training was ad hoc* Granted that the Ethiopianization of the second level teaching staff was important, the two institutions should have concentrated 18M orx bringing up elementary teachers to the defined teaching requirement. 8. Although CTEP participants were never part of the decision making process, at no time did they challenge the co-sponsoring institutions. Lack of a mechanism for participating in decision making, a cultural predisposition to accept authority unquestioningly, a faith in the University as a fair and Just institution, lack of interest in the process but a strong interest in the product (a university diploma), all contributed to the teachers* submissive acceptance of institutional decisions. 9. Pressure from participants, institutional support, the momentum of CTEP itself and the symbiotic relationship of CTEP with its sponsors were major factors that maintained CTEP. 10. CTEP, especially after 1968, was diversified and the potential for further diversifying it, for example, by including additional tracks for school librarians and handicraft teachers, was there. 11. Both the MEFA nad HSIU and the foreign educa tion advisors should be credited for opening and support ing CTEP, for searching alternative modes of funding (foreign assistance and fees) and for providing opportunity for the advancement of elementary school teachers, although it is not clear whether this humanitarian consideration was part of the original plan. 185 Theoretical Conclusions In spite of the problems and difficulties, CTEP developed some distinctive characteristics which might be applicable elsewhere. 1. Financial Self-Sufficiency. One of the most serious problems of adult education programs in developing countries is the insufficiency or complete lack of funds. The experience in this case study shows that similar adult education programs can be relatively self-sufficient by charging fees to participants. The concept of financial self-sufficiency has very strong potential applications in developing areas where the competition for the meager resources is fierce and where education in general and adult education in particular is not the first category in national budget allocations, There is a need for some safeguard to ensure that fees charged to participants are not excessively high and discriminatory and that fees collected under the pretext of program self-sufficiency are not used as a source of supplementary revenue for the sponsoring agency. 2. Considerations for Socio-Economic Equity. The people of many of the developing countries who live at a subsistence level pay for basic education and training. As a group, teachers in many of these countries are part of the social and economic elite with regular earnings several times more than the per capita income. It is 186 therefore socially and economically fair and just to charge, as CTEP did, the beneficiary for education beyond the defined minimum level of education. Socio-economic equity should be one of the prime considerations in public or private funding of further education opportunities* 3. Momentum. Despite the problems CTEP had, it kept on going for 16 years. The major force perhaps, behind this phenomenon was the momentum of CTEP itself* This self-propelling force which programs and institutions acquire over a period of time is very significant in edu cational planning. Educational planners should recognize and anticipate such a force while planning, so that strategies for a gradual phasing out or rechanneling of the education program are built into the plan from the beginning* 4. Continuity. Many developing countries are known for starting and abandoning programs. The conse quence is often lack of tradition and improvement and development of programs. CTEP’s continued existence for 16 years was a major factor in the sustained economic and social value of the CTEP diploma, in the constant and expanding link between the University and the community, rural and urban Ethiopia. The lesson here is continuity is the basis for development. 5. Provision for Socio-Economic Mobility. In a context where higher education provisions are new and 187 limited, where socio-economic mobility is tied to academic qualifications, the acquisition of another diploma becomes the most sought-after individual endeavor and should realistically be recognized as such. Educational programs like CTEP have the potential for increasing access to higher education for adults. Recommendations It is recommended that 1. (a) the model be used for planning and imple menting a continuing teacher education program in Ethiopia after it has been submitted to the interested institutions and organized groups for their understanding, considera tion, and evaluation, (b) the model be evaluated and modified as circumstances dictate. 2. Further studies be conducted: (a) to establish the effect of CTEP on the individual teacher, classroom teaching and the teaching profession; (b) to ascertain whether or not CTEP achieved its initial objectives; (c) to identify additional participant motivations; (d) to establish where the graduates are; (e) to ascertain the intent to which non-government teachers wish and can participate in such a program; and (f) to find out how CTEP could be decentralized on a regional basis. 188 REFERENCES 189 REFERENCES • / * Abeje, Haile 'Yesus. Correspondence: Response to questions, September 23, 1977. Adams, 0. K., & Bjork, R. M. Education in Developing Areas, , New York: D. McKay Co., 19557 ' Adedeji, A. The universities and continuing education for manpower development. International Congress of University Adult Education Journal, April 1977, 16(1), 13-22. Adu-^Ampoma, S. M. Some thoughts on the in-service training of teachers. Ghana Journal of Education. 1972, 1-10. Alemayyehw, Luelseged. A descriptive analysis of the administration of education in transition in Ethiopia. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California, 1969. Aleydeino, S. C., & Hawes, H. W. R. TISEP: A well planned in-service program that did not quite work. Teacher Education in New Countries, May 1971, 12(1), 19-24. Amare, Germa. Memorandum to Dr. Mulugeta Wodajo, January 8, 1966. Amare, Germa. Memorandum to Dean Mulugeta Wodajo, January 3, 1967. Amare, Germa. Memorandum to Dr. Mulugeta Wodajo, March 9, 1969. Amare, Germa. The aims and purposes of church education. Education in East Africa, 1975, 5.(1), 43-56. Ampene, E. K. University adult education in west Africa. International Congress, of University Adult Education Journal, April 1977. lb(l), 29-39. ' Ashby, E. African Universities and Western Tradition. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1964. 190 Ashby, E. Universities; British, Indian and African. . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1966. Ashby, E. Adapting Universities to Technological Society. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1974• Axford, R. W. Adult Education: The Open Door. Scranton, Pennsylvania! International Textbook Company, 1969- Bara, V! M. Ah. appraisal of inservice teacher education in Lesotho. Education in East Africa. 1970, 3,(1), 15-21. Bansa, S. K., & Takiyi, E. B. Attracting recruiting, retraining teachers in Liberian schools. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Columbia University, 1967. Bauer, R. C. University adult education in an emerging society. International Congress of University Adult Education Journal, April 1962, 1(1), 7-12. Bekele, Abebe. Memorandum to Dean Mulugeta Wodajo, November 22, 1967. Bekele, Abebe. Memorandum to Dean Mulugeta Wodajo, January 2, 1968. Bekele, Abebe. Memorandum to Dean Mulugeta Wodajo, March 29, 1968. Bekele. Abebe. Letter to Dean Mulugeta Wodajo, July 31t 1968. Bekele, Abebe. Correspondence: Response to questions, October 20, 1977* Bekele, Maaza, Report on the experimental program ifor elementary and secondary education. Addis Ababa: TheTCooperative Education Press,. January 1961. Bekoe, D. A. Widening access to adult education: the universities* commitment. International Congress of University Adult Education Journal, April 1977* l6(l), 8-12. Bender, M. J.; Bowen, J. D.; Cooper, R. L.* & Ferguson, C. A. (Eds.) Language in Ethiopia. London: Oxford University Press,1976. 191J Berietsen, P. Problems of priorities in adult education. In C. G. Widstrand (Ed.), Development and Adult Educa tion in Africa. Upsala: The Scandanavian Institute of African Studies, 1965, 23-39* Beshire, M. 0. The foundations of extra-mural work in Ghana, Nigeria and the Sudan. Sudan notes (Khartoum), 1973* Bjerkan, 0. C. Plans, targets and trends in Ethiopian education. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland, 1972. Bowen, Jw D. Staffing schools in developing countries: An Ethiopian case study. In Workshops in English as a. Second Language. University of California, Los Angeles, 1970, 5, 71-86. Bowen, J. D. Organization, methodology and supervision. In M. L. Bender, et al. (Eds.), Language in Ethiopia. London: Oxford University Press, 19767 305-323* Bown, L. African universities and adult education. International Congress of University Adult Education Journal, 1972, llT 67-86. Bown, L. University and community in Africa— A case study of Nigerian universities. International Congress of University Adult Education Journal, April 1977, l6, 49-66. Brooks, K. Literacy programs in Ethiopia. In M. L. Bender, et al. (Eds.), Language in Ethiopia. London: Oxford University Press, 1976* 520-534. Brown, R. L. Occupational prestige and the Ethiopian student. Personnel and Guidance Journal, November 1969* 48(3), 222-228. “ : : : Brubacher, J. S., & Rudy, W. Higher Education in Transi tion. A History of American Colleges and Universities, 1636-1968. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1968. Cane, B. In-service Training. A Study of Teachers1 Views and Preferences. London: NFER, The Mere, Upton, Park, Slough, Bucks, 1969* Carmichael, 0. C. Extension and extramural studies. In .0. C. Carmichael (Ed.), Universities: Commonwealth and American. A -Comparative Study. New 7ork: Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1959, 259-291* 192 ' ’ Chase, H. In difference, smugness and rigidity in academia. In C. G; Dobbins and C. G. T. Lee (Eds.), Whose Goals for American Higher Education. Washington, D. C.: American Council on Education, 1968, 100-105. Cole, C< Continuing education programmes: Fourah Bay College, University of Sierra Leone, A Case Study. Paper prepared for Regional Seminar in University Level Continuing Education for Manpower Development in Africa, Economic Commission for Africa, Addis Ababa, September 1973- Coles, E. K. T. Adult Education in Developing Countries. New York: Perganon Press, 1969. - Coles, E. K. T. Universities and adult education. International Review of Education, 1972, lj&, 172-182. Coleman, J. S. Education and Political Development. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1965. Conley, W. H. The university’s role In adult education. The Journal of Higher Education, 1955, 26(1), 1*4-17. Coombs, P. The World of Educational Crisis: A Systems Approach. New York: Oxford University Press, 1968. Corson, J. J. Public service and higher education: Corapatability or conflict? In C. G. Dobbins, et al. (Eds.), Whose Goals for American Higher Education. Washington, D. C.: American Council on Education, 1968, 80-102. Court, D.. The experience of higher education in East Africa: The University of Dar es Salaam as a new model? Comparative Education, October 1975, 11(3), 193-218. Cowan, L. G.; O’Connell, J.; & Scanlon, D. G.. Education and National Building in Africa. New York: Frederick Praeger, 1966. Crnkovic, J. K. Memorandum to Dean Mulugeta Wodajo, June 6, 1965. Dagne, Haile Gabriel. The School System in Ethiopia. Institute fur Auslandsbeziehungen Zeitschrift fur Kulturaustausch Sonderausgabe 1973, Anthiopien. 193 Dagne, Haile Gabriel. Non-government schools in Ethiopia. In M. L. Bender, et al. (Eds.), Language in Ethiopia. London: Oxford University Press‘ d 19767 339-370* de Kiewiet, C. W. The Emergent African University: An Interpretation. Washington, D. C. : American Council on Education, Overseas Liaison Committee, December 1971. DeVane, W. C. Higher Education in Twentieth Century America. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1965. Doyle, L. A. Continuing Education-rNsukka. . A Program of Extension Aimed at Serving the Practical and Intellec- tual Needs of a Developing Nation. U.S. Department of HEW, ERIC. ED026-577, 1969. Duke, C. Thinking towards the future. International Congress of University Adult Education" JournaTT Hay 1972, 11(2), 125-13^. “ Duke, C. Survey of world trends on access to adult educa-' tion: The contribution of universities. International Congress of University Adult Education Journal, July 1976, 15(2), 6-31, Economic Commission for Africa. Report of the regional seminar on university level continuing education for manpower development in Africa. Economic Commission for Africa, Addis Ababa, September 1973. Eddy, E. D. Colleges for Our Land and Time. The Land- Grant Idea in American Educationi New York: Harper & Brothers, 1956. Edstrom, L-0. Correspondence Instruction in Ethiopia, Tanzania, Malawi, Zambia, Uganda. Experiences, Needs and Interests! Sweden: Dag Hammarskjold Foundation, 1966, ERIC ED012-412. Edstrom, L-0; Erdos, R.; & Prosser, R. Mass Education: Studies in Adult Education in Some Developing Countries. New York: African Publishing Corp. for the Dag Hammarskjold Foundation, 1970. Education Sector Review. Education Sectoi? Review. Draft Report. Addis Ababa; Ethiopia, June IB, 1972. ~ Elder, S\ T.; Elder, E. S.; & Olsori, R. D. Research versus teaching: A selected review. Improving University and College Teaching, Autumn 1976, 24(4), 221-225. Elementary Education Department, Faculty of- Education, Haile Sellassie I University. Memorandum to the Assistant Dean, ITEP, August 16, 197**. Erdos, R., & Clark, J. H * Correspondence Courses for In-service Teacher Training at Primary Level in Developing CountriesT Report of a Meeting of Interna tional Experts, Hamburg, September 1970. International Studies in education #28. Hamburg, UNESCO, Institute for Education, 1970. Faculty of Education. A summary of policy agreement between Ministry of.Education and HSIU. Faculty of Education. Faculty of Education, HSIU, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, November 27, 1971* Fafunwa, A. B. History of Education in Nigeria. London: Allen and Unwin, 1974., Faure, E.; Herrera, F.; Keddoura, A. R.; Lopez, H.; Petrovsky, D, P.; Rohnema, M.; & Ward, F. C. Learning to Be. The World of Education Today and Tomorrow. Paris: UNESCO, 1972. Financial Information Center, Haile Sellassie I University. Memorandum to the Directors of Summer Programs, November 13, 1969. Financial Information Center, Haile Sellassie I University. Memorandum to the Assistant Dean, ITEP, January 8, 1966 E.C. Flexner, A. Universities: American English German. New York: Oxford University Press, 19687 Foley, K. Adult education and underdevelopment in Kenya. Australian Journal of Adult Education, July 1975, 15(2), 55-63. Gabre Giorgis, Assefa. Ethiopiafs programs of secondary comprehensive education. Education in East Africa, 1971, 2(2), 22t29. Gabre Sellassie, Ayalew. Three.years experience in educa tion. Ethiopia Observer, 1964, 8.(1), 19-36. Gardner, J. Self-Renewal. New York: Harper 4 Row, 1963. . 195 Ginsberg, E., & Smith, H. A. Manpower Strategy for Developing Countries: Lessons from Ethiopia. New York: Columbia University Press, 1967. Gordon, J. University extension in the United States. In 0. C. Carmichael (Ed.), Universities: Commonwealth and American. A Comparative Study. New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1959. Gordon, M. University level continuing education for manpower development. The North American experience* Paper presented at the Regional Seminar on University Level Continuing Education for Manpower Development in Africa, Economic Commission for Africa, Addis Ababa, September 1973* Gratten, H. C. Inquest of Knowledge. A Historical Perspective on Adult Education. New York: Association Press, 1955. Habte, Aklilu. Brain drain in the elementary school: Why teachers leave the profession. Journal of Ethiopian Education, 1967, 1(1), 27-39. Habte, Aklilu. A Forward Look. Special Report from the President. Haile Sellassie I University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. New York: Education and World Affairs, September 1969. Habte, Aklilu. Higher education in Ethiopia in the 1970*s and beyond. A survey of some issues and responses. In Cl F. Ward (Ed.), Education and Development Recon sidered. The Bellagio Conference Papers. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1974, 214-240. Habte, Aklilu. Correspondence: Response to questions, July 30, 1977. Habte, Aklilu. Group Interview, April 16, 1978, 12:00 noon, Washington, D. C. Habte, Aklilu; Gebrehiwot, Mengesh; & Kehoe, M. Higher education in Ethiopia. Journal of Ethiopian Studies, 1963, 1, 3-7. Haile, Dagne, & Yimer, Erku. Law end Population Growth in Ethiopia. Faculty of Lw"J Haile Sellassie I University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 1970., Haile Sellassie I University. A Blue Print for Develop ment . Haile Sellassie I University, Addis Ababa, August 1970. 196 Haile Sellassie I University. The President*s Report 1971*72* Haile Sellassie I University, Addis Ababa, September 1972. Haile Sellassie I University. The Presidents Report 1972-73* Haile Sellassie I Univers i ty, Add is Ababa, October 1973- Haile Sellassie I University. Consolidated Legislation of the Faculty Council. Haile Sellassie I University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, September 1973* Hailu, Tickaher. Improved staff utilization as a remedy for teacher shortage in Ethiopia. Unpublished disser tation^ University of1 Colorado, 1968. Hailu, Tickaher. Ethiopia’s educational development. Education in East Africa, 1975, 5.(2), 145-157. Han, Lee-Min. A historical sketch of the public health college and training center, Gondar. Ethiopia Observer, 1966, 10(3), 199-203* Hanson, J. W. The land grant philosophy and African higher -education. West African Journal of Education, 1962, 6(2), 80-84. Hanson, J. W. Human capital requirements for educational expansions Teacher shortages and teacher supply. In C* A. Anderson and H. J. Bowman (Eds.), Education and Economic Development. Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1965, 63-89. Hanson, J. W.. Education, Nsukka. A Study of Institution Building among the Modern Ibo. East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1963. Hanson, J. W., & Brembeck, C. J. Education and Development of Nations. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc. i s f f:------- Hedlund, R. L. Teachers and the teaching profession in Ethiopia. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Utah, 1975. Houle, C. University adult education in the United States. Universities Quarterly, May 1952, 6/3), 277-287. Hesburgh, T. M.; Miller, P.; & Wharton, C., Jr. Patterns for Lifelong Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 197 Hutchins, R. M. The Higher Learning in America, New Haven: Yale University Press, 193*>. Hutchins, R.. M. The Learning Society, New York: The New American Library, IncT, 1969* Imperial'Ethiopian' Government. Ethiopian Statistical Abstract >1972. Central Statistical Office, Addis Ababa, Befhanehna Salaam Printing Press. Imperial Ethidpian Government. Ethiopia Statistical Abstract 1973. Central Statistical Office, Addis Ababa, * Berhanenna Salaam Printing Press. Imperial Ethiopian Government. The Development of in—service Teacher Education 19.57*1963 E.C. RTnistry of Education and Fine Arts, Teacher Education Division, 1964 E.C. Imperial Ethiopian Government; Ministry of Education and Fine Arts. School Census for Ethiopia 1963*1965 E.C., 1969/7*0-1972/73 Part 1. Educational Planning and Research Unit, Ministry of Education and Fine Arts, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 1973* Imperial Ethiopian Government; Ministry of Education and Fine Arts. School Census for Ethiopia Part 2 1966 E.C. (1973-74). Published by the Educational Planning and Research Unit, Ministry of Education and Fine Arts, Addis Ababa, 1974. International. Bank for Reconstruction and Development. International Development Association. Economic growth and prospects in Ethiopia Volume IV. Annex 7: Educa tion and training. Annex 8 tourism. East Afric.an Department, September 22, 1970. Inquai, S. Adult education in Ethiopia. In J. Lowe (Ed.), Adult Education and Nation Building; A Symposium on Adult Education in Developing Countries. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1970, 50-62. Johnston, D. J. Teachers In-service Education. New York: Pergamon Press, 1971. Junge, B., & Negewo, Beyene. A pilot evaluation study of the directors and supervisors summer inservice program at Haile Sellassie I University. Journal of Ethiopian Education, December 1971,-5.(1)* 70-61. Kabwasa, A., & Kaunda, M. M. (Eds.). Correspondence Educa tion in Africa. Boston: Rouledge & Kegu Paul, 1973* 198 Kabwasa? N. 0. The perspective of adult education in French speaking African universities: Consideration of needs. International Congress of University Adult Ed ucation Journal, April 1977, 16(1 )t **!-** 9 * Kajubi, S. W. New- directions in teacher education in East Africa, International Review of Education, 1971, 197-208. Kerr, C. The Uses of a University. New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1963* Kerr, G. Remembering Flexner. In A. Flexner, Universities American, English, German, London: Oxford University Press, 1968, vii-xx. Klassen, F, Teacher education in Ethibpia. School and Society, February 1963, 9jL, 96-97. I Korten, C, Planned Change in a Traditional Society; Psychological Problems of Modernization in Ethiopia, New York: Praeger Publishers, 1972. Knowles, M. S. The Adult Education Movement in the United States. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston; Inc., 1962. Lehrer, S. (Ed.). Leaders, Teachers and Learners in Academe, New York: Appleton Century-Crofts, Educa tional Division, Meredith Corporation, 197**. Lengrand, P. Lifelong education in a changing world. Education in Eastern Africa, 1973, 3t 99-105. Lengrand, P. An Introduction to Lifelong Education. London: Crom Helm Ltd. and Paris: UNESCO Press, 1975. Lewis, J. L. Getting good teachers for developing countries. International Review of Education, 1976, 16, 393-**05. Leys, C. The role of university in an underdeveloped country. Journal of East African Research and PevelopmentT 1971. l(l). 29-40. Lipsky, G. A. Ethiopia: Its people its society its culture. New Haven: Hraf Press, 1962. "" Lovegrove, M. N. Educational growth and economic con- traints: The Ethiopian experience, Part I. Comparative Education. March 1973, 9(1), 17-27. 19$ Lowe, J. (Ed*). Adult Education and Nation Building: A Symposium on Adult Education in Developing Countries. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1970. Lowe, J. University level dontinuing education for manpower development in Africa. A provisional survey. Economic Commission for Africa, Addis Ababa, September 1973. Lowe, J. The Education of Adults: A World Perspective. Paris: The UNESCO Press, 1975. Madsen, H. S. Language examinations in Ethiopia. In Bender, et al. (Eds.), Language In Ethiopia. London: Oxford University Press'^ 19767 ^ 2-504 • Maleche, A. Why join teaching. Education in Eastern Africa, 1974, M2), 199-207. Mancharia, D. Continuing education in Kenya. Institute of Adult Studies, University of Nairobi. A case study. Paper prepared for Regional Seminar on University Level Continuing Education for Manpower Development In Africa, Economic Commission for Africa, Addis Ababa, September, 1973 Mekuria, Getachew. Letter to Dr. Sam Moore, Acting Dean, Faculty of Education, September 28, 1973* Mengesha, Amberber. Correspondence: Response to questions, July 11, 1977. Mooers, J. D. Factors related to teacher dropout in Zambia. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1968. Morris, J. G., Sr. An investigation of some of the factors associated with persistence in teaching in Liberia. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1964. Morton, J. R. University extension in the United States. Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 1953* Negewo, Beyene. Improvement and expansion of inservice teacher education in the HSIU Faculty of Education. A draft proposal. Faculty of Education, Haile Sellassie I University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, October 27, 1971. Negewo, Beyene. Correspondence: Response to questions, April 6, 1978. 200 Neqniq, Million* The most urgent needs in the expansion of Ethiopian education. Ethiopia Observer, 1958, j2(4), 138-139. - Neqniq, Million* Group Interview, April 16, 1978, 12:00 noon, Washington, D.C. Newman, C. The Idea of a University. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1550. Niehoff, R. 0., & Wilder, B. D. Non-formal Education in Ethiopia. Team Reports in Program of Studies in Non- formal Education, Institute for International Studies in Education, East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1974. Nwokorie, I. S- The role of Nigerian universities in adult education*! Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1964* Nyerere, J. K. Man and_pevelopment* London: Oxford University Press, 1974. Office of Inservice Teacher Education Program. Annual report on summer school 1972. Faculty of Education, Haile Sellassie I University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, October 24, 1972. Office of Ins^rvice Teacher Education Program. Annual report of inservice program 1972-73. Faculty of ” Education, Haile Sellassie I University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, October 1973* Office of Inservice Teacher Education Program* Annual report of inservice teacher, education 1973-74. Faculty of Education, Haile Sellassie I University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, September 1974* Office of Inservice Teacher Education Program. Inservice teacher education programs and the provincial education officers. A summary report. Faculty of Education, Haile Sellassie I University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, March 1974. Office of Inservice Teacher Education Program. Memorandum to members of inservice teacher education committee. Faculty of Education, Haile Sellassie I University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, May 9, 1974. Office of Inservice Teacher Education Program. Student handbook* Faculty of Education, National University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Summer 1975. 201 Office of Inservice Teacher Education Program. Schemes of inservice training for secondary school teachers and directors. A proposal. Faculty of Education, Addis Ababa University, May 1976. Ogunsheye, A. . Adult education and colonial universities. Universities Quarterly, November 1955, 10(1), **6-55. Okeem, E. 0. Adult education and national development in Africa. International Congress of University Adult Education Journal; November 1972# 11 ( 3) » . 4 1-61. Osiyale, A. Evaluation of teacher vacation course. West African Journal of Education/ October 1970, 14(3)« 191-195. Pankhurst, R. Ethiopia. In Scanlon, D. (Ed.), Church. State and Education in Africa. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 1966, 23-58. Pankhurst, R. Education in Ethiopia. In M.L. Bender, et al. (Eds.), Language in Ethiopia. London: Oxford University Press, 1976, 324-342. Pankhurst, S. Ethiopia A Cultural History. Essex: Lalibeia House, 1955. Pankhurst, S. (Ed.). Education in Ethiopia. Ethiopia ' Observer, March 1958, £(4). Penefield, K* R. Public service vs. academic values. University extension in conflict. Adult Education: A Journal of Research and Theory, Winter 1975 25(2), 107^124. • P e rh a m , M. The . Government of Ethiopia. London: Faber and Faber Limited, 1969. Perkins, J. A. The University in Transition. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1966V Prosser, R. Adult Education for Developing Countries. East Africa Publishing House, Nairobi, 196T. Prosser, R. What is adult education? An African prospec tive. In L. 0. Edstrom, et al. (Eds.), Mass Education: Studies in Adult Education and Teaching by Correspon dence in Some Developing Countries. New York: Arrican Publishing Corporation for the Dag Haramarskjold. Foundation, 1970, 23-47. 202 Prosser, R. Research in adult education. In L. 0. Edstrom, et al. (Eds.), Mass Education; Studies in Adult Educa- tion and Teaching by Correspondence in Some Developing Countries. New York: Africana Publishing Corp. for the Hammarskjold Foundation, 1970, 88-103. Provisional Military Government of Socialist Ethiopia. Ethiopia. Statistical Abstract 1975. Prepared and printed by Central Statistical Office, Addis Ababa: Berhanenna Salaam Printing Press. Raybould, S. G. Adult Education at a Tropical University. London: Langman, Green and Co., 1957. ' Re, E. D. Education in the nation*s service. In C. G. Dobbins, et al. (Eds.), : Whose Goals for American Higher Education. Washington, D. C. : American Council on Education, 1968, 91-9** • Rogan, K. C. In-service education in Papua New Guinea. Teacher Education in New Countries, November 1970, 11(2). Rogan, K. C. In-service education in Papua New Guinea. Teacher Education in New Countries, November 1970, 11(2), 149-155. — Russel, M. Courses for in-service teachers in Northern Nigeria. ' Teacher Education (Oxford), November 1967* 8C2)f iio-rnr: : Shack, W". A. Occupational prestige, state and social change in Ethiopia. Africa: Journal of International African Institute, 1976, Vol. 46(2), 166-179. Shaw, N. C. Administration of Continuing Education. A Guide for Ad mi n i s t ra tor s. Wash i ngtonT 0. C.: NAPCAE, 19697 ' “ Shewaye, Tesfaye, & Taylor, C. V. Language Curricula. In L. M. Bender, et al. (Eds.), Language in Ethiopia. London: Oxford University Press7 1976, 371-399. Stabler, J. B. The University of Zambia. Its origin and its first year. The Journal of Higher Education, January 1968, 39,, 32-39. Summer School Office. Report. The elementary teachers diploma course. Faculty of Education, Haile Sellassie I University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 1963-64. 203 T&lbot, D. A. Haile Sellassie. Silver Jubilee* The Hague: N. P. Van Stockum and Zoon Publishers, 1955** Terefe, Taddesse. Progress, problems and prospects in Ethiopian education. Ethiopia Observer. 1964, 8(1), 6-19. Tesfaye, Andargatchew. The training and development, of manpower for social service in Ethiopia. . Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, 1973* Todaro, M. P. & Colleagues. Education and national development: The university. In F. C. Ward (Ed.), Education and Development Reconsidered. The Bellagio Conference Papers. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1974* * • *- ! * • Trudeau, E. A survey of higher education in Ethiopia with implications for, future planning and development. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1968. Tugbiyele, E. A. Education and training programme at the continuing education centre, University of Lagos. Paper submitted for the Regional Seminar on University Level Continuing Education for Manpower Development in Africa, Economic Commission for Africa, Addis Ababa, September 1973. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Yearbook of Education, vol. 21. Paris: UNESCO, 1959. : 1 United Nations Educational, Scientific arid Cultural Organization. The development of higher education in Africa. Report of the Conference on the Development of Higher Education in Africa, Tananarive, September 1962, 3-12. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Practical Guide to In-service Teacher Training in Africa. Establishment, Extension and Control of Training Programs. Paris: UNESCO, 1970.u United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. The teachers* role and training. Joint paper from the International Teachers Organizations presented to the International Conference on Education, Geneva, August-Septeraber 1975. UNESCO. Education on the Move. A Comparison Volume to Learning to Be. Paris: UNESCO, 1975. 204 United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund. Plan of operations for a primary school education and teacher training in Ethiopia, February 1973. United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund. (Representative in Addis Ababa). Correspondence: Response to questions, September 15, 1977. University College of Addis Ababa. Report on postsecondary vacation course for elementary school teachers. University. College of Addis Ababa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, n.d. Vivan, S. In-service education for primary teachers in Uganda. Teacher Education, May 1968, 2(1), **0-50. Volpe, E. P. Teaching, research and service* In C. G. Dobbins, et al. (Eds.), Whose Goals for American Higher Education. Washington, D. C.: American Council on Education, 1968, 80-82. Wagaw, Teshome G & Wole, Darge., Teachers and directors speak out. Journal of Ethiopian Education, June 1971, j*(2), **3-67. Wandera, A. The role of the university in out-of-school and continuing education for human resources development in Africa. Keynote address at Seminar on University Level Continuing Education for Manpower Development in Africa, Economic Commission for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, September 1973. Ward, C. F. Development and Education Reconsidered. The Bellagio Conference Papers. New York: Praeger Publishers, 197**. Wedemeyer, C. A.;; Goodman, R. D.; & Balbir, J. K. Ethiopia. Evaluation of,Extension at the Haile Sellassie I University, Addis Ababa July-August 1972. Paris: UNESCO, January 1973* Whitehead, A. W. The Aims of Education and Other Essays. New York:. The.Macmillan Company, 1929. Wilcox, R. T. Memorandum to summer school teachers, July 17, 1967. - Wodajo, Mulugeta. Ethiopia: Some pressing problems and the role of education in their resolution. The Journal of Negro Education, T9$l, 30.* 222-2**0. 205 Wodajo, Mulugeta, Letter to the Assistant Minister, MEFA, August 1, 1968. Wodajo, Mulugeta. Letter to the Vice Minister, MEFA, April 29, 1969. ? Wodajo, Mulugeta. Correspondence: Response to questions, September 2, 1977. Wodajo, Mulugeta. Group Interview, April 16, 197, 12:00 noon, Washington, D.C. * Wolde Michael, Haile. Government schools in Ethiopia. In M. L. Bender et al. (Eds.), Language in Ethiopia. London: Oxford University Press, 197o, 32^338. Workie, Abaineh. Memorandum to President Aklilu Habte, April 20, 1970. Workie, Abaineh. Letter to Ato Haile Yesus Abeje, Director General, Ministry of Education and Fine Arts, March 9, 1971. Workie, Abaineh. Correspondence: Response to questions, November 28, 1977. Workie, Abaineh. Personal Interview, April 20, 1978, 3*00 p.m., Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan. World Bank. Education Sector Working Paper. Washington, D. C. , DeceraberTlFpn “ World Confederation of Organization of the Teaching Pro fession. Handbook for African Teacher Organizations. WC0TP, Washington^ D"I C., 1958. World Confederation of Organization of the Teaching Pro fession. Survey on the Status of the Teaching Professior in Africa. Washington, DI C., 1983. " " World Confederation of Organization of the Teaching Pro fession. The Teachers Changing Role in the School of the Future. The International Yearbook. Beruit, Lebannon, WCT0P Publications Office, 1972. WC0TP. Directory of Member Associations. WC0TP, Washington, dT C., 1965. WC0TP. Annual Reports. WC0TP, Washington, D. C., 197^. 206 Yesufu, T. M. Creating the African University: Emerging Issues of the 1970s. Published for the Association of African Universities. Ibadan: OUP, 1973* Yimtatu, Zaudneh. Correspondence: Response to questions, July 16, 1973. Yimtatu, Zaudneh. General correspondence, September 23* 1977. Ziegler, J. M. Continuing education in the university. The Contemporary University: Daedlus, Fall 196H, 1162-1183. 207 APPENDIXES 208 APPENDIX A COURSE OFFERINGS 209 Track A Course Offerings 1956-1962 Summer I Summer II Summer III Summer IV Summer V Eng* Literature Eng. Literature Eng. Literature Eng. Literature Psychology History Biology Biology Amharic Health Education History Math Psychology Education Biology Sociology Education Principles of Teaching Math Geography Math Geography Teaching English Math Biology Source: Courses were assembled from participant course cards. Courses were not always offered as listed here • r v > LJ o Track A Course Offerings as Set by PSVCC a) Core Subjects i) English Language ii) Amharic Language iii) Agriculture and Health or Mathematics iv) Child Growth and Development v) Principles and Practices of Teaching Elementary Schools b) Other Subjects i) Mathematics or Agriculture and Health (which ever was not taken previously) ii) Science (General) iii) Geography (including the Geography of Ethiopia) iv) History (including the History of Ethiopia) v) Comparative Education in Africa vi) Principles, Practices and Problems of Education in Ethiopia. Source: PSVCC Report, n.d., p. 3* 211 Haile Sellassie I University University College Vacation Course Tnetative Five-Year Syllabus (Leading to the Advanced Diploma: (Stage X) Sumner Subject I I II IV V Amharic Am. 10 Am. 20 Am. 30 Am. 40 Am. 50 English Eh. 10 Eh. 20 Eh. 30 Eh. 40 Eh. 50 Human Growth & Dev. Ps. 10 Ps. 20 Ps. 30 Ps. 40 Ps. 50 Principle & Practice Teach. Eh. 10 Ed. 20 Ed. 30 Ed. 40 Ed. 50 Mathematics Ma. 10 Ma. 20 Ma. 30 Ma. 40 Ma. 50 Botany Ag. 10 - - Ag. 40 Ag. 50 Agriculture - Ag. 21 Ag. 31 - - Biology - - - H. 40 - Health - - - - H. 51 Braille Reading and writing Br. 10 Br. 20 - - - Source: Gill; . 9 Pion, Syllabus in College of Education Office files. 212 Track A Course Offerings 1963-1970 Summer Course Title Course NO. Credit Hrs./Wk. I English A Eng. Lang. 0 4 Amharic A Et. Lang* 100 1 2 Curriculum A Ed. 133 2^ 4 Teaching Sci. Ed. 2 4 Health PE. 121 1 2 II Ehglish B Eng. Lang. 0 4 Amharic B Et. Lang. 101 1 2 Amharic Lang. Teach. Ed. 2 4 Ehglish as a Second Lang. Lang. Ed. 132 1 2 Human Growth & Development Ed. 131 2 4 III English C Ehg. Lang. 0 4 Amharic C. Et. Lang. 102 1 2 Teaching Social St. Ed. 2 4 Teaching Arith. Ed. 2 4 Geography of Eth. Geo. 112 2 4 Problems of Eth. Ed. 2 4 IV Ehglish D Ehg. Lang. 0 4 Amharic D Et. Lang. 102 1 2 Rural Science Et. Ed. 145 2 4 History of Eth. Hi. Ill 2 4 Audio Visual and Craft El. Ed. 129 1 4 Curriculum B El. Ed. 211 2 4 Human Growth & Development Ed. Psy. 112 2 4 Health El. Ed. 121 2 4 Source: ITEP Office Records 213 Track A Course Offerings 1971-1972 Sumner Course Title Course No. Credit Hrs./Wk. I » / Amharic ■ * 4 Et. La. 101 2 4 Health Ed. El. Ed. 121 2 4 Ehglish Lang. Ehg. 0 4 Geography of Eth. Geo. Ill 2 4 * II Human Growth & Development Ed. Psy. Ill 2 4 Rural Science El. Ed. 145 2 4 Teaching Amharic in Elem. Sch. Ei. Ed. 132 2 4 Ehglish Language Ehg. 0 4 Amharic Language Et. La. 102 2 4 Curriculum A El. Ed. 133A 2 4 III Science for Elem. Sch. Teachers El. Ed. 136 2 4 Teaching Ehglish as a Second Lang. El. Ed. 131 0 4 History of Eth. Hist. Ill 2 4 Maths for Elem. Sch. Teachers El. Ed. 135 2 4 Elementary Curriculum B El. Ed. 133B 2 4 Human Growth & Development Ed. Psy. 112 2 4 Instructional Materials & AVA El. Ed. 129 1 2 Source: ITEP Office Records * 214 Track D Course Offerings 1971-1974 Amharic Summer Course Title Course No. Oedit Hrs./Wk. I Amharic Et. La. 101 2 4 English 0 4 Junior Second. Teaching Methods Sc. Ed. 201 3 7 Amharic Teaching 3 7 II Int. To Psych. E. Psy, 101 2 4 Elem. Gecz. Et. La. 203 2 4 Ehglish 0 4 Amharic Corr. Et. Ed. 108 2 4 III Amharic Gramnar E. La. 301 2 4 Amharic Poetry Et. La. 208 2 4 Elem. Gecz. Et. La. 204 2 4 Psych, of Adol. Ed. Psy. 112 3 7 Eng. Lang. Studies Ehg. 231 Mathematics 3 7 I Basic Maths. I Ehglish Ma. 101 3 0 Junior Second. Teaching Methods Sc. Ed. 201 3 7 Maths Teaching 3 7 II Int. to Psych. Ed. Psy. 101 2 Basic Maths II Ma. 102 3 Geometry I Ma. Ill 3 7 - English 0 4 Amharic Lang* Et. La. 101 2 4 215 Track D Course Offerings 1971-1974 (Continued) Sumner Course Title Course No. Credit Hrs./V III General Physics Ma. 101 3 7 Geometry II Ma. Ill 3 7 Psychology of Adol. Ed. Psy. 112 3 7 Basic Maths Ma. 201 3 7 Amharic Lang. Et. La. 102 2 4 Source: ITEP Office Records * 216 Track C Course Offerings 1968-1972 Summer Course Title Course No. Credit Hrs./Wk. I Elem. Sch. Adm. El. Ad. 101 3 6 Int. To Guidance & Counsel Ed. Psy. 105 2 4 Int. to Eth. Const. & Gov. Pol. Sc. 101 2 4 Int. to Measure & Eval. Ed. Psy. 107 2 4 II Int. to Public Adm. Pu. Ad. 101 2 4 Elem. Sch. Sup. Sup. 142 3 6. Int. to Economics El. 101 2 4 Amharic Corr. El. Ed. 107 2 4 III Community Org. Soc. 206 2 4 Seminar in Sch. Adm. & Sup. EA 143 2 4 Adm. use of Teaching Aids Ed. Ed. 131 2 4 Int. to African Ed. El. Ed. 110 2 4 Source: ITEP Office Records * 217 Track B Course Offerings 1968-1972 Summer I II III Source: Course Title Course No. .Credit Hrs./V Human Growth & Dev. Ed. Psy. Ill 2 4 Elen. CUrr. A El. Ed. 133A 2 4 Rural Science Ed. Ed. 1*15 2 4 Elem. Sch. Adm. Ed. Ad. 145 2 4 Health Ed. El. Ed. 121 2 4 Elen. Curr. B* El. Ed. 133B 2 4 Human Growth & Dev. Ed. Psy. 112 2 4 Int. Material (AVA) EL. Ed. 129 2 4 Teaching Ehglish in Elem. Sch. El. Ed. 131 2 4 Peoples & Culture of Eth. Soc. Ill 2 4 Communication Org. Soc* 206 2 4 Int. Materials & Lab. El. Ed. 130 1 2 Problems of Elem. Sch. Sup. El. Ed. 136 2 4 Geography of Eth. Geo. Ill 2 4 Teaching Amharic in Elem. Sch. El. Ed. 134 2 4 Prof. & Cultural Assumbly EE 137 0 4 Maths Methods El. Ed. 135 2 4 ITEP Office Records 218 Track A Course Offerings 1973 Summer Course Title Course No. Summer Credit Hrs./Wk. I Human Growth & Dev. Ed. Psy. 10 2 4 Elen. Chrr. El. Ed. 11 2 4 Ehg. Lang. Skills Ehg. 12 2 4 Amharic Lang. Skills Et. La. 13 2 4 Social Studies Methods El. Ed. 14 2 4 Maths. Methods El. Ed. 20 2 4 II Audio Visuals El. Ed. 21 2 4 Health Ed. El. Ed. 22 2 4 Science Methods El. Ed. 23 2 4 Amharic Methods EL. Ed. 24 2 4 III Seminar in Ed. El. Ed. 30 2 4 Eth. Studies El. St. 31 2 4 Rural Science El. Ed. 32 2 4 Ehg. Methods El. Ed. 33 2 28 4 Source: Student Handbook. 1974. 1975 219 ^ r Track B Course Offerings 1973 Sumner Course Title Course No. Summer Credit Hrs./Wk. I Human Growth & Dev* Ed. Psy. 10 2 4 Elem. CUrr. El. Ed. 11 2 4 Ehg. Lang. Skills Ehg. 12 2 4 Amharic Lang. Skills Et. La. 13 2 4 General Methods El. Ed. 15 2 4 Int. to Eth. Const. & Govt. Pu. Ad. 20 2 4 II Int. to Elem. Sch. Adm. Ed. Ad. 21 2 4 Int. to Guidance & Counseling Ed. Psy. 22 2 4 Lit. to Comnunity Dev. Sowk. 23 2 4 III Elem. Sch. Sup. Ed. Ad. 30 2 4 Sch. Library Sc. Qrg. LiScf 31 2 4 Lit. to Public Adm. Pu. Ad. 32 2 4 Elem. Sch. Manage ment Ed. Ad. 33 2 4 Dev. & Adm. of curr. Ed. Ad. 31 * 2 4 IV Measure & Eval. Ed. Psy. 40 2 4 Economics of Ed. Ed. Ad. 41 2 4 Comp. Ed. Ed. Ad. 42 2 4 Sem. in Adm. & Sup. Ed. Ad. 43 2 26/36 4 Source: Student Handbook. 197*1. 1975 220 APPENDIX B EXCHANGE RATE 221 * / * Exchange Rate Year Ethiopian Birr US $ * 1962 2.484 1.00 1963 2.500 • 1.00 1964 2.500 1.00 1965 2.500 m 1.00 1966 2.500 1.00 1967 2.500 1.00 1968 2.500 1.00 1969 2.50 » ■ O o 1970 2.50 o o • H 1971 2.52 1.00 1972 2.32 1.00 1973 2.09 1.00 1974 2.09 1.00 Source: UN Statistical Year Books 222

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Bilingual teacher certification : a study of the California bilingual certificate of competence examination

PDF

Locus of control as a correlate of the selection of and achievement in instructor-assisted or independent study videocassette courses in a college-level continuing education program

PDF

Development and evaluation of a workshop to increase classroom teachers' knowledge of special education issues and legislation

PDF

A proposal of professional performance objectives for the teacher education programs in Viet Nam

PDF

Physician preferred method of learning cost-containment through continuing education approaches

PDF

Teacher training programs in art education in the United States

PDF

Educational philosophies and intercultural ideologies: A study of the belief orientations of preservice teachers

PDF

Methods in teacher recruitment, November 1946

PDF

A tentative curriculum model for the undergraduate program in education at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro

PDF

Teacher centers: Alternative structures and valued purposes

PDF

The effect of the use of videotape with provision for feedback on graduate student trainees' acquisition of psychological counseling skills in interpersonal functioning

PDF

A method for evaluating a university physical education program

PDF

An adult education model for training lay members in selected American churches

PDF

Adult education in Sweden: Its administration and organization with implications for adult education in California

PDF

An assessment of the perceptions of school district supervisory personnel regarding training for inservice education, with implications for the development of a training program

PDF

A cross-cultural study of considerations involved in the establishment of a special education program for mentally retarded as a possible model for Iran

PDF

Education and teacher training in Iran: Problems and prospects

PDF

Teacher efficacy: A construct validation study

PDF

Expectation, education, enactment: A case study of women in Tlacotalpan, Mexico

PDF

A sociological case study of bilingual education and its effects on the schools and the community

Asset Metadata

Creator Workineh, Tilahun (author)

Core Title The evolution of a continuing teacher education program at Ethiopia's Haile Sellassie I University : A case study with a proposed model

Degree Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Program Education

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education, Continuing,Education, Teacher Training,OAI-PMH Harvest

Language English

Contributor Digitized by ProQuest (provenance)

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c26-542153

Unique identifier UC11247092

Identifier usctheses-c26-542153 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier DP24685.pdf

Dmrecord 542153

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Workineh, Tilahun

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA