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A study of public education in Iraq, with suggestions for its reorganization
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A study of public education in Iraq, with suggestions for its reorganization
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A STUDY OF PUBLIC EDUCATION IN IRAS* WITH SUGGESTIONS FOR ITS REORGANIZATION A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School The University of Southern California In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy by Abdul Razzak. Al-Jalili August, 195^ UMI Number: DP24G29 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Publishing UMI DP24029 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 Ph. 0 Ed. '55 3\3£ dissertation, w ritten by ! £>* ABDUL R&Z2AK AL-JALXL I ................................„ 4 j ^ ’’7 U f f « under the direction ofl&!L&-Guidance Com m ittee, and approved by a ll its members, has been p re sented to and accepted by the F a cu lty of the Graduate School, in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t of re quirements fo r the degree of D O C T O R O F P H I L O S O P H Y Date. M l l M Committee 'hairman TABLE OP CONTENTS i \ CHAPTER PAGE I. INTRODUCTION ..................... 1 The problem and its importance .... I Statement of the problem ...... 1 Delimitation ....................... 3 Basic assumptions ............. 4 iSignificance of the study ........... 6 Definition of terms................... 8 I r a q ................................ 8 Public schools of I r a q ............. 8 Needs « • • • • ..................... 9 Curriculum .......................... 9 Supervision .......................... 9 The procedure ............... ..... 10 The review of the literature .... 10 Presentation of the d a t a ........... 11 II. THE SETTING OF THE PROBLEM ........... 13 History of Iraq....................... 13 Introduction ....................... 13 Early history of Iraq ........ 14 CHAPTER Recent history of Iraq ............. The form of government • • . ........ The K i n g .............. ............ The Cabinet ......................... i The Parliament • . . • . ........... The administrative system ........... The judicial system ................. Political parties ............. . . . Social, economic and cultural conditions Rural and urban communities ..... I The standard of living ............. i Public health • ..................... | Natural resources ............... . . Agriculture....................... . . Industry . ......................... i Transport ............................ i | Summary ................................ * III. THE CURRENT STATUS OF EDUCATION IN IRAQ . Historical background ................. I | Organization and administration of the I present educational system ........ General statement ................... i The Ministry of Education ........... PAGE 18 22 23 23 24 26 27 27 29 29 38 41 43 44 46 48 49 52 52 59 59 60 CHAPTER PAGE Provincial directors of education . . 63 The inspectoral service ....... 64 Boards and committees.............. 66 Educational finance ................. 67 Educational legislation ....... 69 y Teachers * salaries................. 70 The educational ladder ............. 72 Public school examinations ........ 76 Expansion of the public school system 85 Primary education ..... ........... 94 The primary-school courses of study . 97 Compulsory primary education .... 98 Fundamental education ............... 100 Secondary education . ................. 103 The secondary-school courses of study 106 Vocational education ............... 108 Adult education ................... 115 — The curriculum and methods of teaching 117 Curriculum revision • • • ........ 119 Methods of teaching............... . 122 Extracurricular activities ........ 123 / Teacher training ..................... 127 Higher education and educational missions............................ 132 CHAPTER PAGE School buildings and equipment .... 134 Summary........................ 137 IV. PROPOSALS EOR REORGANIZING PUBLIC EDUCATION IN IRAQ..................... 142 Suggested changes in the general educational situation ............. . 143 Suggested changes in the educational administration-,of Iraqi schools . . . 151 Suggested changes in educational finance 159 — Suggested changes in curriculum development.................. 160 General statement . . 160 Educational needs ....................... 164 Curriculum revision ................. 167 Patterns of curriculum organization . 178 In-service training of teachers . . . 185 Extra-curricular activities ..... 187 Evaluation of instruction .............. 187 Suggested changes in methods of teaching 192 Suggested principles and procedures in pupil guidance ................. 202 Suggested principles and procedures in educational supervision ................. 210 Summary........................ 218 CHAPTER PAGE V. SUMMARY............................. 225 The problem and procedure ....... 225 The problem and its importance . . . 225 Procedure...................... 226 Presentation of the d a t a ..... 227 1 / Findings............................. 227 History and form of government . . . 227 Social, economic and cultural conditions ........ .. . 229 ^ The current status of education in Iraq: historical .......... 231 .Organization and administration of ij&s ^ the present educational system . • 232 Curriculum and methods of teaching . 235 ^.Teacher training and higher education 238 School buildings and equipment . . . 239 iy' Conclusions ................. 240 Recommendations................ 245 The general educational situation . . 245 Educational administration and supervision...................... 249 Educational finance.......... 251 v i i i CHAPTER PAGE ^ Curriculum construction and methods of teaching . • . • .................... 251 Guidance......................... 256 Teacher training................. • 257 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................... 260 L IS T OP TABLES TABLE PAGE I. Results of Public Examinations, Iraq, ! 1950-51................................ 80 j II. Number of Students of Schools Sitting for Public Examinations, and the Schools to Which They Belong ..... 84 III. Number of Public Schools, Teachers, and Pupils at the Primary Level in Iraq, in Ten-Year Intervals Since 1920 . . . 86 | IV. Number of Public Schools, Teachers, and Pupils in Iraq at the Secondary Level (Intermediate and Preparatory), in Ten-Year Intervals Since 1920 .... 87 V. Number of Schools and Colleges, Teachers, and Pupils in Iraq, 1950-51 89 VI. Number of Students Graduates from Public ! Educational Institutions in Iraq Since i 1920-21, in Ten-Year Intervals .... 93 VII. Primary School Program of Studies, Iraq, 1952-53 99 j VIII. The Secondary School Program of Studies, Iraq, 1949-50....................... 109 LIST OP FIGURES FIGURE PAGE 1* The Organization of the Ministry of Education and Its Departments, Iraq, 1950-51 61 CHAPTER X INTRODUCTION I. THE PROBLEM AND ITS IMPORTANCE The hope of a country lies in the faith of its people in education. Educational reform and reconstruc tion is a basic condition for the social, economic, and | political progress of the country and, consequently, for I the public welfare of the entire nation. I | There is, perhaps, no more important responsibility I confronting the Ministry of Education in Iraq than to see ! to it that adequate educational programs are made avail- | able for all boys and girls, and to promote the necessary i revision and re-adaptation of those educational programs i I now in force. i i Statement of the problem. The chief purpose of this study was to select current practices in American public education that may have significance for improving ! the educational programs in the public schools of Iraq. I A further purpose was to describe, analyze and evaluate ! the status of education in Iraq in the light of modern 2 practices in American public education, and, on the basis of such, analytical investigation, to offer sugges tions for adapting and introducing into Iraqi public education certain practices found to be effective in American public education* Answers were sought to the following questions: (1) What are the social, economic, cultural and political conditions in Iraq? (2) What is the present status of education in Iraq? (3) What are the educational problems and needs of Iraq? (4) Is there a need for making changes in the educational system of Iraq? (5) Is there a need for improving curriculum prac tices In the schools of Iraq? (6) What changes ought to be made in the organiza tion and administration of public schools in Iraq? (7) What curriculum practices in American public education might be significant to the schools of Iraq? (8) What changes should be made in the educational programs of the schools of Iraq? (9) Is there a need for making changes in methods 3 of teaching in Iraq? (10) What changes ought to be made in methods of ^ teaching in Iraq? (11) Is there a need for organizing programs of pupil guidance in the schools of Iraq? I (12) What democratic supervisory practices in | I American education might be significant to replace inspectional practices in the public schools of Iraq? Delimitation, The investigation has been limited to the discovery and analysis of the most important educa- j tional problems and needs of Iraq. The study is concerned I with those specific practices and procedures of curriculum | development, classroom instruction, and supervision in S American public education that might be adapted to public I education in Iraq, such as cooperative and democratic j techniques in curriculum revision, life adjustment pro- j grams, guidance programs, education for democratic living, and democratic supervision. i I The findings of the study have furnished the basis for recommendations concerning the improvement of the following aspects of public education in Iraq: (1) the general educational situation, (2) educational ad- I ministration, (3) educational finance, (4) curriculum 4 development, (5) methods of teaching, (6) pupil guidance, and (7) educational supervision. These recommendations were based on: (1) the new trends and democratic principles and procedures in public education, (2) the educational reports and studies made regarding Iraq, and (3) direct observation of the educa- i | tional needs and problems of Iraq, Basic assumptions, In general, the present in- | vestigation rests upon a number of fundamental assumptions I These are: (l) An absence of a democratic spirit is the i greatest single element that now holds Iraq back. s / (2) The reconstruction of education in Iraq will 1 necessarily be related to the existing social and educa- i tional situation in that country. (3) The curriculum that is based upon the needs j of youth will help them to achieve mental, social, ! physical, and emotional growth. I (4) It is possible to build a curriculum around ! the needs of youth. ! , (5) The curriculum should grow out of the needs i ; and resources of the community and should be flexible | enough to meet the changing environmental conditions, (6) Curriculum should vary from community to community. 5 (7) Learning experiences should be selected in terms of the needs of the individual and of the society in which he lives. (8) Abstract ideas can be learned by students only when they are understood by the young people them- I selves and related to meaningful situations in their j own lives. (9) There is a definite need for improving the | present curriculum practices in the schools of Iraq. (10) Some curriculum practices of American public i education can be applied to the schools of Iraq. i j (11) The present program of education in the ! Iraqi schools may be greatly enriched and expanded to ] i include provision for making learning more functional. (12) The new Iraq is aware of the need for modi- i i fication. of curriculum practices in all schools and will welcome suggestionsSbr educational improvement. | (13) The Ministry of Education of Iraq is willing I to adapt the present educational program in the schools so as better to meet the needs and interests of the * country’s youth. (1*0 This study may help the investigator to as- ! surae leadership in working with the Iraqi students, | teachers and communities, and to adapt ideas and practices j of American education which have significance for the 6 Iraqi schools. (15) It is hoped that this study may serve as a pilot study for the inauguration of better administra tive, supervisory and educative practices throughout the entire school system of Iraq. Significance of the study. Education in Iraq | today is in great need of educators who are well informed on the subjects of educational^philosophy, psychology, modern curriculum development practices, new teaching procedures, and democratic procedures of educational administration and organization, j Matthews and Akrawi, in a descriptive analysis j of Iraq’s educational system, have said: j 1 There is need for social and educational theorists who will be able to deal with the educational problems in relation to the general social, political, and economic background of 1 the country, who would translate into educa- I tional terms the various currents and changes ! in Iraqi life. There is further need for a j study of the multitudinous needs of the en vironment in order to lay down curriculums I that will meet these needs.I I Iraq’s government is constantly seeking the advice • of experts and technicians from outside and inside the country. The need for reconstructing its social, economic 1 R. D. Matthews'and M. Akrawi, Education in Arab Countries of the Near East (Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 19^9)* P♦ 5^2. and cultural life is widely recognized. In 1931> the Minister of Education in Iraq invited a committee of four members from the International Institute of Teachers' College of New York to study and report on education in Iraq. In 1932, at the request of the Government of Iraq, a mission was organized and sent by the International ! Bank for Reconstruction and ^Development to study and re- I port on the economic development-of Iraq. In 1952, a 1 second mission was organized and sent by UNESCO to report on compulsory education in Iraq. It is hoped that this study may render^ valuable 1 service at this time of rapid change in Iraqi political, j social, economic and educational concepts. | Dissatisfaction with present conditions, and an I awareness of a need for change have created a spirit of - ! receptiveness to new ideas and a desire for reform in \ ! Iraq. It is also hoped that this study may serve the needs not only of youth but also of the Iraqi community- at-large, for it is believed by many educators that the ! problems of youth are also the problems of society as j a whole. ; It is only through the cooperation of pupils, ! teachers, the community and the Ministry of Education j that the problems of Iraqi youth can be solved. This j cooperation would imply respect for the worth of the ' 8 individual, faith in human beings, consideration for scientific methods, and commitment to the general welfare* II. DEFINITION OF TERMS Iraq* Iraq is the Arabic name of what was i formerly known as Mesopotamia. It is an independent, constitutional, hereditary monarchy, with a representa tive form of government. Iraq is one of the Arab coun tries in the Near or Middle East, bounded on the north by Turkey, on the east by Iran, on the west by Syria, Trans-Jordan, and Saudi-Arabia, and on the south by Saudi-Arabia, Kuwait, and the Persian Gulf. Public schools of Iraq. Iraq's public schools | include two stages of formal education extending from the | first grade through the eleventh grade, inclusive. The i first stage is six years of primary education. The second stage is five years of secondary education. The secondary school is of two levels: (1) an intermediate j school of three years' duration, and (2) a two-year j preparatory school. Thus, Iraqi primary and secondary schools operate on the 6-3-2 plan, as compared with the American 8-4, or 6-3-3 year plans. Needs. The discussion of the needs of youth implies the following definition: Everything necessary to ensure the optimum development of the potential abilities of a pupil--intellectual, physical, moral, emotional and social--both in relation to his present in terests, abilities, and level of achievement and in relation to the probable future demands of the individual and of society.2 Curriculum. All the activities and all the ex periences in which pupils engage under the direction of the school to achieve the objectives of the school are included in the meaning of the term curriculum as used 3 in this study. Supervision. This investigation adopts the fol lowing definition of supervision: All efforts of designated school officials directed toward providing leadership to teachers and other educational workers in the improvement of instruction; involves the stimulation of pro fessional growth and development of teachers, the selection and revision of educational objectives, materials of instruction, and methods of teaching, and the evaluation of instruction.4 Carter V. Good, ed., Dictionary of Education (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1945), p. | 271. 3 Ward G. Reeder, The Fundamentals of Public School !Administration (New York:. The Macmillan Company, 1951)* ip. 575* . . . 4 Good, op. cit., p. 400. \ III. THE PROCEDURE This investigation was conducted as a library study based primarily on a review of literature relating to (1) Iraqi public education, and (2) new trends in modern education. | The review of the literature. In order to deter mine the need for improving the curriculum in the schools s of Iraq and the suitability of presenting suggestions for indicated changes in the educational system, a study was first made of the available literature pertaining I to: (1) education in Iraq, '(2) the social, economic, j and political conditions in the country, (3) the history of the country, and (4) the form of government in Iraq, as it may influence the educational situation. | The review of literature included books, official i | reports, mission reports, and magazine articles dealing | j with the topics mentioned above. Based on the survey | of related literature, the investigator was able to: j (l) outline the history of Iraq, (2) describe briefly 1 the form of government in Iraq, (3) describe and analyze the social, economic, and cultural conditions in the country, and (4) determine the current status of education in Iraq. 11 Through an extensive examination of the literature pertaining to the educational needs of American youth, from proposals made by educational inquiry commissions, and from the findings of the study a descriptive analysis of the educational needs and problems of Iraq was made. The next step was to determine what curriculum, adminis trative, and supervisory practices in American education might be significant to education in Iraq. In connec tion with this step, literature on American education pertaining to curriculum improvement, classroom instruc tion, and democratic administration and supervision was read and analyzed. Presentation of the data. Graphic representation ! was made of data and materials in this investigation whenever the nature of the materials warranted its inclu sion in tabular or chart form--i.e., tables were used to show the educational statistics of the country, and a chart was made to illustrate the organization and admin- i i | istration of the current educational system in Iraq. I j Chapter II is devoted to a brief account of the i history of Iraq, its form of government, and the social, | economic and cultural conditions of the country. Chapter III describes the educational system and j the current status of education in Iraq. 12 Chapter IV is concerned with proposals for re organizing public education in Iraq* It gives a descrip tive analysis of a selected curriculum and a discussion of instructional practices, supervisory and other educa tional practices in American public education which might be related to the curriculum instructional and other educational practices in the schools of Iraq* In this i | connection, literature on curriculum improvement, class- j . A - i room instruction, and modern supervision in American | schools is analyzed and related to the findings of this study, applying what is relevant to possible utilization in the schools of Iraq. Conclusions and recommendations regarding possible improvement of public instruction in Iraq are presented ! after a summarization of the study in Chapter V. CHAPTER II THE SETTING OF THE PROBLEM I. HISTORY OF IRAQ Introduction* An appreciation of the contempo rary needs and problems of education in Iraq and the possibility of making educational advance is not possible without some reference to the history and present cir cumstances of the country. Iraq, better known to the Western World as Mesopotamia (i.e., "Land between Two Rivers,"--or the Tigris-Euphrates Valley), is bounded on the north by ! Turkey, on the east by Iran, on the west by Syria, Trans jordan and Saudi Arabia, and on the south by Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and the Persian Gulf. Iraq has a very ancient civilization which goes ! back to the years preceding 4,000 B.C. Iraq was among the several Arab states released from the Ottoman Empire during the First World War. It became a kingdom upon the accession of King Faysal the First to the throne in 1921. During the next few years the country achieved considerable progress. 14 Subsequently it was admitted to the League of Nations in 1932 as an independent sovereign state. Today, Iraq has established laws and regulations which have cleared the way for social and individual i achievement. By trial and error, the country is attempt ing to evolve an administrative machinery which will be capable of achieving economic and social reforms. Early history of Iraq. The Kingdom of Iraq encloses within its boundaries what is believed to be the | cradle of civilization. ”Traditionally, Iraq arises out of Eden. Historically, she is one of the most recent 1 political creations of the concert of world powers.” j | The capital of the Kingdom is Baghdad. Baghdad is ! described by Knight as | ... the foremost city of old Mesopotamia; the | home particularly in the ninth century, of I greatest scholars and rich merchants; the center | of Islam when that religion represented such a high state of civilization; the great city of celebrated "Arabian Nights"; the ancient gateway to Persia, Turkey and Arabia; the most important point on the ancient route from East to West. Even now, it is a fascinating city, even though I it retains little if any of the old pomp and ! magnificence of which it boasted centuries ago. Its glory belongs to'the past . . . The Kingdom also contains the ruins of Babylon, one of the 1 H. A. Poster, The Making of Modern Iraq (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1935T7 p. 1. 15 most renowned cities of antiquity, whose history was for so long the history of Mesopotamia, the capital of Hammurabi and his successors, which Sennacherib levelled to the ground nearly seven hundred years before Christ--and which was re built by Nebuchadnezzar into one of the wonders of the world.2 The ancient civilization in this land is illus trated in the following quotation: No ancient civilizations came earlier, lasted longer, or were more brilliant, excepting perhaps those of Egypt and China, than those of the Two Rivers country. They were scattered throughout the centuries from the Sumerian of 4,000 B.C., or earlier, to that of the Abbasids of the eighth and ninth centuries A.Di Between these came the Akkadian, early Babylonian, Assyrian, Chaldean, Persian, Alexandrian, Parthian and Sassanid. The capitals and centers of culture associated with the great names of the Sargons, Hammurabi, Sennacherib, Nebuchadnezzar, and Harun-ar-Rashid were all located on these hospitable rivers.3 A land so full of rich historical events and of i the ruins and records of some of man’s greatest achieve- ; raents invitee the student to delve into the past; however, j ! an exhaustive recounting of Iraq's history would be well i outside the limits of this study, and only brief mention ; of some of the highlights as they affect our problem : must suffice. 2 E. W. Knight, 'Newest State in the World," High School Journal,.Vol, 16, 1933* p. 10. 3 - Poster, op. cit., p. 7* 16 Around 630 A.D. the Arabs conquered the country and have occupied it ever since. In 750 A.D, Iraq became the center of the great Arab Empire and Baghdad was built to be its capital. During the reign of Harun-ar-Rashid (786-809 A.D.), Iraq reached the zenith of its human achievements. During the Abbasid period (750-1258) Iraq wit nessed one of the most intellectual achievements in Islam. In its report, the Committee of Officials made the following statement: The brilliant intellectual revival is most I eloquently described by H. 0. Wells, in the I following passage from The Outline of History: ! For some generations before Muhammad, the Arab ! mind had been, as it were, smouldering; it had | been producihg^poetry and much religious dis cussion; under the stimulus of the national and racial successes, it presently blazed out with a brilliance second only to that of the Greeks during their best period. It revived j the human pursuit of science. If the Greek ! was the father, then the Arab was the foater- ! father of the scientific method. Through the I Arabs it was, and not by the Latin route, that the modern^world received the gift of light ! and power. I The system of numerals which is now known as the "Arabic numerals" was passed on by Iraq and through Spain to Western Europe. The famous "Arabian Nights" were 4 A Committee of Officials, An Introduction, to the Past and Present of the Kingdom of Iraq (Baltimore, Maryland: The Lord BaXtimore Press,~T9^b), P* 19* IT developed and written in Iraq. Many Greek books such as those of Aristotle and Plato in philosophy, Galen in medicine, and Euclid in geometry were translated into Arabic and later transmitted through Arab Spain into Europe, where they were influential in forming the modern civilization. | The period of translation was followed by one of creativeness in the fields of science, the arts, and letters. The basis of the science of algebra, alchemy, and astronomy were laid in this period in Baghdad and other cities of Iraq. Prom this land they were later passed on to the rest of the world. 1 Dar-al-Hikmah ("the abode of wisdom") was the j | center of intellectual life of Baghdad. It was founded ' by Al-Mamun as an academy, a museum, a library, and a ! bureau of translation where several of the Greek works were translated into Arabic. This was accomplished at a time when no academies or universities existed in Europe. f Besides all this, Baghdad had then a hospital ^ i i where all sorts of diseases were treated by trained s ; physicians. While Western Europe had no such facilities and was in its . dark ages, Iraq witnessed a brilliant intellectual and spiritual awakening. In 16389 Sultan Murad Khan IV, Ottoman ruler, con-^ quered and subjugated the country of Iraq; It remained j / a part of the Ottoman Empire until World War I. Recent history of Iraq* Iraq had been under the protection of the Ottoman Empire for several centuries prior to World War I* At the end of that period, the country’s conditions are well described by Knight, as follows: Conditions prevailing in Iraq for years prior to and at the outbreak of the World War were, therefore, chaotic and full of evils* Meantime, however, some hope for improvement had been aroused among the subject races of the Turkish Empire. The catchwords of equality, liberty, and local autonomy, which had become attractive, had been heard earlier in Syria and echoes of them sounded also in Mesopotamia among the Kurds as well as the Arab population. Spasmodic asser tions of author*!ty were-made, to the* irritation of the Turks, and some parts of the cduntry had reached embarrassing limits of disorder. Powerful tribal chiefs appealed to British consular officials to help put an end to the intolerable confusion. Moreover, the British had in the Persian Gulf maritime and commercial interests which, together with the political importance of India, seemed to thrust upon the British Government responsibilities which could not be escaped. And before war was declared on Turkey in 191^ the British consolidated their position with important Arab chiefs through the promise of benevolent protection under treaty arrangements. Under a joint declaration of the French and British governments to the occupied Arab territories, before the armistice in Novem ber, 1918* Iraq was liberated. These two gov ernments then avowed that their aims in the Near East were to aid in completing "the final en franchisement of the people so long oppressed 19 by the Turks, and the establishment of national governments and administrations, drawing their authority from the initiative and free choice of native populations1 1 and to this end Prance and England promised to help in setting up civil ad ministration both in Syria and Mesopotamia. Then, in April, 1920, England accepted the responsibil ity of a mandatory for Iraq, under Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations. This provided that certain communities formerly be longing to the Turkish Empire had reached a stage of development where they could be* provi sionally recognized as independent nations, subject to advice and assistance until they were able to make their way alone.5 With the * establishment of the Kingdom of Iraq | under King Faysal I in 1921, Iraq regained her political/ entity which she had lost in 1258 as a result of the ) Mongol invasions. On his accession to the Throne of Iraq, King Faysal faced several difficulties concerning the change-over ; from a British colonial administration to a national constitutional government. By his wise statesmanship and commanding personality he coordinated the relation- * ; ship between Iraq and her ally, Great Britain. By a i | series of treaties, King Faysal achieved the admission ! of Iraq into the League of Nations as an Independent i Sovereign State in 1932. i I King Faysal visited Europe several times. These 5 K n ig h t, op. c i t . , p . 8 . 20 " f visits won him the friendship and goodwill of many great statesmen, especially in England# He also strengthened the friendship of the rulers of neighboring countries and established friendly agreements with them which showed its great effect in strengthening Iraq’s position among nations of the world. t | King Faysal's way of living was simple and demo- I ! cratic. He kept in close contact with the administration and with his people. He also made many personal tours of inspection in different sections of the country. This enabled him to control and lead the development of the 1 country. He inspired the teaching profession by regis- f i tering himself as a teacher and presiding over a Teachers 1 Conference. His commanding personality and natural ability enabled him to unite the various communities of | the country and to remove any racial or religious dis crimination, and to make provisions for all communities to share together in the government of the state along truly democratic lines, j King Faysal died in 1933> and his only son, Ghazi, : succeeded him as King Ghazi I. i I ! Ghazi was born in 1912. He was educated in England ( and at the Military College in Baghdad. He ascended the I throne at the age of twenty-two. King Ghazi was energetic ! and full of zeal. He was a natural sportsman and soldier. 21 He seldom refused a plea for help, and showed great Interest and human understanding in the exercise of his duties. In 193^s he married his cousin, Emira Aliyah, the daughter of King Ali. A son, Faysal, was born in I 1935> and became heir to the throne. In his short reign, j King Ghazi had attracted the admiration of the masses | and the enthusiasm of the country*s youth. He was a I very popular ruler. On his tragic death in April, 1939, King Ghazi was succeeded by his four-year-old son, King Faysal II. The Emir Abdul Ilah, son of King Ali, was appointed Re- i - gent and Heir to the Throne by Act of Parliament. Born i in 1913> Abdul Ilah was educated at Victoria College in ! Alexandria. j In Iraq, youths attain their majority at the age of eighteen; King Faysal II, accordingly, assumed his royal prerogatives on May 2, 1953* Thus, two tragic events had had their influence 1 on the general progress of Iraq during the last twenty i ; years. With the shadow of war already darkening the i ‘ skies of Europe, King Ghazi*s four-year-old son, Faysal, I now became King of Iraq, and the Emir Abdul Ilah was 1 appointed regent. September 1939 found Great Britain at war, and Iraq accordingly called upon to fulfill her commitments under a treaty between Great Britain and Iraq, signed in 1930, which had formed the basis of Iraq’s admission to the League of Nations; in this, Iraq’s future relations with Britain were defined as a "close alliance." This meant that in case of foreign aggression against either party to the treaty, the other would "come to his aid in the capacity of an ally.n This event created a problem and misunderstanding between the two allies. Since 19kl, much has been done by both allies to try to restore each other’s confidence, mutually. In January 19^3 Iraq decided to enter the ranks of the United Nations of which she is now a member. II. THE FORM OF GOVERNMENT King Faysal I is well recognized as the creator of modern Iraq. On September 10, 1921, the first National Government was formed and the new state of Iraq was born. Ireland describes Iraq as "... a constitutional, „6 hereditary monarchy, with a representative government. Philip W. Ireland, Iraq (A Study in Political Development) (New York: The.Macmillan Company, 1938), p. 382. 23 The monarchy of Iraq was defined in a decision made by the Provisional Government on July 11, 1921, which declared that it should be ,“consti tutional, representative, and democratic*“ The Organic Law confirmed the establishment of the monarchy but added, “Sovereignty belongs to the nation and entrusted.by the people to King7Faysal, son of Husein, and after him to his heirs.’ The King. “The King is safeguarded and is not responsible. He is the supreme head of the State and Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces.’ He exercises | powers such as confirming laws, ordering their promulga tion and supervising their execution; the convocation | opening, adjournment, proroguing and dissolving of par- i liament; the selecting of the Prime Minister, the appoint ing of the other ministers and issuing ordinances with the concurrence of the Council of Ministers; and the selecting of the senators. ! The Cabinet. Under the King, the highest ruling 1 ---- ----- ---- | body is the Cabinet which consists of the Prime Minister 1 and a number of ministers which “should not be less than i six in number." The ministers who are appointed by the 1 i King on the Prime Ministerfs recommendation are chosen M. Khadduri, Independent Iraq (London: Oxford University Press, 1951)* P* 19• o I b i d . , p . 2 0 . from among members of the parliament. A person appointed a minister who is not al ready a member of Parliament may not retain his position more than six months., unless he is in the meantime appointed a senator or elected a deputy.9 At present, there are twelve ministers, each in charge of one of the following ministries: Ministry of Education, Ministry of Interior, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Economics, Ministry of Communication I and Works, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Social Af fairs, Ministry of Justice, Ministry of Defense, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Agriculture, amd Ministry of State for Developments. The Parliament. “Legislative power in Iraq is 10 r vested in Parliament and the King.” Parliament is made | up of two houses, the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. | The number of members of the Senate should not exceed i ' i 1 one-fourth of the total number of deputies. “Senators are appointed by the King from among Iraqis who are j prominent in public life and have served their country 11 I with distinction.” They are ordinarily not younger I | ______________ 9 Ibid., p. 21. 10 Ibid., p. 22. 11 Loo. cit. 25 than forty years of age. Term of office is eight ses sions of one year each, and a former senator may be re appointed. The two houses of parliament meet and adjourn at the same time. Deputies are elected on a basis of one deputy representing every 20,000 male inhabitants. Deputies may not be younger than thirty years of age. “They are elected according to an Electoral Law by indirect elec- 12 tion through a secret ballot." The term of membership in the Chamber of Deputies is four years. There is one session of six months' duration in each of the four years. The other six months are a parliamentary vacation. Every male Iraqi who is more than twenty years of age has the right to vote as a primary elector for the secondary elector. “There is one secondary elector for every 250 primary electors and it is their duty to elect 13 deputies." The total number of deputies at the time of writing is one hundred thirty-five. The following statement illustrates the relation ship between the Cabinet and the Parliament: The Cabinet is responsible for the conduct of public affairs, and the ministers are jointly responsible to the Chamber of Deputies for all Loc. cit. 13 I b i d . , p . 23* the acts of the Cabinet as well as being indi vidually responsible for the policies of their own ministers “Legislation can be initiated in the Chamber of Deputies 15 or proposed by the Government.1 1 Draft laws are pre- i pared by the Government and must be submitted to both houses of Parliament for approval. When passed by both houses, draft laws become laws only after being signed by the King. Legislation may be confirmed or rejected by the King. Any legislation rejected by the King should | be accompanied by stated reasons for such rejection with- j in a period of three months. | Meetings of the Parliament are open to the public 1 1 | except when requested by one member of the Cabinet, or | by four members of the Senate, or by ten members of the Chamber of Deputies that the debate should be held in I camera. "Members of Parliament have absolute freedom of speech and enjoy parliamentary immunity. 1 | The administrative system. According to the 1927 j administrative law, Iraq is divided into fourteen liwas, 1 or provinces, each administered by a mutasarrif. Each of I the liwas is subdivided into several gadhas administered i I by a ga'immagam. Every gadha is again subdivided into I nahyas, the smallest administrative unit, administered by ^ Ibid., p. 21. i . Ibid., p. 23. I ________16 ibid., p. 2k. _ a mudir. All this administrative organization comes under the control of the Ministry of Interior. In his liwa, the mutasarrif represents the central government and is responsible to the Minister of Interior. The ga’immagam is responsible to the mutasarrif and the mudir is responsible to the ga’immagam. Other depart ments of the government, such as Education and Health, \ are represented in the liwas and gadhas by their own | officials. The judicial system. In Iraq, as in the United States, the courts are free from the interference of the government. There are three types of courts in Iraq: (1) civil courts, (2) religious courts, and (3) special courts, the latter including the High Court. "The ! nomadic tribes are allowed to keep their tribal tradi- l tions as embodied in the Iraq Tribal Law, but the present tendency is to bring all citizens under a uniform law 17 j as quickly as possible.** i i Political parties. In regard to political parties i 1 from the very beginning of the establishment of the Iraqi | government, there was a great interest in forming politi- | cal parties along Western European lines, in order to i 17 : Ibid., p. 25. develop a democratic government. Several parties have been formed since 1921. Some of them were dissolved and others still exist. All of these parties aimed at achiev ing the independence of Iraq, and the only differences between them were those relating to the means of bringing this about. Writing of the workings of a democratic government in Iraq, Dr. Majid Khadduri says: In a country like Iraq, where the force of the old local traditions is still strong, it is not expected that the working of democratic in stitutions would admit of comparison with older Western countries accustomed to democratic tra ditions. The significance of democratic insti tutions in the Middle East, therefore, must de pend on their possibilities in the future. At present their value must be regarded mainly educational; that is, they are helping to develop democratic habits and traditions necessary for the functioning of democratic machinery. Young Iraqis have, however, often been impatient with the slow and inadequate progress made by their country in democratic procedure; but social change, of its very nature, is always slow and evolution ary. What could with justice be expected from the present regime is a constructive plan to im prove the local conditions which Iraq has inher ited from the old Ottoman regime. The Iraqi Government would undoubtedly be able to carry out a plan of reform if it were animated by a more liberal, tolerant, and sympathetic spirit, with which it would bring cohesion to, and co operation among, the various sections of the population. This is a necessary prerequisite for the working of a democratic government in Igaq as well as, indeed, the whole Middle East.1^ 18 I b i d . , p . 30. Public security in Iraq is maintained by a police force under the authority of the governor (mutasarrif); but technically under the direction of the Director General of Police. Military service is compulsory. All men between the ages of 19 and 25 are subject to military service; those having college degrees are trained as reserve of ficers. The Military College, Staff College, Aeronautic School, and army technical schools provide officers for the Army. The Iraqi array numbers around 50*000 men, and is composed of all branches of modern army units, with j | air and naval units attached to it. ! The flag of Iraq is black, white, green and red, { with two white stars on a red field. j III. SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND CULTURAL CONDITIONS | an(* urban communities. Iraq, a country { with a population of approximately five million and an ! area of 168,040 square miles, is one of the most impor- ! tant agricultural countries in the Middle East. It is i ! j dominated by two great river systems--the Tigris and Euphrates. Two-thirds of the area of the country consists of plains at an altitude of from fifty to four hundred feet. 30 The rest is mountainous. The productive area of Iraq falls into two roughly equal sections--the rainfall zone in the north, and the irrigation zone of the south, on the alluvial plain between the two great rivers. Apart from the four major cities of Baghdad, Mosul, Basra and Kirkuk, together with a number of smaller urban and semi-urban communities, the country is essen tially rural and dependent upon agriculture. About twenty-two per cent of the people live in urban areas, | forty per cent in settled rural communities, thirty per [ cent in semi-settled rural areas, and eight per cent are ! nomadic. The villages are the more predominant type of ; community. As pictured by Clark, j The educational and other social problems and needs of the country can only be appreciated if it is realized that Iraq is predominantly rural in character and modes of life and, quite | apart from the small industries and developing | oil projects, is dependent upon agriculture for I its existence, ° Racially, the inhabitants may be roughly divided I into 75 per cent Arabs, 18 per cent Kurds, and the remain- i i ing 7 per cent a composite of Turks, Assyrians, Sabians, and Yazidis. 1 The population may be further divided into distinctive religious groups: 93 per cent being Moslems, \ i ' 19 Victor Clark, Compulsory Education in Iraq : (New York: UNESCO, 1951h P - 14. 31 ! three per cent Christians, slightly less than three per cent Jews, and the remainder of miscellaneous faiths. Arabic is the official language, with Kurdish ) semiofficial in the provinces where Kurds form the ma^ jority. Describing the people of Iraq, Victor Clark, in Compulsory Education in Iraq, says: Generally speaking, although the inhabitants are distributed into distinctive racial and religious groups, they seem to share some im portant characteristics which, to the educator, are hopeful and significant. A visitor to the country cannot but be impressed with the great natural courtesy, friendliness and open-hearted hospitality invariably shown by people of all ranks and groups. In addition to those socially valuable characteristics, many of the people exhibit a quickness of response which, in those who have passed through institutions of higher education, seems to develop into an extraordinary mental agility. Those who are politically artic ulate share a high concern for the future of Iraq as a nation. A visitor to the country is also struck by a number of contradictions. Iraq has a brilliant cultural inheritance, yet the bulk of the population is illiterate. It is a country of great economic possibilities, yet the majority of the people exist at a meagre standard of life. The soil Is of high fertility, yet it continues to be farmed by primitive methods. Above all, although the future prosperity of the country de pends upon the application of science and power to the land, agricultural development is inhib ited by a most unsatisfactory system of land tenure.20 Loe. cit. 32 The municipalities in Iraq range from Baghdad, the capital, with more than half a million inhabitants, down to small towns with populations of less than one thousand. Baghdad is the seat of the Iraqi government. ; | Situated on the Tigris River, approximately in the geo- i graphic center of the country, Baghdad is an important trade, communication, and industrial center. It attracts great tourist interest, for, in addition to the beautiful scenery along the Tigris bordered by date palms, Baghdad has many mosques and ancient buildings of rich historical interest* It is a rapidly growing city. Mosul, the second largest city, has less than a i | quarter of the population of Baghdad. It is an old city. : Situated also on the Tigris, about 28Q miles north of ! Baghdad, it is likewise an important commercial and com munication center. v Basra, the chief port of Iraq, has a population : of about 100,000. It is situated on Shattal-Arab, j approximately eighty miles from the Persian Gulf. The port is large and is equipped with all modern facilities I | for loading and unloading cargo ships. Kirkuk, about 150 miles northeast of Baghdad, 1 is an important town in the Iraqi oil well district. It I is from this area that the long pipelines begin which j 33 cross the desert and terminate in two parts on the Mediterranean, at Haifa and Tripoli. Overcrowding has greatly increased because of the large influx of people from the land, people escap ing the hard living conditions in the rural areas, and seeking to find opportunities for employment in the | larger cities. Many of these people have simply squatted i on vacant lots and on the outskirts of the cities. They live in primitive, poorly constructed mud and mat huts and live under extremely poor sanitary conditions. Living conditions in the villages of Iraq are well Illustrated in the following description given in I i | the report of the Commission of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Developments Villages are generally clusters of mud houses where, in many cases, men and livestock are not segregated. They have usually grown up around I wells or along streams and irrigation canals under j conditions where water pollution becomes inevit- | able. For the most part, safe water supplies are j not available. The current flight from the land j cannot be arrested as long as the ordinary villages ( lack the most elementary facilities of sanitation, j medical aid, clean drinking water, and schooling, and generally offers little attraction to the per son who wants to improve his lot and enjoy a rea- ; sonably comfortable life. Dwellings of mud and | mats are not of themselves undesirable. They have the advantage of cheapness and, when properly con structed, are well adapted to climatic conditions in Iraq. Often, however, they are poorly built and too small; and they are crowded together on sites and under conditions which breed disease. In recent years there has been a growing aware ness of the need for community planning, better housing and community facilities. Kith respect to villages, little has as yet been done except for the planned development of the Dujaila pro ject.2£ In regard to the planning of improvements for the villages, the Commission notes the following: Legislation for the improvement of villages is already in existence. In 1936, a law (No. JO) for the construction of new villages was passed, empowering the Ministry of Interior to construct or renew villages ... A draft law on similar lines, but placing the responsibility on the Ministry of Social Affairs, was put before Par liament during 1951 ••• Both are admirable in objectives, but both are focused primarily on the reconstitution of villages on more hygienic lines without regard for the urgent educational and economic aspects of the problems and without | recognizing the need to enlist the cooperation | of the people.22 | The above report - points to the central core of the prob- ] lem— i.e., the impossibility of making improvements or bringing about substantial changes in the living condi- J tions of the villages without also attacking the major causes for the problem-situation— poverty, ignorance, and insecurity. The solution, it is implied, awaits | further study and planning, and the participation of all ^ the people concerned. Only then can there be any hope I that present primitive standards of living can be re- 21 International Bank for Reconstruction and De velopment, The Economic Development of Iraq (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1952), p. 55^ . 22 I b i d . , p . *1-33• 35 ! I placed by successful communities* Iraq has a very small population, about half of whom are under the age of twenty. It has been found that a very high rate of mortality exists among infants and young children. Other indications have pointed to a correspondingly high birth rate. Whatever the present ^ i rate, however, it is clear that the only way of increasing i | the population must be by improving health conditions I and developing social services such as education and I proper housing. About 550,000 people live in the city of Baghdad. Another 300,000 live in the next three largest cities of I Mosul, Basra, and Kirkuk; and some 350,000 in other towns i I I having populations of over 15*000. Thus, about 1.2 million people, or a quarter of the entire population, live in ; urban communities. In addition, there are about one ! hundred smaller municipalities with a total population of i 1 about half a million. Many of them are little more than ! overgrown villages. They form a semirural section inter mediate between the large towns and the villages. | As might be expected, standards of living and of 1 social services (education, health, etc.) are high in | the cities than elsewhere, and better opportunities for 1 employment exist in the large cities. This accounts, in --------------------------- " ' 36- part, for the heavy migration from the villages and rural areas to the cities in recent years. Agriculture and animal husbandry are the major occupations in Iraq. About two-thirds of the people live in rural areas. It has been found that 85 to 90 per cent of the rural population lives directly off the land. In regard to this situation, the Commission of the Inter national Bank for Reconstruction and Development states: In all, the number of people in families whose income is derived directly from work on the land is probably in the neighborhood of 60 per cent of the total population. ... A much higher figure could certainly be given for the number of people occupied since most of the rural population is employed to some extent. Unemployment, as opposed to underem ployment, is largely an urban problem. ... Women, too, are an important source of agri cultural labor. ... The estimate of 60 per cent for the agri cultural population would leave rather less than two million people in the families of those employed in other occupations.23 Commerce ranks next to agriculture as the next most important occupational group. Private and public service is another important type of occupation. - One of Iraq’s greatest problems is that of illit- j eracy. Despite the fact that the numbers of primary ; schools and the number of children in attendance have | grown considerably during the last thirty years, quanti- 23 Ibid., p. 128. 37 tatively the existing public demand for primary educa tion is not being met. It has been reported that out of an estimated total of 750,000 children of primary school age* not more than 175*000 attended primary schools during 1951* Literacy in the cities is much higher than in the rural areas of the country, as would be expected. It is j also much higher among men than among women, in both urban j and rural areas. According to the census of 1951* liter acy in Baghdad among males over five years of age was above 40 per cent; in other towns of the province around 30 per cent, and in the villages around 10 per cent. Cities like Mosul, Basra and Kirkuk, which are smaller than Baghdad have a male literacy of about 30 per cent, but in many rural areas (the nahiyas) it is about 5 per j cent, and in the remoter sections of the country as low as 2.per cent. In the larger cities of the country,-the proportion of literate females over five years of age was around 20 I per cent. Outside the larger cities, however, female | education exists hardly at all, especially in the rural | areas and villages. There is no doubt that the acquisition of skill 1 is greatly limited by lack of education. It is also ob- i vious that illiteracy is a severe handicap to all types 38 of people who must be able to understand written instruc tions. No improvements in agriculture, industry, or any other public service can be accomplished as long as primary education remains non-compulsory. It should be noted in this connection that economic and social factors, such as the poverty of the majority of the parents who are unable to dispense with the labours of their children on the land, the mobility of a large part of the popula- | tion which still lives in a seminomadic state, and the inability to persuade teachers to live in remote villages where living facilities are unattractive, are great ob stacles to compulsory education. The standard of living. No systematic estimate of the country’s income has as yet been made. According to a rough estimate made by the United Nations, the in come per capita in 19^9 was $85. This estimate, which includes both the very high incomes of the landowners j and the very low incomes of the fallahin (peasants) ; reflects the serious poverty in Iraq. 1 As stated before, agriculture is the most important ■ occupation in Iraq. Most of the cultivated land of the ! country is in the hands of the shaikhs, or the large land- 1 owners. Some of them have owned this land illegally and : are receiving immense income from it. The relation between the landowners and the 39 peasants who cultivate the land is well described by- Clark in his report on the educational conditions of the country: These landowners, or landholders, are usually shiekhs or absentee urban landlords who let the land to share-tenants through a hierarchy of lessees or agents, at the bottom of which is the landless cultivator who gets an incredibly small share of the produce of his labor. Indeed, the actual cultivator under this invidious system of share-cropping may get anything from ten per cent to thirty per cent of the produce of the land which he works, most of'the remainder going to the large landowners, agents or owners of ir rigation pumps. The situation may vary from landlord to landlord, and very occasionally the actual cultivator is said to share fifty per cent of the produce. In general, however, the position of the Iraqi countryside is one of great extremes of wealth and poverty. The landowner may live in a sumptuous style with a town house | and country place, while the peasant cultivator ! may live under conditions of poverty or -near- | destitution.24 The peasant cultivator whose family might consist I of five or six people, including himself, his wife and | children and one or two other relatives, such as his par- j ents or unmarried sister., spend his income on food and i j clothing. Very little if anything is spent on housing j or furniture. Living conditions in rural areas are not j far above the subsistence level. j Commenting on the standard of living in Iraq, the l I Mission of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Clark, op. cit., p. 33* 40 Development states as fdELows: Although the villagers contribute to the reve nue of the country, they receive little in the way of benefits from their expenditure. He is usually without any kind of education, which in itself militates against the improvement of his position. Thus the average fellah would not be able to read even the simplest leaflets, which might be published to improve his methods of cultivation. Government officials who might im part this knowledge by personal contact, are too few or too hampered by lack of transport to be able to reach him. Much of the same applies to his health, which is generally poor in the first instance because he is unable to afford an ade quate diet. ... In the towns, workers with reg ular employment would be much better off than the poor fellah, but in cities such as Basra and Baghdad where there has been a great influx of people from the country, there is considerable underemployment in addition to unemployment. Although, at the current rate of wages for casual labor (about 200 to 250 fils a day)*5 a man might theoretically earn an annual income of 1D75 or more, there must be many who work irregularly and earn less than 1D50* Bread and rice are comparatively costly and, together with the rent of a room for a man’s family, might take nearly half his income. Wages are probably not much higher in many of the smaller and more primitive industries. In the more modern industries, such as the oil industry, the Port of Basra and the new factories in Baghdad, a skilled mechanic can earn a dinar a day or more. On the clerical side, in the lowest grade of the regular civil service a married official with more than one child re ceives 1D13 per month. The higher income of the cityrdweller with regular employment enables him to purchase a reasonable diet, better cloth ing and better housing. He also has access to educational and health services. ... Above these ^ 1,000 fils are equal to one dinar (ID), and j one dinar equals $2.80. 41 | various classes is the small rich group of land owners and merchants. No estimate of the propor tion of the national income accruing to this group is possible, but some indication can be gleaned from the fact that a landowner in the South nor mally gets at least half the net value of the output from the land, while, in industry, prof its may exceed the total payroll.26 Public health. Considerable progress in public . j health has undoubtedly been made over the past thirty years. The increase in the.number of hospitals, dispen saries, doctors and the use of control measures such as vaccines have resulted in reducing the incidence of epi demics during recent years. In 1918* there was only one j hospital, while in 1951» the number of hospitals reached eighty-nine (with 4,812 in-patient beds, or one bed per | 1,000 population), and the number of dispensaries reached four hundred forty-eight. Health education is a serious I need, especially among those who live in rural areas. i I Reporting on public health, the Mission of the i i | International Bank for Reconstruction and Development com- i j mented as follows: The number of hospitals, dispensaries, and s doctors has greatly increased, and there have been no epidemics of pestilential diseases in recent years. Yet infant mortality is still 26 International Bank for Reconstruction and De velopment, . op. cit., p. 134. extremely high— perhaps as much as 250 per 1,000 births; and there is still a very high incidence of such endemic diseases as trachoma, hookworm, bilharzia, malaria and the dysenteries. Many of the prevailing diseases are the by-product of polluted water, and unsanitary, congested living conditions which in turn are traceable largely to poverty and ignorance. Thus an increase in production and standards of living brought about through the general development program will be an important complement to a direct attack upon the health problem through expansion and more effective organization of governmental health services. The main attack will have to focus on those diseases which sap the vitality and under mine the productivity of the people. ... It is therefore vitally important that more attention be devoted in the future to the preventive as pects of public health work.^7 The existing organization for health services has been criticized as being highly centralized and the whole system as being too rigid throughout, with insufficient delegation of responsibility and little consultation among other departments of the ministries. With regard to health education, the Mission made the following rec ommendation : Health education must be given an important place in the curriculum of the teachers 1 train ing schools, and special courses in the preven tion of the diseases associated with irrigation and cultivation should be included in the sylla bus of the School of Agriculture and of the School of Engineering. Hygiene is already taught in the schools but ought to be given greater em phasis. ... It is for the Health Department to 27 Ibid., p. 49 decide what should be taught and then the edu cators can decide how it should be taught. Natural resources. Land, water, and oil are the principal natural resources of Iraq. It has been report ed that in the two major rivers and in the underground, Iraq possesses a source of abundant water of a quality I which is excellent for irrigation and, with purification, for human consumption. Studies on this problem have indicated that in relation both to the population and the land actually under cultivation, the amount of cul tivable land available in the country is very large. The land tenure system in Iraq is highly compli cated and has led -to much confusion and dissension. The use of modern machinery during the last few years has resulted in an increase of the amount of land cultivated directly by the landowner. But the fellah (peasant) still tills the land for the landholder as a laborer who works with his family not for fixed wages but for a small share of the crop. In addition to petroleum, Iraq possesses other mineral resources of considerable extent and value--!.e., copper, iron, chromite and other ores which have been oft Ibid., p. 366. 44 found in the mountainous sections of the country. Agriculture. Iraq is one of the most important agricultural countries in the Middle East. Any program aiming at the economic or social development of the country must place primary emphasis on agriculture. As mentioned above, some 60 per cent of the population is engaged in agriculture and all industrial and commercial projects are dependent on agriculture. Animal husbandry plays an important role in the economy of the country. Agricultural progress is greatly hindered by the low economic condition and ignorance of the worker class. In regard to agricultural conditions in Iraq, the Mission of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development made the following comment in its recent report: Advances in agricultural techniques are seriously hampered by the poverty and ignorance of the fellahin who cultivate the soil and by the lack of interest displayed by most of the large land owners in improving agriculture. While there are extensive lands that can be put to the plow, par ticularly if more water is made available, a sub stantial portion of the land now in exploitation may be said to be overpopulated considering the present level of agricultural technique. An in crease in production is urgent. The standard of living which now prevails on the land is deplor ably low. ... In the future, however, more atten tion should be given to increasing productivity. It will take a long time to settle substantial numbers on new land. The living standard of the fellahin who will continue to work the land al ready in use can be improved only by a rise in 45 productivity, unless there is a drastic redis tribution of the output as between the landlord and the cultivator.29 The Mission made another pertinent comment in con nection with the existing land inequalities: Except for some rather limited areas in various parts of Iraq and a promising settlement in the Dujaila district of south-central Iraq, the country is almost wholly devoid of peasant proprietors. The ownership of cultivated lands is largely in the hands of shiekhs and urban proprietors who entrust the actual cultivation in small parcels to sharecroppers. These share croppers have neither the equipment nor the knowledge to increase production and for the most part eke out a bare subsistence. ... The depressed economic condition of the fellah or sharecropper undoubtedly retards progress. It undermines the health and vigor of the rural | population, limits the market for industrial | products and in the long run jeopardizes the stability of the social order.30 During the last few years, a large increase in ; public expenditures on development, the expansion of ! industry and the opening of state lands to settlement i | has encouraged a continued flight of labor from the land | which has resulted in an increasing pressure on the land- 1 owner to improve the sharecropper’s position. There I will be a great danger regarding the country’s agricul- i ’ tural production if the flight of labor from the land i j continues at the present rate. 29 Ibid., p. 217. 30 I b i d . , p . 5* 46 Industry. The industrial capacity is as yet little developed in Iraq. In recent years, however, an increasing desire for industrialization has become not iceable, and the government has taken steps to encourage industrial development. Industrial activities are largely connected with manufacturing of agricultural products and consumers1 goods, such as textiles, soap, matches, cigarettes, shoes, and beverages, and the production of building materials, such as cement and bricks. The oil industry is the most important industrial activity in the country and the royalties from this industry have made a great contribution to the economic and social development of the country. An interesting analysis of the industrial life of the nation is given by the Mission of the Inter national Bank for Reconstruction and Development, as follows: The conditions, however, are generally favor able to further industrial development. An expanding agriculture should provide more ma terials, such as fibres and oil seeds, for pro cessing and when the standard of living among the rural population is raised there should be a growing domestic market for industrial prod ucts. In oil and natural gas the country pos sesses a cheap source of power and fuel as well as an important source of raw materials. There are surface indications of iron, copper, zinc and chrome ores, as well as of the existence of sulphur and salt deposits. ... In the cities there is adequate manpower for industry, and 47 the Iraqi workman with proper training is gen erally adept at learning industrial processes. Skilled manpower, however, is very limited, and naturally enough, there is little of the tech nical “know-how1 1 which comes through experience and training. Other.limiting factors in indus trial development are the lack of sufficient private capital and initiative. ... While there is a trend toward increased private investment in industry, particularly since the war, indus trial development in the immediate future will have to depend very largely upon the initiative or financial assistance of the government.31 Petroleum industry is proceeding along sound lines and is far ahead of other industrial activities. Employ ees of oil companies are receiving more pay and better social services (such as housing and health care) than the employees of other enterprises. Small industries, such as cement production, the I I textile, brewery and other industries, are now improving and expanding without financial help from the government. Possibilities of establishing other industries are being | | explored. j The prevailing illiteracy is a great handicap in the training of labor, and all other types of learning 1 which require written instruction. Therefore, it is i clear that primary and adult education is essential to ! the industrial improvement and expansion of the country. 31 I b i d . , p . 33• 48 A major part of the country’s potentially rich resources has not as yet been realized* Manpower on the land is employed for a minor part of the year, and con siderable unemployment prevails in the larger cities. Large areas of uncultivated land await reclamation and irrigation before they can be utilized. Because of the lack of storage facilities and the regulation of the flow I of rivers, the great amounts of available water, particu- i larly during the seasonal flood-times, are wasted. They I are not only allowed to run off, but are allowed to cause j great property damage both to the cities and to the out- | lying agricultural areas where the floods bring with j them destruction and disease* | In the face of great potential productivity, Iraq's ; actual industrial and agricultural output is low, and her natural resources are as yet little exploited. : Transport. The railway system in Iraq is owned by the government and is considered as the principal ! means of transporation. Hoad transportation comes next i ; in importance to rail traffic. There are, however, only I I about 2,500 kilometers of metalled and surfaced roads 1 i altogether in the country. In general, Iraq's roads are ; inadequate. The excellent port of Basra is capable of ; handling a considerable increase in traffic, contingent | upon the improvement of existing transportation facilities 49 . The growing demands of agriculture and industry also point to the need for more adequate transportation fa cilities in the nation. IV. SUMMARY Iraq, better known to the Western World as Mesopotamia, witnessed for many centuries a brilliant civilization, after which the country was conquered and subjugated in 1638 to an Ottoman ruler. Following her history of brilliant achievement, Iraq remained a captive nation under Ottoman domination from the middle of the seventeenth century until the First World War. At this time, Iraq was liberated and became a kingdom with the accession to the throne of King Faysal in 1921. During | the next few years, the country was released from the | mandatory system of the League of Nations and became a ! i | recognized independent sovereign state. The long period of Ottoman influence, with its distant center of adminis- 1 tration, left its mark upon the culture of the nation. 1 Today, Iraq is a constitutional hereditary mon- 1 1 archy, with a representative form of government. In spite ; of being a young nation with a small population, relatively | Iraq has achieved considerable progress since her libera- | tion. 50 The majority of the people of Iraq suffer from acute poverty. Although only a relatively small number of persons (i.e., the landowners and city merchants) enjoy high incomes, the average standard of living is extremely low. The rich natural resources of the country (land, water, and oil) have not as yet been properly ex ploited in such a way as to raise the general standard | of living. Potential revenues from oil can provide means | for the utilization of other productive resources and | the attainment of a much higher output. In Iraq, primary emphasis needs to be placed on the development of agriculture. Schemes for the storage j and regulation of the flow of water (i.e., the flood I waters of the two great river systems, and the rain I waters) are of great importance to increasing the area ! of land which can be put under cultivation. The primitive methods of agriculture should be replaced by modern meth ods, and full advantage should be taken of the world's advanced technological developments. t No progress can be achieved until some solution I ! is found to the present system of land tenure. A con- I siderable investment of capital is essential for improv ing economic conditions. Industrial development is dependent to a large ex- ! tent on agricultural progress. The causes of poverty and the possible methods of raising the standard of living require careful study. Health and education are vital subjects and must be considered at the same time that great emphasis is placed on the economic development of the country. Im proved public education and good public health are essen tial to all types of progress, whether social, economic, or spiritual. Educational efforts must be directed to the effective solution of the everyday problems of the people of the country. The first objective of education must be to adapt its aims to the practical needs of the people, i.e., to help them improve their own health and methods of work. A second objective is the introduction i of compulsory education within the next few years. A third great educational need is for an educational pro- j gram for adults. All three require study and careful | planning. CHAPTER III THE CURRENT STATUS OF EDUCATION IN IRAQ I. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND For several centuries and until the middle of the sixteenth century, when the Turks took over the country, Iraq experienced a brilliant civilization, particularly during the Abbasid period. Following those centuries, the country remained under the Ottoman Empire's domina- j tion up until the First World War. | Arab culture is of ancient origin. Naturally, it I developed its own appropriate means of education through I its own indigenous types of schools and teachers. But | in Iraq, as in other Arab countries, modern education-- at least, education which is similar to that adopted by the democratic countries of the West--is of very recent origin. During the time of the Turkish administration little , effort was made to educate the people of Iraq and other I Arab states. No attempt was made to teach the Arabic | language; as a consequence, both spoken and written | Arabic was of poor quality. The people of Iraq were more or less illiterate at the time of their liberation and the occupation by the British. In fact, the standard of learning was as low as was the standard of living; teachers were very poorly paid and possessed few qualifications for their jobs. . Reporting on this situation, A Committee of Offi cials, in its report, Kingdom of Iraq, commented: In Turkish times, the greater proportion of Iraqi education took place in what were called i Mullah Schools, where a religious teacher gave instruction to young children mainly consisting of readings from the Koran. This form of teach ing was nominally free, but by a loose traditional arrangement the Mullah usually received some kind of payment from the children’s parents. By 1914 I the Turkish administration had formulated a sys- | tern of supplementary education and had established | 160 primary schools with a registration of about | 6,000 children, but an estimated attendance of j much less. And also several secondary, vocational, | and preparatory schools (civil and military) were established. Shortly before World War I a Law College was founded in Baghdad. The Turkish system was largely modeled on the French pattern. This influence on the curriculum and on general | administration and methods of teaching is still reflected in the schools today. For higher edu- 1 cation, boys were sent to the Military Colleges of Istanbul, and here of course the German in- ! fluence was more conspicuous. j The chief features of the Turkish regime were ! really restrictive in character. The first was that all instructions were in the Turkish lang uage. This was a language foreign.to all but to j the officials’ class. This requirement made it quite impossible for the elementary schools to progress very far. The second restrictive regu lation was that religious instruction was compul sory and of the Sunni Sect. This automatically 5^ excluded not only the non-Moslem groups, but perhaps half of the Moslem population who are of the Shi'is Sect.l Commenting upon the educational situation in Iraq Foster states: The Educational program got under way by 1915* one of the first steps being the sanctioning of a grant-in-aid to the American mission school at Basra, and then similar aid to other Christian schools at Basra on condition that they teach English, Two primary schools were opened in the fall of 1915 and others in the spring of 1916 in Basra, Abul Khasib and Zubair.2 However, a new start was made with the substitu tion of British authority, toward the end of World War I. With the British occupation in 1917* a beginning was made in founding an educational system on a sound basis. The department of education was among the other departments of the new governmental machinery which were established in 1918. Education was regarded, both by the British and by the more forward-looking Iraqis, as a very fundamental consideration. Both regarded the educational backwardness of Iraq as demand ing urgent and intensive attention.3 1 A Committee of Officials, An Introduction to ^ the Past and Present of the Kingdom of Iraq (Baltimore, ( Maryland: The Lord Baltimore Press, 19^6), p, 75* 2 H. A. Foster, The Making of Modern Iraq (Norman University of Oklahoma Press, 193577 P- 206 ^ I b i d . , p . 6 6 . It was agreed that Arabic, instead of Turkish, was now to be the official language of instruction; however, there was apparently great demand for English as the foreign language of first importance. A description of the first of the post-World War I schools is given by Foster: During 1917 and 1918 the emphasis on primary A education resulted in establishing more schools. / A lack of efficient teachers was quickly recog nized, and resulted in setting up a teacher- training school which opened with eighty-one pupils and with a faculty of three Syrians, one Baghdadi, and a fifth borrowed from the American school at Basra. Even technical education was begun in order to meet the urgent demand for men capable of making surveys and taking levels. A small fee was introduced in the Basra district ! schools, but, owing to destructive war conditions, ! no fee was charged in the Baghdad district until 1919*4 I The number of primary schools in Iraq had reached 84 by I 1920, with 363 teachers and 6,743 pupils. A secondary ^ | school was opened in 1920, and a Men's Training College ! in Baghdad in 1919> although actually the training of teachers had been begun before the fall of Baghdad. A ! women's training class was also started in 1920. Tech- 1 nical schools were opened in Baghdad in 1919 and in j Mosul, Basra, and Kirkuk in 1920. The Law College of Baghdad was reopened the same year. 4 I b i d . , p . 2 0 6 . 56 In 1921, an Iraqi was appointed Area Education Officer for Baghdad and given control over all schools except higher and denominational schools. The gradual substitution of Iraqi for British executive officials was completed by 1922, when the last British Area Officer | was replaced by an Iraqi, and the British Director became simply an adviser and Inspector General. In fact, since 1923, no administrative order has been issued by British officials in the Ministry of Education. When the Iraqi administrative officers took over from the British, Arabic had already been substituted for Turkish as the official language. Today this medium is universal except in places where the mother-tongue of the majority of inhabitants is other than Arabic. Even in such places, instruction in Arabic has from the ! first formed a large part of the curriculum. Among the educational difficulties faced by the ! new government of Iraq as listed by Poster in The Making 1 of Modern Iraq are the following: s ! 1. The prevailing idea that education is essen- l 1 tially a study of the Arab language. Too i little time is left for other things. 2. The shift from the Turkish to the Arabic^roed- ium necessitated the discarding of old teachers and the training of new. 57 3* Widespread illiteracy and low cultural standards make it very difficult to provide for the higher education wanted by the few. Higher education has mainly been sought abroad, frequently at government expense. 4. Racial divisions requiring provision for minor ities; geographical divisions of plain and mountain folk; religious divisions of Sunni and Shiah; economic and social divisions of merchant and agriculturalist, and of townsman Among the non-governmental schools of Iraq in 1925* as listed by Foster are: 1. The Koran or Mullah schools, some three hundred in Islamic law) who gives individual instrue- 1 tion in the Koran. 2. Community ^hools maintained at the expense and underythe management of the different com munities. 5 and tribesman in all, each under a mullah (a teacher learned 3* Missionary Schools ^ Ibid., p. 256 6 I b i d . , p . 257 58 4. A few privately founded schools, mainly inferior in quality* Reporting on the general situation in Iraq after the close of World War I, Clark states: The long period of Ottoman domination with an administration centered in a distant capital left its mark. Administrative reforms and some social advance were attempted during the period of the mandate. When, however, Iraq became an independent State its government was faced with a legacy,of ignorance, poverty and disease among all but a very small minority of the population. Attempts have been made by successive governments to liquidate the effects of this legacy and, in certain directions, rapid and significant progress has been made. But economic, social and political problems of great magnitude remain, all of which | have their effect on educational progress or re- | tardation.* i Among the most serious problems facing the government was ! that of finding suitable persons to fill essential offi cial posts. The shortage, not only of teachers, but also of administrators, judges, engineers, physicians, and other professional groups, was a severe handicap. In order to remedy this shortage, the Iraqi gov ernment has given attention increasingly to the many ! problems confronting education. And, while this atten- I ! tion so far has not been as extensive or as effective j as many have hoped it might be, it has nevertheless been Victor Clark, Compulsory Education in Iraq (New York: UNESCO, 1951)> P- "13. a substantial step in the right direction, and some edu cational advances have already been made. XI. ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OP THE PRESENT EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM i '• General statement. The present educational system is composed of three stages. The first stage in cludes six years of primary education. The second stage covers five years of secondary education, divided into a three year intermediate section and a two year prepara tory section. The third is the higher educational stage. According to their aims, the country’s educational I establishments are of two kinds, those offering general I education and those offering specialized training. The administration of public education in Iraq is ; highly centralized and is under the control of the l Ministry of Education. Like other systems of the Iraqi j government, the educational system is an integral part of ; the government. i Private and foreign schools in Iraq are subject to i , the supervision of the Ministry of Education. Education in Iraq today may be considered as democratic in the sense that (1) it provides equal edu cational opportunities to all the people of Iraq, (2) it is free, and (3) it recognizes no class, race, or denominational discrimination. It may also be looked upon as progressive in the sense that it appreciates all significant aspects of modern western education, ! The Ministry of Education. The public school ! | system is under the control of the Ministry of Education. | | The Ministry, as the central office, reserves the powers | of making rules and regulations for all public schools. I It provides almost all the money for public education, | educates and appoints the teachers, determines the cur riculum, prescribes the textbooks, and formulates and | grades public examinations. The Ministry exercises con siderable control over private and foreign schools. The organization of the Ministry of Education and its departments is shown in Figure 1. At the head of I the Ministry is the Minister of Education. He is a member ! of the Cabinet and is responsible to Parliament for the i educational policies of his Ministry. With the aid of the Director General of Education, he is also responsible i for the proper execution of the laws and regulations of i I his ministry. The Minister of Education serves also as i President of the Board of Education, the Board of Direc tors, the Scientific Council, the Annual Convention of Primary Education, and the Board of Higher Education. Under the Minister of Education are the Director General of Education, the Director General of Technical Affairs, the Director General of Antiquities, the deans of the Higher Teachers’ College, the Law College, the College of Arts and Sciences, the College of Engineering, i i the College of Commerce and Economics and Queen Aliyah College, and the Chief of the Private Bureau. The Director General of Education and the Director j General of Technical Affairs are the real administrative heads of the public school system. They are supposed to have experience in educational administration and in school teaching matters. They are responsible to the I Minister of Education for the proper operation and ad- i i ministration of all public schools. The Minister of Education is the political head of ! the Ministry and usually changes with changes in the t Cabinet. The Director General of Education and the Direc tor General of Technical Affairs provide the administra- , tive and professional direction of the educational system. I With various councils and committees, they assist the i | Minister in initiating and laying down educational i ! policies. The position of the Director General is i equivalent to the position of a permanent under-secretary in the Cabinet. 63 ; The Director General of Education is assisted by six directors for the six fields of educational activity which now comprise the curriculum: Primary education and Teacher Training, Secondary Education, Agricultural Edu cation, and School Buildings. Under him come also the fourteen provincial directors of education. ; Within the office of the Director General of Education there are also four sections which are shown in Figure 1. The Director General of Technical Affairs is aided by the Chief Inspector and directors for each of the | three following sections: Curriculum, Textbooks, and i | j Examination; Educational Missions Abroad and Equivalence | of Degrees; and Cultural Affairs. The Chief Inspector is assisted by specialized in- < | spectors, administrative inspectors, primary school in- | spectors, and inspectors of boarding houses. Provincial directors of education. There are fourteen provincial directors of education, one for each | of the fourteen provinces of Iraq. They are under the t ; Jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education, from which I they receive their instructions and approval of their j proposals. Each is responsible to the Director General ; of Education for the proper functioning of all schools | and educational institutions in his province, with the exception of technical and higher institutions. These exceptions are under the jurisdiction of the central office of the Ministry. The function of the provincial ! director is to execute instructions of the Ministry of | Education, to supervise the conduct of teachers and i school employees in his province, and to see to it that teaching in the schools within his jurisdiction is in accordance with prescribed syllabi. He also reports at the close of the school year to the Director General of Education, the Director General of Technical Affairs and the governor (mutassarif) of his province about the j ! educational affairs, achievements and needs in his own i | province. The inspectoral service. The inspectoral service j is headed by a Chief Inspector responsible to the Direc- 1 tor General of Technical Affairs. Inspectors are of four ! kinds: specialized inspectors, administrative inspectors, i i primary school inspectors, and inspectors of boarding de partments. The specialized inspectors are expected to I ! be specialists in subject-matter fields in intermediate, j preparatory, and vocational schools. Their function is to visit classes and teachers in their own fields and to ; report on the performance of those teachers, and also on 65 the general situation in each school with regard to textbooks and other educational facilities. The administrative inspectors inspect the general administration of the schools within their provinces. Primary school inspectors are not expected to be special- - ists in any one school subject. They have their head- i I I quarters in the education offices of the provinces. Their function is to visit primary schools and to report on the performance of teachers and the availability of educational facilities. The boarding department inspectors inspect all the boarding houses that belong to the Ministry of Education j and report to the Chief Inspector on the various needs f | and conditions of the houses, and give their suggestions for improvement. The reports of the inspectors are sent to the Chief | Inspector. Copies of these reports are also sent to the I offices and individuals concerned. The Chief Inspector i 1 annually reports to the Director General of Technical i I Affairs on the various conditions of the schools. His duty is to make sure that schools are inspected properly. i ! His function is also to insure the dissemination of in- i formation about better methods of teaching, the advising of teachers and administrators, the supervision of extra class and out-of-school activities, the behavior of both teachers and pupils, and the needs and conditions of the schools in regard to buildings, equipment, and furniture* Boards and committees* There are various boards and committees which carry on some of the most important functions of the Ministry of Education* Most important among these is the Board of Educa tion. This Board, a kind of executive board for the Ministry of Education, is composed of the Minister as president, the Directors General, the Chief Inspector, and the director of the office concerned with the sub ject to be discussed by the Board, as members of the Board. The secretary, who is appointed by the Minister j of Education, is one of the directors. The Board meets at least once a month at the request of the Minister to i deal with the general policies and trends of education, curriculums, budgets, educational missions, laws and regulations, equivalence of degrees, the distribution of financial aid, and the granting of study leaves among i ! educational institutions. ! ! ! The Board of Directors is composed of the Minister i I as president, the Directors General, Chief Inspector, I directors of the divisions of the Ministry, provincial I directors of education, and some managers of some sections in the Ministry as members of the Board. This Board meets at least once a year and at the request of the Minister. At its meetings, the annual budget is allo cated among the provinces, new graduates of the teachers1 colleges are distributed among the provinces, teachers are transferred from one province to another, proposals for opening new schools and expanding new ones are passed j on, and educational needs and policies are discussed. The promotion committee is composed of the Diree- j tors General, the Chief Inspector, and the director of | the section concerned with the promotion of its officials, as members. The president of the committee is one of the members, and is appointed by the Minister of Education. } The committee deals with the promotion of the officials I of the Ministry. The missions committee is composed of the Birector ! General of Technical Affairs as president, the Director i i j of Educational Missions and Equivalence of Degrees and | Diplomas, and two other members chosen by the Minister i ' of Education, provided that one of them is from one of t the higher institutions. The committee-deals with the I selection of the students to be sent abroad to study at i government expense. Educational finance. Educational finance in Iraq 68 is centralized. Except for some minor and irregular sources, the whole expenditure for education is paid by the central office of the Ministry of Education. No contribution to the school fund is made by municipal or provincial authority except for occasional help given to poor pupils. Occasionally, some private citizens contribute to the school fund on a voluntary basis. The third largest budgetary provision of all the Ministries of the Iraqi government is received by the Ministry of Education* The percentage of the annual national budget spent I on education has fluctuated from year to year. In 1 | 1920-21 It was 2.3 per cent. In 1933-39 it reached 12.9 I per cent. Declining and reaching 8.6 per cent in 1944- ! 45, it started rising again, until by 1950-51 it reached ! a maximum of 14 per cent. In absolute figures, the ex penditure for education has risen from 130,360 dinars in 1920-21 to 3>599*231 dinars in 1950-51 Expenditure is planned in accordance with the instructions of the i ; Ministry of Finance. Within the limits of these instruc- i ! tions, the Minister of Education can sanction expendi- j tures up to 500 dinars, which is the highest sum on any ; single item, while the primary school principal is allowed I the lowest sum, which is 0-300 dinars. Beyond these ; fixed sums, school administrators have no authority to spend money except by permission from a higher adminis trator* Furniture, library books, laboratory equipment stationery and other educational facilities all are provided by the central office at the Ministry of Educa tion or by the provincial educational authority, and principals are not allowed to spend money on such items Educational legislation* Matthews and Akrawi, in their report on Education in Arab Countries of the Hear East, give an excellent resume of the legislative aspect of the educational program of Iraq: In general, education in Iraq is governed by the provisions of the Public Education haw of 19^0* The Law defines the functions of the Ministry of Education as the founding and main tenance of government schools of all types and levels; the supervision of private and foreign schools to direct them toward the general goals of the government schools; the organization of youth, particularly through military training, scouting, and physical education; and finally the fostering of scientific and literary move ments, the spread of general culture, and the liquidation of illiteracy. The law classifies the schools into primary, secondary and higher institutions; according to purpose into schools of general culture and professional or vocational schools; and according to control into government, private and foreign schools. The law sets forth in a general way the conditions for admission of students to the various kinds of schools and of their promotion from one school level to another. It authorizes the Ministry of Education to de clare attendance compulsory in those localities where adequate primary school facilities exist. It defines the level of training required for teachers in each type of school, makes provisions TO i for sending students abroad for study and lays down rather careful stipulations for the super vision of private and foreign schools. The Law on the Distribution of Grants-in-Aid to Private Schools and Institutions, enacted in 1920, stipulates that points to be considered in making grants are the standards of the school and the number of classes in it, quality of teaching, the number and preparation of the teachers, sim ilarity of the syllabus to that of the public education system, the degree of the school's participation in public examinations, and the degree of the success achieved by the students in such examinations, and the revenues and ex penditures of the school. The recommendations of the regional educational directors and the reports of the inspectors are taken into account, and the Ministry has the privilege of converting a sura granted into salaries to be paid to one or two teachers selected by the Ministry. Other laws not primarily concerned with educa tion have a definite bearing upon it. The Local Language Law of 1931 defines the areas in northern Iraq where Kurdish, Turkish, or Arabic shall be the official language. In areas where any of these languages is that of the majority of the pupils, instruction in primary schools is in that language.& Teachers 1 salaries. The Teaching Service Law of 1951 governs the appointment, tenure, and study leave of teachers. According to the law, appointment and initial salaries are definitely linked with degrees and diplomas received from various levels of schools. Promotion beyond 8 R. D. Matthews, and M. Akrawi, Education in Arab Countries of the Near East (Washington, D.C.: The American Council on Education, 19^9)9 P« 128. 71 40 dinars requires a university degree. Teachers are allowed a vacation of three months at the close of the school year. Study leave for a maximum of two years is provided for teachers with full pay out of Iraq and with i ! half pay in Iraq. The dismissal and sick leave of teachers, as other officials, are in accordance with the | Civil Service Law. A single salary schedule prevails I I for men and women. The Teaching Service Law of 1951 fixes the type | of teaching service posts, with the minimum and maximum pay for each type of service. Teachers of primary schools 1 start with 8 to 15 dinars per month, according to their i ! qualifications, and some reach a maximum of 40 dinars. Teachers on the secondary level start with 21 to 35 din- i ars per month, according to degrees, diplomas and other qualifications they hold. Teachers holding doctor de- ! grees from American, British, French or Egyptian univer- i 1 sities begin at 35 dinars. The maximum salary for a | secondary school teacher is 60 dinars. This includes school principals, provincial directors of education, I inspectors and technical directors. Instructors at higher i f , institutions start at 21 dinars, which is the starting salary for a new employee holding the B.A. degree or its | equivalent. Assistant professors, general directors, chief inspectors and specialized inspectors may reach a maximum salary of 80 dinars. The maximum salary paid to professors or deans of colleges is 100 dinars. The Teaching Service Law has, on the whole, made improved provisions for attracting additional young men and women to the teaching profession. The educational ladder. The educational ladder in Iraq comprises three consecutive levels of schooling; namely, primary and secondary schools, followed by several | colleges or institutions of higher learning. Children i enter the first grade of the primary school at the age 1 of six and attend for six years. The primary school is | followed by five years of secondary education and then ! three to six years of higher education. There are also | several professional and vocational schools. The five-year secondary school is divided into two stages: the first three years constitute the "inter- i imediate" stage, the last two years the "preparatory" ! I stage. The preparatory stage is divided into literary i and scientific sections, with different curriculums for i jeach. Thus, it can be said that Iraqi primary and secon- dary schools operate on the 6-3-2 plan, as compared with i the American plans of 8-4 or 6-3-3 years. Below the primary school level, a few kindergartens 73 are under the direction of the Ministry of Education• A few other kindergartens are maintained by some of the private agencies. A primary-school graduate may pursue the general secondary education or may enter one of the vocational I schools. In 1950-51, 8,013 pupils graduated from primary schools;, of these pupils, 7*520 (or 9k per cent) continued their education the following year. The great majority of these, or 7*361 pupils, entered the I intermediate schools, while the remainder, 159 pupils, entered some vocational or professional school. The boys enter the technical schools, the girls the school of i ! nursing or the Home Arts school. | Education in these vocational and professional schools is entirely at government expense, with free tuition, board and lodging, books, medical care, some clothing, and travel between home and school being provided*9 r Most of the students passing the public intermed iate school examinations continue their studies. Of ! 3*1^1 students who passed in 1950-51, 3,028 (or 96 per ' cent) entered post-intermediate schools. The great ma- ; jority of these (2,712 pupils, or 86 per cent) chose to j complete their secondary school courses. The remaining I b i d . , p . 1 3 3 . 74 i J 316 entered the primary-teachers colleges for men and ; women, the Rural Teachers College, or the schools of agriculture, health workers, or police. Study at these schools is entirely at government expense. The last two years of the secondary schools that is the prepara tory stage offers the student a choice of two parallel courses, the literary or the scientific. In Baghdad there is the Commercial Secondary schools which consti tute a special type of preparatory school offering a two-year course in commerce and business. No student may be admitted to a higher institu tion unless he has successfully passed the public secon dary examination; however, expatriate students may sub- I stitute an equivalent certificate of their study abroad. } For the graduate of the secondary school there are a number of educational channels open. He may leave school and go to work, or he may apply for admission to one of the ten higher institutions or colleges which are ! open to all secondary school graduates: the Royal College I of Medicine, the College of Pharmacy and Chemistry, the I College of Engineering, the College of Science and Arts, , the Higher Teachers Training College, the Law College, the College of Commerce and Economics, the Higher Insti tute of Agriculture, the Queen Aliyah College for Women, or the Military and Police colleges. All these institu- 75 i tions, except the Military and Police colleges, admit women students as well as men. A secondary school grad uate who wishes to study abroad and cannot afford it, has a chance to be sent on a government expense scholar ship if he has done superior work in school. Of 2,072 ! graduates of secondary schools in 1950-51* only 1,399 (or 67 per cent) entered higher institutions in Iraq | or went abroad to study. Scholastic standing and pro- | portional representation of each province are the primary bases for admission to colleges. Education is free in all these colleges except in the Law College. As a substitution for this free education, the student signs a contract to serve the | government for a specified number of years after his graduation. With the exception of the Colleges of Medi- | cine, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Science and Arts, and Law, all other colleges maintain boarding departments at government expense. Other government aid, such as medical s care and books, is provided for students studying in these i j colleges. I i The Iraqi public school system is well described | by Matthews and Akrawi, as follows: The Iraqi public school system is essentially democratic in character, affording a large measure of equality of opportunity to students. It is largely a free system. ... The government has taken up the heavy burden of providing vocational and professional education entirely at its own ex pense. Recently the Ministry of Education has taken steps to extend primary educational oppor tunities for village boys. Formerly the only courses available to poor village boys were in the rural teachers colleges or the technical schools in Baghdad and Mosul. If a village boy wanted to proceed to the intermediate and secon dary schools in the capitals of the provinces, he had to have means to support himself, and few did. In 19^5 the Ministry of Education adopted the policy of opening a boarding de partment in the capital of each province where ten bright village boys can be taken annually at government expense and so allowed to pursue their secondary education. Fublic school examinations. Two types of exam- | inations are conducted in the public schools of Iraq: ' (i) the school examinations, and (2) the public examina i tions• The school examinations are given at each school ! from the first grade through the eleventh grades, in clusive. These examinations are of two kinds: (1) the mid-year examination, and (2) the final examination. i i In addition to these two examinations, teachers give | their pupils some sort of monthly examinations. The i ! school examinations cover all the subjects studied in i each grade. Generally speaking, the examinations are 10 Ibid., p. 13%. .................‘ _ ' ' 77 of the written type and in some subjects they are both written and oral, Wiitten examinations are usually of the essay type. These examinations, of course, form the basis for the promotion of pupils from one grade to the next higher one. The public examinations are those examinations prepared, administered, and corrected by the Ministry I of Education. They are held at the end of the primary, | | intermediate, and preparatory stages of schooling. Their ! purpose is. to check by the Ministry of Education on the standard of achievement of the schools, and they serve also to keep private and foreign schools up to the stand ards of the programs and policies laid down by the Minis- i j try. These examinations are held twice a year, in the j first half of June and in the second half of September, ; The second examination is held for the benefit of those i | who are delinquent in the June examination, or who were i absent from it for some valid reason. Public examinations form the basis for passing pupils from one school level ! to the next. Government certificates for graduation from i ! the three levels of schooling are issued on the basis of having passed these examinations. This situation is | elaborated upon by Matthews and Akrawi, in their study of Education in Arab Countries of the Near East: According to the regulations of the public examinations of 1942, as amended in 1943, 1944, and 1945, public primary examinations require papers in five subjects: Arabic, English, Social Studies, Arithmetic and Measurements, and "oblect lessons” (elementary Science and Hygiene). Fublic intermediate examinations are in six subjects: Arabic, English, Social Studies, Mathematics, Biology and Hygiene, Physics and Chemistry. In the public preparatory school examinations the subjects are grouped into four categories: languages, social studies, mathe matics, and the sciences. The examination is composed of seven sections, one in each language, and two in each of two groups chosen by the student, plus one in the remaining group. Students are admitted to these examinations either upon the recommendation of their schools or as outsiders. Schools, whether public, private or foreign, are required to recommend only those students who have maintained a pass ing average in the final school year, or who are delinquent because of failure in only one sub ject; they may recommend students who failed in their yearly average. Students who wish to enter the public examinations as outsiders must first take a special examination in a public school according to a program determined by the Ministry; in addition, they must present a formal application to the provincial director of educa tion before the first of May, together with a character certificate. The passing mark is 50 P©** cent in the indi vidual subjects, and 60 per cent for the general average. A delinquent is a student who receives below 50 in one or two subjects, with h^Ls gen eral average in the other subjects of 60 or above, or who fails in one subject and whose general average is between 5P and 60, or who fails to achieve the average of 60 without having fallen below 5° in any single subject. Other failures may not be re-examined for a y e a r . H 11 I b i d . , p . 1 3 5 . Questions of the public examinations for the three schooling levels are developed about the middle of the school year by subject committees composed of inspectors and teachers. Members of the committees are usually from a school of a higher level than that for i j which the questions are being devised. The examination i I questions are sent in sealed packages to each examina- I tion center. They should be opened only by the director of the examination center on the day of the particular examination. Committees for correcting and marking the papers are usually formed on the basis of two committees i for each subject on each level for each center. The examination in each subject takes place simultaneously [ in all centers. Two or three hours are usually allowed for each examination which is usually of the essay type and consists of five to seven questions. The examina tion papers are collected and sent in sealed packages to the correction center by the director of the examina- | tion center. ! Results of the public examinations for the primary, 1 intermediate, and preparatory schools for the year 1950-51 i are given in Table I. It can be noticed that for this year students of private and foreign schools did better in the primary examination that did the students of the public schools, while in the intermediate and preparatory j | I examinations the public_school students did better. TABLE I RESULTS OP PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS, IRAQ, 1950-51 1 Public schools Private and - foreign schools Outside students or students not en rolled in schools Total Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent PRIMARY EXAMINATIONS: Numb,er entering Number who passed Number who failed ■ 1 , 12,489 7,196 5,293 100.0 57.6 42.2 1,210 740 470 100.0 61.2 38.8 269 77 192 100.0 28.6 71.4 14,168 8,013 5,955 100.0 64.4 35.6 INTERMEDIATE EXAMINATIONS : - Number entering Numb'er who passed Number who failed 3,673 2,514 1,159 100.0 68.4 31.6 1,968 566 1,402 100.0 28.8 71.2 290 61 229 100.0 21.0 79.0 5,931 3,141 2,790 100.0 52.6 47.4 PREPARATORY EXAMINATIONS: Numbjer entering: Science Lijterature Commerce Total Number who passed Science Literature Commerce Total Number Who failed: Science Lijterature Commerce---- ; — Total 1,307 832 32 2,171 794 617 31 1,442 513 215 _ 729 __ 392 -- 107 — 1,806 1 — — 867 -- 423 __ 2,122 1 — __ -- 5 __ 37 : -- — 1,259 —; ■ 535 — 3,965 j 60.8 110 28.1 11 10.3 915 50.6 74.2 378 43.6 127 30.0 1,122 52.8 96.9 -- -- 4 80.0 35 94.6 66.4 488 38.8 142 26.5 2,072 52.2 39.2 282 71.9 96 89.7 891 I 49.4 25.8 .3.1.. 489 56.4 296 ---- . . 70.0 - 20.-0— 1,000 ..: ...2.. '47.2 — - 1 5.4 33.6 771 61.2 393 73.5 1,893 47.8 81 Students who prepare privately for the examinations are consistently the poorest, on the average. The annual reports of the 3hst ten years show that these trends are not exceptional to any one year. The private and foreign primary schools, 128 in number, are only 10 per cent of the total number of primary schools (1,229) in Iraq, and are located mainly in the larger cities where chil dren come from the better and more progressive homes. The 1,101 public primary schools are scattered all over Iraq, in remote villages and in small towns, as well as in cities, and their pupils are drawn from all classes of the population. The reason for the trend at the secondary level is quite different. State intermediate and preparatory schools now admit students on the basis of their achievement and, further more, drop any student who fails twice in the same year’s work. Those dropped, in an effort to save themselves from .'two years of compulsory military service as privates, in some cases en roll in the private schools, thus reducing the standard of these schools. ... The results of the public examinations do not show the complete picture of all failures, for since 19^0 the schools have had authority to pass or fail students of their graduating class prior to those examinations.12 The passing or failing of those students is based on their final average for the school year. The final I b i d . , p . 138 82 average is figured in the following manner. In each subject the average of the monthly examinations of the first half of the school year, the mark for the mid year examination, and the average of the monthly exami nations of the second half of the school year are added and the total is divided by three. The result is the final average for the pupil for the school year. An indication of the amount of failure at the school and the public examinations is shown in the following fig ures for the graduating classes of public schools in I 1950-51: I • / ! Out of 14,669 pupils registered in the sixth 1/ i grades of the public schools in May 1951> only 12,489 were recommended by their schools to enter the public primary examinations. Out of these 12,489 pupils who entered the public primary examination, only 7*196 succeeded in passing the examinations. This means that 57.6 per cent of those who entered the primary public i examination were able to pass these tests. This number \ . . \ is equal to approximately 49 per cent of those who were registered in the sixth grades of the public schools. i For the intermediate public schools, the figures were as I follows: 4,022 pupils were registered in the third year | of the intermediate schools in May of 1951* Of these, 83 3*673 pupils were recommended by their schools to enter the public intermediate examinations, of which 2,514 pupils passed. Thus, 68.4 per cent of those who entered the public intermediate examination passed the examina tion. Sixty-two per cent of those who were registered 1 J | in the third year of the intermediate schools passed the s j public intermediate examinations; finally, of the 2,223 « | pupils in the fifth year of the public preparatory schools | 2,171 were recommended to enter the public preparatory | examinations; of these, 1,442 passed. In other words, 66.4 per cent of those who entered the examinations, or 64.8 per cent of those who were registered in the fifth year of the public preparatory schools, were able to pass | their examinations. It can be concluded that Iraq’s public school I system, particularly on the secondary level, is highly j selective. The annual reports of the last few years, as shown in Table II, reveal that the percentage of the ' pupils who succeed in passing the public examinations ! is increasing. This could mean that less emphasis is I ! being placed on marks and examinations by the teachers !of public schools, or that better training of teachers ;has been accomplished, or possibly both. TABLE I I NUMBER OP STUDENTS OP SCHOOLS SITTING FOR PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS, AND THE SCHOOLS TO WHICH THEY BELONG . School year Primary Intermediate Preparatory Number of schools Partici pating pupils Number who passed Number of schools Partici pating pupils Number who passed Number of schools Partici pating pupils Number who passed 1943-44 414 6,878 3,865 44 ,2,341 1,286 17 1,155 680 1944-45 427 6,411 4,020 45 1,924 1,418 21 1,248 911 1945-46 455 6,969 5,010 46 2,148 1,671 22 1,441 1,176 1946-47 476 7,196 4,892 50 2,261 1,964 24 1,556 1,161 1947-48 519 8,019 6,674 57 2,607 2,434 26 1,913 1,495 1948-49 531 8.735 7,059 59 2,595 1,779 27 1,942 1,439 1949-50 -- 10,623 8,417 — 3,161 2,491 2,288 1,357 1950-51 " 12,489 7,196 3,673 2,514 2,171 1,442 85 i Expansion of the public school system* To make more clear the picture of Iraq’s educational system, tables are prepared to present a statistical view of education as it exists today in all types of educational institutions. For comparative purposes, there are given (whenever possible) figures taken at ten-year intervals for the period since the 1920-21 school year for the en tire public school system. Data for these tables were obtained from the reports of the Ministry of Education. Tables III and IV show the increase, in ten-year , intervals since 1920, in the number of public schools, teachers, and pupils at the primary and secondary levels. Table III reveals that the public primary schools in creased from 88 to 1,101; the number of teachers from 486 to 6,367; and the enrollment from 9*001 to 180,779 between 1921 and 1951* I Table IV shows that the public secondary schools (intermediate and preparatory) increased from 3 to 121; ; the number of teachers from 34 to 999; and the enrollment ' from 110 to 22,706. Thus it can be seen that while the S primary schools now have twelve times their original number, their enrollment has multiplied 23 times. In the public secondary schools the gain is relatively greater during the same thirty-year period. As compared with 1940-41, the public schools increased nearly 50 par St TABLE III NUMBER OP PUBLIC SCHOOLS, TEACHERS, AND PUPILS AT THE PRIMARY LEVEL IN IRAQ, IN TEN-YEAR INTERVALS SINCE 1920 School year Number of schools Number of teachers Number of pupils ! Male Female Co-ed Total Male Female Total Male Female Total! 1920-21 85. 3 - - 88 471 15 486 7,539 462 8,001 1930-31 269 45 2 316 1,076 249 1,325 27,467 7,046 I 34,513' 1940-41 543 145 47 u 735 2,1 1 - 6 2 1,063 3,525 67,465 23,329 I 90,794- i 1950-51 819 190 92 1,101 4,376 1,991 6,367 138,530 1 42,249 180,779, 00 G\ TABLE IV NUMBER OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, TEACHERS, AND PUPILS IN IRAQ AT THE SECONDARY LEVEL (INTERMEDIATE AND PREPARATORY), IN TEN-YEAR INTERVALS SINCE 1920 School year Number of Schools Number of teachers Number of pupils Male Female Co-ed Total Male Female Total Male Female Total 1920-21 3 3 34 - - 34 110 - - 110 1930-31 16 3 — 19 107 22 1 ■ 129 1,906 176 2,082 19^0-41 38 18 — 56 370 102 472 11,494 2,475 13,969 j 1950-51 85 36 — 121 698 301 999 17,594 5,112 22,706 j 03 —Q “ ' ‘ “ ~ " " " " " 88 cent on the primary level and more than 100 per cent on the secondary level, while the pupils increase 48 per cent on the primary level and about 40 per cent on the secondary level. The increase in the number of teachers has kept pace with that of the number of pupils. In i ! fact, the data presented in these tables reveal that more students are entering secondary schools now, and that the rate of increase for girls is greater than that for boys in the primary and secondary schools. For compara tive purposes, it should be kept in mind that public education in Iraq dates back only to the year 1920. Table V gives information relative to the status of education in Iraq in '1950-51. Table VI shows the i ■ number of graduates, presented in ten-year intervals since 1920, from the various public educational institu- - tions in the country. Analysis of the data of these two i I tables reveals that primary and secondary education is i i I well advancing, while vocational and professional educa- | tion have not kept up. Agricultural and technical schools ! upon which the country's economic development so greatly j depends, are still practically non-existent in the country ; While one agricultural school and three technical schools : were established some years ago, data reveal that the i state is not paying the serious attention to this type TABLE ¥ NUMBER OP SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES, TEACHERS, AND PUPILS IN IRAQ, 1 9 50-5 1 Number of schools Number of teachers Number of pupils Male Mixed Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total PRIMARY SCHOOLS: Public ^ 819 . 92 190 1,101 4,376 1,991 6,367 138,530 42,249 180,779 Private 45 56 22 123 315 391 706 13,559 7,381 20,940 Foreign 5 - - - - 5 43 43 1,387 - - 1,387 Total 869 148 212 1,229 4,734 2,382 7,H6 153,476 49,630 203,106 INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS: Public 61 - - 29 90 301 199 500 13,835 4,176 18,011 Private 43 - 10 53 127 51 178 5,978 564 6,542i Foreign 3 - - 1 4 15 - - 15 517 104 1 —1 CVI Total 107 — — 40 147 443 250 693 20,330 4,844 25,174; TABLE V (c o n tin u e d ) NUMBER OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES, TEACHERS, AND PUPILS IN IRAQ, 19 50-51 Number of schools Number of teachers Number of pupils l/l vU blUU Male Mixed Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total PREPARATORY SCHOOLS • • Public 24 7 31 397 102 499 3,709 936 4,690 i Private 28 8 36 484 69 553 2,208 233 2,441 Foreign 1 1 2 45 6 51 119 14 133 Total 53 16 69 926 177 1,103 6,086 1,183 7,269 TECHNICAL SCHOOLS: Technical 4 - 4 55 -- 55 448 -- 00 Home Arts - 1 1 -- 12 12 165 1651 Fine \Arts - 1 1 11 1 12 253 32 285; School of Agriculture* 1 - 1 -- 74 -- 74; Health Offi cials School* 1 - 1 -- 106 -- 106 * Indicates statistics for the academic year 1951 -52. VO 0 TABLE V (c o n tin u e d ) NUMBER OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES, TEACHERS, AND PUPILS IN IRAQ, 19 50-51 Number of schools Number of teachers Institution Male Mixed Female Total Male Female Total Number of pupils Male Female Total Midwifery . School I Police Pre- I paratory j School* 1 i 'Sharia College 1 Sharia Pre paratory !School* 1 Elementary Teachers‘ Trg College 3 1-year Ele mentary Teachers 1 Trg Course 4 Higher Teachers' Trg College 1 1 6 7' 1 43 56 27 70 56+21 lecturers 121 45 101 68 756 378 273 82 481 237 121 45 101 68 1,134 355 718 : VO | _1 TABLE V (continued) NUMBER OP SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES, TEACHERS, AND PUPILS IN IRAQ, 1950-51 Number of Schools Number of teachers Number of pupils r uw,lwwu*v Male Mixed Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total IQueen Aliyah College - 1 1 -- — 13+46 lecturers — 330 330 Law College 1 — 1 11+9 lecturers 20 1,845 122 1,967 Medical College 1 - 1 -- 359 55 414 i (Engineering College 'Commerce and Economics 1 - 1 31+5 lecturers 36 312 5 317 College College of Arts 1 1 6+12 lecturers 18 616 65 681 and Science 1 — 1 18+8 lecturers 26 147 39 186 College of Agriculture 1 - - 1 - - — 23 - - 23 Pharmacy and Chemistry College 1 — 1 — — — 78 17 95 Higher Police College 1 - - 1 _ _ _ « 81 ---- 81 93 i TABLE VI NUMBER OP STUDENTS GRADUATED PROM PUBLIC EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN IRAQ SINCE 1920-21, IN.TENrYEAR INTERVALS Institution 1920-21 1930-31 1940-41 1950-51 Primary schools _ _ 1,440 5,910 7,196 Intermediate schools — 136 2,562 2,514 Preparatory schools — 159 945 1,442 Technical schools -- 12 15 47 Agriculture school a a a 25 Fine Arts Institution — — b 6 Domestic Arts Institute Physical Education — — — c 7 Institute School of Health — — — d — — Officials a a a 25 School of Nursing a a a 30 Police Preparatory School Rural-Primary Teachers * a a a 16 Training Colleges, Men Element ary-Primary Teachers’ Training 33 96 292 507* Colleges, Women Higher Teachers’ — 36 112 233* Training College _ _ 19 63 176 Queen Aliyah College College of Commerce and — — — e 64 Economics — — f 69 College of Engineering __ - - g 59 College of Law 15 10 129 621 Medical College Pharmacy and Chemistry a a a 46 College a a a 25 Higher Police College a a a 31 .. — ............... ....................................... * This number includes those who graduated from a one-year iteachers’ training for preparatory school graduates, ja Data for the first graduates are not available. !b For the first time 21 students graduated in 1944-45. ic. For the first time 23 students graduated in 1941-42. d For the first time 29 students graduated in 1944-45* e For the first time 37 students graduated in 1947-48. f For the first time 112 students graduated in 1949-50. g For the first time 19 students graduated in 1945-46. of vocational school which its importance merits, and that at present there is undoubtedly little justification for encouraging parents to send their children to these schools. An analytical inspection of these data suggest the importance of greater emphasis and support for cer tain types of higher education. More attention should be paid to increasing the number of teachers on all lev els of education; vocational education, especially, is in need of greater emphasis; there is need, as well, for | improvement in the quality of teacher education. Analysis of many other aspects of public education must await the availability of further data. III. PRIMARY EDUCATION i Primary education is free in the public schools. It extends over six grades and is offered to children ] who have reached the age of six years. Primary education i : is compulsory in places decided upon by the Ministry of ' Education when adequate facilities exist. Public school i | facilities are lacking in many villages and localities t ; far from the cities. The boys are needed for work in the ! fields, the girls to help in the homes or in the fields. | Many children lack even the minimum of education. These 95 and other social and economic conditions militate against the enforcement of compulsory primary education, especial ly in the non-urban areas. Boys and girls are segregated to a large extent in primary and secondary education. In addition to this, I men teachers are assigned to boys * schools and women teachers to girls’ schools. The Ministry of Education has made consider able progress in recent years, especially in the cities, to overcome the traditional prejudice against coeducation. The first step toward this movement was taken in 1933-3^ when the Ministry opened kindergartens, later called 1 1 junior schools,” which admitted both boys and girls and employed women teachers. In the larger cities, particu larly in Baghdad, the kindergartens soon were enlarged to include the first and second grade classes ... at the present the typical junior j school consists of the first four grades and parallel the work of those grades in the public primary school. A few junior schools offer a five or six year course. Apart from these planned coeducational schools, coeducation at the primary level is tolerated in many rural villages where j no girls' schools or only incomplete ones exist. I ... The Ministry of Education is most concerned j with spreading basic elementary education and tends to leave nursery schools and kindergartens to private initiative. A few private or foreign kindergartens have been established in Baghdad.*3 The school year extends from the middle of Septem ber to the middle of June. Attendance in public schools j ! Is for six days a week with Friday off. Consisting of I 13 I b i d . , p . 1 4 6 . 96 six periods, four in the morning and two in the after noon, the school day extends from 8:15 a.m. to 3:30 p.m. The afternoons on Monday and Thursday are devoted to extracurricular activities. A ten-day spring vacation is given at the middle of the school year. Other holi days are enjoyed toy both the schools and government offices. Examinations in the schools are conducted in ac cordance with the regulations and instructions of the Ministry. They are given by the teachers under the general direction of the principal, j The principal is responsible to a higher authority I I | for the proper functioning of his school and its disci- j pline. Class instruction is conducted by teachers in accordance with prescribed syllabi and instructions pre- j pared by the Ministry of Education. It has been said that there are more over-age children in Iraqi primary schools than in European or American schools. This, it is "said, is due not only to i ■ retardation in learning, but also to the lack of compul- i j sory attendance requirements which results in many chil- i j dren entering school late. Village schools usually have more over-age children than do city schools. 97 The primary-school courses of study. The primary programs of study have undergone several simple revisions since 1918* The aim of primary, education has been stated as follows: The diffusion of general culture among the rising generation and providing this generation with the requirements of civilized life, e.g., general information, correct thinking, a strong j body, sound character, high ideals, good taste, j a working hand and loyalty and sacrifice to the country and nation. * * - 4 The function of the primary-school teacher is seen to be as follows: The teacher is bidden to provide useful, correct information, making it as practical as possible and relating it to the environment of the child, and to correlate the subjects which he teaches with those taught by his colleagues. The course of study for each subject is prefaced by directions to the teachers.15 The elements of reading, writing, arithmetic, drawing, ! handwork, physical training, and singing are taught in the primary schools. The subjects taught in these , schools are: reading, writing, arithmetic, object i , lessons (with special emphasis on health and agriculture) ^ and religion, and those are taught in all grades. In i i the third to sixth grades, history is added. In the | | fourth to sixth grades, geography, moral and civic duties, 14 Ibid., p. 149. 15 L o c . c i t . 98 and Arabic grammar are added. In the highest grades, the fifth and sixth, English is taught. The program of studies and the number of class period devoted to each subject are shown in Table VII. The total number of hours of instruction in public primary schools is 30 in each of the first and second grades, and 32 in each i of the remaining grades. t Compulsory primary education. There is no doubt that the only way to exterminate illiteracy and extend the educational base in Iraq is by enforcing compulsory primary education. Then the people will have the means of gaining the essential knowledge which will enable | them to improve and raise their living conditions through their own efforts. Similarly, adult and vocational education, both essential to the welfare of the Iraqi l j people, need to be founded upon a strong basis of liter- I acy at the early stage of primary-school level. I ! The Mission of the International Bank for Recon struction and Development which conducted a study on i the economic development of Iraq and prepared its report t j in 1952, states the following: The Mission believes that there is a wide spread conviction that the time is ripe for a big advance in the direction of' compulsory edu cation. This opinion is also reflected in a number of recent reports and educational publi cations, including the Report of the Committee 99 I TABLE V I I PRIMARY SCHOOL PROGRAM OP STUDIES, IRAQ, 1952-53 Number of periods per week_______ Subject First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth grade grade grade grade grade grade Religion and Koran 4 A 3 3 2 3 Arabic language and penmanship 11 12 10 10 6 6 English - - - - 6 6 Arithmetic and mensuration 6 6 6 6 5 5 Obj'ect lessons and hygiene 2 2 2 2 2 2 Geography and history 4 4 A A Moral and civic duties - - - 1 1 1 Drawing and manual arts 3 3 4 4 4 3 Physical education and singing 4 3 3 2 2 2 Total 30 30 32 32 32 32 lO O i appointed by the Ministry of Education, and Clark's Report prepared in 1950* A striking testimony to this awakened public consciousness is provided by the fact revealed by Directors of Education in several provinces, that in many villages without schools, local people (and the local landholders in some cases) were prepared to construct school buildings provided the Ministry of Education was willing to find the teachers. The problem of compulsory education can not be solved unless a program of school building and teacher training is planned in advance. As declared by the Mission, the goal of this program of compulsory education should be to bring primary education to all children of school age. At present the number of children of this age is about 7 5 0 *0 0 0 * but only about 181,000 are actually in attendance. Fundamental education. This phase of education I is very recent in Iraq, and is still being developed. i It constitutes a major part of adult education. This i I phase of education emphasizes not only the acquisition i of literacy, but also the dissemination of practical j training in health, civics, agriculture and other aspects I j of better living. The use of audiovisual aids is International Bank for Reconstruction and De velopment, The Economic Development of Iraq (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press,~T95^7>P^~~3BT* 101 j j considered of great importance to the success of the program of fundamental education. The Mission of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development has recommended the following: ; The mission urges that a program for adult education be drawn up and directed by a Special Division of Fundamental Education in the Ministry of Education. Such a program would be directed primarily to those groups in the population be tween 12 and 45 years of age. It would stress the acquisition of literacy, not as an end in itself but rather as a means to the acquisition of practical knowledge of the fundamental prob lems of better living. It is useless to teach people how to read and write unless by this means they can be shown how to work more effectively for their own good. For this reason a new and broader approach to education, different from the traditional schoolroom methods used to teach children is required. This approach has been characterized by Unesco as “fundamental education11: ! f The main purpose of fundamental education is to help people to understand their immediate problems and to give them the skills to solve them through their own efforts. It is an emer- ! gency solution designed to help masses of illit- I erate adults and children in countries whose j educational facilities have been inadequate. | It is an attempt to salvage a generation by giving it the minimum of education needed to | improve its way of life, its health, its pro- ■ ductivity and its social, economic and politi- j cal organization.17 f i In its report on educational development in Iraq in i f 1951-52, the Ministry of Education reported the following | projected outline: ^ I b i d . , pp. 68 -6 9 * University of southern UNESCO offered in the year under review to undertake a fundamental education campaign in the rural districts of Iraq. After close study of this offer, the Ministry of Education recog nized its value for rural areas and decided to accept it. At the initial step UNESCO sent out experts, who chose the Dujaila district as the first trial area. The fundamental education program comprises the teaching of reading and writing and the improvement of the hygienic, social and economic conditions of life of the local population. The Ministry and UNESCO have agreed that the trial project in the Dujaila district shall last three years. UNESCO also sent two experts to gain experience in a cer tain village in Egypt where a similar mission is at work, and these two experts then joined their colleagues in Iraq. In the course of the year under review, the UNESCO team now at full strength, sent some of its members to Sulairaaniya and Kirkuk to study certain special aspects of fundamental education, while other members vis ited the rural training college at Bakouba and similar establishments in order to become familiar with existing teacher training conditions and methods. The team as a whole then proceeded to Dujaila to make a preliminary survey of the problem, together with a number of Iraqi collab orators of both sexes. It has already submitted report on the diffi- * As soon as the plan proves fruitful, the program will, it is anticipated, be extended to include other villages j and localities. Provisions will undoubtedly be made to i introduce the principles and procedures of fundamental i education in the curriculum of teacher training colleges j in Iraq. 18 UNESCO, International Year Book of Education, 1952 (New York: UNESCO, International Bureau of Educa- tion, Publication No. 145)* P* 169. IV. SECONDARY EDUCATION 103 «/ Secondary education in Iraq started to develop slowly after World War I. The first classes for boys in secondary education were opened in Baghdad, Mosul, and Basra in 1920. The first graduation from these secondary school classes was in 1924. In 1930 classes in secondary | education were opened for girls in the same cities. In I 1929, the secondary education course was extended from | four to five years, with an intermediate stage of three years and a preparatory stage of two years. Coeducation is developing rapidly in the primary I schools and has been accepted in the higher educational I | institutions, but is still being opposed at the secondary level. | The employment of men teachers in girls 1 secondary | schools was started a few years ago when the rapid expan- | sion of secondary school education for girls and the , shortage of women teachers had been felt. This practice has not been opposed except by a few localities, and has i j resulted in a more rapid development of secondary educa- I tion for girls. Secondary education has grown fast, and private ! secondary schools are increasing rapidly and competing I with public secondary education. As explained in the 10^ report given by Matthews and Akrawi, this is due to the application of the Iraqi Military Service Law: The Iraqi Military Law exempts secondary school and college students until graduation, after which they receive nine months of training as reserve officers instead of having to serve for two years as privates, as do non students* The application of this law has considerably popularized secondary education- The resulting expansion of schools at this level is not so apparent in the public sec ondary schools for boys, as expansion is controlled by budgetary limitations, but the effect upon private and foreign schools has been pronounced. ... The Military Service Law brought into the pub lic secondary school many inferior students whose principal interest was escape and who failed in their studies repeatedly. To avert the danger of having the public schools filled with laggards who lowered the standards and often became behav ior problems, it was ruled that a student who failed the same grade twice should be dropped. Many of these failures from the public school system contributed to the expansion of the private schools, which tend to have flexible standards.1^ According to the Secondary School Regulations, j admission to public, private and foreign intermediate and ; preparatory schools is based on the public examination. 1 I As in the public primary schools, education in the public i secondary schools is free. The size of the secondary school determines the i ; number of teachers needed, and the number of assistants | and clerks who assist the principal in administering the ;school. As a maximum teaching load, intermediate-school M atth ew s and A k ra w i, o p . c i t . , p . 1 6 2 . teachers are assigned twenty-four periods a week, and ! preparatory-school teachers twenty-two. A maximum of six additional periods are allowed a teacher for extra pay. In addition to class teaching, teachers are re- \ ] quired to supervise students during their extracurricular activities and leisure hours. To some extent, the school staff cooperates in planning and executing some of the school activities. This is evident from the following statements made by Matthews and Akrawi: Each school has a general teachers1 council which meets at least once a month, and there are committees responsible for discipline, pur chases, school activities, and for studies and examinations. There are five committees for studies and examinations--one each for Arabic, English, Mathematics, Science, and Social Studies. They meet at least once every two months to con sider ways of improving the teaching in the school, | and at the end of the year each study committee acts as an examining committee, setting questions and marking papers jointly and submitting a final report on examination results to the principal. The class teacher conducts quizzes and topical tests and midyear examinations, but final examina tions are given by the study committees.20 To compare, the secondary-school teacher is a ! teacher of subjects, while the primary-school teacher j | is a grade teacher. Both teachers are required to follow the prescribed courses of study and the adopted textbooks. 20 I b i d . , p . 1 6 4 . The secondary-schoo1 courses of study. The secondary school program of studies has undergone few revisions since 1926. Matthews and Akrawi state the following in regard to the secondary-school program of studies: A secondary school program was first published in 1926 and provided for a four-year course. After the lengthening of the secondary course to five; years in two stages, a temporary intermed iate program was issued in 1929* and in 1931-32 the new course for the upper two years was issued. This program attempted a departure from the earlier type of specialization in either the literary or the scientific section of permitting four types of specialization--literary, social studies, science, and mathematics. There was also an innovation in the form of a course to study Iraq in all phases of its political, so cial, and economic life. The four parallel courses and the study of contemporary Iraq aroused a great controversy and resulted in a revision of the secondary school program in 1936 which returned to the two parallel curriculum of sci entific and literary subjects and abolished the study of contemporary Iraq as being too contro versial. Two other revisions were made in 1940 and in 1943* These revisions attempted to unify the literary and scientific currieulums for girls’ schools; but the present program, that of 1943* follows the same lines for girls as for boys except that girls have two additional periods per week for home arts and needle work, and in the fourth and fifth years have two and four periods, respectively, in child education instead of the study of Iraq, now permitted in the fourth and fifth years.21 The subjects taught in secondary schools are as follows: Arabic and English are taught in all grades 21 I b i d . , p . 1 6 6 . 107 from the seventh up to and including the eleventh grade. Religion is taught in all grades of the intermediate level. A course in general science is given in the sev enth grade as a start to an extensive program of science provided for both levels of secondary education. In the eighth grade a course in biology and a course in chem istry are provided. A course of physics is given in the ninth grade. A more extended course of chemistry and | biology are also given in the tenth grade of the scien tific section of the preparatory school, biology now being divided into botany and zoology. In the eleventh grade, a more extended course in physics is offered. | Demonstration and observation form the practical part I of the science program. | Courses in mathematics (arithmetic, algebra, ! plane and solid geometry, and trigonometry) are given j in all secondary schools. The program in social science i is made up of courses in history, geography, economics, ! civics and ethics, and the study of Iraq. The latter is ! related to the social and economic conditions of Iraq. j I A course in child care and psychology is given I for girls in the preparatory stage of schooling. A course | in manual arts and home economics (consisting of sewing, I embroidery, knitting, cooking, and home cleaning in a io8 more advanced form than in the primary school) is given to girls in secondary schools. A more advanced course in drawing and physical education than those of the primary stage are also provided at the secondary-school level. Table VIII shows the distribution of these courses i on both levels of secondary education, and the number of periods devoted to each subject. In few of the secondary schools are laboratory facilities available; in those which are equipped for laboratory instruction, students are required to perform some laboratory work in chemistry, physics and biology, ; in addition to the demonstrations by the teacher. i Vocational education. According to the 1950-51 ■ annual report of the Ministry of Education, six vocational | schools exist in Iraq. Three of these are technical, i the fourth is agricultural, the fifth is the School of Pine Arts, and the sixth is the Home Arts School, i Statistical data show that Iraqi youth have little inter- { est in attending vocational schools. In regard to this t | situation, the Mission of the International Bank for } Reconstruction and Development has made the following | statement: TABLE V I I I THE SECONDARY SCHOOL PROGRAM OP STUDIES, IRAQ, 19 ^ 9 -50 Subject Number of periods per week Intermediate schools Preparatory schools 10th grade 11th grade 7th grade 8th 9th grade grade Literary Scientific Literary Scientific section section section section Arabic 6 6 6 7 5 7 5 English 6 6 6 8 7 00 Religion 1 1 1 - - - History 2 2 3 4 - 4 Geography 2 2 2 2 - 3 Civics and Ethics - 2 1 - - - Economics - - _ - - 3* Study of Iraq - - 2 2** 2 Arithmetic 4 2 _ - - - - * Boys only. ** Girls only. H O VO 109 TABLE V I I I (c o n tin u e d ) THE SECONDARY SCHOOL PROGRAM OP STUDIES, IRAQ, 1 9 49 -50 Subject Number of periods per week Intermediate schools Preparatory schools 10th grade 11th grade 7th grade 8th grade 9th grade Literary Scientific Literary Scientific section section section section Algebra _ 2 3 - 2 2 Geometry 2 2 3 - 3 Trigonometry - - - 3 - General mathematics - - • - 2 2 - General science 6 - 4 - - Physics - - 3 - 7 Chemistry 3 5 - Biology 2 - - 5 5 Hygiene — 2 — — — — Oil TABLE V I I I (c o n tin u e d ) THE SECONDARY SCHOOL PROGRAM OP STUDIES, IRAQ, 1 9 49-5 0 ■ Number of periods per week Subject Intermediate Preparatory schools schools 10th grade 11th grade 7th Grade 8th grade 9th grade Literary Scientific Literary Scientific section section section section Drawing 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 Child Care and Psychology ... - 2## 4## Physical Education 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Home Arts and Needlework 2** 2** 2#* 2** 2 2*# 2 Total, Boys 33 33 33 32 32 32 32 Total, Girls 35 35 35 34 34 34 34 ** Girls only. 112 i Although the number of students in technical schools--about 750--seeras very inadequate* Iraq has had difficulty in absorbing the graduates of these institutions largely because they lack suf ficient practical training and they show a dis taste for manual work* Obviously one of the first steps toward improved technical training will be to give the curriculum of the intermediate and secondary, schools a greater vocational bias* with emphasis upon the dignity and value of manual labor.22 These vocational schools were established a few years ago when the Ministry of Education started to re alize the importance of vocational education in regard to the needs of the Iraqi communities and the provision of work opportunities for boys and girls. Plans to intro- | duce some of the vocational and special types of education I ' - \ ■ into, the secondary-school system are still under way* t having been begun some ten years ago. In its report on educational development in Iraq ' in 1951-52, the Ministry of Education stated the follow- I I ing in regard to its efforts to direct education toward I I the needs of the country: i j The Advisory Committee on technical education* I appointed by the Ministry of Education in 1950, made a detailed survey of the present state and 1 future needs of technical education* and the more | important recommendations this committee makes in ! its interim report (concerning* in particular, the re-equipment of workshops and recruitment of specialist teachers) are now being implemented. 22 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development* op. cit., p. 63. 113 The Committee’s final report recommends a com plete revision of curricula* The technical school at Kirkuk will shortly be transferred to better premises* Important sums have been earmarked by the Development Board for the construction of new technical schools at Basra and for the extension of existing schools at Baghdad* The Board has also agreed to* send thirty technical school grad uates abroad for further training . . .. In its ef forts to train a sufficient number of skilled workers the Ministry of Education is working in close collaboration with other departments con cerned and with local industries, and there is every indication that such collaboration will shortly prove fruitful* At the present time ad vancement is rendered difficult by the shortage of qualified teachers and administrators* It is hoped, however, that plans now under considera tion will enable the Ministry to overcome diffi culties of this kind and to organize technical education into a system fully able to meet the countryfs needs. A UNESCO mission has now been at work in Iraq for some months and its report is awaited with considerable interest. ... Two vocational education experts have arrived from | the United States, and two other experts are expected shortly. ... Within the framework of the Technical Assistance Program of the United Nations, the Belgian government has generously ■ offered the services of 14 specialist teachers ; for the technical schools of Iraq. ... The Min istry of Education has also received assistance from other sources. In 1951 it secured the ser vices of 8 more Egyptian teachers and is now taking steps to appoint 4 German teachers. The | success of these endeavours will help consid erably to secure a leading position for Iraq i in regard to technical advance in the Near East.2^ I j In connection with the problem of vocational edu- | cation, the Mission of the International Bank for Recon- [ struction and Development has made several recommendations UNESCO, op. cit., pp. 167-168. 114 among which are the following: The need for and urgency of a program for the improvement of agricultural and technical education has been stressed elsewhere in this report. Such a program for technical education may, however, prove wasteful and disappointing unless it is planned intelligently at every stage with reference to the developmental needs of the country and steps are taken to insure that its qualitative standards are high. A competent specialist should therefore survey the whole field of agricultural and technical edu cation in order to determine the adequacy of present facilities and the need for trained technical personnel during the next 10 years in the light of the total development program projected by the government. It is understood that UNESCO is providing specialists for this purpose. It is important that these specialists be enabled.to obtain some idea of the total re quirements in the field of technical personnel, the number of such persons available in differ ent fields at present, the need for additional personnel, the policy to be followed in train ing Iraqi technicians in the country and abroad and the extent of the need for foreign techni cians to meet immediate needs. ... There can be no improvement in the standards of technical education or in the efficiency of trained stu dents, unless general school education is made ! more practical from the earliest stages and is ! given an increasing vocational bias in the sec ondary schools. ... Finally, the Mission would like to stress the great importance of giving agricultural education its proper place not only in the field of technical education but also in that of general education. Agriculture ! is, and will continue to be, the main industry of the country.24 ! ! It is hoped that the Ministry of Education will make use of the studies and recommendations made by the j International Bank for Reconstruction and De velopment, op. cit., pp. 417-420. 115 Mission and the specialists to improve and promote vocational education in Iraq. V. ADULT EDUCATION j Adult education in Iraq has received less atten tion than any other phase of education. The only schools that could be classified under adult education are the I i | few night schools operated by the Teachers’ Association | and the Ministry of Education. The syllabus of these schools is' similar to that of primary schools for chil- [ dren, and the courses are not designed to meet the I special needs of adults. Besides these schools, there | are few adult literacy centers which teach adults only how to read and write. MNot only facilities for adult I education almost wholly lacking, but there is a general misunderstanding of the purposes and methods of such 25 education.1 1 I < The Mission of the International Bank for Becon- i 1 struction and Development recommends the following: ! I The Mission urges that a program for adult j education be drawn up and directed by a Special I Division of Fundamental Education in the Ministry 1 of Education. Such a program would be directed primarily to those groups in the population be tween 12 and 45 years of age. It would stress 25 I b i d . , p . 4 0 5 . 116 the acquisition of literacy, not as an end in itself but rather as a means to the acquisition of practical knowledge of the fundamental prob lems of better living. It is useless to teach people how to read and write unless by this means they can be shown how to work more ef fectively for their own good. For this reason, I a new and broader approach to education, differ- ! ent from the traditional schoolroom methods used . to teach children, is required. ... This concept | of education lays emphasis not only on the dis- i semination of practical training in health, ! hygiene, civics, agriculture, etc., but also | on the employment of more modern media of com munication such as audio-visual aids. ... The subject of fundamental education will need to be incorporated in the curriculum of teachers 1 training colleges. ... In a properly phased program of adult education, an initial period of at least two years will need to be devoted to preparatory work and pilot projects. ... In | the following three-year period the actual | program might be begun by utilizing about 120, or approximately 10 per cent, of existing schools also as evening community centers for adult edu cation. A few schools might initially be chosen in each province so that these could serve as models and observation centers for other teach ers. ... In the end the schools should become genuine community centers. In the smaller towns and villages, in particular, they should serve | as the focal point for all instruction and as | a center for community social life.26 i i Thus, the Ministry of Education is advised to take into j ! full consideration the problem of adult education. And i ; before undertaking this campaign, it is advised that the i I Ministry plan for proper education of public opinion in i ; this matter so that popular support may be won in the I right way. 26 I b i d . , p p . 6 8 -7 0 117 VI. THE CURRICULUM AND METHODS OP TEACHING Since the first establishment of public schools in Iraq, the curriculum has been regarded as a list of | I subject-matter--that is, a course of study which pupils i f are expected to learn and to recite* The school subjects | have usually determined the curriculum, and their pur- j pose has been to give mental discipline. Some teachers ; in Iraq still believe that book-learning is the only j i correct method learning, or at least the only type worth ! pursuing. Consequently, the textbooks have largely de termined the curriculum. Pupil experiences secured outside the classroom are not considered as a part of the curriculum. The school subjects are preeminent in I value and pupil needs are secondary. | Accordingly, the only type of school that exists j | today in Iraq is the traditional or academic one; espe- j cially is this true on the secondary level. Some variety ! of courses is attempted in the division of the preparatory ; school which is divided into scientific and literary. These schools are of the college-preparatory type. Per- i haps the least successful aspect of education in Iraq is the vocational education program. The curriculum may j be criticized as being far too bookish and academic, and 118 as leaving a great gulf between what is taught in school and the necessities of everyday living. The Ministry of Education has been aware of this problem and at the present time is making an attempt to ! reorganize public education more in line with the basic concepts of the American modern education. This move ment has so far not progressed beyond the decision to attempt the reorganization. In its report on the Economic Development of Iraq, | the Mission of the International Bank for Reconstruction I and Development states the following in regard to eduea- | + j tion in Iraq: | Education, as it is provided at present, is j concerned with only a part of the^childMs devel opment. It leaves a large area of hilPaptfltudes - J and his mental and emotional make-up untouched. ' In the proposed reconstruction of education, it will be most'important to give it a more practi- ! cal, realistic and rural bias in order to relate | it intelligently to the psychological and social I needs of the individual child and the adult I society. It is a well-known fact of child psy- ! ehology that the child is by nature an active, | pragmatic person who delights in doing, creating, i playing and generally expressing himself in vari- j ous practical ways which grow increasingly pur poseful with age. Unfortunately, the primary and t secondary schools as well as training colleges 1 at present seem to be hardly aware of the basic 1 importance of bringing education into harmony | with this crucial fact of child psychology. In fact, with the exception of ..., the schools were found to be entirely preoccupied with the classical and literary tradition. ... But with the increased importance of science and tech nology and the need of improving productive 11 9 efficiency in industry, agriculture, and other occupations, the people of Iraq cannot afford to remain content with a system of education which does not equip the younger generation to play its part in the projected plans of develop ment . ^7 ^ Curriculum revision. The preceding discussion j has suggested the need of the Iraqi public school currie- | ulum to be revised in the light of modern educational I concepts. Victor Clark, in a report on Compulsory EduGa s ’ frlQr* in Iraq, suggests that the school curriculum should be revised in the light of four principal objectives, as follows: The first is the need for sound character training, including a realization that education | is not simply a collection of skills and aids in preparation for a government or clerical job, but the acquisition of sound values which need to be applied in all walks of life whether pro fessional or manual. The second important need is a knowledge of the practice and principles of good husbandry by those who work on the land. An equally important requirement in a minority of the population is the acquisition of technical skills necessary in local industries and in the growing demand for maintenance work. Finally, | as is to be expected in a young country which is | still engaged in the process of welding diverse I racial and religious groups into conscious na- j tionhood, it is considered that one of the most ! important needs is the promotion of knowledge and qualities necessary to the furtherance of national unity.28 7 Ibid., p. 389. 28 Victor Clark, Compulsory Education in Iraq (New York: UNESCO, 1951)j p.-! ^ 120 The following is a statement from the report of the Ministry of Education to UNESCO regarding the educa tional development in Iraq In 1951-52: It was decided in the year under review to reorganize secondary education. This level of education will not be limited, as.in the past, to preparation for university studies, but will be extended so as to provide training for prac tical life. It is proposed to open general, commercial, technical and homecraft secondary schools whose diplomas will rank equal with those of the scientific and literary sections of the traditional preparatory schools, and thus enable their holders to pursue their specialist studies at higher levels. The diploma of the agricultural j schools, for example, will give access to the . higher agricultural school founded two years ago, I those of the commercial school to the colleges of ! commerce and economics, those of the technical \ | schools to the college of Engineering, and those j of the home craft schools to the new feminine crafts and social service courses of Queen Aliyah ! College for Women. By agreement with the Ministry of Education the Pood and Agriculture Organization has sent an expert to organize the teaching of feminine crafts and home craft at Queen Aliyah > College, and at the same time to examine the possi bility of developing the teaching of crafts and home crafts in girls' secondary schools. The Ministry has also asked for an expert in the social services, to organize the course of a school of social studies.29 I s-'wv-*y I The reorganization of public education in Iraq needs i to be based on the necessity that education in the rural , i i areas must be given a rural bias, and education in the i ! i urban areas a truly vocational bias. Greater emphasis I needs to be placed on the teaching of crafts. Provisions 29 UNESCO, op. cit., p. 1 6 7 . 121 are needed in the curriculum for introducing agricultural and industrial education* Health, hygiene, social ser vice, and other aspects of everyday living all need to r v '~ ' be given a much more important place in the public school curriculum* In summary, educational objectives must take into account the preparation of future citizens for better living* One of the basic principles in curriculum recon struction is the recognition of the importance of activ ity- centered methods and curricula. Before making any j i changes in the educational program it would be advisable to enlist the cooperation of officials and other outstand ing people dealing with public and governmental affairs such as agriculture, industry, public health and other t ‘ i aspects and problems of the public life* To make the general population more vitally interested in education, ' i a program of public relations must be developed. Contacts ! with the parents through their children would create an ! intelligent understanding and a better attitude on the i part of the public toward the school and its importance. I i An interrelation between the school and the community j will be the natural outcome of such a program, a relation- , ship which will increase the confidence of the teachers, pupils, parents, and the public in the importance and 122 realistic value of educational opportunities offered by the schools* The utilization of all possible community resources should be enlisted in the new educational public relations program* Methods of teaching. The assign-study-recite- test method of teaching is used by almost all teachers in the public schools of Iraq. Accordingly, learning in the Iraqi schools is largely by rote-memorization. This method of instruction regards the individual as a passive entity, and considers learning to be a “pouring the conclusions of others rather than to think reflec tively* Very little attention has been given by the | schools to the practice of learning by doing. Formal mental discipline is still given great emphasis in the | classroom instruction. Instruction in small groups is not known in Iraq; and this means that little if any individual attention is given the student. No attempt is made, for example, to discover and develop any pupil’s i abilities and interests. Provisions for classroom dis- i | cussion or cooperative learning activities do not exist. i I More recitation and less laboratory activities would I seem to be the keynote of educational instruction at the | present writing. / inH process. The students are taught to accept passively 12 3 An excellent account of present-day teaching methods in the schools of Iraq is given by Matthews and Akrawi in their report on Education in Arab Countries of the Near East; Teachers are required by the regulations to prepare each of their daily lessons, and lesson- plan books are furnished them by the Ministry. The Commission saw a number of these plan books, but the "planning1 1 was scarcely more than a men tion of the date,.grade and topic to be taught. Methods of teaching in the primary schools are fairly uniform. The teacher is in the center of the stage and keeps the initiative throughout the lesson. Occasionally teachers lecture to their pupils, especially in history or geography, but the question-and-answer technique is the most commonly used, particularly in the teaching of language and arithmetic. The children rarely take the initiative in the classroom, and they are not encouraged to inquire about things which interest them. Questions of a type to provoke original thought are rare. Thus, teaching in these schools is principally a matter of present ing facts and demanding that they be memorized; this in spite of the fact that the primary course of study eschews such practice. A few schools, chiefly those attached to teachers' colleges, have developed small projects using the more progressive methods, and have succeeded in arous ing the pupils to activity. ... Methods of teach ing in secondary schools do not differ in their essentials from those of the primary schools. In the main they are based on the initiative and activity of the teacher in class. Great stress is laid on the teacher's explanation in class by inductive, deductive, lecture and demonstra tion methods according to the subject. Not enough emphasis is laid on student activity which should develop understanding and knowledge of what the students are studying. They, therefore, come to rely on the teacher for clarifying the subject. Theirs is to learn what has been explained and be ready to recite it back when required. In this 124 way the "spoon-feeding" of the primary school j is carried over to the secondary school, and the students do not as a rule acquire a habit of self-reliance and self-instruction. The text books are chosen by the Ministry of Education and are uniform for all public schools and most of the private schools, ... The textbook is followed lesson by lesson, and chapter by chapter. ... Little, if any, reading is done j outside the textbook, since most of the teachers do not assign reference work.30 | i Primary-school libraries do not exist and secon- j I dary-school libraries are small and, on the whole, little j used. I I Science is generally taught as a theoretical sub- j | ject, as a lesson from the printed book, or as a lecture i i t i I by the teacher, with occasional demonstration or experi- i | ments by the teacher in front of the class. This kind : of experimentation, which never allows the students to | handle any apparatus, does little to foster the scientific attitude or interest. Little individual work is carried I i i on by the students in few of the preparatory schools where laboratory facilities exist on an adequate basis. i I jWhat is needed is the introduction of activity methods j in the teaching of science and the use of science as an j ! | I instrument to develop the students 1 powers of inquiry j I ' | and independent work. 30 M atth ew s and A k ra w i, o p . c i t . , p p . 1 5 5 * 1 6 9 . 125 The “book schools1 1 of Iraq must be transformed into "work schools," as has been recommended by the Mission of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development in its report on the Economic Development of Iraq* To make this possible, laboratory facilities should i | be provided. The laboratory should be used as a center j of science teaching. More excursions for nature study i and for visits to establishments of scientific interest | are needed. I t Extracurricular activities. Extracurricular activities are spreading more into the curriculum of the ; secondary schools than into that of the primary schools. i | Perhaps the most popular among these activities is a ver- ! ! sion of an Arabic Club or association. English clubs I are also becoming popular, especially in the preparatory I i i schools. Very few preparatory schools have aroused j student interest in forming science clubs. Dramatic per- i ! formances are sometimes shown to the public by some schools. Mimeographed or printed magazines are issued « by some of the schools. Some sort of yearbook or a book j | of essays by students on various subjects may be issued ; i | by few schools. In regard to sports, the Ministry is making every i effort to encourage games and athletics. An evidence of T26 a newly-awakened interest in sports is attested in the following quotation: &side from the regular class period devoted partly to formal exercises and partly to such games as basketball and volleyball, most of the schools have interclass and interschool competi- y tions in soccer, basketball, and volleyball. ... v— * - Similar competitions in track and field events lead to a final field day in which secondary schools from all over Iraq participate, with I a shield, cups, and medals distributed by the | King or a member of the royal family.31 Field trips and excursions of various kinds are 1 also becoming part of the extra-class activities. This | includes visits to some places of historical value in Iraq, to the oil fields, the main dams and the like. Sporting trips such as bicycle trips and camping trips are also made by some schools. Some swimming centers I and summer campe are maintained by the Department of | Physical Education during the summer. In connection with j the programs of the Physical Education Department, the scouting movement is expanding its activities. Exhibitions of school work are organized each year by some schools. This gives the public an opportun- ! ity to see and appreciate what is being done in the I j schools. In regard to these exhibitions, sports, and j other extracurricular activities, competitions are being ^ I b i d * , p . 1 7 1 • i 127 organized among schools. / VII. TEACHER TRAINING i The education of teachers in Iraq has gone through a number of stages. In the latest developmental phase, three kinds of teachers’ colleges were established: (1) • ! primary teachers’ colleges, (2) rural teachers’ colleges, i ■ j and (3) secondary teachers’ colleges. Throughout the i | nation there are four primary teachers’ colleges, two [ I i i rural teachers’ colleges, and two secondary teachers’ j | colleges. In addition, one-year courses in education were | inaugurated in 1951-52 in Baghdad, Mosul, Kirkuk, Basra, | and Muntafik for secondary school graduates intending to ! j | become teachers. The primary teachers’ colleges for men accept ! intermediate school graduates. The three other primary 1 ! j teachers' colleges are for women. One of them accepts I preparatory school graduates for a two-year course, and f one of the other two colleges accepts intermediate school | i : i i graduates for a three-year course; the third accepts i ; ■ I i • i i primary school graduates for a five-year course. The rural teachers;' colleges accept primary school j s | graduates for a five-year course. The Higher Teachers' Training College, and the i Ls* Queen Aliyah College accept preparatory school graduates for a four-year course and prepare them to teach in secondary schools* The Higher Teachers1 Training College accepts men and women; Queen Aliyah College is for women only. The courses in education in most of these teachers'! | i training institutions cannot be said to provide adequate j professional preparation for teaching. j According to their qualifications, primary-school | teachers can be classified into: ! 1. Professionally trained teachers who have had training in teachers1 colleges as described I below: a. One year above primary education. b. Two years above primary education. c. Three years above primary education. d. Four years above primary education. i e. Five years above primary education. , f. Two years above intermediate education. ! g. Three years above intermediate education. h. Two years above secondary education. j i i. One year above secondary education. 2. Teachers, non-professionally trained, who have j had their training in different schools of intermediate and secondary levels--i.e., 12 9 graduates of a technical or agricultural school. Secondary school teachers may be classified into the following categories, according to preparation for teaching: 1. Teachers trained in the Higher Teachers* I College for one, two, three, or four years. j (They form the majority of secondary school teachers in the country.) ! t 2. Teachers with a Bachelor of Arts degree from j the American University at Beirut or from in- j I i | stitutions in the United States. | ' i 3. Teachers with degrees from other universities and colleges, such as those of Egypt and England. ^ i 4. The very few teachers who possess the Master's ‘ i J or Doctor's degrees. ! 5. Teachers with certificates from vocational ; j . i I schools above the secondary-school level. 6. The few teachers who possess certificates from i ! * the primary teachers' colleges. j 7* Those few teachers imported from abroad, chiefly j t from Syria, Lebanon, or Egypt. There are some from England in this group. 130 In view of the recent development of primary edu cation, the opening of new schools, and the number of vacancies, teachers1 training college admissions have been increased. The Mission of the International Bank ! ! for Reconstruction and Development has estimated that J about 18,750 additional teachers will be required for the introduction of compulsory primary education within the ten years following the 1951-52 date of their report. | Commenting on this situation, the report of the Mission ! states: / u As more teachers are trained, the quality of their professional education also needs to be ^ raised. In many respects their training is now deficient. The present size of most of the training colleges appears to be too big to allow | for adequate personal contact between the teach- ! ers and students or to make satisfactory arrange ments for teaching practice possible. ... The members of the staff of the training colleges j ! have often lacked not only the requisite techni cal skill but the personal qualities necessary to inspire young teachers. Unless each teacher goes out of the college with a real sense of mis sion, he will not be able to play his part in / | the proposed educational transformation. | ! „ At present the colleges have to give too i v , much attention to general education at the ex- f pense of professional education. As soon as the Iraq University begins to function and its ; Arts and Science Colleges are properly organized, institutions like the Higher Teachers1 Training , College and the Queen Aliyah College should be- ' come centers of professional education for teachers. The possibility of a similar change should be explored in the case of primary train ing colleges which are also at present providing partly secondary and partly professional educa tion. ... The courses prescribed in these colleges 131 are too crowded and miscellaneous. They are not related closely enough to the real teaching problems and situations in rural and urban areas, nor are the methods and techniques of teaching irradiated by modern and progressive educational ideas. The whole problem of making the courses and methods more dynamic and realistic should be examined by a competent committee. Except in one or two institutions, practical work and i ; crafts are conspicuous by their absence. Even the members of the staff do not recognize clearly enough that no far-reaching change can be brought about in the schools unless a place of honor is given to hand work and crafts in the education ■ of teachers. ... Wo training college has a | “Demonstration School,1 1 in the real sense of the i word, attached to it. The practicing schools of the colleges are dull and uninspiring and do not j generally differ from the routine of ordinary primary or secondary schools. They enjoy no I special freedom and apparently have no special j facilities to work out new techniques or to ! 1 pioneer in curriculum or organization. This | is a very serious defect which should be reme- I died as early as possible. There are only a | few rural training colleges, established with the laudable idea of educating teachers in a rural milieu and with special reference to rural needs and problems. But they do not appear so | far to have been given a real opportunity to ! prove themselves, and the conditions necessary : ! for their success--material as well as those i j relating to personnel--have not been satisfied. I Given a fair chance, these institutions can I play an important role in the reorientation of . | teachers1 education. A determined effort to ! ; overcome these defects of the training col- j j leges should be made.32 ) i ! In the light of what has been suggested, the chief j ! i [problems with regard to the education of teachers would \ 32 International Bank for Reconstruction and De velopment, op. cit., pp. 397-398- 132 seem to be both quantitative and qualitative in nature* On the quantitative side, it is the need for trained teachers in adequate numbers to meet the rising demand for primary education* On the qualitative side, greater I attention needs to be given to the preparation of quali- ! j fied teachers in general, and of rural school teachers in particular. VIII. HIGHER EDUCATION AND EDUCATIONAL MISSIONS Thirty years ago higher education was not in ex istence anywhere in Iraq. In the short three-decade period colleges have been begun and have undergone a rapid period of development. There are now in Baghdad ! several well established colleges--namely, the Medical I College, the College of Law, the Higher Teachers 1 College, ■ I i ! the College of Pharmacy and Chemistry, The College of I Engineering, the College of Commerce and Economics, the College of Arts and Science, the Queen Aliyah College for ' Women. As yet, no university has been established in !the nation. i ; The question of combining these separate colleges S into one university has been under discussion for about | ten years. Three separate attempts have been made to jestablish such an institution. The first attempt to form 133 a university took place in 1943* the second in 1943> and the third in 1930* These efforts were indicative of a realization of the need for a university in Iraq. A i draft bill on the question of establishing the proposed university was finally completed and approved by the j Parliament in 1951* Beyond that step, nothing has as yet I I been accomplished. " \ i With regard to the Ministry of Educations present program for the educating of Iraqis abroad, the first j i educational mission was sent abroad in 1921, just after i the founding of the present Iraqi government when the ; Ministry of Education proposed sending qualified students i t j abroad to study. That year nine of the outstanding boys i I were chosen from the secondary schools; six of them were i sent to the American University of Beirut in Lebanon and three to England. “The idea of educational missions was to train specialists to meet Iraq!s needs in the 33 fields of health, education and agriculture.'1 t Since 1921 hundreds of students have been sent to ' study abroad, and many of them have returned and helped I ! in the advancement of the country. Mission students ! I i i have been sent to several different countries. To date, I 33 Matthews and Akrawi, o p . cit., p . 2 0 6 . ~..." .. " 134 most of them have been sent to Lebanon, with England and Egypt second; the rest were sent to the United States, Switzerland, France, Germany, Sweden, Turkey, Italy and India. The trend is how to send more students to the United States than to any other country. As the fields to be studied on missions became more numerous and divers ified, so did the number of students sent. The number of mission students supported wholly or partially by the I government rose from nine in 1921 to 160 in 1928-29. In 1939-40 the number reached 439; this was followed by a decline during World War II, but began to increase again in 1945* Up until the 1950-51 academic year, the | number of students sent abroad for study in the last i j | thirty years has totaled 1,395- Of this number, 586 : students have finished their studies and returned to Iraq. Many of these returning students, and those who j will be returning during the next few years, it is anti cipated, will be able to play important roles in the j educational, economic, social, and political development : of the country. i ! IX. SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT As far as structure, furniture, equipment, and ! educational facilities are concerned, most of the school buildings in Iraq are wholly unsuited or inadequate, and 135 will therefore need to he replaced. The shortage of proper school buildings has forced the educational authorities to make use of private homes for classrooms. Very few schools occupy buildings especially designed for educational purposes. About 60 per cent of the schools are said to be housed in public buildings built either by the government or by local subscription. The remain ing 40 per cent are housed in rented buildings--usually former residences--which are poorly constructed and lighted. School buildings are in need of proper plumbing and sanitary facilities. In many villages, the school building has four to eight small, narrow rooms which are badly lighted and without adequate ventilation. Repairs and adjustments are neglected, especially in the rented school buildings. In many villages and localities far removed from the cities, the school facilities are totally lacking. Secondary schools, on the whole, enjoy better physical facilities than do the primary schools, i In connection with the financial implications of i « the introduction of compulsory education in Iraq, the I Mission of the International Bank for Reconstruction and I Development, in its report, The Economic Development of I Iraq, remarks: The problem of the construction of school buildings was surveyed recently by the Special Committee on School Buildings appointed under Ministerial Order No. 36314 of December 7* 1950* After consulting experts, the committee drew up a program for the construction and improvement of schools and other educational buildings at a total estimated cost of approximately 8,110,000 1 dinars. The Mission was not able to ascertain definitely the premises on which this estimate was based. The Development Board has made a provision of 3*800,000 dinars for school con struction in its program for 1951-52 to 1955-58. ... In any event it would seem desirable to raise the budgetary provision for new buildings to approximately 5*000*000 dinars for the next five years. ... The total financial implications of the whole scheme during the next five budget years (1952-53 to 1956-57) can be indicated in approximate figures as follows: 1. Operation of new primary schools 180,000 dinars. ! 2. Training of teachers 737*000 dinars. | 3. Buildings 5*000,000. Total expenditure for the program over the j next five years will thus be about 5*900,000 dinars which works out at less than three per cent of the net revenues expected from oil during this period.34 In connection with the problem of school buildings, 1 the Ministry of Education in its report on education in j Iraq in the International Yearbook of Education for 1952, | states the problem very clearly, as follows: It has been decided by the Government to enlist the help of the local authorities in the construc tion of new school buildings. The sums made 34 3 I b i d . , p . 404 137 available by these bodies, together with the grants from the Development Board have made possible the construction of many schools. ... In accordance with the law (November 30, 1951) on the general program of the Development Board, the Ministry drew up plans for the construction of primary intermediate and secondary schools and the extension of existing schools. The sum of 1,966,000 dinars were earmarked for the pur pose, and the Development Board authorized the Ministry of Communication and Works to carry out the work.35 Much of the new building program is needed in rural areas. The problem of village school buildings, it is hoped, will be studied by the Ministry of Education in such a way that teachers, builders and the school architect will be represented. X. SUMMARY At the time of its founding in 1921, the Kingdom ; of Iraq had very little on which to build in the way of education. The several primary schools, the one and only training college which was barely above the primary level, and a law school which had no collegiate standing what- | ever, were all that the country then possessed in the way of educational facilities. Thus, the government was con- I fronted not only by the tremendous problem of building j an educational system from the ground up, but of meeting 35 UNESCO, o p . c i t . , p . 166 138 : the serious problem of finding suitable persons to fill i essential official posts. In order to meet the situa tion, the Iraq government immediately devoted a great share of its attention to the building of an educational program for the nation. In the few years of its existence, great strides have been made toward the solution of many of its most basic problems. Naturally, in spite of the very substantial support given by the government, many educational problems still await solution. One of major importance is the establishment of progressive educational policies. At present, ^he Iraqi system of education is strongly regulated and supervised by the government, under the administration of the Ministry of Education. Throughout the country, schools are directed from this central control which dominates every detail of opera tion— the curriculum, the methods, and even the time when each subject shall be taught. A staff of inspectors regularly visits each school. They check the daily records kept by the teachers, records which list the topics of each lesson in each subject to be presented every day of the school yearj/^ Occasionally they discuss with an individual teacher some problem related to teach ing method or administrative technique. The inspectors ~ 139 i I keep in close touch with each school under his super vision, and are able to determine the progress made since their last visits. Each inspector reports to the Chief Inspector in Baghdad and in this way the central | office at the Ministry is kept informed of the progress of each school throughout the country. ^This type of supervision (more properly termed inspection) includes little more than classroom visitation, and amounts to merely a rating of teachers. The result is a great uni formity of teaching, as well as a restriction of whatever individual educational gifts the teachers may possess. | It is felt that this type of central control has had a I definitely stifling effect so far upon the instruction j offered in the schoolsX £ * tv ^ f I^The major purpose of the Iraqi public secondary ^ instruction, as reflected in educational programs, has been preparation for college entrance. School subjects are uniformly academic and traditional in character. They would seem to have little relation to the needs and : interest of Iraqi youth;^it is hoped that they may be re- | | placed by a newer type of materials and activities which i j are more in harmony with the country's social, economic, ! and cultural life. J?he curriculum is essentially a book-centered one, i4o leaving a great gulf between what is taught and the needs of youth* Learning is largely by rote. Almost no at tempt is made to develop the creative instincts of chil dren. Very little provision has been made for the utili zation of out-of-school resources. In the matter of curriculum construction, no provision is made for enlist ing the cooperation of teachers, administrators, and other government officials or others who are in close touch with the needs and interest of pupils. So far, Iraqi education has capitalized only partially on the child’s psychological equipment. ^jt No attempt- has been made for the evaluation or appraisal of programs of instruction, although in recent years some valuable suggestions have been made indirectly through the studies of the International Bureau of Educa tion of UNESCO, and the International Bank for Reconstruc tion and Development. Both have pointed to the urgent need for the revision of Iraq’s educational program in the light of modern educational philosophy and technical practice. The two areas of greatest under-development of the Ministry’s educational program are: (1) vocational edu- a ‘ \ \ H ^ cation, and (2) agricultural and technical education. Both of these areas are in urgent need of development, t f , y in view of Iraq's uniquely agricultural t civilization'. ' To combat the fact that about 85 per cent of the population is still illiterate, there is a need for com pulsory education, and the providing of fundamental education for adults and other sections of the popula tion. Flans have been drawn up, tentatively, for the solution of this problem through the construction of adequate school buildings and the extensive enlargement of the teacher training program. An increased expendi ture of funds for educational purposes has been proposed and is on the agenda for the immediate future. In brief, it can be said that Iraq's educational I problems are both qualitative-and^quantitatiye , ,_jand re late to organization, administration, curriculum construc tion, and teacher training. CHAPTER IV PROPOSALS FOR REORGANIZING PUBLIC EDUCATION IN IRAQ Since public education in Iraq is developing in the direction of modern educational trends, and the aims and curriculum practices of public education commonly ac cepted in modern democratic countries like the United States, these trends are considered in the development of the proposals herein discussed, (in the light of the educational aims and modern curriculum practices, and on the basis of the educational, economic, and social situations in Iraq which were discussed in the previous chapters, a series of principles and procedures are de rived in the form of proposals for strengthening the ; different aspects of public education in Iraq. In offering these proposals, the main purpose has been the development of the native abilities of the younger generation, that they may become useful and pro ductive citizens who may intelligently participate in the development of their country. This chapter formulates policies and principles 143 leading to the reorganization and expansion of the present educational system, and suggests methods of improving public education in Iraq. I. SUGGESTED CHANGES IN THE GENERAL EDUCATIONAL SITUATION ' The^discussion in -the preceding chapter-indicates that the educational concepts in Iraq are far too narrow and too little related to the everyday problems of living. Educational reform and reconstruction is a basic condi tion for the economic, social and political progress of the country. The economy of the country is vitally de- H pendent upon agriculture. Vocational education is un- | successful and is not receiving adequate consideration. I hThere is an increase in the number of displaced persons ! ' who have migrated from agricultural areas to seek white- f i ! collar jobs in the larger cities, and a lack of skilled i | workers or intelligent progressive farmers. This pre sents a serious handicap to social progress. ; The enormous agricultural potential of the I I country is to a large extent hindered by the existing system of land tenure. As long as the land tenure sys tem is in operation, there will be no hope for improving the methods of agriculture or of promoting better living conditions in rural areas* The proper exploitation of the land or the rich natural agricultural resources form the main source of Iraq's future wealth. A program of economic and social betterment should be combined with an educational reform plan. For example, it is of little use to teach village children not to drink polluted water if clean water is not available in their homes. Attempts should be made to teach better methods of agriculture. Experimental farms must be started and several other schools of agriculture should be established to supplement the present token program, ss in all social and civic affairs is dependent upon improve ments in education. A fundamental step toward achieving | such progress is by providing public primary education I for all. A further step should be to increase and improve I secondary schools in which various subjects should be I taught by modern methods; these schools should be equipped with adequate libraries, laboratories, work shops*, gym nasiums, and lecture halls r' ! The major objectives of educational reform should be: (l) to impart education to larger numbers of students. (This could be achieved through compulsory education of [children up to the age of fifteen, and a social education (program for adults. An educational caravan would be of [great importance and value to people living in villages 145 ! and rural areas, and would arouse educational interest among the people of these areas. (2)^-To integrate the school with the life of the community so that education can make a useful contribution to economic and social progress. This is to be accomplished by supplementing formal education of children with preparatory vocational training. This means a program for training the pupil in crafts and practical work to enable him to earn a livelihood for himself and to contribute to the growth of the national income. (3)^^o plan social education for adults. Such a program of education is not merely to instruct the adults in the three "R1 s'1 but to train them in the art of citizenship so that they can be effec tive parents in a democratic community. ^LP' a way of life is to be changed, it is necessary ! to teach the parents as well as the children. The schools, especially those in the villages, should be used in the afternoons and evenings as centers for adult teaching-- ; not only of literacy and citizenship, but of cookery f I and housewifery, crafts and recreation. One of the major educational problems in Iraq is j that of illiteracy. The Ministry of Education should | recognize the importance of attacking illiteracy in the | present adult population of the country. Anti-illiteracy 146 campaigns should be planned by the Ministry* Such plans could require that all large firms, landowners, and em ployers provide literacy instruction for their employees who need it. Conducting evening classes under the direction of school teachers is an effective way of com batting illiteracy. ^ An effective educational project should attempt to reconstruct the life of the community in all of its various aspects. The public schools of Xraqr~~^arbic^iar- l^-J^aosje_-4i n--f^^^rai~aii eas, are at present failing to t t t meet the pupil needs. They offer little coordination < t • * with the life of the community. The school curriculum ^ A ‘ 4 A J is not adapted to pupils1 needs, as was discussed in the | preceding chapter. One of the primary purposes of a new educational program should be to help people to under- j stand their immediate problems and to help them to at- ^ tain the skills to solve them through their own efforts. The school should always be a vital part of the community life. Iraq’s present school system, which keeps aloof i from community life and its problems, should be changed i to one of open-door leadership which invites the commun- ; ity to come in and participate in solving its own prob- | lems and in meeting the needs of its children. The new | educational approach--that of the community-school rela- | tionship of cooperation— should replace the traditional 147 and Isolated school_system which now exists^. This scheme of democratic education will work better if it is combined with an attempt to make social justice, democracy and order established facts which people can see for themselves and appreciate on a personal if small scale./ A schoolx^should b^established in each village and used as a point of/focus for village life \ / and a center of common initiative. It must be remembered / / that no educational project can succeed unless it first / * \ enlists the active cooperation and support of the people; / farmers, businessmen, and the semi-nomadic tribesmen must be brought into the project at the outset. Educators 71 should make constant investigations and should conduct j open discussions of the educational needs and problems / i in an effort to arrive at communal solutions which are ^ best when measured in terms of the general welfare of all the people. An adequate system of public education, giving free primary instruction and citizenship training to all children of school age, is of primary importance. This involves a huge financial outlay, and must be taken into consideration in the initial planning for the entire program. Government funds should be provided, in amounts sufficient to take care of all children of school age. The welfare of the people and the progress of the country could best be achieved through adequate universal education. Equality of educational opportunity would i be possibly the most effective way of assuring the country’s citizens of equality of economic, political, and social opportunity. and political development of the country of Iraq, it would be futile to attempt to set up an adequate educational philosophy which would be applicable to the country’s needs, or to try to determine the educational program f for the schools. Cultural backgrounds, ways of living, i I customs and attitudes as well as ideals are changing ! carefully for the purpose of determining their educational implications. The educational implications of the grow- cS I I ing social consciousness of the country must be reflected i in a curriculum which is adjusted to the changes and Every new institution is created in response to a social need. It grows out of the life of the society which creates it. If social needs never changed, there would be no new social institutions. As social needs change, one of two things happens: (1) the existing institu tion will adjust itself to meet the new demands, a knowledge of the social, economic, rapidly. These great social changes have a great and direct significance for education, and must be studied : trends in the new mode of life. Writing in this connection, Wrinkle and Gilchrist state: 149 or (2) it will be replaced by a new institution which will make provision for the new demands.1 School problems of great importance to the country ; [/' are not the problems of the school alone, but are also / the problems of the entire society which they serve. ' ■ ■■■-■ . , ) They are the problems of all institutions--industry, f \ business, government, family, religion, and civic organi^ zations. The school should serve as a community center for youth and adult groups, and should cooperate activelyJ with all community agencies interested in the care and well-being of young people. The c^Muniby^^espurces | should be used by the school to educate/for life and to ! improve ways of living and thinking I ^Great emphasis should be given to^the promotion of vocational education. The people of Iraq need to be ! inspired with a spirit which responds to the dignity of 1 j labor. With proper emphasis on the rightful place of J labor in human life, the schools can contribute greatly | by including in their curricula farming, industrial i I j work, and other types of manual work. Vocational schools j •should be established in various,, parts of the country, i ' ~ ~ , Local education authorities should be given the opportunity William L. Wrinkle and R. S. Gilchrist, Secondary Education for American Democracy (New York: Rinehart and Company, Inc•, 1942), p” 109. 150 and encouragement to make arrangements for improving the general position of technical education in the cur riculum* Employers, and those who are engaged in plan ning the educational services, should be encouraged to ^ - f cooperate in planning to eradicate the present lack of j provision for technical education. In working together,f / they should plan to take full advantage of existing I facilities, as a foundation step in forming a workable | educational program for technical education In each district or province a workshop should be provided for the training of teachers, parents, and com munity leaders. All should participate in surveying the needs of their communities, in studying problems together i | for the development of pilot and demonstration projects, i and in teaching farmers better methods of cultivation. Research investigations and surveys should be an essen- / / tial pa:rt of the educational program or system, j / Coeducation in the public schools of Iraq should I / - ! be given more emphasis, and there should be equal educa- I | tional emphasis for both boys and girls. A system of i . j education should be set up to enable the Iraqi woman to i I enlarge the scope of her activities and to take part in | the larger affairs of the community and the nation. She j should be given opportunities to engage in social work, 151 to help tackle community problems, and to take part in political activities^ Educational planners must make full use of the possibilities of the platform, the radio and the press, coordinating all activities with the activities of the school in disseminating better ways of living. Only by such well-coordinated planning of all avenues of com munication can educators hope to effect an improvement in the existing living conditions in Iraqi/ II. SUGGESTED CHANGES IN THE EDUCATIONAL | ADMINISTRATION OF IRAQI SCHOOLS i ^ j . | It has been noted in-Chapter III that the adminis- trative organization of the educational system in Iraq i is highly centralized. The Ministry of Education exer- i ! cises direct control over the school systems, prescribing i | their syllabi, appointing all teachers, and setting ! their official examinations. The fact that financial . support of education is at the state level is another evidence of this direct and centralized control. An i I I inevitable consequence of such a situation is that local | interest in the administration of the schools (and local | support of education) are at a correspondingly low I level. 152 In regard to the administration of the educational system in Iraq, the Mission of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, in its report to the government of Iraq, made the following pertinent comment: The present administration is too highly centralized. Everything is directed in minute detail from the center. ... The Ministry at Baghdad is so burdened with administrative de tail that it cannot give adequate attention to policy and planning*2 Commenting further on this situation, the Mission's re- I port observed: I A Continuity in educational policy has been / ? ! seriously impaired in the past not only by fre- £ 1 quent ministerial changes but also by frequent \ ' j replacement of leading officials in the Ministry, f Such officials should in the future be assured j more permanent tenure.3 I There can be no doubt that the above criticism points | j directly to a very pertinent problem, and that the edu- f cational.system in Iraq should be less centralized than it is. Provisions should be made for giving teachers i and local school officials increasing freedom and parti- i cipation in the formulation of school policies, in de- : veloping better curricula, and in experimenting with newer 2 International Bank for Reconstruction and Devel- I opment, The Economic Development of Iraq (Baltimore: I Johns Hopkins Press, 1952), p. TO. ' 3 Lo c . c i t • 153 methods of teaching and administration. The individual opinions and plans of the Ministers accompanied by the. . I quick changes of these Ministers in office, and in conse- • i / quence of the frequent replacement of leading officials / F i in the Ministry of Education have led to instability in \' personnel andjeducatlonal programs, and to fluctuations in educational policy. In this connection, the recom mendations presented by the Mission present four con structive suggestions. They are as follows: I V The Mission believes that the government ^ $ should take immediate steps to insure that there v is reasonable stability of administration in the Ministry so that, once basic educational policies | and programs are approved, they are not subject ^ | to change without mature consideration. In order , | to secure this objective, the following measures j relating to the operation of the Ministry of Education are put forward: 1. A Statutory Board or Council of Education, 1 consisting of appropriate officials and | non-officials conversant with different I types of educational problems, should be j established to assist the Ministry of | Education in the formation of educational j policies and programs. ... i 2. There should be a permanent secretary in continuous charge of the Ministry and reporting directly to the Minister. He I ought to be a qualified and experienced [ educator who would serve as a connecting I link between successive ministers and | thus help to assure reasonable continuity of policy. ... 3* An effort should be made to build up within the Ministry a body of competent educators, possessing vision and enthusiasm as well as 154 experience, and enjoying reasonable secur ity of tenure, who would specialize in different aspects of education. 4. It is certainly desirable to associate local administration and influential local persons with the working out of the pro gram that the Mission has recommended. Such association will go a long way to stimulate ic interest and cooperation It is quite evident that the control and support of schools must be decentralized, and that the responsi bility for coordinating the schools with the needs of the ^individual communities must lie not solely with the \ central Ministry of Education but with the local groups, | through central and provincial boards of education should be no more than a unifying element in the educational programs which are planned and executed by the local educational groups. Possibly, in initiating such a change, private enterprises should be encouraged to undertake the responsibility for the maintenance and i ! support of the educational program until such time as j the municipal or provincial or district organizations I are in a position to assume such responsibility. in educati whether provincial, municipal or districtQ Government I b i d . , p . 421 155 If the Ministry of Education is to be free to concentrate on its proper function— i.e., that of co ordinating major issues of educational policy and de velopment- -it must immediately be freed of its present burden of educational minutiae and detail. This cannot f be achieved until much of the administrative routine is transferred from the central Ministry of Education to the provincial Offices of Education. As currently practiced, school administration in Iraq can only be described as of the autocratic type, / with the school administrator serving as a kind of dic tator over his school or office. In this type of admin- | istration, the few leading officials in the Ministry of I | Education make all rules and regulations for all the schools of Iraq. Once determined, these regulations are j disseminated by the Minister or the Director General of j Education who sends a copy of the edict, together with S | his official order to each of the provincial directors i 1 of education. The latter are responsible for executing | these rules and regulations. The provincial directors i | of education, in turn, transmit these orders to their | provincial principals, who must see to it that they are \ carried out. No^system, could be less democratic. There | is no evidence of any type of cooperation and participa- j tion between teachers, administrators, or laymen in the 156 ! devising or executing of educational policies* It^MjDuJjd-be futile to discuss possible educational i improvements in Iraq without, first, seeing to it that the type of administration of the entire educational sbrqatpre is replaced by the democratic type of school administration— a school administration in which teachers, / ! administrators, all school employees, and leading laymen and civic groups all participate in the formulation of the educational programs and policies. This type of administration has been adopted successfully by many progressive school systems in the United States of America, and could well serve as the basis for reorganiz- j ing public education in Iraq^ An excellent statement of this type of educational administration is given by Reeder, | as follows: | ' / In the democratic type of administration the | scHooIPofficial conceives his duty to be to serve as a leader among his co-workers, not as their dictator. He desires to be known as a brother to his employees rather than as their “boss." He stimulates the group to work co-operatively ! for the achievement of common purposes; and this i ability to work together for an altruistic pur pose is the essence of democracy whether it be | in government, in school affairs, in home rela- ! tionship, or elsewhere. He craves suggestions, | and even invites adverse criticism of present or proposed practice; moreover, he organizes his department, school, or school system in such a manner that these suggestions and criticisms may be systematically and regularly secured. He holds frequent meetings of his co-workers to 157 discuss school problems. This type of admin istration is coming more and more to be adopted. ... This type of administration is urged because it is consistent with the democratic philosophy of life. ... If democracy is to be made to func tion to the fullest, it must be practiced at every opportunity, and especially in our public institutions. Since the fundamental aim of the school is to prepare its members for democratic living, the school should exemplify that way of life. The school should provide a type of or ganization and administration wherein officials, employees, pupils, and the general public may co-operate in determining purposes and the pro cedures for accomplishing those purposes. No institution has a greater opportunity than the school to make democracy conscious of itself. ... The use of democracy in school administration will secure better schools. ... The exchange of views which comes from democratic school adminis tration is sure to be stimulating to every em ployee. Democratic administration provides all employees with an opportunity to develop them selves, because it gives them an opportunity to think and to accept leadership. In autocratic administration, on the contrary, a stricture is placed upon intellectual growth because em ployees have little opportunity to think and to express what they think; they are merely cogs in a machine. ... Democracy will be helpful to the school administrator because it will bring to him many worth-while suggestions from his co-workers. These suggestions will often prevent the school administrator from making mistakes which would harm the schools and injure his prestige.-* To recapitulate, the entire system of public edu cation in Iraq is in serious need of reorganization in 5 Ward G. Reeder, The Fundamentals of Public School Administration (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1951)* p* 10. ‘ 158 ^accordance with the above-stated principles of democracy, principles which allow for the sharing of experience, for the participation and cooperation of all in the formulation and execution of policies and programs. In fact, these principles are basic not only to the administration of the schools of the country, but to programs of government and social institutions, in general. Nevertheless, it is realized that these prin ciples cannot be applied suddenly to a system which is as' foreign in structure and spirit as the present educa tional organization of the Iraq schools. The principles of democracy must be introduced gradually into the public educational system of the country. A first step would 1 I be to start formulating different advisory committees, committees which could serve in an advisory capacity to the Ministry of Education and to each provincial director of education. In other words, the development of state, i regional and local councils on public education, composed 1 1 of professional and lay members, is of great importance. I | These councils shall study education and offer suggestions | for improvement. This could be done by coordinating, | on a statewide level and on a local school level, all 1 the persons and groups who are (or should be) interested I in public education. 159 This step would be the logical transitionary step in effecting a decentralization of educational authority 0 from the Ministry to the provincial, local and district ! levels, ^the task of the Ministry of Education in Iraq • i would gradually be changed from that of making and enforc-j , ing all educational programs to that of coordinating, directing, and guiding the schools in all their educa- \/ tional activities and planning. III. SUGGESTED CHANGES IN EDUCATIONAL FINANCE Finance seems to be the most important problem of | all educational issues. The lack of adequate funds has I been the main obstacle to educational development in I Iraq. However, the budget for education has continued I to increase. If the Iraqi government is to educate its youth properly so that, in turn, its young people can improve the quality of living and raise the standard of j | national culture and wealth, she must be willing to in vest adequately in education, and in much greater amounts I i than she has spent in the- past. In regard to adequate I educational finance, Reeder has pointed out: The efficiency of the schools is determined / largely by the amount of school revenue and by I the wisdom with which the rev^nue^'iB'^expended. \ The size of classes, the adequacy of the school 160 ; plant, the type of curriculum, the quality and amount of textbooks, and of all other materials, the qualifications of school employees--in fact, all phases of the school program— are affected by the amount of money and the efficiency with which it is expended. If there were no finan cial support, there would be no schools; if the funds were inadequate or were unwisely expended, the schools would not realize their potentiali ties. 6 A better type of education, involving a reorgani zation of her general educational system, is vitally necessary if Iraq is to bring about an improvement in her public welfare. And to achieve this goal, there must be the encouragement of. a general interest in educa tion and general support of .the^sc^ool program in every community. In other words, the local governments and local citizenry must be encouraged to contribute their participation and support of the local schools. More- \ I over, full realization must be kept in mind that Iraq is an agricultural nation, and that the land is the main source of revenue for education and for all other public services. IV. SUGGESTED CHANGES IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT General statement. In the preceding chapter, the programs of studies and other aspects of the curricu- Ibid., p. 335. 161 lum of the schools of Iraq were discussed. This dis cussion indicated that 'the curriculum of primary and secondary education is rigidly prescribed and made uni form throughout the country. The subjects, the syllabi, the number of hours allotted to each subject, and the examinations required at the end of each course have been detailed in the official syllabus and must be followed to the letter.-^/Curriculum improvement will not be possible under such a system as long as the Ministry of Education is content to continue to prepare and en force the teaching of a standardized state-imposed cur riculum. This type of curriculum is related neither to local needs nor to the future careers of its children. i Commenting on the situation, the Mission of the Interna tional Bank stated: | Learning is largely by rote. The children I passively absorb information and learn compar atively little by actually doing things. Almost no attempt is made to develop their creative in stincts. The curriculum is far too bookish and academic and there is a great gap between what is taught in school and the exigencies of prac- I tical life.7 In public primary and secondary schools all sub jects are taught in separate departments and no correla- | tion is attempted. The programs of studies are somewhat | scholarly for young children, and it does not allow for ^ International Bank for Reconstruction and Devel- j opment, op. cit., p. 65* ~ " “ 162 ! I much experimentation or flexibility in relation to the varying needs of growing children. Teachers are allowed i little freedom in the preparation of their plans of class-' room work. The program of studies is of the college preparatory type, and no provision has been made to offer , personal choice courses and courses in vocational educa- i I tion. Technical education, too, is lacking, and what is i ■ | offered is inadequate to the needs. The modern curriculum is no longer limited to the sum of specific learnings or a listing of subject matter. | During recent years, definitions of the curriculum have ! come to include not only the school subjects but all j | other activities and experiences provided by the school. Improving education in Iraq is dependent upon a marked change in the existing programs of studies, and other aspects of the curriculum. d-The curriculum must \ be put on a flexible basis, so that it can be constantly adapted and re-designed to fit the needs and interests of Iraqi society. The learning experiences of children | must grow intimately out of the life of the community, I and must be directed toward its improvement. The curricu- 1 I lum should no longer lag behind socio-economic develop- ! ments. In regard to curriculum construction, Reeder has | outlined the following broad principles: 163 In constructing a curriculum certain steps must be taken, and certain principles must be followed in taking those steps; in other words, there must be an underlying philosophy for all steps. The central aim of all steps shobld be to secure a curriculum which will meet the needs of pupils and adults in a constantly changing civilization; moreover, the materials of the curriculum should be selected, organized, and administered in such a way as to contribute to the realization of the central aim of education, namely, creative thinking.° ^The curriculum must change as the time change, keeping itself adjustive to new needs and conditions. American educational leaders have agreed that an educa tional program must seek to meet the needs of individuals and society. This cannot be achieved unless the school curriculum is altered and improved in terms of continu ous social change. Improvements in public education are the sum of many basic local improvements. This suggests the need for decentralizing the control of public education in Iraq to a certain extent. If present deficiencies in Iraqi public education are to be overcome, there must be: (1) local recognition of needs, (2) local determina tion of needs, (3) local initiative directed toward that end, and (4) exchange of ideas and methods among the schools. g R e e d er, op. c i t . , p . 589* 164 Educational needs. Efforts to reorganize and improve the educational program of Iraq must take into / consideration the nature, problems, interests, and basic needs of the Iraqi students. The curricula of the schools of Iraq are not adapted to the needs of the learners; this is to say that the curriculum does not at the present time consider the interests and the abil ities of the individual pupils who are being educated. This criticism has been made not alone by outside educa tional missions invited to study the educational situa tion of the country but has been made by some of Iraq’s leading educators and laymen, as well. They have pointed out that,jbesides not being well adapted to the needs of the pupils, the curriculum is also unsuited to the needs of Iraq’s social structure, and lags many years behind the social progress of the country. Without far- reaching revisions in the curriculum, the schools cannot hope to help in solving the pressing needs and problems of the country. the relating of curriculum construction to pupil needs, Harl R. Douglass has stated: * #upil needs could be classified under two head- ! ings: (1) immediate and (2) deferred. These may be ; referred to as direct or indirect needsi^ In discussing 165 In connection with the curriculum problem it should be borne in mind that pupil needs are deferred or immediate and direct or indirect. Some learnings are directly valuable in meeting life situations. Other learnings are valuable in that they contribute to additional learning which in turn may be valuable. Of the latter type are needs in the way of preparation for college.^ The educational needs of Iraqi youth could be studied and anlyzed in the light of the following impera tive needs of the youth of America, as outlined by Douglass: 1. All youth need to develop salable skills and those understandings and attitudes that make the worker an intelligent and productive participant in economic life. To this end, most youth need supervised work experience as well as education in the skills and knowl edge of their occupations. 2. All youth need to develop and maintain good health and physical fitness. 3* All youth need to understand the rights and duties of the citizen of a democratic society, and to be diligent and competent in the per formance of their obligations as members of 9 Harl R. Douglass, Secondary Education for Life Adjustment of American Youth (New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1 9 5 2 ) , p . 1 6 2 . 166 the community and citizens of the state and nation. All youth need to understand the significance of the family for the individual and society and the conditions conducive to successful family life. All youth need to know how to purchase and use goods and services intelligently, under standing both the values received by the consumer and the economic consequences of their acts. All youth need to understand the methods of science, the influence of science on human life, and the main scientific facts concern ing the nature of the world and of man. All youth need opportunities to develop their capacities to appreciate beauty in literature, art, music, and nature. All youth need to be able to use their leisure time well, and to budget it wisely, balancing activities that yield satisfactions to the individual with those that are socially use ful. All youth need to develop respect for other persons, to grow in their insight into ethical values and principles, to be able to live and work co-operatively with others. 10. All youth need to grow in their ability to think rationally, to express their thoughts clearly, and to read and listen with under- 10 standing. Curriculum revision. In constructing a curricu lum, certain steps must be considered. The better pro cedure in curriculum revision has been summarized very well by Romine as follows: 1. A thorough study should be made of the exist ing curriculum*the student body, the staff, the community, and other areas and factors pertinent to the school and its present educa tional services and the needs to be met. 2. The school should set forth a basic philosophy of education and such other guide lines or principles as are necessary to provide a clear, concise, understandable, and usable statement of what the educational program proposes to do. 10 ~ I b i d . , p . 16 2 . 3. The school should determine areas of life problems with which it is to be concerned and should formulate objectives which the educa tional program will seek to implement. 4. The school should evaluate its existing pro- f gram in light of the basic studies made, its philosophy and objectives, and the life prob lems with which it proposes to deal. 5. The school should carefully plan its program of revision or reorganization in advance. 6. The school should execute its plans for revi- I * j sion with enthusiasm. ! ! 7* The school should evaluate the changes which I have been made and the resulting program, and should make such modifications in it as appear 11 advisable. | ! Problems of curriculum improvement vary from situ ation to situation, and from time to time. This suggests the need for flexibility in organization. The educational | program must be adapted to the particular conditions j s i which it is intended to serve. The educational facilities t s _ » . » _____ of the school, the cultural changes, the changes in I 1 l i C ite d i n i b i d . , p . 157* 169 'j philosophies of education, and the special problems existing at the time (such as health conditions in a I certain community) all are factors to be considered in planning for curriculum improvement. In any organization p of curriculum changes, provisions such as the following should be included: (1) opportunity for the entire staff^ I to participate in the curriculum planning, (2) the co- f /i i of out-of-school resources and the physical facilities of the community to enrich and expand educational ex periences, (4) teacher-pupil planning of school activi ties, and (5) relating the curriculum to local needs and the future careers of children., I Again, let it be emphasized that allowance for flexibility must be planned for at the outset to take i into account the fact that society is in a continual | state of growth and change and that the needs and demands of education must be adapted to these changes and to the changing interests and backgrounds of pupils. The school faces difficulties in making choices as it plans the curriculum. These choices may be made in accordance with the following steps: (1) The school should decide on its educational objectives, and let these objectives be known to all who participate. (2) The school should ordination of the home with the school, 170 i determine what learning experiences will best achieve its stated objectives. (3) The school should organize the teaching and learning experiences planned. (4) Finally, the school should Judge whether its objectives are being attained. The goals, the learner, the classroom teacher, 1 the instructional materials, and the methods of evalua- / i tion are thus all considered in curriculum planning. I Educational objectives provide the foundation for all curriculum planning. The most valuable learning expe riences are those experiences which will best attain the objectives sought. In regard to formulating the philoso phy of the school, Alberty writes: j The formulation of the schools ’ philosophy is the initial step in curriculum development. In a real sense, the philosophy determines the kind of learning activities that are to be pro- j vided and the manner in which the school pro- ; gram is to be carried on.12 Alberty lists eight guiding concepts to be regarded as hypotheses for discussing and formulating the philosophy ! of the school. These may be summarized as: 1. Definition of a school’s philosophy of edu- I | cation. i 12 Harold Alberty, Reorganizing the High School Curriculum (New York; The Macmillan Company, 195^), p* | W&T. 2. Nature and ideals or the culture. 3* Nature of the individual. 4. Nature of learning. 5. Staff participation. 6. Community participation. 7* Students 1 participation. 8. Implications for the life of the school and 13 the community. ■ n. \ S • With respect to formulating aims of education to apply to the goals of modern living, the Educational Policies Commission of the National Education Association (1938) listed the objectives of education under these four categories: (1) the objectives of self-realization, (2) the objectives of human relationships, (3) the objec tives of economic efficiency, and (4) the objectives of civic responsibility. In more recent years, the tendency has been to get away from stating the objectives of, odpcation in j ' terms of subject matters to be studied. Education as “a growth process" (developing, expanding, changing) is more expressive of the modern basic philosophy of educa tion. As Douglass states it: According to the growth concept of education, education from the standpoint of the learner is 13 I b i d . , p . 4 3 4 . 172 growth as influenced by environment; from the standpoint of the teacher, education is the guidance and stimulation of growth by partial control of the learner's environment.1^ According to this modern-day definition of education, the school and its educational programs are the provisions by means of which proper educational experiences are provided. Therefore, the objectives^ of education should be stated in terms of the kind of JLi^n^Xo^^S^*i young i people should be prepared. In regard to the new concept1 of the objectives of teaching and learning, Douglass states the following: 3 \ The transition at present is from thinking of objectives in terms of covering certain favored bodies of subject matter to the concept of edu cation and teaching as selecting subject matter and employing it in the most effective manner to provide the most favorable learning experiences for the development of desired growth on the part of the learners. This shift of emphasis from the means and materials of instruction to the objec tives and end products has been tremendously im portant in producing changes in teaching methods. The current trend and theory in practice is to envisage as the objectives of teaching and of learning activities the growth and development of the child on all fronts, in other words, the growth and development of the whole child, in cluding his social, physical, and emotional as well as intellectual growth and development. ... Among the more important and recently more emphasized types of growth are such things as the development of habits of clear and critical thinking, meanings and vocabularies, and under- D o u g la s s , op. c i t . , p . 35* 173 standings of fundamental concepts and principles. Results of carefully conducted investigations have shown clearly that this latter type of edu cational outcome is not only applicable to a much larger variety of practical life situations but that it is also more permanent.15 As has been pointed out, secondary education in Iraq is organized under a curriculum which is far from related to the practical life of the nation's social and economic life. Therefore, a more practical curriculum f\ must be developed. Courses of study to be developed in vj I all subjects should be planned to bring them in line f I / with the possible practical applications to home living,^ to citizenship demands, to health situations, to leisure | time demands, and to the future vocational life of the i student. The objectives of secondary education would be most effective if stated in terms of areas of living. The following areas of life activities are offered as i . | of great value to the schools of Iraq, and are based on | Douglass's suggested “objectives of secondary education”: | 1. Citizenship: involving one's participation | in all social groups outside the home, includ- i j ing the neighborhood, work groups, leisure < 1 i groups, city, county, state, region, nation, and world. 15 I b i d . , p . 4 7 7 . 2. Earning a living: including selection of a vocation, economic understanding, and getting ahead vocationally in job skills. 3* Enjoyable use of leisure: richer enjoyment of all life experiences in ways conducive to the common welfare. 4. Home living: including relationships of married people, rearing of children, leisure life in the home, and consumer activities of various sorts. 5. Mental and physical health: including activi ties related to diet, exercise, dress, first aid, self care, care of others, mental hy- | giene, personality development, and related 16 activities. Each of these five major fields, or "objectives,t f may be broken down into some of the component elements j and contributory types of growth which are considered essential for the realization of the particular objective, j These types, or fields of growth, are listed as follows: j | (1) information, (2) concepts, (3) habits, (4) skills, J j (5) ideals, (6) attitudes, and (7) interests. I b i d . , p . 46 ’ 175 It is evident from the previous discussion that it is not enough for the school to develop verbal skills alone. Practical experiences and activities are consid ered of great value to the growth of the individual, and to the society in which he grows. The search for talent in conducting schools in line with these objectives is one of the utmost importance, and must be one of the first educational goals or functions of the revised school program. Adjusting the principles and procedures of educa tion to fit a program of ‘ 'life adjustment" would be of ! great value in reorganizing secondary education in Iraq. "Education for life adjustment," as an educational key note, may be described as follows: 1. Giving all pupils experiences in all areas | of living, including those essential to future educational and vocational planning. Emphasis is placed upon meeting common needs in all j areas of living. 2. Modifying all aspects and fields of the educa- l ! tional program, particularly the curriculum i and courses of study, to focus content and experience on life problems and their solu tion. For example, courses such as mathe matics, science, and social studies should be organized so that they contribute to the solution of life problems* Increasing and more effective use of community resources, in school and out, to enrich the educational program and to afford more oppor tunity for work experience and the practical application of learning to life problems. Developing an adequate guidance service, both group and individual, based upon collection and use of pupil and community data and focusing on all phases of guidance--educational vocational, personal, social, and civic. Providing freedom, guidance, and leadership from within the school and from without, and time for sound educational experimentation during the school day. Carrying on follow-up studies of graduates and dropouts and using the results to improve the educational programs and services of the school. Evaluating continuously the educational program in terms of changes sought in pupil behavior. Developing a continuous program of in-service training for teachers, an in-service training program which is related to the life adjustment 177" 17 educational program and its improvement. In summarization, a program devoted to "education for life adjustment" presupposes the advisory coordina tion of all phases of the school's programs for the edu cation of all the students for all the areas of life. "Education for life adjustment" clearly means that a far greater emphasis be given than in the past to the develop ment of clearly defined ideals, interests, attitudes, \ understandings, concepts and habits— in opposition to the traditional objectives which centered upon the ex clusive monopoly of attention to the acquisition of in formation. Without the slightest question, "education for life adjustment" means much less attention upon i • r ? | subject-matter and subjects, and a great deal more em-\ ; phasis on the needs of life as a growing and expanding" concept. i 1 In developing a curriculum upon these basic tenets, full use should be made of the cooperative efforts of all. Teachers and lay persons should be given | the opportunity and encouraged to participate whole- i i heartedly in developing the school curriculum* The best i | possible type of curriculum is that developed by the cooperative effort of all teachers in the same school, ! 17 Adapted from D o u g la s s , op. c i t . , pp . 1 7 0 f f . 178 j all those in the same district or province teaching the same subjects, courses, or grades (as the case may be), working cooperatively together under the guidance and leadership of the principal and the director of edu- j cation,andwith.the technical assistance of the special- 5 ! ist. Outstanding persons from related fields in the j | community should frequently be requested to give their views and professional opinions, especially regarding the broad objectives and subject matter content. Maximum use of local resources and materials should be stressed in planning the educational program for the specific community. Having agreed upon commonly-devised objectives I and subject matter content, close cooperation with teach- I ers should continue as school curricula are developed, j with teachers being encouraged and guided in the develop- ! | ment of classroom adaptations of curricula and use of | other related teaching materials. Workshops and similar j i in-service aids should be included as a part of curric- i I I ulum development. i * | Patterns of curriculum organization. In general, ^ there are four different types or "patterns" of curriculum organization used in the American public schools. These are reviewed in an attempt to provide a framework for 179 suggestions regarding patterns of curriculum organiza tion applicable to the educational situation in Iraq, They may be listed under the following broad classifica tions : 1. The subject curriculum. 2. The broad fields curriculum. 3* The core curriculum. 4. The experience curriculum. The "subject curriculum" is the oldest type of curriculum organization. It is characterized by the organization of facts and principles into a logical system and has been described thus: The subject curriculum is what the term implies--an organization of the content of education into subjects of instruction. In its extreme form the subjects are compart mentalized bodies of knowledge which are taught in complete isolation from one another, even from those to which they are related-- as history may be completely divorced from geography, economics and sociology. ... The subject matter is classified and organized-^ in accordance with the aim of explanation. De Young describes it thus: The subject curriculum is characterized by a large number of subjects taught independently L of each other. Most of the time of the pupil / is spent in learning from books and other writteii 18 B. Othanel Smith, W. 0. Stanley, and J. H. Shores, Fundamentals of Curriculum Development (New York: World Book Company, 1950)> P* 377* 18 0 i I and printed materials in various subjects in which the accumulated wisdom of experts in that field has been recorded* The emphasis is upon the learning of subject matter selected long before the children appear in the classroom. In such a curriculum* history* geography* and civics are isolated subjects.19 This type of curriculum has been seriously attacked on a number of fronts. The most serious indictments of it are given as follows: 1. It is compartmentalized and fragmentary. 2. It ignores the -interests and activities of j i the learner. ^ I 3* It is an inefficient arrangement of content J for learning and use. 4. It is divorced from current and persistent social problems. 5. It fails to develop habits of effective -20 thinking. The “broad fields curriculum" is a modification of the “subject curriculum." “Broad fields" means* simply, the re-grouping of the students* educational experiences around major areas of living. The “broad fields" curriculum is a step in the direction of reducing 19 Chris A. De Young, Introduction to American Public Education (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company* Inc.*1942)*p. 482. 20 S m ith e t a l . , op. c i t . * p . 39 2. 181 | separate subjects--i.e., the unification of the related subjects and the removal of artificial barriers of logic between th%e subjects. De Young says that "The broad- fields curriculum is composed of a few fields rather „21 than a large number of small subjects." Alberty also describes it as: ... the uniting or fusing of separate subjects within a given subject-matter field. A common example of this type oforganization is general science, which frequently contains elements of physics, chemistry:-, biology, anthropology, physiology, and the like.22 Other examples of the "broad fields" or areas are science, mathematics, social science, and the language arts. The "core curriculum" developed as a result of the tendency toward the unification of the various sub jects within a given field and the disregarding of the boundaries among the various fields. The organization of subject matter into a unifying core of studies was believed to be a way of enriching the content with greater meaning by making the interrelations of sub ject matter more evident. This line of de velopment led to core currieulums based upon the unification of subjects as the core of the educational program.23 De Young, op. cit., p. 482. 22. Alberty, op. cit., p. 115. 23 S m ith e t a l . , op. c i t . , p . 4 6 5 . 182 Smith goes on to state that “The structure of the core curriculum is fixed by broad social problems or by 24 themes of social living.*1 Alberty defines the core curriculum as follows: The core may be regarded as that aspect of the total curriculum which is basic for all students, and which consists of learning activ ities that are organized without reference to conventional subject lines.^5 De Young puts it as follows: The core curriculum includes subjects or a common body of experiences required of every one but with variability of content and activ ities to meet the varying needs of individuals. The term core is used to cover a wide range of types of curriculum practice.26 The following are the essential features of the core curriculum: 1. Activities are cooperatively planned by teacher and pupils. 2. Provisions for special needs and interests are made as these arise. 27 3. Skills are taught as they are needed. 24 25 26 Ibid., p. 471. Alberty, op. cit., p. 154* De Young, op. cit., p. 483. 27 S m ith e t a l . , op. c i t . , p . 4 7 4 . 183 The "experience curriculum" is also known as the activity curriculum. De Young gives possibly the best definition of this type of curriculum, as follows: The experience curriculum is a series of purposeful experiences growing out of pupil interests and moving toward an ever more ade quate understanding of and intelligent parti cipation in the surrounding culture and group life. The experience curriculum has its be- i ginnings in the situations which confront | children in their immediate living. | The experience or activity curriculum is characterized I by the following features: 1. The interests and purposes of children deter mine the educational program. I 2. Common learnings result from the pursuance of common interests. 3. The activity curriculum is not planned in ad- ! 29 vance. j This type of curriculum has also been called the "child- centered" curriculum: j | The basic purpose of this pattern is to in sure learning by engaging only in those activ- j ities that are related to the real interests j or needs of the pupil. ... The curriculum can J be planned only by a teacher with a particular j class. ... since pupil-teacher planning predom- I inates in this curriculum pattern, certain De Young, op. cit., p. 483• 29 S m ith e t a l . , op. c i t . , p . 419* methods are essential. These methods emphasize problem solving, group activity, and laboratory technics.30 The Work Experience programs developed in the American secondary schools are considered one of the very significant and rapid developments of the past quarter-century. Studies have been made of the kinds ( and variety of occupations into which youngsters can go under special arrangements. The work experience is con sidered as part of the educational program. In this program youth are engaged on a part-time basis in com merce and industrial work. This cooperative program ia an illustration of the possibility of combining active i participation of business and industry with classroom I work. It provides valuable opportunities for combining actual experience with the theoretical work of the school | In this program, the pupils are paid wages for their part ! time work. They also receive school credits for their I work experience. Douglass lists several values for the Work Experience program, among which are the following: (1) Work experience provides relief for | students--who find long daily periods of verbal | listening experiences in the schools very boring, a relief from and a refreshing experience in the work of the world with adults. 30 American Association of School Administrators, NEA, American School Curriculum (Washington, D.C.: 1953 1 Yearbook, NEA), p. 68. 185 (2) Work experience results in acquisition of a background in vocational or adult life which will bring into relief practical values, many aspects of the pupil’s learning, and activ ities in the school subjects.31 It is the “subject curriculum" which is universal ly practiced in the schools of Iraq. This type of curric ulum, which includes the classical curriculum and the traditional academic or scientific curriculum should be replaced (or, at least, augmented) by curricula in agriculture and vocations and commercial subjects; in other words, the conventional, or “subject area curricula" should be replaced by one or more of the more modern pat terns of curriculum construction— i.e., the core curricu lum, the experience or activity curriculum, or the work experience programs. The social and economic development of the country depend in large measure upon the type of educational program offered by the schools of Iraq. In-service training of teachers. Improving the educational program in the schools of Iraq will be depen dent upon the extent to which the in-service education of teachers is encouraged., In-service programs of teacher training should be designed so as to encourage teachers to continue their professional development in order to do a better job of teaching <while on the job. In regard to 31 D o u g la s s , op. c i t . , p . 2 3 2 . this, Douglass has stated: "It has always been recog nized that training of teachers has not been completed ^ in college and that the teacher to be most effective / 32 1 must continue to study and improve on the job." Pro grams that might be planned for the in-service training | of teachers are: (1) summer school attendance, (2) | conferences and professional meetings of teachers, (3) local school faculty meetings, (4) extension or corres pondence courses, (5) visiting other teachers and other schools, and (6) workshops, surveys, and other in- service activities* | Teachers should be encouraged to attend summer . school, and their attendance considered as a basis for j promotion and salary increases* In recent years, the trend has been toward having teachers work together on projects related to the educational problems of the schools, such as curriculum development, programs of evaluation, developing new courses of study, improvement of testing programs, improvement of school and community j relations, preparation for better guidance, surveys of I the community and community needs, and other similar i | projects. In-service education can also be done by j bringing into the school consultants from other schools •i 1 32 I b i d . , p . 586. and from teacher-educating institutions Extra-curricular activities. Extra-curricular activities should be considered as a part of the school | curriculum and should be extended. Types of extra curricular activities are athletic programs, school clubs of various kinds (such as science, music, photography, or speech clubs), and a student bodv organization. These activities should be planned and controlled by the stu- I dents and supervised by the teachers. The objectives of such activities should be the promotion of good cit izenship, the development of desirable traits of person- i | ality and character— i.e., social intelligence, leader- | ship, group interest, initiative, self-confidence in ! human relations, and powers of self-expression. These j activities should be varied in order to provide for the ; interests of all students. i | Evaluation of instruction. Evaluation in its broad meaning should replace the existing tests and exam inations in the schools of Iraq. Reliable measures of t i pupil growth must in time replace the pencil-and-paper i i tests and lesson-reciting by rote. The new methods of evaluation seek to measure significant changes in pupil ; behavior, which represent the achievement of desii^ble objectives. Collecting and using all possible evidence 188 of pupil growth in attaining significant educational outcomes should be accepted and stressed by the schools of Iraq. Evaluation i^,^p^essential part of curriculum - planning. The problems of evaluation and the problems of curriculum reconstruction are inextricably inter related. Evaluation of instruction may be defined as the process by which one reaches a Judgment as to its quality and effectiveness. This process involves (a) defining the ultimate objectives of the entire educational program in terms of specific behaviors, (b) establishing desired standards of attainment, (c) describing the ex tent to which objectives have been attained by individual students at various grade levels, (d) determining the discrepancies between the re sults actually obtained and the standards set for each objective, and (e) interpreting the results. ... There must be a clear understanding that the controlling purpose of evaluation is to guide and facilitate learning experiences designed to develop those behaviors required to deal ef fectively with important situations in the pupils 1 present and future lives. ... Since the purpose of evaluating achievement is to guide and facil- a itate learning, the program of evaluation should t be as comprehensive as is the instructional pro- J, gram itsellfT^TTT The criteria for determining the amount and nature of evaluation are (a) the need for evidence, and (b) the uses to which the obtained evidence is to be put.33 In regard to measuring pupil growth, and the types of measurement available, Douglass writes: 33 American Association of Administrators, NEA, op. cit., p. 310* 189 With the increased emphasis upon the develop ment of attitudes, ideals, interests, and higher intellectual skills, a distinct necessity has developed for measuring growth in attaining these types of educational outcomes. Along with the development of these new instruments of measure ment, new methods of observing and recording pupils1 growth and status in all these areas and types of outcomes have been devised. Among these types of measurement of growth and development are what have been called "observational1 1 types involving a return to and extension and improve ment of observation by the teacher of the behavior | of the youngster in study and at other times. ... One of the most recent developments has been what is called the projection technique. This is the use of devices for projecting the behavior of youngsters beyond its ordinary mode of expression by means of various diagrams, pictures, or other controlled methods for stimulating behavior in such a way that the youngster is not aware of | its purpose or of what it reveals.34 j Recent educational developments make it apparent j that modern methods of evaluation are putting less em phasis on objective testing and other types of paper- and-pencil tests in the measuring of pupil growth. One i clear principle has emerged as to the purpose of the i | testing or "examination"--the purpose of giving tests I j is to obtain evidence on the achievement of the pupil, | and not on the mere efficiency of the classroom teachers, i This distinction is of great importance, for it greatly i ; determines the attitude of teachers toward the evaluation ; process. The teacher’s efficiency is but one of many 34 D o u g la s s , op. c i t . , p . 4 8 7 . 190 factors that influence the scores made by pupils in a given class. Other factors that influence achievement are the intelligence of the pupils, their instruction in earlier years, their socio-economic backgrounds, the adequacy of educational facilities, and the nature of the methods which the teacher is required or^encouraged s to use. The results of evaluation should be interpreted and used for improving the educational programs. The educational progress should be measured in terms of changing behavior. Evaluation of educational progress | should be expressed not only in terms of the individual student*s achievement in relation to his ability, but I also in terms of his achievement in relation to standards | that take into consideration the achievement in the i school population. The following statements might serve as guiding principles for conducting an evaluation of curriculum | improvement: j ! 1. Evaluation should be planned and carried out in terms of the specific purposes of the cur riculum improvement program. 2. Purposes should be precisely defined in terms of changes to be achieved. 191 The purposes of a sound curriculum improve ment program evolve continuously* A high degree of flexibility is therefore necessary in evaluation activities* Evaluation should be concerned with both ends and means. Decisions concerning the purpose* procedures and data to be collected should be determined cooperatively in advance by all personnel involved. Evaluation is a complex process that should be based upon an abundance of evidence ob tained in many ways. Evaluation procedures should not be limited merely to a single device or testing instru ment. Any procedures are appropriate which provide pertinent and reliable evidence re garding change. Measuring and counting are not sufficient to form an evaluation. The essential nature of evaluation is the application of value Judg ments to the data. In order to accomplish its purpose, evaluation should be an integral part of the curriculum 192 ; 35 improvement program. V. SUGGESTED CHANGES IN METHODS OF TEACHING As indicated in the previous chapter, the outmoded technique of teaching--i.e., the “assign-study-recite- test" method--is still used almost exclusively by almost all teachers in the public schools of Iraq. The class room instructional procedures are uniform throughout^jbhe entire country, and are marked by a singular lack of individuality or pupil-motivation. These instructional procedures are limited to the textbook and the syllabus. The important objectives of health, citizenship, home living, vocational education,and worthy use of leisure I are totally neglected by the syllabus-and-textbook method | of instruction and, consequently, by the methods of ; teaching now employed. The inevitable consequence is j that these educational materials and procedures are i failing to give the students instruction and training in i ! | the economic, social, and political life of Iraq. Under | such a system of education, the initiative of the teacher j is completely repressed. Furthermore, the initiative, | self-expression and creative thinking of the pupils are 35 Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, NEA, Action for Curriculum Improvement (Washington, D.C.: NEA Yearbook, 195'lJ, p. £15. 193 stifled. The syllabus, in an effort to crowd more and more into the teaching program, is overcrowded with many subjects, and the teachers is required to test the pupils1 knowledge of the contents of the prescribed course of study. In fact, the sole duty of the teacher, as now conceived under the regulations of the Ministry of Education, is merely to find out whether the pupil has studied his lesson well enough to recite what the ! | book contains, in more or less rote form--or whether he j has failed to do so. The obvious weaknesses and shortcomings of such 1 t j an educational program and method of instruction are in j part an outgrowth of the overly-standardized system of conducting examinations, under which both pupils and j I teachers seem to be concerned solely with preparation | for these examinations. The pupils must learn verbatim ] what is in the textbooks in order to be able to pass the examinations and gain promotion. The administrative | system which prevents the adaptation of the school work i I to the actual needs of the local community and the indi- j vidual needs of the students is commented upon in the I ! report of the Mission of the International Bank for 36 | Reconstruction and Development: I 36 International Bank for Reconstruction and De- ; velopment, op. cit., p. 392. 19 b In any reorientation of educational methods there must also be a simplification of the syl labus, The tendency has been to overload the syllabus.with many subjects, all of which the child is expected to memorize primarily for the purpose of passing examinations. In the primary schools there are nine or ten subjects; in the secondary schools the total goes to 10-12; and in the training colleges as many as 15 different subjects are taught in one year. The contents of the existing syllabus in each subject and at each stage of education must be critically re-examined in the light of individual and social needs, and curricular cargo which is merely traditional and outdated must be thrown overboard. The courses of study or the curriculum in the schools of Iraq are of the old-fashioned type--i.e., the traditional "subject-matter" type— and are organized j according to principles of logic rather than of psycho- j logical and social_development. Commenting on the teach ing of this type of curriculum Wrinkle et al have high- 37 i lighted its essential weakness: ^ The logical organization of subject matter - I C, -is certainly logical for the subject-matter ! specialists. But it is not psychological; that is, it is not an organization in terms of the ; experiences which we have in real life and the | way we learn. To understand how a city is sup plied with pure water involves problems in bacteriology, chemistry, physics, economics, ! government, mathematics, and other subject 1 classifications. Photography involves physics, j chemistry and art. To understand a war by study ing the economic aspects, the political aspect or any other single classification of subject matter alone would be impossible. 37 W r in k le , e t a l . , op. c i t . , p . 28 6. 195 To teach subjects like chemistry, mathematics, biology, or any other science, in its logical compart-, ments and apart from its context in everyday life and its relation to all other subjects, is to do violence to all that modern education has learned during the past fifty years. No longer do modern educators accept the theory that the study of any subject automatically in creases the student's ability to do anything which he may really wish to do--i.e., mental discipline in one area automatically carried over to other disciplines. | Wrinkle et al. point out the fallacy of the assumption | with the following remarks:^ \ Teaching is no longer the act of exercising | the mind of the learner or of filling it with ideas--teaching is the development of ways of behaving, and the results of teaching are mea surable in terms of the changes in the way the j learner-behaves. Under this functional theory, ! by education's developing the mind we mean that education is bringing about desirable changes in the behavior of the learner. The first prob lem in teaching is not what mental gymnastics should we have the learner engage in or what j does he need to know--the first problem is how ! do we want him to behave? If we can determine i how we want him to behave, then our responsi bility as teachers is to provide situations in ! which he learns to behave as we want him to I behave. 38 Ibid., p. 225. 196 Accordingly, the purpose or education should he ^ accepted as the mod^j.c.atipn_o^he„hi^lor. Social con cern and skills in social participation are among the important objectives of modern education. And in order to develop students with such qualities, the teacher must see to it that his students are confronted by social situations in the school and that they have guidance in meeting these situations and in practicing the abilities to be developed. In connection with educating students 39 for meeting life situations, Wrinkle states: To the extent that secondary education utilizes real life situations and involves real life activ ities common to the present life of the learner, the more interesting and' the more effective it will be in achieving both immediate and deferred values. Second^ary_educ^ion should be concerned with living today because it is only as we learn to live more adequately today do we learn to live more adequately tomorrow. The schools of Iraq place great emphasis on pun ishment as a motivator of desired behaviors; for example, threat of grade failure, withholding of praise, and sim ilar penalties. Educators have long known that persons do not learn well under punishment. Neither do the tra ditional methods of teaching motivate or stimulate pupils to learn. It is suggested that punishment be replaced by a more positive, warm, and friendly type of motivation 39 Ibid., p. 212. 197 Education takes place rapidly when friendly relations are established between the teacher and his pupils, and between pupils and their fellow-pupils. Punishment succeeds usually in creating 1 1 trouble-makers,M a natural response to the frustration suffered by the pupil. All children need to experience the emotional satisfaction that comes with the assurance jof being liked, approved, and wanted. Research in educational psychology has proved that learning activities cannot be stimulated by external pressure. The function of the teacher is well described by Edmonson to be: “The teacher is a director of the stu- i j dents' learning activities, and one of his main functions | is to create situations that will arouse their interests AO and enthusiasm.1 1 Modern schools are providing pupils with opportunities to develop their talents in a positive j way, whether those talents are musical, artistic, or I vocational. j ! The primary concern of the modern-day teacher is N ? I the attempt to vitalize the subject matter which he / , f teaches, and to create classroom situations in which J students take an active part in the learning situation. I AO J. B. Edmonson, Joseph Roemer, and Francis L. Bacon, The Administration of the Modern Secondary School (New York: The Macmillan Company, 19Ab), p. All. He recognizes that the course of study and the textbooks are aids rather than limitations. The blind following , of prescribed textbooks and courses of study is being ' replaced by vitalized and enriched curricular experiences. Modern methods of teaching stress teaching problems of everyday living. The recitation method has been replaced by cooperative procedures for working on any kind of group problem--i.e., problems in human relations and economic well-being. Modern schools are working with their com munities on problems of practical, social and economic concern to the community. The role of the teacher in modern education is as a leader in school and community affairs*. The learning activities are being planned t cooperatively by teachers and pupils. Teachers and students, together, are employing the problem-solving method and as a consequence are not confined within the boundaries of logically organized subject-matter fields. The child is being encouraged to do his own thinking and to correlate his learnings. The role of the teacher in group learning processes is as a manager of the group, exhibiting the kinds of group work and technical skills which this implies. Modern Q / means of communication and interaction (audio-visual ( materials, activity plans, community trips, and laboratory experiences) are replacing the older outmoded methods of 199 the lectiisre and^Jthe. formal recitation. The school has become a place where pupils get together to solve impor tant problems. Moreover, the school is becoming an integral part of the life of the community. Modern methods of educa tion recommend a wide range of extra-curricular activities/'' which provide the means of helping pup'ili'^o^aiscover ^ their own aptitudes and interests. This wide range of extra-curricular activities provides opportunities for every student in the school to participate in one,or more activity outside the school curriculum, and to take part i in the social life of the school. This practice can best be achieved through guidance and is an effective procedure' for getting students more vitally interested in the school and keeping them longer in attendance. The present marking system in the schools of Iraq requires especial attention, for it undoubtedly serves / f to increase the students* dislike for school; certainly, it encourages them to quit school as early as possible. The suggestion is herewith offered that a study of the present marking system be undertaken in an attempt to improve its contribution. In regard to current and recent trends in thinking on the problem of the technique of teaching, Douglass outlines a number of broad principles which should be considered in improving the quality and effectiveness I lt of classroom teaching: x In recent years, classroom procedures have become more and more democratic, involving (a) student participation in the planning and direc tion of learning activities; (b) much less recit ation and more laboratory activities; (c) much more discussion--give and take--among the pupils and the teacher on a basis other than a teacher's promulgation of authoritative answers to ques tions raised; and (d) pupil participation in evaluation of their own learning efforts and growth. ... There has also grown along with our better understanding of human nature and the human personality an increased recognition of the importance of mental hygiene. This means, among other things, a much greater recognition of the individual as an individual, and much less ap peal to such motives as fear, worry, rivalry, and artificial reward.s and punishmentsand much more opportunity for pupil expression"in the creative activities, intellectual, physical, emo t i onal" , and ae s the tic. ... It has become increasingly recognized that in the effort to stimulate the young person in learning activities by means of artificial in centives, including marks and report cards, there is a distinct danger of developing unfavorable attitudes toward school subjects, the school, the teacher, and parents and adults in general as well as a loss of the pupil's confidence in himself and in the value of school learning in general. ... In recent years it has become more widely recognized that there is great educational value in having pupils work together in groups, D o u g la s s , op. c i t . , p . 4 7 6 . 201 carrying joint responsibilities, group planning, group evaluation, and other cooperative en deavours. In brief, the old-fashioned instructional pr<S cedures in the schools of Iraq should be replaced by modern methods of teaching. These new methods are more democratic in principle and nature, and are planned in the light of their total effects upon the growth and development of young people. They are also much better j i adapted to the educational needs of the country. It is ^ suggested that objectives of the new approach place less \ emphasis on recitation procedures, on reliance on text books, and on motivation by fear and punishment. All-out educational effort should be centralized in vitalizing real-life situations--in getting pupils to work together in small groups on community problems and projects, in eliciting pupil participation in planning their learning activities and experiences. More use of audio-visual aids and community resources is highly recommended. More consideration of mental hygiene and motivation pro cedures are also involved in the new methods. As a first step in initiating modern improvements in methods of instruction in the schools of Iraq, it is suggested that model schools be developed and promoted / in the larger cities of the country to serve as demon stration centers where modern methods of teaching may 202 be featured and where workshops and study centers may be conducted for teachers of the entire nation. VI. SUGGESTED PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES IN PUPIL GUIDANCE No provision has been made in the educational system of Iraq, as yet, for pupil guidance; in fact, as far as can be ascertained, in no way is guidance formally recognized as a part of the school’s responsibility and educational opportunity. The schools of Iraq have as yet no program for helping young people to find their places in the vocational world or for guiding them in solving their personal, family, and social problems; in | other words, no attention is being given by the schools I to helping students to make effective adjustments to i actual life situations, either in or out of school. The importance of guidance has failed to catch the attention of Iraq's educational leaders. This may be due to (1) j an absence of a democratic philosophy of education, or I (2) an absence of an elective program of studies. The I | present guiding philosophy of the Iraqi schools may be j said to require the rigid adjustment of the student to a rigidly-imposed program of studies. Accordingly, there is little recognition of the need for guidance. 203~j If it can be assumed that the educational i system of Iraq may be reorganized along lines of modern j educational trends * then there will be a great and serious need for an organized program of guidance and counseling. For the purpose of such a democratically-conceived educational program is to help pupils to solve their problems in all areas of their lives; and basic to this attitude is a guidance service which is concerned with every phase of the life of each individual student. What type of guidance program should be considered in planning an educational program which applies to modern living standards? First, let us define guidance as it i | applies to secondary education. Guidance has been de- | fined variously. De Young’s definition, which is both typical and clear, may serve as a starting point: | Guidance is help given to aid an individual ! in making a choice or in changing his behavior, i Guidance as an activity of the school is concerned ' with needed adjustment. In its best form, it oc- I curs before the need arises, thus enabling the | individual to make his own choice at a time of crisis. Tj?tfe^guidanee does not indicate the choice to be made bu^provK^s"TEe data neces- | sary for intelligent choice. The term has be come so closely associated with vocational guidance, in connection with which it was first used, that to avoid confusion, it is advisable | to indicate the phases of guidance intended, as health guidance^ emotional guidance, or edu cational guidance.^"2 42 De Young, op. c i t., p. 4 6 4. 204“] From De Young!s definition it is apparent that the aim of guidance is the same as that of education* Therefore, it is concluded that guidance and education, in their broadest contexts, are essentially one and the same. This is an important point and should be borne in mind, in delving more specifically into the essential contribution which guidance can make to the educational program. The point is elaborated upon in the definition offered in the Cooperative Study of Secondary-School Standards: Guidance as applied to the secondary school, should be thought; of as an organized service de signed to give systematic aid to pupils in making adjustments to various types of problems which they must meet--educational, vocational, health, moral, social, civic, and personal. It should endeavor to help the pupil to know himself as an individual and as a member of society; to en able him to correct certain of his shortcomings ; that interfere with progress; to know about vo- 1 cations and professions so that he may intelli gently choose and prepare, in whole or in part, for a life career; and to assist him in the constant discovery and development of abiding creative and recreational interests.43 | In this statement it is also apparent that the function ! of guidance is seen to be the same as that of teaching; i j in other words, teaching and guidance are inseparable, | and good teaching means also intelligent and effective i guidance. 43 A l b e r t y , op. c i t . , p . 378* 205 Frank E. Baker distinguishes three processes in the guidance activity: ... therapeutic, to cure cases of emotional and mental maladjustment; preventive, to help the individual avoid emotional and mental ten sions; and developmental, to help individuals in those forms of self-expression that have distinct value in personality growth.44 And in this connection, Douglas^ states, in his report | for the American Youth Commission: The keystone of a modern school for youth is guidance--guidance, not only in matters pertaining to vocation and formal schooling, but in all matters that perplex the minds and hearts of youth--problems of religion, prob lems of sex and love, social problems, rela- tionships with parents, and financial problems. From these and related studies it may be seen | that the function of guidance includes: 1. Educational or school guidance. (This type | of guidance is related to such matters as the choice of courses of study, electing an extra curricular activity and making proper adjust ment to the educational program.) i 2. Vocational guidance. (This type of guidance I is concerned with helping a pupil to choose i an occupation, to prepare for it, to apply for 44 Cited by De Young, op. cit., p. 284. 45 I b i d . , p . 28 4. 206 a position in it, and to make progress in it.) 3. Health guidance. (This is concerned with helping the pupil to develop and maintain good physical and mental health.) 4. Citizenship guidance. (This relates to en abling the pupil to be an efficient individ ual in his community, in his country, and in the world.) 5. Character guidance. (This is concerned with the promotion of ethical character, moral values, and common sense.) 6. Home-membership guidance. (This is concerned with the promotion of good qualities to make the individual a useful member of his family.) 7. Leisure-time guidance. (This form of guidance is concerned with helping the pupil to make worthy use of his leisure time.) Douglass makes an interesting analysis of the re lationship between good guidance and good behavior, by in quiring into the possible causes of bad citizenship behavior on the part of students: Two important things have been discovered by those employing this approach: (1) in a high percentage of cases, misbehavior is proved to be a result of some maladjustment of the youngster and the approach to improvement of behavior is through correction of the malad justment rather than through threats and pun ishments; and (2) from the long-range point of view, good citizenship is more likely to be achieved with most individuals by a diag nostic and positive instructive approach rather than through the simpler approach, of punish ment . ... » In schools where teachers have established relationships with their pupils on a friendly counseling basis, there are very, rich oppor tunities for teachers to discover all sorts of problems and worries that young people have which would lead to misbehavior in the school or out. Even if some progress is not made in the solution of these problems in a way reason ably satisfactory to the pupil, at least he is stimulated to take a somewhat better attitude about his problem and condition and assisted ! in employment of intelligent and mature methods | of thinking about his problems. i ! An effective program of guidance should be accom- ! panied by: (1) better training and preparation of teach ers in the uses of modern instructional procedures; (2) instruction of teachers in the functions and objectives of counseling and guidance; (3) training teachers in i handling properly the problems of guidance; (4) studying i ; the pupil, learning his needs, interests, problems and capacities, and then guiding his efforts to solve his i j problems and to make progress; and (5) replacing the old- i fashioned prescribed curriculum and predetermined subject matter by a more modern elective type of curriculum. The successful guidance program should help the D o u g la s s , op. c i t . , p . 2 2 1 . students to take full advantage of the educational opportunities provided. It should include provisions for the varied needs of individual pupils. Good guidance requires correct understanding of the person who is to receive guidance. The classroom teacher is the one who can provide this service better than any one else in the school system* for it is he who works in closest contact with the pupils. But good guidance cannot be achieved unless the teacher has had sufficient opportunity to know and understand his pupils. In connection with this central guidance situation, Wrinkle writes: As long as the curriculum is organized ac cording to subject-matter divisions--in fact, whenever students have several different teach ers with whom they remain for only limited periods of time--the job of guidance cannot be adequately done by the classroom teachers. ... If effective guidance demands teachers who know and understand students, the possibility of more effective guidance will be increased by (1) a modification of the conventional patterns of school organization which will provide for a longer daily contact of the teacher and the stu dent and (2) an extension of the period of time during which the student is with the teacher from a semester or a year to a continuous con tact throughout the school life of the student. The core-curriculum or general education pro gram ... has a real advantage in this connec tion.2 ^ 47 W r in k le , op. c i t . , p . 335* 209 Guidance, then, is most effective when given to pupils by their teachers and not by a specialized guid ance counselor; the specialized counselor works indepen dently of the teachers, and has little regular and con tinuous contact with the pupils. It is preferred that the specialized guidance counselor work with the teachers to help them in a consulting and counseling capacity, rather than working directly with the students. “The guidance counselor’s chief function should be the guid ance and assistance of teachers in the performance of „48 their guidance functions. t A great amount and variety of data about pupil i | needs, pupil problems, pupil achievements, pupil inter- i j ests, and pupil environment should be provided and in terpreted so that teachers may have access to it in ; their guidance work with pupils. Every possible source I of data should be used to gain an understanding of each I pupil and to develop an educational program which is well i i suited to the individual pupil in his preparation for i j life. Teacher-counselors should assist each student in | ; planning his school program. Teachers should also pro- I i vide servxces in the field of personal and social guid- I ance. Guidance in the choice of future occupational I b i d . , p . 3 3 8 . 210 interests should be offered to all students by the members of the counseling staff, possibly handled through a central counseling office. A well organized program of counseling should, thus, be an integral part of any well organized program of education. VII. SUGGESTED PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES IN EDUCATIONAL SUPERVISION As indicated in the previous chapter, little or no provision has been made in the educational system of Iraq for educational supervision. In place of an ade quate educational supervisory and advisory service, the Ministry of Education has provided what is termed an "inspectoral" service. The service is exactly what its name implies--that of inspection, but not that of super vision in the proper meaning of the term. The inspectoral function is performed by a school administrator or \ ^ j special inspector. Inspection in the schools of Iraq j 1. accomplished through classroom visitation. The "visit. are usually unexpected and unannounced. The purpose of j such surprise visits is to find the teacher in a "normal" , j or what is termed "natural" situation, thus providing the j : inspector with the opportunity to judge the teacher’s performance in an average situation. In rating the 211 teacher, the inspector checks the following points: the general conditions of the classroom, the appearance of the teacher, his apparent knowledge and his personal ity, the discipline of the pupils and their knowledge of the subject-matter of the texts, and a number of other related criteria. On the basis of these spot- check observations, the continued employment or promo- i tion of the teacher may be either recommended or dis- ■ couraged. ! In only infrequent instances does any conversation a and exchange of ideas take place between the inspector and the teacher during the visit, and the inspector does not remain long enough in the school for a follow-up discussion with the teacher. Accordingly, it can be con cluded that the purpose of inspection is not to assist the teacher with his planning or problems but rather to keep him on exhibition in the classroom and then to rate him on the performance. It can be concluded that this type of inspection could only instill fear in the hearts of the teachers, directed as it is toward un covering weaknesses instead of assisting the teacher in the improvement of his teaching methods. In brief, 1 the inspectoral function is that of rating. No attempt \ at constructive effort or encouragement is made. There- 212 fore, it can only be considered a completely negative and devastating experience for the teacher— and, indi rectly, for the students, as well. The need for correction of this function is too obvious for further elaboration. The great need is for the development of a supervisory service that will be truly supervisory, one that will meet the real needs of teachers for help in improving their teaching and learning, a service based on known principles of demo cratic educational supervision. The purpose of such supervision is well stated by Good: All efforts of designated school officials directed toward providing leadership to teachers and other educational workers in the improvement of instruction involves the stimulation of pro fessional growth and development of teachers, the selection and revision of educational ob- - jectives, materials for instruction, and methods ‘ 'of teaching, and the evaluation of instruction.^9 Barr et al. provide a further definition: Supervision is in general what it has been in modern times, an expert technical service primarily concerned with studying and improving the conditions that surround learning and pupil growth.50 49 Good, op. cit., p. Jj-OO. 50 A. S. Barr, W. H. Burton, and L. J. Brueckner, Supervision (New York: D* Appleton-Century Company, I n c . , 19^7)> p . 1 1 . * Prom these two definitions it can be concluded that supervision is concerned primarily with improving the teacher learning situation, and is no longer limited to matters directly associated with classroom teaching. It has been extended to the entire field of education. i j The supervisory function is that of improving the quality and effectiveness of the instruction being offered in the schools, not merely to that of rating teachers. Super visory functions and procedures should be kept above the level of inspection and rating. The role of the super visor should be to help teachers to understand the func- I tion of the school, the objectives to be achieved, and I the principles underlying the type of education necessary | to achieve the stated goals. The question arises, then, as to how the super- I visor should go about the job of supervising the teachers ^ under his care. Reeder gives a fine statement of the broad general attitude of the modern supervisor: j He should keep an open mind; his methods j should be impersonal and free from bias. He should realize that there are few procedures ! in education about which he can be sure, and nothing about which he can be dogmatic. ... He should make the teacher feel that he is his | friend and is there to help him and his pupils, if possible. He should be a ' ‘ brother" to the teacher rather than try to be.a "king" over R ee d e r, op. c i t . , p . 160 214 self-control among teachers has been considered the most distinctive function of democratic supervision. It has also been realized by authorities that growth requires not only opportunity, but time for its unfolding. With a new and modern type of educational program< in Iraq, there will develop a need for qualified super- j visors who have the ability to release the creative talents of pupils, teachers, and community persons with whom the supervisors will work. These new supervisors must first establish friendly relations between them- j selves and the teachers by meeting with them on a friendly 1 basis, and by providing t£iem with professional leadership i and assistance of a high calibre. The supervisors must be adept in the use of group processes, and must be able to work democratically in cooperation with teachers, pupils, and community people in solving urgent problems. The more the teachers1 resources are extended, enriched, and utilized, the more will the curriculum be made full and meaningful to the pupil. Indeed, this is the prime responsibility of the skillful supervisor. In this connection, the following statements apply to the problem of establishing an effective supervisory service to education: The distinctive function of this educational leader is to provide guidance, encouragement and rich opportunities for the in-service development of teachers. Indeed, the good supervisor today does not serve as an official charged with standardizing the program and methods of teach ing. Instead, he is a resource person, coordi nator, service agent and consultant. ... He is able to provide leadership in facil itating the interchange of professional expe rience and understanding because he is in a position to see the activities and interests of individual teachers and to sense opportuni ties for their effective sharing. To this end, the supervisor has a very real function in ar ranging for intervisitation. This practice helps teachers working on similar units see with what success different groups of children have had valuable learning experiences within the same content area. It also helps teachers be come acquainted with new or different materials, processes or activities developed in other classrooms, and to grow in professional insight through the process of group thinking on a common interest. ... As the supervisor sees the teacher working with children, he is able to help the teacher identify and use the curricular opportunities provided by the situation. The supervisor is in a position to detect promising interest on the part of individual children. ... As the supervisor works with individual teachers, he may be able to provide expert help in another aspect of curriculum improvement, that of bring ing outside resources into the classroom or school program. ..• Sometimes he can help to identify community resources and to use these to advantage in the school situation. ... The supervisor today is in a favored posi tion for contributing to curriculum improve ment. As a service agent, he seeks to make teachers conscious of new types of professional insight through giving them an awareness of new trends and through facilitating the interchange of professional experience. The supervisor also 216 helps teachers to develop new sensitivity to opportunities provided by the pupils themselves, to make use of appropriate instructional materi als, and to improve their knowledge of children „ and of the community in which the children live. On the strength of the knowledge that the super visory program--like all phases of the educational pro gram— should be formulated cooperatively by teachers, supervisors, administrators, pupils and community members; and on the assumption that it should be flexible in its operation, the following steps are suggested as being of great value in planning for good educational supervision: I. Evaluate the educational product at various / i stages of its development, in the light of \ accepted objectives by means of suitable in- \ struments and procedures of appraisal. Achievement, behavior and growth are to be I i ! ■ included in the evaluation. i i | 2. Analyze the teaching situation in a search I for the antecedents of pupil growth and ! learning, of failure to grow and learn. | 3. Note new departures which might be introduced i into the local situation. 1 1 52 Association for Supervision and Curriculum j Development, NEA., op. cit., pp. 16K-169. ~"217j 4. Select from the total picture through group discussion a list of problems, difficulties i and needs. State these as objectives for the improvement program. 5. Develop a program of activity under super visory leadership designed to improve under lying conditions and to bring about improve ment in the products of learning. 6. Evaluate the effectiveness of the program in the light of accepted objectives, by reputable means of appraisal, to determine what improve r's ment has been achieved. There can be no doubt that such a program of supervision will greatly improve the general quality of teaching and learning throughout the educational system of the country. But it should be remembered that such a program will not be as fruitful as it should be unless q provisions are made well in advance for professional / Y training of supervisors (as well as of teachers and ad- j > i ministrators) for the new type of educational service. * It is hoped that such training in supervision and other aspects of modern education, together with increasing 53 B a r r e t a l . , op . c i t . , p p . 1 3 0 -1 4 0 . ' 2"l8 emphasis upon democratic operation, will aid in eliminat ing from the thinking of the Iraqi educators the implica tions of the old system of "inspection”--i.e., rating, imposed improvement, and the superiority-inferiority relationship implied between groups of co-workers. i VIII. SUMMARY This chapter has been concerned with deriving a series of principles and procedures in the form of sug gestions for improving the different aspects of public education in Iraq. Most of these suggestions have been I - I offered in conjunction with a descriptive analysis of I each aspect of public education as it now exists in Iraq and in the democratic nations of the world. ! ^ In regard to improving the general educational | situation in Iraq, it has been suggested that a plan of i educational reform should be combined with a program of i j economic and social betterment. It has also been sug- i j gested that the educational concepts in Iraq should be ! ! made much broader than they are at present, and that they i - be related more closely to the everyday problems of liv ing. Another suggestion was that compulsory education j and vocational education be carefully studied with a i view to their immediate expansion within the educational 219 framework.^It was also suggested that the new educa tional approach--including emphasis upon community-school cooperation--should replace the traditional and isolated school system which now exists. The discussion also indicated that an adequate educational philosophy should be set up and be based on a careful study of the social, economic and political conditions of the countr^ It was also suggested that coeducation in the public schools of Iraq be given more attention. In respect to improving the educational adminis tration of Iraqi schools, -it has been suggested that the Iraqi educational system should be less centralized than I it is at present, and that provision should be made for giving teachers and local school officials increasing freedom and participation in the formulation of school policies^ They should be encouraged to cooperate in es- I tablishing better educational programs. In other words, the present form and practice of the entire5 * educational jl^system should gradually be replaced by a more democratic type of school administration which allows for the sharing i of experiences, for the participation and cooperation of * ■ all in the formulation and execution of educational policies and programs .K, It was further suggested that the task of the Ministry of Education should gradually be changed from that of making and enforcing all 220 educational policies and programs to that of coordinating, directing, and guiding the schools in all of their educa tional planning and activities^— - , D Regarding educational finance, it has been sug- ■^gested that the Iraqi government be willing to spend adequate sums of money for education, in amounts much greater than heretofore expended* It was also suggested | that financial support for education should be at both I the local and national levels* In regard to improving curriculum development, l/ I it has been suggested that the existing programs of studies be changed to meet the needs and interests of pupils and society* They should be broader, more flex- | ible, and more closely related to problems of everyday I living, taking into consideration local needs and the ; future careers of children. Curriculum construction and revision, it was suggested, should be based on an adequate and democratic philosophy of education, provid- i - ing opportunity for the participation of the entire staff | and community in the planning of the curriculund^—'Utiliza- i . ! tion of out-of-school resources and physical facilities j of the community should be considered in planning revision i of educational experiences, toother important suggestion i was that the educational needs of Iraqi youth be studied i i i and analyzed in the light of the imperative needs of the youth of progressive countries elsewhere in the world Among other important principles to be considered planning curriculum revision is the guiding principle that education be looked upon as “a growth process1 1 and not an amassing of subject-matter information. Accord ingly, the school and ,its educational programs are the vehicles for providing proper educational experiences. This suggests that all forms of modern educational cur riculum patterns be studied and considered for whatever they can contribute to Iraqi’s educational needs--i.e., life adjustment programs, the core curriculum, the activ ity curriculum, work experience programs, and others. Making provision for teacher promotion and in-service training is another phase of recommended educational im provement . ^It was also suggested that extra-curricular activities should be considered as a part of the school curriculum and should be extended in order to provide for the varied interests of all pupils. ^ Another very important suggestion was that of establishing an adequate program of evaluation of instruc tion, and of classroom achievement. This program of evaluation should seek to measure significant changes 222 in pupil behavior, using behavior as a criterion repre sentative of the achievement of desirable objectives. Great emphasis should be placed upon collecting and making use of all possible evidence of pupil growth in attaining significant educational outcomes. / In regard to improving methods of teaching and classroom instructional procedures, it has been sug gested that the blind following of prescribed textbooks and courses of study be replaced by vitalizing and en riching the curricular experiences, and that methods of teaching should stress teaching problems of everyday living. Cooperative procedures for working on any kind of group problem (such as problems of practical, social | and economic concern to the community) should replace ! the traditional recitation method of teaching. The I learning activities should be planned cooperatively by teachers and pupils. The teacher should encourage the child to think and correlate. He should also provide his pupils with opportunities for discovering and develop- ing their talents / xIt was further suggested that modern ! means of communication and interaction (audio-visual I I materials, activity plans, community trips, and other i vitalizing aids) should replace the outmoded methods of j teaching. A wide range of extra-curricular activities j should be provided to help pupils to discover their own abilities and interests and to provide opportunities for every student to participate in the activities and social life of the school^ In brief, it has been sug gested that the old-fashioned instructional procedures in the schools of Iraq be replaced by more modern and more democratic methods of teaching. As a first step i | in initiating modern methods of teaching in the Iraqi schools, it was suggested that model schools be developed and promoted in the larger centers of the country to serve as demonstration schools for modern methods of instruction.^ In regard to pupil guidance, it was suggested ' that a guidance service concerned with every phase of the life of each individual student be considered in planning the new educational program. A well-planned | program of guidance activities should include a program of teacher instruction in the functions and objectives of counseling and guidance. It should also provide as- | sistance to teachers in handling problems of guidance, j thus enabling students to take full advantage of the | educational opportunities provided. It was also sug gested that a special guidance counselor whose chief function is the guidance and assistance of teachers in the performance of their guidance functions be added. i rJ In regard to the educational supervision, in contrast to the existing inspectoral functions of the central educational agency, it has been suggested that a great need exists for the development of a supervisory service that will meet the real needs of teachers for help in improving their own teaching and learning. This type of service should replace and correct many of the 1 negative aspects of the present inspectoral functions. The basic function of democratic supervision should be that of encouraging self-direction, self-criticism, and self-control among teachers, as a part of the process of improving the quality and effectiveness of their teaching. Supervisors should provide teachers with professional leadership on a friendly basis. The aim of supervision is seen as that of improving instruction, and this requires that supervisors cooperate with i ; teachers, administrators and other school officials in evaluating the educational program. CHAPTER V SUMMARY I. THE PROBLEM AND PROCEDURE The problem and Its importance. There were three purposes of this study: To discover through descriptive analysis the weaknesses and shortcomings of the Iraqi educational system, and the factors leading to these situations. To select current practices in American public education that may have significance for im proving the educational programs in the public schools of Iraq. To make suggestions or proposals for adapting and introducing into Iraqi public education certain principles and practices found to be effective in American public education. Education in Iraq today is in great need of educa tional leaders who are well informed on the modern trends in educational philosophy, psychology, curriculum develop- i ment, instructional procedures, and administration and (i) (2) 1/ (3) supervision. It is hoped that this study may render valuable service at this time of rapid change in Iraq's political, social, economic and educational development. Procedure. This dissertation is a library study. In reviewing the literature, a study was first made of the available literature pertaining to (1) education in Iraq,. (2) the social, economic, and political conditions in the country, (3) the history and the form of govern ment of Iraq. The review of literature included books, official reports, magazine articles, and the reports of I official missions to Iraq. | | A study was also made of literature on American I education pertaining to modern trends in curriculum, supervisory and administrative practices. The two phases of literature were coordinated in | an effort to form a frame of reference for a descriptive | analysis of Iraq's educational problems. The educational | system of Iraq was studied and analyzed in the light of h l modern educational advances in philosophy and practice; / I on the basis of this study, proposals were made for the improvement of education in Iraq. These proposals took f into account direct observations of Iraqi schools during six years as a teacher in its schools, and later as a student of education in colleges of the United States. 227 Presentation of the data. Graphic presentation of data and materials was made whenever the nature of the materials warranted its inclusion in tabular form. The organization of the presentation was as follows: Chapter II was devoted to a brief account of the history of Iraq, its form of government, and the social, economic and cultural conditions of the country. Chapter III described the educational system and the current status of education in Iraq. Chapter IV gave in a descriptive way the writer's proposals for the reorganization of public education in Iraq, in all its phases. j II. FINDINGS I The findings of the study may be summarized under the following main headings: (1) history and form of government; (2) social, economic and cultural conditions; | (3) the current status of education in Iraq from an historical standpoint; (4) organization and administration i of the present educational system; (5) curriculum and methods of teaching; (6) teacher training and higher edu- ! cation; and (7) school buildings and equipment. History and Form of Government 1. Iraq, better known to the Western World as Mesopotamia, is one of the Arab countries in 228 the Middle East, Iraq has a very ancient civilization which goes back to the years preceding 4,000 B.C. The country witnessed for many centuries a brilliant civilization, after which it was conquered and subjugated in 1638 to an Ottoman ruler. Following these centuries, the country remained under Ottoman domination from the middle of the seventeenth century until the First World War. Iraq was among the several Arab States re leased from the Ottoman Empire during the First World War. Iraq became a kingdom upon the accession of King Faysal the First to the throne in 1921. Iraq was admitted to the League of Nations in 1932 as an independent sovereign state. It is believed that the Kingdom of Iraq en closes within its boundaries what was the cradle of civilization. Iraq's political structure includes a king, a cabinet, and a parliament; in other words, Iraq is a constitutional hereditary monarchy with a representative form of government. Iraq is a land of contradictions: the antiquated and the modern phases of civiliza tion exist side hy side. Social, Economic and Cultural Conditions 10. The population of Iraq is about five million, living in an area of approximately 168,000 square miles. 11. About 22 per cent of the people live in urban areas, 40 per cent in settled rural communi ties, 30 per cent in semi-settled rural areas, and 8 per cent are nomadic. 12. Arabic is the official language in Iraq. 13* Iraq is one of the most important agricultural countries of the Middle East. 14. The average standard of living is very low in Iraq. 15• The rich natural resources of the country (land, water, and oil) have not ais yet been properly exploited in such a way as to raise the standard of living. 16. The majority of the people--especially in the rural areas— suffer from poverty, illness, poor diet, primitive housing conditions, and ignorance. 17* There is an increase in the number of people who have migrated from the land, seeking to escape the hard living conditions in the rural areas, and to find opportunities for employment in the cities. 18. The standards of living and of social services (education, health, etc.) are higher in the cities than elsewhere, and better opportuni ties for employment exist in the larger centers of population. 19* Agriculture and animal husbandry are the major occupations in Iraq. Next to these two occupations come commerce, and private and public service. 20. The present land tenure system forms a great obstacle to improving agriculture and raising the general welfare and standard of living in rural areas♦ 21. Primitive methods of agriculture are still existent in most of the rural areas. 22. The industrial capacity is as yet little de veloped in Iraq. In recent years, however, an increasing desire for industrialization has become noticeable, and the government has taken steps to encourage industrial develop ment. 23. Considerable progress in public health has been made over the past thirty years* 24. Literacy in the cities is much higher than in the rural areas, but remains a major problem. The Current Status of Education in Iraq: Historical 25. During the times of the Turkish administration little effort was made to educate the people of.Iraq and other Arab states. No attempt was made to teach the Arabic language; as a consequence, both spoken and written Arabic was of poor quality. 26. The people of Iraq were more or less illiter ate before the British occupation of the country. 27. With the British occupation in 1917* a begin ning was made in founding an educational system on a sound basis. 28. At the time of its founding in 1921, the Kingdom of Iraq had several primary schools, one training college which was barely above the primary level, and a law school which had no collegiate standing whatever. These were all that the country then possessed 232 in the way of educational facilities. Organization and Administration of the Present Educational System 29* The present educational system of Iraq is composed of three stages, or levels: a. Six years of primary education. b. Five years of secondary education, di vided into a three-year intermediate section and a two-year preparatory sec tion. c. The higher educational level. 30. The Iraqi system of education is highly cen tralized and strongly regulated and super vised by the government, under the adminis tration of the Ministry of Education. 31. The Minister of Education is the political head of the Ministry and usually changes with changes in the cabinet. 32. Under the Minister of Education come several directors of education. 33* There are fourteen provincial directors of education who are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education. 34. There are several kinds of inspectors whose 233 " ! function is to visit classes and teachers in their own field, and to report on the per formance of teachers and on the general situa tion in each school with regard to educational facilities. 35* There are several boards and committees at the Ministry of Education which deal with the general policies and trends of education, curriculum, budgets, laws, and regulations. 36. Educational finance in Iraq is centralized. No contribution to the school fund is made by municipal or provincial authority except for occasional help given to needy pupils. 37* Teachers, administrators, and other local authorities in Iraq have no opportunity to participate in the determination of what and how to teach. 38. The schools in Iraq are uniform throughout the country, and are being administered from a single national office. 39« The major purpose of the Iraqi public seconda ry instruction, as reflected in the educational program, has been preparation for college entrance. 234 40. Primary education is compulsory in places which are decided upon by the Ministry of Education--usually in those localities where adequate facilities exist. 41. School facilities are lacking in many villages and localities far from the cities. 42. About 85 per cent of the population is illit erate. 43* The social and economic conditions are the main obstacles to enforcement of compulsory education. 44. Boys and girls are segregated to a large ex tent in primary and secondary education. 45* In 1952* the number of children of primary school age was about 1^0,000, but only about 181,000 of these were actually in attendance. 46. Fundamental education which constitutes a major part of adult education is very recent in Iraq and is still being developed. This phase of education emphasizes not only the acquisition of literacy, but also the dissem ination of practical training in health, civics, agriculture, and other aspects of better living. 235 47* There are six vocational schools in Iraq, all i established in recent years. j i 48. Plans to introduce some of the vocational and ] i special types of education into the secondary- i school system are still under way. i 49- Adult education in Iraq has received less at- J tention than any other phase of education. j 1 1 Curriculum and Methods of Teaching 50. Areas of the curriculum of the Iraqi public schools are academic and of the subject- matter type. | j 51*. The curriculum of primary and secondary educa- | tion is rigidly prescribed and made uniform ^ | , 1 throughout the country. j 52. The subjects, syllabi, number of hours allotted | to each subject, and the examinations required j I at the end of each course have been detailed ; ! in the official syllabi and must be followed i i i to the letter. j ! 53* The school subjects have usually determined 1 i i I the curriculum. ! 1 54. The curriculum has been criticized as being j far too bookish and academic, and as leaving a great gulf between what is taught in school 236 and the activities and necessities of every- 1 day living. 55. No provisions have been made for the inclusion of vocational education in the curriculum of ! \ 1 secondary schools. ! • 1 56. In regard to curriculum construction and re- \ 1 vision, there has been no provision for en- j 1 listing the cooperation of school officials | and other leaders of public and governmental j affairs (agriculture, industry, public health, I and other aspects of public life). 1 57* The method of teaching employed by almost all : teachers in the public schools of Iraq may be described as the "assign-study-recite-test” j method. s f ! 1 58. Learning in the schools of Iraq is largely by i rote memorization. 59* Formal mental discipline is still given great emphasis in the classroom instruction. 60. Little if any individual instruction is given, j 1 nor is there any use of instruction in small | i groups. j 61. Provisions for class discussion or cooperative learning activities do not exist. 237 62. Great emphasis is placed on classroom recita tion, and very little on laboratory activities. 63. Instructional procedures are limited almost wholly to the use of textbooks and syllabi. 64. The duty of the teacher, as now conceived, is 1 that of finding out whether the pupil has . i studied his lesson well enough to recite what ! t is written in the book. I 1 65. The schools of Iraq place great emphasis on | punishment as a motivator of desired behaviors.I i 66. Two types of examination are conducted in the I schools of Iraq: j a. The school examinations, given in every j grade of the public schools. b. The public examinations, held at the end of the primary, intermediate, and prepara- I tory stages of schooling, are prepared, 1 administered, and corrected by the Minis- ; try of Education. ; 67* Both types of examinations are of the written type. School examinations may at times be both writtell and oral. These examinations form the basis for the promotion of pupils from one grade to the next higher one. 238 68. All examinations are conducted in accordance with the regulations and instructions of the Ministry of Education. 69. In recent years, the secondary schools have made some use of extra-curricular activities; but little if any extra-curricular activities exist in the primary schools. 70. Evaluation of instruction in its broad meaning does not exist in the schools of Iraq. 7.1* A program of pupil guidance does not exist in the schools of Iraq. Teacher Training and Higher Education 72. Today there are three types of colleges for the training of teachers in Iraq: a. Primary teachers1 colleges. b. Rural teachers’ colleges. c. Secondary teachers’ colleges. 73. The courses in education in most of the teach ers 1 training institutions cannot be said to provide adequate professional preparation for teaching. The only type of in-service training of teachers is the summer school. 7A. There are now in Baghdad eight well established colleges. As yet, no university has been es tablished. 239 75* Since 1921, the Ministry of Education has planned a program for educating Iraqis abroad. Since that year, hundreds of students have been sent abroad to study at government ex- j pense, and many of them have returned and | helped in the advancement of the country. ; School Buildings and Equipment 76. As far as structure, furniture, equipment and educational facilities are concerned, most of the school buildings in Iraq are j s wholly unsuited or inadequate and will there- ; * fore need to be replaced. j 77- The shortage of proper school buildings has forced the authorities to make use of private t homes for classroom purposes. 78. Secondary schools, on the whole, enjoy better j physical facilities than do the primary 1 1 schools. 1 1 79* Very few schools occupy buildings especially designed for classroom purposes. i 240 I I I , CONCLUSIONS The conclusions reached as a result of the findings of the present investigation may be summarized as follows:! 1. The long period of Turkish domination, with its distant center of administration, left its mark upon the culture of Iraq. At the time i of its founding in 1921, the Kingdom of Iraq | I had very little on which to build in the way i of education. The government was confronted with not only the tremendous problem of build- i ing an educational system from the ground up, but meeting the serious problem of finding suitable persons who were qualified and willing, to fill essential official posts. 1 2. The country has achieved considerable progress,■ relatively speaking, since the establishment of its national government in 1921. 3* The improvement of living conditions in the rural areas of Iraq must await the alleviation of the main causes of the present low standards; i.e., poverty, illness, ignorance and insecur ity. These problems are now being studied as a preliminary step to their planned solution. 241 4. The plans for the nation's economic and cul tural growth must take into account not only the large cities but also the villages and t rural areas of the country. ! 5. A correction of the present system of land tenure would seem to be ba'sic to the achieve- i I ment of any lasting progress. 6. Progress in agriculture is greatly hampered j both by the land tenure system and by the low j economic conditions and illiteracy of the j workers. j 7* Any program aiming at the economic or social development of the country must place primary emphasis on agriculture, the basic activity of the land. 8. Industrial development is dependent to a large extent on agricultural progress. 9. Although literacy in the cities is much higher than in the rural areas, illiteracy is still a grave problem. ; 10. The general prevalence of illiteracy is a ^ I great handicap to all types of learning which j requires written instruction. 11. Little improvement in agriculture, industry, or other public service can be expected as 1 2 . 13. 14. 15. 1 I i i 16. i I i f I 17. 18. 242 long as primary education remains on a non- compulsory basis. Better public education and good public health are essential to all types of progress. The reconstruction of education in Iraq must be closely related to the existing social, economic, and cultural situations. j An absence of a spirit of democracy is the greatest single detriment to Iraq’s progress. , Some of the most urgent needs of education in Iraq are: (a) more teachers, (b) better fa cilities for teacher training, (c) more and ; / x ! better school buildings, (d) more facilities for training technical experts to serve in dustry and develop the nation’s resources, (e) adequate funds to finance a vigorously expanded educational program. j \ Educational problems in Iraq are of two i kinds: (a) those relating to the social and i i economic conditions of the country, and (b) 1 ! those arising from the administration and | organization of the educational system. There is a great need for both trained leader ship and the general education of the masses. The existing administrative system of public 243 education in Iraq hinders the adaptation of education to the local needs of the community and the individual needs of pupils. Fossible educational improvement for Iraq depends on seeing to it that the present administrative i system of the entire educational structure i is reorganized along lines that will provide j for more participation by educated citizens i f in the provinces. i s j 19* The lack of adequate funds has been one of the ^ i main obstacles to further educational develop ment in Iraq. j t 20. The curriculums of the schools of Iraq are ! poorly adapted to the needs and interests of pupils and society. 21. Improvements in education must include some j radical changes in the existing programs of j studies, and in the following practices: a. Curriculum practices and patterns are j completely prescribed in advance, and the | subject matter predetermined. b. Education in Iraq is not compulsory, and i is on a selective basis, the schools quickly eliminating all who do not pass examina tions. 244 c. There is complete adherence to traditional methods of teaching, and memorization of subject-matter is the dominating goal of education, d. The present marking system serves to i create fear and to increase the students 1 i dislike for schools and learning. j e. Supervision is accomplished through a j police-like system of inspection. 22. There is an urgent need for the revision of i i Iraq's educational program in the light of modern educational philosophy and technique. 23* Attention should be given by the schools to ! the practice of "learning by doing." ! i 24. One of the primary objectives of the schools i should be to develop the creative instincts of children. 25. There is an urgent need for the development of vocational and agricultural education. 26. An in-service educational program for teachers j should be included in the overall planning. i 27. An adequate program of evaluation should be 1 planned and executed. 28. There is need for a comprehensive program of pupil guidance. 245 29. The present system of educational administra- I tion and supervision must be replaced by one j which follows democratic principles--which 1 meets 'the needs of teachers for help in im proving their teaching and learning; which provides teachers with professional leader- ! I | ship on a friendly basis; and which elicits I | j the active cooperation and participation of ! teachers, administrators, community leaders and (eventually) students--all working to gether in a program of mutual betterment. i ! IV. RECOMMENDATIONS i The recommendations of this study are listed under ! the following headings: (1) the general educational i . I situation, (2) educational administration and supervision, ; \ | (3) educational finance, (4) curriculum construction and ^ * 1 methods of teaching, (5) guidance, and (6) teacher j , training. j j | The General Educational Situation ’ 1. Education should be made to function more vitally in social life and should contribute more directly to the realization of national pro grams of reconstruction. 246 Changes in the organization and administra tion of education should go hand-in-hand with economic and social changes. I The educational problems should be studied in the light of two groups of factors: a. The social and economic conditions of the j country. b. Modern trends in all educational practices. New economic and social opportunities should i be made available to people, and work oppor- | i tunities for youth should be provided. In each community people should be brought I together through integrating and coordinating i their activities and under trained leadership. ! The standard of living should be raised in all material and health aspects, especially i in the villages, small towns, and rural areas. : j Primary emphasis needs to be placed on the development of agriculture. The primitive methods of agriculture should i be replaced by modern methods, and full advan- : tage taken of the world’s advanced technologi cal developments. The causes of poverty and the methods of 247 1 0 . 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. raising the standard of living should be carefully studied. Educational efforts must be directed to the effective solution of the everyday problems of the people of the country. ! The first objective of education must be to I i adapt its aims to the practical needs of the 1 people of Iraq, i.e., to help them improve their health and methods of work. The economy of the country could best be de- ] veloped through combining agriculture and I local industry. j Educational reform should be combined with a j i program of economic and social betterment. The educational concepts should be much broader ! than they are at present and more closely re lated to the needs of pupils and of society. ! i i Compulsory education and vocational education > should be given great and serious attention. A new educational approach— that of the com- munity-school cooperation--should replace the j traditional and isolated school system which I now exists. An adequate educational philosophy should be 248 set up and based on a careful study of the social, economic and political conditions of the country. 18. Coeducation should be encouraged. 19. The schools should focus on promoting the com mon welfare of the community and should become an integral part of it. 20. The general purpose of education should be ac cepted as the modification of behavior. i 21. Education should be able to develop a new ; type of thinking ability in the Iraqi people J which will enable them to meet the needs of the present emergency situation and the in creasing changes in the future. 22. The use of the school as a center of social reconstruction, the organization of local ! I school committees, the introduction of parent- , s teacher associations will do much toward pro- j moting popular interest in education. | 23. Part-time schools should be provided for j i young people who have just entered upon an ! occupation or who are about to do so, and also for older adults who have already been in work for some time. 249 24. Making provisions for organizing a work ex perience program as an essential aspect of public education would do much toward pro moting vocational education. 25. More concern and better care should be given ! ; I | to underprivileged and disadvantaged people. i i 1 ! I 1 I | Educational Administration and Supervision ! 26. The Iraqi educational system should be less I centralized than it is, and provisions should be made toward giving teachers and local i school officials increasing freedom and oppor- 1 i ! | tunity for participation in the formulation ! of school policies, and in establishing better . educational programs. In other words, the ! \ ! present type of school administration must gradually be replaced by a democratic type of I school administration which allows for the i I ! sharing of experiences, for the participation ! j and cooperation of all in the formulation and ! execution of educational policies and programs.! 1 ' ■ 1 ! 27. The task of the Ministry of Education in Iraq should gradually be changed from that of mak ing and enforcing all educational policies and programs to that of coordinating, direct ing and guiding the schools in their 250 educational activities. 28. Planning curriculum construction, and many other administrative functions should be transferred from the central government to the local government. 29. The central administration should attempt to j t locate and identify the specific persons who are most capable of providing the leadership which the teachers believe should come from their own ranks. 30. There is a great need in the schools of Iraq for the development of a supervisory service , that will meet the real needs of teachers for help in improving their teaching and learning. Democratic supervisory functions should re place the present inspectoral functions. , The basic function of democratic supervision j 1 should be that of encouraging self-direction, | f 1 self-criticism, and self-control among teach- [ ers; in other words, supervisors should provide? i teachers with professional leadership on a i personal basis. 31. The aim of supervision should be that of im proving instruction and not that of rating 251 teachers. Accordingly, this requires that supervisors should cooperate with teachers, administrators, and other school officials in evaluatirg the instructional program and in curriculum revision. 32. Key positions in the teaching staff of each school should be filled by fully competent and well-trained teachers. Educational Finance 33• The Iraqi government must be willing to spend generously and adequately for education, and in much greater amounts than has been done in the past. 3^. The financial support for education should be at both the local and national levels. 35* The local citizens should be encouraged to contribute to the support of education. Curriculum Construction and Methods of Teaching 36. The existing programs of studies should be changed to meet the needs and interests of pupils and society. They should also be broad and flexible enough to relate to prob lems of everyday living, to local needs, to the future careers of children, and to other 252 social demands. 37* Curriculum construction and revision should be based on an adequate and democratic phi losophy of education; in other words, a pro gram of curriculum reorganization for Iraq should provide opportunities for the active participation of administrators, teachers, community leaders, and students. 38. Utilization of out-of-school resources and ^ I the physical facilities of the community must ! & I be considered in planning or revising the I l educational experiences. | j s 39* The educational needs of Iraqi youth should be ! studied and analyzed in the light of the im- 1 perative needs of the youth of America. , 1 40. Objectives of education as a guiding principle i * in curriculum construction should be stated j in terms of conceiving education as Ha growth process'* and not in terms of subj‘ect matters 1 to be studied. j i 41. All types of modern curriculum patterns (such ^ as life adjustment programs, the core curricu lum, the activity curriculum, work experience programs, etc.) should be considered in reor ganizing the educational program of Iraq. 253 4-2. Adequate education should be provided for everyone and in terms of abilities, interests, needs, and purposes. 43. Cooperative and democratic procedures should be used in the recognition and solution of problems in the process of curriculum reor- i ganization. 44. The arbitrary boundaries between subject- matter courses should be reduced. 45. Teachers should play an active role in deter- j mining the direction of a program of curricu- j lum reorganization, since it is they who play ; a key role in determining whether the new program will succeed or fail when it is put into classroom operation. 46. Curriculum revision work should be planned 1 and directed primarily by those working in j the local system. Skilled leadership should j be provided for this. 47* Curriculum revision should have fundamental importance in public schools. 48. A philosophy of education is necessary before j a school can build an effective curriculum. | 49* The blind following of prescribed texts and 254 courses of study should be replaced by vital ized and enriched curricular experiences. 50. Methods of teaching should stress problems of everyday living; students should be given practice in treating and solving problems of everyday living. 51. Cooperative procedures for. working on any kind of group problem such as problems of practical, social, and economic concern to the community*, should replace the traditional recitation method of teaching. 52. The learning activities should be planned cooperatively by teacthers and pupils. 53* The teacher should encourage the child to think and correlate. He should also provide his pupils with opportunities for discovering and developing their talents. 54. Modern means of communication and interaction (audio-visual materials, activity plans, com munity trips, etc.) should replace the outmoded methods of teaching. 55* A wide range of extra-curricular activities should also be provided to help pupils to dis cover their own abilities and interests and 255 also to provide opportunities for every stu dent to participate in such activities and in the social life of the school. 56. Improving classroom instruction in the schools of Ir£5& will be dependent mainly on (l) ade quate training of teachers, and (2) the devel- j i opment of the inspectoral service into a super-i 1 visory service. 57• Modern buildings, equipment, machines, mate rials and teaching aids should be supplied to provide students with a wide variety of tech nical experiences. j 58. The outmoded instructional procedures now being employed should be replaced by modern democratic methods of teaching. As a first step in initiating modern methods of teaching in the Iraqi schools, model schools should be 1 developed and promoted in larger centers of the country to serve as demonstration schools 1 for modern methods of instruction. 59* An adequate program of evaluation of instruc- 'tion should be set up. This program should seek to measure significant changes in pupil ! ! behavior which represent the achievement of desirable objectives; in other words, the 256 schools should develop a scientific and sys tematic appraisal of their work as seen in changes in learners, in home living, community i improvement, and agency services. j 60. For the purpose of evaluating the educational I program, great emphasis should be placed upon i collecting and using all possible evidence of j pupil growth in attaining significant educa tional outcomes. 61. Provisions should be made for frequent evalua- ! tion of the growth and development of students : and for the appraisal of the effectiveness of ; the teachers in aiding students to grow and I i develop. 62. Stressing the intellectual achievement of pupils and their promotion should not be the only basis for the marking system in the schools of Iraq; students in elementary and intermediate schools Should rarely, if ever, 1 | be failed. i j Guidance 1 63* Provision should be made in the educational system of Iraq for pupil guidance. The program ! of pupil guidance should be developed to help 2$7 students to take full advantage of educational opportunities. ! 1 64. The guidance service should be concerned with i every phase of the life of each individual student. I i 65* The classroom teacher is the one who can under-; stand his pupils better; consequently, he can provide guidance services better than can any- j one else in the school, and he should be given i sufficient opportunity and time to understand and work individually with his pupils. 66. A specialized guidance counselor whose chief | function is the guidance and assistance of | j ! teachers in the performance of their guidance functions should be appointed for every school system. i I } i I Teacher Training ! i j | 67* Teacher education should be expanded to in- j i J | elude knowledge of society, the learner, the I 1 learning process, as well as the subject } * i matter. ] i 68. Provisions should be made for an extensive enlargement of the teacher training program. 1 j 69* Provisions should be made for promoting and 258 encouraging the in-service training of the teachers. 70. A program for instructing teachers in the functions and objectives of counseling and guidance* and for training them in handling properly the problems of guidance in the j classroom is of great importance. j | 71# Special attention should be given to the possi- j bility of liberalizing the attitudes of the older teachers through an in-service training | [ program* 1 ( 72. Teachers1 meetings for studying the educational 1 needs and problems should be promoted and en- ! | couraged in every school. i j j Finally, great emphasis should be placed on making j further studies of this type. Additional investigations | are needed to discover the weaknesses of the educational programs and of all aspects of public education, and to I I determine more definitely the exact educational problems ! and objectives of Iraq at the present time. These studies | ; I should be repeated periodically on a continuing basis. ! BIBLIOGRAPHY j i i i i i i BIBLIOGRAPHY A. BOOKS A Committee of Officials, An Introduction to the Fast and Present of the Kingdom of Iraq. Baltimore, Maryland: The Lord Baltimore Press, 1946. Adams, Harold, and Prank G. Dickey, Basic Principles of Supervision. New York: The American Book Company, 1953* Alberty, Harold, Reorganizing the High School Curricu lum. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1950. American Association of School Administrators, National Education Association, American School Curriculum, 1953 Year Book. Washington, D.C.: The Associa tion. _______ , The American School Superintendency, 1952 Year Book. Washington, D.C.: The Association. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, National Education Association, Action for Cur- riculum Improvement, 1951 Year Book. Washington, D.C.: The Association. j Barr, Arvil S., William H. Burton, and Leo J. Brueckner, ^ Supervision. New York: D. Appleton-Century Com pany, Inc., 1947* Clark, Victor, Compulsory Education in Iraq. New York: UNESCO, 195TI Cook, Lloyd A., and Elaine P. Cook, A Sociological Approach to Education. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1950. Crowson, Ben P., Jr., “Education in Iraq,1 1 1951 Report on Foreign Educational Systems. Washington, D.C.: Crowson International Publications, pp. 9-12. 261 De Young* Chris A.* Introduction to American Public Education, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company* Inc., 1942. Douglass* Harl R.* Secondary Education for Life Ad just- / ment of American Youth. New York: The Ronald Press Company* 1952. , The High School Curriculum. New York: The Ronald Press Company, 19^7* “ '.monson* J. B., Joseph Roemer* and Francis L. Bacon* The Administration of the Modern Secondary School. New York: The MacmiXlan Company* 19^d. Education for All American Youth. Washington* D.C.: EducationalPoliciesCommission* 19^• Foster, Henry A.* The Making of Modern Iraq. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press* 1935* Good* Carter V. * editor* Dictionary of Education. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company* Inc.*1945• International Bank for Reconstruction and Development* The Economic Development of Iraq. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press* 195*^ Iraq* Ministry of Education* A1 Taqrir al-Sanawi1 an Sayr al-Ma1arif (Annual Reports on the Developmen of Education* 1921-1950)• Baghdad: Government Press. * Majmu’at al-Qawanin Wal-Andhima Wal-Talimat TT-Wizarat al-Ma*arif (Collection of Laws* Regu- lations and Instructions of the Ministry of Edu cation* Iraq). Baghdad: Government Press, 1950> 1952* 1953. _______ * Manhaj al-Dirasah al-Ibtida1 iyah (Primary School Syllabus). Baghdadi Government Press* 1953- * Manhaj al-Dirasah al-Mutawassitah (Intermedi ate School Syllabus). Baghdad: Government Press* 1950. 262 Ireland, Philip W., Iraq: A Study in Political Development. New York: The Macmillan Company, T 9 W . ^Jamali, Mohammed P., The New Iraq. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 193^* Khadduri, Majid, Independent Iraq. London: Oxford University Press, 1951* j Main, Ernest, Iraq from Mandate to Independence. | London: George Allen and Unwin, Ltd., 1935* i j Matthews, Roderic Donald, and M. Akrawi, Education in Arab Countries of the Near East. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 19^9* Monroe, Paul, and others, Report of the Educational Enquiry Commission. Baghdad: Government Press, T75T.----------------- | j Reeder, Ward G., The Fundamentals of Public School Ad- ! ministration. New York: The Macmillan Company, | T95T. vSmith, B. Othanel, William 0. Stanley, and J. Harlan Shores, Fundamentals of Curriculum Development. New York: World Book Company, 1950. Spears, Harold, The High School for Today. New York: | American Book Company, 1950. ! Trillingham, Clinton C., The Organization and Adminis- I tration of Curriculum Programs. Los Angeles: University of Southern California Press, 193^* i ‘ ^UNESCO, International Year Book of Education, 1952* j New York: UNESCO, International Bureaus of j Education, Publication No. IA5. | 0Wiles, Kimball, Supervision for Better Schools. New I York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1950. Wrinkle, William L., and R. S. Gilchrist, Secondary j Education for American Democracy. New York: (s Rinehart and Company, Inc., 19^2. i Utitwsr»)fv of !Wwth«fn Ctltfernii 263 B. PERIODICAL ARTICLES Coombs, G. M., “Education in Iraq." The Journal of Education (London), Vol. 78* July 1946, pp.~392ff. Correspondent, “Education in Iraq," The Times Education- al Supplement, No. 1603, January 19* 1946, p. 28. "Curriculum Development in Secondary Education," The Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary- School Principals, Vol. 33* May 1944« Fielstra, Clarence, "Supervision Today," Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals, Vol. 34, December 1$50* pp. 9-20. Knight, E. W., "Newest State in the World," The High School Journal, Vol. 16, 1933* pp. 7-11. Moore, Mina, "Kindergarten at Baghdad," The Journal of Education (London), Vol. 78, June 1946* PP. 329ff. UNESCO, "Iraq: Educational Developments in 1950-51," International Year Book of Education, 1951, pp. I55~T607------------------------------ _______ , "Iraq: Educational Developments in 1951-52," International Year Book of Education, 1952, pp. IE6-I7O.----------------------- __ * "New Foundations in Mesopotamia," The Times Educational Supplement, No. 1983* May 1* 1953, p . 387. PIGURE 1 TH E O BG A IZ A T I O N O F THE M IN IS T R Y O F E D U C A TIO N A M D IT S DEPARTM ENTS IRAQ MINISTER. OF EDUCATION PRIVATE I ANNUAL CONFERENCE OF PRIMARY EDUCATION I BOARD OF DIRECTORS BOARD OF HIGHER EDUCATION DEAN OF LAW COLLEGE DEAN OF HIGHER. TEACHERS COLLEGE DEAN OF QUEEN ALIYAH COLLEGE DEAN OF COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING DEAN OF COLLEGE OF COM M EECE S ' 1 ECONOMICS DEAN OF / COLLEGE OF SCIENCE 4 ARTS 61 BOREAL) BOARD OF EDUCATION SCIENTIFIC COUNCIL DIRECTOR GENERAL OF ANTIQUITIES DIRECTOR GENERAL OF TECHNICAL AFFAIRS DIRECTOR OF CURRICULUMS __ TEXTBOOKS AND EXAMINATIONS DIRECTOR OF EDUCATIONL MISSIONS AND EQUIVALENCE OF DEGREES DIRECTOR OF CULTURAL AFFAIRS L DIRECTOR GENERAL OF EDUCATION CHIEF INSPECTOR DIRECTOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION DIRECTOR OF TEACHERS TRAIL)- -ING AND PRIMARY EDUCATION DIRECTOR OF AGRICULTURAL 4 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION DIRECTOR OF STUDENTS HEALTH DIRECTOR OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS DIRECTOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION INSPECTORS OF INSPECTORS OF ADMINISTRATIVE SPECIALIZED PRIMARY SCHOOLS BOARDING DEPARTMENTS 1NSPE-CTORS INSPECTORS THE FOURTEEN PROVIN CIAL DIRECTORS OF EDUCATION OFFICIAL RECORDS AND PERSONNEL. SUPPLY AND A C C O U N T S DOCUMENTS SECTION SECTION) EQUIPMENT -SECTION SECTION
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Al-Jalili, Abdul Razzak
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A study of public education in Iraq, with suggestions for its reorganization
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Doctor of Philosophy
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Education
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