Mapping spirituality-related programming to students’ spiritual qualities

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Content Running head: MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 1

Mapping Spirituality-Related Programming to Students’ Spiritual Qualities
by
Serena Wong

Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Education
Educational Counseling

University of Southern California
December 2014

Author Note
Serena Wong, Rossier School of Education, University of Southern California.
Correspondence concerning this document should be addressed to Serena Wong, Rossier
School of Education, University of Southern California. Email: serenaxwong@gmail.com
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 2
Abstract
Through an exploratory document analysis, this study examined the process of mapping
students’ spiritual qualities using a secular, four-year higher education institution’s spirituality-
related programming. Three coders mapped a sample of 36 spirituality-related program flyers to
Astin, Astin, and Lindholm’s (2011) five spiritual qualities: (a) spiritual quest, (b) equanimity, (c)
ethic of caring, (d) charitable involvement, and (e) ecumenical worldview. Data were analyzed
for occurrences of each mapped spiritual quality, interrater reliability, the frequency of religion(s)
featured, and logistics of spirituality-related programs offered through the 2012-2013 academic
year. Results provide the groundwork for an assessment model of spirituality-related programs:
(a) overall, institutional programs supported students’ spiritual qualities at varying degrees; (b)
there was fair to moderate agreement among coders during the mapping process; (c) spirituality-
related programs most frequently featured Christianity out of all religions; and (d) programs
were most frequently offered mid-semester during weekday evenings. The practical applications
of Astin et al.’s (2011) constructs are discussed in context of the mapping process.
Keywords: Spiritual qualities, program assessment, college students, higher education

MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 3
Dedication
This work is dedicated to my mother and late father.

MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 4
Acknowledgements
For his mentorship and nuggets of wisdom, I thank my thesis chair, Dr. Alan Green.
Thanks also to Dr. Patricia Tobey and Dr. Janice Schafrik for your incredible support and for
sparking a lifelong interest in assessment. Sable Manson and Rev. Jim Burklo, I am thankful for
our candid interactions, for your open minds and doors. Credit goes to Janet Loh for her original
idea, in addition to Anacany Torres and Jane Devenport for your insight in conducting our pilot
study. Last but not least, I am extremely grateful to Clarissa Guevara and Dora Yeman Zhang
Ledesma for your moral support, time, and kindness.
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 5
Table of Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 2
Dedication ....................................................................................................................................... 3
Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... 4
List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. 6
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................... 7
Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................... 8
Chapter 2: Literature Review ........................................................................................................ 14
Chapter 3: Methodology ............................................................................................................... 26
Chapter 4: Results ......................................................................................................................... 31
Chapter 5: Discussion ................................................................................................................... 39
References ..................................................................................................................................... 50
Appendix A: The Spiritual Quality Rubric (SQR) ........................................................................ 56

MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 6
List of Figures
Figure 1. Average percentages of mapped spiritual qualities. 32
Figure 2. Mapping spiritual qualities by coder. 33
Figure 3. Program frequency by religion. 36
Figure 4. Program frequency by month. 37
Figure 5. Program frequency by day of the week. 37
Figure 6. Program frequency by start time. 38

MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 7
List of Tables
Table 1. Agreement among three coders by spiritual category. 35

MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 8
Chapter 1: Introduction
This study aims to connect research on spirituality with higher education programs
through mapping and assessment. According to Astin, Astin, and Lindholm (2011), college
students’ spirituality is comprised of five main qualities: (a) spiritual quest, (b) equanimity, (c)
ethic of caring, (d) charitable involvement, and (e) ecumenical worldview. Using past program
flyers from a secular, four-year higher education institution’s website, the primary researcher
conducted an exploratory document analysis that involves mapping spirituality-related programs
to Astin et al.’s (2011) five constructs. The institutional office that was assessed is responsible for
cultivating campus spirituality and religious life. To maintain confidentiality, this paper refers to
it as the Office for Campus Spirituality (OCS). Three coders mapped 36 spirituality-related
program flyers, which represent the OCS’ programmatic offerings through the 2012-2013
academic year. Data were analyzed for occurrences of each mapped spiritual quality, interrater
reliability, the frequency of religion(s) featured, and logistics of spirituality-related programs.
Results provide the groundwork for an assessment model of spirituality-related programs. In
addition, the practical applications of Astin et al.’s (2011) constructs are discussed in context of
the mapping process.
This chapter introduces the current study’s purpose and research questions, statement of
the problem, significance, spirituality-related assessment challenges, key definitions, and
methodology. The chapter concludes with an overview of other sections in this paper.
Purpose of Study and Research Questions
The primary objective of this study is to investigate how one institution’s spirituality-
related programs map to students’ spiritual qualities, as defined by Astin et al. (2011). Namely,
which qualities of spirituality are supported by institutional programs? To what degree are they
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 9
supported? As there is a lack of research on spirituality-related programming, the null hypothesis
is that all spiritual qualities (i.e., spiritual quest, equanimity, ethic of caring, ecumenical
worldview, and charitable involvement) will be supported equally. The alternative, exploratory
hypothesis is that spiritual qualities will be supported at varying degrees. As such, the dependent
variables are Astin et al.’s (2011) five spiritual qualities. The independent variables are the
spirituality-related OCS programs. Furthermore, the process of mapping is examined for
concordance. In other words, the interpretations of Astin et al.’s (2011) spiritual qualities are
compared among the perspectives of three coders.
A secondary objective is to provide assessment data for the OCS. This project analyzes
longitudinal and cumulative programming trends over 2 consecutive semesters, from Fall 2012
to Spring 2013. Assessment questions include the following: To what extent are different
religions featured in programs? During what times and days are programs offered? Such
information may inspire further assessment of spirituality-related programs in higher education.
Statement of the Problem
Despite recent development and implementation of The Campus Religious and Spiritual
Climate Survey (CRSCS, Bryant, Wickliffe, Mayhew, & Behringer, 2009), there remains a dearth
of information regarding the assessment of spirituality-related programs and institutional
response to students’ spiritual development. While research supports the integration of
spirituality into higher education, there is a gap between theory and practice. This gap is
particularly evident among student affairs professionals (Kiessling, 2010). While administrators
are often responsible for implementing extra-curricular college programs, few received training
on students’ spiritual development (Kiessling, 2010). One way to address this gap is by
developing an assessment plan for spirituality-related programs that would support students’
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 10
spiritual qualities, as defined by Astin et al.’s research (2011). Mapping programs to
corresponding spiritual qualities would help bridge theory and practice.
Significance of Study
This study contributes to research on assessment of spirituality-related programs at higher
education institutions. Previous spirituality research has involved large-scale, cross-institutional
analyses on undergraduate students (i.e., Astin et al., 2011); in contrast, this single case study
provides a focused perspective of how one Office of Campus Spirituality (OCS) at a large,
secular, private four-year American university has cultivated students’ spiritual growth. Findings
may be useful for student/academic affairs professionals or other administration who engage in
programming and/or assessment. The office that was assessed may utilize results to continue the
cycle for continuous improvement, incorporating the findings in their assessment plan.
Furthermore, the assessment model proposed may be adapted by other institutional offices for
intentional programming. Researchers may also utilize the results for development of future
studies. In sum, this study is an application of Astin et al.’s (2011) research in programming and
serves as a basis for developing program objectives related to students’ spirituality.
Assessing Spirituality in Higher Education
Over the past decade, higher education has witnessed a resurgence of interest in
spirituality (e.g. Chickering, Dalton, & Stamm, 2006; Rockenbach & Mayhew, 2013; Speck &
Hoppe, 2007). The largest longitudinal, inter-institutional study on college students’ spirituality
was conducted by Astin et al. (2011) in the form of the College Students’ Beliefs and Values
(CSBV) Survey. Their findings indicated that spirituality plays an affirmative role in students’
lives, positively affecting “academic performance, psychological well-being, leadership
development, and satisfaction with college” (Astin et al., 2011, p. 10).
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 11
However, assessment plans of spirituality-related programs in higher education remain
largely atheoretical or non-existent/non-transparent. This disconnection between theory and
practice may be bridged via assessment. Bryant (2008) described two challenging realities for
assessment of spirituality-related initiatives: (a) the changing campus climate and (b) campus
leaders’ active efforts in engaging students’ spirituality through programming. To tackle the
former, Bryant et al.’s (2009) developed the Campus Religious and Spiritual Climate Survey to
gauge an institution’s engagement with spiritual/religious diversity. However, spirituality-related
programs have not yet been disaggregated by spiritual quality or faith tradition. The current study
addresses Bryant’s (2008) second challenge by exploring the utility of Astin et al.’s (2011)
measures for mapping programs to spiritual qualities.
Key Definitions
To establish a common language, key definitions are provided in context of this study:
Students’ Spiritual Qualities
Students’ spiritual qualities refer to the constructs developed by Astin et al. (2011): (a)
spiritual quest, (b) equanimity, (c) ethic of caring, (d) charitable involvement, and (e) ecumenical
worldview. Briefly defined, spiritual quest refers to students’ search for purpose (Astin et al.,
2011). Equanimity relates to one’s centeredness (Astin et al., 2011). Ethic of caring is a
commitment to social responsibility (Astin et al., 2011). Charitable involvement involves forms
of volunteering for others (Astin et al., 2011). Ecumenical worldview is one’s sense of
connectedness with humanity (Astin et al., 2011). These constructs were validated and replicated
via factor analysis in three waves of student surveys: 2003, 2004, and 2007 (Astin et al., 2011).
Furthermore, they demonstrated satisfactory reliability, robustness, and both concurrent and
predictive validity (Astin et al., 2011). In addition, this spirituality framework generated research
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 12
on student leadership (Gehrke, 2008) and complements existing theories of faith development
(e.g. Fowler, 1981; Parks, 2011).
Spirituality-Related Programming
Spirituality-related programming refers to any event created with the intention of
cultivating students’ spiritual or religious life. This variable is operationally defined as those
events sponsored by the OCS and documented on their website. Each document contained the
event title, date, time, sponsors, and a brief description. Such events were open to all students
and had an active component that invited students to attend or participate in some manner.
Passive programming (e.g. information pamphlets) and programs not sponsored by the OCS
were excluded from the analysis. Weekly, recurring programs (e.g. Student Interfaith Council)
were also excluded due to the varying, semi-structured nature of discussions and the natural
tendency to form semi-closed groups of recurring attendees.
Methodology
This study was an exploratory document analysis of the Office of Campus Spirituality’s
(OCS) programmatic offerings. All past program flyers are archived and were retrieved for the
2012-2013 academic year from the OCS website. These flyers were used for promotion on the
OCS e-newsletter, social media, and other campus outlets. Using document analysis and Astin et
al.’s (2011) definitions, three coders mapped a sample of 36 program flyers to five spiritual
qualities: (a) spiritual quest, (b) equanimity, (c) ethic of caring, (d) charitable involvement, and
(e) ecumenical worldview. The coders included the primary researcher, an OCS graduate intern,
and a layperson who was unfamiliar with spirituality research. Data were analyzed for
occurrences of each mapped spiritual quality, interrater reliability, the frequency of religion(s)
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 13
featured, and logistics of spirituality-related programs offered throughout the 2012-2013
academic year.
Overview
This project is detailed through five chapters: Chapter 1 introduces key terms and
outlines the study; Chapter 2 presents a synthesis of relevant literature on spirituality, particularly
within the context of higher education; Chapter 3 describes the methodological approach;
Chapter 4 highlights key findings and patterns that emerged from mapping and assessment;
Chapter 5 provides discussion of the results and their implications, including recommendations
for future research and practice.
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 14
Chapter 2: Literature Review
This review synthesizes current conceptualizations, theories, and findings related to
spirituality, with a particular focus on its role in higher education. The past decade has seen
renewed interest in the topic, especially from specialists in higher education and student
development theory (e.g. Astin et al., 2011; Rockenbach & Mayhew, 2013). Spirituality is
associated with and enhances a myriad of positive outcomes in college students, including
“academic performance, psychological well-being, leadership development, and satisfaction with
college” (Astin et al., 2011, p. 10). Based on the evidence, Astin et al. (2011) argue that
spirituality is fundamental to students’ lives, and the institution is responsible to facilitate
development in this domain. This chapter addresses the following topics: the problem of defining
spiritualty, measuring spirituality, related student development theories, spirituality in higher
education, and integrating a culture of assessment.
The Problem of Defining Spirituality
What is spirituality? Researchers have not agreed upon a standard definition; however,
recurring themes in the literature include (but are not limited to) the following: spirituality may
refer to (a) the motivation to create personal meaning and authenticity, (b) the dynamic and
internal processes involving transcendent consciousness, (c) an inherent quality that facilitates
connectedness and genuineness, and/or (d) an existential orientation, worldview, or philosophy
of life (e.g. Astin, Astin, & Lindholm, 2011; Parks, 2000; Piedmont, 2012; Richards & Bergin,
2002, Zinnbauer & Pargament, 2005; Zinnbauer et al., 1997). However, such descriptions are
often problematic because they introduce additional vague and subjective terms (e.g.
transcendence, authenticity, genuineness, etc.).
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 15
Given these varying interpretations, one may only conclude that spirituality is a complex
and multi-dimensional construct, whose definition and operationalization vary according to the
investigator’s purpose(s) (Astin et al., 2011). For instance, in higher education research,
Mayhew’s (2004, p. 666) phenomenological study of college students suggested that the essence
of spirituality, across diverse worldviews, is “the human attempt to make sense of the self in
connection to and with the external world.”
In addition, spirituality is partially encompassed by religiousness. Findings suggested that
spirituality and religiousness/religiosity were modestly yet significantly dependent on each other
(Astin et al., 2011; Zinnbauer et al., 1997; Zinnbauer & Pargament, 2005). That is, they are
overlapping but different constructs. Given that spirituality studies emerged from research on the
psychology of religion, Zinnbauer et al. (1997, p. 563) make a cogent argument that “spirituality,
however it is defined and expressed in our pluralistic society, should have a home within a
broadband conceptualization of religion.”
In sum, the need for “empirically sustainable” definitions of spirituality and religiousness
is paramount (Piedmont, 2012, p. 104). Indeed, Piedmont (2012) concluded that the lack of
standard, empirical definitions for spiritual and religious constructs has retarded theory
development. Currently, no over-arching theory of spirituality exists, such that the bulk of
literature on numinous constructs is atheoretical (Piedmont, 2012). This dearth of theory is a
recurring critique from psychologists who study religion and spirituality (Nelson & Slife, 2012;
Watts, 2012).
Measuring Spirituality
The issues in defining spirituality trickle into psychometric instrument development.
Researchers have constructed numerous scales to measure spirituality and/or its aspects (e.g.
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 16
Seidlitz et al., 2002 – Spiritual Transcendence index; Underwood & Terisi, 2002 – Daily
Spiritual Experience scale, etc.). While these measures possess strong internal validity, the
generalizability of findings is limited to the researcher’s conceptualization of spirituality. For the
purposes of this project, Astin et al.’s (2011) framework is selected for organizing students’
spiritual qualities because of its relevance to higher education and empirically derived sub-
constructs.
Five Measures of Spirituality (Astin et al., 2011)
Astin et al. (2011) conducted a seven-year study on college students’ development of
spiritual qualities. Using the College Students’ Beliefs and Values (CSBV) Survey, they collected
longitudinal, cross-institutional data in three waves—2003, 2004, and 2007—replicating their
findings each time. It is noted that Astin et al. (2011, p. 14) “relied heavily” on Hill and Hood’s
(1999) analysis of 125 spirituality-related scales in developing their survey items. The CSBV
included a spirituality instrument designed to be unbiased towards any spiritual perspective
(Astin et al., 2011). Importantly, the intentional inclusivity of the CSBV circumvented Mayhew’s
(2004) critique of research on spiritualty that ignores diverse, non-Judeo-Christian worldviews.
As such, the authors adopted a broad definition of spirituality, incorporating cognitive
and affective dimensions of the individual’s quest for purpose, transcendence, and meaning
(Astin et al., 2011). Based on their conceptualization, the “big questions” of existence are
inherently spiritual, the answers to which affect students’ behaviors and motivations, such that
spirituality is a fundamental component of student life and success (Astin et al., 2011). Indeed,
spirituality generally increased in college and predicted “academic performance, psychological
well-being, leadership development, and satisfaction with college” (Astin et al., 2011, p. 10).
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 17
Factor analysis unpacked spirituality into five measures: (a) spiritual quest, (b)
equanimity, (c) ethic of caring, (d) charitable involvement, and (e) ecumenical worldview (Astin
et al., 2011). Moreover, (a) spiritual quest and (b) equanimity are internally directed while (c)
ethic of caring, (d) charitable involvement, and (e) ecumenical worldview are externally directed
(Astin et al., 2011). Internally directed qualities are individual, while externally directed qualities
are relational and measure connectedness with others (Astin et al., 2011). Each measure will be
defined, following a brief discussion of their studies’ limitations.
Notably, utilizing a survey approach, Astin et al. (2011) tracked a subsample of
approximately 15,000 freshmen through to junior status. Their longitudinal findings may be
biased by participant attrition. For instance, non-respondents may have dropped out for spiritual
reasons and/or be systematically different from respondents. However, Astin et al. (2011)
developed a statistical weighting system to minimize self-selection bias. They further concluded
that findings were not solely due to maturation; specifically, college experiences such as “study
abroad, interdisciplinary studies, and service learning” contributed to spiritual growth (Astin et
al., 2011, p. 10). Furthermore, Walsh (2012) attests that spirituality is intrinsically relational,
such that Astin et al.’s (2011) dichotomy of internally versus externally directed qualities is
questioned. These critiques speak to the difficulties of large-scale, longitudinal research and the
recurring problem of defining spirituality. Nonetheless, Astin et al.’s (2011) five spiritual
qualities are detailed:
(A) Spiritual quest. Spiritual quest, the first of two internally directed qualities, refers to
students’ “interest in searching for meaning/purpose in life, finding answers to the mysteries of
life, attaining inner harmony, and developing a meaningful philosophy of life” (Astin et al., 2011,
p. 20). Words that reflect this process-oriented quality include “finding,” “attaining,” seeking,”
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 18
“developing,” “searching,” and “becoming” (Astin et al., 2011, p. 20). Activities that promote
spiritual questing include self-reflection, reading texts on religion/spirituality, and discussing
religion (Astin et al., 2011). This quality tends to increase over time in college (Astin et al.,
2011).
(B) Equanimity. Equanimity, the second internally directed quality, is “the extent to
which the student feels at peace or is centered, is able to find meaning in times of hardship, sees
each day as a gift, and feels good about the direction of her/his life” (Astin et al., 2011, p. 20).
Notably, Astin et al. (2011) describe equanimity as the prototypical quality of a spiritual person
(e.g. the Dalai Lama, Martin Luther King Jr.). High equanimity in students was associated with
stronger grades, psychological well-being, and overall satisfaction with college (Astin et al.,
2011). It is “the only spirituality/religious quality that has an effect on college GPA” (Astin et al.,
2011, 119). In addition, Gehrke (2008) found that equanimity and leadership were most strongly
related, compared with spiritual quest and spirituality. Activities that facilitated equanimity
include “meditation, prayer, or self-reflection” (Astin et al., 2011, p. 54) and “group activities
that have constructive ends” (p. 59). Like spiritual quest, equanimity tends to increase in students
over time (Astin et al., 2011).
(C) Ethic of caring. Ethic of caring, the first of three externally directed qualities, is
one’s “commitment to values such as helping others in difficulty, reducing pain and suffering in
the world, promoting racial understanding, trying to change things that are unfair in the world,
and making the world a better place” (Astin et al., 2011, p. 20). In other words, ethic of caring
relates to “caring about others” (Astin et al., 2011, p. 63). Activities associated with an ethic of
caring included those related to social justice or responsibility, conservation of the environment,
and political activism (Astin et al., 2011).
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 19
(D) Charitable involvement. Charitable involvement, the second externally directed
quality, is a “behavioral measure that includes activities such as participating in community
service, donating money to charity, and helping friends with personal problems” (Astin et al.,
2011, p. 20). This measure was strongly correlated with ethic of caring, as it relates to “caring for
others” (Astin et al., 2011, p. 63). In other words, charitable involvement involves the act of
volunteering or giving one’s time or money to another person or institution.
(E) Ecumenical worldview. Ecumenical worldview, the third externally directed quality,
holds the following definition:
…the extent to which the student is interested in different religious traditions,
seeks to understand other countries and cultures, feels a strong connection to all
humanity, believes in the goodness of all people, accepts others as they are, and believes
that all life is interconnected and that love is at the root of all great religions. (Astin et al.,
2011, p. 21)
Interestingly, this measure was strongly correlated with spiritual quest and ethic of caring
(Astin et al., 2011). Ecumenical worldview also tends to increase over time in college,
particularly when students participated in cross-racial interactions (Astin et al., 2011).
Next, two relevant student development theories are discussed in context of Astin et al.’s
(2011) constructs.
Spirituality and Student Development Theory
Student development encompasses multiple identities, dimensions, and their
intersections, including but not limited to the spiritual, intellectual, moral, racial, ethnic, sexual,
and gender aspects of an individual (Evans, Forney, Guido, Patton, & Renn, 2010). With varying
definitions of spirituality and religiousness, it is unsurprising that there is also no standard model
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 20
of spiritual development (Boyatzis, 2012). However, most relevant to student affairs and Astin et
al.’s (2011) findings are the faith and spirituality theories of Fowler (1981) and Parks (2011).
Fowler’s Stages of Faith Development
Similar to Astin et al.’s (2011) definition of spirituality, Fowler (1981) integrated both
cognitive and affective dimension in his definition of faith: “a way of finding coherence in and
giving meaning to the multiple forces and relations that make up our lives” (Fowler, 1981, p. 4).
His definition also included elements of the various definitions of spirituality provided earlier. Of
Fowler’s six stages of faith, Stage 3 – 6 occur after elementary education (Fowler, 1981). As
such, theory-informed higher education programs may be catered for students at these respective,
later stages of faith development (Evans et al., 2010).
Notably, Fowler’s (1981) Stage 4, known as individuative-reflective faith, is crystallized
when one develops a meaning-making system; in order to pass through, the individual at this
stage would presumably develop Astin et al.’s (2011) quality of equanimity. Indeed, Fowler
(1981) noted that this stage results from environmental changes and challenges, similar to
equanimity’s emergence when an individual finds or creates meaning in times of hardship (Astin
et al., 2011). Correspondingly, Astin et al. (2011) noted that equanimity is a quality that would be
exhibited at higher stages of Fowler’s (1981) faith development theory.
In addition, Fowler’s (1981) Stage 5, or conjunctive faith, contained Astin et al.’s (2011)
ecumenical worldview construct, such that individuals at this stage are described as more
accepting of other worldviews. More recently, Leak’s (2003) Fowler-inspired study on college
students’ faith development corresponded with Astin et al.’s (2011) findings that college
enhances students’ faith/spiritual development. These convergent findings using both Fowler’s
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 21
(1981) and Astin et al.’s (2011) frameworks mutually reinforces their utility in student affairs
work.
While Fowler’s (1981) stage theory is among the first of faith development theories, it is
difficult to use in spirituality-related program assessment for several reasons. Evans et al. (2010)
cautioned that the theory may be ethnocentric, gender-biased, and religiously biased. In addition,
the existence of the final stage, universalizing faith, has been questioned (Evans et al., 2010). As
such, mapping programs to a specific stage in Fowler’s theory would be difficult in the context
of today’s diverse higher education demographic. In contrast, Astin et al.’s (2011) qualities
would map more pragmatically while paying tribute to aspects of Fowler’s (1981) stages,
particularly at 4 and 5.
Parks’ Theory of Faith Development
Parks’ (2011) theory of faith development describes one’s search for purpose in young
adulthood. This theme most strongly resonates with Astin et al.’s (2011) spiritual quest. Indeed,
her conceptualization of faith as the act of meaning making (Parks, 2011) matches perfectly with
Astin et al.’s (2011) definition of spiritual quest. In particular, Parks (2011) described probing
commitment, one of five forms of knowing, as a period in young adulthood of critical faith
exploration. Furthermore, Parks discussed the emerging motivation in young adulthood to
improve the world, which aligns with Astin et al.’s (2011) ethic of caring, characterized by an
individual gradually assuming responsibility for oneself and one’s actions in the context of social
responsibility or justice. Evans et al. (2010) noted the practical application of Parks’ theory in
student affairs staff development and faculty mentorships.
However, Parks’ theory lacks validation from research (Evans et al., 2010), such that it
would be difficult to map spirituality-related programming to respective, interwoven forms of
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 22
knowing, dependence, and community. Similar to Fowler’s stages, the theory has also faced
critique regarding its generalizability and relevance across cultures (Evans et al., 2010). It is
noted that Astin et al.’s (2011) spiritual qualities seem compatible with Parks’ theory, particularly
the constructs of spiritual quest and ethic of caring.
As such, the benefit of Astin et al.’s (2011) spiritual qualities is its ability to fit into
established student development theories, including those of Fowler (1981) and Parks (2011).
Other theories of spiritual development exist and build a comprehensive understanding of this
phenomenon for practitioners and researchers.
Spirituality in Higher Education
Historically, religion has exerted a strong influence on higher education. The founding
purpose of America’s first colleges was to produce learned clergymen (Rudolph, 1990).
However, during the Age of Enlightenment (c. 17
th
-18
th
century), the rise of empiricism
propelled a movement towards secularism on college campuses (Altbach, Berdahl, & Gumport,
2011; Rudolph, 1990). While interest in religion and religiosity has waxed and waned,
spirituality has persisted quietly among faculty, administration, and students.
According to a national Higher Education Research Institute (HERI, 2005) report, 81% of
faculty identified as “a spiritual person,” while 64% identify as “a religious person” (p. 3). Both
researchers and practitioners in student affairs have strongly advocated for spirituality-infused
policies, programs, and practice (e.g. Chickering, Dalton, & Stamm, 2006; Love & Talbot, 2009;
Rockenbach & Mayhew, 2013). The majority of students have self-reported value and interest in
spirituality, including the expectation that college will facilitate their spiritual and worldview
development (Astin et al., 2011). Generally, there has been agreement among all parties that
spirituality holds a place in higher education.
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 23
However, spirituality has remained a somewhat taboo topic in the classroom, often
perceived as contentious or irrelevant to ‘objective’ academic discussion (Astin et al., 2011;
Speck, 2005). In fact, a majority of professors (62%) have never encouraged religious/spiritual
discussion with students (Astin et al., 2011). Similarly, Kiessling’s (2010) quantitative study
identified a gap in student affairs professionals’ training and knowledge in bringing spirituality
into practice. Despite robust spirituality-related programming initiatives, assessment plans at
spiritual and/or religious offices remain largely atheoretical or non-existent/non-transparent. One
notable exception is the Cornell College Chaplain and Spiritual Life Office Assessment Plan
(2010), which details learning outcomes informed by institutional research and HERI.
Indeed, respective offices of spirituality, religious life, and/or the chaplain at higher
education institutions are charged with addressing students’ spirituality through programmatic
offerings and resources. A culture of assessment is encouraged in order to organize and track
program outcomes. In bridging theory with practice, spirituality-related programs become
evidence-based, intentional, and better informed. One method to do so is in mapping spirituality-
related programming to students’ spiritual qualities, according to Astin et al.’s (2011) definitions.
Assessment tools related to spirituality are discussed in the following section.
Integrating a Culture of Assessment
Bryant (2008) has championed a culture of assessment in spirituality-related initiatives
within higher education. In her 2008 essay, she discussed two challenging realities for
assessment: (a) the changing campus climate and (b) campus leaders’ active efforts in engaging
students’ spirituality through programming. She and her colleagues have focused on assessing
the former, while this study attempts to use Astin et al.’s (2011) measures to assess the latter
challenge.
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 24
The Campus Religious and Spiritual Climate Survey (CRSCS) is a validated assessment
tool developed by Bryant et al. (2009) designed to gauge an institution’s engagement with
spiritual/religious diversity. Measures include worldview commitment, acceptance of diverse
worldviews on campus, insensitivity on campus, and transformative impact of college on
worldview (Bryant et al., 2009). Based on their survey data, Rockenbach and Mayhew (2013)
identified factors that enhance students’ ecumenical worldview development. It is unsurprising
that their findings accorded with those of Astin et al. (2011): Growth in ecumenical worldview
resulted from challenging activities that exposed students to diverse perspectives (Astin et al.,
2011; Rockenbach & Mayhew, 2013).
In addition, Bryant (2008, p. 4) synthesized best practices that parallel Astin et al.’s
(2011) spiritual qualities: e.g. “discerning meaning and purpose” with spiritual quest; “engaging
religious pluralism” with ecumenical worldview; “developing consciousness and compassion
through service and social justice activities” with ethic of caring and charitable involvement; and
“providing spiritual support mechanisms” with equanimity. She recommended establishment of
an assessment plan to determine the effectiveness of each best practice. Furthermore, Bryant
(2008) reasoned that institutions and offices would possess different emphases that accord with
their unique mission.
Another assessment tool is the Inventory for Assessing the Moral and Spiritual Growth
Initiatives of Colleges and Universities (Dalton, 2006). It partially addresses Bryant’s (2008)
second challenging reality: the assessment of institutional programming efforts to engage
students’ spirituality. The inventory utilizes institutional programs in aggregate as an indicator of
a university’s “commitment to moral and spiritual growth” (Dalton, 2006, p. 318). However, of
the ten principles upon which the implementation scales are based, only two explicitly address
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 25
spirituality: e.g. “The institution assesses its efforts to strengthen authenticity, spiritual growth,
meaning, and moral purpose,” and “The institution honors achievements of authenticity,
spirituality, meaning, and moral purpose” (Dalton, 2006, p. 328-329).
As such, spirituality-related programs have not yet been disaggregated by spiritual quality
or faith tradition. The current project responds to Bryant’s (2008) second challenge by exploring
the utility of Astin et al.’s (2011) measures for mapping programs into spiritual qualities. Similar
to Bryant’s (2008) note on the uniqueness of each institution, one would hope to find mapping
patterns that reflect an office’s mission statement.

MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 26
Chapter 3: Methodology
Following a review of the study’s purpose, this methods section describes the sample of
programs, data collection, research site, a previous pilot study, the current design, the Spiritual
Quality Rubric (SQR), data analysis procedures, ethics and human relations, and limitations.
Purpose of Study
The primary research question was to determine the extent to which Astin et al.’s (2011)
spiritual qualities were supported by institutional programs. As there is a lack of research on
spirituality-related programming, the null hypothesis was that all spiritual qualities were
supported equally. The alternative, exploratory hypothesis was that spiritual qualities were
supported at varying degrees. The secondary objective was to provide practical information for
the Office of Campus Spiritualty (OCS) through assessment. Knowing the extent to which
different religions were featured in spirituality-related programs may turn attention towards
under-represented faiths or worldviews. The times and days of programmatic offerings were also
assessed.
Sampling, Data Collection, and Research Site
The sample consisted of 36 programs implemented by the OCS over two consecutive
semesters, from Fall 2012 to Spring 2013. This sample size provided a recent and comprehensive
snapshot of OCS programs offered through a typical academic year. Notably, the OCS is located
within a secular, private, American four-year higher education institution. Totaling over 156
individual programs, all past program flyers were archived. The Fall 2012-Spring 2013 flyers
were retrieved from the OCS website. These flyers were qualitative data and secondary sources.
They were created by OCS staff for promotion on their e-newsletter, social media, and other
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 27
campus outlets. Each flyer contained specific event information, including the date, time,
religious affiliation (if any), and other sponsors or affiliates.
Pilot Study
Previously, a pilot study was conducted on the same sample of 36 OCS programs by four
coders, who each mapped 9 flyers to one or more ranked spiritual quality. In contrast, the current
design addressed the question of interrater reliability, as each program in the sample was mapped
by three coders. Based on analysis of the first-ranked spiritual quality only, the pilot study
revealed that students’ spiritual qualities were supported at varying degrees, ᵡ
2
(4, N = 46) =
13.35, p = .01, with ecumenical worldview and spiritual quest being most frequently mapped
from programs (Devenport, Loh, Torres, & Wong, 2013). Similar findings were expected in this
current study.
Research Design
To address research and assessment questions, the primary researcher conducted an
exploratory document analysis of the OCS’ programmatic offerings for the 2012-2013 academic
year. Thirty-six existing flyers were downloaded from the OCS website. Each flyer was reviewed
by three coders and mapped to one or more of the five non-exclusive spiritual qualities, or an
exclusive “none of the above” category. The five non-exclusive spiritual qualities were (a)
spiritual quest, (b) equanimity, (c) ethic of caring, (d) charitable involvement, and (e) ecumenical
worldview (Astin et al., 2011). The “none of the above” category indicated the absence of a
spiritual quality directly related to the event. The three coders included the primary researcher, a
graduate intern at the OCS, and a layperson who was unfamiliar with spirituality research. After
reading the definitions of each spiritual quality in the form of the Spiritual Quality Rubric (SQR),
all coders mapped programs individually. If more than one spiritual quality was deemed relevant
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 28
to the program, then the coder ranked additional qualities in order of perceived relevance. The
mapping process took an average of 25 minutes per person.
The Spiritual Quality Rubric
The external reliability and validity of Astin et al.’s (2011) spiritual qualities have been
previously supported by large-scale, cross-institutional research. To facilitate internal reliability,
the primary researcher developed a Spiritual Quality Rubric (SQR), which served as a reference
for coders while mapping programs to one or more quality. Shown in Appendix A, the SQR
draws directly from Astin et al.’s (2011) definitions of respective spiritual qualities. Each
program flyer was reviewed for spiritual qualities according to the SQR. For instance, a program
that focused on interfaith engagement would be mapped to the spiritual quality of ecumenical
worldview. If deemed appropriate by the coder’s interpretation of the SQR, the same program
was mapped to any additional spiritual qualities, ranked in order of relevance.
Data Analysis Procedures
While the coding of event data was qualitative in nature, subsequent analysis generated
quantitative statistics, both descriptive and inferential. Results were translated into bar graphs,
displaying the number of times that OCS programs mapped to various qualities of spirituality
over 2 semesters, according to each coder. For each of the three mapping patterns, a chi-square
goodness of fit test was conducted. Furthermore, interrater reliability was calculated to examine
whether Astin et al.’s (2011) spiritual qualities were interpreted consistently by the primary
researcher, an OCS graduate intern, and a layperson. In other words, the interpretations of Astin
et al.’s (2011) spiritual qualities were compared within and among the perspectives of three
coders. Other descriptive statistics included the total number of programs, the number of
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 29
programs per month and semester, and the frequency and types of religions affiliated with the
program.
Ethics and Human Relations
The Institutional Review Board determined that the mapping process did not qualify as
human subjects research. Content analysis presented no risks to living subjects and no subject
participation was required. Direct identifiers (e.g. the name of the institution) were omitted.
Furthermore, the primary researcher consulted with professional staff at the OCS to obtain their
support and insight on this project. This study may benefit future programming initiatives by
informing the degree to which certain aspects of spirituality are addressed and supported.
Limitations
Given the qualitative case study design, findings have limited generalizability to other
institutions or educational contexts. It is also noted that every institution and office has its own
and mission (Bryant, 2008), which would result in different patterns of mapped spiritual
qualities. As Bradley and Kauanui (2003) stated, the spiritual culture of each campus is unique.
However, insight into the process of mapping from practice to theory may be useful for
administrators who engage in assessment. Furthermore, the process of mapping may be
replicated or adapted in other offices interested in advancing students’ spiritual development.
Spirituality-related programming in higher education need not be limited to offerings by
religious or spiritual centers. While this study has low generalizability, themes from the mapping
process are highly transferable to practice.
Another limitation was the varying level of detail in program flyers. Some flyers
showcased only a picture of a guest speaker, while others provided more context. As such, the
layperson coder occasionally expressed ambivalence and/or uncertainty when mapping programs
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 30
with limited information. This limitation detracted from the internal reliability of the mapping
process. However, some degree of uncertainty and personal interpretation is inherent to
qualitative research. Indeed, Bryant (2008) affirmed that qualitative methodologies provide
richer detail of campus climates. Triangulation is the technique of using multiple sources to
validate findings and minimize biases in qualitative studies. By using three coders rather than
one, this study examined the mapping process from different viewpoints. This method of
triangulation was intended to offset individual ambiguities when mapping. Other methods of
triangulation could include administering surveys or focus groups with the programs’ attendees.
Moreover, the current assessment would benefit from additional program data, such as
the attendance per program or qualitative feedback from attendees. Analysis of the former might
examine the relationship between spiritual qualities and program popularity. Qualitative
feedback might confirm or refute students’ actual experiences of each spiritual quality. However,
no such data were collected. It is recommended that more data is gleaned during implementation
of spirituality-related programs for use in assessment.

MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 31
Chapter 4: Results
This section presents results that address aforementioned research and assessment
questions. Data from program flyers were analyzed for occurrences of each mapped spiritual
quality, interrater reliability, the frequency of religion(s) featured, and logistics of spirituality-
related programs offered through the 2012-2013 academic year by the OCS.
Main Findings
Four main findings gleaned from descriptive and inferential statistics are explained: (a)
overall, institutional programs supported students’ spiritual qualities at varying degrees; (b) there
was fair to moderate agreement among coders during the mapping process; (c) spirituality-
related programs most frequently featured Christianity out of all religions; and (d) programs
were most frequently offered mid-semester during weekday evenings.
Institutional Programs Support Students’ Spiritual Qualities
In general, spirituality-related programs were mapped to all five spiritual qualities. From
greatest to least, the most frequently mapped first-ranked categories, on average, were spiritual
quest (31.5%), ethic of caring (19.4%), ecumenical worldview (16.7%), equanimity (15.7%),
none of the above (14.8%), and charitable involvement (1.9%). Figure 1 illustrates the average
percentages of mapped spiritual qualities in a pie chart. This finding supported the alternative
hypothesis that, on average, spiritual qualities are supported at varying degrees by the OCS.

MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 32

Figure 1. Average percentages of mapped spiritual qualities.

In addition, the majority of programs were mapped to a single category. Coders 1, 2, and
3 assigned more than one spiritual quality to 36.1%, 22.2%, and 44.4% of programs,
respectively. Coder 3 also assigned a third and fourth spiritual quality to 8.3% and 2.8% of
programs, respectively. In descending order of weighted frequencies, the mapped categories were
spiritual quest (30.0%), ecumenical worldview (22.2%), ethic of caring (19.6%), equanimity
(15.1%), none of the above (11.6%), and charitable involvement (1.5%).
However, in aggregate, it is unclear whether each coder mapped spiritual qualities at
varying degrees. As such, Figure 2 provides a breakdown of frequencies by coder for each
spiritual quality and the none-of-the-above category. Amongst all coders, qualities of spirituality
appear to be mapped from OCS programs at varying degrees. Coder 1 represents the primary
researcher, Coder 2 is the layperson, and Coder 3 is the OCS graduate intern.

Spiritual Quest
31%
Equanimity
16%
Ethic of Caring
19%
Charitable Involvement
2%
Ecumenical Worldview
17%
None of the Above
15%
Average Percentages of Mapped Spiritual Qualities
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 33

Figure 2. Mapping spiritual qualities by coder.

Another consideration is whether the coders mapped spiritual qualities at varying degrees
by chance. To address this, three chi-square (χ
2
) goodness-of-fit tests were conducted. To satisfy
assumptions for the analysis, only the first-ranked spiritual quality or the none-of-the-above
category was considered, such that categories were treated as mutually exclusive. For Coder 1,
results indicated that certain spiritual qualities were mapped more frequently than others, χ
2
(5, N
= 36) = 15.33, p = .009. The effect size was large, Cohen’s w = .65. Similarly, Coder 3 mapped
certain spiritual qualities more frequently than others, χ
2
(5, N = 36) = 9.83, p = .043, and the
effect size was large, Cohen’s w = .73. However, Coder 2, the layperson, mapped at roughly
equal distributions across categories, χ
2
(5, N = 36) = 9.33, p = .096. Notably, the effect size was
also large, Cohen’s w = .51. A post-hoc power analysis using G*Power software revealed that
this chi-square test may have been underpowered at the .64 level. As such, a larger sampling of
program flyers (n < 36) may have yielded significant results with Coder 2. In sum, the
Spiritual
Quest
Equanimity
Ethic of
Caring
Charitable
Involvement
Ecumenical
Worldview
None of the
Above
Coder 1 13 6 7 1 7 2
Coder 2 9 10 4 1 5 7
Coder 3 12 1 10 0 6 7
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Frequency
Mapping Spiritual Qualities by Coder
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 34
proportions of spiritual qualities represented at OCS events were significantly different,
according to Coders 1 and 3, but not Coder 2.
Interrater Reliability
The process of mapping was examined for concordance by calculating interrater
reliabilities using Cohen’ s kappa (κ) for comparisons between two coders, and Fleiss’ kappa (κ)
for comparisons among three coders. In other words, the interpretations of Astin et al.’s (2011)
spiritual qualities were compared among the perspectives of three coders: (a) Coder 1 – the
primary researcher, (b) Coder 2 – a layperson who was unfamiliar with spirituality research, and
(c) Coder 3 – an OCS graduate intern.
As mentioned, Cohen’s kappa (κ) measures interrater reliability for nominal data between
two coders. κ is a conservative measure because it represents agreement beyond chance. For this
calculation, only the first-ranked spiritual quality or none-of-the-above category was analyzed,
such that each classification was mutually exclusive. As such, the assumptions for calculating κ
were satisfied. The strongest interrater reliability was between Coders 1 and 3, κ = .429, 95%
CI, .231 to .627), p < .0005, indicating moderate agreement. There was fair agreement between
Coders 1 and 2, κ = .378 (95% CI, .176 to .579), p < .0005. Similarly, there was fair agreement
between Coders 2 and 3, κ = .252 (95% CI, .070 to .434), p < .001. In sum, one may conclude
that Coders 1 and 3, both who are familiar Astin et al.’s (2011) spiritual qualities, mapped
programs in a moderately similar manner.
Next, Fleiss’ kappa (κ) was calculated for interrater reliability among all three coders.
The overall agreement among three coders was fair, κ = .342, 95% CI, .248 to .437), p < .0005.
Table 1 shows agreement among three coders by category. Again, to satisfy assumptions of the
statistical analyses, only the first-ranked spiritual quality or none-of-the-above category was
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 35
considered, such that classifications were treated as mutually exclusive. Notably, the coders
mapped charitable involvement most reliably (κ = .491, 95% CI, .278 to .655) and ethic of caring
least reliably (κ = .291, 95% CI, .102 to .479). In descending order of overall interrater reliability,
the categories were charitable involvement (κ = .491), ecumenical worldview (κ = .467), none of
the above (κ = .340), spiritual quest (κ = .313), equanimity (κ = .302), and ethic of caring (κ
= .291).
Table 1. Agreement among three coders by spiritual category.
Mapped Category Kappa ( κ) p Lower 95% CI Upper 95% CI
Spiritual Quest .313* .001 .502 .502
Equanimity .302* .002 .490 .490
Ethic of Caring .291* .003 .479 .479
Charitable Involvement .491* .000 .679 .679
Ecumenical Worldview .467* .000 .655 .655
None of the Above .340* .000 .528 .528
Overall .342* .000 .248 .437
*p < .005

Religions in Spirituality-Related Programs
The secondary goal of this project is to analyze cumulative and longitudinal
programming trends. Over two consecutive semesters, religions featured in spirituality-related
programming included Christianity (33.3%), Interfaith (25.0%), Judaism (11.1%), Hinduism
(11.1%), Islam (8.3%), None (5.6%), Buddhism (2.8%), and Rastafarianism (2.8%). Figure 3
illustrates program frequency by religion in a bar graph. Within Christian denominations, 6
events were non-specific, 1 event featured the African Methodist Episcopal Church, and 5 were
Roman Catholic in nature.

MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 36

Figure 3. Program frequency by religion.

Notably, many events were categorized as ‘interfaith’ when they explicitly featured one
or more religions. Interfaith events were not double-counted into other categories. In descending
order, these events featured non-specific worldviews (n = 6), Judaism (n = 2), Christianity (n =
2), Buddhism (n = 1), Islam (n = 2), Sikhism (n= 1), and Hinduism (n = 1). Overall, Christianity
was the most heavily featured of all religions in spirituality-related programming at the OCS.
Program Logistics
To assess program logistics, program frequencies were tallied by the semester, month,
day of the week, and start time. The OCS offered an average of 18 events per semester, with 19
in Fall 2012 and 17 in Spring 2013, to total 36 programs for the academic year. The month with
the greatest number of events was October (n = 10), followed by March (n = 7), and the months
with the least were September (n = 1) and May (n = 0). The number of programs offered by
month is depicted in Figure 4.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Frequency
Religion
Program Frequency by Religion
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 37

Figure 4. Program frequency by month.

Furthermore, Figure 5 illustrates program frequency by day of the week. Programs that
occurred over several days were counted accordingly. As such, the cumulative frequency is
greater than the program total of 36. In descending order of frequency, programs occurred on
Tuesdays (n = 15), Wednesdays (n = 7), Thursdays (n = 6), Fridays (n = 5), Saturdays (n =5),
Mondays (n = 4), and Sundays (n = 2).

Figure 5. Program frequency by day of the week.

0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Program Frequency
Month
Program Frequency by Month
Fall 2012 Spring 2013
0
5
10
15
20
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
Program Frequency
Day of the Week
Program Frequency by Day of the Week
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 38
Figure 6 illustrates program frequency by start time in a line graph. Programs tended to
occur in the evening, most frequently at 18:00 (n = 8) and 19:00 (n = 7). Other popular times
include 16:00 (n = 5) and 12:00 (n = 3). No programs started before 10:00 or after 19:30.

Figure 6. Program frequency by start time.

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Program Frequency
Start Time
Program Frequency by Start Time
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 39
Chapter 5: Discussion
This section interprets and groups the main findings into four areas: (a) unpacking
spirituality-related programs by spiritual quality; (b) challenges and insights from the mapping
process; (c) religious diversity in spirituality-related programming; and (d) the logistics of
programming. Within every sub-heading, recommendations place the findings’ implications in
context of theory and practice. The chapter concludes with a summary of recommendations for
spirituality-related program assessment and future research.
Unpacking Spirituality-Related Programs by Spiritual Quality
Overall, students’ spiritual qualities were mapped at varying degrees from spirituality-
related programs. In descending order by frequency, the first-ranked categories were spiritual
quest (31%), ethic of caring (19%), ecumenical worldview (17%), equanimity (16%), none of the
above (15%), and charitable involvement (2%). Weighted frequencies of all rankings yielded
similar results: spiritual quest (30.0%), ecumenical worldview (22.2%), ethic of caring (19.6%),
equanimity (15.1%), none of the above (11.6%), and charitable involvement (1.5%). The order
approximates that of the pilot study: ecumenical worldview (38.3%), spiritual quest (21.3%),
ethic of caring (17.0%), equanimity (14.9%), charitable involvement (6.4%), and none of the
above (2.1%). From these variations in percentages, it is clear that spiritual qualities are mapped
at varying degrees. Spiritual quest, ecumenical worldview, and ethic of caring were consistently
among the most frequently mapped qualities, while charitable involvement and “none of the
above” were the least. This information is useful for OCS staff, such that they may compare
frequencies with the values espoused by the office’s mission statement. Next, each spiritual
quality is discussed in context of the main findings.
Spiritual Quest
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 40
On average and in two of three disaggregated data sets, spiritual quest was the most
frequently mapped quality. It was also the most frequently mapped quality among all weighted
rankings. In interpreting this result, it is helpful to return to the root question in spirituality
research: “What is spirituality?” Perhaps spiritual quest was the default category for coders when
presented with spirituality-related programs, which may have accounted for its popularity.
Indeed, Astin et al. (2011, p. 29) propose that spiritual quest “is at the core of spiritual
development.” Thus, spiritual quest may encompass other spiritual qualities. For instance, an
interfaith program may be mapped to spiritual quest, if spiritual quest were interpreted as the
vehicle through which an ecumenical worldview is developed. Similarly, a mindfulness
meditation program may be mapped to spiritual quest, if spiritual quest were interpreted as the
process through which equanimity is achieved. Described as “the most process-oriented of …
[spirituality] measures” (Astin et al., 2011, p. 28), the manifestations of spiritual quest in
programming are flexible and intangible.
In addition, it is possible that any spirituality-related program would provoke self-
reflection, an activity associated with spiritual quest (Astin et al., 2011). Students who attend
OCS programs may be motivated by spiritual quest, regardless of whether the program explicitly
supported this quality. The OCS’ largest demographic (96%) consists of young adults aged 24
and under (IPEDS, 2012); correspondingly, the office is addressing this age group’s engagement
in spiritual quest by providing a high number of programs mapped to this quality. Parks’ (2011)
theory of faith development similarly emphasized the importance of spiritual quest in young
adulthood. Therefore, the high occurrence of spiritual quest is also supported by theory. Given
these fluid interpretations of spiritual quest, the quality is chameleon-like and fundamental to
spirituality-related programs.
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 41
Equanimity
A recent study suggested that purpose in life promotes longevity and the authors
recommend establishing purpose early in life (Hill & Turiano, 2014). As equanimity facilitates
the ability to draw meaning from one’s experiences (Astin et al., 2011), this spiritual quality is
especially important for students to develop. The OCS offered some programs that mapped to
equanimity; however, it did not appear to be the main focus for programming.
One possible explanation is that coders were unable to distinguish equanimity from
spiritual quest, resulting in a lower frequency for the former as they defaulted to the latter. For
instance, Coder 3, the layperson who was unfamiliar with the constructs, mapped a single
program to equanimity and twelve programs to spiritual quest. Conflation of these constructs is
also supported by the average frequencies of first-ranked categories (i.e., spiritual quest with
31.5% v. equanimity with 15.7%) and weighted frequencies (i.e., spiritual quest with 30.0% v.
equanimity with 15.1%). In both data sets, spiritual quest was mapped twice as frequently as
equanimity. Both spiritual quest and equanimity are enhanced via self-reflection (Astin et al.,
2011), which may have contributed to ambiguity in mapping. A simpler, alternate explanation
may be that developing equanimity was not included in the OCS’ mission, resulting in fewer
programs that catered to this spiritual quality. Nonetheless, according to Fowler’s (1981) theory
of faith development, equanimity is necessary for progression through Stage 4, individuative-
reflective faith.
Given this quality’s significant relationship with college GPA (Astin et al., 2011),
leadership (Gehrke, 2008), and overall satisfaction (Astin et al., 2011), it is recommended that
equanimity be a greater focus in programs. In particular, mindfulness meditation, an activity that
facilitates equanimity (Astin et al., 2011), is gaining popularity on college campuses (Bush,
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 42
2011). With Shapiro, Brown, and Astin (2011) advocating for the integration of meditation into
higher education, future programs are likely to place stronger emphasis on equanimity.
Ethic of Caring
Ethic of caring was consistently among the top three most frequently mapped qualities.
As such, the OCS is appropriately responding to young adults’ emerging ethic of care (Astin et
al., 2011) and motivations to improve the world (Parks, 2011) by providing a platform for social
justice and activism. This quality is relatively tangible, which may account for its middling
frequency. Many scholars have also advocated for an ethic of caring to be taught as part of
students’ holistic (i.e. moral) development in higher education (e.g. Gilligan, 1981; Noddings,
2013).
Charitable Involvement
Interestingly, charitable involvement was the least mapped (2%) spirituality quality, yet it
possessed the strongest interrater reliability (κ = .491) among three coders. In other words,
charitable involvement was consistently mapped the least by the primary researcher, layperson,
and OCS graduate intern. A possible explanation is that charitable involvement is the most
narrowly defined of the five spiritual qualities. Astin et al. (2011) describe charitable
involvement as strictly behavioral, specifically involving donating one’s time or money.
Compared with broader, more abstract constructs (e.g. spiritual quest), it is logical that charitable
involvement would be less frequently but more reliably mapped.
Ecumenical Worldview
As the OCS is located in a highly diverse, metropolitan city, it follows that its mission
statement and programming both emphasize interfaith understanding. Ecumenical worldview
was the second-most heavily mapped category in weighted rankings. This finding implies that
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 43
ecumenical worldview was mapped frequently as second, third, or fourth-ranked categories
rather than first. Similar to spiritual quest, ecumenical worldview has the potential to be
interpreted more liberally. For instance, as every interaction between students is technically
cross-cultural, it can be argued that all spirituality-related programs indirectly promote
ecumenical worldview. Furthermore, any student who attends programs outside of his/her
respective faith traditions could reasonably be fostering an ecumenical worldview. Interpreted
this way, ecumenical worldview would be frequently mapped, albeit not first-ranked. Recently,
President Obama’s interfaith challenge (The White House, 2011) signaled an even stronger
prioritization of ecumenical worldview in students’ spiritual development. Future programs are
expected to be mapped more frequently to this quality.
Challenges and Insights from the Mapping Process
Given that there was fair to moderate agreement among coders, mapping from programs
to theory appears to be a promising qualitative assessment method. It is also important to
remember that there are no ‘correct’ or ‘incorrect’ answers when mapping, as the process is
inherently interpretative. The Spiritual Quality Rubric (Appendix A) provided definitions of each
construct, which were then filtered through the coders’ interpretations. Results from mapping
provide insight into programming trends, allowing administrators to determine if the office’s
initiatives align with its mission statement. Furthermore, in an ideal world, pre-defined learning
objectives would specify the spiritual quality intended for the program. These learning objectives
would be informed by the office’s mission and the institution’s vision.
In examining interrater reliability, it is not surprising that the strongest reliability score
was between Coder 1, the primary researcher, and Coder 3, the OCS graduate intern. Both
persons were familiar with Astin et al.’s (2011) spiritual qualities. In contrast, Coder 2, the
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 44
layperson, was unfamiliar with non-dominant faith traditions, expressed greater uncertainty, and
required slightly more time while mapping. In addition, only Coder 3 had attended any programs
featured in the sample of flyers. Furthermore, the finding that Coders 1 and 3 mapped spiritual
qualities at varying degrees beyond chance, with large effect sizes, indicates that they
distinguished among interpretations of spiritual qualities more so than Coder 2, the layperson.
Yet, the chi-square statistic for Coder 2 approached significance at χ
2
(5, N = 36) = 9.33, p = .096,
suggesting that the layperson would likely have mapped at varying degrees beyond chance, given
a larger sample size.
Such variations in experience and background knowledge are inevitable. To improve
interrater reliability, then, it is recommended that program assessors are trained in related student
development theory. An added benefit would be for program assessors to experience the program
themselves. Furthermore, an improved Spiritual Quality Rubric could be developed, with self-
checks for understanding of the constructs prior to coding. This addition would calibrate coders’
interpretations of spiritual qualities.
Additionally, findings indicate that certain spiritual qualities are more consistently
mapped than others. That is, the coders shared a common interpretation for some spiritual
qualities over others. For instance, coders consistently identified programs with volunteering or
donation aspects as charitable involvement (κ = .491). Similarly, coders consistently mapped
programs with interfaith components to ecumenical worldview (κ = .467). In contrast, programs
mapped to ethic of caring (κ = .291) had fewer explicit triggers. The cultivation and
manifestation of spiritual qualities in programming remains an area for further study and
assessment.
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 45
Other applications of Astin et al.’s (2011) constructs are also recommended, particularly
when assessing how programs and services engage students’ spirituality as Bryant (2008)
suggested. For instance, career counselors may use an adapted spirituality rubric to assess
students’ values and strengths, placing them in context of their career path and course selections.
In another example, course instructors may facilitate spiritual questing by assigning homework
that requires self-reflection. Researchers and practitioners may also track students’ spiritual
development in study abroad options, interdisciplinary courses, and service-learning programs.
Astin et al. (2011) note that such programs contribute to spiritual growth, but the mechanisms
through which this occurs remain unclear. To bolster the assessment of spirituality-related
programs, pre-testing and post-testing of students’ self-reported spiritual qualities is
recommended. Such tests may be implemented online or on-site at each spirituality-related
program. Overall, the integration of theory into the assessment cycle would strengthen the
evaluations of program outcomes.
Religious Diversity in Spirituality-Related Programming
As Christianity remains the dominant religion in the U.S., it is not surprising that it was
most frequently featured in the OCS’ spirituality-related programming. Indeed, all five major
world religions were mentioned in respective program flyers: Christianity (33.3%), Judaism
(11.1%), Hinduism (11.1%), Islam (8.3%), and Buddhism (2.8%). The frequencies of respective
religions featured might reflect demographics of the students, administration, and faculty.
Indeed, the OCS is located at an institution where the largest proportion (36%) of students
identifies as White/Caucasian (IPEDS Data Center, 2012). While not all White students identify
as Christian or Jewish, it is probable that the large number of events featuring these respective
worldviews is correlated with the demographics of enrolled students.
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 46
With an increasingly diverse student population, it is recommended that student affairs
professionals ensure the equitable representation of all worldviews and faith traditions in
spirituality-related programs. Programs that feature religions beyond the five major faiths (e.g.
Rastafarianism, Zoroastrianism, Wicca) may support growth in ecumenical worldview and/or
spiritual quest via exposure to diversity. With America being the most religiously diverse country
in the world, higher education institutions are perfectly positioned to foster students’ religious
pluralism (Patel & Brodeur, 2006). Indeed, the ecumenical worldview item with greatest growth
from freshman to junior year was in students’ “understanding of other countries and cultures”
(Astin et al., 2011, p. 67). As such, student affairs professionals are encouraged to raise students’
consciousness of religious privilege and Christian privilege. Curiously, it was students who
identified with nonmainstream religions, such as Buddhism and Hinduism, who tended to score
higher on ecumenical worldview (Astin et al., 2011). In addition to their respective belief
systems, perhaps being part of non-dominant cultural traditions—or in Astin et al.’s (2011, p. 69)
words, “nonwhite cultural traditions”—contributes to stronger ecumenical worldviews.
Currently, the link between underprivileged religious minorities and ecumenical worldview
remains suggestive but inconclusive.
Notably, interfaith events were the second most heavily featured category (25.0%) after
Christianity. According to Astin et al.’s (2011) definition of ecumenical worldview, interfaith
events would map to this spiritual quality. Correspondingly, the weighted frequency of
ecumenical worldview was 22.2% out of all spirituality-related programs. However, the strength
of the ‘interfaith’ component in the program was difficult to measure. Some programs were more
explicitly interfaith than others (e.g. interfaith panel discussions versus hosting a Muslim fasting
program at a Christian church). Another recommendation for planning interfaith events is to be
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 47
mindful of students’ possible multi-faith identities, as in the case of Buddhist Christians. It is also
unclear whether agnostic or atheist worldviews were represented in interfaith discussion.
However, most interfaith events featured non-specific worldviews, suggesting that an inclusive
environment was the norm.
The Logistics of Programming
The logistics of programming is an assessment factor that impacts attendance. When
programs are advertised as accessible and conveniently timed/situated, students would more
likely attend. The OCS had well-balanced programmatic offerings per semester, appropriately
scheduling more programs after Fall orientation and before the final examination study period in
Spring. Programs were most frequently offered mid-semester during weekday evenings.
Furthermore, it was sensible to offer programs on weekday evenings with food, as students might
perceive added incentive to remain on campus for dinner and/or avoid rush-hour traffic if they
were commuting. In continuing the cycle for continuous improvement, it is recommended that
administrators collect attendance data and correlate it with program times to determine ‘golden’
periods when students are most likely to attend. It is also necessary to consider logistical needs
or concerns related to part-time students, students with disabilities, and other under-represented
groups who may benefit from spirituality-related programming.
Summary of Recommendations for Program Assessment and Future Research
Mapping is a favorable method for spirituality-related program assessment because it
provides insight into programming trends. When conducted prior to implementation with trained
assessors, the process would be quick and reliable. It is recommended that the OCS create pre-
defined learning objectives, such that programs are created intentionally for fostering certain
spiritual qualities. The OCS may also utilize findings to inform future programming and
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 48
determine how the office’s offerings align with its mission statement. Furthermore, greater
emphasis on equanimity in programming is recommended, as it is the sole spiritual quality that
predicts GPA (Astin et al., 2011), which is an indicator of a student success. With respect to
interfaith events, it is recommended that student affairs professionals are mindful of multi-faith ,
agnostic, and atheist worldviews. Finally, in the spirit of continuous improvement and equity, it
is recommended that attendance data is collected regularly to inform future programming
logistics, such that a range of students have the opportunity to participate, including those who
are part-time, under-represented and/or identify with disabilities.
Future research may delve further into the definitions, manifestations, and interpretations
of spirituality and, in particular, the spiritual quest. Certain spiritual qualities (e.g. charitable
involvement) were mapped more reliably than others (e.g. ethic of caring), which points to
variance in the interpretation of these constructs as they would appear in programs. It is
recommended that future studies investigate the cultivation and manifestation of spiritual
qualities in students through programming. Other contexts for research include study abroad,
interdisciplinary, and service-learning programs.
Conclusion
In summary, this project analyzed spirituality-related programs using Astin et al.’s (2011)
spiritual constructs of spiritual quest, equanimity, ethic of caring, charitable involvement, and
ecumenical worldview. Results provide the groundwork for an assessment model of spirituality-
related programs: (a) overall, institutional programs supported students’ spiritual qualities at
varying degrees; (b) there was fair to moderate agreement among coders during the mapping
process; (c) spirituality-related programs most frequently featured Christianity out of all
religions; and (d) programs were most frequently offered mid-semester during weekday
MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 49
evenings. Discussion topics included the disaggregation of spirituality-related programs by
spiritual quality, challenges and insights from the mapping process, religious diversity, and the
logistics of programming. This study connected research with educational practice by applying
Astin et al.’s (2011) spiritual qualities on program assessment. As mapping from existing
practices to theory shows promise, the development of an assessment model for spirituality-
related programs is recommended.

MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 50
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MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 56
Appendix A: The Spiritual Quality Rubric (SQR)
Instructions to coders:

Please examine each program flyer and map it to one of five spiritual qualities: (a)
spiritual quest, (b) equanimity, (c) ethic of caring, (d) charitable involvement, and (e) ecumenical
worldview. If the program seems to map onto more than one spiritual quality, please rank them in
order of perceived relevance. If the program does not seem directly related to any spiritual
quality, please assign it the category of (f) “none of the above.”

Drawn directly from Astin et al.’s (2011) definitions, each spiritual quality is described
below to assist you in the mapping process:

(A) Spiritual quest
• An internally directed quality (Astin et al., 2011)
• Refers to students’ “interest in searching for meaning/purpose in life, finding
answers to the mysteries of life, attaining inner harmony, and developing a
meaningful philosophy of life” (Astin et al., 2011, p. 20)
• Words that reflect this process-oriented quality include “finding,” “attaining,”
seeking,” “developing,” “searching,” and “becoming” (Astin et al., 2011, p.
20)
• Activities that promote spiritual questing include self-reflection, reading texts
on religion/spirituality, and discussing religion (Astin et al., 2011)

(B) Equanimity
• An internally directed quality (Astin et al., 2011)
• Refers to “the extent to which the student feels at peace or is centered, is able
to find meaning in times of hardship, sees each day as a gift, and feels good
about the direction of her/his life (Astin et al., 2011, p. 20)
• The prototypical quality of a spiritual person (e.g. the Dalai Lama, Martin
Luther King Jr.) (Astin et al., 2011)
• Activities that facilitate equanimity include “meditation, prayer, or self-
reflection” (Astin et al., 2011, p. 54) and “group activities that have
constructive ends” (p. 59)

(C) Ethic of caring
• An externally directed quality (Astin et al., 2011)
• Refers to one’s “commitment to values such as helping others in difficulty,
reducing pain and suffering in the world, promoting racial understanding,
trying to change things that are unfair in the world, and making the world a
better place” (Astin et al., 2011, p. 20)
• Relates to “caring about others” (Astin et al., 2011, p. 63)
• Activities associated with an ethic of caring include those related to social
justice or responsibility, conservation of the environment, and political
activism (Astin et al., 2011)

MAPPING SPIRITUALITY-RELATED PROGRAMMING 57
(D) Charitable involvement
• An externally directed quality (Astin et al., 2011)
• Refers to a “behavioral measure that includes activities such as participating
in community service, donating money to charity, and helping friends with
personal problems” (Astin et al., 2011, p. 20)
• Relates to “caring for others” (Astin et al., 2011, p. 63)
• Involves the act of volunteering or giving one’s time or money to another
person or institution (Astin et al., 2011)

(E) Ecumenical worldview
• An externally directed quality (Astin et al., 2011)
• Refers to “…the extent to which the student is interested in different religious
traditions, seeks to understand other countries and cultures, feels a strong
connection to all humanity, believes in the goodness of all people, accepts
others as they are, and believes that all life is interconnected and that love is
at the root of all great religions.” (Astin et al., 2011, p. 21)
• Facilitated through cross-cultural interactions (Astin et al., 2011)

Asset Metadata

Creator Wong, Serena (author)

Core Title Mapping spirituality-related programming to students’ spiritual qualities

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School Rossier School of Education

Degree Master of Education

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Defense Date 07/28/2014

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag College students,Higher education,OAI-PMH Harvest,program assessment,spiritual qualities

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Language English

Advisor Green, Alan Gilford (committee chair), Schafrik, Janice (committee member), Tobey, Patricia Elaine (committee member)

Creator Email serenawo@usc.edu,serenaxwong@gmail.com

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Abstract (if available)

Abstract Through an exploratory document analysis, this study examined the process of mapping students’ spiritual qualities using a secular, four-year higher education institution’s spirituality-related programming. Three coders mapped a sample of 36 spirituality-related program flyers to Astin, Astin, and Lindholm’s (2011) five spiritual qualities: (a) spiritual quest, (b) equanimity, (c) ethic of caring, (d) charitable involvement, and (e) ecumenical worldview. Data were analyzed for occurrences of each mapped spiritual quality, interrater reliability, the frequency of religion(s) featured, and logistics of spirituality-related programs offered through the 2012-2013 academic year. Results provide the groundwork for an assessment model of spirituality-related programs: (a) overall, institutional programs supported students’ spiritual qualities at varying degrees