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A study of California public school district superintendents and their implementation of 21st-century skills

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A study of California public school district superintendents and their implementation of 21st-century skills

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Content Running head: SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 1
A STUDY OF CALIFORNIA PUBLIC SCHOOL DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENTS
AND THEIR IMPLEMENTATION OF 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS
by
Suzy Kim Zeitlin
____________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
December 2013
Copyright 2013 Suzy Kim Zeitlin
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 2
Acknowledgments
I extend my deepest gratitude to all those who have made this unforgettable
experience possible. They were my foundation during my time at the Rossier School of
Education, University of Southern California.
First, I thank my dissertation chair, Dr. Pedro Garcia, and committee members,
Dr. Rudy Castruita and Dr. Alison Nordyke for guiding me through every part of the
dissertation. They provided excellent feedback that made the dissertation process
smooth, yet never hesitated to question and challenge my thinking when necessary. I
could not have asked for a more supportive and knowledgeable chair and committee, and
for that I am truly grateful.
I thank the superintendents who contributed to this study. The interviews and
surveys were vital to uncovering the findings. I thank them for their openness and
willingness to share insights and points of view on 21st-century teaching and learning.
I thank my thematic group, my fellow researchers whom I now consider friends,
for going through this process with professionalism and a sense of camaraderie. I am
humbled by the amount of mutual support this group provided. The dissertation process
has been memorable for many reasons; the friendships that I have developed through this
process are among the top reasons.
Thank you to my husband, family, and friends who have shown unconditional
support during this significant life event. I thank them for their patience and love;
without it, I would have never been able to complete this process. I recognize my parents
and my grandmother, who always made me feel that I could conquer anything; because
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 3
of them, I have conquered this dissertation. Finally, I thank my husband, Jake Zeitlin, for
helping me to persevere through many sleepless nights. I thank him for helping me to
stay positive, while never complaining about the many years that I have spent in school.
Thank you, Jake, for loving and supporting this dream of mine.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 4
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments 2
List of Tables 6
Abstract 7
Chapter 1: Overview of the Study 8
Statement of the Problem 11
Purpose of the Study 11
Research Questions 11
Significance of the Study 12
Summary of Methodology 12
Assumptions 13
Limitations 13
Delimitations 13
Definitions of Related Terms 14

Chapter 2: Literature Review 17
Globalization 17
Globalization and Education 17
Implications of Globalization on American Education 19
Economic and Business Impact 19
21st-Century Skills 25
Access and Analysis 26
Problem Solving and Critical Thinking Skills 29
Communication (Written and Oral) 32
Collaboration Across Networks and Leading by Influence,
Curiosity, and Imagination 35
Agility and Adaptability 37
Initiative and Entrepreneurship 40
Superintendents as Instructional Leaders 42

Chapter 3: Methodology 48
Research Design 49
Sample and Population 50
Instrument Validity 51
Instrumentation 51
Qualitative Data 51
Quantitative Data 52
Data Collection 53
Qualitative Data 53
Quantitative Data 53
Data Analysis Procedures 54
Ethical Considerations 56

Chapter 4: Findings 57
Purpose of the Study 57
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 5
Response Rate 58
Quantitative Demographic Data 58
Qualitative Demographic Data 59
Research Question 1 61
Drawing Connections to the Common Core State Standards 62
Focus on the Four Cs 63
Using Technology as an Instructional Tool 65
Discussion 67
Research Question 2 68
Implementation of CCSS 68
Discussion 69
Research Question 3 70
Buy-In From All Stakeholders 70
Challenges in Professional Development 73
Discussion 76
Research Question 4 76
Informal Assessments 77
Adjustment in Grading Systems 79
Underdeveloped Evaluation System 80
Discussion 81
Chapter Summary 81

Chapter 5: Conclusions 84
Statement of the Problem 84
Purpose of the Study 84
Research Questions 84
Methodology 85
Summary of Findings 85
Implications 87
Recommendations for Future Study 88
Conclusion 89

References 90
Appendices
Appendix A: Research Question/Instrument Connection 102
Appendix B: Survey Instrument 103
Appendix C: Interview Cover Letter 105
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 6
List of Tables
Table 1: Quantitative Survey Data: Superintendents’ Educational Attainment 59
Table 2: Quantitative Survey Data: Superintendents’ Experience in
Current District 59
Table 3: Quantitative Survey Data: Superintendents’ Experience Overall 60
Table 4: Characteristics of Superintendents Who Were Interviewed in the
Qualitative Phase 61
Table 5: Superintendents’ Ratings of Factors Influencing Implementation
of 21st-Century Skills 65
Table 6: Superintendents’ Ratings of Stakeholder Importance to 21st-Century
Skills Implementation Process 71
Table 7: Superintendents’ Ratings of Factors That Influence Reform for
21st-Century Skills 74
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 7
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to provide superintendents and other district leaders
intellectual and practical resources to guide their implementation of 21st-century skills in
their respective districts. The study utilized a mixed-methods approach to address 4
research questions related to 21st-century teaching and learning. Quantitative data were
collected via an online survey of 37 California superintendents and qualitative data were
collected via interviews with two California superintendents. Results showed that
California superintendents defined 21st-century skills in various ways. They connected
21st-century skills to the Common Core State Standards, communication, collaboration,
critical thinking, and creativity, as well as use of technology as an instructional tool.
They related implementation of 21st-century skills to implementation of the Common
Core State Standards. Key stakeholders included teachers, onsite administrators, and
superintendents, as well as others. The superintendents were concerned with obtaining
buy-in from all stakeholders and providing adequate professional development for faculty
and staff. The superintendents conducted informal assessments and had started to make
adjustments in grading systems. They understood the need for a formal evaluation
systems for 21st-century teaching and learning.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 8
Chapter 1
Overview of the Study
“The illiterate of the 21st century will not be those who cannot read and write, but
those who cannot learn, unlearn, and relearn” (Toffler, 2006, para. 3).
The United States has long viewed its schooling system and the students who are
produced by it as a sign of national excellence. Most parents feel positively about their
child’s school and believe that any issues that may exist with schools must be in areas
other than their own. School employees, from the superintendent to the teachers, believe
that they are all working hard to provide students with the best possible education.
However, the public’s view of education is not always positive. Twenty years
ago, Gardner (1983) released an open paper, A Nation at Risk, to the American people,
stating that the nation was at risk because the once unchallenged preeminence in
commerce, industry, science, and technological innovation was being overtaken by
competitors throughout the world. This report was concerned with only one of the many
causes and dimensions of the problem, but it was the one that undergirded American
prosperity, security, and civility. The report stated that, while the United States could
take justifiable pride in what its schools and colleges had historically accomplished and
had contributed to the country and the well-being of its people, the educational
foundations of society were being eroded by a rising tide of mediocrity that threatened
the very future of the nation and its people. What had been unimaginable a generation
ago had begun to occur: Others were matching and surpassing American educational
attainments.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 9
Almost 20 years later, Gurría (2010), Secretary-General of the Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), reported that the United States was
still an average performer in reading (rank 14 in OECD) and science (rank 17) but had
dropped below the OECD average in mathematics (rank 25). It was not so much that
American students were slipping; rather other countries were surpassing the United
States. Gurria also reported a wide gap between the top 10% and the bottom 10% of 15-
year-olds in the United States, similar to that observed between top- and bottom-
performing countries participating in the Program for International Student Assessment-
International (PISA).
Thus, a combination of the failure to meet the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) goal
of 100% proficiency in both Mathematics and English Language Arts by all students, the
inadequate ranking of the United States compared to other countries on international tests
such as PISA and encouragement from the business community provided an impetus to
the education community to reconsider educational practices. Wagner (2010) cited that
only 70% of the United States’ high school seniors were graduating from the K–12
system, in contrast to Denmark (96%) and Japan (93%). The students produced by
American schools were not ready for college or career. In response, the term 21st-
century skills has become a requisite part of the K–12 educator’s vocabulary. Replacing
the current Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR) test with a Next Generation
assessment based on the new Common Core State Standards has forced districts to
reexamine current practices. School districts are grappling with how to train
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 10
administrators and teaching staffs to implement practices to prepare students for the new
assessments beginning in the 2014-15 school year.
Identified 21st-century skills are essential as students of the U.S. educational
system are increasingly competing against students from the outside global community
for jobs. Dede (2010) described the main difference between 20th-century skills and
21st-century skills as stemming primarily from the new technology and information
available to the general public. Students are required not only to use technology in their
careers but to mine massive amounts of information available on the Internet. Another
need for 21st-century skills is the increasing number of jobs that are currently assumed by
computers and other technologies, replacing humans (Jerald, 2009). This explains the
need for graduating students to be prepared for different types of careers.
Jerald (2009) explained how globalization breaks down the barriers between
nations and noted that the potential jobs in America are no longer limited to Americans.
This increases the level of competition for available jobs. Businesses that were surveyed
estimated that only 50% of college graduates are prepared for the work force (Wagner,
2010). This statistic encourages businesses to look outside of the United States to fill
positions. These are just a few of the deficiencies listed in the literature; all combine to
suggest that changes must be made within the schooling system.
Wagner (2010) claimed that students are not necessarily receiving a poor
education; however, he noted that it is the same education that was received by students
50 to 100 years ago. While the world around students has changed, the environment
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 11
inside the classroom has remained unchanged. All of these factors combine to require
different educational practices.
Thus, in order to ensure the economic security and success of students, districts
and schools must adjust to provide students with a more relevant education. Reforms that
fall under the umbrella of 21st-century skills, such as the Common Core State Standards,
the four Cs (communication, collaboration, creativity, and critical thinking), and STEAM
initiatives (science, technology, engineering, the arts, and mathematics) are in need of
implementation at the K–12 level.
Statement of the Problem
While there have been many studies on 21st-century education—its necessity to
compete in the global economy, building up critical thinking skills, sparking curiosity,
and encouraging innovation, little is known about the characteristics and strategies of
superintendents who implement 21st-century skills in their school districts. This study
examines several California superintendents’ implementation of 21st-century skills in the
K–12 public school system.
Purpose of the Study
The findings from the research provide superintendents and other district leaders
with direction and intellectual resources to plan their implementation of 21st-century
skills as defined by Wagner (2008). Key stakeholders and their roles for implementation
are identified and evaluation of 21st-century skills implementation is provided.
Research Questions
Four research questions guided the study:
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 12
1. How do California superintendents define 21st-century skills?
2. How do California superintendents implement 21st-century skills?
3. Who are the key stakeholders needed for superintendents to implement 21st-
century skills in a California K–12 system?
4. What strategies do California superintendents use to evaluate the effectiveness
of the implementation?
Significance of the Study
This study adds to the current body of scholarly literature by identifying how
California superintendents implement 21st-century skills, as defined by Wagner (2008),
in their districts. This information provide support and ideas for other superintendents
who are trying to implement 21st-century teaching and learning into their school districts.
These findings may also provide useful information to Curriculum and Instruction
departments as they look to support the vision of their superintendent. The goal of
reporting the implementation process of these skills can potentially lead to student
success in the global marketplace.
Summary of Methodology
A mixed-methods design was used to examine the research questions. A case
study format was used to collect qualitative data. Interviews were conducted with two
superintendents to address the research questions (see interview protocol, with items
matched to research questions, Appendix A). Quantitative data were collected in the
form of responses to a 21-item survey (Appendix B). The questionnaire was sent to
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 13
superintendents of public school districts in California. The multiple superintendents and
their responses form the triangulation required for research (Merriam, 2009).
Assumptions
The researcher assumed the following:
1. Superintendent leadership is essential to the implementation of new initiatives.
2. Superintendents can identify and communicate how they are implementing
21st-century skills.
3. The chosen procedures and methods were appropriate.
4. The collected information sufficiently addressed the research questions.
Limitations
The following study limitations are recognized:
1. The validity of the data was reliant on the chosen instruments.
2. The ability to gain access to superintendents was limited.
3. Ability or willingness of superintendents to provide accurate responses could
be limited.
4. With so little scholarly research on the implementation of 21st-century skills, it
was difficult to choose a shared, narrow definition.
Delimitations
The delimitations of this study were as follows:
1. Only superintendents in California were recruited.
2. Interviews were delimited to 10 superintendents who had been in the position
for more than 2 years.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 14
3. The many definitions of the term 21st-century skills required selection of one
definition. The research focused on the definition provided by Wagner (2008).
Definitions of Related Terms
21st-Century Skills: The skills needed by students to compete in the global work
force and economy, including critical thinking, collaboration, adaptability, initiative,
effective written and oral communication, accessing and analyzing information, and
curiosity and imagination (Wagner, 2008).
Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP): The statewide accountability system mandated
by NCLB that requires every state to ensure progress.
Common Core State Standards (CCSS): Standards designed to be adopted
nationally so that all states are teaching using the same standards. Instead of focusing on
objective-based learning, CCSS focuses on learning fewer standards but developing a
deeper understanding of content, which is intended to allow for more thorough
instruction.
Elementary and Secondary Act (ESEA): The act passed in 1965 that emphasized
equality in education, with high standards and accountability (U.S. Department of
Education, 2001).
Four Cs: Collaboration, critical thinking, creativity, and communication.
Students need to learn more than the reading, writing, and arithmetic to be successful in
the global community. The four Cs were added to enhance instruction to make students
competitive in the global marketplace
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 15
Globalization: The process by which countries become more integrated in goods,
capital, ideas, and labor.
Next Generation Assessments (NGA): The tests that will replace the STAR in
California. California has chosen the company Smarter Balanced Assessment
Consortium (2012) to create the NGA. This test will be a computer-administered
predictive assessment that will allow for various levels of questions based on the
student’s answers.
No Child Left Behind (NCLB): The federal government’s current reauthorization
of ESEA that holds schools accountable for subgroup AYP scores, with a goal of 100%
proficient by all students by 2014 (U.S. Department of Education, 2001).
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD): A group of
30 countries whose mission is to promote policies that will improve the economic and
social well-being of people around the world. The OECD provides a forum in which
governments can share experiences and seek solutions to common problems. The
OECD’s importance for this study is that it administers and analyzes the PISA tests every
4 years (OECD, 2013).
Partnership for 21st Century Skills (P21): An organization focused on forming a
network of major businesses and community leaders, policymakers, and educators to
change educational practice.
Program for International Student Assessment-International (PISA): A program
of testing conducted every 3 years for assessment of 15-year-olds’ skills in reading,
mathematics, and science (PISA, 2013).
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 16
Project-Based Learning (PBL): A student-driven yet teacher-facilitated approach
to learning (Bell, 2010).
Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium (SBAC): A California state-led
consortium developing assessments aligned with the CCSS.
Standardized Testing and Reporting (STAR): California’s current statewide
standardized assessment that fulfills requirements of NCLB and produces AYP and
Academic Performance Index (API) scores.
Wagner’s 21st-Century Skills: Skills proposed by Wagner (2008) to describe what
will be needed for students to be competitive in the global work force. These skills
extend beyond the California state standards and include problem solving and critical
thinking; collaboration across networks; leading by influence, agility and adaptability;
initiative and entrepreneurship; effective written and oral communication; accessing and
analyzing information; and curiosity and imagination.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 17
Chapter 2
Literature Review
A review of literature was conducted to explore the availability of supporting
resources related to the leadership practices of K–12 superintendents’ implementation
and use of 21st-century skills in California public schools. Wagner’s (2008) definition of
21st-century skills is applied in this study. In reviewing the literature, information was
analyzed to support understanding of six areas related to the research questions: (a)
globalization, (b) history of education, (c) focus on California education, (d) economic
and business impact, (e) 21st-century skills frameworks, and (f) leadership for reform.
Globalization
The concept of globalization, “the process whereby countries become more
integrated via movement of goods, capital, labor, and ideas” (Bloom, 2004, p. 59) is not
new. The ongoing process of globalization varies by region around the world (Bloom,
2004). Guillen (2001) described globalization as a process in which stakeholders
“converge towards a homogeneous organizational pattern of ‘best practice’ or ‘optimal
efficiency’” (p. 3). Coe, Arvind, and Tamirisa (2007) described globalization as the
agent that “makes the world a smaller place” (p. 32), where distance is no longer an
obstacle in obtaining goods, services, and ideas.
Globalization and Education
Bloom (2004) linked educational globalization to the global economy. The three
main channels in which globalization works in conjunction with education are economy,
“crossnational communication,” and the speed of change (Bloom, 2004). Bloom argued
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 18
that the global economy thrives when global education is on the rise. As much as this
true, it is also recognized that, however “globalized” education is, there are many
inequities in terms of quality and access for certain countries, particularly third-world
countries. Although higher education facilities in third-world countries may utilize
current and relevant curricula, local classrooms in primary and secondary education
facilities continue to utilize outdated curricula. This shows that, although globalization
has permeated education, the actual classroom has remained under the radar (Carnoy &
Rhoten, 2002). In order to assess globalization’s impact on education, research must be
done on globalization’s relationship to the “overall delivery of school, from transnational
paradigms, to national policies, to local practices” (Carnoy & Rhoten, 2002, p. 2), not a
single institution or a certain population’s test scores.
The term crossnational communication refers to “bringing nations together”
(Bloom, 2004, p. 68) through international trade, commerce, mobility, and education.
Bloom described a “good education” to be one that promotes inclusivity and encourages
students to develop knowledge and skills that are applicable beyond their own culture or
country’s needs. As students are exposed to this type of education, the process of
globalization quickens.
Migration and immigration are also key assets of globalization to both the home
country and the new country. As immigrants settle in a new country, they bring their
own ideals, customs, and traditions. In return, a wealth of new knowledge is also sent
back to their home countries. This speeds the process of globalization (Levitt, 1996).
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 19
The goal of globalization is to create a more connected world through various
avenues, ultimately to effect change in a range of capacities. Bloom (2004) argued that
faster globalization will result in quicker and greater change. The largest impact on the
speed of globalization is education. This is not to be confused with the fact that
education cannot function alone to further globalization but it is necessary and vital to the
process (Bloom, 2004).
Implications of Globalization on American Education
Globalization places growing pressure on American workers (Freeman, 2007).
Approximately 85% of middle-class jobs and 90% of “fastest-growing, high-paying” jobs
require a postsecondary degree (Wagner, 2008). Bottery (2006) asserted that American
globalism is a strong force around the world; yet, according to PISA, the United States
trails in education behind nations such as Korea, Finland, and Japan. In order for the
United States to be competitive in the global market, proficiency in basic knowledge and
skills, such as mathematics, reading, writing, and foreign languages, does not suffice.
The emphasis is no longer on what students know; rather, the emphasis is on what
students can do with the information, otherwise known as “applied skills” or 21st-century
skills. The integration of 21st-century skills to core curriculum is vital for students who
are seeking success in postsecondary education and the work force, both at home and
abroad (Silva, 2008).
Economic and Business Impact
To meet the demands of the new global economy, 21st-century skills have
become a necessity for students today. Technological innovation and new requirements
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 20
posed by the global economy have created a world that is more interconnected and
diverse, where information is readily available from anywhere in the world.
Superintendents must lead and develop their schools in ways that reflect understanding of
a rapidly changing and developing economy. This thinking challenges traditional school
leadership to reform teaching and learning rapidly to keep current with global, societal,
and economic needs.
Businesses and industry have clearly indicated that they need employees who are
well prepared to be a productive part of a global work force in the knowledge economy.
Black and Lynch (2004) and Zoghi, Mohr, and Meyer (2010) detailed how organizations
have changed their approach to doing business and how employees have increased
responsibility and contribution to meet the demands of today’s competitive economy.
The P21 (2008), an organization focused on forming a network of major businesses and
community leaders, policy makers, and educators to change educational practice,
indicated that about 54% of the U.S. economy was centered on the production of material
goods and services in 1967. In contrast, about 63% of that economy moved to an
information-based service economy 30 years later, in 1997. From 1995 to 2005, 17
million service-sector jobs were created and more than 3 million manufacturing jobs were
lost (P21, 2008).
In a report published by P21 entitled 21st Century Knowledge and Skills in
Educator Preparation, Greenhill (2010) outlined the importance of developing 21st-
century skills to support students’ preparation in an increasingly competitive global
market. Greenhill identified three issues that drove the need for change in the American
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 21
educational system: (a) the dual achievement gap, (b) shifting economy and labor market,
and (c) shifting labor demands.
Greenhill (2010) also explained how the shift from an industrial economy to a
service-based economy has created a labor market demand for people who are
knowledgeable and creative in thought. Greenhill advocated that American schools
promote the understanding of the 21st-century interdisciplinary themes, which he
identified as global awareness, economic literacy, civic literacy, health literacy, and
environmental literacy. Greenhill suggested that educators take the following actions to
support this learning by all students: (a) integrate technology to support academic
content, (b) establish standards-based instruction, (c) utilize varied methods of
instructional delivery, (d) coach and mentor peers, and (e) differentiate student
assessment strategies.
Three major business surveys were identified in the literature that itemized the
work skills important for employment in the 21st century. A survey of employers by P21
(2008) found that the top skills that employers sought were professionalism, teamwork,
oral communication, ethics and social responsibility, and reading comprehension. The
study determined that community and business leaders, policy makers, and educators
must work together so future workers will have the work place skills necessary to
succeed.
Koc and Koncz (2009) performed the second survey as part of their work with the
National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE). Their survey results,
published as the 2009 NACE Research Report: Job Outlook 2010, supported the previous
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 22
study. As they explained, businesses and employers have increased their expectations for
potential employees, hiring fewer people and expecting them to do more. However,
businesses continue to seek employees with specific and specialized skills. Koc and
Koncz (2009) indicated that the top skills sought by employers were analytical,
teamwork, communication, and technical skills, along with strong work ethics.
In 2006 the New Commission on the Skills of the American Work force—a group
of business leaders, governors, school chancellors, and former Secretaries of Labor and
Education—released a follow-up to its 1990 report on the nation’s educational and
economic challenges. The message of the 2006 report indicated that basic skills were
necessary but not sufficient (National Center on Education and the Economy, 2007). The
Commission’s report described how global competition and technology have changed the
game for American workers. The commission asserted that students need a strong
foundation in basic skills but that this foundation alone is no longer enough for economic
and job security. As they explained, job security can exist only in a world where ideas
and abstractions are the path to a job, where creativity and innovation are crucial for a
good life, and where high levels of education are offered (National Center on Education
and the Economy, 2007).
Numerous studies on the global economy and the “flat” world document that
tomorrow’s workers must be ready to change jobs and careers more frequently, to be
adaptable in acquiring job skills, and to incorporate job-embedded and education-
acquired knowledge on business processes and problems (Friedman, 2007). Friedman
indicated that the global labor force has doubled from the time when China and India
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 23
opened their economies to the world. He explained that the application of information
technology to the very core of business operations has caused a profound shift in the
needed skills of workers. The global market is rewarding those who have high
educational achievement and technical skills. The worker of the 21st century must have
science and mathematics skills, creativity, fluency in information and communication
technologies, and the ability to solve complex problems. Studies show that, as the global
economy continues to evolve, workers will change jobs and careers seven or eight times.
Friedman asserted that, to be competitive, Americans must engage in lifelong learning to
update their education and job skills and think of themselves as competing with everyone
in the world. Clearly, the future economic security and well-being of American workers
is tied to educational achievement.
The other concerns center on the downward trend in student test scores in
America and the general lack of preparation for living and working in the 21st century
(P21, 2007). It has been widely documented that students, especially urban students,
graduating from public schools in the United States are not prepared for work in an
increasingly global society.
Globalization has contributed to increased communications regarding students’
educational achievements and student data on an international level that has resulted in
comparative data. U.S. students’ mediocre to low performance on international tests is
often cited as the reason that students should be globally competitive and that education
should ensure that U.S. students have superior advantage in the global economy.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 24
In 1983 A Nation at Risk announced a crisis in American public education due to
the mediocrity of public schools. America’s economic security was threatened by a labor
force that was no longer competitive in the global marketplace (Wagner, 2008). Global
competition in the United States continues to be linked to the global economy and to
concerns that students in the United States are being outscored and surpassed by students
in other countries, especially India and China, in the areas of mathematics and science
(Wagner, 2008).
International testing data add to public concern that America’s students rank low
relative to those from other countries. Both government and university officials warn that
American schools must do more to prepare students for careers in science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics (STEM) and develop broader perspectives on culture,
language, and geography. Thus, much of the impetus that makes global education a topic
of conversation today derives from economic, political, and security concerns (Wagner,
2008).
Schools are called to be accountable for students’ success, especially in the areas
of mathematics and science. Stronger alliances with business communities are often
forged out of mutual interest to produce students who are prepared to work and compete
in the global economy (Wagner, 2008).
Children in the United States need 21st-century skills to thrive as successful
citizens, workers, and leaders. There is a large gap between the knowledge and skills
most students learn in school and the knowledge and skills that are needed to be
successful in a global work place or community (P21, 2009). To bridge this gap, P21 has
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 25
partnered with several states, including California, to reform education and align
classroom environments with contemporary standards. Hence, the new CCSS have been
created to address these 21st-century needs for students.
21st-Century Skills
“Developing students who are independent enough to think critically about
academic subject matter and real-life problems is an educational objective of paramount
importance to our educational system as well as greater society” (Tsui, 1999, p. 185).
The literature on 21st-century skills includes many definitions of that term,
including Wagner’s (2008) seven skills, the P21 skills (2008), and Rotherham and
Willingham’s definition (2010). For the purposes of this study, an in-depth review of
Wagner’s (2008) seven skills was conducted to identify the essential skills that students
require to be successful.
In a report by the National Association of Independent Schools (NAIS)
Commission on Accreditation (Witt, 2010) it was reported that Wagner, from the Harvard
Graduate School of Education, had interviewed over 800 CEOs and asked them the
essential question, “Which qualities will our graduates need in the 21st century for
success in college, careers, and citizenship?” Wagner (2008) identified seven 21st-
century skills that are required to be competitive in the global knowledge economy.
These skills, which he claimed only few American schools are nurturing, were accessing
and analyzing information, problem solving and critical thinking, effective written and
oral communication, collaboration across networks and leading by influence, and
curiosity and imagination, agility and adaptability, and initiative and entrepreneurship.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 26
U.S. Secretary of Education Arne Duncan (2009) stated, “21st-century skills are
skills that increasingly demand creativity, perseverance and problem solving combined
with performing well as part of a team” (p. 2). However, an important question is
whether NCLB and 21st-century skills are contradictory or complementary. John Bailey,
Director of the U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Educational Technology in the
Bush administration, suggested, “Standardized tests can measure only a few of the critical
skills that we hope students will learn” (as cited in Salpeter, 2008, para. 6). ISTE
president Van Dam concurred:
Many districts are so overwhelmed and concerned about the NCLB requirements
and potential financial repercussions of not complying, that for most of them the
safest route is the back-to-basics approach focusing entirely on 20th-century skills
at the expense of 21st-century ones. (as cited in Salpeter, 2008, para. 6)
So, what are the strategies and tools needed for students to be 21st century ready?
Access and Analysis
Commentators on education are discussing that a new generation of learners is
entering the educational system (Prensky, 2001). This new generation has grown up with
information and communication technology (ICT) in their everyday lives, differentiating
them from previous generations and from their teachers and educational institutions.
Educational institutions must redesign themselves to accommodate these “digital
natives,” said Prensky. Prensky defined digital natives as people who are immersed in
technology, surrounded by video games, music, smart phones, computers, and many
other technology toys. Social researchers Howe and Strauss (2000) defined this group as
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 27
people with distinctive characteristics that set them apart from previous generations.
These team-oriented achievers are talented with technology and claim that they will be
America’s next great generation.
Prensky (2001) asserted that this generation learns differently. They are active
experiential learners, proficient in multitasking and dependent on communication
technologies for accessing information and for interacting with others. Prensky labeled
the people born before 1980 as “digital immigrants” who are radically different from the
digital natives and lack technological fluency that the natives possess. Prensky claimed
that most teachers belong to the digital immigrant group.
Bennett, Maton, and Kervin (2008) argued that, although there are calls for major
changes in education, these calls have been subjected to little critical scrutiny, are
undertheorized, and lack a sound empirical basis. There is thus a pressing need for
theoretically informed research on how to use the potential of these “digital natives” and
to prepare them through institutions and teachers who are ready for the 21st century.
With the advent of the 21st century, media and technology have exploded. The
ability to analyze this information and discern what is important and what is not is
essential. Access to this information is no longer reserved to the elite in American
society (Wagner, 2010).
Future generations must have these basic skills as they compete against a global
community for employment (Wagner, 2010). Although global competition has existed
for centuries, the 21st century has introduced many technologies that have propelled
more nations into global competitiveness. To maintain its status as a leading nation, the
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 28
United States must teach basic skills that include data analysis (Darling-Hammond &
Adamson, 2010). The challenge for employers is the sheer amount of data that they must
analyze in order to help their organization grow. Employees must be ready to take on the
challenge of collecting information and then have the skills to distinguish what is
pertinent (Wagner, 2010). Companies are searching for people who have these analysis
skills.
Although distinctly different, creativity and analysis actually work together.
People must be able to think creatively to open up the possibility of analyzing data in a
variety of ways. This inquisitive mindset allows for new solutions to be discovered.
Employees in the 21st century will need to have the ability to analyze data and
information to identify new avenues, opportunities, and challenges. It is no longer a
luxury but a necessity to be able to reason, analyze, weigh evidence, and solve problems.
These skills must be mastered to be effective in the work place. Companies have moved
from a top-down approach to management to a more collaborative model. Analysis of
data has become even more important in this process as employees must decipher which
information should be shared with members of their team (Wagner, 2010).
These analytical skills must be taught within the K–12 education system.
Students must learn to be inquisitive and to analyze information (Robinson, 2011).
Unfortunately, as students continue through the current education system, they become
less and less inquisitive, asking fewer questions and exhibiting apathy toward learning
(Wagner, 2010). This poses a dilemma in the 21st century in which the skills of analysis
are necessary to survive in a highly competitive and global market. Students should be
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 29
engaged in learning and education should stimulate and nurture an atmosphere of
creativity and inquiry (Robinson, 2011). Students need to be challenged and given other
innovative learning methods in preparation for the work force (Wagner, 2010). School
standards continue to impede students’ ability to master analysis skills. Heavy emphasis
has been placed on state standards that focus on memorization rather than on analysis.
Standardized testing must also be revisited regarding its effectiveness in helping students
to understand the processes of analysis (Robinson, 2011). High-stakes testing must
assess whether students can apply knowledge to new problems and situations. Despite
these needs, schools have not changed fundamentally for decades (Wagner, 2010).
Problem Solving and Critical Thinking Skills
Critical thinking, or “the ability to engage in purposeful, self-regulatory
judgment” (Abrami et al., 2008, p. 1102), is widely recognized as an important, even
essential, skill. Abrami et al. insisted that most educators would agree that critical
thinking is one of the most desirable outcomes of formal schooling. Critical thinking
involves thinking about important problems in all academic areas, as well as thinking
about social, political, and ethical challenges in the current complex and multifaceted
global world. Tsui (1999) stated that, to safeguard a democratic society with an able
thinking citizenry and to ensure a competent work force, it is essential to foster critical
thinking skills. A short-term advantage of a critical thinker is that it improves the quality
of the student. Through critical thinking, students become problem solvers.
The findings reported by Abrami et al. (2008) support the idea that how critical
thinking instruction is provided affects the improved critical thinking skills. Critical
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 30
thinking requirements must be a clear and important part of course design. Furthermore,
critical thinking skills must be developed separately and then applied to courses.
Collaborative learning seems to make a difference in the attainment of critical thinking
skills. The least effective method, according to Abrami et al., is to immerse students in
thought-provoking material without explicit use of critical thinking principles. Abrami et
al. would agree that it is important to understand and know how to master 21st-century
components, one being critical thinking, to be ready for the 21st century.
Abrami et al. (2008) also found pedagogy to be a critical component of 21st-
century skills. Many studies (e.g., Martin, Craft, & Sheng, 2001; VanTassel-Baska, Zuo,
Avery, & Little, 2002; Zohar & Tamir, 1993; Zohar et al., 1994) have shown that the
impact of the interventions was greatest when special advanced training in preparation for
teaching critical thinking skills was given to instructors. Furthermore, the impact of the
interventions was greatest when observations of critical thinking teaching practices and
course administration by instructors were reported. Contrary to these findings, the
impacts of critical thinking were smallest when the intention to improve critical thinking
skills was only listed among the course objectives and no effort was shown to incorporate
critical thinking in the course design and implementation. Therefore, better results can be
achieved through purposeful and active training and teacher support. It is clear from the
findings that improvement in students’ critical thinking skills must occur through explicit
instruction.
Tsui (1999) found that the greatest gains in critical thinking occurred in general
education courses that focused on a synthesis of knowledge rather than on specific
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 31
information. Consequently, institutions that offered more humanities courses and
interdisciplinary courses showed higher gains in students’ critical thinking skills. Active
learning techniques (e.g., student participation in small discussion groups, class
presentations, discussions and disagreements, debates, independent study, writing and
rewriting based on feedback) versus lecture-style teaching produced increases in critical
thinking skills as well. Students who had papers critiqued by their instructors and their
peers, worked on independent research projects, took essay exams, worked on group
projects, and gave class presentations showed the most gains in critical thinking skills as
they were able to think critically about what they or others had written (Tsui, 1999).
Furthermore, taking multiple-choice exams appeared to detract from nurturing students’
ability to think critically. A critical thinker constructs responses and answers to
questions, challenges rather than memorizes, and recognizes from a list of possible
answers, all of which contribute to higher-order thinking (Tsui, 1999). Tsui asserted that
both course content and instructional methods contribute to the growth of critical thinking
skills in students. It is important to note that some faculty do not actively engage in
fostering critical thinking skills because they see it as time consuming and risky (Haas &
Keeley, 1998). Altering commonplace teaching techniques would thus seem more
appropriate than radically replacing them. Faculty and teachers must skillfully guide
discussions and facilitate student participation to cultivate useful discussion (Pascarella &
Teranzini, 1991). Writing and rewriting must be incorporated into all coursework.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 32
Communication (Written and Oral)
In a global economy that has been infused with technology as a primary means of
communication, the value and importance of effective communication through all
methods is reiterated (Bennis, 2003). For example, Wagner (2010) reported that 87% of
teenagers were communicating online approximately 2 to 3 hours per day. Wagner
estimated that 188 billion text messages were sent in 2010, compared to just 14 billion
text messages sent 10 years prior. Text messaging is just one way people are
communicating (Kluger, 2012). Wagner (2010) contended that Internet-ready
technologies being used for communicating are not specific to texting and span from
computers and gaming systems to portable devices and smartphones. These various
avenues have pushed the boundaries of communication, yet have also impeded the ability
to communicate in person (Wagner, 2010). Wagner’s interview of more than 800 Chief
Executive Officers (CEOs) indicated that employers looked for people who were
effective communicators. Sharkey (2010) warned that today’s students are becoming less
and less adept at in-person communication and that written and verbal person-to-person
communication is challenging for today’s youth.
Wagner (2010) attributed the decline in communication skills of today’s
generation to the work environments of the past few decades. Wagner pointed out that
people in the work force are increasingly working in virtual offices, thus replacing face-
to-face communication with emails. Wagner contended that the prevalence of email has
led to the necessity to train employees on appropriate methods of communication.
Sharkey (2010) viewed effective communication in relation to other skills, such as
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 33
persistence, clarity, persuasion, and inquiry. Wagner (2010) argued that strengthening
written communication skills must begin prior to leaving college. Companies aim to hire
people who can engage in a rapidly changing environment and can communicate
effectively within the realm of business and the variety of communication methods that
takes course within a single day. The environment is no longer a top-down hierarchal
management with employees specializing in singular skills. The work place has become
a flattened hierarchy in which teams work on specific projects in networks. This change
in the work place only highlights that communication skills are vital for employees as
they communicate more widely rather than simply follow directions from management
(Wagner, 2010).
The skill sets that students need to succeed in the university are no different from
those that are needed in the work force (Ireh & Bailey, 1999). Effective communication
skills are required throughout college and are considered a basic skill to be successful in
academia and in the work place.
Wagner (2010) attributed students’ ineffective communication skills to an ever-
changing environment. Wagner described short, abrupt, and informal modes of
communication, such as texting and Facebook, which are widely used by students
ineffectively for communication purposes in many work environments. Entering into a
computer-literate era, it is essential for everyone to have certain basic skills (Stuart &
Dahm, 1999), including the ability to communicate. Students must employ a new system
of understanding for the 21st century, which, according to Stuart and Dahm, includes
communication and interpersonal skills, analytical and problem-solving skills, creative
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 34
thinking, and negotiating and persuasion skills. In collaboration, students will need to
communicate orally and in writing; without this, collaboration cannot occur. Students
need not only to be able to read, write, and speak proficiently; they must also be able to
understand their audience, listen, and use a variety of technology and artistic media to be
prepared for the 21st century (Wagner, 2010).
An investigation into appropriate methods for strengthening communication skills
while using technology revealed that, when students see information and communication
technologies, particularly the Internet, as an instructional instrument, their learning
increases (Yilnaz & Orhan, 2010). Cheung and Huang (2005) agreed, based on the
results of a study conducted at the university level; students’ Internet usage correlated
positively with general learning. Thus, one way to communicate with surface learners
(those who use the Internet simply as a leisure time activity) is to assign work that allows
them to use Internet. Another method, suggested by Yilnaz and Orhan (2010), is for
teachers to give assignments that require the use of the Internet as a source. A deep
learning approach requires the use of skills such as integration, synthesis, and reflection
(Yilnaz & Orhan, 2010).
For these reasons, when setting assignments, teachers should direct students to a
variety of sources that suggest different perspectives on the same topic. They can
provide alternative information and thereby strengthen written communication skills;
presentations and collaboration with peers can solidify verbal communication skills.
Over the course of time, this will encourage students to adopt these learning strategies
and deep learning may be achieved (Yilnaz & Orhan, 2010).
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 35
Collaboration Across Networks and Leading by Influence, Curiosity, and
Imagination
Other skills that students will need to keep up with the challenges of the era are
collaboration and communication skills, opportunities for self-expression, sharing ideas
and thoughts, and helping each other (Kafai, 2002). In today’s global economy, the work
style has shifted from document focused to people focused. A survey by the American
Management Association (AMA; 2010) cited working in teams as a key factor in how
corporations choose managers, followed by their ability to communicate. Therefore,
being able to work collaboratively with a diverse group of people is an essential skill in
the 21st-century economy. According to Roschelle and Teasley (1995), collaboration
can be defined broadly as building and effectively utilizing relationships, which
ultimately helps people to build on each other’s ideas, which in turn leads to innovation.
Innovation, consequently, fosters learning and productivity (Jarboe, 1996). In some
countries such as the United States, Israel, and Canada, collaborative learning is highly
valued, starting as early as preschool and continuing through graduate school (Webb &
Mastergeorge, 2003). Pink (2005, p. 51) stated, “In the Conceptual Age, what we need is
a whole new mind—one that incorporates both right brain and left brain directed
aptitudes.”
Knight and Bohlmeyer (1990) insisted that simply asking students to work
together in small groups will not promote collaboration. Instead, collaboration skills
must be taught. The skills that students need to collaborate effectively include
management of group dynamics, problem-solving processes, and interpersonal
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 36
communication skills (Webb & Farivar, 1994). Three types of communication skills
were found in members of effective collaborative groups: providing explanations, asking
questions, and engaging in argumentative discussions (Chan, 2001).
As learning involves the construction of knowledge in one form or another and is
thus constructivist by nature, researchers such as Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006)
questioned what kind of instructional approaches best promotes these types of sought-
after skills. The instructional approaches must provide direct instructional guidance.
One such approach is PBL. Bell (2010) defined PBL as a student-driven yet teacher-
facilitated approach to learning. Learners ask questions about topics that have aroused
their curiosity. The teacher guides students through their research and oversees each step
of the process. Students create projects individually or cooperatively. PBL is not
supplementary to instruction; it is the basis for curriculum delivery. Greater
understanding of topics, deeper learning, higher-level reading, and increased motivation
to learn are some reported outcomes of PBL.
Geier et al. (2008) reported that students who engaged in PBL outscored
traditionally educated peers. Although 21st-century skills are not evaluated on current
standardized tests, Boaler (1999) found that, over a period of 3 years, three times as many
PBL students achieved the highest possible scores than did their traditionally taught
peers.
Learning responsibility, independence, and discipline are three outcomes of PBL
(Bell, 2010). As students become more proficient in PBL, they create blueprints for
themselves to stay on task and to stay focused, they self-monitor their progress through
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 37
daily agenda setting, they report their progress, and they set goals, thus managing their
time. The teacher regularly meets with the students to ensure that they are on track. In
this process, students are also learning socially; they are becoming proficient at
communication, negotiation, and collaboration. Students must brainstorm and act as
good listeners.
The element of choice is crucial to student success. Technology is often used as a
means, not an end. An authentic use of technology for PBL work makes use of the
fluency that the digital natives of today possess. Gultekin (2005) provided evidence that,
through PBL, students become better researchers, problem solvers, and higher-order
thinkers.
To address the standardized testing that currently does not encourage
collaboration and innovation, Tom Torlakson, California’s State Superintendent of Public
Instruction, explained that Smarter Balance Testing is scheduled to begin in 2014-2015 to
support 21st-century skills (Hoag, 2013). Torlakson stated, “It’s time for California to
move forward with assessments that measure the real-world skills our students need to be
ready for a career and for college” (para. 1).
Agility and Adaptability
Since entering the 21st century, the United States and most nations have seen a
societal and an economic shift (Wagner, 2010). The speed of media and technology has
grown exponentially in its sophistication and influence and has even infiltrated how
people are learning, experiencing the world, and interacting with one another (Wagner,
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 38
2008). Wagner pointed out that some people are adapting and embracing change, while
others have not adapted or will not adapt.
Sharkey (2010) claimed that the growth curve for technology continues to double
every year and a half. Furthermore, Sharkey asserted that these changes are extremely
powerful and warned that, if society is not able to adapt, the future of the United States is
uncertain. Wagner (2010) noted that businesses are changing rapidly in the 21st century.
Employers are able to train employees for the technical aspects of a job but workers must
be able to adjust and adapt to situations in order to resolve currently unknown problems.
Wagner (2010) argued that companies in the 20th century and those in the 21st
century are vastly different. Within the past 2 decades, companies have restructured their
organizational practices. Teams in the work place in the 21st century collaborate and
adapt to projects rather employing a hierarchal management style, as was previously
commonplace. Jobs are not defined by a specific talent or ability; rather, they are
centered around specific problems or tasks that must be accomplished by a team.
Individuals within the team must be able to adapt and identify the best alternative to solve
the problem or to reach the intended goal. Moreover, what was once deemed blue-collar
work has undergone inevitable changes in the 21st century. The work place demands that
workers be able to adapt to the changing landscape of the work environment, as
companies try to stay relevant and competitive in a global economy (Wagner, 2010).
Wagner (2010) elaborated on the variety of skill sets that workers must have
across many industries. He cited Karen Bruett of Dell Computers, who manages the K–
12 education strategic business development. Bruett explained that her job has changed
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 39
dramatically over the term of her employment. Skills that were important 5 years ago
have morphed into something entirely different. She attributed her success to flexibility
and adaptability. Wagner explained that the reality is that some workers are not adapting.
The process of change is so challenging that some companies have provided professional
development and coaching to assist employees to learn how to be adaptable.
Employers search for candidates who can adapt to the work environment
(Wagner, 2010). Increasingly, companies reiterate that future employees must be flexible
and adaptable. When someone is hired, adaptability and learning skills are more
important than technical skills (Wagner, 2008). Companies seek workers with these traits
because they know that, ultimately, the employees will have to adapt to changing job
expectations (Wagner, 2010). In the 21st century, businesses are required to be
adaptable, which is essential to their sustainability.
Education is no exception to this requirement. People who work today must be
able to think, be flexible, change, and use a variety of tools. Each year, thousands of
students enter universities and community colleges. As these students prepare to enroll in
college courses, many are unprepared or cannot adapt to the rigor of academia. Students
must learn to adapt not only academically, but also socially, to the university
environment. They will encounter people from a plethora of cultures and must learn to
interact, engage, and adapt to every new situation (Wagner, 2010).
Wagner (2010) claimed that classrooms have remained the same for more than
half a decade; teachers have not deviated from a prescribed set curriculum. Due to the
mounting governmental pressures of statewide high-stakes testing, teachers are forced to
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 40
teach to the test (Wagner, 2010). Adaptability requires that superintendents employ a
new system of leadership to lead in the 21st century (Stuart & Dahm, 1999).
Initiative and Entrepreneurship
Interest in education and training in enterprise have increased within the past few
years, especially in Finland and other European countries, as well as in the United States
and China (Seikkula-Leino, 2007). The European Union places importance on
developing an entrepreneurial culture by cultivating the appropriate mindset,
entrepreneurship skills, and awareness of career opportunities (Commission of the
European Communities, 2006). However, the basic question of how entrepreneurship
development can be integrated into the American school curriculum remains unanswered.
According to Seikkula-Leino (2007), entrepreneurship education involves such
terms as enterprising (general education and learning processes) and entrepreneurial
(business context). For younger students, enterprise education is more appropriate as
students learn to take responsibility for their learning and for themselves and learn how to
cope in a complex society. Students learn to deal with higher levels of complexity and
uncertainty to make organizations more effective; at the same time, they are fulfilled
personally. This type of education develops behaviors, skills, and attributes to create
innovative practices to cope with change. Enterprising education is the process whereby
these behaviors are learned and supported; it requires a shift in pedagogy. Cooperative
learning, PBL, group and peer work, teamwork, learning by doing, pedagogical drama,
and learning diaries are parts of the process. Knowledge is gained and mistakes are
considered to be a part of the approach.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 41
Leffler and Svedberg (2005) reported results of interviews with teachers that
included their views on what enterprise and entrepreneurship mean. “Children can see
how much money they can make from a theatre . . . where they can see that they are
doing a job that is rewarded (interview with a primary school teacher)” (p. 219). An
upper secondary teacher said, “It doesn’t really mean that they should be entrepreneurs,
but rather that they should be enterprising, that is, creative, be able to imbibe knowledge,
be able to utilize the channels they have for getting knowledge in every different way”
(p. 219).
The empirical studies of school practice by Leffler and Svedberg (2005) indicated
a multifaceted practice for entrepreneurship. However, organization and implementation
of such classroom activities seemed to rest on assumptions that teaching and learning are
primarily a collective undertaking and that learning and acting are two sides of the same
coin. However, this is not unique to enterprise learning.
Yan and Yu (2007) provided empirical evidence of the importance of social
interactions affecting students’ learning experience in enterprise learning. Collaboration
and shared problem solving (e.g. partnerships with local companies), as well as learning
in action by reproducing, transforming, and producing (e.g., operating the school
cafeteria once a week) and apprenticeships are examples of social interactions, together
with elements of enterprising and entrepreneurship (Leffler & Svedberg, 2005). Yan and
Yun (2007) implied that interpersonal skills and opportunities for guidance and
interaction with various people should be developed for effective implementation of these
enterprise programs.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 42
Although entrepreneurial training has been infused into curriculum, mainly
through extracurricular activities and in some cases by being explicitly included in the
curriculum, most entrepreneurial programs show that teacher training is a very important
factor in the success of the programs (European Commission, 2004). Nordic countries
and Great Britain are front runners in this area, although an extensive lack of teaching
materials and teachers’ knowledge is still evident (Lundström, 2005).
Finland, in particular, has actively promoted entrepreneurship education in
general education at all levels and has been supported administratively by the Ministry of
Education. The Finnish National Board of Education introduced the National Core
Curriculum for Basic Education, which includes entrepreneurship education. Finland
underwent a curriculum reform during 2004–2006, basing its reform on Macdonald’s
(2003) partnership model. This “bottom-up” model draws attention to the teachers’ roles
as change agents (Fullan, 1999). Teachers develop their own abilities, underpinning the
importance of teachers’ beliefs about aims and contents. Parents, administrative bodies,
curriculum reformers, researchers, and parents became partners to the teachers in
reforming the curriculum.
In summary, Wagner (2010) would agree that superintendents must come together
with principals, teachers, students, and the community to build and strengthen the 21st-
century skills that are needed to remain competitive in the global economy.
Superintendents as Instructional Leaders
When implementing new initiatives (for example, 21st-century skills), the
superintendent must supply clear expectations of success for that vision (EdSource,
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 43
2006). Fullan (2002) stated that, if entities want to achieve sustainable reform, the
leaders of those groups must create a radical change in the learning culture of the district
and schools. Without vision from the leader of the district—the superintendent—long-
lasting reform is impossible. Petersen (1999) agreed stating that educational reform is
impossible without a strong vision from the superintendent. Fullan (2005) claimed that
one of the most important parts of an instructional leader’s job is to create a relationship
between the initiatives, which provides principals and teachers with a clear direction or
path to guide their schools and students. Fullan (2003) stated that educational
transformation is impossible without solid leadership at all levels. If 21st-century skills
are to be implemented, strong leadership at all levels (district and site) is essential.
Petersen (2002) identified the need for superintendents to articulate specific goals
for the district and to establish standards required to meet those goals. The
superintendent must also have the visionary leadership, organizational skills, planning,
and evaluations in place to ensure the success of the stated goals. Waters and Marzano
(2006) concurred, citing a statistically significant correlation between setting goals for
teaching and learning and student achievement. Key stakeholders must understand the
vision and goals created by the superintendent for the district to be successful.
One of the superintendent’s roles is to use messaging to communicate the vision
or to create systems by which he/she can develop training programs and strategies to
ensure the success of the vision (Grogran & Andrews, 2002). To accomplish this type of
instructional leadership by superintendents, Hoyle (1989) called for a different model by
which superintendents are prepared for their position. He recommended professional
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 44
training that includes being comfortable with ambiguity and uncertainty. Datnow (2000)
cited an example in Memphis, Tennessee, where the superintendent’s initiative was one
of the single factors that encouraged schools to adopt the proposed reform. The research
showed that, if the superintendent put his/her full support behind a reform, it was more
likely to happen. Datnow said that, even if the teachers did not believe in the reform
wholly, they still committed to it because the superintendent supported the reform.
Ely (1990) suggested that, for implementation to be successful, stakeholders must
have voice in the change process. The administration shows its commitment to the
change by asking key stakeholders for their input. Kowalski (2005) said that
superintendents cannot use top-down communication strategies to inform staff of
changes; rather, they must build relationships to have the opportunity to create change.
Datnow (2000) suggested that increasing the amount of teacher involvement in a true and
genuine way increases the potential success of the reform. Shuldman (2004) supported
teacher involvement by claiming that teachers will ultimately decide whether the
superintendent is supportive of the new initiative and that this can be shown through time
and attention to the desired implementation task. Shuldman (2004) noted that the
superintendent’s policies create the culture of the district and the school. Johnson (1996)
discussed the value of moving away from a top-down approach to a team approach.
Elmore (1999) concurred that collaborative team approaches are much more successful
than a manager-style top-down approach. Elmore used the term distributed leadership to
emphasize the point that a team is required to make sustainable changes to the
instructional program. Creating a shared vision is the only way to engage stakeholders to
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 45
transform learning for the 21st century (Dede, Korte, Nelson, Valdez, & Ward, 2005).
Petersen (2002) found that, if there is a strong relationship between the superintendent
and the major stakeholders (which may include district leaders, principals, and the school
board), then the vision of the superintendent and the ability of the district to be successful
is more likely. Without the support of the superintendent, it is unlikely that initiatives
will become part of the culture of the district.
According to Datnow (2000), when district officials begin a reform process,
teachers tend to receive the initiative with hesitation. Teachers may implement the
change due to compliance but not necessarily because it is the best reform for their
school. Petersen, Sayre, and Kelly (2007) explained that the teachers’ perception is that
the superintendent’s role is critical in creating an instructional vision for the district.
Without this vision, reform may not be possible. Principals have reported that, if they
have clear direction from the district office, with the superintendent guiding the direction,
the initiative is much more likely to be successful (EdSource, 2006). Without the solid
backing of the district office, it will be more difficult to implement new initiatives.
The role of the superintendent must include assessment and development of the
teachers’ knowledge and the potential of what the teachers can accomplish in the
classroom (Grogran & Andrews, 2002). This suggests that inventory must be taken to
determine where the teachers are in the implementation of 21st-century skills and what
should be developed explicitly to assist the teacher’s individual growth toward
implementation. Sergiovanni (1998) stated that, if the teachers’ capital is developed, the
instructional leaders have increased the value of education in general. Rotherham and
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 46
Willingham (2009) discussed that the reforms in the past have been unsuccessful because
a focus has not been placed on teacher training, curriculum development, and assessment.
They noted that taking on an implementation task of this magnitude must include
extensive professional development for teachers. Rotherham and Willingham (2010)
discussed the need for developing human capital in district teachers, which can be
accomplished only with methodical and deep professional development of teachers and
administrators.
Superintendents cannot possibly solve all of the problems in a school district by
themselves (Childress, Elmore, & Grossman, 2006); they need the support of community
members in the form of businesses, local universities, and families. Hoyle (1989) stated
that superintendents should work in concert with the leaders of industry and politics to
create schools that will prepare students for future jobs. If the instructional leader is
successful in creating this system, with the support of the staff and community, then the
vision will be implemented. Districts may choose to elicit input by creating a
superintendent advisory committee (EdSource, 2006). Monthly meetings can be held to
gather input from the stakeholders to improve the district’s understanding of how the
strategies and implementation progress from the perspective of the individual stakeholder
groups. Johnson (1996) stressed the importance of the superintendent’s meaningful
collaboration with stakeholders within the district to achieve lasting reform.
Studies of successful innovations have shown that these innovations included
certain elements. Ely (1990) identified the following elements as essential to the
successful implementation of innovation: resources, current knowledge and skills,
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 47
inadequacy of the status quo, time rewards, participation, commitment, and leadership.
All of these factors may be important to the implementation of 21st-century skills. Earle
(2002) noted that the preparation of the teacher is also essential. Building relationships,
differentiated professional development opportunities at the teacher’s correct level of
proficiency in an area such as technology, commitment to the program, and follow-up
training are all essential to the implementation of reform. Earle (2002) wrote that these
key elements will lead to a successful, integrated model of implementation. Earle
recommended this model as a method to create additional teacher leaders to carry the
message forward. He identified three levels of learning: confidence, competence, and
creativity (or put another way, learner to adopter to leader). For a reform effort such as
21st-century skills to become fully integrated, these levels of learning must be addressed
(Earle, 2002).
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 48
Chapter 3
Methodology
The literature review revealed that businesses and industry have identified the
need for well-prepared employees to be a part of the global work force in today’s
knowledge economy. The downward trend in student test scores has been widely
documented. The lack of preparation for living and working in the 21st century leaves
students, especially urban students, who graduate from public schools in the United
States unprepared for employment in an increasingly global society. Globalization itself
has contributed to increased communication regarding student achievements on an
international level. Schools are held accountable for preparing students to be ready for
college and career. Stronger alliances with business communities are often formed to
encourage students to be prepared to work and compete in the global economy. Today’s
students, employees of the future, need 21st-century skills to thrive as successful citizens,
workers, and leaders.
Leadership plays an important role in reform. Superintendents must lead and
develop their districts to keep up with the rapidly changing economy. To create
sustainable reform, superintendents must create a radical change in the learning culture.
District leadership must present a strong vision and a clear expectation of success.
Furthermore, a superintendent must have organizational skills, planning, and evaluation
in place to ensure the success of the stated goals. Other factors that ensure success of
implementation include strong relationships with major stakeholders, teacher training and
preparation, community member support, and solid backing from the district office.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 49
While there have been many studies of 21st-century education—its necessity to
compete in the global economy, building up critical thinking skills, sparking curiosity,
and encouraging innovation—little is known about the characteristics and strategies of
superintendents who implement 21st-century skills in their respective school districts.
The purpose of this study was to examine California superintendents’ implementation of
21st-century skills in the K–12 public school system. This study was guided by four
research questions:
1. How do California superintendents define 21st-century skills?
2. How do California superintendents implement 21st-century skills?
3. Who are the key stakeholders needed for superintendents to implement 21st-
century skills in a California K–12 system?
4. What strategies do California superintendents use to evaluate the effectiveness
of the implementation?
The answers to these questions will provide a frame from which current and
future superintendents can create and sustain a 21st-century teaching and learning reform
that will produce citizens who meet the needs of the global economy.
Research Design
Creswell (2009) described qualitative research as an approach to examine and
understand the meaning that people associate with social or human problems.
Conversely, quantitative research is a method for testing objective theories by analyzing
the relationships among variables. Creswell described the mixed-methods approach as a
mixture of both qualitative and quantitative approaches to the research. It involves
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 50
philosophical assumptions, the use of both qualitative and quantitative measures, and a
mixture of both approaches. Creswell contended that the strength of a mixed-methods
approach is greater than either the qualitative or quantitative research by itself. Based on
that position, this study utilized a mixed-methods approach.
In this research the in-depth interviews with superintendents provided qualitative
data to address the research questions. A survey was mailed to a pool of superintendents.
All data were collected and reported using the mixed-methods approach to strengthen the
study.
Sample and Population
Purposeful sampling was used to select at least 10 superintendents for the
interview and 100 questionnaires were sent out to superintendents. Purposeful sampling
allowed for identification of superintendents with certain criteria (Patton, 2002). The
quantitative sampling criteria were superintendents (a) serving in California, (b) in their
current position for at least 1 year, and (c) serving in a school district with at least 5,000
students. The requirements for the qualitative portion of the study were identical, except
that superintendents to be interviewed had to have at least 2 years of experience so they
could report on implementation over time in one district.
One hundred superintendents with the aforementioned criteria who were
identified on the California Department of Education website received a letter with a
description of the study and its purpose, as well as an Institutional Review Board (IRB)
protocol description regarding participation by human subjects. The superintendents
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 51
were invited to participate, and the survey was included. Two superintendents were
invited to be interviewed (Appendix C).
The research was delimited to the state of California, as each state has varied
requirements for the new CCSS, as well as varied testing procedures, both of which will
affect implementation of 21st-century skills.
Instrument Validity
The validity of the survey was determined by the similarity of the chosen
instrument to instruments used in prior related studies. Questions were developed based
on the body of research on superintendents, 21st-century skills, and how leaders
implement reform. Both the survey and the interview protocol were gender neutral and
were field tested on principals to ensure that the questions were clear and to determine
the amount of time required to complete each instrument.
Instrumentation
The instrumentation selected for this study was based on a mixed-methods
approach and included a survey and interviews.
Qualitative Data
Interviews of superintendents were chosen as a method to elicit information
regarding the implementation of 21st-century skills in the interviewee’s district.
Interviews allowed the investigator to probe for deeper answers to the complex questions
(Merriam, 2009). Value, opinion, and knowledge questions were included in the protocol
(Appendix A). During the interviews, the superintendents were asked questions related
to the following topics: (a) globalization, (b) focus on California education, (c) economic
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 52
and business impact, (d) 21st-century skills frameworks, and (e) leadership for reform.
The superintendents were asked to describe how the reform implementation would be
delivered to staff and how its progress would be monitored. The protocol was
administered consistently to all interviewees. In addition to the standard, open-ended
questions, follow-up questions were used to clarify or to give opportunity for elaboration.
Because there is no large body of research on the topic of superintendents and their
implementation of 21st-century skills, the questions were designed to address the steps
that would be required to achieve large-scale reform.
Quantitative Data
The survey to collect quantitative data was designed to reach more participants
and allowed the investigator to gather information about how superintendents described
their knowledge about implementing 21st-century skills in their districts (Fink, 2013). A
forced-choice response style with a 4-point Likert-type scale was used, omitting the
neutral response of neither agree or disagree (Fink, 2013).
This study may have implications for other districts as they embark on their
process of implementation of 21st-century skills. The interview was expected to identify
successes and challenges, the types of professional development that are most successful
for teachers, and which monitoring tools have worked to sustain reform. The interviews
were also expected to identify leadership qualities required to implement large-scale
reform.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 53
Data Collection
A mixed-methods approach, including qualitative and quantitative data, was used.
Qualitative data were collected in the form of interviews and quantitative data were
collected via a survey. The study design was approved by the IRB at the University of
Southern California prior to conducting any interviews or administration of the survey.
The collected data were secured and used only by the researcher. The identities of all
participants remained confidential throughout the course of the study.
Qualitative Data
A series of interviews with various superintendents was conducted during the
summer of 2013. To maximize the time appropriated for the interview, an interview
protocol (Appendix A) was formulated based on the four research questions (Weiss,
1994). The researcher interviewed two California superintendents. All interviews were
audio recorded and transcribed and the responses were coded. Participating
superintendents were given the option to receive a copy of the completed dissertation.
Quantitative Data
Qualitative data were collected via an electronic survey. In collaboration with
two other researchers, the researcher for this study designed a survey with a Likert-type
scale and administered it via Survey Monkey™. The researcher and colleagues contacted
100 California superintendents, inviting them to participate in the survey in summer
2013. Participating superintendents had a time frame of 1 month to complete the online
survey. The team of researchers coded all received survey data to use for the study. All
survey data were confidential and were accessible only to the team of three researchers.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 54
Data Analysis Procedures
In qualitative studies, data may be derived from the content of interviews,
observations notes, and analyzed documents (Merriam, 2009); such was the case in this
study. Merriam (2009) indicated that data analysis involves consolidating and
interpreting what people have said and how the researcher uses the data to address the
research questions. The process of qualitative data analysis used in this study followed
Merriam’s (2009) step-by-step process of analysis.
Interviews with each of the superintendents were digitally recorded and
transcribed verbatim. All transcripts were carefully reviewed to allow the researcher to
obtain a general idea of the data and to reflect on the overall meaning (Creswell, 2008).
Because interviews were the primary source of data collection, the researcher employed a
coding strategy by segmenting responses into categories and labeling the categories with
codes or themes (Creswell, 2008; Merriam, 2009). Codes were determined based on
commonalities, themes, and patterns found in the responses. The codes included
technology, accountability, communication, creativity, critical thinking, collaboration,
instruction, leadership, professional development, strategic planning, and miscellaneous.
Interview data were coded and analyzed to transform the data into findings (Merriam,
2009).
The coding process was also applied to documents that were analyzed based on
the relevant characteristics of the content. The constant comparative method was used to
analyze data gathered from documents, observations, and interviews. Merriam (2009)
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 55
indicated that the constant comparative method compares one segment of data with
another to determine similarities and differences.
Responses to the online survey provided data for the quantitative portion of the
study. SurveyMonkey provided the necessary online security and data analysis
capability, including the ability to analyze open-ended results and the ability to create
comparison reports, use cross-tabulations, and use filters. Responses to the survey were
analyzed using descriptive statistics, such as percentages and frequency, to determine
alignment and correlation to the results of two or more research questions and to compare
how groups of respondents answered survey questions. In analyzing the data in this way,
the four research questions were addressed and the responses to questions regarding 21st-
century skills were identified and compared.
The use of multiple sources of evidence is critical to qualitative research to ensure
the accuracy and trustworthiness of the study. Data from the transcribed interviews,
observation notes, and documentation were triangulated and analyzed to develop themes
and subthemes that described a broader picture of the results.
Merriam (2009) indicated that the final step in data analysis involves a period of
intensive analysis with findings that are substantiated, revised, or reconfigured. Creswell
(2008) indicated that the final step in data analysis involves interpreting the data. Using
data collected and coded, in addition to the literature review and theoretical framework,
the researcher cross references and triangulates to determine whether each set of findings
supports other findings and to align the findings with the research questions.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 56
Ethical Considerations
This research study was approved by the IRB of the University of Southern
California and conducted with written consent from each participating superintendent.
To ensure the rights of the superintendents, safeguards were put in place so that each
participant’s anonymity was guaranteed. Any request to withdraw from the study at any
time would have been honored.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 57
Chapter 4
Findings
Students of the 21st century require schooling that is relevant and competitive
within the global scope of education. Reforms that fall under the umbrella of 21st-
century skills are defined in various ways. Thus, superintendents of any given district
may employ different notions of 21st-century teaching and learning. As superintendents
hold a great degree of power within a district, their definitions may influence the way in
which 21st-century skills are implemented.
This chapter reports the findings of a mixed-methods study conducted by a team
of five researchers. Collectively, 10 interviews were conducted and 37 sets of responses
to a survey were collected. Each researcher conducted two interviews. The findings are
based on two interviews and the collective database of all 37 surveys, which were
grounded in the following research questions.
1. How do California superintendents define 21st-century skills?
2. How do California superintendents implement 21st-century skills?
3. Who are the key stakeholders needed for superintendents to implement 21st-
century skills in a California K–12 system?
4. What strategies do California superintendents use to evaluate the effectiveness
of the implementation?
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to provide superintendents and other district leaders
with the direction and intellectual resources to plan their own implementation of 21st-
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 58
century skills, as defined by Wagner (2008). This study will add to the body of literature
currently available to superintendents regarding leadership strategies on navigating a shift
in education toward 21st-century teaching and learning. Participating superintendents
defined and discuss implementation strategies for 21st-century skills in a K–12 system.
Key stakeholders and their roles for implementation were identified. Evaluation of 21st-
century skills implementation was discussed. These findings provide educational leaders
a foundation by which school districts can strengthen or pilot 21st-century teaching and
learning.
Response Rate
Quantitative data were collected via an electronic survey tool, SurveyMonkey™.
One hundred copies of the survey were sent to various superintendents across California.
The researchers’ goal was to receive a minimum of 35 surveys. The goal was met, as 37
surveys, or 37%, were received before the deadline. Thirty-six participants answered all
survey questions and one participant answered five of the six survey questions.
Qualitative data were collected via 10 interviews with California superintendents.
The findings reported in this chapter reflect the data from 2 of the 10 interviews. Three
superintendents were asked to participate in the interviews but only two responded;
therefore, only two interviews were conducted, recorded, and used for this study.
Quantitative Demographic Data
Quantitative data were collected through surveys of superintendents who met the
following criteria: (a) superintendents in California public schools, (b) superintendents
who were currently serving in their district, and (c) superintendents who had been serving
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 59
in their district for at least 1 year. The criteria for the quantitative portion of the study
were broad because the researchers wanted to reach a wide range of superintendents.
Survey results showed that 16 of the 37 superintendents (43.2%) had completed a
master’s degree, 1 (2.7%) had completed another “professional degree,” and 20 (54.1%)
had a doctoral degree. Tables 1, 2, and 3 summarize these data.
Table 1
Quantitative Survey Data: Superintendents’ Educational Attainment

Measure Bachelor’s Master’s Other professional Doctoral

Number 0 16 1 20
Percentage 0 43.2 2.7 54.1

Table 2
Quantitative Survey Data: Superintendents’ Experience in Current District

Measure < 2 years 2-5 years 6-9 years 10+ years Total

Number 7 19 8 3 37

Percentage 18.9 51.4 21.6 8.1 100.0

Qualitative Demographic Data
Qualitative data were collected via interviews with superintendents who met the
following criteria: (a) superintendents from California public schools, (b) superintendents
who were currently serving in their districts, (c) superintendents who had been serving in
their district for a minimum of 2 years, and (d) superintendents whose districts had
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 60
Table 3

Quantitative Survey Data: Superintendents’ Experience Overall

Measure < 2 years 2-5 years 6-9 years 10+ years Total

Number 1 16 11 9 37

Percentage 2.7 43.2 29.7 24.3 100.0

interest in or movement toward 21st-century teaching and learning. The criteria for
qualitative interviews were narrowed because the researchers desired more focused data
to contribute to the study. The two superintendents who were interviewed, herein
Superintendent A and Superintendent B, served in public school districts in Los Angeles
County, within a 30-mile radius of the city of Los Angeles.
Superintendent A serves in a mid-sized K–12 school district. The district serves
more than 21,000 K–12 students and is comprised of 19 elementary schools, five middle
schools, three comprehensive high schools, one college preparatory school with Grades
7–12, and one continuation high school. Annually, about 85% of the graduating students
attend higher education institutions. This year marked her 24th year in the district. She
has served in this district in many capacities, including but not limited to Superintendent,
District Deputy Superintendent, Assistant Superintendent of Academic Services, and
Director of Special programs and Services.
Superintendent B serves in an urban preK–12 public school district that has
10,000 enrolled students. The district is comprised of seven elementary schools, three
middle schools, and one charter, mathematics and science-oriented, high school. She has
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 61
a doctorate from the University of Southern California. She began her career in
education as a classroom teacher, then served as the president of the district’s teachers
association. Following that position, she became Assistant Principal and then Principal
before going back to school for a doctorate in educational leadership. After completing
the doctorate in 2010, she assumed the current position of Superintendent. Table 4
summarizes the characteristics of the interviewed superintendents and their school
districts.
Table 4
Characteristics of Superintendents Who Were Interviewed in the Qualitative Phase

Superintendent Profile District

A Gender: Female Enrollment: 21,000
Education: Doctorate Free or reduced-price meals: 10,710
Years as superintendent: 3 Minority students: 13,440
Years in current position: 3 English Learners: 6,090

B Gender: Female Enrollment: 10,000
Education: Doctorate Free or reduced-price meals: 8,700
Years as superintendent: 3 Minority students: 7,000
Years in current position: 3 English Learners: 5,000

Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, How do California superintendents define 21st-
century skills? Wagner (2008) defined 21st-century skills using his “seven survival
skills”: critical thinking and problem solving, collaboration across networks and leading
by influence, agility and adaptability, initiative and entrepreneurship, effective oral and
written communication, accessing and analyzing information, and curiosity and
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 62
imagination. Because there are many definitions other than Wagner’s (2008) definition
of 21st-century skills, Research Question 1 was designed to collect data on how
California superintendents define 21st-century skills.
Drawing Connections to the Common Core State Standards
The nation’s focus on the CCSS was reflected in the strong emphasis on standards
during the interviews with Superintendents A and B. Superintendent A stated,
“Embedded within the Common Core Standards, we are asking students to be able to
demonstrate those four areas of creatively, communications, collaboration, and critical
thinking.” Superintendent A reported that her district has been engaged in 21st-century
teaching and learning for the past 4 years as they have been utilizing and adjusting their
curriculum for the CCSS. “They [teachers] kind of get that because they have been
integrating this into their lessons that students would experience for the last four years.”
Superintendent B also drew on the CCSS as she defined 21st-century skills. She
expressed that it is impossible to talk about a shift toward 21st-century teaching and
learning without talking about the CCSS.
There is no way to get around standardized testing, the Common Core standards
are here. I can’t say that these standards will change everything, but a lot will
change; 21st-century skills are embedded in the Common Core. Will every
teacher use the 21st-century skills to teach Common Core? Probably not, but the
content will have to change, whether a teacher is “into it” or not.
She expanded by describing how several schools have already implemented CCSS in
their classrooms. She noted a shift in instruction from a direct instruction model to a
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 63
more student-centered model. “We are probably further along than most districts in
Common Core implementation. We’ve been doing the work for 2 years.” She was
cognizant of the fact that “student centered” does not automatically equate to 21st-
century teaching and learning, but she recognized the effort put forth by teachers and
students to teach and learn in a different way.
Focus on the Four Cs
Superintendent A stated that in their district 21st-century skills embody the four
Cs. “The twenty-first century skills, as we define here, are the promotion of critical
thinking, collaboration, communication, and creative thinking.” She tied the four Cs not
only to programmatic changes but to changes in professional development and learning.
She referred to “embedding it [21st-century skills] as part of our professional learning
plan,” which all teachers in the district must develop at the beginning of each school year.
She provided extensive input on teachers and their role in transforming instruction to
address the four Cs.
When we train our teachers with the whole former Bloom’s Taxonomy and we
look at what is it that we’ve been teaching, I have to say, most of it is at that
knowledge level. For us to move to the Common Core State Standards, you really
have to go to the next level.
Superintendent B is a strong proponent of students being career and college ready.
She understood that not every student in the district will attend college; however, she is
determined to educate students as if they were going to college and to teach skills and
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 64
evoke passions so that every student is able to be successful in whatever direction is
chosen.
I am a strong believer that not every child is going to go to college. I understand
that. I know that but I do believe that every child can succeed, whether it is in a
trade that’s a noble profession also to be an electrician or a plumber or any of
those professions but we still need to prepare them and part of that preparation is
making sure that they have the ability to complete a job application and interview
and speak and do all of those kinds of things. On the other side of that is, I want
to prepare students to go to MIT and be the foremost in the aerospace industry or
the business industry or any of those things.
Superintendent B spoke to the difficulties that students face with regard to using the four
Cs.
They have a very difficult time working collaboratively. We need to work on that
skill. That’s the 21st century skill too. We need to teach our kids how to think
through problems, how to problem solve and how to work collaboratively for the
best end result.
The following shows Superintendent B’s sentiment toward her expectations for schools:
However, that has shifted somewhat and that we also need to teach them how to
be computer literate, how to present themselves well, how to be a successful
member of the community and of society and all of that comes with things that
are attached to them in how they do that.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 65
Using Technology as an Instructional Tool
Table 5 summarizes the superintendents’ ratings of factors that influence the
implementation of 21st-century skills.
Table 5

Superintendents’ Ratings of Factors Influencing Implementation of 21st-Century Skills

Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Average
Element (1) (2) (3) (4) rating N

Globalization 0 2 14 20 3.50 36
Focus on California
education 1 3 24 9 3.11 37
Economic and business
impact 0 0 13 24 3.65 37
21st-century skills
frameworks 0 1 19 16 3.42 36
Leadership for reform 0 2 19 16 3.38 37

Technology has become a term that many associate with 21st-century skills and
the CCSS, mainly because of the SBAC and its fully computerized testing system.
Superintendents A and B also have strong ties to technology; however, both were
adamant about using technology in a way that “made sense” for their students.
Superintendent A commented that, in the past, using technology in the classroom
was an option but now technology is a requirement, both by the district and by
CCSS/SBAC. Superintendent A stated that, because of this requirement, the district
generated a “more in-depth relationship with curriculum” and technology. “Now that it’s
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 66
everyone’s business, so to speak, we’re closely working together.” She put the onus on
the district leadership and teachers to implement 21st-century skills into instruction,
which, in this district, means working together to develop a technology-rich curriculum.
The sentiment from Superintendent A was one of excitement, not only for students and
teachers but also for the transformative nature of instructional technology and its larger
impact on education. “The way we’re going to work together to assist in getting the
technology out there is just going to be transformative. It’s going to be great.”
Superintendent B agreed that technology plays a significant role in 21st-century
teaching and learning. She strongly suggested that students begin using technology as
early as kindergarten and continue to follow its changes as they matriculate to higher
grades. She affirmed the need for students not only to be exposed to technology but also
to use technology as a tool to think and learn in various ways. “I know oftentimes we
think it’s just putting the computer in their hands, but it’s way beyond that.”
The STEM Education Coalition has increased in publicity and participation within
the past several years. In both Superintendent A’s and Superintendent B’s districts,
STEM schools are a major attraction to community members. Superintendent A stated,
Parents in our district want their children to attend a STEM school because they
are aware of the skills their children need to function in this society. Parents want
their children to learn in a way that is completely different from their own
education, not to mention the added bonus of STEM resources.
Survey results showed that 55.6% of the surveyed superintendents strongly
agreed that globalization plays a role in reforming education based on 21st-century skills.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 67
Even greater but related, 64.9% of the superintendents were concerned with students
being able to function and be successful in business. These results reflect the sentiment
in Superintendent B’s district as parents and board members have expressed the need for
students to be “college and career” ready, which will require students to be able to use the
four Cs. Superintendent B spoke very highly of their only high school in the district and
their strategic move to make the high school into a STEM academy. She highlighted the
academy’s deliberate push toward instruction that directs students to use the four Cs and
to be prepared to have careers in the 21st century.
Discussion
Although there are many working definitions of 21st-century skills, they share a
few common threads. The four Cs—communication, collaboration, critical thinking, and
creation—have been shown to be major themes embedded in 21st-century teaching and
learning. Wagner’s (2008) definition of 21st-century skills is categorized into seven
skills but captures the fundamental nature of the four Cs.
The CCSS are also influencing superintendents’ instructional choices. Although
some superintendents are skeptical of the new standards and their ability to measure
student achievement, some have also embraced the idea of using the new set of standards.
Some believe that the CCSS are more forward thinking in that the standards utilize 21st-
century skills, including but not limited to collaboration, communication, and critical
thinking. Superintendents also continue to expand their knowledge on instructional
technology. The focus on using technology as a tool, a means to an end, for student
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 68
achievement remains one of the most essential elements of 21st-century teaching and
learning.
Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, How do California superintendents implement 21st-
century skills? Björk and Gurley (2005) referred to superintendents as “political
strategists.” Superintendents have a variety of responsibilities; however, Björk and
Gurley emphasized that superintendents “work in political contexts characterized by
demands for greater participation, patronage, and partisan power struggles” (p. 167). In
order for superintendents to implement 21st-century skills in their district, they must be
able to navigate the “political context” of a given district. Research Question 2 was
developed to collect data on how and what strategies California superintendents use to
implement 21st-century skills in a public school district.
Implementation of CCSS
Although the CCSS have not been implemented in many school districts,
Superintendents A and B both indicated that their school districts have partially
implemented the new standards. Both superintendents have connected 21st-century skills
to the CCSS and have attributed their students’ success to the instruction that stemmed
from implementing the CCSS.
Superintendent A described how instruction and classroom dynamics have
changed since implementing the CCSS.
If you look at the standards and what they’re expecting and how they’re expecting
our teachers to implement them in the classroom, it’s not the frontal teaching,
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 69
where the teachers are imparting their skills. It’s where they’re asking. We
already have schools that have literally reformatted their classroom management
so that students are clustered in small table groups. They’re expected to
collaborate on . . . to do a problem together. It goes beyond just knowing content.
Superintendent A added that the CCSS are conducive to project-based and PBL, in which
students have the opportunity to use 21st-century skills to solve problems or address
concerns that are identified through the process.
Superintendent B shared that, although she is concerned about the use and validity
of the SBAC, she selected three schools to pilot the assessment.
Because the question is, will they truly think through the smarter balance in such
a way that it can be asset. That some of us see that it can be or is it just going to
be another exercise of utility. Our schools, we had three schools pilot the smarter
balance test and it was amazing. The kids were excited about taking the test.
Superintendent B commented on the positive and negative implications of computer-
based assessments but highlighted the SBAC’s positive impact on students’ attitudes
toward taking a standardized test.
Discussion
As stated in the previous discussion, the CCSS have been at the forefront of
change in many school districts. Participating superintendents stated that implementation
of 21st-century skills is embedded in the CCSS. The superintendents agreed that the
CCSS lends to a project and problem based learning structure, which teachers have begun
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 70
to utilize in their courses. Superintendents have also recognized that stakeholder buy-in
is unequivocally one of the most valuable assets to successful implementation.
Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, Who are the key stakeholders needed for
superintendents to implement 21st-century skills in a California K–12 system?
Barth (1990) determined three key stakeholders for improving schools: teachers,
parents, and principals. Barth stated that the collaboration among the mentioned parties
is one of the most essential elements necessary for schools to make progress. Marzano
and Waters (2006), however, relied heavily on the role of superintendents to initiate and
carry our change. Research Question 3 asked California superintendents to name the key
stakeholders needed to implement 21st-century skills.
Buy-In From All Stakeholders
Table 6 summarizes the participating superintendents’ responses to the question
of who are the important stakeholders in implementation of 21st-century skills.
Superintendent A stated that programmatic changes require a team of people, so
any one stakeholder is not elevated nor seen as secondary. Some of the strategies used to
attain buy-in from stakeholders are as follows. Superintendent A is a firm believer in
working with teacher and administrator unions. As a former teacher and onsite and off-
site administrator, she understands the bond between union and member. She spoke in
depth about teacher buy-in: “The next piece of course was getting staff excited about it.”
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 71
Table 6
Superintendents’ Ratings of Stakeholder Importance to 21st-Century Skills

Implementation Process

Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Average
Element (1) (2) (3) (4) rating N

Community 0 1 23 13 3.32 37
Parents 0 0 14 23 3.62 37
District-level personnel 0 0 10 27 3.73 37
School-level administrators 0 0 6 31 3.84 37
Teachers 0 0 5 32 3.86 37
Students 0 0 15 22 3.59 37
Politicians 3 11 18 5 2.68 37
Unions 2 9 14 12 2.97 37
School boards 0 0 14 23 3.62 37

Superintendent B, who also started her career in education as a classroom teacher,
understands the daily impact of a teacher on students. She mentioned the “trickle-down
effect” as the majority of the district’s population is from immigrant descent, some
students being the first generation to complete middle school. She stated that the
teacher’s role in the classroom affects not only the students but their families as well.
If I can get the teachers to do their job, and do it well, families will be exposed to
a type of education that they never got. This is not to put added pressure on
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 72
teachers, but their job is that important. It is my job to remind them of that and
get them the training and resources to do the best they can.
Superintendent B stated that the most important stakeholder in the movement
toward 21st-century teaching and learning is students. She made it clear that the
movement was for “our students, without our students, there is no purpose.” She
expressed that other stakeholders, such as teachers, board, and community, are also
pivotal to implement 21st-century skills. The survey data showed that 62.2% of the
responding superintendents strongly agreed that the board’s impact on implementing
21st-century skills in a given district is significant. Superintendent B shared that her
board was comprised of members from various professions: medical field, counselor,
military, and entrepreneurs. The diversity in this group helps her to look at education and
the direction of the school district in multiple perspectives. Although she gains full
support from the board members, she stated, “They [the board] hold me to giving them
explanations for why we’re doing what we’re doing.”
Superintendent A provided background on community buy-in: “The academies
grew out of a need to compete with charters, to be absolutely honest.” Survey results
showed that 51.4% of the responding superintendents agreed that “market pressure and
competition, including competition from charter schools, private schools, and declining
enrollment” are contributing factors for implementing 21st-century skills.
Superintendent B stated that competition between public schools and public
charter schools is high; therefore, obtaining buy-in from the community is critical for
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 73
their district. She stated that she keeps the community updated, using such methods as
the Internet, telephone messages, and town hall meetings.
Superintendent B recognized that she is also a key stakeholder: the “captain of the
boat.” She explained her role as a leader in this movement.
I’m the captain here in the boat. I’m fortunate that I have good people that I put
my trust in. That I know I can let them steer but I’m here to maybe navigate the
waters a little bit for them. I have the vision. They have the vision too but we
need to have a shared vision. The reality is, I’m part of the team but push comes
to shove, I’m the captain of the team.
Kowalski (2005) stated that the superintendent’s role as a communicator has
obstacles but he stressed that superintendents will not achieve “true school restructuring”
(p. 12) unless they are able to challenge people’s beliefs about education and encourage
and accept the notion of change. Superintendent B stated that, although she is a team
player, she also “always speaks up with respect, of course.”
Challenges in Professional Development
Although both Superintendents A and B have been implementing 21st-century
skills in their districts, they agreed that professional development for faculty and staff has
been a challenge. Superintendent A’s Director of Technology stated that, although he is
there to aid teachers in using technology as an instructional tool, many teachers are still
getting used to checking their email on a regular basis or entering grades on the
computer. The Director of Technology referred to the Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 74
Table 7
Superintendents’ Ratings of Factors That Influence Reform for 21st-Century Skills

Strongly Strongly
Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Average
Element (1) (2) (3) (4) rating N

State and federal
accountability 0 3 19 15 3.32 37
Demands from the
community/business 0 3 23 11 3.22 37
Demands from politicians 2 11 22 2 2.65 37
Market pressure and
competition, including
competition from charter
schools, private schools,
and declining enrollment 0 6 19 12 3.16 37

Development (ZPD) as he described the levels of “technology literacy” among faculty
and staff. Superintendent A supported the ZPD reference:
Teachers are learners. The ZPDs vary, a lot, among teachers and we have to
address that and differentiate the PD as we would differentiate lessons for
students in the classroom. We’ve had some resistance, as we do with anything
else that is foreign, but most teachers have embraced using technology in the
classroom, they just want to be properly trained.
Superintendent B stated,
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 75
It’s a joint effort. I have to make sure I provide them the training and the tools to
do what they need to do but by the same token, they need to be willing to do what
it takes to prepare these kids for their life beyond the XXX District.
Superintendent B added that finding the right type of professional development for
teachers is difficult. She has taken several approaches for professional development
including, but not limited to lessons done by teacher leaders, bringing in district
personnel (technology coordinator), and college counselors presenting on college
preparedness. She shared that the move toward 21st-century teaching and learning is a
“joint effort” and that she is always open to suggestions on professional development
from faculty and staff. In terms of technology, as this has been a hurdle for many of the
faculty, Superintendent B affirmed that “it will take time” for all teachers to become
comfortable in using technology in the classroom. The problem, or what Superintendent
B referred to as “the brilliant problem,” is that technology is constantly and rapidly
changing, which, in turn, puts pressure on teachers to know the newest and most
advanced technology. To this end, Superintendent B is making an effort to provide
teachers with a continuous flow of professional development opportunities that will help
to make technology a sustainable tool for the classroom.
As seen in the findings related to Research Question 2, the superintendents
considered teachers to be one of the most important stakeholders in the movement toward
21st-century teaching and learning. Survey data revealed that 86.5% of the responding
superintendents strongly agreed that teachers “are important to the implementation
process [of 21st-century skills].” Following teachers were school-level administrators at
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 76
83.5%. Superintendent A and Superintendent B agreed that onsite, in-classroom faculty
and staff are crucial to train because they have the closest relationship to students on a
day-to-day basis, thereby having the greatest impact on students on a more consistent
level.
Discussion
The participating superintendents agreed that multiple stakeholders are essential
for implementation of 21st-century skills. Survey results showed that the majority of
responding superintendents strongly agreed that teachers and onsite administrators are
two of the most important stakeholders involved in the implementation process. This
requires appropriate professional development for teachers and staff to both teach and
train school faculty and staff on 21st-century teaching and learning. The interviewed
superintendents agreed that onsite personnel, teachers, and administrators, are extremely
important to see day-to-day progress; however, one superintendent specifically identified
students as the main stakeholder for the implementation of 21st-century skills. The
superintendents also saw their own role in implementation as a critical piece of the
process. They stated that their ability to create and carry out a vision for the district is
pivotal, especially in times of major change.
Research Question 4
Research Question 4 asked, What strategies do California superintendents use to
evaluate the effectiveness of the implementation? Wagner (2008) described the global
achievement gap as one that is “fueled by fundamental economic, social, political, and
technological changes” (p. 9) that have occurred so quickly that people have difficulty in
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 77
using the changes to their benefit. Wagner stated that the changes are “powerful”;
therefore, people must understand the new type of knowledge and how to teach the new
knowledge that is pivotal to closing the global achievement gap. Research Question 4
was developed to collect data on how California superintendents evaluate implementation
of 21st-century skills in their public school districts.
Informal Assessments
Superintendents are active members of an educational community. Callahan
(1966) and Kowalski (2003) described a superintendent’s role using five characteristics:
“The first four—teacher-scholar, manager, democratic leader, and applied social scientist;
the fifth, communicator” (Kowalski, 2005, p. 3). Superintendents A and B both aligned
their positions to the five characteristics, as both are committed to being the formal leader
of the district, while not remaining sedentary rather than active participants in classrooms
and school/community events. Superintendent A emphasized the importance of site
visitation and “seeing the magic first hand, not from a report or even from a video
taping.” Superintendent A stated that she informally assesses the teachers and students
when visiting classrooms. Although she does not have formal paperwork for
observations, she makes it a priority to leave feedback after each classroom visit.
Although Superintendent A uses parent, teacher, and student surveys as formal
assessments, she stated that she values informal assessments, mainly school site
visitations, more.
Superintendent B was adamant about using data—any type of data—to do initial
evaluations. She described her district as “entering the initial stage of evaluation for
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 78
21st-century teaching and learning.” Although Superintendent B admitted that “it’s a
little harder to get the data on these [21st century] skills at this time,” she was confident
that classroom observations and student products are valuable data. Similar to
Superintendent A, Superintendent B is a strong proponent of school visitations and
communicating with students directly about their work in the classroom. Superintendent
B described a recent class visit:
I went in and watched them doing it. The process was them working together to
design the vehicle and create the vehicle and do all those things. You can have
something tangible at the end. Did they create their vehicles? Did it work?
Superintendent B added that the school site administrators should be able to evaluate, at a
minimum, informally assess the effectiveness of any given program. “It comes down to
trusting your administrators and their evaluation of the program. If you don’t have trust
in your administrators and them having the ability to evaluate a program, you have the
wrong administration in place.” This is also mirrored in the survey results, as “school-
level administrators” ranked second highest (83.8%) in importance for implementation of
21st-century skills. Surveys are another method that Superintendent B uses to evaluate
the effectiveness of implementation. However, she stated that, as of now,
Surveys are a decent source of data, but still somewhat unreliable. I would rather
take the time to talk to parents, teachers, and especially students. I prefer either
direct conversations, observations, or presentations done by students or teachers at
a town hall or board meeting.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 79
Adjustment in Grading Systems
In addition to assessing students based on the CCSS using the SBAC,
Superintendent A stated that a shift in grading policies and systems must occur.
I think ultimately, that’s going to boil down to how we’re going to access them to
our report cards. We are in the middle of a very controversial change and shift
with the Common Core State Standards. That requires us to even change the way
that we grade our students. Right now, as we speak even, our report card is
changing. We’ve changed and modified the elementary report card, beginning
with Kindergarten that’s already started with Common Core and how with first
grade. Over time, that report card is going to have to look slightly different
because we’re assessing our kids slightly differently. It’s not a matter of whether
they just learn the content like in the past—that’s what our report card, it’s
standards based report card is based on – whether they learn the standards within
a certain period of time. Now, we have to really think through, what is it that
we’re expecting our kids to be able to learn and do?
Superintendent A also showed interest in students creating comprehensive
portfolios that could be attached to their report cards as another measure of achievement
and effectiveness of implementation of the program.
PBL, as defined by Blumenfeld et al. (1991), is “a comprehensive approach to
classroom teaching and learning that is designed to engage students in investigation of
authentic problems” (p. 369). Superintendent B stated that moving toward 21st-century
teaching and learning will have to include assessing and grading students differently. She
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 80
emphasized assessing students on “what they know and are able to do.” Although this
district has not developed a report card or system of grading, they have begun to use PBL
as another measure of assessment. Superintendent B stated that PBL allows teachers to
be facilitators of learning rather than the “sole source or giver of knowledge” in the
classroom. PBL allows teachers to assess the processes that students go through to get to
the final product. Superintendent B explained that much of the process involves the use
of 21st-century skills.
Underdeveloped Evaluation System
Overall, both Superintendents A and B expressed understanding of a need for a
proper evaluation system. Both superintendents reported that their districts were
currently assessing students using multiple measures and they agreed that programs and
curriculum should also be assessed in this way. Superintendent A stated that creating a
system that is equitable for all students that measures content knowledge, skills
(mechanical and 21st century), and interdisciplinary understandings is a challenge. She
acknowledged that it is her charge to lead and open doors for the district to make this
type of system a reality.
Superintendent B considered recurring high enrollment and less year-to-year
transiency as indicators of successful implementation. She noted that, although this type
of data is not part of a formal assessment of a given program, the correlation between the
two is undeniable.
There is no data to really assess. You have to find ways that you can assess it but
without data, we’re just talking. That’s the reality if you don’t have data and
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 81
some of the data is things like has your enrollment increased at schools because
that’s a success indicator. Do you have more kids that are staying at, less
transiency is a success indicator. We have a highly transient population here. We
also are seeing now that we have families that may be moving. They’re still
bringing the kids back to school here because they don’t want to lose that
experience. That is some data that is real, that we can use.
Discussion
Implementation of 21st-century skills requires a district to undergo a systemic
change. Although districts have yet to develop an evaluation system for implementation
of 21st-century skills, the interviewed superintendents reported that they have taken
several measures to carry out some degree of evaluation for their programs. Classroom
observations, analyzing student work, and adjusting grading systems are among the
strategies used by these superintendents to evaluate implementation.
Chapter Summary
According to the survey results and interview data, the participating
superintendents were aware of the need to move toward 21st-century teaching and
learning. They revealed the steps that they had already implemented and ones that they
planned to implement to lead their districts in a direction that best serves their students
and community to be successful members of a 21st-century society.
The findings related to Research Question 1, How do California superintendents
define 21st-century skills?” were categorized into three themes: (a) connections to CCSS;
(b) The four Cs: communication, collaboration, creativity, and critical thinking; and (c)
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 82
technology as an instructional tool. The CCSS were emphasized in both interviews as
districts are preparing to implement them fully in coming years. In many of the interview
responses, superintendents used the four Cs synonymously with 21st-century skills.
Rather than focusing on technology as a component of 21st-century skills, the
participating superintendents referred to technology as an essential tool for teaching and
learning in the 21st century.
The findings related to Research Question 2, How do California superintendents
implement 21st-century skills? were categorized in one main theme: implementation of
CCSS. Within this theme, Superintendent A discussed implementing project-based
learning and PBL. She stated that the CCSS were conducive to this type of learning and
assessment. Both superintendents relied heavily on the CCSS to guide their teachers for
future instruction.
The findings related to Research Question 3, Who are the key stakeholders needed
for superintendents to implement 21st-century skills in a California K–12 System?” were
categorized in two themes: (a) buy-in from all stakeholders, and (b) challenges in
professional development. Superintendents from both survey and interview data showed
that multiple stakeholders are needed to implement 21st-century skills. The survey
results highlighted teachers, onsite administrators, and the board as being most important.
The interview data showed similar results, although one superintendent stressed the
importance of seeing students as an essential stakeholder as well. Professional
development was seen as a necessity and challenge during the process of implementation.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 83
The participating superintendents understood that purposeful and frequent professional
development is needed to ensure a smooth implementation process.
The findings related to Research Question 4, What strategies do California
superintendents use to evaluate the effectiveness of the implementation? were categorized
in three themes: (a) informal assessments, (b) adjustment in grading systems, and (c)
underdeveloped evaluation systems. Both interviewed superintendents stated that
informal assessment of both student work and teacher instruction was one of the main
methods of evaluation. Both superintendents are active on school sites but rely heavily
on onsite administrators to conduct informal assessments and observations periodically.
Superintendent B used attendance and transiency data as an added source of program
evaluation. Although these superintendents are trying to use multiple measures to
evaluate the implementation of 21st-century skills, the lack of an official evaluation
system was the strongest sentiment expressed in responses to questions related to
Research Question 4. Superintendent A noted that, until the CCSS are fully implemented
and district grading systems are completely re-imagined, a formal evaluation system will
be difficult to implement. However, both superintendents were open and eager to begin
the process of creating an evaluation system for their programs to serve the needs of their
respective districts.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 84
Chapter 5
Conclusions
This chapter presents a summary of the study, including the statement of the
problem, purpose, research questions, methodology, and findings reported in Chapter 4 to
address the four research questions. The chapter concludes with implications for current
practice and recommendations for future studies on 21st-century teaching and learning.
Statement of the Problem
While there have been many studies on 21st century education—its necessity to
compete in the global economy, building up critical thinking skills, sparking curiosity,
and encouraging innovation, little is known about the characteristics and strategies of
superintendents who implement 21st-century skills in their respective school districts.
This study examined several California superintendents’ implementation of 21st-century
skills in the K–12 public school system.
Purpose of the Study
The findings from the research will provide superintendents and other district
leaders with the direction and the intellectual resources to plan their own implementation
of 21st-century skills, as defined by Wagner (2008). Key stakeholders and their roles for
implementation were identified. Evaluation of the 21st-century skills implementation
was provided in this report.
Research Questions
1. How do California superintendents define 21st-century skills?
2. How do California superintendents implement 21st-century skills?
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 85
3. Who are the key stakeholders needed for superintendents to implement 21st-
century skills in a California K–12 system?
4. What strategies do California superintendents use to evaluate the effectiveness
of the implementation?
Methodology
This study included in-depth interviews with 10 California public school
superintendents, which provided the qualitative data related to the four research
questions. Chapter 4 provided an analysis of data from two of the interviews.
Quantitative data were collected in the form of responses to an electronic survey. The
survey was sent to 100 California public school superintendents; 37 response sets were
collected. A mixed-methods approach was taken to reach a wide range of
superintendents and to achieve triangulation among quantitative and qualitative responses
(Creswell, 2009).
Summary of Findings
Research Question 1 asked, How do California superintendents define 21st-
century skills?” The three themes that emerged were (a) connections to CCSS, (b) the
four Cs: communication, collaboration, creativity, and critical thinking, and (c)
technology as an instructional tool. Many participating superintendents used the four Cs
synonymously with 21st-century skills. Both interviewed superintendents had begun to
implement the CCSS, which led both to refer to the standards as they were defining 21st-
century skills. Technology was emphasized as a teaching and learning tool, although the
sentiment was positive in terms of general student exposure to technology.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 86
Research Question 2 asked, How do California superintendents implement 21st-
century skills? One major theme emerged: implementation of CCSS. As mentioned
regarding the responses related to Research Question 1, the two superintendents had
already partially implemented the CCSS. Therefore, both superintendents related their
responses to the CCSS when asked about implementation. Both superintendents also
mentioned their integration of technology in the classroom, which required specific
professional developments and, in the case of Superintendent A, a new Instructional
Technology sector in district headquarters. She stated that it was important for her to
separate the Information Technology Department and Instructional Technology because
she understood that the two served different purposes. Both superintendents agreed that
this is a transitional time in education and shared the idea that implementation of 21st-
century skills is a process that will happen over time.
Research Question 3 asked, Who are the key stakeholders needed for
superintendents to implement 21st-century skills in a California K–12 system? The two
major themes that emerged were (a) buy-in from all stakeholders, and (b) challenges in
professional development. Survey data showed that 86.5% of the responding
superintendents strongly agreed that teachers are key stakeholders in the implementation
of 21st-century skills. Superintendents A and B agreed that teachers are key stakeholders
but emphasized that buy-in by many stakeholders is necessary to make systemic changes.
Superintendent B rated students as the top stakeholder in the implementation of 21st-
century skills. Superintendents A and B both spoke to the difficulty of providing
adequate professional development for staff and faculty. Although both superintendents
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 87
welcomed reform, they agreed that training teachers on new standards and technology is
a challenge.
Research Question 4 asked, What strategies do California superintendents use to
evaluate the effectiveness of the implementation? Three themes that emerged were (a)
informal assessments, (b) adjustment in grading systems, and (c) underdeveloped
evaluation systems. The superintendents’ responses were most frequent in the “informal
assessment” theme. Superintendents A and B stated that they are highly visible on school
sites and conduct frequent informal observations. Superintendent A stated that CCSS and
the push toward 21st-century teaching and learning will require grading systems to be
updated. She reported that her district is already making changes to accommodate 21st-
century skills. Underdeveloped evaluation systems was an underlying theme to most of
the superintendents’ responses. Although the superintendents are trying to use innovative
ways to teach and grade students and use multiple measures to evaluate the effectiveness
of implementation, a formal evaluation system has yet to be developed. Even as the
superintendents were explaining their districts’ methods, both emphasized that an official
evaluation system was needed.
Implications
Marzano and Waters (2006) stated that a superintendent’s main function in a
school system is to initiate and carry out change. The findings reported in this study
show how the superintendents defined, implemented, and evaluated the effectiveness of
the implementation of 21st-century skills in their respective districts. The qualitative data
revealed that the superintendents take ownership in leading districts into a 21st-century
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 88
mindset but understand that change cannot be achieved in isolation; rather, it must
involve dedicated stakeholders. Quantitative data showed that outside factors, such as
globalization and the charter school movement, influence superintendents’ desire to
reform public school education to fit a 21st-century society. Superintendents are still
faced with challenges in properly training faculty and staff to use 21st-century skills in
their instruction, including the use of instructional technology and creating a system to
evaluate systemic changes.
Recommendations for Future Study
To expand on this study on superintendents’ implementation of 21st-century skills
in public school districts, the following two recommendations are proposed:
In this study, researchers interviewed only current public school superintendents,
which represents only one perspective on the implementation of 21st-century skills. To
gain more perspectives on superintendents’ implementation of 21st-century skills, other
stakeholders, such as teachers, administrators, and community members, should be
invited to contribute to the qualitative data.
Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected during summer 2013. It is
recommended that future studies extend the time period for data collection. Because all
of the data were collected during off-time for superintendents, their responses to
interview and survey questions reflected their thoughts in retrospect or in looking ahead
to the next school year. Interviewing and surveying during the school year, when
superintendents are at school sites and having regular face time with teachers and
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 89
students, would allow researchers to compare and contrast superintendents’ responses
and sentiments from various times of the school year.
Conclusion
As the scope of public school education is in the midst of great change, the
superintendent’s role becomes exponentially significant. The superintendent’s ability to
navigate changes while staying attentive to the needs of their district and community is
vital to a district’s success. This study has shown how various superintendents’
implementation of 21st-century skills differed from district to district, even as leadership
qualities of successful superintendents shared similar characteristics.
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 90
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Appendix A
Research Question/Instrument Connection
Research Question 1: How do CA superintendents define 21st-century skills?
 How do CA superintendents define 21st-century skills?
 What are the goals of 21st-century skills for your district?
 What are your thoughts about 21st Century learning and how does it affect your
school district?
Research Question 2: How do CA superintendents implement 21st-century skills?
 How do CA superintendents implement 21st-century skills?
 Tell me what steps have been taken to implement 21st Century learning in your
district?
 What challenges do you face in trying to implement 21st Century learning in your
school? How have you met these challenges?
Research Question 3: Who are the key stakeholders needed for superintendents to
implement 21st-century skills in a California K–12 system?
 Who are the key stakeholders needed for superintendents to implement 21st-
century skills in a California K–12 system?
 What role does the district office have in implementing 21st-century skills?
 What role does the board have in implementing 21st-century skills?
 What role do principals have in implementing 21st-century skills?
 What role do your teachers and unions have in implementing 21st-century skills?
 What role does your community have in implementing 21st-century skills
 What challenges do you face in involving all stakeholders in the implementation
of the 21st-century skills?
Research Question 4: What strategies do California superintendents use to evaluate the
effectiveness of the implementation?
 What strategies do superintendents use to evaluate the effectiveness of the
implementation?
 How do you evaluate the effectiveness of implementing 21st-century skills?
 What indicators or measures do you use?
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 103
Appendix B
Survey Instrument
1. Highest educational attainment?
Bachelor’s Degree
Master’s Degree
Other Professional Degree
Doctoral Degree
2. Years of experience as the superintendent in your current school district:
__________
3. Years of experience as a school superintendent: ______
4. To what extent do you agree that the following factors influence reform for 21
st

Century skills? (Please rank in order from most important (rank 1) to least
important (rank 4)
a. State and federal accountability _________
b. Demands from the community/businesses _________
c. Demands from politicians _________
d. Market pressure and competition, including competition from charter schools,
private schools, and declining enrollment _________

5. To what extent do you agree that the following stakeholders are important to the
implementation process? (1 = Strongly disagree; 2 = Disagree; 3 = Agree, 4 =
Strongly agree)
a. Community 1 2 3 4
b. Parents 1 2 3 4
c. District-level personnel 1 2 3 4
d. School-level administrators 1 2 3 4
e. Teachers 1 2 3 4
f. Students 1 2 3 4
g. Politicians 1 2 3 4
h. Unions 1 2 3 4
i. School boards 1 2 3 4
SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 104

6. To what extent do you agree that the following factors influence implementation
of reform with a focus on 21st-century skills?

a. Globalization 1 2 3 4
b. Focus on California education 1 2 3 4
c. Economic and business impact 1 2 3 4
d. 21st-century skills frameworks 1 2 3 4
e. Leadership for reform 1 2 3 4

SUPERINTENDENTS AND 21ST-CENTURY SKILLS 105
Appendix C
Interview Cover Letter

Dear Superintendent,
My name is Suzy Kim Zeitlin, a doctoral student in the Rossier School of Education at
USC. I am conducting a research study as part of my dissertation process under the
direction of Dr. Garcia and Dr. Castruita.
Our research focuses on a Study of California Public School District Superintendents and
their Implementation of 21st-century skills. Thank you for your willingness to participate
in a 30-minute interview.
Participation in this study is entirely voluntary. This research study has been reviewed
and approved by the University of Southern California Institutional Review Board for
Human Subjects Research. The IRB believes that the research procedures safeguard your
privacy, welfare, civil liberties, anonymity, and rights. Please be assured that your
participation and answers will be kept confidential and anonymous. In no way will any
data be presented in any manner where any individual can be identified. If you have any
questions, please feel free to contact me at the information listed below.
Our interview has been scheduled to take place at your office on:

Date Time
Attached please find a list of topics and questions we may cover during this interview.
Please feel free to contact me if you have any questions. Thank you for your
participation.
Sincerely,
Suzy Kim Zeitlin, USC doctoral candidate
date

Abstract (if available)

Abstract The purpose of this study was to provide superintendents and other district leaders intellectual and practical resources to guide their implementation of 21st-century skills in their respective districts. The study utilized a mixed-methods approach to address 4 research questions related to 21st-century teaching and learning. Quantitative data were collected via an online survey of 37 California superintendents and qualitative data were collected via interviews with two California superintendents. Results showed that California superintendents defined 21st-century skills in various ways. They connected 21st-century skills to the Common Core State Standards, communication, collaboration, critical thinking, and creativity, as well as use of technology as an instructional tool. They related implementation of 21st-century skills to implementation of the Common Core State Standards. Key stakeholders included teachers, onsite administrators, and superintendents, as well as others. The superintendents were concerned with obtaining buy-in from all stakeholders and providing adequate professional development for faculty and staff. The superintendents conducted informal assessments and had started to make adjustments in grading systems. They understood the need for a formal evaluation systems for 21st-century teaching and learning.

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Creator Zeitlin, Suzy Kim (author)

Core Title A study of California public school district superintendents and their implementation of 21st-century skills

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 11/26/2013

Defense Date 09/17/2013

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag 21st-century skills,K-12 education,leadership,OAI-PMH Harvest,superintendents

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Advisor García, Pedro Enrique (committee chair), Castruita, Rudy Max (committee member), Thorndyke, Alison (committee member)

Creator Email suzyekim@gmail.com,Suzykim@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-350727

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