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Professional development: a six-year data evaluation of HIDTA law enforecement task force training programs

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Professional development: a six-year data evaluation of HIDTA law enforecement task force training programs

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PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT: A SIX-YEAR DATA EVALUATION OF
HIDTA LAW ENFORCEMENT TASK FORCE TRAINING PROGRAMS

by

Larry D. Burnett

_____________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2012

Copyright 2012 Larry D. Burnett

ii
DEDICATION
“This is Dedicated to the One I Love”...#3 on Billboard, the Shirelles,
(Lowman & Bass, 1959)...even though Carla is expecting jewelry.

iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is fitting to recognize and acknowledge the contribution of ONDCP’s
Norvell; NHAC’s Martin, Wells, Alfonso, Sosa, and Walters; PMP’s Carr, Boulton,
Pond, Epply, Okorie, and Pallutch; and the aid of contributing HIDTA Directors and
Training Coordinators. I will be forever grateful to talented educators Sundt, Picus,
Brewer, Moreno, and Agcaoili who gave freely of their decades of knowledge which
added clarity and purpose to this research.

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication ii
Acknowledgements iii
List of Tables v
List of Figures vi
Abstract vii
Preface ix
Chapter One Introduction 1
Chapter Two: Literature Review 28
Chapter Three: Research Methodology 46
Chapter Four: Findings 63
Chapter Five: Conclusions 88
References 100
Appendix: Professional Development Evaluation Worksheet 113

v
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1: Four-Level Evaluation Model 15
Table 1.2: Structural Features of Professional Development 20
Table 2.1: Andragogy and Pedagogy Assumptions 34
Table 3.1: HOTT and PMP System Data 61
Table 4.1: 2010 Training Data 69
Table 4.2: Training Survey Response To Improving Knowledge 71
Table 4.3: Application of Training to Job Related Duties 73
Table 4.4: On-the-Job Adaptation and Transference 76
Table 4.5: Challenges Facing Best Practices Implementation 78

vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1. HIDTA locality map (ONDCP, 2011) 5
Figure 2.1. Comparison of andragogy to pedagogy 33
Figure 3.1. PMP table 5 (HIDTA, 2010) 56
Figure 3.2. PMP table 7 (HIDTA, 2010) 57
Figure 4.1. Linear Comparison All Regions/HIDTAs 66
Figure 4.2. Graph - knowledge improvement through training 72
Figure 4.3. Graph - job application through training 75
Figure 5.1. R2 seizures 2005-2010 (PMP) 94
Figure 5.2. R3 seizures 2005-2010 (PMP) 95

vii
ABSTRACT
This is a nationwide six-year data study of law enforcement training and
professional development in relationship to workplace productivity.
Why do we care about law enforcement training and professional
development? Because the law enforcement environment is not standing still.
Unlawful activity, and in particular drug trafficking strategies, change by the minute.
System-wide law enforcement technologies, legislation, regulations and interdiction
strategies are constantly adapting. Somehow what we learn from these adaptations
has to permeate the law enforcement system. Failing to adapt to changing threats
endangers the safety/security of our nation, communities, and officers. It also creates
potential liability for law enforcement entities and municipalities (McDevitt et al.,
2003; Ross, 1998; Sharpe, 1992). This liability is offset with “effective” professional
development and training (U.S. Supreme Court, 1989; Ross, 1998).
What then is effective professional development and training? To help
answer this question, this study is focused on the evaluation of training provided to
High Intensity Drug Trafficking Area (HIDTA) Program law enforcement task
forces. Without proper evaluation it is difficult to determine if the professional
development is arming officers with the knowledge they need to succeed. What was
a successful training program yesterday may not be a cost-effective program
tomorrow. This research brings to light the relationship between HIDTA sponsored
professional development and effectiveness. It also shows to what extent students

viii
agree the training improves job related knowledge, skills, and abilities and to what
extent students transfer their new knowledge to the job.
This study analyzed six years (2005-2010) of HIDTA enforcement
operational and training records to discover a strong (73%) performance predictive
for forecasting future and/or past seizure rates based on the number of students
trained per year and the number of hours provided. This study also analyzed 56,441
individual student records involving 683,456 training hours isolated from 2010 to
find a positive confirmation of students (m=89.54) that the HIDTA sponsored
training improved their job related knowledge and skills; and a positive finding
(m=79.97) that the professional development is being transferred to on the job
productivity.
What makes the context of this study unique is the autonomy with which
individual HIDTAs operate. HIDTAs funded and operated 32 independent training
programs in 2010. However, because the programs operate independently,
participation ranged from 4 students being trained in one, to 5,510 students in
another, with 56 training hours being sponsored in the first, and 73,866 training
hours in the second. This study examines these and other findings, then concludes
with a bottom-line discussion of what it all means, including: the strong correlation
between professional development and work-related outcomes; the high satisfaction
and transference of training into practice; individual HIDTA autonomy and
independence; the potential influence of other non-training variables upon work
success/ failure; and the need for further study.

ix
PREFACE
I am afraid that we know the cost of everything
but the value of nothing

April 27, 2011, Mark A. Marshall, President
International Association of Chiefs of Police

Founded in 1893, the International Association of Chiefs of Police
(IACP) is the world’s oldest and largest association of law
enforcement executives. The IACP sets standards for law enforcement
trainers, trainings, and practitioners based on these principles - the
aggregate nature of learning comes from the interface between
education and practical experience; and skill is acquired from the
successive application of education to experience. (IACP, 2011)

1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background
Crime and criminal activity have evolved and morphed themselves
throughout history. Every such change requires a corresponding law enforcement
reaction, not just in the technology, but also in the way crime prevention and
detection education/training is structured and delivered (IACP, 2010). One of the
biggest changes is in the old police standard of waiting for a centralized dispatch to
relay service calls. The new model requires law enforcement officers to be proactive
in protecting the nation and communities they serve (Raymond et al., 2005). The
basic complexity of the police role has moved from narrowly focused crime fighting
to a far broader and more complex role as peacekeepers and problem solvers who are
asked to respond to an infinite range of social problems (Goldstein, 1977, 1979,
1990). Law enforcement personnel are being asked to create solutions and increase
tolerance for risk-taking in problem-solving (IACP, 2010). In return they are given a
significant amount of discretion to handle complex problems (IACP, 2010).
Developing new strategies in response to problem-oriented policing requires
balance. Often the line between the criminal element and innocent “civilians” is not
easily drawn. Intrusive types of investigative and interdiction operations have the
potential to adversely affect the interests of innocent people, resulting in allegations
of abusive searches and misapplication of authority. In contrast, proper interdiction
operations can result in far fewer airline passengers being searched while the number

2
of drug seizures can rise. For example, Customs and Border Protection (CBP) units
searched 9,008 of the roughly 80 million international airline passengers passing
through customs in the fiscal year ending Sept. 30, 2010. That was a 61 percent drop
from the 23,108 searched during the previous fiscal year. Even as searches went
down, seizures of cocaine, heroin and ecstasy rose by 25 percent during the same
period (CBP, 2011).
The “work smarter not harder” proclivity has led law enforcement
administrators and policy makers to become increasingly aware of the benefits of
having officers and federal agents participate in continuing education and
professional development programs as a means of providing officers with the skills
they need to stay current with the changing dimensions of law enforcement. Most
police agencies set a goal for their personnel to participate in a minimum number of
hours of continuing education and/or professional development (Raymond et al.,
2005; Hickman, 2006). Law enforcement training now encompasses subjects that
include responses to man-made and natural disasters, terrorism, and a host of other
societal issues, including integrity and work related outcomes (Raymond et al.,
2005). The need for effective professional development is especially evident within
investigative and interdiction task forces, where public contact is a constant and
mistakes lead to liability for both the officer and the employing agency/department.
In police phraseology the term “interdiction” refers to the intercept and
seizure of illegal drugs, explosives/firearms, human trafficking, terrorism/terrorists
or other illegal or harmful items which may be transported and/or smuggled across

3
international borders and/or state boundaries (Finckenauer, 2009; Banks, 2003;
Alldrige, 2002; Stack, 1991; Guerra, 1973). Many intertwined law enforcement
organizations, including those participating within High Intensity Drug Trafficking
Areas (HIDTA), are engaged in investigative and interdiction operational activity
(ONDCP, 2011; Hawaii HIDTA, 2010). On an average day law enforcement
personnel at U.S. international airports, seaports, and land border crossings process
989,689 individuals; 57,761 truck, rail, and sea containers; and 271,278 privately
owned vehicles (Single day statistical snapshot from US Customs and Border
Protection website: retrieved 02/16/2010).
Investigative and interdiction officers are often the first to make contact with
arriving passengers and must decide in a matter of minutes who is detained and/or
handed over to the criminal justice system (Younglove, Kerr, & Vitello, 2002). The
extremes of not making the right decisions result in unlawful detentions, racial/ethnic
profiling, baseless seizures and/or conversely illicit drugs, contraband, and
guns/explosives, etc., slipping through the border. The power to decide comes with a
corresponding legal responsibility. Officers, supervisors, departments, and
municipalities can be held civilly liable for failing to adequately train their officers
(McDevitt et al. 2003). Effective professional development and training are defenses
against this liability (U.S. Supreme Court, 1989; Ross, 1998).
This study focused on the evaluation of the effectiveness of professional
development provided to HIDTA law enforcement task forces in relation to
output/outcomes...using seizure rates as a proxy. Evaluation of professional

4
development serves to better understand training so that it can be strengthened, and
to determine what effects the training [on HIDTA law enforcement task forces] has
had in terms of intended outcomes (Guskey, 2000). This study is not meant as a
critique on the effectiveness of individual HIDTAs.
HIDTA Structure and Organization
The Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988 and the Office of National Drug Control
Policy (ONDCP) Reauthorization Act of 1998 authorizes areas within the United
States which exhibit serious illicit drug trafficking problems as High Intensity Drug
Trafficking Areas (HIDTA) (ONDCP, 2011). The HIDTA program provides
assistance to Federal, State, local, and tribal law enforcement agencies with
responsibility for jurisdictions in critically impacted regions of the United States.
At the local level, the HIDTAs are directed and guided by Executive Boards
composed of an equal number of regional Federal and non-Federal (State, local, and
tribal) law enforcement leaders. A unique attribute of the HIDTA program is the
autonomy given to Executive Boards to design and implement initiatives to address
local and regional threats. This autonomy creates independence when establishing
training and professional development needs. Each HIDTA continually assesses
training needs in its area of responsibility, develops a training strategy to address
those needs, and provides for implementation. Funding is attached to each training
initiative and an annual report is produced to detail annual performance (Hawaii
HIDTA, 2010; NHAC, 2006; ONDCP, 2010). The HIDTA program funds training
initiatives in 45 States, as well as in Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the

5
District of Columbia. The program’s 57 Intelligence and Investigative Support
Centers help HIDTAs identify new trends, develop threat assessments, and call
attention to training needs.

Figure 1.1. HIDTA locality map (ONDCP, 2011)

There are currently 32 HIDTAs, 5 forming the southwest border alliance,
which include approximately 16% of counties and 60 percent of the U.S. population.
Note: the five HIDTAs which form the southwest border initiative are often referred
to as a single unit in ONDCP/HIDTA literature declaring 28 HIDTAs. For purposes
of this study the individual 32 HIDTAs will be used.

6
HIDTA Performance Management Process
The Performance Management Process (PMP) monitors the extent to which
individual HIDTAs meet performance goals, including self-directed and independent
training programs. The central element of the PMP is a collection of 14 required core
tables which standardize the collection of key data from individual HIDTAs for
quarterly and annual reporting purposes. PMP data can also be reported in an
infinite number of threat specific tables which are used in individual HIDTA annual
reports and threat assessments to highlight local accomplishments or unique
operations (ONDCP, 2011).
Performance data are compared to a baseline and a three year average for
annual reporting purposes. As an example, core table data are collected for
enforcement where the underlying seizure data represents the output/results of
investigative and interdiction task forces. Only a nominal amount of data, usually
totals by category, within the PMP database are used for annual reporting purposes.
The information and data contained in the larger database within the PMP system
will be used to support this study (ONDCP, 2011).
The PMP system also captures information from the HIDTA Online Training
Tracker (HOTT) system. Data within the HOTT system includes, among other
information, student data, training hours data, surveys, and an analysis of six month
follow-up responses. The HOTT data are used for a specific core table within PMP,
which is comprised of summarized totals of the data contained within the much

7
larger HOTT system data base. The data within the larger HOTT system will also be
used in this study.
HIDTA Online Training Tracker
In order to populate the PMP, all HIDTAs must maintain personnel training
records by using the HIDTA Online Training Tracker (HOTT). This tracking system
enables each HIDTA to access the following features (NHAC, 2011):
• courses and course descriptions;
• printable calendar of events;
• description of course providers;
• student rosters;
• transcripts;
• training costs;
• tracking for Annual Report and PMP.
Both HOTT and PMP are incorporated into ONDCP’s Program Policy and
Budget Guidance for the HIDTA program to provide detailed, accurate, and timely
information for auditing and accountability as required by the Government
Performance and Results Act (GPRA) (NHAC, 2010). To meet this end the ONDCP
adopted a standardized glossary of training terms created by the developers of the
respective training courses and was accepted as the standard by the policy writers.
“The acceptance of these terms will mean that everyone will be working within the
same framework under a consistent vocabulary, which will ultimately help
strengthen communication across the board,” (p. 2) says Vikki Wells, Training

8
Manager at the National HIDTA Assistance Center (NHAC). Additionally, HIDTAs
are required to have a separate training initiative and budget (NHAC, 2006). By
separating the training initiative budget from other initiatives, it is much easier to
keep track of costs and determine precise dollar amounts spent on training for each
student hour. “With the stringent government accountability reporting and PMP
requirements, this system makes it easier to accurately track costs and use funding
that is earmarked specifically for training,” says Wells (NHAC, 2006, p.2).
All HIDTAs must specify the portion of their training budget dedicated to a
training coordinator position. Many of these people are part-time coordinators
wearing many hats and the time dedicated to the training function must be specified
in the initiative’s budget (ONDCP, 2011).
Transitioning Training into Tactical Operations
Interdiction initiatives are purposely designed as a strategy to counter the
transportation and smuggling of illegal drugs by forming officers and agents into
HIDTA interdiction task forces (HITF) (ONDCP, 2009). Police Officers and Federal
Agents assigned to HITFs are expected to modify their tactical operations to counter
the constantly evolving pressures from a wide range of criminals and crime groups
(Hawaii HIDTA, 2010; Ross, 1998). HITF personnel learn to modify tactical
operations through a combination of informal communication among individual
HITFs and formal in-service training...the most common being formal in-service
training. The evaluation of some of that training is the subject of this study.

9
Personnel rotate in and out of HIDTA. Depending on their department’s or
agency’s rotational policy, which varies widely across the nation, officers/agents can
expect an assignment of 18-24 months (36 months for skilled investigative positions
such as homicide, sex crimes and narcotics). At a minimum sixteen law enforcement
departments and agencies participate in each of the individual HIDTAs; each with
their own rotational calendars. Rotating officers among assignments and shifts help
create a well-rounded and skilled work force, however it also creates a situation
where officers, whether experienced or rookie, regularly need additional training and
professional development (ONCP, 2011). In 2010, approximately $4.4 million was
invested in training and related activities, both within individual HIDTAs and at the
NHAC. In 2010, HIDTAs trained or supported training for 56,441 law enforcement
professionals and support staff. The vast majority of these students (46,481students,
or 82.4% of the total) received training related to investigative and interdiction
activities. The remainder of the training involved intelligence and information
sharing (4,478, 7.9%), management and coordination (4,228, 7.5%) and support
activities, i.e., related to demand reduction and assisting drug-endangered children
(1,254, 2.2%) (ONDCP, 2011; HOTT, 2011; PMP, 2011).
Despite the large amounts of time and resources invested in HIDTA
professional development there remains limited evaluation of the training in
relationship to implementation and the effect it has on enforcement outcomes.
Rather than recognizing the need for sustained learning, most professional
development efforts are seen as a simple updating of officer skills. Although there is

10
a need for a validated evaluation of professional development for officers, there has
been little guidance as to how that professional development should be delivered,
what content should be covered, or what constitutes excellence in professional
development (Creswell, 2005). This shortfall led, in part, to the development of the
PMP and HOTT systems. But, despite the large amount of training data collected,
there are relatively few studies from which we can draw conclusions about the
characteristics of effective professional development (NHAC, 2010). Most of the
data collected focuses solely on participant reactions to the professional development
experience; limited analysis has examined the relationship between professional
development and changes in officer practice and/or outcomes (NHAC, 2010).
Statement of the Problem
Law enforcement officers and agents hold the power to serve as a filter in
determining inclusion or exclusion of individuals from induction into the criminal
justice system (Younglove, Kerr, & Vitello, 2002). This power comes with a
corresponding liability associated with training and professional development
(McDevitt et al. 2003). In the City of Canton v. Harris (1989) the United States
Supreme Court ruled that law enforcement supervisors, departments, and
municipalities can be held civilly liable for failing to adequately train their officers.
In failure to train cases, plaintiffs allege officers lacked the “skills, knowledge, and
competency required in a range of situations” (Ross, 1998, p. 87).
In a study of 22 states from 1986 to 1991, the Gannett News Service found
that 185 officers were defendants in 100 lawsuits where police paid $100,000 or

11
more for each incident. Governmental entities paid $92 million in monetary
damages to plaintiffs in these 100 cases (Sharpe, 1992). Law enforcement
organizations within HIDTAs assess drug trafficking problems and design specific
strategies to reduce or eliminate liability and risk (Hawaii HIDTA, 2010). HIDTA
training programs are one strategy for use by law enforcement to increase officer
competency and generate greater efficiency within investigative and interdiction
operations (ONDCP, 2010). To track training HIDTAs assemble and input statistical
data on training activities, including follow-up surveys of usefulness, into the HOTT
system, for population of the PMP. Despite the positive trends in the amount of
training conducted and the number of student participants, the individual HIDTA and
national annual reports are unclear about which components of the training/
professional development contributed to the outcomes.
Difficulties of Evaluation
Key among the challenges of providing specialized training is measuring its
effectiveness (Raymond, Hickman, Miller, & Wong, 2005). Many factors influence
performance and have an impact on seizure statistics. Police training is often
multifaceted, as with other professions, rarely is just one intervention put into
practice (Guskey, 2009). Every HIDTA and task force is different; there are few
generalizable best practices which will be effective for all. Because of the numerous
outside influences and the perceived difficulty of measuring effectiveness, law
enforcement rarely allocates resources towards evaluating professional development
(Guskey, 2009). It is comparatively easy to count instances of group effort that

12
occur during professional development activities, but far more difficult to determine
the quality and impact of those activities in the workplace (Guskey, 2000).
Joellen Killion (2008) in Assessing Impact: Evaluating Staff Development,
also comments on the difficulty in the collection of relevant performance data.
Killion refers to most evaluations as “black-boxes” which offer little information
about how a professional development program worked to produce results. Most
evaluation studies leave a substantial gap between the actions and results
(measurements). Because of the gap, questions are unanswered about how or
whether staff development influenced student achievement. The quality and value of
an evaluation are determined by the usefulness of the results in improving the
program’s design, efficiency, effectiveness, and results. The challenge for evaluators
is to find out with a fair degree of certainty whether a staff development intervention
produced the intended results (Killion, 2008).
Guskey (2000) also notes there is a lack of agreement on appropriate criteria
for measuring effectiveness. The literature review (Chapter Two) confirms studies
of evaluation of professional development are infrequent. Most evaluations of
professional development rely solely on participants, responses to the learning
experience (Kutner et al., 1997). This lapse in the research literature makes it
difficult to compare results across studies.
Consequences of Not Evaluating
The law enforcement environment is not standing still. Technology,
legislation and regulations are constantly changing. Failing to adapt to changing

13
threats endangers the safety and security of our nation, communities, and officers;
and creates potential liability for law enforcement entities and municipalities
(McDevitt et al., 2003; Ross, 1998; Sharpe, 1992). Without proper evaluation it is
difficult to determine if the professional development is arming officers with the
knowledge they need to succeed.
What was a successful training program yesterday may not be a cost-effective
program tomorrow. When evaluation is not performed or an assessment developed
to show how training funds and resources were used, scarce resources might be
misapplied to training programs which are ineffective or wasteful. Advance
planning is needed in developing quality evaluations which result in greater integrity
and the likelihood of producing results for students (Killion, 2008).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to add to the body of knowledge on law
enforcement training by exploring the relationship between professional
development and the ability of HIDTA investigative and interdiction task force
personnel to adapt to changing crime threats as measured by seizure rates.
Research Questions
The research questions guiding this investigation are:
1. What is the relationship between participating in HIDTA sponsored
training/professional development and HIDTA rates of seizure
(effectiveness)?

14
2. To what extent do students agree HIDTA sponsored training/professional
development improves job related knowledge, skills, and abilities?
3. To what extent is there agreement by students for the value of the
professional development as it relates to application and transference to
job productivity?
4. To what extent are best practices replicable throughout the HIDTA
program? To what extent is there an increase (decrease) in rates of seizure
following professional development?
Methodology and Theoretical Approach
This study measured professional development impact via mixed
methodology using a theoretical approach to evaluate HIDTA interdiction task forces
that draws upon the framework and four level model of Kirkpatrick’s (2006) training
evaluation theory. This study also used Birman et al.’s (2000) framework of three
structural features of key factors supporting effective professional development as a
crosscheck and to support the context of the evaluation.
Kirkpatrick.
Donald L. Kirkpatrick (1994, 2001, 2006) is the architect of a four-level
evaluation model originally created to evaluate training programs for businesses has
been adopted by educators to evaluate effectiveness of professional development
(Guskey, 2000). The model progresses from the lowest level of student reactions to
training through the highest level which evaluates the results the training had on
organization outcomes.

15

Table 1.1
Four-Level Evaluation Model
Level
Evaluation
Type (What
Is Measured)
Evaluation
Description and
Characteristics
Examples of
Evaluation Tools and
Methods
Relevance and
Practicability
11 Reaction Reaction evaluation
i how the delegates
felt about the
training or learning
experience.
‘Happy sheets’,
feedback forms.
Verbal reaction,
post-training surveys
or questionnaires.
Quick and very easy
to obtain.
Not expensive to
gather or to analyze.
22 Learning Learning
evaluation is the
measurement of the
increase in
knowledge - before
and after.
Typically
assessments or tests
before and after the
training.
Interview or
observation can also
be used.
Relatively simple to
set up; clear-cut for
quantifiable skills.
Less easy for
complex learning.
33 Behavior Behavior
evaluation is the
extent of applied
learning back on
the job -
implementation.
Observation and
interview over time
are required to assess
change, relevance of
change, and
sustainability of
change.
Measurement of
behavior change
typically requires
cooperation and skill
of line-managers.
44 Results Results
evaluation is
the effect on the
business or
environment by the
trainee.
Measures are already
in place via normal
management systems
and reporting - the
challenge is to relate
to the trainee.
Individually not
difficult; unlike
whole organization.
Process must
attribute clear
accountabilities.
Adapted from Kirkpatrick (2006) - www.businessballs.com website.

16
Level one evaluates participants’ reactions to training. Kirkpatrick theorizes
learning will occur more often when the participant reacts positively. Participants
may boost their work if the lesson is interesting (Mayer, 2008). Level one is the
lowest and most used evaluation; consisting usually of a short questionnaire
completed by the participant at the end of the training. However, Kirkpatrick and
other researchers caution against relying solely upon level one evaluation as a
measure of improved job performance because data collected regarding participant
reactions reflect participant opinions and should not be considered proof of learning
(Guskey, 2000; Boverie et al., 1995; Antheil & Casper, 1986).
Level two evaluations measure the degree to which learning from the training
resulted in advancing participants’ knowledge, skill, and/or job performance.
Kirkpatrick (1991) defines learning as the “principles, facts and techniques that were
understood and absorbed by the participants” (p. 82) and identifies the following
guidelines or standards for evaluation in terms of learning:
• Each participant’s learning should be measured by quantitative means.
• A pretest and posttest should be administered so that any learning can be
attributed to the training program.
• The learning should be measured by objective means.
• When feasible, a control group should be used so that comparisons can be
made with the actual training group.

17
• When feasible, the evaluation results should undergo statistical analysis
so that learning can be viewed in terms of correlation and/or levels of
confidence.
Level two uses pre and post testing or other pre and post indicators to
determine how much participants learned from the training and to evaluate the
training program’s instructional goals (Kirkpatrick, 2006). Without a point of
comparison for measurement the amount of learning is difficult to attain and
although pre and post tests are the most frequently used for measurement, there are
other means for gathering this kind of data, such as simulation or role playing
(Boverie et al., 1995; Endres & Kleiner, 1990).
Level three evaluations measure transfer which resulted in a change of
practice by the participant. For most educators and trainers level three may be the
truest measure of training effectiveness. However, this level is difficult to measure
as it requires observation of when and where changes in practice will occur
(Kirkpatrick, 2001). Kirkpatrick cautions... “evaluation of training programs in
terms of on the job behavior is more difficult than the reaction and learning
evaluations...as a result, much training is delivered without a plan for measuring the
transfer of training” (p. 86). Kirkpatrick provides a framework for level 3
evaluations:
• A systematic appraisal should be made of on-the-job performance on a
before-and-after basis.

18
• An appraisal of performance should include (one or more) of the
participant, superior(s), subordinates, and/or peers.
• A statistical analysis should be made to compare before-and-after
performance and to relate changes to the training program.
• A post-training appraisal should be made three months or more after the
training so that the participants have an opportunity to practice what they
have learned. Subsequent appraisals may add validity to the study.
• A control group (of people who did not receive the training) should be
used.
This level of evaluation not only assesses the performance of the person who
receives the training, but also provides valuable feedback to those involved in
redesigning existing training programs or in designing programs to meet future
needs. This information is also useful to those who will be evaluating the
effectiveness of the overall training program. The collection of qualitative as well as
quantitative data is encouraged (Kirkpatrick, 2006; Boverie et al., 1995).
Level four evaluations measure results in the form of participant
implementation. Administrators and decision makers usually want to look at the
“bottom line” of results in determining whether a training program is delivering a
return on investment, although training evaluations rarely rise to this level because of
expense and time (Guskey, 2000). Kirkpatrick calls attention to the difficulty in
separating training from the multitude of other variables that can impact long-term

19
performance; making it extremely difficult to isolate how much of the improvement
is due to training.
Evaluation in terms of results is proceeding at a slow pace. Pioneers such as
Likert (1958) attempted to use qualitative data in summative evaluations to judge the
worth of a program after the training has ended by measuring before and after
results. A group of supervisors was trained in using democratic leadership in which
decision-making involved the use of participative technique. Another group of
supervisors was trained to make their own decisions and not to ask subordinates for
suggestions. Such factors as productivity, loyalty, attitudes, interest, and work
involvement were measured, Both training programs resulted in positive changes in
productivity, but the participative approach resulted in better feelings, attitudes, and
other human relations factors. In most cases, before-and-after measures have been
attributed directly to training even though Other factors might have been influential
(Kirkpatrick, 2001).
Birman, Desimone, Porter and Garet
Beatrice F. Birman, Laura Desimone, Andrew C. Porter, and Michael S.
Garet (2000) hypothesized that by focusing on specific content and by fostering a
coherent set of learning experiences, a professional development activity is likely to
enhance the knowledge and skills of participants and improve practice. By studying
the literature and analyzing the survey data, the researchers identified three structural
features that set the context for professional development:

20
• Form - was the activity structured as a “reform” activity (study group,
network, mentoring, committee, or task force) or as a traditional
workshop or conference?
• Duration - how many hours did participants spend in the activity and over
what span of time did the activity take place?
• Participation - did groups from the same unit participate collectively or
individually from different units?
Three additional structural features were identified which characterize the processes
occurring during a professional development experience (center column, Table 1.2).

Table 1.2
Structural Features of Professional Development
Form Content focus 1. Type & structure of activity
2. Focus on improving knowledge
Duration Active learning 1. Hours of active participation
2. Coherence & continued communication focus
Participation Coherence 1. Collective vs. individual participation
2. Active engaged learning
3. Incorporation of participant's experience
Adapted from Birman et al. (2000)

Combining the Kirkpatrick model’s ability to analyze the training from a
results point of view with the Birman’s structural and core features created a multi-

21
frame lens to interpret and guide the research. This side by side evaluation
complimented the overall direction of the intended research methodology and
underscore the legal duty of law enforcement administrators to develop adequate
training programs in relation to the work officers perform (Ross, 1998).
Importance of the Study
There is a significant gap in professional development studies of HIDTA type
federal law enforcement programs, where all the entities are self-directed (Raymond
et al., 2005; Glenn et al., 2008; Ridgeway et al., 2008). These studies have found
little in the way of positive results for law enforcement organizations to meet the
myriad training requirements imposed on them by outside influences (Raymond et
al., 2005; Glenn et al., 2008; Ridgeway et al., 2008). The importance of this study is
heightened by the responsibility of contemporary law enforcement administrators to
develop adequate “training programs in relation to the tasks particular officers must
perform” (U.S. Supreme Court, 1989; Ross, 1998).
This study should benefit HIDTA administrators by adding to the knowledge
of which components are most effective in improving officer skills and
competencies. This study should also benefit administrators and trainers by adding
to knowledge about how to enhance and implement future training/professional
development. Validating which components make professional development
training effective will ensure that the HIDTAs continue to earn a positive return on
its resource and financial investment in future training initiatives. Implementing
evidenced based evaluation methods will help HIDTAs meet the responsibility to

22
provide “adequate” training for law enforcement; while supporting a long term
commitment to expand professional development as a means of increasing
operational effectiveness and/or outcomes. Research findings may provide other law
enforcement organizations with similar autonomous and self-directed training
programs with insights on what the officers and supervisors in this study consider
most helpful.
Assumptions
The proposed study was conducted with the assumption the relationship
between the researcher and the study is in keeping with Holliday’s (2002) argument
for qualitative researchers to be familiar with the language and culture of the
research. This researcher is openly engaged with the law enforcement population in
this study.
It is assumed the HIDTA program, which is permitting this study, will
welcome and use information compiled in this study.
This study also assumes that historical data and the new data to be considered
in the course of research was collected in the belief that the data are accurate and
well-documented.
Limitations and Delimitations
This researcher is a ranking member of the law enforcement population in
this study, which Patton (2002) describes as a limitation because the interviewer may
affect the answers to interview questions in unknown ways. Interviewees may
behave in an atypical manner and the methodological approach of interviewing is not

23
expected to generate generalizable findings. However, the findings may provide
some direction for future inquiry to the greater law enforcement community
specifically for training administrators.
Delimitations of this study are in the non-consideration other HIDTA task
forces or initiatives in the analysis of the research questions. Analysis and
examination was conducted with the understanding that the researcher is employed
in the program which could have an influence on the participation and response of
people interviewed in conjunction with this study.
Definition of Terms
Adult Learner - Described by Knowles (2005) as differing from child learners
in life experience, practical knowledge, self-directed, and relevance oriented.
Andragogy - A theory of adult learning by Knowles (1968) focused on
engaging adult learners as opposed to children or pedagogy.
DTO - Drug Trafficking Organization. Comprised of 5 or more individuals
with a primary purposed of selling, transporting, and/or manufacturing illicit drugs.
FLETC - Federal Law Enforcement Training Center, Glynco, GA serves as
an interagency law enforcement training organization for 90 United States
Government Federal Law Enforcement agencies.
GPRA - Government Performance and Results Act, enacted in 1993, it is
designed to improve government project management by requiring agencies to
measuring results, reporting progress, and conduct gap analysis of projects.

24
HIDTA - High Intensity Drug Trafficking Area program enhances and
coordinates drug control efforts among local, State, and Federal law enforcement
agencies by providing coordination, equipment, technology, and additional resources
to combat drug trafficking and its harmful consequences in critical regions of the
United States.
HOTT - HIDTA Online Training Tracker is an internet based automated
system developed and used by HIDTAs for entry and retrieval of training data and
statistics.
Interdiction - To prevent, delay, disrupt, or destroy prohibited/harmful items
from entry or exiting an international border or other defined area. A distinction is
often made between strategic and tactical interdiction. The former refers to
operations whose effects are broad and long-term; tactical operations are designed to
affect events rapidly and in a localized area.
LEO - Law Enforcement Officer generic description applied collectively to
local, state, and federal law enforcement officers and agents.
MLO - Money Laundering Organization. Comprised of 2 or more individuals
with a primary purposed of transporting and/or concealing illicit drug proceeds.
NHAC - National HIDTA Assistance Center. A support organization which
provides training and financial oversight for the HIDTAs.
ONDCP - The White House Office of National Drug Control Policy
(ONDCP), a component of the Executive Office of the President, establishes

25
policies, priorities, and objectives for the Nation’s drug control program. The
HIDTA program is administered by ONDCP.
PMP - Performance Management Process is an internet based automated
system developed and used by HIDTAs for entry and retrieval of operational data
and statistics.
POST - Acronym for Police Officer Standards and Training, a common term
applied to an official police academy or training center.
RissNet - Regional Information Sharing System Network is a national
program of regionally oriented services designed to enhance the ability of local,
state, federal, and tribal criminal justice agencies to identify, target, and remove
criminal conspiracies and activities spanning multijurisdictional, multistate, and
sometimes international boundaries by facilitating rapid exchange and sharing of
information pertaining to known suspected criminals or criminal activity.
Rotation - Police policy of rotating personnel through professional
assignments between organizational divisions every 2, 3, or 5 years.
Organization of the Dissertation
Chapter One of the study has presented the introduction, the background of
the problem, the statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, the questions to
be answered, the theoretical approach, the significance of the research proposal, a
brief description of the methodology, the assumptions, limitations, delimitations, and
the definitions of terms.

26
Chapter Two is a review of relevant literature. It begins with a brief
introduction, then a short historical overview, followed by pertinent literature
relating to professional development: socialization and situated learning, adult
learning theory, andragogy vs. pedagogy, interest in adult education, and a short
summary.
Chapter Three presents the methodology used in the study, including the
research design; population and sampling procedure; and the instruments and their
selection or development, together with information on validity and reliability. Each
of these sections concludes with a rationale, including strengths and limitations of
the design elements. The chapter goes on to describe the procedures for data
collection and the plan for data analysis.
Chapter Four reports the findings of the study. First, a short introduction is
presented. Next the results for research question one are presented, followed by the
results for research question two through four. The chapter concludes with a
summary of findings.
Chapter Five gives the conclusions of this study, first with a brief discussion
of the findings and limitations of the research. The discussion is followed by a
section on the implications for practice and future research which make a case why
training within the HIDTA program matters and what are some of the possible
influences affecting job productivity. A discussion of why future research relating to
HIDTA training providers, curricula, and content would be beneficial is also

27
contained in the section. The chapter ends with a discussion relating to individual
HIDTA autonomy and self-determination; and a summation paragraph.

28
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
The purpose of this chapter is to provide a broad overview of the literature
relating to law enforcement training, adult learning, professional development and
expands upon the reasons behind selecting the research questions guiding this study.
Introduction
In this time of greater than ever accountability and shrinking budgets, it is
increasingly important to evaluate the effectiveness of law enforcement activities,
including training and professional development. It is no longer possible for law
enforcement to invest time and resources into activities that do not result in positive
outcomes. Research which identifies the features of effective professional
development can assist police administrators in evaluating training and professional
development programs. Evaluation can assist law enforcement professionals in
providing personnel with useful learning opportunities that can help to improve
officer skills and community safety.
In order to understand the relationship between an officer’s participation in a
professional development and the evaluation of the effectiveness of the professional
development, this literature review examines professional development for adult
learning and the theoretical framework behind evaluation. Although individual
HIDTAs provide training for participating personnel, the manner in which the
training is conducted and the content of the professional development may not be
effective (Killion, 2008; Kosak et al., 2004). Thus, analysis of adult learning theory

29
and andragogy has become in critical in evaluating professional development
effectiveness (Brookfield, 1986; Guskey, 2000). Because of the rising demand for
accountability, it is necessary to make use of a systematic means of evaluating the
“effectiveness” of any given professional development program (Guskey, 2000).
This chapter will open with a brief historical overview of law enforcement
training and professional development, followed by an analysis of police
socialization in the context of situated learning, a review of adult learning, and
professional development evaluation. This chapter will conclude with a discussion of
the variables that appear to influence the relationship between the professional
development training and the evaluation of effectiveness.
Historical Overview
Scholars have contributed to a sizeable and growing body of work relating to
law enforcement and policing (Lane, 1967; Richardson, 1970; Maniha, 1970;
Richard, 1975; Rider, 1971; Alfers, 1975; Cei, 1975; Schneider, 1980). As early as
1917 police chiefs, such as Richard Sylvester (Washington D.C.) and August
Vollmer (Berkley, CA) were writing about the need for professional development
programs to produce better educated police officers (Uchida, 2004; Walker, 1997).
Sylvester, the first president of the International Association of Chiefs of Police
(IACP), began the establishment of standards for law enforcement training and
police educators (Walker, 1977).
Eric Monkkonen (1981) built upon this foundation and was among the first
researchers using quantitative methods to analyze the development of policing

30
(Uchida, 2004). Other studies have ensued; as an example, the IACP in 1997
conducted an extensive ethics training survey with over 4,500 surveys resulted in a
20 percent rate of return. The survey research instrument utilized both qualitative and
quantitative methodologies (mixed methods) (IACP, 1999). The survey was
ultimately refined to contain questions or statements that were judged most relevant
to the subject matter. The intention was to enhance the integrity and effectiveness of
the survey by securing the comments of specific external evaluators regarding both
the quality and substance of the items contained in the survey (IACP, 1999).
Most existing studies on police socialization and police behavior rely upon
surveys and indirect indicators of academy training before the recruits are in the field
and integrated with other officers (Lynch, 1989; Carter et al., 1989). Berg (1990),
however, openly observed instructors and explored problems created by the lack of
instructor qualifications required to teach police recruits. The study involved 158
recruits and 40 academy instructors, from three separate police academies, over 800
hours of curriculum. Each of the different academies were charged with the
responsibility of not only training their own officers, but those of other municipal,
town and campus police officers (Berg, 1990, pp. 79-102). Berg asserts very little
attention has been paid to monitoring or certifying police instructors and/or assessing
professional development.
Despite the growing body law enforcement literature, little research has been
directed at exploring the environment of law enforcement professional development
evaluation (Altizer et al., 2006). Since in depth studies on the impact of professional

31
development on law enforcement training are lacking in the literature, this study will
explore what is known about the role of situated learning as it relates to transference
of experience in adult learning and andragogy during training and professional
development. The review of this literature will be interspersed with what is known
about the contemporary challenges in law enforcement training. These two literary
areas form the foundation from which to conduct this study and to seek answers to
the proposed research questions.
Adult Learning Theory
A significant body of literature has emerged on professional development,
teacher learning, and teacher change (Garet et al., 2001). Garet et al., sites research
literature containing a mix of large and small studies, including case studies of
classroom teaching, evaluations of specific approaches to improving teaching and
learning, and surveys of teachers about preparation and professional development
experiences (Garet et al., 2001).
Additional literature describes “best practices” in professional development.
Despite the size of the body of literature, however, relatively little systematic
research has been conducted on the effects of professional development on
improvements in teaching or on student outcomes. Adult professional development
often uses the same model of teaching and learning that focuses heavily on
memorizing facts, without also emphasizing deeper understanding of subject
knowledge (Cohen, McLaughlin, & Talbert, 1993; Darling-Hammond &
McLaughlin, 1995; Porter & Brophy, 1988). Shifting to a more balanced approach

32
for adult learning which places more emphasis on understanding subject matter,
means that instructors must learn more about the subjects they teach, and how adult
students learn these subjects (Shulman & Sparks, 1992).
Andragogy
Malcolm Knowles (1978) has advanced the theory of Andragogy. Adopted
from German educators, the term andragogy is used to differentiate the process of
teaching adults from the term pedagogy, the art and science of leading children. The
study of learning is historically rooted in the study of children and animals, with the
underlying assumption of learners, adults, teens and children, learn the same way.
Learning, for both adults and children, is an interactive process; the difference is
adults bring a rich array of experiences and demand practical application, while
children need to be given resources and structured activities to enrich their
experience. Adults already have these experiences but need to see the practical
application of their knowledge in order to be motivated to continue (Knowles, 1980).
Adults add relevance to theoretical analysis when they can illustrate practical
applications for the concepts they are studying (Knowles, 1990). Pedagogy is a
theoretical approach for teaching children which can be contrasted with the
andragogy theory for teaching adults. Pedagogy is generally teacher-centered, with
the teacher deciding who should learn what when and how. Andragogy is learner-
centered, allowing learners to direct how learning occurs. Knowles points out that
adults, unlike children, have life experiences which allows them to more
immediately contribute to a discussion and because of that experience adults prefer

33
problem-based learning which is applicable to their lives. In andragogy the teacher
becomes a facilitator who keeps the discussions going in the right direction; unlike
pedagogy which is teacher dominated (see Figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1. Comparison of andragogy to pedagogy

34
Table 2.1
Andragogy and Pedagogy Assumptions
Pedagogy Assumptions Andragogy Assumptions
Self Concept
· Children are dependent on teacher
· Expects to be taught. Takes no
responsibility of teaching self.
· Expects teacher to be dominant in
determining what, when, and how
something is to be learned.
· Adults expect and enjoy and enjoy
dependence. independence.
· They like control, i.e., like to take control.
· Learning is a process of sharing with the
teacher and one another.
· Teacher has responsibility to encourage
and nurture the process of self-direction.
Need to Know
· Children need to know what the teacher
teaches in order to pass and get promoted.
Material does not need to be “life
applicable.”
· Adult learners need to know why they
need to learn something before undertaking
to learn it.
Experience
· Children have few experiences relevant to
what is being taught; therefore, teacher
must create pertinent experiences.
· Teachers or experts are the transmitters of
experience.
· Teacher seldom recognize experiences
that children do have.
· Elicits little discussion in class-- teacher to
student, one-way communication
· Have many experiences; therefore, teacher
must draw on adult-learner experiences.
· Trade-off. Anyone in class also could
share.
· In some areas, students may have more
experience than the instructor.
· Elicits 2- and 3-way communication:
instructor to student and student to student.
Readiness to Learn
· Children are not necessarily ready to
learn. Teacher must decide when it is time
to learn specific skills or knowledge and
tries to create motivation.
· Uniform curricula is usually imposed on
children by classes and age groups.
· Adults normally come to class motivated
and ready to learn, because they’ve chosen
the training.
· Adults learn in order to cope with real-life
tasks.
· Adults do not group by age, sex, but by
experience.

35
Knowles re-conceptualized andragogy as a system of alternative sets of
assumptions to pedagogy; an individual-transactional model with characteristics of
the learner and the learning situation. Knowles also addressed the objections to
andragogy raised by critical theorists, noting that they were correct in their
observations that andragogy fails to address learning outcomes such as social
change. The concept of andragogy has evolved into a flexible set of assumptions
about adult learning rather than a unifying theory of adult education. The main focus
of andragogy can be applied across a variety of settings, to meet varied learning
goals...it is the learning process itself, not the outcomes of learning (Knowles, 1990).
In spite of criticisms andragogy is the single most important contribution to a
uniquely adult theory of teaching and learning (Brookfield, 1986). Brookfield also
argues regardless of whether or not andragogy is a comprehensive theory of
education, it is useful to recognize that andragogy and pedagogy are appropriate,
regardless of age, at different times and for different purposes. Knowles’ originally
conceived of andragogy as an argument against pedagogy for adult learning. In
pedagogy the teacher has the experience, while andragogy places importance on the
experiences of the students (Ingalls & Arceri, 1972; Knowles et al., 2005).
Socialization and Situated Learning
Situated learning is separate from the earlier socialization research
discussions of police learning (Billett, 1996). While initial law enforcement training
and professional development has traditionally been delivered by Police Officer
Standards and Training Academies (POST) and other interrelated organizations

36
(Glenn et al., 2008); the situated learning within the police culture adds significantly
to the how police officers “learn the ropes” (Van Maanen, 1973). Police
“culturalization” can reinforce training or downgrade it “with street rules”
(Staufenberger, 1977, 1980). Several researchers have focused on how the situated
learning process affects new recruits (Niederhoffer, 1969; Kirkham, 1974; Van
Maanen, 1973, 1985; Brown, 1981; Bennett, 1984). It is strongly argued the
organizational culture of policing is passed on to new officers, beginning in formal
POST/academy instruction and reinforced through socialization that occurs during
their rookie years (Chan, 1997, 2003; Soeters, 2000). The reinforcement process of
socialization creates a culture which permeates the policing world, effectively
forming a separate social group (Fitzgerald, 1989). Learning in a culture through
socialization and goal-directed activity involves the gaining of knowledge, which is
situated in the activity that is occurring (Billett, 2002; Steadman, 2005). Learning
depends on the ability of new officers to interact in a given environment and be
accepted in the community. Through participation, “…individuals develop personal
identities that are shaped by and are formative of their activities in the various
communities in which they participate” (Greeno, 1997, p. 7).
Chan et al. (2003) asserted that success within the policing world was
determined by the capacity of the newcomer to accumulate social and cultural capital
(Campbell, 2009). To acquire social capital it was necessary for officers to cultivate
supportive networks of relationships (Chan et al., 2003; Fielding, 1988; van Maanen,
1973). The power‐differential between the rookie and expert within the community

37
and access to learning within a social setting can be enhanced by proclaiming loyalty
to the values of the community (Billett, 1996; Gherardi et al., 1998). The concept of
a community of practice builds on a pedagogical tradition of viewing learning as a
socially mediated activity (Daniels, 2001; Lave & Wenger, 1990; Wenger, 1998).
Lave and Wenger (1990) observed that much of the actual learning takes
places among lesser members of a larger community. Learning/mentor relationships
include other apprentices and journeymen at the periphery, not just centralized with
the master. Lave and Wenger’s work focused on the “re-conceiving” of learning,
learners, and educational institutions in terms of social practice. “When looking
closely at everyday activity,” they argue, “it is clear that learning is ubiquitous in
ongoing activity, though often unrecognized as such” (Lave, 1993, p. 5). Lundin and
Nuldin (2007) in what they called “...an in-depth investigation of a relatively closed
sector of Swedish society”... determined in the community of police practice learning
takes place in everyday work, not planned and organized by management, but rather
as conversations driven by the necessity to adopt new tools and procedures involving
a constantly changing law enforcement environment. Police learn by adapting
strategy to changing situations in relationship to past experiences, all of which is in
context to the current situation (Lundin & Nuldin, 2007).
Criticism of Lave and Wenger point out the model is confined to rather
special groups and it is not always clear how legitimate peripheral participation
differs from occupational socialization which does not necessarily embody best
practice within law enforcement (Waddington, 1999). Conversely Bourdieu (1977)

38
asserts knowledge is performance, rather than a commodity. This in turn implies that
such knowledge only has validity within a community of practice (Tennant, 1997).
Boyer (1996) argues the middle road... “the purpose of scholarship should be to
engage the field and contribute to the way the field operates, alternatively the field
should also contribute to scholarship” (Campbell, 2009). Adults learners can bring a
rich array of experiences and an insistence on transference to practical application
which can enhance professional development and adult learning (Knowles, 1990).
Professional Development Characteristics
A professional consensus is emerging about particular functions of “high
quality” professional development (Desimone, Porter, Garet, Yoon, & Birman,
2002). These characteristics include a focus on content and how students learn
content; in-depth, active learning opportunities; extended duration; and the collective
participation of groups from a single organizational subgroup (Desimone et al.,
2002). Lists of functions such as these commonly appear in the literature on
effective professional development; but evidence on the extent to which these
characteristics are related to increased achievement is limited (Garet, Porter,
Desimone, Birman, & Yoon, 2001; Hiebert, 1999). Although limited, some studies
conducted over the past decade suggest that professional development which share
most of these characteristics can have a positive influence (Birman, Desimone,
Garet, & Porter, 2000; Garet et al., 2001; Wilson & Lowenberg, 1991).
A few recent studies have begun to examine the relative importance of
specific characteristics of professional development. Several studies have found that

39
the intensity and duration of professional development is related to the degree of
participant change (Desimone et al., 2002; Shields, Marsh, & Adelman, 1998).
Among the characteristics which research has identified as important to the success
of professional development are:
Small Group Work
There is a growing interest in adult professional development that is designed
for groups of people from a single organizational subgroup. Professional
development designed for tight groups has a number of potential advantages (Garet,
Porter, Desimone, Birman, & Yoon, 2001). Individuals who work together are more
likely to have the opportunity to discuss concepts, skills, and problems that arise
during their professional development experiences. Individuals who are from the
same organization or department are likely to share common curriculum materials,
course offerings, and assessment requirements (Garet et al., 2001). By engaging in
joint professional development, they may be able to integrate what they learn with
other aspects of their work context. Collective participation in the same activity can
provide a forum for debate and improving understanding, which increases capacity
to grow (Ball, 1996). Several studies provide evidence that good professional
development is best focused in small group work (Stein, Smith, & Silver, 1999;
Franke, Carpenter, Levi, & Fennema, 2001; Hiebert, Gallimore, & Stigler, 2002).
Examining student learning provides decision makers with the data and insights
which are needed in order to implement good training and professional development
programs. Small group work motivates students to go beyond the ideas presented in

40
the professional development and to begin building ideas on their own. Small group
work provides interaction and hands-on exploration which empowers participants to
develop modifications to match the environment where the learning will be
implemented. Incorporating small group work into professional development can
take many different forms and is most effective when incorporated into the goals of
the environment where it will be implemented (Garet et al., 2001).
Collaboration
Professional development can nurture collaborations among/within
professions, universities, business communities, school, etc., because it allows new
ideas to be discussed and focused around shared work (Franke, Carpenter, Levi, &
Fennema, 2001; Garet, Porter, Desimone, Birman, & Yoon, 2001; Hiebert,
Gallimore, & Stigler, 2002; Stein, Smith, & Silver, 1999). Individuals who work
together have more continuing opportunities to discuss concepts, skills, and
problems learned during professional development over a longer period of time when
they apply the lessons to the work environment. Stein et al. (1999) says participants
learn individually and as part of a group and argue that good professional
development both transforms individuals and encourages culture development.
Professional development which encourages student participation fosters
development of collaborative relationships among participants in ways that meet
their needs and expands thinking around a shared vision or shared work, and are
developed over time. The structure of the collaboration needs to accommodate the
induction of new members as it develops (Garet et al., 2001).

41
Sustained Over Time
The duration of professional development activities in almost all of the
recent literature on teacher learning and professional development calls for
professional development that is sustained over time (Garet et al., 2001). Learned
concepts are not easily or quickly transferred into practice and professional
developers have discovered that such efforts are long-term undertakings (Garet,
Porter, Desimone, Birman, & Yoon, 2001; Hiebert, Gallimore, & Stigler, 2002;
Stein, Smith, & Silver, 1999). Longer activities are more likely to provide an
opportunity for in-depth discussion of content, participant conceptions/
misconceptions, and stratagem. Longer time also allows instructors to test new
practices in the classroom and obtain feedback. Duration is defined by both the
number of hours and the period of involvement. Garet et al. (2001), found that
duration of professional development was influential in the success of implementing
ideas into practice.
Relevance
It is often declared that instructors and participants need to understand the
content and subject matter they are presenting (Garet, Porter, Desimone, Birman, &
Yoon, 2001; Loucks-Horsley, Love, Stiles, Mundry, & Hewson, 2003; Stein, Smith,
& Silver, 1999). There is knowledge which includes not only being able to do the
content [work], but also knowing the content [work]in a way that is able to assist
someone else to do the content [work]. This knowledge is distinct from
pedagogy/andragogy knowledge which helps an instructor use appropriate

42
pedagogies to teach the subject (Shulman, 1986). Content knowledge in this context
is a deep understanding of the practical application of the subject matter that is to be
taught. As an example, teaching mathematics includes defining terms, assessing
comprehension, offering examples (e.g., graphs, tables, formulas), connecting ideas,
and stimulating student interest. Mathematical knowledge for teaching is what is
necessary in order to meet these responsibilities. Engineers, accountants, physicists,
architects, and research mathematicians use mathematics in different ways and
require different types of understanding. Instructors must be able to look at a
mathematical idea from a variety of perspectives and be flexible enough in their
thinking to understand the mathematical thinking of their students (Hill & Ball,
2004).
Content/Curriculum
Curriculum not only establishes what is being taught in the classroom, but
also what transfers and is accepted into practice (Chappell, 2008). Although
departments, agencies, colleges/universities, training centers, and the private sector
must meet minimum standards to qualify as a HIDTA training program (NHAC,
2006), each organization has its own inherent character and culture assigning
different values to curriculum (Deal, 1988; Boleman & Deal, 2003). In the absence
of standardized curricula, two officers taking the same titled course from different
instructors may not learn the same elemental information (Berg, 1990, pp. 79-102).
Unless being taught a specific skill, such as a nurse instructing CPR or an
attorney law, Berg (1990) found most law enforcement instructors come from within

43
the police’s own ranks. Berg categorized these law enforcement instructors into two
groups: 1) police academics with college degrees or additional college credentials;
and 2) police careerists who are characterized by discussions of past experiences, or
“war stories,” and the “lessons they have learned from the streets.” Whether police
careerists pursued additional college level educations or not was moot. In contrast to
police academics, police careerists rely almost exclusively upon their personal
experiences rather than teaching the curriculum (Berg, 1990). The inference is that
diverging from an established curriculum produces poorly trained, poorly prepared
officers, even though there are few studies which examine the role played by
instructors in shaping officers (Harris, 1973; Van Maanen, 1973; Charles, 1981;
Pike, 1985). Studies have only recently begun examining the role played by
professional development after recruits have completed basic POST training
(McCampbell, 1989). The most limited area of police study appears to be on police
educators and trainers and their adherence to curriculum (Berg, 1990). By having
different entities administer equivalent curriculum to task force personnel at various
intervals magnifies the differences in instruction (McCampbell, 1989).
Incorporation of Prior Knowledge
Some researchers advocate using participant knowledge and experience as an
influential component of good professional development design (Hiebert, Gallimore,
& Stigler, 2002; Little, 1993; Loucks-Horsley, Hewson, Love, & Stiles, 1998; Stein,
Smith, & Silver, 1999). They argue there are enormous advantage to building on
expertise; while cautioning there is also a concern with promoting the status quo and

44
allowing current practice to continue; thus interfering with adopting new ideas.
Participants and instructors filter information about new applications through their
own experience or practice. Professional development which bridges the gap
between research and practice builds on teacher knowledge (Garet, Porter,
Desimone, Birman, & Yoon, 2001).
Summary
As illustrated earlier, andragogy and situated learning theory refers to the
process rather than the outcome of learning. The learning process is influenced by a
number of complex organizational and social contexts. and may occur for the
purposes of advancing institutional or societal growth. In theory, the ultimate goal of
professional development is to further the goals of the sponsoring organization. In
the case of law enforcement professional development, the organizational goals are
to improve officer performance and thereby improve organizational outcomes. Also
illustrated earlier, a significant amount of the evaluation of professional development
focuses on the participant’s responses (Creswell, 1999). While, evidence does exist
that effective professional development can positively affect transference and
performance; different influences on professional development need to be
understood to determine return on investment. Andragogy (Knowles, 1978, 1990)
and Situated Learning (Lave & Wenger, 1990) provide lenses for understanding
these different influences, including the influence the experiences of the participants
and their organizational structures bring to training. Professional development should

45
demonstrate effectiveness at promoting both officer learning and productivity
outcomes in order to justify the investment of time and resources.
This study looked for characteristics of “high quality” professional
development (Desimone, Porter, Garet, Yoon, & Birman, 2002) including; whether
the form is content focused; whether the duration is sustained over time, involving
active learning; and whether there is collective participation of groups from within a
single organizational subgroup (Birman et al., 2000; Desimone et al., 2002). These
characteristics drive the themes this study questioned during interviews in seeking
answers the research question of what is the relationship between participating in
professional development and individual officer or task force rates of seizure
(effectiveness). This study also looked for evidence which Stein et al. (1999) and
Hiebert et al. (2002) describe as good professional development being best focused
in small group work and the collaborations described by Garet et al. (2001). The
relevance of curriculum which bridges the gap between professional development
and practice (Garet et al., 2001) was also be explored.
Killion (2007) provides a procedure to design and implement an evaluation
for determining the effectiveness of professional development. Knowles, Chan,
Lave, Wenger and other adult learning theorists point the way to understanding
professional development design when it is linked to the way adults gain knowledge;
and Kirkpatrick (1979) gives us a framework for measuring outcomes of professional
development, while Birman gives us a model for assessing quality.

46
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This study uses a mixed methods approach in which qualitative data was
collected and analyzed to support and/or explain quantitative findings relating to
professional development (Greene et al., 1989). The mixed methods approach of
using both quantitative and qualitative research provided an opportunity analyze
discrepancies in data and reconcile non-convergent findings through the interview
process.
When different methods yield dissimilar results, they demand that the
researcher reconcile the differences somehow. In fact, divergence can often
turn out to be an opportunity for enriching the explanation. (Jick, 1983, p.
143)

Introduction
Mixed method was chosen by this researcher in the belief that qualitative and
quantitative methods are compatible and that the use of both provided the best
understanding of the study results (Creswell, 2003). Another benefit of using mixed
methods is that all inquiry has inherent biases and limitations, so the use of only one
method to assess a given phenomenon could yield biased and limited results.
However, when two or more methods that have offsetting biases are used in
assessment they corroborate one another (Greene et al., 1989). A mixed qualitative
and quantitative study can be used to measure overlapping but different facets of a
phenomenon, yielding an enriched, elaborated understanding of that phenomenon

47
(Creswell, 2003). Therefore this study collected both numbers and words (Greene et
al., 1989).
The purpose of this study is to add to the body of knowledge on law
enforcement training by exploring the relationship between High Intensity Drug
Trafficking (HIDTA) program sponsored professional development and the ability of
HIDTA task force personnel to adapt to changing crime threats when measured
against seizure rates (as an effectiveness proxy).
This chapter includes the research questions and a description of the research
design. The latter includes the population, location/site selection procedure, and
sampling procedure; instrumentation; procedures for data collection and analysis;
and assurance of participant and agency rights.
Research Questions
The research questions that framed this study are:
1. What is the relationship between participating in HIDTA sponsored
training/professional development and HIDTA rates of seizure
(effectiveness)?
2. To what extent do students agree HIDTA sponsored training/professional
development improves job related knowledge, skills, and abilities?
3. To what extent is there agreement by students for the value of the
professional development as it relates to application and transference to
job productivity?

48
4. To what extent are best practices replicable throughout the HIDTA
program? To what extent is there an increase (decrease) in rates of seizure
following professional development?
Research Design
This study measured the impact of HIDTA sponsored training/professional
development on the research questions using Kirkpatrick’s four levels model of
training evaluation theory (2006); which offers a framework for evaluating
enterprise-learning programs and for determining effectiveness, impact on the
institution and the learning behaviors of students. Kirkpatrick provides a rationale for
the evaluation of programs and outlines. Evaluation at the level 1 - reaction,
measures how those who participate in the program feel about it. Evaluation at the
level 2 - Outcomes refers to the extent to which participants change attitudes,
improve knowledge, and/or increase skill as a result of participation. Evaluation at
the level 3 - behavior change, as to the extent to which on-the-job performance has
changed because the participants attended the training program. Finally, evaluation
at the level 4 - results, as the “bottom line” improvements that occurred because of
participants’ attendance in the program.
This study also used Birman et al.’s (2000) framework of three structural
features of key factors supporting effective professional development as a crosscheck
and to support the context of the evaluation: 1) Form - was the activity structured as
a “reform” activity (study group, network, mentoring, committee, or task force) or as
a traditional workshop or conference? 2) Duration - how many hours did

49
participants spend in the activity and over what span of time did the activity take
place? 3) Participation - did groups from the same unit participate collectively or
individually from different units?
As previously stated in this chapter, one of the underlying reason for using
mixed methods of data collection and analysis is that neither quantitative nor
qualitative methods by themselves are able to fully capture the complexity of the
HIDTA model, including the independence with which each HIDTA operates and
implements their own professional development programs (Creswell, 2003). By
using both qualitative and quantitative methods the scope of the study is expanded.
To better understand the benefits of the mixed method approach, this section will
discuss the qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches as well as the
underlying foundation of each method. Specific mixed method design issues will
also be discussed.
Quantitative research is based on a model in which causes determine
outcomes or effects (Creswell, 2003). Quantitative researchers subscribe to the
belief all theories can be tested and verified through use of the scientific method.
Knowledge is based on observation and measurement. Quantitative research isolates
variables in order to discover causal relationships. Validity and reliability in
quantitative research seeks standardization of procedures which are generalizable to
ensure replication (Creswell, 2003). Quantitative researchers collect numbers
(Greene et al., 1989).

50
In contrast, quantitative researchers subscribe to the belief an inquiry should
lead to the understanding of complex pictures of rich narrative which analyzes words
and detailed views of information in a natural setting (Creswell, 2003). Qualitative
research is based on the theory that knowledge is socially constructed through an
individual’s interactions and engagement with other people and their environment.
Qualitative researchers collect words (Greene et al., 1989).
This research involved a primary analysis of existing data which are captured
within the HIDTA Online Training Tracker (HOTT) and Performance Management
Process (PMP) databases, both of which have a continuous input cycle. The systems
are funded, maintained and provided oversight by ONDCP as part of an
accountability requirement of the federally mandated GPRA act (ONDCP, 2010).
The data are collected on all 32 HIDTAs in a standardized format. The rationale for
using these data was to be able document the professional development training and
to compare the training and on-the-job performance of the HIDTA investigative and
interdiction task forces, while attempting to account for outside influence such as the
socialized culture of law enforcement and rotational assignments, among others.
Descriptive research assesses the relationship between the independent and
dependent variables using various forms of non-experimental statistical analysis,
such as descriptive statistics, t-tests and ANOVA (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2003).
Specifically, this study evaluates the effectiveness of professional training
effectiveness relating to investigative and interdiction task forces. It is hoped that the

51
findings of the study provide suggestions for the continued evaluation of professional
development at a higher level which, in turn, will lead to greater efficiencies.
The dependent variable is the increase or decrease in interdiction rate as
measured by seizure statistics. As discussed earlier in this research proposal, seizure
statistics are comprised of detailed information captured within the PMP database.
The data are categorized and aggregated into totals by specific commodities or
contraband; i.e., methamphetamine, heroin, marijuana, guns, explosives, elephant
ivory, etc. These totals are the “yardstick” interdiction task forces are measured
against. This study used six years (2005-2010) of data with which to compare
training and outputs/outcomes, while attempting to control for organizational
influences. The independent variables are the components of the professional
development and ancillary activity which can affect the interdiction rates and seizure
statistics when compared to the professional development.
• The dependent variable is the seizure rate increase/decrease (per $billion).
• The independent variables for the analysis are the attitude composite
variables and behavior composite variables including:
o The number of students (per 1,000 trained).
o The number of student hours (per 10,000 hours).
o Form - the relevance of curriculum to the varying needs of
individual sites and locations.

52
o Participation - whether there is collective participation from the
task force officers, or if a train-the-trainer strategy applies which
could affect conveyance of information/curricula.
o Duration - whether the task force personnel have time available to
re-visit the professional development over an extended period.
o Rotation - rotating officers among assignments and shifts help
create a well-rounded and skilled work force, however it also
creates a situation where the mix of personnel and personalities
can significantly affect task force outputs.
o Support - organizational support in the form of the resources (K9,
travel, overtime, supplies, etc.) needed for interdiction task forces
to accomplish their mission can significantly affect task force
outputs.
o Collaboration - interdiction task forces often develop informal
relationships with task forces operating in other locations, where
the exchange of information, tactics, evolving smuggling
techniques can significantly affect task force outputs.
o Site Activity - HIDTAs can temporarily refocus task force
personnel on emerging threats, to staff critical investigations, and
or increase security needs which pulls individuals from their core
mission, thus affecting task force outputs.

53
Each research question used comparative regression analysis, t-test and/or ANOVA
to determine the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
Population, Location, and Sampling
The population for this study consisted of the records of 198,434 officers/
agents which attended HIDTA sponsored training/professional development while
assigned to HIDTA investigative and interdiction task forces from 2005 through
2010. Training and professional development (or the lack of it) as recorded in the
HOTT system when compared with individual task force outputs/outcomes and
seizure rates as recorded on the PMP system were the determining criteria for
follow-up interviews.
Sampling in this study was dependent on existing data within the HOTT
database as a result the National HIDTA Assistance Center’s (NHAC) six month
student follow-up surveys to determine what extent do students agree HIDTA
sponsored training/professional development improves job related knowledge, skills,
and abilities; and to what extent is there agreement by students for the value of the
professional development as it relates to application and transference to job
productivity. The analysis process is based on the mid-range averages and high and
low outliers. Statistical data in the PMP system rising or falling outside of 20% of
expected output/outcome by a HIDTA task force requires a narrative in HIDTA
annual reports explaining the reason, in part to capture large seizure data for
Congress. Attention was given to individual HIDTA annual reports for the years
involved in this study determine applicability.

54
Identification of individual HIDTA location/sites are anonymous and referred
to by random numbering of 1 through 32. Note: within the national HIDTA program
the number of HIDTAs are often referred to as 28, because 5 HIDTAs form a
coalition known as the Southwest Border Initiative. For the purposes of this study all
32 HIDTAs’ data were analyzed individually.
Instrumentation
Two main components make up the instrumentation of the data which will
used for this study:
• Quantitative - HOTT training records & PMP operational records;
• Qualitative - interviews of participants, supervisors, training coordinators.
As already discussed, this research took advantage of existing data,
comprised of training records and surveys (including a 6 month follow-up) which are
captured within the HIDTA HOTT system. Nine HIDTAs use a parallel system for
scheduling and documenting training activity which manually entered into the HOTT
system, causing a lag in data availability. For purposes of this study the two systems
were reconciled before sampling and analysis began.
The HOTT tracking system enables each HIDTA to access the following
features:
• training dates;
• surveys;
• 6 month survey follow-ups;
• courses and course descriptions;

55
• printable calendar of events;
• description of course providers;
• student rosters;
• training costs;
• tracking for Annual Report and PMP table formatting;
• other miscellaneous data.
The HOTT system has a continuous input cycle, with training coordinators
encouraged to enter data as it occurs. ONDCP requires all HOTT data to be input by
May 15 of the following year. The system is then “locked-down” to maintain data
integrity. The system is funded, maintained and provided oversight by ONDCP as
part of an accountability requirement of the federally mandated GPRA act (ONDCP,
2010). The data are collected on all 32 HIDTAs in a standardized format. The
rationale for using these data were to properly document the training/professional
development, as both the HOTT and PMP data is subject to audit to ensure accuracy.
This research also took advantage of existing data captured within the
HIDTA PMP system to measure the organizational outcomes resulting from the
training/professional development. As with the HOTT system, the PMP system has a
continuous input cycle which is “locked-down” May 15 of the year following data
input. This study mainly focused on seizure data as means of documenting
outputs/outcomes. As previously cited in Chapter One, PMP core table 5 reports
seizure data representing the output/results of investigative and interdiction task

56
forces. The table provides only a sample of information contained in a larger data
base within the PMP system, which was analyzed to support this study.

Figure 3.1. PMP table 5 (HIDTA, 2010)

57
Figure 3.1 also contains a three-year comparison on return on investment
(ROI). The underlying seizure data represents the output/outcomes of the
investigative and interdiction task forces. The table provides only summarized
information contained within the larger PMP database which is available to the
researcher of this study.

Figure 3.2. PMP table 7 (HIDTA, 2010)

Figure 3.2 (above) lists training by type, students, hours, percent, and six
month follow-up responses. The figure provides only bare bones basic information
contained in the extensive HOTT system data base.
Data consisting of responses to a twenty question NHAC qualitative survey
of training coordinators (N=32) was also used. The survey responses were placed

58
into data groups representing the six training regions. Information from the survey
included: background, training needs being met, audience, classes/curriculum,
successes, challenges, needs, recommendations, and other national training program
related questions.
In addition, eight training coordinators, six directors, four members of the
NHAC staff, and a ONDCP Program Analyst, at the national level were contacted
via telephone and/or email to provide additional information pertinent to this study.
The interviews were used to explain the relationship between non-convergent
variables other than training/professional development affecting this study (Creswell,
2007). The interviews lasted between 12 and 52 minutes and were recorded in
written format and/or by digital voice recorder; with relevant passages transcribed.
Follow-up information was gathered using email, instant messaging, telephone, or in
person.
Assurance of Participant and Agency Rights
Law enforcement personnel are a vulnerable populations which could be
placed at risk if identities, classified information, and/or procedures are exposed.
When this research project was first proposed it was reviewed by the USC
Institutional Review Board (IRB), which exists to ensure compliance with Federal
regulations providing protection against human rights violations. The IRB process
requires assessing the potential for risk such as physical, psychological, social,
economic, or legal harm (Creswell, 2009; Sieber, 1998). Requirements and
recommendations of the IRB were followed. Additional safeguards and handling of

59
Law Enforcement Sensitive (LES) material was in accordance with applicable
Federal and State law to protect gathering, collection and to ensure confidentiality
(32 C.F.R. 2001 & applicable Executive Orders). All personal identifiers were
redacted and a numbering system was used to maintain participant confidentiality
and to observe a strict protocol of omitting identifying information from the body of
the dissertation in either name or singular identifying reference (Creswell, 2003).
Data Collection
The choice of the data-collection strategy dependent on informational needs.
Decisions were made on the basis of their potential for collecting the best data
(Killion, 2009). To increase the potential for bring together the best data three
collection strategies were used. These strategies took advantage of this researcher’s
background in understanding the nuances of professional development within law
enforcement educational communities:
• Data - The NHAC HOTT system contains completed training surveys and
a six month follow-up. The data was disaggregated and analysis
performed to provide a significant portion of the quantitative statistics for
this study.
• Interviews - Interviews were conducted with participants using protocols
designed to draw from the participant’s experiences that could answer the
research questions driving the study. Interviews were transcribed, scored,
and used to illuminate the qualitative portion of this study.

60
• Data - Relevant PMP texts, tables and performance records were
disaggregated and analysis performed to provide the dependent variable
which served as the evaluation bridge connecting the quantitative and
qualitative portions of this study.
Although interviews were more time-consuming and costlier than data analysis, this
researcher believes the quality, richness and depth of the information from
interviews may be the most value added component of the three strategies. The
mixed methods approach was particularly suited to this study on law enforcement
because it is also rooted in the statistical analysis of existing data keep in the normal
course of HIDTA activity.
Data Analysis
Non-experimental statistical analysis was used to assess the relationship
between the independent and dependent variables. Texts, tables and performance
records were disaggregated and analysis performed to provide an assessment based
on Birman’s 3-structure framework and Kirkpatrick’s evaluation process.
Research question number one asks: What is the relationship between
participating in HIDTA sponsored training/professional development and HIDTA
rates of seizure (effectiveness)? To provide answers to this question a three step
process in the analysis of electronically transmitted and stored HOTT and PMP data
(see Table 3.1 below). A series of descriptive statistics were analyzed based on
student data, training hours and seizure data.

61
Table 3.1
HOTT and PMP System Data
Data Availability
HOTT PMP
Student Data Critics & 6 mo follow-up Seizure Data/ROI
Training Hours/Length Training Location Threat Assessment
Curriculum/Subjects Instructor(s)/provider(s) Locations/Positions
Course Description Funding & Resources

Research question number two asks: To what extent do students agree
HIDTA sponsored training/professional development improves job related
knowledge, skills, and abilities? To provide answers to this question a series of
descriptive statistics were analyzed based on student data, training hours and six
month follow-up surveys (see Table 3.1 above).
Research question number three asks: To what extent is there agreement by
students for the value of the professional development as it relates to application and
transference to job productivity? To provide answers to this question a series of
descriptive statistics were analyzed which were also based on student data, training
hours and six-month follow-up surveys (also see Table 3.1 above). A five-question
instrument was used to add value to the analysis, which represented different types
of adaptation and transference of HIDTA sponsored professional development.
Fourteen HIDTA Training Coordinators responded to the instrument. The responses

62
were rated on a scale of 1 to 5, with five being the most frequently observed activity
and one being never (Table 4.4).
Research question number four asks: To what extent are best practices
replicable throughout the HIDTA program? To provide answers to this question
analysis based on training coordinator surveys and interviews were used. To clarify
the answers from the training coordinators survey additional stakeholders (64) were
asked to rank challenges (Table 4.5) to best practices implementation on a scale of
one to seven. The instrument used a 7-multisection-item survey and a 7-point Likert
scale (1 = strongly agree to 7 = strongly disagree).
A SPSS software package was used for the quantitative analysis of the study.
This researcher used an interview protocol that included open ended
questions where possible. As previously stated in this chapter all interviewees were
assigned an identification number to be known only to this researcher until such time
as the records can be destroyed in accordance with USC policy.
The following Chapter (Chapter Four) provides an in depth discussion of the
results from implementing the research protocol described in this section of the
study.

63
CHAPTER FOUR
FINDINGS
The purpose of this study is to add to the body of knowledge on professional
development by evaluating the relationship between participation in HIDTA
sponsored training/professional development and knowledge transference into job
performance (using HIDTA seizure rates as a proxy). The researcher also explored
whether students valued and applied the training over time. The extent to which
training improvement (best practice) could be implemented and/or replicated
throughout the HIDTA program was also investigated.
This chapter presents “numbers” rich PMP and HOTT statistical data
(quantitative) in the context of “descriptive” rich interviews and participant
statements (qualitative). The data and information is interpreted using a mixed
method approach, as discussed in Chapter Three, where together they add meaning
to the evaluation, interpret discrepancies, and facilitate the reconciliation of non-
convergent findings.
Introduction
In this chapter the researcher presents the data gathered during the study,
accompanied by commentary in relationship to the four research questions. The
presentation follows in logical order beginning with an assessment of the correlation
between HIDTA Training/professional development and work output (research
question 1). The value of this correlation is then viewed through the lenses of
students as it relates to knowledge improvement from the perspective of adapting

64
information into behavior modification and transfer of practice (research questions 2
& 3). These basic questions are followed by inquiry into the challenges facing
HIDTA sponsored training/professional development in best practices
implementation and/or replication throughout the HIDTA program (research
question 4). Relevant studies in the literature review are included to underscore the
research.
Data Groups
The data collected from the PMP (N=167) and HOTT (N=334) systems were
disaggregated and re-aggregated into tables divided into individual HIDTAs (N=32).
The data were then further reduced into training regions (N=6). Additional data
consisting of thirty-two responses to a twenty question NHAC qualitative survey of
training coordinators (N=32) was also used. The survey responses were also
aggregated into data groups representing individual HIDTAs and the six training
regions. Information from the survey included: background, training needs being
met, audience, classes/curriculum, successes, challenges, needs, recommendations,
and other national training program related questions. In addition, eight training
coordinators, six directors, four members of the NHAC staff, and a ONDCP Program
Analyst, at the national level were contacted via telephone and/or email to provide
additional information pertinent to this study. The interviews were needed for
clarification in helping to determine the relationship between non-convergent
variables other than training/professional development affecting this study. The
interviews lasted between 12 and 52 minutes and were recorded in written format

65
and/or by digital voice recorder; with relevant passages transcribed. Follow-up
information was gathered using email, instant messaging, telephone, or in person.
Privacy/Security
All identities in the following sections, be they persons or institutions, have
been masked as a law enforcement precaution.
Results for Research Question One
The ultimate goal of HIDTA training and professional development is to
further the goals and national strategy of the ONDCP in reducing the social costs of
illicit drug dependence and drug trafficking (ONDCP, 2010; ONDCP website, 2011).
In the case of law enforcement professional development, the organizational goals
are to improve officer performance and thereby improve organizational
effectiveness. Research question number one seeks to clarify the correlation between
professional development and performance improvement.
• Research Question Number One: What is the relationship between
participating in HIDTA sponsored training/professional development and
HIDTA rates of seizure (effectiveness)?
To answer this question HOTT and PMP data relating to the number of
students and hours taught were subjected to a linear regression analysis using
seizures as the dependent variable. The data, by year (N=6), resulted in a multiple
correlation coefficient of R = .853 and a R Square value of .728. Simply stated,
looking at trends in HIDTA training hours and number of students being trained has
a 73% predictive value for forecasting future and/or past seizure rates. This

66
predictive value is noteworthy as it shows a positive relationship between HIDTA
sponsored training/professional development and bottom-line outcomes, when using
seizures as a proxy.
Additional analysis using Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) also yielded
relationship results showing a significant correlation of .821 for the number of
students being trained against seizure rates and a significant correlation .847 for the
number of training hours being provided against seizure rates. Both measurements
have a high significance level (P = <.05). This correlation was captured in a graph
using linear trend analysis. The results were plotted using a level-4 evaluation
method (Kirkpatrick) of three data groups: 1) number of students, 2) student hours
and 3) seizures.

Figure 4.1. Linear Comparison All Regions/HIDTAs

67
Figure 4.1, above, shows trendlines for the number of students (per 1,000)
trained, the number of training hours (per 10,000), and the amount of seizures (per
$billion) rising steadily from 2005 through 2010. The number of students (per
1,000) trained rises at a slightly lower rate (R=0.9595) than the other two;
corroborating the slightly lower Pearson Correlation score.
However, the trendlines for the number of training hours (per 10,000) and the
amount of seizures (per $billion) are nearly parallel (R=0.8655; R=0.8314);
confirming the slightly higher Pearson Correlation score. A drop in the number of
training hours provided between 2006 and 2007 has a corresponding “flattening” of
the seizure rate of climb for the next two years (2007 – 2009). The most dramatic
correlation in Figure 4.1 is the nearly identical simultaneous downturns in both the
number of training hours (per 10,000) trained and the seizures (per $billion) during
the 2010 time period. Figure 4.1 is a strong visual depiction of the relationship
between HIDTA between training/professional development and seizure rates, as
corroborated with regression and correlation analysis.
Enforcement and interdiction training by its very nature seeks to reduce the
time between delivery and transference into practice. Training usually follows a
recognition lag, which means how long it takes before changes in criminal activity
and/or training deficiencies are even noticed. Because law enforcement is such a
complex set of moving parts, time delays are inevitable when trying to recognize,
diagnose and address changing threats, therefore effective training is that which can
be rapidly accepted into practice with as little lag time as possible.

68
ANOVA analysis on the same datasets (students, hours, seizures) resulted in
a significance value P <.05 indicating additional independent variables may
influence seizure outcomes. Given the complexity of law enforcement work, this is
not surprising (Berg, 1990). The ANOVA results are addressed later in this chapter
within research question four.
Results for Research Question Two
The transfer and adaption of learning to the workforce is the goal of HIDTA
sponsored training interventions (NHAC, 2010). We know that learning context is
often different from the context of real-life application and the objective is not
achieved until the learning improves knowledge and skills (Cohen et al., 1993; Garet
et al., 2001). So, do HIDTA students confirm that learning is improving knowledge
and skills?
• Research Question Number Two: To what extent do students agree
HIDTA sponsored training/professional development improves job
related knowledge, skills, and abilities?
The NHAC distributes and collects post-training surveys in order to evaluate the
ability of training and professional development to improve scholarship capacity
among students. The surveys are sent on the six-month anniversary of the training.
The surveys gather information on four types of training:
1
1) enforcement; 2)

1
Enforcement refers to investigative and/or interdictive activities conducted by sworn law
enforcement officers; analytical refers to research and intelligence activities usually conducted by
non-sworn personnel; management refers to activities involving the day to day oversight of HIDTA
budget and administration; demand reduction refers to partnerships with community coalitions and

69
analytical; 3) management; and 4) demand reduction (ONDCP, 2011). This research
uses enforcement data exclusively.

Table 4.1
2010 Training Data
Training Funded and Supported by
All HIDTAs in 2010 Six Month Follow-up Responses
Type of
Training
Students
Trained
Training
Hours
Provided
Percent of
Students
Responding
Course Improve
Job-Related
Knowledge,
Skills, and
Abilities
Applied
Course
Material Since
Completion of
Training
Enforcement 46,481 574,632 31% 96% 85%
Analytical 4,478 52,018 28% 92% 81%
Management 4,228 45,004 37% 94% 90%
Demand
Reduction
1,254 11,802 13% 95% 86%
Total 56,441 683,456

The most recent and complete enforcement survey data (2010) represent a
return of approximately 16,732 surveys from a total population of 46,479
enforcement students. The data represent a 36% rate of return for the surveys. This
rate of return is in line with a more than 30-year study of leading journals in
management and the behavioral sciences. The journal study lists a current average

stakeholders involved in preventive activities aimed at educating students and parents on the dangers
of drug abuse.

70
return rate, for large group questionnaire-based research, of 39.6% with a standard
deviation of 11.7, median of 40% and mode of 34% (Krosnick, 1999; Sheehan, 2001;
Cook, Heath, & Thompson, 2000).
For this study the NHAC survey data were sorted by HIDTA (N=30) and
subjected to a t-test paired samples analysis. Note: while there are 32 HIDTAs, 2
(#15 & #19) lack survey responses. HIDTA 15 failed to produce surveys and HIDTA
19 was unable to release their surveys because of privacy concerns. The analysis
used seizures for the corresponding time period as the dependent variable and the
two survey responses as independent variables. The sample’s correlation was strong
with a mean of 89.54 for the improved knowledge question, which is 9.571 above the
mean of the six-month implementation follow-up question. The corresponding
correlation was also strong (R = .740; P < .05). Table 4.2 contains the individual
HIDTA data (random order) used in the “improving knowledge” segment of this
analysis.
When charted, the data range clusters between 83% and 100% satisfaction.
Figure 4.2 shows the frequency and distribution for the post training surveys (N=30),
which are all clustered in the upper 20th percentile.
The mean =95.03, median =96, and the mode = 97, (SD=3.846) indicating a
high agreement from the reporting students that the HIDTA sponsored training
improved their job related knowledge and skills. Interview 9 stated:
I found the training excellent. The instructors were all former law
enforcement and were able to relate the training material really well. One of
the best aspects of the training was having a lot of different people coming

71
together from along the [region of the country] border. It was good to hear
the experiences of so many different people. It made you glad you weren’t
working in [specific state]. But the information and tips and the things that
they were experiencing was extremely valuable for my own job.

Table 4.2
Training Survey Response To Improving Knowledge
*2010 Training Survey - Results for improving knowledge
HIDTA
#
Students
%
Response
%
Improved HIDTA
#
Students
%
Response
%
Improved
1 294 37 100 17 1,571 35 92
2 1,940 34 98 18 905 29 93
3 6,042 44 97 19 4,667 **
4 504 25 98 20 671 37 97
5 8,506 30 95 21 1,083 35 96
6 5,510 69 93 22 373 50 97
7 43 27 91 23 127 25 96
8 451 35 97 24 627 14 100
9 284 26 83 25 1,408 64 98
10 724 39 95 26 1,517 37 96
11 1,844 36 93 27 873 53 94
12 292 28 100 28 349 30 97
13 271 20 95 29 712 37 97
14 1,360 36 90 30 976 32 87
15 4 ** 31 715 29 91
16 950 36 98 32 886 40 97
*most current complete year available
**survey results not provided to HOTT

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Figure 4.2. Graph - knowledge improvement through training

Results for Research Question Three
• Research Question Number Three: To what extent is there agreement by
students for the value of the professional development as it relates to
application and transference to job productivity?
Professional development should demonstrate effectiveness at promoting
both officer learning and increasing productivity in order to justify the investment of
time and resources (ONDCP, 2010). Effective professional development is not only

73
what is being taught in the classroom, but also what transfers and is accepted into
practice (Deal, 1988; Boleman & Deal, 2003).

Table 4.3
Application of Training to Job Related Duties
*2010 Training Survey - Six month follow-up results for applying training to work related duties
HIDTA
#
Students # Hours
%
Response
%
Applied HIDTA
#
Students
#
Hours
%
Response
%
Applied
1 294 5,159 37 91 17 1,571 29,155 35 82
2 1,940 40,905 34 93 18 905 12,442 29 86
3 6,042 71,458 44 86 19 4,667 63,811 **
4 504 3,724 25 90 20 671 16,704 37 91
5 8,506 73,866 30 76 21 1,083 12,623 35 80
6 5,510 3,440 69 74 22 373 9,160 50 95
7 43 86 27 73 23 127 2,478 25 74
8 451 11,104 35 83 24 627 11,916 14 92
9 284 5,056 26 74 25 1,408 37,722 64 90
10 724 10,584 39 83 26 1,517 33,640 37 89
11 1,844 752 36 89 27 873 20,856 53 88
12 292 3,999 28 86 28 349 6,202 30 88
13 271 2,696 20 85 29 712 12,982 37 88
14 1,360 13,787 36 77 30 976 16,942 32 71
15 4 56 ** 31 715 11,204 29 81
16 950 14,982 36 93 32 886 15,131 40 90
*most current complete year available
**survey results not provided to HOTT

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To track transfer/acceptance into practice, the NHAC uses a follow-up survey
six months after completion of training. The data (N=30) from the six-month follow-
up survey was subjected to a SPSS/PASW t-test paired samples analysis. As
expected when dealing with two datasets as closely related as the initial training
satisfaction survey and the six-month follow-up questionnaire, the t-test paired
samples correlation was strong (R = .596; P < .05). The mean for putting into
practice at the six-month follow-up was 84.60; 10.43 below the mean of the
satisfaction survey, which was a significant difference. In other words, while both
means were high, participants were more satisfied with what they learned and its
usefulness than they were with their ability to actually implement the knowledge.
Figure 4.3 shows the frequency and distribution for the six-month follow-up
questionnaire (N=30).
Figure 4.3 indicates a favorable response from students responding to a
follow-up survey six months after completion of HIDTA sponsored
training/professional development. The percent of favorable comments indicating the
course content is being applied to job-related duties is clustered in the upper 30th
percentile. The indication is the students responding are relating practical
applications to the concepts they are studying (Knowles, 1990). Figure 4.3 also
indicates the majority of responding students are in agreement that the training
improves job-related knowledge, skills and abilities which transfer to on the job
improvement...or as Garet et al. (2001) put it, “Professional development which
bridges the gap between theory and practice builds on functional knowledge.” This

75
type of transference is often referred to as problem-solving transfer or meta-cognitive
transfer (Mayer & Wittrock, 1996; Barnett & Ceci, 2002).

Figure 4.3. Graph - job application through training

Table 4.4 represents different types of adaptation and transference of HIDTA
sponsored professional development, as reported by HIDTA Directors and Training
Coordinators (N=27). Table 4.4 triangulates (verifies) the self-reported findings of
students. The observed behavior is rated on a scale of 1 to 5, with five being often
and one being never.

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Table 4.4
On-the-Job Adaptation and Transference
Characteristics observed by training coordinators Observed Mean (N=27)
Application to problems of similar situations 4.74
Transferring new knowledge to solve a current problem 4.59
Transferring prior knowledge to solve a current problem 4.28
Application of learning to different settings 3.37
Previous knowledge is used to acquire new knowledge 2.81
Adapted and modified from Schunk (2004)

In Table 4.4 the mode (Mode=5) was the same for four of the categories; with
the “previous knowledge is used to acquire new knowledge” category having a
Mode=1. Not only are students self-reporting application of training to on the job
duties, but training coordinators are also observing the same transference and
application to work performance. The observations to HIDTA sponsored training are
in contrast to Berg’s assertion that police academics and police careerists rely almost
exclusively upon their personal experiences rather than taught curriculum (Berg,
1990). Berg’s inference is that diverging from an established curriculum or having
different entities administer equivalent curriculum to task force personnel at various
intervals magnifies the differences in instruction (McCampbell, 1989; Harris, 1973;
Van Maanen, 1973; Charles, 1981; Pike, 1985).

77
With a high transference of training/professional development (M=84.60;
Table 4.3) reported in the six month follow-up surveys and the level 5 (frequent)
observations by Training Coordinators (Table 4.4) the HIDTA representation is more
readily apparent than Lave and Wenger observed: “When looking closely at
everyday activity,” they argue, “it is clear that learning is ubiquitous in ongoing
activity, though often unrecognized as such” (Lave, 1993, p. 5).
Results for Research Question Four
The purpose of scholarship should be to engage the field and contribute to the
way the field operates, alternatively the field should also contribute to scholarship”
(Campbell, 2009).
Law enforcement learning is a process which is influenced by a number of
complex organizational and social contexts. While evidence does exist that effective
professional development can positively affect transference and performance,
different challenges facing professional development need to be understood to
determine whether it is worth the investment and if it is replicable to other divisions
and/or organizations (Berg, 1990).
• Research Question Number Four: To what extent are best practices
replicable throughout the HIDTA program?
To determine the extent to which training improvement (best practice) could be
implemented or replicated throughout the HIDTA program, stakeholders (N= 32)
were asked to rank seven HIDTA centered challenges which could aid or hinder best
practice implementation. The seven challenges were Form, Participation, Duration,

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Rotation, Support, Collaboration, and Site Activity. The stakeholders were asked to
rank the challenges from one to five with one being most conducive to
implementation and five being the least conducive. The seven challenges are
independent variables for the analysis are the attitude composite variables as shown
in the table below.

Table 4.5
Challenges Facing Best Practices Implementation
Challenges
Mean
Ranking
Is it difficult to pull personnel from investigations and other threats, to focus
on secondary activity such as training? (Priority - location activity)
4.13
Do mix of personnel and personalities constantly change because of PD
rotation policy or other factors, increasing the need to conduct the same
training? (Stability - regular change in personnel)
3.69
Are task force members getting enough beginning, intermediate, and
advanced training hours? (Duration - able to re-visit training)
3.50
Could a standardized curriculum be set at the national level which would
meet the independent needs of individual HIDTAs & Executive Boards?
(Form -autonomy vs. centralized training)
2.94
Are enough funding and other resources available to conduct as much task
forces training as needed? (Support -resource availability)
2.69
Do task forces develop informal relationships with task forces operating in
other locations, where the exchange of information and tactics substitute for
training? (Collaboration - among regions)
2.34
Is it better to train collective task force officers at the local level, or have a
standardized train-the-trainer strategy at the national level? (Participation -
conveyance of information/curricula)
2.19

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Form (M= 2.94; Mode=2 ) was viewed almost equally as both an aid and a
hindrance to implementation of best practices because of HIDTA autonomy as
opposed to centralized training. As earlier outlined in Chapter One, a unique attribute
of the HIDTA program is the autonomy given to Executive Boards to design and
implement initiatives which address local and regional threats. This autonomy
creates independent and distinct training and professional development programs
within each of the 32 HIDTAs. Each HIDTA is free to assess training needs in its
area of responsibility and to develop a training strategy or to place resources
elsewhere. Each HIDTA is required to have a training initiative and fund it, but the
size and scope of the initiative is left to each HIDTA’s Executive Board (Hawaii
HIDTA, 2010; NHAC, 2006; ONDCP, 2010). There is no centralized HIDTA
campus. Law enforcement departments, colleges/universities, and educational
contractors from the private sector are free to design and offer different curricula
(NHAC, 2006). Classes on the same subject matter might vary from provider to
provider in what Chappell (2008) and others describe as variance in not only what is
being taught in the classroom, but also what transfers and is accepted into practice
(Deal, 1988; Boleman & Deal, 2003).
Participation, Collaboration and Support
Participation (Mean= 2.19; Mode=1), Collaboration (Mean=2.34; Mode=1)
and Support (Mean=2.69; Mode=1) are viewed as the least challenging factors in
implementing best training practices. This finding brings little surprise, as HIDTA
core values are cooperation and collaboration between differing law enforcement

80
agencies and departments. Some HIDTAs are already early adopters and innovators
of cooperative training, as Interview 11 provided on a survey response:
We have a Counter Narcotics Insurgency Program (48 hours) running every
Wednesday Night (12 segments); We have a Homicide School running
almost every Thursday night (7 segments); We are working on a Gang
School to run every Tuesday night; We have many courses on many topics
but anything having to do the Cartels draws the biggest crowds. We had over
260 classes last year...almost 12,000 students. We charge a small
fee...without the ability to charge for classes, our training program would be
anemic at best. With this ability, we are expanding exponentially. We have
the ability to bring this type of training to each HIDTA without spending a
dime of HIDTA money. If [other] training coordinators would work with us
using this system of payment, each HIDTA would see their training double at
least. We’ve seen our training more than double...we get about 1000 visits to
our website every day on average. We have an email list of over
22,000...looking into providing an APP for smart-phones...QR Codes on our
flyers. We have switched gears, so to speak, and are focusing on bringing the
best quality training we can rather, than just try to get numbers. Our choices
were clear a couple of years ago since the economy collapsed...either we do
nothing or we try this system and provide the best training we can. We chose
the latter.

Other HIDTAs are clearly reaching out to other training programs, as
Interview 3 stated:
I host a quarterly Training Officer/Coordinator Workshop for networking
purposes and to share training needs/schedules. Attendees are from Federal,
State, Local agencies, MAGLOCLEN [Middle Atlantic-Great Lakes
Organized Crime Law Enforcement Network], and representatives from the
NCTC [Northeast Counterdrug Training Center]. By sharing training
calendars, we seize opportunities to combine (co-host) training while also
avoiding “stacking” or duplicating training events. This works very well in
Interview 3’s area of responsibility, because of the small geographic area and
the close proximity of NCTC and MAGLOCLEN. (I also include Training
Officers from “County & Local Police Academies).

Franke et al. (2001) are in agreement with Interview 3’s activities and found
that professional development can nurture collaborations among/within professions,

81
universities, business communities, school, etc., because it allows new ideas to be
discussed and focused around shared work (Garet et al., 2001; Hiebert et al., 2002).
To help adopt best practices, the NHAC solicits input for high quality classes
from the most active training coordinators to recommend to other HIDTA’s training
programs. In a recent solicitation, 34 classes were certified by training coordinators
as being high quality. The classes were listed by title, provider, addresses, phone
numbers, and e-mail contacts. Many of the coordinators also provided websites and
hotlinks to reach out to recommended providers. This information is shared with all
HIDTA training coordinators and Directors in the hope of improving professional
training throughout the program (Interview 2).
Interview 2 said sharing information among coordinators provides more
opportunities to discuss concepts, skills, and problems relating to professional
development over a sustained period of time and then apply the lessons to the work
environment. The NHAC is interested in what Desimone et al. (2002) describe as a
best practice of having senior personnel mentor rookies, provide for small group
work, develop collaborative relationships, and provide longer activities over a
sustained period of time to ensure learning occurs. Stein et al. (1999) confirms that
participants learn individually and as part of a group and argue that good
professional development both transforms individuals and encourages [training]
culture development.

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Support and Priority
Of particular significance is the gap between support (M=2.69) and the most
challenging factor of Priority (M=4.13), indicating that stakeholders are being
supported yet feel the pressures associated with law enforcement work. Interview 9
stated
We do not allocate a large amount of our budget or time to training. As stated
prior most of our [participating] agencies conduct in service training. With all
the budget problems in the agencies most do not have the manpower to allow
officers to take time off to attend training.

Likewise, Interview 12 stated that task force officers determined training
needs as the calendar year progressed. There is little effort to evaluate training needs
from an overall performance perspective. “We support the effort, but heaven knows
we don’t have the time.”
In addition Training Coordinators are independent from national oversight,
answering only to their respective Directors (Interview 2). This means many
coordinators are serving in that capacity in addition to their other work duties
relating to the HIDTA core mission.
Interview 3’s Training Coordinator is an analyst embedded in an enforcement
task force which is responsible for producing the bulk of the HIDTA’s seizures.
Interview 3 stated:
The training overseen by the Training Coordinator is critical to maintaining
the high level seizures produced from year to year. By being embedded with
the task force, the Training Coordinator can respond to training needs as
conditions change. I know our figures are spot on and they validate how
important training is.

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Interview 15 responded that:
Although [our] training coordinator is a collateral [part time] duty, they and
our most productive task force commander sit on two of the National Guard
Training Center Advisory Boards. Having a voice on the boards provides an
advantage in targeting training to meet our needs and keep statistical output
on a positive note.

There are five National Guard Training Centers such as the
Multijurisdictional Counterdrug Task Force Training program (MCTFT) which
provides unique, tuition-free, courses covering all aspects of counterdrug law
enforcement training and support for federal, state, and local officers. The program is
a federally funded partnership through the Department of Defense in connection with
local Colleges and/or Universities.
Stability
Stability (M=3.69) was ranked as the second highest challenge to overcome.
Personnel rotate in and out of HIDTA. Depending on their department or agency
rotational policy officers/agents can expect an assignment of 18-24 months (36
months for skilled investigative positions such as homicide, sex crimes and
narcotics). Dozens of law enforcement departments and agencies participate in each
of the individual HIDTAs, each with their own rotational calendars. Rotating
officers creates a situation where officers, whether experienced or rookie, regularly
need additional training and professional development (ONCP, 2011). Depending
on when that training is scheduled during an officer’s rotation within a HIDTA, the
officer could rotate out before having had a chance to apply the new knowledge and
skills (Research Question 4). Therefore, the instability of changing personnel due to

84
rotational assignments becomes closely linked with the priority of demands that busy
site activity brings.
Summary
Overall, the research highlights a number of noteworthy positive findings.
First, a six year analysis of the number of students trained, training hours, and
the total seizures hours show a positive relationship between HIDTA sponsored
training/professional development. The data resulted in a multiple correlation
coefficient of predicted values of 73%. In other words by looking at trends in
national HIDTA training hours and number of students being trained, there is a 73%
predictive value for forecasting future and/or past seizure rates. Analysis of the
quantitative HOTT and PMP data collected at the national level show a close
relationship between professional development and organizational effectiveness as
measured by seizure rates. The linear data tracks both positive and negative in
concert with each other. The trend lines are near parallel with each other. Analysis
of regional data likewise revealed a close relationship between professional
development and regional rise and fall in seizure rates. This noteworthy relationship
furthers the law enforcement goal of the ONDCP in reducing the supply side of drug
trafficking by improving officer performance and thereby improving organizational
effectiveness.
Second, survey results indicate students valued the HIDTA sponsored
training because it improved job related knowledge. Favorable response from
students responding to a follow-up survey six months after completion of HIDTA

85
sponsored training/professional development were clustered in the upper 30
percentile. The indication is the students responding are relating practical
applications to the concepts they are studying (Knowles, 1990). The majority of
responding students are in agreement the training improves job-related knowledge,
skills and abilities. The samples correlation was strong (Mean= 89.54) (.970 sig. 2-
tailed) for knowledge improvement (95% confidence rate).
Third, training and professional development was adopted and applied, over
time, to work related endeavor. The findings reveal a learning transference and
application to work at 81% to 87%. The analysis used replies from 16,732 law
enforcement students as an independent variable and seizures for the corresponding
dependent variable. The analysis strongly indicates the responding students are
applying the concepts they learn to their work. It is professional development which
bridges the gap between theory and practice, and is often referred to as problem-
solving transfer or meta-cognitive transfer (Mayer & Wittrock, 1996; Barnett &
Ceci, 2002; Garet et al., 2001).
Fourth, the extent to which training improvement (best practice) could be
implemented and/or replicated throughout the HIDTA program was also
investigated. The independence which allows each HIDTA to respond quickly to
unique threats within their area of responsibility is a two edged sword which created
32 separately functioning training programs. HIDTA’s Executive Boards are
autonomous and the relationship between professional development and workplace
success is dependent upon the value individual Executive Boards place on training.

86
In spite of this divergence, student satisfaction with HIDTA training ranges from
83% to 100%. The annual conferences, train the trainer training, webinars, surveys,
and other correspondence from the NHAC appears to have the effect of binding the
independent training coordinators together in a culture of common interest. NHAC
sets the minimum standards to which police agencies, colleges/universities, and the
private sector must meet in order to qualify as a HIDTA training program (NHAC,
2006). Law enforcement learning is influenced by a number of complex issues
however, training has been shown to have a leavening effect on other factors which
can influence seizure rates.
Of particular significance is the finding that stakeholders are being supported
yet feel the pressures associated with law enforcement work. Interview 9 stated:
We do not allocate a large amount of our budget or time to training. As stated
prior most of our [participating] agencies conduct in service training. With all
the budget problems in the agencies most do not have the manpower to allow
officers to take time off to attend training.

Likewise, Interview 12 stated that task force officers determined training needs as
the calendar year progressed. There is little effort to evaluate training needs from an
overall performance perspective. “We support the effort, but heaven knows we don’t
have the time.” Lave’s and Wenger’s work focused on the “re-conceiving” of
learning, learners, and educational institutions in terms of social practice. “When
looking closely at everyday activity,” they argue, “it is clear that learning is
ubiquitous in ongoing activity, though often unrecognized as such” (Lave, 1993, p.
5). Lundin and Nuldin (2007) in what they called ... “an in-depth investigation of a

87
relatively closed sector of Swedish society”... determined in the community of police
practice learning takes place in everyday work in a constantly changing law
enforcement environment. Police learn by adapting strategy to changing situations
in relationship to past experiences, all of which is in context to the current situation
(Lundin & Nuldin, 2007). The literature agrees with this study’s finding of the high-
value placed on cooperation and collaboration between differing law enforcement
agencies and departments within HIDTA. Some HIDTAs are already early adopters
and innovators of cooperative training with outreach to other training coordinators in
an effort to provide the best quality training we can rather, than just try to get
statistical numbers. “Our choices were clear a couple of years ago since the
economy collapsed...either we do nothing or we try this system and provide the best
training we can. We chose the latter” (Interview 11). By sharing training calendars
opportunities arise to combine (co-host) training while also avoiding “stacking” or
duplicating training events.
The next chapter will begin with a brief review of these findings. The
discussion will utilize the research literature on adult learning and effective
professional development from Chapter Two to contextualize and give meaning to
these findings. Finally recommendations are made for both the organization’s
professional development planning and for future research.

88
CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSIONS
Discussion
This study provided an analysis of the relationship between High Intensity
Drug Trafficking Area (HIDTA) program outputs/outcomes and the professional
development it sponsors for federal, state, local, and tribal law enforcement
personnel. Areas within the United States which exhibit serious illicit drug
trafficking problems are designated as HIDTAs and become eligible for operational
assistance, including training (ONDCP, 2011). This is a national study which
analyzed six years (2005-2010) of HIDTA enforcement operational and training
records, along with 56,441 individual student records involving 683,456 training
hours isolated from 2010. This study also explored to what extent students agree the
training improves job related knowledge, skills, and abilities and to what extent
students transfer their new knowledge to the job. This is a study of the effectiveness
of HIDTA professional development in relationship to the transference of that
training into on-the-job performance by the students. This study is not meant as a
critique on the effectiveness of individual HIDTAs.
What makes the context of this study unique is the autonomy with which
individual HIDTAs operate. The HIDTAs funded and operated 32 independent
training programs in 2010. However, because the programs operate independently,
participation ranged from 4 students being trained in one to 5,510 students in
another; 56 training hours being sponsored in the first and 73,866 training hours the

89
other, respectively. As stated in Chapter One, law enforcement administrators view
continuing education and professional development programs as a means of
providing officers with the skills they need to stay current with the complex and
quickly changing dimensions of police work. This study magnifies the importance of
who gets professional development and the challenge of providing doing
professional development in an evolving environment, where the shelf life of a
training program is short. With such diversity of training coming from 32
independent HIDTA programs, the value may be in the sharing of anecdotal
information and work related experience/practice among task force members rather
than the actual training, but until other studies are done we don't know the extent of
the relationship, or whether one exists.
To help bring consistency to the 32 autonomous programs, the Office of
National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP) established the National HIDTA Assistance
Center (NHAC). As part of their oversight, the NHAC developed the HIDTA Online
Training Tracker (HOTT) system to collect training statistical data to better
understand the dynamics of HIDTA-sponsored training/professional development.
The NHAC also provides a national training coordinator to keep an eye on this
endeavor. As stated in Chapter Four, a parallel database, the Performance
Management Process (PMP), monitors the extent to which individual HIDTAs meet
performance goals by using standardized collection of key data (ONDCP, 2011).
Together the HOTT and PMP systems comprise significant databases of easily
manipulated statistical information for evaluation purposes.

90
The HOTT and PMP data served the purpose of this study well. The
“numbers” rich PMP and HOTT statistical data were interpreted in the context of
“descriptive” rich interviews and participant statements. These data added to the
body of knowledge on professional development and were effective in evaluating the
relationship between participation in HIDTA-sponsored training/professional
development and knowledge transference into job performance (using HIDTA
seizure rates as a proxy). The research also explored the degree to which students
valued and applied the training over time and the challenges which training
improvement (best practice) may encounter when implemented and/or replicated
within the 32 autonomous and independent local HIDTA programs.
The driving research question for this study was if a relationship existed
between participating in HIDTA sponsored professional development and workforce
production (using rates of seizure as a proxy). As noted in Chapter One, the most
important level of evaluation in the Kirkpatrick model is level four, impact on
performance. Improved participant (student) outcomes are the gold standard when
determining if an educational professional development activity has delivered on its
investments. Answers to the research questions did establish a relationship between
HIDTA sponsored professional development and seizure rates. The research also
verified the acquisition of new student knowledge and the application of that
knowledge into workforce production. Interviews and surveys verified the finding
that both professional development and training have a relationship to seizure rate
and job performance.

91
However, the time constraints on the study did not allow for collection and
analysis of additional data contained in the HOTT and PMP systems. In order to
strentghen the conclusions about the relationship of training and work related
outcomes, additional data from drilling down through the curriculum and training
provider data should be examined to add to the growing knowledge about the return
on investment for HIDTA sponsored professional development.
More specifically, little research has been conducted on the variance in
curricula and content from one provider to another while teaching the same or related
subjects. The HOTT system contains data on providers, instructors, students,
curricula, hours, dates, locations, and other related material. Given enough time and
resources this data could be collated and analyzed to determine comparable and
dissimilar course content between providers and the impact on student perception of
value and on the job improvement. Any variance in hours, student group make-up,
and dispersion of training among the HIDTAs could also be investigated using the
HOTT and PMP data. Likewise, the pulling together and examining the provider
data could shed light on who is delivering what percentage of training, at what cost,
and how effectively.
It is noteworthy that all 32 HIDTAs in this study have a positive ROI (return
on investment), which is to say money invested in law enforcement training yields
operations with a positive return through the seizure of the illegally obtained assets
and illicit drugs.

92
Implications for Practice and Future Research
Training Matters
This research confirmed a correlation between HIDTA sponsored
training/professional development and job productivity. Within the HIDTA program
training matters because it influences outcomes. Boyer (1996) argues “the purpose of
scholarship should be to engage the field and contribute to the way the field operates,
alternatively the field should also contribute to scholarship,” (as cited in Campbell,
2009, p. 26). Adult learners can bring a rich array of experiences and an insistence
on transference to practical application which can enhance professional development
and adult learning (Knowles, 1990). The HIDTA program has a decentralized
training program that has been shown to match both the Berg’s and Knowles’
concepts of students contributing to the curriculum and the curriculum contributing
to the students’ workplace product. The HIDTA program is purposefully
autonomous/decentralized and consequently individual HIDTA task force
commanders and training coordinators at the local level have the responsibility to
plan and to conduct professional development. As a result, individual HIDTAs are
constantly evolving independent of each other in their efforts to improve current
operations and adapt to changing threats.
HIDTA policy makers would need to strike a balance between
decentralization and autonomy to bring uniform quality assurance across the 32
HIDTAs. The HIDTA model by its very nature conducts more decentralized training,
where task force size units are responsible for planning and executing their training,

93
rather than having centralized training which is planned and executed by higher
headquarters. The research reported here shows the independence can create great
disparity between both the number of students and the number of hours of
professional development provided. In other words, practice suffers inconsistencies
when totally decentralized. To help bring consistency to the 32 autonomous
programs, the ONDCP established the NHAC and charged it with providing a
national training coordinator and staff to strike a balance between individual HIDTA
independence and non-intrusive centralized oversight. To fulfill this mission the
NHAC collects training statistical data and provide guidance on best practices. The
HIDTA training/professional development program is worthy of more study as the
NHAC works to bring consistency in determining educational needs, who attends,
training frequency, curriculum, and best practices. The outcome may well be
replicable to other organizations with decentralized structure. Given the limited
resources available for funding and the tug-of-war for employee time, new means of
accomplishing this training ought to be devised and implemented.
Productivity Influences
The use of seizure rates as a proxy for output/outcome effectiveness is an
imperfect measurement and although this study was successful in bringing to light
the correlation between HIDTA sponsored professional development and job
productivity, further research is needed to determine what other influences contribute
to (or inhibit) productivity. These other influences may have an equal or greater
contribution to productivity or impact it in a negative or even symbiotic way. As an

94
example, using analysis of seizure rates, a phenomenon known as Port Shopping
and/or Border “Ballooning” Effect can be seen in Figures 5.1 and 5.2 below. This
phenomenon occurs when law enforcement efforts at one location intensify and
criminals/smugglers move their illegal operations in an effort to locate easier access
along the border. As law enforcement pressure causes activity to move from one
region to another seizures decline when the illegal activity moves. In other words, a
successful training series may result in an increase in seizures, but a decrease in
seizures after that increase could also be an indicator of success.
Similarly, in the receiving region to where all or some of the illegal
smuggling activity moves, an increase in seizures result, which be more the result of
the success of the other HIDTA than any training efforts in the receiving region.

Figure 5.1. R2 seizures 2005-2010 (PMP)

95

Figure 5.2. R3 seizures 2005-2010 (PMP)

At a media round table in Miami on November 8, 2011, William Brownfield,
U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for the Bureau of International Narcotics and Law
Enforcement Affairs, predicted drug traffickers would return to old smuggling routes
used in the 1970s and 1980s because of heightened law enforcement measures on
land routes through Mexico. Brownfield’s comments included a description of the
additional threat to U.S. security of increasing human trafficking and related crime
from the forced underground migration of Haitians for a variety of purposes
including sex trafficking and slavery (Chavla, 2011). The unique datasets contained
in the PMP and HOTT have the potential of yielding new information on this
phenomenon if time and resources were available to “drill down” through the
records. HIDTA maintains data on Drug Trafficking Organizations on a local,
regional, and national/international level that have the potential of providing a micro
look at trafficking patterns, which would more clearly define analytical predictions.
This additional area of exploration could shed new light on law enforcement pressure

96
moving the problem from one area to another and if synchronized training between
regions would be beneficial.
Another possible influence on productivity (non-productivity) is how the
socialized culture of law enforcement journeyman officers affect rookie and new
officer training. This unique law enforcement culture was described earlier in
literature relating to socialization and situated learning in the Chapter Two
discussion of police learning (Billett, 1996). While law enforcement training and
professional development may be delivered by police academies and other providers
(Glenn et al., 2008), the culture within law enforcement adds significantly to the how
police officers “learn the ropes” (Van Maanen, 1973). Police “culturalization” can
reinforce training or downgrade it “with street rules” (Staufenberger, 1977, 1980). It
is argued the organizational culture of policing is passed on to new officers,
beginning with formal training taught at police academies by senior officers and
reinforced through the socialization that occurs during rookie years (Chan, 1997,
2003; Soeters, 2000). Little is known of the effects on police socialization when as
many different federal/state/local/tribal department and agency personnel are
commingled and collocated together as in the HIDTA model. Careful observation
and analysis might illuminate any differences between HIDTA culture and the
socialization culture that permeates the policing world, and its effects on training
(Fitzgerald, 1989).

97
Training Providers, Curricula, and Content
One of the most interesting findings of this study was the diversity of law
enforcement training being delivered by a variety providers, colleges, government
institutions, retired police, professional trainers, and an assortment of “in-house”
experts. The growing concern with differing content quality from the large number
of different providers has led the NHAC to solicit data from the training coordinators
in order to compile lists of the “high quality classes” being sponsored within each
independent HIDTA. The degree to which curriculum, content, and quality vary
significantly by provider remains unanswered by this study.
Little is known about the variance in curricula and content from one provider
to another while teaching the same subject. In order to further explore this
observance, future research could expand studies to include class content. The
differences between the ways in which public and private training providers work
have been noted in other research (Chappell & Johnston, 2003; Harris et al., 2005).
These studies argue that curriculum content and context matter when it relates to the
issue of differences, especially between public (POST) and private training. The
question, in terms of impact in changing police policies and the transference of
training/professional development to everyday work, has implications for future
research. Additional research questions remain with regard to verifying curriculum,
establishment of new courses, and/or improvements to existing professional
development. To this researcher’s knowledge no independent studies of the
interaction and collaboration with regards to training/professional development

98
between the 32 entities have occurred, or how it differs to meet localized and/or
regional needs.
Autonomy and Self-Determination
Another area of possible exploration is how the autonomy affects training
opportunities from HIDTA to HIDTA and Region to Region. Professional
development and job related training for HIDTA law enforcement personnel have
been traditionally decentralized and administered by 32 autonomous training
programs with oversight by 32 independent Executive Boards, each carrying out its
self-generated training responsibilities within the general guidelines set out in
ONDCP policy.
Aside from national conferences and training coordinator events, little is
known of the collaboration between the various programs at the local level where
most of the training occurs. As stated in the paragraph above there is a wide variety
of delivery systems within the overall training program. Additional research could
yield light on where and if training overlap and/or duplication occurs. Research
could also clarify formal and informal communication among personnel at various
levels of authority; as this researcher observed on occasion.
The Bottom-Line
In the end it comes down to improving the quality of HIDTA sponsored
professional development experience for law enforcement students. New strategies
between the NHAC and individual HIDTAs to expand and coordinate training are a
good starting point to bring consistency to the program and identify best practices.

99
Continued study and analysis of the various components of HIDTA and law
enforcement professional development serve to better understand training so that it
can be strengthened, and to determine what effects the training has had in terms of
intended outcomes (Guskey, 2000).

100
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APPENDIX
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT EVALUATION WORKSHEET
This worksheet is used as a guide to help plan the evaluation.
Plan the Evaluation
1. Who will be interested in the results?
Administrators, participants, providers, supervisors, training coordinators,
and law enforcement in general.

2. What questions will be answered?
Primary and secondary research questions.
3. What resources (personnel, time, money, equipment) are available for
evaluating the training program?

• NHAC staff – HOTT
• W/B HIDTA staff – PMP
• Researcher - Interviews

Gather the Information
What method(s) will be used to gather information?
Data Collection Method Performed
Disaggregation of HOTT system training data Pre, During & Post
Training
Disaggregation of output/outcomes of PMP performance data Pre & Post
Training
Interviews with open-ended questions of participants,
providers, supervisors, and/or training coordinators.
Post Training

Abstract (if available)

Abstract This is a nationwide six-year data study of law enforcement training and professional development in relationship to workplace productivity. ❧ Why do we care about law enforcement training and professional development? Because the law enforcement environment is not standing still. Unlawful activity, and in particular drug trafficking strategies, change by the minute. System-wide law enforcement technologies, legislation, regulations and interdiction strategies are constantly adapting. Somehow what we learn from these adaptations has to permeate the law enforcement system. Failing to adapt to changing threats endangers the safety/security of our nation, communities, and officers. It also creates potential liability for law enforcement entities and municipalities (McDevitt et al., 2003

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Asset Metadata

Creator Burnett, Larry D. (author)

Core Title Professional development: a six-year data evaluation of HIDTA law enforecement task force training programs

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/11/2012

Defense Date 03/26/2012

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Education,education evaluation,Law enforcement,OAI-PMH Harvest,police performance,Police training,professional development,professional development evaluation,training evaluation

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Sundt, Melora A. (committee chair), Brewer, Dominic J. (committee member), Picus, Lawrence O. (committee member)

Creator Email hawaiiburnetts@hotmail.com,ldburnet@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-25490

Unique identifier UC11287931

Identifier usctheses-c3-25490 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-BurnettLar-592.pdf

Dmrecord 25490

Document Type Dissertation

Rights Burnett, Larry D.

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA