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Institutional diversity policy improvement through the lens of Black alumni stakeholder leadership: a gap analysis

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Institutional diversity policy improvement through the lens of Black alumni stakeholder leadership: a gap analysis

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INSTITUTIONAL DIVERSITY POLICY IMPROVEMENT THROUGH THE LENS
OF BLACK ALUMNI STAKEHOLDER LEADERSHIP: A GAP ANALYSIS©

by

Michèle G. Turner

_______________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

December 2014

Copyright 2014 Michèle G. Turner

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DEDICATION
Inspiration blooms with laughter and the longtime friendship of Thieves: Tiff, Lisa,
Charisse, Renita, Renell, Sandra--A whole imagined dedication page for each of you!!! …
Helen, Virginia, Charles, Shelby, and H.M.: a corner in Heaven. Vance and Kwami: a lifetime.
Todd: a soulmate. Greyson and Colin: a heart. Nita: a flower garden. Mom: a dream. Dad: the
moon and stars. To my Family of Gillenwaters, Turners, and Sims, (all of my loved ones from
all of our plantations--Black and White--across oceans of memories): this is really for you.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My amazing doctoral journey would not have been realized without the guidance of my
stern, critical and thoughtful Chair, Dr. Mark Robison. I also would like to express my sincerest
thanks to Dr. Mike Diamond, Dr. Ken Yates and Dr. Larry Picus, who completed my Committee
team, each allowing me to express myself through the passion of this dissertation. Totally
unguided, but just as necessary was the “familyhood” of the infamous Global Ed.D. Cohort 1:
Candace, Jenny, Katerina, Lena, Mary Anna, Sam, Howard, Joseph, Michael, Sultan--and
Nadine (the General)! This work would have no purpose were it not for the unparalleled
dedication and commitments of the USC Black Alumni Association’s Advisory Council. Their
insight, humor, and care of me remain beyond words. Thank you: Rev. “Chip” Murray, Bill,
Stephanie, Kathy, Donna, Simeon, Lloyd, Donovan, Raphael, Bruce, Eric, Reggie L., Reggie
J.S., Michael, John, Debbie, Dana, Deb, Julia, Keisha, Chandler, Tony, Dave, Tiffany, Daniel,
Carolyn and Isadore. I offer my deepest gratitude to Dr. Michael Jackson, for understanding my
ideals for legacy and service to my alma mater, and guiding me on this path. Dr. Verna
Dauterive, my role model in this endeavor, thank you for constantly reminding me that I have not
stopped learning, and that there is still so much more ahead for me to do. Truly, I am sincerely
grateful for the friendship and mentorship of Dr. Michael Preston, who steadfastly affirmed my
academic activism. I also wish to acknowledge the wonderful encouragement of my USC
colleagues whom have been stalwart cheerleaders, and I am so very appreciative of the flexibility
Dr. Patrick Auerbach granted in order for me to complete my whirlwind, global studies. Lastly,
on a whimsical note, I would like to acknowledge Ruffin and Mac, who sat with me for each
keystroke, allowing me the necessary focus and solace to persist in the hard work.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgements 3
List of Tables 5
List of Figures 6
Abstract 7
Chapter 1: Overview 8
Chapter 2: Literature Review 19
Chapter 3: Methodology 42
Chapter 4: Results and Findings 52
Chapter 5: Solutions and Implementation 87
Chapter 6: Evaluation and Discussion 112
References 122
Appendices
Appendix A: Summary of Presumed Causes for Knowledge, Motivation, and 141
Organization Gaps
Appendix B: Summary of Presumed Causes Validation Methods 143
Appendix C: BAC Survey Questions 146
Appendix D: BAC Survey Builder Table 149
Appendix E: BAC Interview Questions 151
Appendix F: BAC Interview Builder Table 152

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Goals 44
Table 2. Knowledge Related Presumed Causes 57
Table 3. Results for Knowledge Gaps According to Means and Standard Deviations 58
Table 4. Motivation Related Presumed Causes 65
Table 5. Results for Motivation Gaps According to Means and Standard Deviations 66
Table 6. Organization Related Presumed Causes 71
Table 7. Results for Organization Gaps According to Means and Standard 72
Deviations (Total Participants & Alumni)
Table 8. Significant Correlations for Relationships between Attitudes and Beliefs 84
for Motivation & Organization, and for Motivation and Knowledge
Table 9. Final List of Validated Causes of Stakeholder Performance Gaps 86
Table 10. Recommended Solutions for Knowledge 89
Table 11. Recommended Solutions for Motivation 97
Table 12. Recommended Solutions for Organization 100
Table 13. Summary of Recommended Solutions, Implementation and Integration 107
Milestones

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Gap analysis process 43

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ABSTRACT
Resoundingly, the common spirals downward of Black enrollment and completion trends at
highly selective institutions are symptoms of obsolete philosophies regarding diversity that have
disadvantaged multicultural policy aspirations by and large. Seeking concrete solutions to
reverse this momentum, findings and results from this mixed methods inquiry robustly indicate
that the cultural lens of Black alumni leaders be considered to best attune diversity policy
decision-making. Deliberate inputs specifically from the stakeholder of issue, based upon actual
life experiences, cultural knowledge and vested institutional relationships, should be critically
integrated throughout the policy making process to strengthen contemporary frameworks.
Results confirm that Black alumni in predominately white institutional contexts are highly
motivated to seek, lead and collaboratively develop efforts that would correlate to positive
outcomes for all students, yet particularly increase access, parity and completion rates of middle-
income Black students (that compose the preponderance of underrepresented Black students
currently and in the future) whose needs are presently overlooked. This study suggests a
“Diversity Policy Leadership Plan (DPLP)” as a solution plan framework for Black alumni
leaders to effectively inform improvements through expanded knowledge of cultural
perspectives, and closer alignment of organizational cultural settings that are credible,
accountable and consequently mitigate Black alumni concerns regarding desired generational
progress. By believing their legacies would no longer be threatened within racially conservative
systems, Black alumni leaders could instead become empowered protagonists and global
exemplars for institutional multicultural diversity policy transformation.

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CHAPTER 1
OVERVIEW
While the primary role of Black alumni groups has been historically confined to social
aspects of university life (Milem et al., 1998; Burley et al., 2000), opportunities now exist to add
substantial value to create effective institutional policy (Owen, 2009). Existing strategies fail to
leverage alumni leadership’s social capital and cultural expertise as key stakeholders to bridge
gaps concerning diversity policy improvements that would provide mutual benefit for the rising
middle-income Black student demographic, as well as for all students. Black Alumni leaders
need a clearer understanding of the knowledge, motivation, and organization solutions that
would assist them in developing effective plans that could lead to stronger enrollment and
outcome trends for middle-income Black students accordingly in these contexts.
Black enrollment and completion trends at highly selective institutions are symptoms of
obsolete philosophies regarding diversity. This mixed methods inquiry explored the
opportunities available to Black alumni leaders seeking to advance diversity policy at their alma
mater. In particular, this study specifically identifies the underlying knowledge, motivation, and
organization challenges that confronted the University of Southern California Black Alumni
Association Advisory Council in their efforts to develop an effective plan to lead and influence
policy deliberation that could specifically increase and optimize the enrollment yields of middle-
income Black students at USC, and proposed solutions to address those challenges. It also
identifies significantly meaningful attitudes and beliefs held by cultural stakeholder leaders
whom share a commitment to formulate effective institutional diversity policy frameworks to
accurately reflect their emerging global societies.
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Context of the Problem
The University of Southern California (USC), founded in 1880, is a highly selective
research institution based in Los Angeles, California. The current total student population is
nearly evenly distributed amongst the 30,000 undergraduate and graduate students. In 2012,
USC received a record 47,000 freshman applications for the Fall 2012-13 class. Upon
completion of each admissions cycle, the University publishes its demographic enrollment
distribution of incoming students in its USC Freshman Profile. The information highlighted is
categorized by School and also includes racial group enrollment as a total percentage of the
incoming class. For the 2012-13 incoming class of 3,023 freshman students, 186 (6%) were
Black (USC Admissions, 2012). Enrollment trends for Black students have averaged 7% of the
total freshman population consistently since 2007, yet in 2012-13, Black freshman enrollment
dropped to 6% despite an increase in class size (USC Freshman Profile, 2012-13). The
combined undergraduate and graduate student population of Black students at USC for 2012-13
was 4.6% (USC Enrollment Services, 2012). Completion rates, designated as graduation
outcomes per cohort, have comparatively remained at the bottom of underserved groups in the
low 80% range, lagging significantly behind the institutional average of 92% (USC Enrollment
Services, 2012).
The USC Trojan Family is known as a fervent alumni association throughout the world,
with over 300,000 living alumni (USC Alumni Association, 2013). It is composed of a general
alumni association with many groups to include three separate cultural alumni associations that
represent the three major ethnic populations: Black, Latino and Asian. Although there is no
formal membership, the USC Black Alumni Association (USC BAA) represents the societal and
cultural interests of over 10,000 USC Black alumni. Established in 1976, the mission of the
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USC BAA remains to strengthen the legacy of educational access and attainment of Black
students by providing scholarships, mentoring and advocacy through alumni leadership
volunteerism and social enterprise (USC BAA, 2012). The BAA’s close partnerships with
preparatory youth advocacy groups, and other alumni help augment the admissions process for
Black students. As a result, the USC BAA works closely with the USC Admissions Office in
targeted recruiting outreach for high achieving junior and senior students to create a strongly
constructed admissions pool. Due to the experience the organization has in advocating for,
developing and guiding student relationships, the USC BAA expertly understands the challenges
and factors inherent to Black student admissions. Once admissions decisions are released, both
the institution and families invariably call upon the BAA again to facilitate securing favorable
enrollment decisions. Assistance is offered in various forms to include supplementary
information regarding Black student campus life, as well as inquiries for financial assistance
and/or additional tuition support resources.
In particular, the USC BAA provides scholarship grants to students with income profiles
of low and middle financial need. Additionally due to their foundational value that scholarship
awards must be associated with final outcomes, each grant recipient receives retention support
from volunteer alumni in the form of individual mentoring, pre-career workshops and
International Toastmasters Chapter membership. Overall, the USC BAA provides the largest
number of scholarship grants specifically for Black students attending USC. Whereas in 1976
the BAA initially awarded 5 scholarship grants, in 2012-13 the BAA provided grants to 130
students, representing 9.4% of the total population of USC Black undergraduate and graduate
students. Since 1976, through matched funding by the USC Office of Financial Aid, it has
awarded over $6 million dollars to over 2,000 students (USC BAA, 2012). Eighty-four percent
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of the 2012-13 BAA scholarship applicant pool represented middle-income students. It is likely
the only scholarship grant that a middle-income Black student can qualify for at USC that
includes an empathetic assessment of their financial need in addition to their merit.
Mission and Organizational Problem
With its alumni success, financial support and cultural advocacy that have been highly
capitalized upon to support and further USC’s interests, the USC Black Alumni Association
Advisory Council (BAC), on behalf of the USC Black Alumni Association, now seeks to
influence policy changes that specifically increase and optimize the enrollment yields of middle-
income Black students. The BAC believes that diversity policy changes are required to
successfully improve downward and fragile trends in enrollment and outcomes in this
underserved yet rising student population, and also feels improvements would considerably
increase opportunities for socioeconomic achievement. Comparatively, other highly selective
universities are capitalizing upon their deployment of ethnic affinity groups as tactical partners in
these same types of efforts to achieve their institutional diversity goals (Smith, 2009).
Organizational Goal
The global organizational goal of the BAC, on behalf of the USC BAA, is to influence
diversity policy improvements and practices that will ultimately increase and optimize the
enrollment of middle-income Black students, whereupon a higher enrollment yield also
corresponds to a higher cohort graduation rate. A critical step necessary to enhance diversity
policies is to create a plan for BAC leadership that effectively synergizes this effort with
collaborative partners who will be needed in order to support change. To accomplish this
objective, the BAC will create a grassroots advocacy plan that is developed from solutions based
upon research, best practices and innovative thought. The BAC plan will be known as The
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Diversity Policy Leadership Plan. The Diversity Policy Leadership Plan (DPLP) has a
measureable buy-in attainment goal of its 26 members. The commitment of all members to
agree to lead a transformative policy change effort, executing according to the construct of the
plan, will measure the achievement of the plan goal. The Diversity Policy Leadership Plan adds
a desired element of strategic importance and social uplift to the BAA mission, by sharply
focusing upon gains to be realized through systemic efforts to address access issues and
inequities caused by institutional diversity policy and practices. Since a leadership plan with the
specific focus to increase and optimize the enrollment of middle income Black students does not
yet exist, the gap from zero to 26 members who commit to the viability of the plan and its
execution is 100%.
Stakeholders
There are several stakeholders involved in the processes of increasing and optimizing
Black student enrollments. The key stakeholders are the USC students, the USC Admissions and
Enrollment Services staff, Senior Administration, and the Black Alumni Association, specifically
the Black Alumni Association Advisory Council (BAC) acting on its behalf.
Stakeholder for the Case Study
The stakeholder of focus for this study is the Black Alumni Association Advisory
Council (BAC). Each BAC member has the goal of providing meaningful guidance on behalf of
the BAA constituency of an estimated 10,000 alumni. Additionally it is common for BAC
leaders to be selected for leadership participation within other university councils and
affiliations. As leaders of the Black Alumni Association, the BAC is responsible for creating the
BAA’s vision, strategy and policy. Considering the average senior leadership position of each
member and the broad base of their diversity responsibilities within their own careers
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specifically, the BAC does have the necessary leadership experience to influence meaningful
collaborative efforts to enhance institutional diversity strategy and policy.
Background of the Problem
Although its diversity policy is implied to be widely encompassing (USC Strategic
Vision, 2011), it is delivered through practices that treat each racial group as if part of a
composite whole with no distinction. The resulting cultural impacts seem forgone in the
institution’s policy actions, either because they are not well understood, or because the need to
understand them is not well understood. In the case of Black students, the most profound
impact is that student enrollment yields have serious deficiencies relative to other groups, and
outcomes have remained weaker despite an inclusionary policy proposition.
While Black students are offered admissions on a need-blind basis, a growing critical
subset of the admitted but non-enrolled Black student pool is from middle-income groups (USC
Enrollment Services, 2012; Francis, 2012). Much is already confirmed about the characteristics
of these students. To begin, literature indicates these students are already likely predisposed to
the benefits accrued through post-secondary achievement (Ogbu & Simons, 2008). Additionally,
they are typically considered to be highly academically prepared, as is also demonstrated by their
higher GPAs and SAT scores, as well as their matriculation from schools noted for the types of
resources and rigor associated with wealthier school populations (USC Enrollment Services,
2012; Wiswall & Zafar, 2012). Correspondingly, it appears this group of students is more likely
to have been admitted directly into a highly competitive USC School (USC Enrollment Services,
2012), and consistent with the research, also to have chosen a major field of study (Young &
Redlinger, 2001; Dickson, 2010). While research further indicates that Black freshman
applicants are just as likely to declare a college major in the same fields and at the same rates as
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their White peers (Carter et al., 2006), a pervasive institutional indicator of diminished return
regarding competitive admissions and enrollment efforts is that instead of choosing USC, 60%-
80% of prospective Black applicants who were admitted into the Sciences, Business or
Engineering majors, made decisions to enroll elsewhere (USC Enrollment Services, 2012).
Additionally, over 26% of Black student enrollments at the institution are undecided about their
major, as compared to an average of only 13% (USC Freshman Profile, 2012). Conclusively,
regardless of the assumptions of why this happens, USC experiences difficulty yielding Black
students that otherwise would have advanced the initial academic depth of the cohort (Redlinger
et al., 2008; Reiner, 2012).
Of further consideration, given that USC has a stated need-blind admissions philosophy,
its financial-aid policies seem to favor lower socio-economic status students, by providing the
majority of its university grants to meet the need in this population to cover tuition and living
costs (USC Enrollment Services, 2012). Evidence for this is seen in the large numbers and dollar
amounts of high-need grants provided by several USC organizations: ethnic scholarship
organizations which provide partial tuition grants based on high need; USC neighborhood
outreach programs which provide full five year scholarships to low-income students; a
University-wide student funded four year scholarship initiative for low-income students; USC
Financial-aid awards (USC Financial-aid, 2013). By these decisively sizeable commitments, it
appears that USC is successfully able to fulfill its urban access mission (USC Strategic Vision,
2011; Leonhardt, 2007). Thus it is starkly apparent as well that given the relatively obvious
absence of Black student inclusion throughout these programs, Black students are no longer
statistically meaningful representatives of those students who do benefit from institutional grants
directed for underserved students.
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Cumulatively, the effects of these circumstances create the types of scenarios where
middle-income Black students may well choose to go to other colleges that can provide better
suited incentives, even when USC is their first choice school (USC Enrollment Services, 2012;
Melguizo & Chung, 2012; St. John, 2005). Hence it seems to be the case that growing numbers
of these admitted students who have a great potential to contribute to the university academically
and personally, are likely unable to attend USC (Redlinger et al., 2008; Reiner, 2012).
Importance of the Problem
The negative tendency of middle-income student enrollment yield and optimization is of
growing concern to Black alumni, as this development is increasingly problematic for their
mission to expand their institutional legacy. Rev. Dr. Thomas Kilgore, a prominent civic leader
as well as founder of the USC Black Alumni Association, emboldened (through his activism and
presence as a Special Advisor to two USC Presidents) an insight originated by Dr. Albert
Einstein, “All that is valuable in human society depends on the opportunity afforded the
individual,” dedicating his life’s work to advocacy for underserved Blacks in society and higher
education (Kilgore & Ross, 1998). The USC Black Alumni Association continues to steward
this outlook, yet nearly forty years later also believes the problem of importance lies not merely
with the quantity of opportunities offered for Black students, but in the way the quality of access
across sub-groups is interpreted as being credible and equitable, to include the Black middle-
income student.
Although USC has proven a noble commitment to an urban access mission, without
inclusion of equitable access for middle-income Black students among its best, the larger
strategic goal of moving towards “elite university status” (USC Strategic Vision, 2011) is self-
defeating. As such, a philosophical policy conflict of ideals regarding diversity seems to be
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emergent, wherein a former predominately lower socio-economic status group achieves
educational attainment and begins to move through the middle-class—yet remains
indistinguishably underrepresented and underserved within institutional systems. Through
investigation and resolution of this divergence, the Diversity Policy Leadership Plan would add
to limited qualitative research informing an institutional policy maker’s decisions to distinguish
between, and responsively balance, the needs of race and socio-economic progress in the
evolution of diversity policy. Increasing and optimizing enrollment yields of middle-income
Black students would likely provide immediate institutional benefits resulting from a probable
elevated academic cohort profile and a more diverse racial representation within USC Schools.
Graduation rates for Black students would also likely increase and subsequently provide greater
future claims to alumni achievements and satisfaction, and donor cultivation opportunities.
Nationally, leadership of diversity policy improvements that solve the issues of increased and
optimized yields of middle-income Black students at highly selective institutions would provide
knowledge transfer for other underserved cultural affinity groups as they make their own
generational progression. On a global level, there is likely application concerning policy
leadership that incorporates the viewpoints of cultural and racial sub-groups throughout their
economic and social transitions in traditionally dominant societies in general.
Purpose of the Study and Questions
The purpose of this case study was to conduct a gap analysis that examined key areas
where the Black Alumni Association Advisory Council (BAC) could provide critical leadership
insight and partnership to improve diversity policies at USC that more effectively targeted the
needs of middle-income Black student applicants. The result of this case study was a plan that
effectively guides the BAC in their goal to provide diversity policy improvement
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recommendations to influence policy changes that specifically increase and optimize the
enrollment yields of middle-income Black students. The inquiry focused on BAC performance
gaps in the areas of their knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational challenges that
needed to be met in order for the BAC to successfully lead a collaborative effort for diversity
policy improvement that uniquely incorporates the stakeholder viewpoint. The analysis began
by a generated list of presumed causes of team performance gaps and then proceeded to examine
those systematically, in order to focus on actual or validated causes. While a complete gap
analysis would have focused on all stakeholders that would have been involved in a total
collaborative effort, the stakeholder of focus in this analysis was the USC BAA Advisory
Council (BAC). As such, the questions that guided this study were the following:
1. What were the underlying knowledge, motivation, and organization challenges that
confronted the USC BAA Advisory Council in developing an effective plan for
diversity policy improvement to influence policy changes that could specifically
increase and optimize the enrollment yields of middle-income Black students at
USC?
2. What were the knowledge, motivation, and organization solutions that assisted the
BAC to meet their challenges and achieve their goal to develop an effective plan for
diversity policy improvements to influence policy changes that could specifically
increase and optimize the enrollment yields of middle-income Black students at
USC?
Methodological Framework
In order to research the BAC’s potential challenges and address potential solutions, Clark
and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis model, a systematic analytical method that clarifies organizational
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goals and identifies gaps between actual performance levels and preferred performance levels
within an organization, was the theoretical framework utilized for the case study. The gap
analysis process began with formulating a hypothetical set of presumed causes for investigation.
Presumed causes for performance gaps were initially generated based on personal knowledge
and related literature. These causes were then validated through surveys, and interviews,
literature review and content analysis. Research-based solutions were subsequently
recommended and evaluated in a comprehensive manner.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
The purpose of this literature review is to examine underlying causes and challenges that
inhibit Black alumni associations from aligning as transformative leadership resources to
collaboratively improve diversity policies, and ultimately enrollment yields of middle-income
Black students. First, analysis focuses on the important deliberations that influence institutional
selection by middle-income Black student applicants. Secondly, the current challenges faced by
institutions to develop targeted sub-group diversity strategies are considered. Finally, discussion
reviews the literature that informs the role of Black alumni association leadership as being
transformational protagonists, using the Gap Analysis model developed by Clark and Estes
(2008) to address gaps in knowledge, motivation and organizational issues.
Middle-income Black Student Institutional Selection Variables
Improved awareness of the socioeconomic evolution of the Black middle-class itself,
future aspirations in the national and global workforces and correlations to degree attainment are
noted throughout the literature (Palmer et al., 2010; Landry & Marsh, 2011; Lusane, 1998;
Hardaway & McLoyd, 2009; Strayhorn, 2011; Freeman & Brown, 2005; Sirin & Rogers-Sirin,
2004; Kim et al., 2009). As such, there is an emerging rationale that frames the discussion of
educational importance specifically within the Black middle-class, and informs several variables
that influence institutional selection by middle-income Black students.
Socioeconomic Aspirations
Blacks, who constitute 11% of the American population, saw a 15% growth in income
status from 1970 to 2006, moving them substantially into the middle-class (Pew Research, 2008).
Middle income Black students now exceed 60% of the freshman applicant pool, with this rate
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expected to continue to rise (Strayhorn, 2011). Students from the lowest income groups now
make up a smaller proportion of Black freshman cohorts. To illustrate this point, in 1971, 94%
of Black freshman students reported family incomes of $20,000 or less. In 2004, this rate was
22% (Strayhorn, 2011). Just as strikingly in 1971, 2% of Black freshmen came from homes with
family incomes of $50,000 or more, yet in 2004, this rate was 42.5% (Strayhorn, 2011).
Similar to other cultures and nations that realize associative growth and advantageous
scale from their educated societies and economies, there is a growing urgency in the Black
middle-class to develop competitive competencies for the global workforce (Palmer et al.,
2010). Analysis confirms that due to employment and salary discrimination, Blacks commonly
do not receive salaries or employment opportunities commensurate with their level of education,
therefore the significance of education as a class differentiator is more positional than it may be
for other ethnic groups (Hardaway & McLoyd, 2009). Although the continued role of race in
limiting Black middle-class achievement is well documented, qualitative studies further
demonstrate that the future of the Black middle-class hinges in large part on the increasing
influence of the mobility chances of college-educated Blacks (Landry & Marsh, 2011). Given
persisting racial disparities, the national economic outlook for workforce selection of Blacks also
contributes to a compounded perspective of dismal workforce opportunities globally (Lusane,
1998). Globalization, therefore, has been deemed as the newest barrier to cross in the context of
academic progression and social foundation building (Lusane, 1998; Palmer et al., 2010).
The literature informs that middle-income students and their families consider
socioeconomic progress as the most important priority for educational advancement,
involvement and institutional selection (Carter et al., 2006). While research indicates that degree
aspirations of Black students have risen since 1986 commensurate with wider collegial access,
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and that there is now little or no difference between the career aspirations of Black students from
their White peers upon admission (Carter et al., 2006), social class dynamics are also
distinctively associated with college degree pursuit. Middle-class Black students see themselves
differently than their low-income peers. They understand socioeconomic progress, and value
self-efficacy in career attainment (Sirin & Rogers-Sirin, 2004). In fact the typical millennial
Black freshman will highly likely be middle-class, and well prepared academically (Strayhorn,
2011).
Prestige
Family support systems will likely be involved in college choice (Freeman & Brown,
2005) because college selectivity is seen as an important positive predictor of expected lifetime
income (Dale & Krueger, 2002). The ability for high achieving students to remain as
academically successful at Historically Black Colleges and Universities, as compared to the
probability that Black students will not fare as well at Predominately White Institutions is a
growing concern and consideration in college selection (Flowers, 2007). Yet although Black
student experiences are less satisfactory, higher socioeconomic status students who graduate
from Predominately White Institutions have higher career aspirations, income aspirations and
more influential networks than their low socioeconomic status peers (Walpole, 2008). This
tradeoff looms in importance, as US Labor statistics consistently prove that Blacks do not
receive the same benefits from education as Whites (Austin, 2011).
Price Sensitivity
Middle-income Black families constantly weigh the institutional selection considerations
between prestige, cultural satisfaction and financing of college costs in efforts to advance
socioeconomically (Perry, 2004). Overwhelmingly, college financing is the primary factor in
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selection due to economic wealth disparities realized from historic inequities, regardless of class
distinctions (Kim et al., 2009).
Institutional Diversity Policy Challenges
Difficulty in increasing enrollment yields for middle-income Black students is directly
associated with institutional diversity policies and goals that drive admission, enrollment and
financial-aid strategies. Specific discussions of diversity policy challenges to increase access
and equity are highly involved given the broad spectrum of literature that has evaluated
admissions, enrollment and financial-aid strategies and practices, therefore this review seeks to
limit discussion to systemic root causal considerations for new policy frameworks that would
importantly affect middle-income Black students.
Access
Despite legal rulings, highly selective institutions are increasingly pressured to confront
systemic issues regarding diversity policies which impact enrollment yields of middle-income
Black students, because racial disparities appear to have significantly grown in the last 30 years
(Hurtado, 2007), despite Brown v. Board and despite the civil rights activism of the 1960s and
1970s. As college degree attainment has become more important in the labor market,
competition among students for access to the most selective colleges and universities has grown
as well (Reardon et al., 2012). In its most recent report, the National Census for Educational
Statistics indicates that 32% of the total of 18.4 million US college students were Black students
(Aud, Fox & Kewal, 2010). Among these, 17% of Black students attended private not-for-profit
institutions, with only 4% attending private research institutions.
Historically, the affirmative action policies of the mid-1960s dramatically increased
educational opportunities for African Americans, particularly at Predominately White
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Institutions (Bowen & Bok, 1998). Race-based college admissions policies “have led to striking
gains in the representation of minorities in the most lucrative and influential occupations”
(Bowen & Bok, 1998, p. 10). Specifically however, with regard to college access at highly
selective institutions, these gains have been realized through limited entry points. Studies
demonstrate that affirmative action bans have served to further limit access for Black students
especially at selective universities (Hinrichs, 2012). White peers are five times more likely to be
admitted into highly selective universities than Black students (Hinrichs, 2012). Nor have
income-based admissions practices been found to eliminate racial disparities either, as the racial
disparity in selective college admissions still persists even after controlling for income (Reardon
et al., 2012). Students from top income quintile families are seven to eight times more likely to
enroll in a highly selective college. Even after controlling for income, white students are two to
three times as likely as Black students to gain admission to highly selective colleges (Reardon et
al., 2012).
Strategies and Practices
Diversity policy alignment. To date, there has been no common framework for
understanding the campus racial climate in a way that helps develop policies and practices
(Milem et al., 2008). Consequentially, equity and access issues for middle-income Black students
have not been meaningfully addressed. In order for root causal approaches to effectively resolve
access and equity issues, the literature indicates goals should be correlated directly to
institutional diversity strategies—which by their intent seek to resolve racial disparities (Hurtado,
2007). The primary challenge for targeted enrollment strategy to address specific racial and
ethnic sub-groups is greatly complicated in that ethnic, cultural and socioeconomic sub-group
stratifications have yet to be incorporated through the contexts of racial dynamics in the United
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24
States (Hurtado, 2007). A study analyzing the major paradigms for diversity strategies used in
manuscripts published in peer reviewed higher education journals found that fewer than 2% used
paradigms that addressed issues of race from a critical perspective with the goal of producing
meaningful change (Milem et al., 2008). If diversity initiatives are to be central to key missions
and practice to transform undergraduate education (Hurtado, 2007), it is important for such
initiatives to incorporate those additional implications regarding sociological differences that
exist due to race and racism (Ogbu & Simmons, 2008). Associatively, research suggests that
institutions include ethnicity data to supplement racial classification data to further evaluate and
understand their concentrations of racial student profiles accurately (Brown, 2009). Immigrant
groups spanning the Black Diaspora are crucial examples of the inconsistencies of generalizing
the Black student applicant pool. As an example, Ogbu and Simmons fundamentally argue that
African Americans are distinguishably classified as involuntary minorities, as opposed to
voluntary minorities whom are factually immigrant groups that evolve through generational
acculturation processes (Ogbu & Simmons, 2008). Increasingly, percentages of students
classified as Black are actually immigrants, bi-racials and non-American descended (Brown,
2009). In 2004, nearly twenty-one percent of Black students had one foreign-born parent and
they were highly likely from middle-class and affluent income levels. While these students too
seek education to further improve their economic prospects (Anonymous, 2006), the basis of
their financial ability to pay for secondary education may be different, thus effective institutional
enrollment incentives might also need to be targeted differently. These types of discriminating
characteristics are not accounted for in the existing paradigms of race-based or income-based
admissions and enrollment strategies, nor are complex assessments across sub-groups associated.
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25
Financial-aid incentives. While findings confirm that the most important variable for
institutional selection by middle-income Black families has been identified as financial
assistance with tuition costs, research also confirms that institutional diversity policies have
incorporated generalized financial-aid modeling that does not align with the current and growing
needs of middle-income Black students. It is has been demonstrated and is now accepted that
minority students who attain a baccalaureate degree from an elite institution with low debt have
several advantages, including the opportunity to enter the labor market and start receiving the
benefits of college education such as higher earnings and middle-class status (Melguizo &
Chung, 2012). Hence, institutions are increasingly aware of how financial-aid incentives can be
used as indicators to structure, if not predict, the desired minority group diversity of an incoming
freshman class (Melguizo & Chung, 2012). According to the their study, Melguizo and Chung
identified that the established financial-aid policy model has four contingent variables
determined by the economics of higher education theory: a) colleges act as competitive firms in
the market for higher education; b) colleges want to have an academically prepared diverse
student body, and financial-aid policies are the instrument for obtaining the desired composition;
c) to obtain a high-quality, ethnically diverse student population, a college must bid for it with a
sufficient subsidy; d) in the present market environment, a high-achieving minority student is
more likely to enroll in response to a higher subsidy (Melguizo & Chung, 2012). Significantly, it
is the case that elite private institutions are not restrained by federal and state impositions
regarding affirmative action rulings, and can offer their packages to provide best advantage to
the desired group they wish to retain (Melguizo & Chung, 2012).
It is important to note however, that institutions seek to address issues of equity and
access for low-income student populations, believing they are in fact targeting racial inequities
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26
by doing so. Thus, the majority of Black students do not gain advantage from this model since
their core is primarily middle-class, and consequentially this sub-group becomes heavily
burdened with the financial costs of college attendance (Jackson & Reynolds, 2013). To be
clear, unlike low-income students who usually receive obligation free aid, middle-income
students are generally directed towards unsubsidized loans, the interest of which accumulates
while the student is still in school (Chen & Zerquera, 2011). Educational loans are less sensitive
to financial need than other forms of need-based aid (Chen & Zerquera, 2011). One of the
primary factors in an institution’s evaluation of student financial-aid is a family’s asset base and
liquidity (Hurwitz, 2012). Estimated home equity is a primary variable in the aid allocation
process especially in private highly selective institutions, therefore, it is an extremely powerful
instrument and a strong predictor of institutional grant aid (Hurwitz, 2012). Yet a key finding
remains: among financial-aid filers, an additional 10% increase in institutional grant aid leads to
an 8.6% increase in matriculation probability (Hurwitz, 2012).
Racial wealth gap. It is this finding in particular that drives deeper consideration that
financial-aid policy, as it is directly linked to diversity policy and enrollment strategies, consider
the same root casual associations of racial, ethnic and socioeconomic sub-group stratifications
for middle-income Black applicants and students. It would be essential that institutional
assessments of both income and wealth be made through an intergenerational lens with regard to
financial-aid policy that considers race and racism. Multiple research studies prove the
implications of the racial wealth gap between Black and Whites in the United States. Income and
also wealth have different apportionments for Black Americans. Income is used differently and
wealth has not had equitable opportunity to be accumulated (Conley, 2000). Middle-class Black
adults are over four times more likely than their middle-class White counterparts to have grown
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27
up poor (Hardaway et al., 2009). They are also much more likely than Whites to have siblings or
relatives who are poor. Assisting disadvantaged relatives often financially strains the ability of
middle-class Blacks to build wealth and may even contribute to the racial wealth gap, therefore
financial resources that could be set aside for college tuitions are often strained or not available
(Hardaway et al., 2009). Further, the Black-White difference in average net worth is wider than
the racial gap in any other socioeconomic measure (Conley, 2000). An empirical study
demonstrated that for the year 1994, the typical White American family enjoyed a “nest egg” of
assets totaling a median of $72,000. By comparison, with a median net worth of $9,800, the
typical Black family had no significant nest egg (Conley, 2000). Among the middle-income
group—with a 1994 annual family income between $35,001 and $50,000—the median Black
family held just less than one half the net worth of its White counterpart ($40,000 and $81,000,
respectively). At the highest income bracket—those families who enjoyed annual incomes of
more than $75,000—the typical Black family held $114,600 to its White counterpart’s $308,000
(Conley, 2000). Considering the pivotal asset of real estate, Blacks have generationally suffered
from intergenerational housing discrimination and until only recently have been able to purchase
homes in the same neighborhoods as middle-class Whites, therefore begin to gain relative
appreciative value in home equity (Shapiro, Meshede & Osoro, 2013). Income and wealth for
middle-income Black students should be considered as important control variables that also
allow the proper estimation of race on institutional financial-aid and enrollment behavior. In the
case of middle-income Black students, root causal associations have profound impact, given that
financial-aid strategies are primarily income driven and without context.
Enrollment management. Financial-aid incentives are used to attract minority students
in highly selective institutions, such that minority student enrollment strategies are built around
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28
the institution’s funding decisions to allocate funds as grant sources for a low-income student or
high achieving minority student. A middle-income Black student enrollment strategy is not
accommodated, other than to offer loans as the primary component of financial packaging.
Enrollment management strategies linked to sub-group diversity goals is non-existent in the
literature, but an evaluation by Schulz & Lucido (2011), which assessed enrollment management
strategies of enrollment professionals at 50 unique institutions, found that while private
institutions have a wider, and possibly more influential platform for reshaping diversity policies
versus public institutions, they have increasingly allowed enrollment management and financial-
aid strategies to be driven by revenue maximization. The study found that strategies
implemented by enrollment professionals were based on consultant recommendations which
largely centered on institutional marketing and branding, student search, and the strategic use of
financial-aid rather than on improving the educational practices of institutions to attract and
secure students (Schulz & Lucido, 2011). This has resulted in environments where enrollment
professionals are being led to redefine the purpose of student aid as one predicated on
institutional need. More than one-third of the institutions represented in the study sample
reportedly turned to external consultants for assistance with their financial-aid modeling,
leveraging, packaging, research and/or analysis (Schulz & Lucido, 2011). In addition to
embracing the use of econometric modeling as a means for strategically estimating the effect of
student aid on yield behavior, enrollment professionals described having shaped their aid
packaging in response to the recommendation of consultants instead. Examples from the study
include: A) enrollment professionals gave less money to more students in an effort to more
efficiently utilize limited aid resources en route to securing enrollments; B) full tuition awards
were broken into smaller grants for students after consultants suggested those same students
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29
would still enroll, a strategy that may result in more students with unmet need; C) front loading
financial-aid awards to increase the admissions yield for new freshmen students, a practice used
to entice students to enroll but one that also leaves them to scramble for funding in subsequent
years. Schulz & Lucido (2011) concluded that these practices revealed how external influences
may be fostering a fundamental rethinking as to the purpose of financial-aid and the overall
function of enrollment management.
Diversity policy frameworks. While a holistic policy framework to improve access and
inequity of middle-income Black students is desired, none is currently indicated in the literature
that has actually been utilized to meaningfully address root causal change. What research does
show, however, is a growing body of work that philosophically fulfills exploratory gaps in the
discussion of what should be implemented at a policy level to affect change that is responsive to
cultural inclusion. The extensive research on Critical Race Theory (Crenshaw et al., 1995;
Delgaldo, 2001; Ladson-Billings, 2012) serves as a heavily researched framework that by its
design considers the implications and impacts of a multicultural society (Harper et al., 2009).
Additional research asserts that it is appropriate now to address diversity policy as a fundamental
issue that seeks a sustainable equity agenda, rather than as a solution that is a means to an end:
i.e. increased STEM students, reducing achievement gaps, increasing graduation outcomes for
specific groups (Anderson, 2012). Critical Race Theory is an analytical framework that provides
a lens through which to question, critique, and challenge the manner and methods in which race,
white supremacy, supposed meritocracy, and racist ideologies have shaped and undermined
policy efforts for Black student participation in higher education (Harper et al., 2009). It is
particularly useful for examining policies affecting Black students in higher education, as racial
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30
subordination is among the critical factors responsible for the continued production of
radicalized disparities and opportunity gaps (Harper et al., 2009).
A systems approach is more useful than cumulative disadvantage theory for
understanding persistent racial inequality—which is the basis of affirmative action and income
based policies—because it recognizes that race discrimination is an integrated structural entity
that simultaneously obscures the causes of disparities within each sphere and amplifies their
effects (Reskin, 2012). Moreover, a systems perspective is more likely than a cumulative
disadvantage perspective to generate effective remedies (Reskin, 2012). A cumulative
disadvantage approach assumes that groups can avoid becoming trapped by catching up in
important spheres. This assumption as the basis for the logic behind affirmative action in
education or employment has proven ineffective and non-sustainable (Reskin, 2012). In
contrast, according to a systems perspective, racial disparities are robust because emergent
discrimination constrains the paths through which Blacks can overcome accrued disadvantages.
Further, a systems approach better accounts for the persistence of racial disparities despite the
periodic implementation and enforcement of policies ostensibly designed to reduce them
(Reskin, 2012; Harper et al., 2009).
Leadership initiatives. The current levels of minority student representation at highly
selective institutions are questioned as being “sufficient” for transformative aims and outcomes
(Anderson et al., 2005). The literature informs that it is Presidential leadership that sets the tone
for diversity policy and enrollment results, weaving prioritized initiatives into the fabric of the
institution (Anderson et al., 2005). In retrospective, articles describe the impact of Presidential
directives in the 1960’s at Harvard, Yale and Princeton that aggressively built foundations for
diversity and prioritized Black student enrollment (Karabel, 2005). Policymaking and practices
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31
were predicated on creating a constructed stratum of “Negro Leadership,” as opposed to
decisions contingent upon meritocracy or affirmative action (Karabel, 2005). These initiatives
proved consistent with research confirming that the current challenge is to create policies that go
far beyond the small numbers that currently pass for a critical mass of students in highly
selective institutions (Anderson et al., 2005).
Black Alumni Association Leaders as Transformational Protagonists
The narrow literature explaining involvement of Black alumni organizations in highly
selective institutions is offered initially as a platform for discussion regarding research that
informs leadership considerations that may be required to carry forward diversity policy
strategies to improve middle-income Black student enrollments. Literature is then reviewed in
terms of informing leadership knowledge, motivation and organizational challenges that have
been identified as presumed causes for performance gaps in the Clark and Estes (2008) gap
analysis framework.
Black Alumni Association Leadership in Predominately White Institutions
Historical impacts. Numerous articles in the cultural press describe that the first Black
graduates of most of the highly selective institutions date commonly to the late nineteenth
century, but scholarly research of Black alumni associations in highly selective institutions or
Predominately White Institutions does not exist. There is a great void at Predominately White
Institutions to historically catalogue the academic work or experiences of how Black students or
alumni created spaces for themselves in these environments and contributed to the overall
diversity of these institutions (Breaux, 2003). Accepted opinion regarding the actual inceptions
of Black alumni associations on these campuses places them in the late 1970’s, when due to the
increases of Black enrollments as a result of the civil rights efforts, Black graduates wished to
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32
create supportive environments that were sensitive to the needs of new entering students (Bowen
& Bok, 1998).
Leadership authority. Black alumni associations have never held acknowledged
leadership authority on the campuses of Predominately White Institutions, as their primary
missions have been to serve in response to student and alumni needs for representative inclusion
only. Consequently, there is no literature that examines the complexities of Black alumni
leadership in these environments, or past perspectives to affect norms and values associated with
institutional diversity policies—either based on collaborative negotiation or protest. Research
informs that Black alumni associations exist in the environments of Predominately White
Institutions to formally demonstrate a historical legacy of inclusion or exclusion (Milem et al.,
1998). While Black alumni associations have always had principal interests to ensure access and
reduce inequities (Burley et al., 2000), they have been primarily relegated as social
organizations, and empirical evidence does not exist which measures their impact. Additionally,
qualitative data regarding Black alumni engagement minimally exists. The degrees to which
Black alumni have been motivated to engage with their alma maters however, were demonstrated
in a limited study that indicated the matriculation period of alumni imparted various differences
(Burley et al., 2000). Because older Black alumni suffered greater from the stressors of
prejudice than those from the 1990s, they assimilate less with their institutions (Burley et al.,
2000). Delving further into alumni engagement, the preponderance of current research
surrounding Black alumni associations defines parameters for involvement philanthropically
(Drezner 2008, 2009; Gasman, 2002; Thompson, 2012;Wallace, 2012). These studies heavily
condition the circumstances of how Black alumni experiences are critical to institutional
engagement. They correlate volunteerism and giving to deep acknowledgement and involvement
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33
by the institution’s President with actionable diversity strategy, social uplift and trust. Non-
monetary support behaviors of Black alumni groups can also be correlated to a recent sequential
mixed method study that demonstrated that non-monetary behaviors of alumni in general are best
understood through the distinct, but interrelated domains of political advocacy and volunteerism
(Weerts et al., 2010). Behaviors confirmed in the study include mentoring, recruiting students,
participating in special events and also indicated additional studies for alumni support for higher
education issues and recruitment of alumni advocates.
Further underlying the complexities of social advocacy for middle-income Black student
access and inequity is also the finding that Black alumni cannot utilize their institutional legacies
with the same momentum or results as do their White alumni counterparts (Howell & Turner,
2004). Since alumni from selective colleges and universities historically have been
disproportionately White, admissions policies that favor legacies have disproportionately
benefited White students. At the macro level, legacy interests do reduce the diversity levels of
enrollment disproportionately (Howell & Turner, 2004). Although the Howell study
optimistically projects favorable diversity changes in the racial composition of legacy students
over the next twenty years, the model does not account for the barrier of rising college entrance
requirements in highly selective institutions, especially those that aggressively pursue rankings.
Black Alumni Association Leadership Knowledge Issues
Research is reviewed that can inform the knowledge gaps Black alumni association
leadership may encounter to improve policy efforts. According to the Clark and Estes (2008)
model for gap analysis, gaps may present in the areas of factual, conceptual, procedural and
meta-cognitive (self-awareness) knowledge.
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Factual. Diversity policy is imbued through decision-making and practices that foster
uniquely specific institutional objectives. As such, Black alumni association leadership should
be aware of the foundational diversity policy framework and its parameters. Qualitative studies
inform that well-intentioned institutional diversity strategies and policies may unwittingly
reinforce practices that support exclusion and inequity (VanDeventer, 2007) as a common result
when race is not considered as the integral component of diversity policy, and where the
objectives of the policies and practices are centered on the accommodation of, rather than
inclusion of, people of color whom are considered initially as outsiders to the institution.
Additional study indications also inform that multiculturalism and assimilation are in fact two
competing interethnic ideologies that can heavily predicate diversity policy making and
decisions (Wolsko Park, & Judd, 2006). A multicultural framework asserts that historical
perspectives of diverse ethnic groups and also institutional racism are realizable attributes of
educational, social, legal and political systems, versus assimilation which argues for the
coalescing of diverse groups into a color-blind society, that is dominated by the European
perspective and intellectual traditions (Wolsko, Park & Judd, 2006). Research further
demonstrates that diversity policy frameworks have seemingly shifted from rationales of social
justice to academic excellence (Marichal, 2009), but that the consequences of these shifts also
have had exclusionary impacts far from their original intentions for equity. These presenting
realms of institutional diversity policy decision-making would have important consequences for
framing the Black alumni association’s leadership knowledge and the points of entry where
improvements could be engaged.
Conceptual. Given that Black Alumni associations in all probability do not have
leadership authority in Predominately White Institutions, it is likely the case that the Black
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35
alumni association leadership has limited knowledge regarding how decisions are made
concerning middle-income Black students relative to institutional diversity policies and
initiatives. As such, they may be unable to describe or interpret the rationale involved, or be
present in settings to affect the validity of middle-income Black student enrollment yield
strategies that are created and assessed. Opportunities may therefore exist for the Black alumni
association leadership to participate in designing frameworks and strategies based upon the
knowledge and relevant data it has held separately from these processes. By examining data in
highly disaggregated categories, the diversity agenda could be continually refined (Kezar, 2007).
The additional detail and perspective could be useful to more accurately assess the needs of the
student demographic.
Procedural. Largely due to gaps in conceptual knowledge as described, it may be
difficult to effectively demonstrate how disaggregated data regarding middle-income Black
students could be used to predict more favorable enrollment scenarios. Additionally, the
association leadership may not know how to include its inherent affinities and expertise in these
settings to improve conclusions that could strongly influence decisions and practices to increase
and optimize enrollment yields. The institutional process of drawing conclusions from trends
and analysis has importance in diversity policy formation. Research confirms that this kind of
data analysis is vitally important to effective policymaking, suggesting the need to look at
diversity in more complex ways (Kezar, 2007). To effect meta- and micro-analysis,
collaborative processes would likely need to be encouraged to include, analyze and review
highly granular data for decision making (Kezar, 2007).
Metacognitive. It would be important for Black alumni association leadership to realize
they must improve their own agency to affect the transparency of diversity initiatives that would
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be appropriate for middle-income Black student enrollment strategies. By expanding its role as
an expert resource, the leadership organization could provide systemic perspective and input
related to meaningful policy solutions for enrollment yield goal setting and achievement. College
campuses are complex social systems. They are defined by the relationships between faculty,
staff, students, and alumni; bureaucratic procedures embodied by institutional policies; structural
frameworks; institutional missions, visions, and core values; institutional history and traditions;
and larger social contexts (Rankin & Reason, 2008). Academic communities expend a great deal
of effort fostering a climate to nurture their missions with the understanding that climate has a
profound effect on the academic community’s ability to excel in teaching, research, and
scholarship (Rankin & Reason, 2008). The acceleration of globalization however, has created a
chaotic state of change as institutions struggle to adapt to new paradigms of leadership
(Robinson & Harvey, 2008). Globalization demands new approaches, and the challenge is to find
the appropriate leadership imperatives in response to the changing problems of existence
(Robinson & Harvey, 2008). It appears that Black alumni associations, often being institutional
alumni organizations themselves, must also proactively make sense of the changing institutional
responses and priorities due to globalization in order to heed the needs of its constituency for
equitable representation in the globalized society. Thus, a feasible rationale is required in order
to be empowered to deal with the challenges of leading efforts that would improve enrollment
yields for middle-income Black students who are poised to successfully advance in the
globalized environment.
Accordingly, the association leadership would be required to identify and adopt the skills
needed to lead such efforts. Various models provide a basis for developing appropriate
leadership practices that support and enhance institutional culture (Robinson & Harvey, 2008).
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37
There are many leadership strategies, but the ideal is one that can be transformational in a
cultural context. One model is that offered by Robinson & Harvey (2008), which is a value
based algorithm model used to plot cultural progression of an organization. Another is the model
created from the work of Kezar (2007), which identified the leadership strategies for the
diversity improvements of twenty-seven university presidents (Kezar, 2007). Kezar’s qualitative
study evaluated common themes and found that the process of diversity change was
institutionalized in several phases with distinct behaviors in each phase. Accordingly, Black
alumni association leadership would need to identify which phase its institution was in, and
ascribe to the detail of the recommendations per each phase for leadership knowledge
improvement. This research further suggests that leaders need to help their peers first recognize
the need for changes in diversity policies by mobilizing and energizing the need for change
(Kezar, 2007). The study concludes with the acknowledgement that this component of self-
reflection is necessary in the first phases of diversity policy institutionalization that seeks
innovative development to more closely align to desired outcomes (Kezar, 2007).
Black Alumni Association Leadership Motivation Issues
Although Black alumni leadership may collectively choose to pursue their goals of policy
change, they would need to recognize the dedication that would be required to increase both
influence and input regarding new ideas in institutional settings. Research is reviewed pertaining
to the performance gaps of motivation to empower them as cultural agents.
Active choice and persistence. Although literature specific to the motivations of Black
alumni groups or leadership does not exist, a 2009 study clearly confirms the need for an
institution to rely upon external multicultural expertise in the cultural setting of White decision-
making leadership on diversity issues (Owen, 2009). The institutional environment faced by the
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38
leadership of Black alumni associations in Predominately White Institutions is similar, and is
central to the issue of why Black alumni leadership should be motivated to persist in these
efforts. The study specifically conducted researched on the impact of White male diversity
leaders as decision makers on issues of multicultural diversity. Its core findings revealed that
while the White decision maker might highly likely be effective internally to the organization
served, that effectiveness would highly likely not hold when the diversity leadership interacted
with members of the surrounding local community and broader society on their issues (Owen,
2009). Further, this study specifically concluded that it would be crucial that White male
diversity leaders take seriously the perspectives of, and in many cases follow, people of color in
such diversity matters, working actively as an ally to restructure the institution so that it becomes
more inclusive and equitable, and more grounded in the multicultural worldview. Owen’s study
is of particular applicability because diversity policy in highly selective institutions is bound in
the cultural setting and cultural model of predominately White and male decision makers at the
department, senior cabinet, trustee and Presidential levels. This research provides evidence that
Black alumni leadership would be positioned to provide high value input for policy improvement
efforts.
Black Alumni Association Leadership Organization, Culture, and Resource Issues
Because scholarly research on Black alumni association management does not exist, there
is no informed evidence regarding how these organizations would specifically model their
leadership effectiveness to institute transformational change for enrollment improvement, or
what organizational culture and/or resource frameworks would be successful. However,
literature regarding campus climate change does exist, as does literature regarding leadership
strategies to advance diversity issues in higher education. These studies are used to frame
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39
correlations of how Black alumni associations could improve their abilities as transformational
leadership organizations to improve middle-income Black student enrollments.
Organizational culture. Given the discussion of Critical Race Theory as a systemic
framework that would incorporate the needs of middle-income Black students (Anderson, 2012;
Ladson-Billings, 2012; Reskin, 2012), the collective perspectives of Black alumni association
leadership should also be aligned in support of this theory, to view change required as systemic
rather than situational. Literature informs that it would be necessary for Black alumni leadership
to embrace their role as Race Realists (Harper et al., 2009). Race Realists are those individuals
who, while accepting the existence of racism, work to create a set of strategic approaches to
improve the plight of historically underrepresented groups (Harper et al., 2009).
Organizational resources. In order for systemic change to be meaningful and
sustainable, the resources required to support those changes would require a footprint that would
extend beyond the small construct of the Black alumni association organization. Research
confirms that the goal of diversity is to create the multicultural institution (Owen, 2009). At the
multicultural level of development, an institution is either in the final stage of transition, or it is
genuinely multicultural, meaning that (a) it is dedicated to the inclusion and success of all
individuals and to social justice, and (b) it possesses a multicultural institutional culture,
structure, and set of practices. While Predominately White, highly selective institutions might
believe themselves to be operating within transition somewhere in its final stages, they have not
achieved genuinely multicultural status. When an organization is actually no longer
monocultural, it can be said that all diversity leaders, whether or how their identities are
privileged or not, would be comparably effective respective to their ascriptive identities (Owen,
2009). That is, the identities ascriptively assigned to that diversity leader or organization would
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40
have little or no impact on effectiveness (Owen, 2009). Indeed, in a truly multicultural
organization, there ideally would no longer be a need for diversity leadership of any sort because
the institution itself would have internalized in its structure, practices, and culture the values of
multiculturalism, social justice, and diversity for equity (Owen, 2009). However, until it is the
case that highly selective institutions have reached that final stage, the requirement exists for
larger collaborative efforts in total (Owen, 2009).
Organizational leadership. Black alumni association leadership is espoused typically
from grassroots team efforts. Research by Lester & Kezar (2012) informs the behavior of
leadership teams emerging from the grassroots level of a college or university. Characteristics of
the twenty-five teams studied were united around a cause or initiative, and were not
presidentially appointed. The purpose of the research was to inform the literature on change
management (Lester & Kezar, 2012). Findings suggest that grassroots teams be considered as
integral to the larger efforts of institutions to create more involvement and promote cognitive
complexity within leadership and change efforts (Lester & Kezar, 2012). This study confirms
the positional leadership of Black alumni leadership, given their desires to create policy changes
that increase and optimize enrollments of middle-income Black students. Further, research also
informs the roles of alumni leadership within the context of team learning in a 2010 study
(Henjy, 2010). In a qualitative study that examined the leadership skills of alumni brought
together for assessment after completion of a leadership project, conclusions surfaced regarding
the contexts of leadership styles versus the dimension of leadership types of the respondents.
This study importantly informs that there are considerations for leadership dimensions to be
accounted for in alumni leadership styles (Henjy, 2010). In particular, the aspects of servant
leadership dimensions (stewardship, growth, and building community) versus transformational
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41
leadership dimensions (intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation, and idealized influence)
could be important differentiators (Hejny, 2010). Black alumni association organizations and
their leaders have deep histories as stewardship organizations. If they desire to operate in
transformational dimensions, they must become aware of how to align their leadership styles
with the transformational vision of their institution as well.
Summary and Conclusion
The rapidly changing world of globalization is tangentially and severely challenged at the
national level by outcries to reform multicultural societies within its academic institutions that
subsequently provide gateways to global opportunity. Black alumni association leaders
empathize with the pressures and angst that characterize their constituencies, as the Black
middle-class attempts to advantageously leverage hard won socioeconomic progression in world
societies. To accomplish this successfully in relative measure, diversity policy frameworks for
middle-income Black students will need to transform in highly selective institutions. The
literature indicates that many social and organizational barriers remain, yet, it also informs that
transformative thinking and actionable solutions are possible involving the cultural lens of Black
alumni association leadership.

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CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
The purpose of this case study was to conduct a gap analysis that examined key areas
where the Black Alumni Association Advisory Council (BAC) could provide critical leadership
insight and partnership to improve diversity policies at USC that more effectively targeted the
needs of middle-income Black students. A primary intention of BAC advocacy is to optimize
enrollment yields in this sub-group. The result of this case study is a plan that will guide the
BAC in their goal to lead diversity policy improvement recommendations to ultimately increase
and optimize the enrollment of middle-income Black students. The inquiry focused upon BAC
performance gaps in the areas of their knowledge and skills, motivation, and organizational
challenges that needed to be met in order for the BAC to successfully lead a collaborative effort
for diversity policy improvement that uniquely incorporates their cultural stakeholder viewpoint.
The analysis began by generating a list of presumed causes of team performance gaps and then
proceeded to examine those systematically, in order to focus on actual or validated causes. While
a complete gap analysis would have focused on all stakeholders that would have been involved
in a total collaborative effort, the stakeholder of focus in this analysis was the USC BAA
Advisory Council (BAC). As such, the questions that guided this study were the following:
1. What were the underlying knowledge, motivation, and organization challenges that
confronted the USC BAA Advisory Council in developing an effective plan for
diversity policy improvement to ultimately increase and optimize the enrollment of
middle-income Black students at USC?
2. What were the knowledge, motivation, and organization solutions that assisted the
BAC in meeting their challenges and achieving their goal to develop an effective plan
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for diversity policy improvements to ultimately increase and optimize the enrollment
of middle-income Black students at USC?
In order to research the BAC’s potential challenges and address potential solutions, Clark
and Estes’ (2008) gap analysis model, a systematic analytical method that clarifies organizational
goals and identifies gaps between actual performance levels and preferred performance levels
within an organization, was the theoretical framework utilized for the case study. The gap
analysis process began with formulating a hypothetical set of presumed causes for investigation.
Presumed causes for performance gaps were initially generated based on personal knowledge
and related literature. These causes were then validated through surveys, and interviews,
literature review and content analysis. Research-based solutions were subsequently
recommended and evaluated in a comprehensive manner. The Gap Analysis process is shown
below in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Gap analysis process (Clark & Estes, 2008)

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The global organizational goal of the BAC, on behalf of the USC BAA, is to influence
diversity policy improvements and practices that will ultimately increase and optimize the
enrollment of middle-income Black students. There are several stakeholders involved in the
processes of increasing and optimizing Black student enrollments. The key stakeholders are the
USC students, senior administrators and the Black Alumni Association, specifically the Black
Alumni Association Advisory Council (BAC) acting on its behalf. Stakeholder goals for each
stakeholder group are shown in Table 1.

Table 1
Organizational Mission, Global Goal and Stakeholder Goals
Organizational Mission
Founded in 1976 by Rev. Dr. Thomas Kilgore, Jr., The USC Black Alumni Association is a
leadership network established to strengthen the legacy of educational access, attainment and
excellence of USC Black students. The BAA provides scholarship awards, mentoring and
advocacy through alumni volunteer involvement, philanthropy, and social enterprise.
Organizational Global Goal
Upon admission to USC, 100% of admitted middle-income Black students will be able to enroll
with sufficient grant versus loan packaging incentives, thereby increasing yields and optimizing
the academic strength of the cohort.
USC (Middle-income)
Black Student Goal
By the end of the 2015-2016
admissions cycle, more Black
students, to include middle
income Black students in
stronger academic disciplines,
enroll and also graduate as a
result of recommendations
suggested by the Diversity
Policy Leadership Plan
(DPLP).
USC Black Alumni
Association Advisory
Council (BAC) Goal
By Fall 2014-15, the 26
members of the USC BAC
will agree to lead a
collaborative diversity policy
improvement effort,
according to the DPLP to
specifically increase and
optimize enrollment yields of
middle-income Black
students.
USC Senior Administration
Goal
By EOY 2014-15, USC BAC
will present recommendations
resulting from the DPLP to
Senior Administration
regarding diversity policy
improvements and practices
that will ultimately increase
and optimize the enrollment of
middle-income Black students.
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The stakeholder of focus for this study was the Black Alumni Association Advisory
Council (BAC). Each BAC member has the goal of providing meaningful guidance on behalf of
the BAA constituency of an estimated 10,000 alumni. Additionally it is common for BAC
leaders to be selected for leadership participation within other university councils and
affiliations. As leaders of the Black Alumni Association, the BAC is responsible for creating the
BAA’s vision, strategy and policy. Considering the average senior leadership position of each
member and the broad base of their diversity responsibilities within their own careers
specifically, the BAC has the necessary leadership experience to influence meaningful
collaborative efforts to improve institutional diversity strategy and policy.
A critical step necessary to improve diversity policy was to create a plan for BAC
leadership that would effectively synergizes their efforts with collaborative partners who will be
needed in order to support change. To accomplish this objective, the BAC should utilize the
grassroots advocacy plan that was developed from solutions based upon research, best practices
and innovative thought. This plan is known as The Diversity Policy Leadership Plan. The
Diversity Policy Leadership Plan (DPLP) has a measureable buy-in attainment goal of its 26
members. The commitment of all members to agree to lead and direct a transformative policy
change effort, executing according to the construct of the plan, measures the achievement of the
plan goal. The Diversity Policy Leadership Plan adds a desired element of strategic importance
and social uplift to the BAA mission, by sharply focusing upon gains to be realized through
systemic efforts to address access issues and inequities caused by institutional diversity policy
and practices. Since a leadership plan with the specific focus to increase and optimize the
enrollment of middle-income Black students does not yet exist, the gap from zero to 26 members
who commit to the viability of the plan and its execution is 100%.
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Methodological Approach
The scope of this inquiry suggested the use of a mixed methods case study methodology
approach (Creswell, 2009) to investigate the presumed causes for the performance gaps
associated with the BAC’s ability to develop an effective plan to lead a collaborative institutional
effort for diversity policy improvements that targeted increased and optimized middle-income
Black student enrollment at USC. The rationale for this choice of study was that qualitative
information gained from interviews and observations substantiated the quantitative data gained
from BAC member surveys, by adding context to themes and patterns indicated. The focus was
to understand these gaps despite current institutional diversity policy and initiatives. The Clark
and Estes gap analysis framework examined presumed causes through the lenses of knowledge,
motivation and organization and provided the basis for data collection and analysis (Clark &
Estes, 2008). The presumed causes of performance gaps outlined in Appendix A were used to
frame data collection and analysis for the study. Methods of data collection to validate the
presumed causes included surveys, interviews and document analysis, which are outlined in
Appendix B.
Sample and Population
The sample for this study included the following participants: the 26 members of the
Black Alumni Association Advisory Council. Although a broader context is the USC Black
Alumni Association population in general which is affiliated with approximately 10,000 alumni,
the BAC was the focus of the study for the following reasons: 1) the BAC is the core governing
body representing the BAA membership; 2) study responses were able to ensure anonymity; and
3) solutions developed by the BAC to address leadership of diversity policy improvements that
would ultimately increase and optimize the enrollments of middle-income Black students
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affected implicit relationships on behalf of the USC BAA with all internal and external
stakeholders. All proper names of respondents are pseudonyms and any identifying information
was removed to respect the identities of the participants. The USC Black Alumni Association
Advisory Council was selected for this inquiry because the researcher is currently employed by
the University of Southern California and has served as Executive Director of the USC Office of
Black Alumni Programs and USC Black Alumni Association for 6 years, is also an ex-officio
member of the BAC, and has been involved with the USC Black Alumni Association as an
alumni donor and volunteer for nearly 30 years.
The USC BAC utilizes offices affiliated with the USC Office of Black Alumni Programs,
which are located on the USC Campus in the Ron Tutor Campus center in Los Angeles,
California. The BAC meets quarterly, yet there is daily and constant communication within the
group.
Instrumentation
The following section describes the data collection instruments and the procedures that
were utilized to collect data for this inquiry following Institutional Review Board (IRB)
approval. The data sources include surveys, semi structured interviews, and document analysis.
Surveys. A survey was developed to validate the presumed causes derived from the list
in Appendix A. Validation measured the BAC collective perspectives regarding optimal
diversity policy construction versus current policy relative to middle-income Black student
enrollment. Additionally, the survey served to measure the extent of BAC beliefs regarding what
effective policy improvement leadership should be, and also validated BAC motivation to
become the primary advocates to lead a policy improvement effort. Twenty-one items, using a 4-
response Likert scale ranging from Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Agree, and Strongly Agree were
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developed (Fink, 2013). The survey was administered using the Qualtrics online software
application during October, 2013 and it was distributed to all BAC members. Because no
identification of respondents was collected, the Qualtrics instrument maintained confidentiality.
Results were downloaded into SPSS. Data was backed up and saved on a computer that is
password protected. The survey is attached as Appendix C; input detail is provided in Appendix
D.
Interviews. Interviews followed a semi-structured guide approach (Merriam, 2009). Of
the 26 BAC members, 4 were selected for interviews. These four had additional BAC
experience in that they have held the position of Chair of the BAC. With this distinctive
experience, these members had additional insight into the intricacies of BAC governance and
facilitation of past interdepartmental collaborations and/or internal USC relationships. BAC
member responses were categorized according to common thematic responses to protect their
anonymity. In order to utilize respondent time efficiently and facilitate analysis by making
responses easy to compare, the interviews began with a standard interest question and followed
with open-ended questions. However, because there was one interviewer and therefore no need
for several interviewers to create consistent output, other pre-determined topics were explored at
the interviewer’s discretion. Additionally, because it was the goal of the interviewer to probe
deeply, encourage critical thinking and uncover challenges that might have been currently
unknown, the interview was conversational, allowing the respondent to add what he or she
deemed important. The interview schedule that was developed had 1 primary demographic
question and 8 questions based on the presumed causes in Appendix A, categorized by
knowledge and skills, motivation and organization. Ideal diversity policy strategies for middle-
income Black students, and characteristics of the cultural contexts for BAC leadership and
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influence were examined within the three categories. The participants in the interviews were
members of the BAC and over the age of eighteen. Interviews were conducted in person by a
single person and were transcribed. Notes taken during interviews and transcripts are kept
secure in a locked file cabinet. The survey guide is attached as Appendix E; input detail is
provided in Appendix F.
Document Analysis. In order to further triangulate the data and achieve a
comprehensive analysis of the BAC’s aspirational role as the protagonist for diversity policy
improvement, the following internal documents and discourse were examined and summarized:
the USC Strategic Vision, written in 2011, annual USC Freshman composite profile data
currently held by the USC BAA from the years 2005 to 2013, USC Admissions office student
marketing collateral also held as internal BAA data, and compared to 2012-13 public data, USC
Office of Enrollment Services data as requested and held internally by the BAA for student
assistance or obtained as public records: a) Financial-aid packaging composite data sets for
middle-income Black students; b) Enrollment management protocols for middle-income Black
student applicants. Additionally, USC BAA organizational information was reviewed to include
the USC BAA Strategic Plan 2008-2013, USC BAC mission, vision and strategy documents,
internal email requests to the USC BAA regarding general information about Black student
admissions and enrollment 2008-2013, emails to the USC BAA regarding specific student
applicant and family letters received regarding interest, need for assistance, or opinions at large
received concerning USC diversity policies regarding Black student enrollment from 2008-2013,
and BAC meeting agenda and minutes 2008-2013. Lastly, externally published discourse was
reviewed regarding Black student enrollment at USC 2008-2013, and other similar institutions
(Harvard, Yale, Stanford, UCLA and Brown), to include articles, social media and website posts.
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Data Analysis
From the survey, descriptive statistics were used to identify the basic features of the data.
Frequencies and common themes were evaluated, and data was analyzed for correlations
between variables. When coding if the gap was caused by lack of knowledge and skills, types of
knowledge were categorized as the following: factual (K/F), procedural (K/P), conceptual
(K/C), and metacognitive knowledge (K/M). When assessing if there was a lack of motivation,
variables associated with motivation were looked for such as: interest (M/I), self-efficacy (M/S),
attributions (M/A), goal orientation (M/G), active choice (M/C), persistence (M/P), and mental
effort (M/E). For organization: policy or procedures (O/P), resources (O/R), values and culture
(O/V). Interpretation of the data also included median, mean, and range variances since there
were continuous data points. Results of the analysis guided the solutions.
From the qualitative data collected through the semi-structured interviews, the text of the
transcripts was coded using the same descriptive symbols to represent the categories of
knowledge and skills, motivation and organization to capture and analyze relevant information
and identify specific causes and trends. Lastly, the qualitative data collected through document
analysis provided a comprehensive way to compare what was learned through the surveys and
interviews.
Summary and Conclusion
A summary of the Presumed Cause Validation Methods is found in Appendix B. The data
collected through surveys, interviews and documents provided the basis for in-depth analysis and
possible solutions that allow the BAC to achieve its goal to develop a successful diversity policy
improvement leadership plan. This plan incorporates critical stakeholder perspectives, which in
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turn could ultimately serve to increase and optimize the enrollment of middle-income Black
students at USC.

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CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND FINDINGS
The topic of institutional diversity policy frameworks provokes a more insightful
awareness and discernment of the nuanced ways in which strategies are conceptualized and how
current practices inform future policies. Research has shown that these frameworks do in fact
drive the methods in which selective institutions attract and yield Black students, and also
establish settings for their matriculation relative to other peer groups. Although the current
discourse actually is perceived as race sensitive, ideals and practices continue to perpetuate a
dominant White culture that is determined by administrative philosophies and assumptions, in
addition to legislation in some environments. Yet, when these policies are influenced by decision
makers possessing limited insight and empathy regarding the lasting and unforeseen effects upon
Black achievement and generational social mobility, a likely result appears to be that enrollment
trends for Black students remain low and continue to trend lower relative to other groups. This
study examined the attitudes and beliefs of Black alumni as institutional stakeholders and
leaders, and this chapter presents findings indicating the critical role that racial and cultural
perspectives should play in policy making. The data indicate that Black alumni leaders in these
settings express a great interest in participating in partnerships that could shape future diversity
policies, with the intent to successfully close institutional, national (and soon to be global)
achievement and wealth gaps.
The presumed causes of stakeholder leadership performance gaps that were identified in
Chapter 3 were examined systematically, in order to determine actual validated causes. A mixed
methods approach of both quantitative and qualitative data collection was utilized for analysis of
these presumed causes for performance gaps through surveys, interviews and document analysis.
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The validated causes of performance gaps that were identified here in Chapter 4 are later
presented as a basis for solutions in Chapter 5.
Quantitative study data were collected first through a survey process. Since a study that
measured Black alumni stakeholder leadership perceptions and attitudes in a predominately
white institution did not previously exist, a self-constructed survey instrument was developed
that captured quantitative descriptive statistics to compare data that measured individual
perceptions, attitudes and beliefs. Specifically, the survey instrument measured identified
presumed causes across three dimensions of performance gaps: Knowledge, Motivation and
Organization. Designed and coded in Chapter 3, the survey instrument consisted of twenty-one
items, using a 4-response Likert scale ranging from Strongly Disagree, to Disagree, Agree, and
Strongly Agree. Scored values were assigned on a one to four point scale, with a one-point value
assigned to Strongly Disagree, and a four-point value assigned to Strongly Agree. The lowest
score per question was scaled as one point, and the highest score per question was scaled as four
points. Given there was also no survey instrument from which to compare concurrent validity,
certain terms were defined for the participant to reduce interpretation and to improve accurate
measurements of beliefs and attitudes. The survey was then pre-tested with a small sample
group of non-participants who also were familiar with the concepts of institutional diversity
policy effects and improvement, so that content validity could be established. Subsequently, the
survey was administered using the Qualtrics online software application during October, 2013.
Beyond the demographic responses, survey results were treated as scored values of continuous
data, therefore the means and standard deviations for these results were appropriately offered as
more precise interpretations and measurements of the data. Survey data results were initially
analyzed according to comparative mean scores to describe and validate performance gaps in
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each dimension of Knowledge, Motivation and Organization. Interpretations of performance
gaps from survey data in each area were inferred from the differences between a high score of
four and a respective mean score, which represented a distance from an ultimate preferred
benchmark. These inferences given characteristics of their population, provided deeper
descriptions of the participant’s attitudes and beliefs within their environment.
Qualitative data was gained through interviews and document analysis. Interviews were
conducted with four members of the participant group who had prior governing experience as
Chairperson. Findings were summarized from a semi-structured interview guide of nine
questions as designed and identified in Chapter 3. These questions were open-ended to permit
candid conversation that realistically described attitudes and beliefs. To substantiate
environmental findings and results, document and discourse analysis was also incorporated
through examination of internally and externally available sources. Internal sources included
stakeholder organizational files, as well as available institutional reports and discourse such as
published annual composite admissions and enrollment profile data, institutional marketing and
social media collateral, internal email requests and letters to the stakeholder organization.
External information included available discourse and reporting in published sources regarding
Black student enrollment and campus climate at the institution and other similar institutions.
Findings from interviews and document analyses served to triangulate survey data results in
order to fully establish and confirm validated causes.
Lastly, in order to synthesize the relationships of stakeholder beliefs and attitudes, and to
substantiate their generalization to other populations, correlations of high mean scores in
Knowledge, Motivation and Organization were analyzed through t-test analyses to determine
statistically significant correlations that could further corroborate the importance of new
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knowledge and research concerning cultural stakeholder leadership and cultural sense-making
regarding institutional diversity policy improvement advocacy.
Participating Stakeholders
The participating stakeholders of the study were identified as the members of the USC
Black Alumni Association Advisory Council (BAC), the leadership and governing body of the
USC Black Alumni Association that determines policy and practices representing the
engagement of USC Black alumni. Of the twenty-six current members of the Black Alumni
Association Advisory Council, one member was disqualified as a participant since she was also
the researcher, and twenty-one participants agreed to complete the survey. Of this number,
61percent were male, and 39 percent were female. With regard to interviews, all of the 4
members who had served in leadership of the BAC agreed to participate. This group was evenly
divided as 50 percent male and 50 percent female. All participants in both surveys and
interviews had personal and professionally expert senses of diversity policy issues and also of the
historical aspects and effects of institutionalized racism, since as African Americans they all had
been students in the settings of selective predominately white institutions, had seasoned
professional careers, and also because their average age was between forty-five and fifty-five
years. This age group placed them historically as baby boomers, and also as individuals whom
were actively cognizant of the Civil Rights era of the 1960s and Afrocentric movements of the
1970s, where the consciousness and perspectives of these times indelibly shaped their childhoods
and young adulthoods. Forty-four percent of the total of participants obtained a Bachelors
degree, forty-four percent held a Masters degree and eleven percent had earned a Doctoral
degree. Interestingly, ninety percent were alumni of the university under study, and,
matriculated during a time when the population of Blacks was more than double the population
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at the institution currently. Thusly, the participants were fluent regarding the issues surrounding
Black student enrollment and successful matriculation through a selective predominately white
institution. The participants were also heavily invested in the mission of the organization.
Seventy-two percent had over 2 years of experience as a BAA Advisory Council member, and
seventy-two percent had experience as a committee member or past board volunteer with the
BAA in prior years.
Survey responses by these participants were offered anonymously and are presented in
aggregated analysis. The results and findings for the presumed causes of performance gaps
identified in Chapter 3 in each dimension of Knowledge, Motivation and Organization will be
reviewed in the next sections of this chapter.
Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes
Data was collected to confirm and inform the Knowledge gaps stakeholder leaders could
encounter in their efforts to lead diversity policy improvement efforts. Performance gaps for
Knowledge were identified in Chapter 3 as areas classified as factual, conceptual, procedural or
metacognitive knowledge. The presumed causes of stakeholder performance gaps related to
Knowledge are shown in Table 2.

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Table 2
Knowledge Related Presumed Causes
Knowledge Type Presumed Cause
Factual (F) The BAC lacks factual knowledge of the USC diversity policy
framework;
Conceptual (C) The BAC lacks conceptual knowledge of USC’s diversity philosophy
regarding middle-income Black students;
Procedural (P) The BAC lacks procedural knowledge to integrate its own disaggregated
data and tacit knowledge with other departments and administrative
diversity processes;
Metacognitive (M) The BAC lacks metacognitive knowledge that confirms their realization
that leadership will be an important factor to reshape diversity initiatives
and to also obtain transformative change.

Participant responses for these presumed causes were analyzed through surveys,
interviews and document analysis. Validated causes for performance gaps for Knowledge are
presented and synthesized at the end of this section.
Survey Results
Presumed causes of Knowledge gaps were included as items in a 21-question survey.
Survey results for stakeholder performance gaps due to Knowledge presumed causes are shown
in Table 3. Results were summarized as mean scores along with their standard deviations. The
table indicates the Knowledge type, the presumed cause, and the means and standard deviations
for that survey item based on a Likert scale that scored responses ranging from Strongly
Disagree to Strongly Agree, where scores represented values between 1 and 4. Mean scored
values closest to 1 indicated the group Strongly Disagreed with the question item and values
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closest to 4 demonstrated they Strongly Agreed. The standard deviations indicate the dispersion
of responses. Results are shown listed in descending order from their mean scored values.

Table 3
Results for Knowledge Gaps According to Means and Standard Deviations
# Survey Questions Mean
Standard
Deviation
15 To what extent do you agree USC diversity policy has
accurately assessed the financial need requirements of its
underrepresented stakeholders? (P)
1.50 0.62
16 To what extent do you agree USC diversity policy addresses
disparities in the outcomes of its underrepresented
stakeholders? (M)
1.56 0.62
13 To what extent do you agree USC diversity policy is made
with sufficient regard to its effects on racial/ethnic sub-
groups? (F)
2.11 0.96
14 To what extent do you agree USC diversity policy should be
responsive to the income class status evolution of racial
groups in society? (C)
3.00 0.84
Note: a) scaled scores represent values between 1 and 4; b) n = 21 participants.

The survey questions measured the beliefs and attitudes of stakeholders regarding their
perspectives based on information or experiences with current institutional diversity policy and
practices. Interpretations of performance gaps from survey data were inferred from the
differences between a high score of four and a respective mean score, which represented a
distance from an ultimate preferred benchmark. As the results indicate, all Knowledge presumed
causes were clearly validated as stakeholder performance gaps that inhibited institutional
partnerships. Mean values that were scored less than four described Knowledge performance
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gaps. Attitudes regarding disagreement with how the institution assessed the needs of its
financial stakeholders had the largest gaps (validated with a mean score of 1.56), while attitudes
agreeing that institutional policy should be responsive to income status evolution of racial gaps
in society had the smallest (validated with a mean score of 3.00). Interestingly, Knowledge
beliefs and attitudes were validated with minimal individual acquaintance with internal
institutional data, in that there was no preparation that offered specific or historical information
to the respondents. The wide gaps in procedural (1.50), metacognitive (1.56) and factual (2.11)
mean scores, provided evidence that the stakeholder group’s attitudes and beliefs were highly
concerned that current policies could not be interpreted as relevant gauges for practice. These
results established that the participants clearly believed that institutional diversity policies and
practices did not sufficiently address the needs of Black stakeholders.
As this dimension of the survey verified, there were large discrepancies between the
stakeholders’ desired goals for diversity policy and their perceptions of actual institutional
impacts, due to current practices, upon underrepresented racial and ethnic groups (which were
defined in the survey specifically as being Black). For example, with regard to perceived
impacts, the respondents strongly disagreed with the way institutional policies assessed financial
need, and addressed disparities in outcomes. The majorities of responses were extremely low,
and were also very closely dispersed in relation to each other indicating little variation. Result
mean values were also very low for the questions concerning financial assessment (1.50) and
outcome disparities (1.56). The group compellingly disagreed that current diversity policy was
made with sufficient regard for its effects upon racial and ethnic subgroups (2.11), even though
their responses were somewhat more varied. Contrastingly, result mean values were high with
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regard to their desired goals, as the group firmly agreed that policy should be responsive to the
income-class evolution of Blacks (3.0).
Additionally, when both degrees of Agree and Strongly Agree, or, Disagree and Strongly
Disagree, were combined and evaluated per each question the data revealed attitudes about
current policy that were important to consider from a greater aggregate viewpoint, along with
data mean scores and dispersions. For example, while not all participants strongly disagreed that
current policy accurately addressed outcome disparities, the combination of both “Disagree” and
“Strongly Disagree” confirmed that participants overwhelmingly believed it did not (95%). In
this same manner by combining “Agree” and “Strongly Agree” values, the participants
overwhelmingly believed that policy did not adequately consider financial requirements of
underrepresented students (94%), and also did not consider its effects on racial or ethnic sub-
groups (74%). It was also plainly indicated that university policy should be more responsive to
the income class evolution of racial groups, namely Blacks (79%).
Considered in total, the data underscored beliefs that current institutional diversity policy
had significantly overlooked disparities regarding outcomes for underrepresented Black
stakeholders, and also conveyed immense dissatisfaction that this was the case.
Findings from Interviews
Of the nine interview questions asked of specific BAC leaders, two interview questions
investigated performance gaps associated with Knowledge presumed causes, those being
specifically associated with metacognitive knowledge. Findings are summarized for the
following questions:
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 From your leadership perspective, what support does the BAC need to successfully
recommend policy improvements leading to increased middle-income Black student
enrollment at USC?
 What implications would this grassroots effort hold for future “minoritzed”
organizational leadership within growing and emerging globalized societies?
Overall respondents believed that their organization’s focus on middle-income
enrollment was not easily understood, and that consequently the institutional administration
would consider this focus as an “outlier.” As was generally stated, since this “pursuit” was
outside of the typical emphasis on “alumni engagement or fundraising,” it was believed that it
would not register as a “topic of merit, concern or support” from the senior administration.
However, respondents vehemently contested this position: “We need the kind of support that is
not afraid to hear what we have to say, and is actually interested to work with us on creating
solutions that make this a better university.” A starting point for gaining institutional support
was proposed through the possibility of creating future opportunities to present the case of low
Black enrollments to other institutional groups as a means to “increase awareness,” and to
“facilitate conversations about systemic and generational causes.” It was strongly felt that
without understanding the issue fully, compassionate support would not be forthcoming. Time
after time, the interviewees expressed the concern that the BAA could not “gain the support”
needed “as long as the administration did not acknowledge that there is a problem.” Those
interviewed were incredulous that the “administration could not know there was an issue,” and
felt strongly that the lack of acknowledgement was intentional. As a result they felt a
detachment from believing that those in senior administration were entirely “trustworthy” on
subjects relating to equitable institutional diversity policy versus practice.
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The respondents also emphasized that their grassroots efforts regarding Black student
enrollments in the setting of a major research institution were emotionally “tiring, and sad.” One
comment typified the sentiment amongst the respondents noting: “It is 2013—we should be so
far beyond this!” It was further offered that without having prospects for deepened relationships
with the President’s office, the goal of increased middle-income Black student enrollment would
not be well supported beyond a grassroots level, stating “it should not be a fight.” It was
generally felt that all past efforts to initiate constructive dialogue had been “thwarted” or
“minimized” or “gone unanswered.”
Throughout the interviews it was believed that although the grassroots issue of middle-
income Black enrollment at the institution seemed to be a currently localized issue, the
implications regarding “correlations to Black generational social mobility and economic
viability” due to “limited degree access and completion” would become more nationally and
globally important in the near future. The observations were also made by multiple respondents
that perhaps the issue “seemed” more specific to USC Black alumni in the more immediate
timeframe “because of the larger sizes of past classes in the late 1970s and early 1980s,” in
contrast to classes since then that are “half of those numbers.” But they also noted that “since
our numbers keep dwindling, our voices will diminish on this issue,” believing it would be
harder to easily draw conclusions about national implications over time.
Lastly, their realization of the “difficulty by non-Blacks” to relate to the issue of low
Black middle-income enrollment, “let alone to conceive of it as having a global effect,” was
startling. The interviewees conceded that their “outsider perception” was that Black students and
Black alumni were seen as “unimportant in the sphere of discussion regarding
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internationalization or globalization.” Yet, they readily contended “regardless of lower and
lower enrollment, we see ourselves in those settings socially and economically.”
Collectively, the research subjects expressed deep concern that opportunities for their
future leadership “involvement”, while “limited” would be important to gaining higher visibility
partnerships and for expanding conversations regarding broader contexts.
Findings from Document Analysis
Institutional document examinations regarding stakeholder performance gaps in
Knowledge were minimal due to lack of published institutional material that engendered analysis
on intentional Black student enrollment or enrollment improvement. No facts or discourse were
found on websites, marketing collateral, campus newspaper articles, or campus publications.
Inadvertently any such institutional references to Black students, in terms of marked efforts to
increase institutional enrollment yields or retention was incorporated only implicitly within the
scope of multicultural programs in total, such as the USC Multicultural Breakfast hosted by the
Admissions office, or, via low-income access programs hosted by the Office of Community
Engagement and Civic Affairs--the irony of which few Black students were selected to
participate in. In School offices where an Office of Diversity may exist, no outreach specific to
Black student enrollment improvement was found for any of them. Institutionally, not one
academic program was administered or documented at any USC School that specifically targeted
Black student enrollment goals or outcomes.
Lastly, analysis of documents that undergirded stakeholder metacognitive knowledge
gaps was accomplished through a review of internal documents received by the BAA
organization itself. Numerous student appeals, nearly 30 per year, were received in the Office of
USC Black Alumni Programs (BAA emails and letters 2008-2013) during the period of 2008 to
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2013. These were specifically from middle-class family applicants and students asking for
reconsideration and recalculation of their financial aid packaging, asking the BAA to assist them
in advocacy if not financially. Considering that the total population of undergraduate and
graduate Black students at the institution is roughly 1500 students, these appeals represented a
possible 2 percent total decline overall to an already fragile population if decisions could not be
made favorably, or conversely they potentially represented a 2 percent increase in students that
would be prevented from occurring.
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Knowledge Causes
The performance gaps between stakeholder ideals for responsible diversity policies
versus perceptions were quite wide, and consequently all presumed causes were validated
according to the survey scales and information substantiated from participant interviews and
document analysis. The results and findings not only revealed greatly perceived policy
disparities, but also the absences of established institutional goals, or initiatives that specifically
focused upon increased Black student enrollment, suggesting no available stakeholder group
entry points. These findings and results concretely suggested that validated causes should be
addressed in order to create change, but that opportunities to do so would need to be initiated by
the stakeholder. While the surveys, interviews and document reviews may have substantiated
validated causes related to Knowledge, the group would need to be motivated enough to move
forward in what would presumably be a complex effort. The next section investigates associated
performance gaps for the dimension of Motivation.
Results and Findings for Motivation Causes
Data was collected to confirm and inform stakeholder challenges associated with
becoming empowered as agents in diversity improvement change. Performance gaps for
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Motivation were identified in Chapter 3 as areas categorized as framing interest, persistence and
goal orientation. The presumed causes of stakeholder performance gaps related to Motivation
are shown in Table 4.

Table 4
Motivation Related Presumed Causes
Motivation Type Presumed Cause
Interest (I) BAC members lack interest in a collective diversity policy change
effort.
Persistence (P) Individually, the BAC lacks motivation to persist in a diversity policy
change effort.
Goal Orientation (G) The BAC lacks a mastery goal orientation versus a performance goal
orientation in order to achieve innovative diversity policy change.

Performance gaps in Motivation were analyzed in surveys, interviews and document
analysis. Validated causes for performance gaps for Motivation are presented and synthesized at
the end of this section.
Survey Results
Presumed causes of Motivation gaps were included as items in a 21-question survey.
Survey results for stakeholder performance gaps due to Motivation presumed causes are shown
in Table 5. Results are summarized according to their mean scored values along with their
standard deviations. The table indicates the Motivation type, the presumed cause, and the means
and standard deviations for that survey item based on a Likert scale that scored responses
ranging from Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree, where scores represented values between 1
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and 4. Mean scored values closest to 1 indicated the group Strongly Disagreed with the question
item and mean scores closest to 4 demonstrated they Strongly Agreed. The standard deviations
indicate the dispersion of responses. Results are shown listed in descending order from their
mean scored values.

Table 5
Results for Motivation Gaps According to Means and Standard Deviations
# Survey Questions Mean
Standard
Deviation
18 To what extent do you agree the BAC's role as the primary
advocate would be necessary for diversity policy improvement
to occur? (I)
3.56 0.86
17 To what extent do you agree cultural insight from the BAC
would improve USC diversity policy? (G)
3.72 0.75
21 The USC Office of Black Alumni Programs values my
leadership as a BAC member (P)
3.78 0.43
19 To what extent do you agree internal USC
department/organizational partnerships for diversity policy
improvement could be energized through BAC leadership? (G)
3.83 0.71
20 To what extent do you agree the BAC would play a positive
role in influencing diversity policy at USC? (G)
3.83 0.71
Note: a) scaled scores represent values between 1 and 4; b) n = 21 participants.

The mean scores for Motivation presumed causes interpret attitudes and beliefs about
what the participants felt could be accomplished collectively as a group. Interpretations of
performance gaps from survey data were inferred from the differences between a high score of
four and a respective mean score, which represented a distance from an ultimate preferred
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benchmark. As was demonstrated by the consistent high mean scored values for these results,
stakeholders were extremely motivated to persist together, and they aspired to provide specialist
levels of distinct cultural value to the institution. In these respects, the survey did not discover
any negative associations for persistence as being barriers to performance goals. On the
contrary, the survey validated that performance gaps in motivation were relatively small, ranging
from .17 at the lowest to .44 at the highest distance from a unanimous mean score of 4. The
survey participants felt that they were highly valued volunteers (3.78), were strongly interested
to become primary advocates (3.56), and that expert goal orientation was the driver for solution
leadership collaboratively (3.83), as well as institutionally (3.83). Importantly, it was also
strongly believed that cultural insight would be necessary for diversity policy improvement
(3.72).
These findings provided clarity that regardless of their frustration with institutional
policies as was validated in the previous section, these stakeholders believed they would be
instrumental in promoting improvements through policy advocacy. Additionally, although
barriers to persistence in the guise of motivation killers such as lack of senior level feedback and
administrative hypocrisy may have otherwise existed as noted per the previous section, each
stakeholder acknowledged a high value in leadership as a collective group. Together, these
stakeholders were motivated to capitalize on their expertise and cultural understanding for the
benefit of improving the institution.
Findings from Interviews
Interviews sought deeper insight regarding beliefs and attitudes related to stakeholder
performance goal orientation versus mastery goal orientation, which provides further evidence of
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the group’s intentions to engage in the policy advocacy effort. Findings are summarized for the
following two questions that investigated Motivation in this area:
 How does the focus of diversity policy improvement further substantiate the legacy of
Black alumni at USC?
 What value does the BAC cultural perspective provide?
The respondents universally indicated that their focus on diversity policy improvement
was the right focus for the organization at this time. The insistence to “shape policy for a
changing and more diverse society” was a vitally important goal for these stakeholders, and was
seen to be a major element to advancing the legacy of the organization. Capturing this sentiment
was the comment, “We have to find a way to increase the number of Black students here. It is
hard to believe that Dr. Kilgore would understand that there are even fewer Black students here
than when he started this organization!” Additionally, “Our kids can barely get here. And if they
do get admitted, they can’t find the money to come—what kind of legacy do we really have
here?” Or, “I wonder if we are kidding ourselves about the future for us?” These comments
were overwhelmingly reflective of the current temperature of Black alumni leaders.
It was also strongly felt that the BAC would be the “appropriate organization” to provide
institutional oversight for diversity policy impacts on Black students. Commonly noted was the
implication that “the institution had not been held publically accountable.” Additionally, it was
also believed that if this was indeed the “nexus of the problem,” this item could easily be fixed
by the organization, and perhaps “should be.”
It was further confidently expressed that the BAC provided the some of the “best
resources” on the issue of diversity policy improvement relative to Black enrollment “because of
the composition of the BAC itself.” Collectively, the interviewees believed they represented
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much of USC’s legacy as Blacks who have “made it,” and wanted to “give back” as a result.
Towards this end, it was also expressed that given the current climate of particular “incidents” on
the campus, the administration was missing opportunities to “proactively vet solutions” through
the BAC, given that Black alumni had been/would be involved (though student and community
advocacy, etc.). It was suggested that BAC involvement might be relevant not just in the short
term but also for the longer term. To this point it was stated, “You know, the students are just
students for four years, but they will be Black alumni for a lifetime—who remember their time
as students, as we all do.” Likewise, they did not feel that any other institutional partner could
be identified to replace their perspectives or experiences. These stakeholders overwhelmingly
believed that as “advisors” especially on “the subject of diversity,” their services would be
“expertly competitive” with any external consultative organization. Additionally overlaying
their demonstrated loyalty to the institution for the simple sake of improvement, the value from
their cultural perspective would be “priceless” as well as “advantageous.”
Findings from Document Analysis
Since 2007, the meeting minutes of the BAC confirm that the BAA has prioritized the
issue of Black student enrollment improvements (BAC meetings and EOY reports, 2007-2013).
No other institutional documents or discourse that did so was made available.
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Motivation Causes
Presumed causes for Motivation regarding performance gaps in interest and persistence
were not validated, as it was case that the stakeholder group was highly interested to pursue
diversity policy improvement advocacy regardless of environmental barriers such as frustration,
or lack of feedback. However, the presumed cause related to performance gaps for mastery goal
orientation was validated, as the creation of intrinsic value increased collective motivation for
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policy improvement advocacy. Stakeholder motivation to persist was based upon aspirations to
establish meaningful institutional partnerships in the diversity policy improvement effort.
Interview findings and triangulated data from document analysis made clear the stakeholders
considered themselves as resources for transformative improvements in diversity policy, which
they in turn believed would provide institutional advantage based upon high-value cultural
insight and understanding. High levels of intrinsic value and interest caused by a collective
mastery goal orientation should serve to fortify this stakeholder group in the face of requiring
new approaches and innovative thinking to overcome expected obstacles. Implicit barriers due
to cultural and structural misalignment between the stakeholder group and the institution were
further investigated in the final dimension of Organization.
Results and Findings for Organization Causes
Data was collected to confirm and inform stakeholder leadership challenges regarding
effective alignment to institute transformational change. Performance gaps related to
Organization were determined in Chapter 3 as areas concerning organizational alignment of
processes, cultural values, and resources. The presumed causes of stakeholder performance gaps
related to Organization are shown in Table 6.

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Table 6
Organization Related Presumed Causes
Organization Type Presumed Cause
Processes (P) The BAC cultural model lacks institutional alignment to support
processes and goals;
Cultural Values (V) The BAC cultural model lacks alignment with institutional cultural
values and cultural settings;
Organizational
Resources (R)
The BAC Network team lacks effectiveness to create innovative
change.

Organization performance gaps were investigated through participant surveys, interviews
and document analysis. Validated causes for performance gaps for Organization are presented
and synthesized at the end of this section.
Survey Results
Presumed causes of Organization gaps were included as items in a 21-question survey.
Survey results for stakeholder performance gaps due to Organization presumed causes are shown
in Table 7. Results are summarized according to their mean scored values along with their
standard deviations. The table indicates the Organization type, the presumed cause, and the
means and standard deviations for that survey item based on a Likert scale that scored responses
ranging from Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree, where scores represent values between 1 and
4. The standard deviations indicate the dispersion of responses. Results are shown listed in
descending order from their mean scored values. Additionally, data was further segmented by
alumni responses for deeper comparisons and evaluations to respondent data in general.

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Table 7
Results for Organization Gaps According to Means and Standard Deviations (Total Participants
& Alumni)
# Survey Questions Mean
Standard
Deviation
9 To what extent do you agree USC diversity policy
objectives should specify enrollment targets for
underrepresented sub-groups within racial/ethnic
categories? (P)
2.94
3.19
(Alumni)
1.00
0.75
(Alumni)
11 To what extent do you agree USC diversity policy
objectives should include income level classification for
underrepresented sub-groups within racial categories?
(P)
2.94
3.19
(Alumni)
1.06
0.83
(Alumni)
10 To what extent do you agree USC diversity policy
objectives should include income level classification for
underrepresented racial/ethnic categories? (P)
3.06
3.31
(Alumni)
1.00
0.70
(Alumni)
12 To what extent do you agree diversity policy sets the
tone for institutional leadership at USC? (V)
3.33
3.44
(Alumni)
0.84
0.63
(Alumni)
8 To what extent do you agree USC diversity policy
objectives should specify enrollment targets for
underrepresented racial/ethnic categories? (P)
3.39
3.69
(Alumni)
0.98
0.48
(Alumni)
Note: a) scaled scores represent values between 1 and 4; b) n1= 21 participants; c) n2 = 19
alumni participants.

It can be asserted from these results that Black alumni stakeholders and leaders strongly
believed that diversity policy environments could be better managed through leadership
associated with future policy improvements that considered a racial and cultural lens.
Interpretations of performance gaps from survey data were inferred from the differences between
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a high score of four and a respective mean score, which represented a distance from an ultimate
preferred benchmark. Further, validated results for organizational culture and structure presumed
causes were differentiated from their means by a margin of up to thirty percent when there was a
filter for alumni versus non-alumni. As is shown, there was an increased intensity of alumni
stakeholder perspectives specifically concerning institutional processes. This was likely because
alumni may have held a different threshold of tolerance for policy targets at the institution based
explicitly upon their own associated experiences and intercultural humanity. For example,
attitude measurements regarding enrollment target processes for underrepresented racial/ethnic
categories differed by 30% for alumni versus non-alumni, where alumni strongly agreed that the
institution should specify enrollment targets for underrepresented racial/ethnic categories. For
the purposes of the survey, the racial category was defined as being Black and ethnic sub-group
categories were designated as African, Caribbean, South American and African American.
Additionally, when sub-group classifications were queried regarding both ethnic and income
classifications, alumni felt more strongly that these levels of data granularity should be
incorporated into policy objectives by a margin of 25%. This result affirmed perceptions within
the Diaspora that there were distinct cultural differences, attitudes and behaviors within these
subcategories that could not be discerned when the entirety of the racial classification was
designated as being simply Black (or being construed as African American), as happens
currently with institutional admissions and matriculation data processes. Attitudes were much
more closely aligned regarding organizational culture values. The mean scores of 3.33 and 3.44
respectively, indicated that both non-alumni and alumni agreed that diversity policy set the tone
for institutional leadership. While diversity policy was not assessed as either having a negative
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or positive impact upon institutional leadership, this closely aligned response did indicate that
tone was indeed considered an important factor that shaped leadership direction.
Findings from Interviews
Within key member interviews, three questions specifically probed attitudes and beliefs
regarding stakeholder organizational structure performance gaps. Responses are summarized for
the following interview questions:
 How should the BAC best organize to provide efficient and effective input into the
university’s policy processes?
 What if internal collaborative support is not gained—what should we do?
 What do you think the implications are for other Black alumni organizations that
want to evolve from primarily being stewardship organizations to also providing
diversity policy leadership, advocacy and input?
Due to the many transitions of the stakeholder organization, concerns were candidly
expressed about the sustainability of short-term and long-term approaches for policy input. For
the short term, these leaders unanimously expressed that organizational stability was required in
order to negotiate desired collaborative efforts. Regarding department leadership they noted:
“We have come a long way in repairing our brand, but we will need to retain the leadership that
can best negotiate given that the institution may not change.” For the long term, concerns arose
about what could be manageable perhaps also with different leadership, where opinions such as
“we cannot afford to go backwards” conveyed the fear about many African American
organizations that have been stereotyped as being ineffective at the policy level. Effective
organizational leadership, ability and support that could leverage existing relationships “to
increase mutual trust and organizational respect” were felt to be critical. The consensus,
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therefore, was that a smaller subgroup with policy advocacy as its main emphasis would be most
beneficial to the group overall.
With regard to internal collaboration and support, the respondents strongly felt that
moving the topic of diversity policy improvement forward through the greater alumni
governance channels was necessary as a “first step to increase awareness.” However while they
felt this would the right thing to do in terms of “building political capital,” they also felt it was
difficult to engage. One leader noted that recent attempts to work with a larger alumni
governance committee on the subject of diversity had been “futile”, as the committee formation
had been difficult due to “lack of prioritized interest by others” and it never convened. Another
leader expressed similar feelings regarding that same environment: “We will have to wait for
our entry point to open.” The bigger idea of “not having to be apologetic in support of Black
student enrollment” surfaced as the catalyst for possibly moving beyond internal collaboration,
where each respondent noted that all they would have to do is “make that phone call.” Since all
of these leaders had relationships external to the institution revolving around broader diversity
issues, they felt that external support to increase attention concerning Black student enrollment
would not be difficult to obtain. “This is the challenge for us” was collectively observed, where
respondents strongly felt “conflicted” regarding how much more time they “should or could”
allow for the institution to “realize the depth of feelings” surrounding a growing disenchantment
concerning institutional “responsibility for Black student enrollment and outcomes. “ It was
expressed that obviously a solution could be to “take it to the streets”, yet these leaders instead
wanted to create partnership in tackling this “difficult circumstance.” It was stated that “perhaps
there is a balance,” as respondents were willing to consider internal collaborative options for
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problem solving first for the sake of sustaining an overall congenial organizational relationship
with the institution rather than public forums that would ignite public discord.
Yet strong opinions arose regarding broader suggestions of importance for other Black
alumni associations on the issue of middle-income Black student enrollment advocacy and policy
input. Comments typically expressed annoyance that there would be any hesitation about
advocacy for Black enrollment at similar institutions: “Of course the Black middle-class issue is
our issue! This is who we are, and what our children are!” Regardless of whether or not other
organizations have done so thus far, the respondents felt that other Black alumni organizations
would come to realize their own “tipping point” as they did, and the shifts from stewardship to
advocacy would have to be undertaken somehow. No respondent agreed that a “post-racial
climate” existed at the institution, stating it was clear that Black students still faced enormous
challenges “being in class while Black.” Such challenges also contributed to their heightened
sense of necessity regarding institutional enrollment improvement given that “our alumni base is
shrinking,” where it was not lost on them that the small and declining percentages in Black
student enrollments over the recent years have manifested also in smaller percentages still of
Black student graduation outcomes, and therefore a smaller base for Black alumni in particular.
Conversation regarding the distinct hurdles faced as members of the Black middle-class
remained acute throughout, with all interviewees acknowledging that their college degrees were
meaningful to their family ideals for “social mobility” and “generational progress.” Interestingly,
one hundred percent of these respondents were second and third generation college degree
recipients, where it was duly noted, “Blacks have been attending colleges for over one hundred
years.” It was additionally expressed that individual attempts for middle-class parity were long
and on-going social and economic efforts regardless of their matriculation specifically from the
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institution, where “Our efforts mirrored the times, and were not because of what the university
did for us.”
However, instead of concentration on institutional access as being the means for first
generation entrance into the middle-class, the focus of these leaders was on the importance of the
institution as a “generational gateway.” One respondent noted, “this is exactly why the
institution cannot become a narrower channel to us now!” Conversations regarding the
complexity of access and outcomes issues specifically because of current and historical racism,
additional impacts of overseas students and rising numbers also of immigrant first generation
students, were universally “hot.” The consensus was not just: “we are falling even further
behind” but: ”how can we not do so here?” Since these leaders understood the distinctions
required to articulate the impacts ascribed to Black student enrollments and outcomes, they
would not consider the challenges of other groups as being equal or “fitting” for their
consideration. As such, they also perceived that these nuances were difficult to frame, and thus
have been—but have been because their voice was lacking from the “elephant in the room
conversation” and/or “stifled.” They also believed strongly that because many other institutional
Black alumni have identified the same issue and were asking questions, “proactive policy
improvement advocacy” was imperative. Advocacy was felt to be most necessary, as it was
viewed as the best means to move towards future alumni engagement that could become “sincere
and sustainable.” As one leader expressed, “Given that everyone else is benefitting from
cultural, multicultural and global progress, we must hold this administration accountable for a
future that also includes our progress as well.” These interviews compellingly demonstrated that
Black alumni stakeholders were thoughtful about their future. Their beliefs that “policy
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improvement advocacy” was a “necessary goal” for Black alumni organizations with
“institutional racial and cultural imbalances” was resolute.
Findings from Document Analysis
Organizational document analysis was limited to comparing the relationships of other
national Black alumni associations at elite institutions, and was primarily found throughout
social media and website discourse. The importance of this analysis was to understand the
organizational alignment of other Black alumni associations to their respective institutions to
evaluate correlative relationships regarding the organizational alignment of the USC Black
Alumni Association to the university. Investigation revealed that there was a distinctive ethnic
landscape for Black alumni organizations, yet that most were organized and affiliated with their
host universities differently than the USC BAA. Typically their governances were associated
primarily with social networking rather than advocacy. Commonly, these Black alumni
associations were off-campus organizations, and were volunteer managed, as compared to the
USC BAA that is a USC department within the USC Alumni Association and staffed/managed
by university employees.
Additionally, scholarships were awarded from institutional general endowments or
specific funds to minority students that optimized university-wide strategies. As such, these
association relationships were organizationally constructed to be entry points for engagement
capture only. In most cases scholarship initiatives were founded and embraced at the highest
levels of universities, and thus the Black alumni associations were utilized as complimentary to
these efforts and goals. The differences in organizational alignments and missions suggest that
there are large gaps between the manner in which the USC Black Alumni Association has been
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purposed by the university versus how most Black alumni associations have been able to partner
with their institutions respectively.
Noted Black alumni associations in California investigated were the UCLA Black
Alumni Association (UBAA, 2013), and also the Stanford National Black Alumni Association
(SNBAA, 2013). On a national scale, the Harvard Black Alumni Society (HBAS, 2013) and the
Yale Black Alumni Association (YBAA, 2013) were also examples of Black alumni
organizations at top-tiered universities. The UCLA Black Alumni Association (UBAA) was
one of few peer associations with a scholarship mission; the award itself was used strategically
by UCLA to recruit black students (UBAA, 2012, 2013). The UBAA received annual funding
from an account originated by university trustees with a multi-million dollar contribution that
was held at a foundation (confidential interview with UCLA executive, 2013). Their goal was to
offer each Black student who made an admissions decision for UCLA a scholarship (UBAA,
2013). In the case of Harvard, Stanford and Yale, these universities provided substantial tuition
assistance to low-income minority students so that there was a low-income segment of minority
students that could attend the university tuition-free and/or debt-free, based on the university’s
initiative that awarded from substantial long term endowments (HBAS, 2013), (SNBAA, 2013),
(YBAA, 2013). But, it was also the case at these institutions that financial need metrics for
middle-income students were calculated to additionally incorporate net worth and cash flow
factors, which were fundamental differences from the metrics used at USC. These models
advantageously provided obligation free grants to middle-income students.
A daunting issue for the USC BAA is that in comparison to other elite university groups,
it carries the heavy load of proving a case for financial support for middle-income Black student
enrollment. It is likely that the Black Freshman enrollment rates at these other schools have
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benefited from the combined effects of broader financial models and Black alumni association
partnerships, especially as evidenced by the actual enrollment numbers, not just percentages, of
Black students who make favorable decisions for these institutions (JBHE, 2013). It is noted that
the enrollment numbers of Black students at Harvard, Stanford and Yale for 2013 were 156, 168
and 140, displaced from USC’s number of 182 by merely 30 to 40 students. Although these
institutions are considered as more elite, their results were double the comparative percentages of
their Black Freshmen populations overall. In each of these cases, the Black alumni associations
had strongly grounded alumni groups who espoused their roles as volunteer recruiters and
ambassadors for their institution, and could provide outreach for university initiatives.
Additionally, they were strongly identified with the diversity strategies of these institutions as
valued partners. An additional example of a strategic Black alumni association partnership
within an institutional initiative included Brown University’s, “Boldly Brown Alumni of Color
Initiative” (Brown University, 2011-13). This was a fundraising initiative developed and
managed by co-partnerships of all of the Brown alumni associations for the benefit of providing
scholarships to underrepresented students and programs. Interestingly, the advocacy for this
partnership was centrally marketed by the alumni association in general, and was in synch with
university diversity strategies, having been led by an institutional President of “color”.
It appears that advantageous synergies can exist between an institution and its cultural
affinity alumni associations as is demonstrated throughout the discourse reviewed. Where this is
the case, it appears that the organizational relationships, processes and values are closely aligned
and are not at cross-purposes, with each having a distinct role. In these environments the
university carries the load to accommodate the basic needs for a student’s financial security and
safety, and the alumni association answers the student and alumni needs for social resources.
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Such alignment is not the case for the USC Black Alumni Association, therefore its governance
has not had the same organizational opportunities to leverage institutional relationships as
strategically.
Synthesis of Results and Findings for Organization Causes
Results and findings for Organization distinctly indicated the presence of extensive
cultural and structural gaps between the stakeholder and the institution regarding diversity policy
practices and their subsequent impacts upon Black students, as well as alumni. As this was the
case, all presumed causes identified were validated, substantiated by a collectively perceived
necessity for a closer alignment with institutional leadership priorities for Black student
enrollment and support, and alumni engagement. It was identified that granular data
identification processes that could inform and cause closer alignment for cultural understanding
and better decision-making were necessary. Beyond data information, validated causes also
suggested that the human factor of relationship building and negotiation would be vital for
alignment, and that a stakeholder sub-group intensely focused upon policy improvement
advocacy would best produce meaningful approaches to solutions. A primary challenge for the
sub-group would be to seek, open and lead opportunities for collaboration with other institutional
organizations, in order to enable new and deepened perspectives that could encourage culturally
relevant, innovative policy decision-making.
Summary
Data collection processes confirmed and informed performance gaps associated with
transformative diversity policy improvement confronted by Black alumni stakeholder leaders.
Results and findings were assessed comprehensively through analysis that interrogated surveys,
interviews and documents within the dimensions of Knowledge, Motivation and Organization.
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As a result, strongly held stakeholder beliefs were validated that institutional diversity policies
critically overlooked disparities affecting the Black Diaspora primarily due to lack of crucial
Knowledge regarding cultural nuances that resoundingly had implications for generational
middle-class social and economic mobility. Gaps were also confirmed regarding marginalized
Organization constraints that prohibited collaborative exchange of vital cultural information, best
practices and ideals. Nonetheless, exceedingly high stakeholder Motivation was confirmed
regarding the necessity of a collective effort to optimally frame institutional diversity policy
improvement from a basis of cultural expertise and experience. Findings and results crisply
validated beliefs and attitudes that stakeholder leadership involvement would be essential to
improve the institutional environment for Black students, and to fortify Black alumni
engagement.
The Black alumni voice is uniquely evidenced in this study, but in order to further
investigate whether or not attitudes and beliefs could be pertinent to a general population and
could be used to create generalized models for stakeholder groups with similar challenges,
statistical methods were lastly employed to test attitudes and beliefs identified in this
investigation that might be highly correlated to each other and could be used to describe
circumstances to foster change. A significant correlation could provide a basis for generalizing
approaches for diversity policy improvements through cultural stakeholder lenses. Attitudes and
beliefs that were not shown as significantly correlated would be considered as having occurred
due to random chance, and would be considered as being unique to the circumstance of the
inquiry.
Using a quantitative approach to test the high means scores gained from the survey for
attitudes and beliefs in the Motivation dimension against high means scores for attitudes and
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beliefs in Organization and Knowledge, the questions were asked, “Are there relationships
between attitudes and beliefs for Motivation and Organization, and/or also for Motivation and
Knowledge that could be significant?” These questions were specifically asked because
Motivation means scores from the survey were consistently high for the sample surveyed,
independent of noted performance gaps in Knowledge and Organization for the sample. Survey
mean score values were highest for Knowledge in the area of conceptual knowledge (3.0), and
were high for Organization with respect to culture and values (3.44). Significant correlations for
stakeholder attitudes and beliefs for Motivation, and relationships to both Knowledge and
Organization, were computed through t-test analyses based on high means scores in these
categories using the Qualtrics software to determine whether statistically significant relationships
between attitudes and beliefs across these dimensions existed. The null hypothesis would assert
that there was no relationship, and that these mean score measurements indicating strong
attitudes and beliefs regarding stakeholder diversity policy improvement were due to chance in
these areas. The level of significance for t-test analysis was computed where p ≥ .01 and p ≤ .05,
meaning that if the probability values for significance of the effect were between .05 but larger
than .01, the null hypothesis would be typically rejected with some level of confidence, and the
chance for committing the Type I Error of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is in fact true
would be less likely. Results for significant correlations in Motivation and Organization, and for
Motivation and Knowledge are listed in Table 8.

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Table 8
Significant Correlations for Relationships between Attitudes and Beliefs for Motivation &
Organization, and for Motivation and Knowledge
Attitudes and Beliefs
Motivation:
Interest
Cultural
insight would
improve
diversity
policy
(Mean =3.72)
Motivation:
Interest
Role as
primary
advocate is
necessary for
change
(Mean = 3.56)
Motivation:
Goal
Orientation
Would play a
positive role in
influencing
policy
(Mean = 3.83)
Motivation:
Goal
Orientation
Internal
department
collaborations
could be
energized
(Mean = 3.83)
Knowledge:
Conceptual Knowledge
Diversity policy should
be responsive to income
class status
(Mean = 3.00)
0.01 -------- 0.03 --------
Organization:
Culture and Values
Diversity policy sets
tone for leadership
(Mean = 3.44)
0.01 0.01 0.03 0.03
Note: (Where: .01 ≥ p ≤ .05 significance level)

The results indicated in Table 8 suggest that the relationships between the attitudes and
beliefs measured for Motivation and Organization, and for Motivation and Knowledge were
statistically significant, as all t-test levels were where .01 ≥ p ≤ .05. Motivation and Knowledge
significance levels results were .01 and .03. Strongly held attitudes and beliefs regarding high
interest and goals were significantly correlated to strong attitudes and beliefs held about the
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importance of diversity policy being responsive to income class mobility. Significance levels for
Motivation and Organization results were also in the ranges of .01 to .03. These results could be
described as suggesting that strongly held attitudes and beliefs regarding interest and goals for
policy improvement were highly correlated with strongly held attitudes and beliefs regarding the
importance of diversity policy as a factor in setting the tone for institutional leadership.
Given these significant correlations, further triangulated with study findings from
interviews and document analysis, these identified relationships present important and
meaningful opportunities for transformative diversity policy improvement through the lens of
cultural stakeholder leadership. Namely, highly related attitudes and beliefs for Motivation and
Knowledge can be applied to other cultural stakeholder groups who are greatly motivated to play
a positive role in influencing diversity policy, in order that diversity policy becomes responsive
to income mobility. Likewise, highly related attitudes and beliefs for Motivation and
Organization can be meaningfully applied to other cultural stakeholder leader groups if they are
greatly motivated to influence diversity policy by becoming a leading advocate for collaborative
efforts for policy change that will fortify the tone for institutional leadership.
It is indeed important to consider how significant relationships between attitudes and
beliefs that are formed through a cultural stakeholder lens may be generalized and applied to
other cultural leadership populations, in addition to resolving challenges within the environment
under study. By providing these additional considerations in the formation of new paradigms for
institutional diversity policymaking that is also informed by validated research, the life
experiences of racial and cultural stakeholders gain new platforms from which to relevantly
improve current policy-making models. Such new and improved models are needed to
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meaningfully reflect institutional populations that are becoming increasingly more diverse and
complex.
Conclusion
It appears that the case for increased and optimized middle-income Black student
enrollment is strongly substantiated through the improvement of institutional diversity policy
directed by cultural stakeholder leadership, yet solutions remained to be determined and
evaluated. Based on all data collection and analysis, the final list of the validated causes for
stakeholder performance gaps found to inhibit effective institutional partnerships in this study is
found below in Table 9. Chapter 5 presents solution alternatives that close these gaps.

Table 9
Final List of Validated Causes of Stakeholder Performance Gaps
Category Validated Cause
Knowledge The BAC lacks conceptual knowledge of USC’s diversity philosophy
regarding middle-income Black students.
The BAC lacks procedural knowledge to integrate its own disaggregated data
and tacit knowledge with other departments and administrative diversity
processes.
The BAC lacks metacognitive knowledge that confirms their realization that
leadership will be an important factor to reshape diversity initiatives and to
also obtain transformative policy change.
Motivation The BAC lacks a mastery goal orientation versus a performance goal
orientation in order to achieve innovative diversity policy change.
Organization The BAC cultural model lacks institutional alignment to support processes and
goals;
The BAC cultural model lacks alignment with institutional cultural values and
cultural settings;
The BAC Network team lacks effectiveness to create innovative change.

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CHAPTER 5
SOLUTIONS AND IMPLEMENTATION
This chapter identifies solutions for BAC leadership to achieve their goal of an effective
institutional diversity policy improvement plan that increases and optimizes middle-income
Black student enrollment. Given the final validated causes in Chapter 4, recommendations are
suggested based upon empirical evidence that investigated institutional diversity policy-making
environments and best practices.
The recommended solutions presented in this chapter serve to strengthen capacities of
Black Alumni stakeholder leadership efforts to guide institutional diversity policy improvements
that can more effectively target the needs of middle-income Black student applicants, in order to
ultimately increase and optimize enrollment yields in this sub-group. These proposed solutions
are incorporated as the Diversity Policy Leadership Plan (DPLP), which has as its goal to
synergize the moral force of all BAC members to exploit the necessary entry points for
transformational change and benefit.
Validated Causes Selection and Rationale
A final list of validated causes that inhibited the BAC from achieving their goal to create
a plan for institutional diversity policy improvement was shown in Table 9. Final causes were
selected based upon data from surveys and interviews that deemed them important for resolution
in this study. Taken in total, these validated causes implored the questions of why and how
institutional diversity policy improvements should be managed so that what matters to Black
alumni stakeholders, also matters in policy consideration and deliberation.
For each validated cause provided in Table 9, a context appropriate solution to close
institutional performance gaps is described based on evidence, learning and motivation theories,
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principles, prior studies and/or meta-analyses. Solutions for validated causes for Knowledge,
Motivation and Organization are recommended and summarized in the following sections. An
implementation plan is also suggested that integrates all solutions in a realistic and feasible
manner. As such, the questions of why and how have recommended solutions driven by Black
alumni stakeholder involvement. All that remains is for BAC leadership to determine when. In
Chapter 6, methods for solution evaluation are proposed which conclude the inquiry.
Solutions for Knowledge Causes
Survey results and interview findings identified the types of validated Knowledge causes
as Conceptual, Procedural and Metacognitive. The validated causes for Knowledge performance
gaps have been previously articulated in Table 9. In order to close performance gaps,
appropriate cognitive processes dimensions associated with each Knowledge type that are
necessary for the BAC to achieve the performance goal are identified and evaluated using the
Anderson and Krathwohl taxonomy (2001). Solutions recommended according to the Gap
Analysis framework (Clark & Estes, 2008) are listed in Table 10.

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Table 10
Recommended Solutions for Knowledge
Knowledge Type Solution Theory or Principal Recommended Solution
Conceptual Behaviorism/Cognitive
processing theory/
Cognitive Load principal
(Mayer)
Create new information frameworks for
institutional decision makers in order to
educate them about the importance of
diversity and inclusion goals to improve
Black student outcomes.
Procedural Behaviorism theory/
Classical Conditioning and
Positive Operant
Conditioning principals
(Skinner)
Create opportunity to host a discussion of
annual Black student outcomes, to include
the creation of a pleasant environment
such as a hosted lunch as the backdrop for
discussion, and an incentive of a highly
recognized reward at the end of each year.
Metacognitive Behaviorism/Social
Cognitive theory/Self-
efficacy principals
(Bandura)
Deepen diversity and inclusion advocacy
through analysis and evaluation of
comparative information in other settings,
and attendance and/or participation in
education that leverages professional
expertise in diversity and inclusion
leadership in institutional settings.

Conceptual Knowledge Solutions
The BAC lacked conceptual knowledge of USC’s diversity philosophies, as it appeared
to them that USC creates and executes diversity policy that ignores significant factors that impact
Black student outcomes. The Anderson and Krathwol taxonomy suggests that conceptual
knowledge could be increased through the creation of approaches to synthesize the
interrelationships of policy elements introduced through new or relevant information (Anderson
& Krathwol, 2001). In designing an effective approach to close this gap, the Clark & Estes
framework advises that approaches or new models that introduce information also include
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systems for goal setting and assessment. Thus, it is recommended that the BAC develop a
systematic means of communication with the USC administration that can develop and employ
new models and systems for goal setting and assessment associated with institutional diversity
outcomes for Black students.
The BAC provides a proven level of expertise and experience that would supplement the
interrogation of data required for improved institutional decision making. A specific solution
recommendation would be that the BAC embark upon a new initiative to lead discussions
regarding the creation of useful informational frameworks for institutional decision making,
emphasizing the importance of additional cultural data and perspectives that would inform
diversity and inclusion policies that would improve and optimize middle-income Black student
enrollment. Considerations of incorporating granular information regarding Black student
outcomes have been introduced in the settings of other higher education institutions nationally
(Kezar, 2007). As a result, data have been shown to cause policies to more closely align to the
success of Black student cohorts relative to their peers, and to systematically evaluate
progression and equity against relative outcomes. The BAC could provide substantive value in
providing these data, creating an overarching basis for an improved policy approach that should
motivate new deliberation by senior and presidential leadership at the institution. The BAC is a
credible expert information source, as the data it has gathered since 2008 is from institutional
enrollment records, exchanges with students and its own record keeping from the scholarship
files the BAA maintains.
The expected success of suggested new models developed for decision-making would be
dependent upon how open policy makers would be to utilizing the information in their
deliberations. Thus the recommended solution would be for the BAC to make new information
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cogent to policy deliberation. Therefore, new models would include coaching, scaffolding,
modeling, questioning and feedback (Mayer, 2011) within the policy processes in order to ensure
that complex new knowledge as it is introduced, can be assimilated accurately. The creation of
new models that address cultural differences would require: a) integration into existing
departmental policy designs, and b) design of how new policy components would work within
the existing institutional systems overall (Mayer, 2011). The objective of a new BAC-led policy
model would be to understand current assumptions, expand upon those considerations by
introducing new elements that are needed, and include systems for goal setting and assessment
that would increase and optimize Black student enrollment.
The clearest benefit from the development of a new institutional model would be to
establish a relevant framework that candidly evaluates characteristics of the Black student
demographic at the institution. Research indicates that institutional approaches for diversity
policy making often do not consider specific fundamental choices that should be made in their
definition of diversity (the selection, interpretation, and categorization of modes of
differentiation), the motivation for diversity within the institution (the desired base of difference
individually or collectively, and also whether the desired rationale is moral or practical), and the
diversity policy approach (high intensity versus low intensity) (Ewijk, 2010). Additionally, it
has been found that gaps between institutional policy statements and institutional mission are
common (Wilson, Mayer, McNeal, 2012). Studies show that despite the need for increased
cultural awareness on campuses due to changing demographics, fewer than 35% of institutions
included specific diversity goals in racial or ethnic terms within their mission statements.
Research further confirms that most diversity efforts are separated from core institutional
processes, rather than incorporated as part of the mission of their institutions (Smith, 2012).
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Studies also show that models regarding diversity should include new institutional capacity for
disaggregated data in policy-making. In one study that examined five years of institutional
records in two Tier 1 universities, findings indicated that while the institutions both attracted and
admitted a diverse pool of students, the selectivity of admissions affected changes in the
diversity of the pool negatively overall. (Crisp et al, 2010). Based upon new analysis with the
inclusion of new information, these institutions were able to predict changes in their pool with
the modeling of granular ethnic data, and could better structure policy decisions due to these
implications. Additionally, results obtained from quantitative research indicates that differences
exist between the ways that affirmative action models are perceived, based either upon racial
group self-interest or racism beliefs within groups. It was shown that racial group self-interest
and racism beliefs predicted endorsement of affirmative action in theoretically different ways.
According to this study, Blacks viewed affirmative action as being helpful in serving their self-
interest in comparison to their White counterparts. In contrast, racism beliefs ensconced by a
limited awareness of institutional racism prompted higher anti-affirmative action positions (Oh,
Choi et al, 2010). These research findings, coupled with the findings from this inquiry, have
direct applications regarding a justification for a revised articulation of policy frameworks that
specifically address the mission of the institution and correlated goals for middle-income Black
student generational success and cohort attainment. Although the mission statement of the
institution does indicate pluralistic student access regardless of race, creed, or religion (USC
Role and Mission, 1993), it does not indicate sensitivity to specific goals, or causal relationships
between its mission and pedagogy that is accountable to outcomes for the sub-groups it serves.
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Procedural Knowledge Solutions
The BAC lacked procedural knowledge regarding how to integrate their disaggregated
data and tacit cultural knowledge with administrative diversity policy processes because it was
not able to apply, integrate or engage decision-making opportunities that could improve policies
for middle-income Black students. According to the Anderson and Krathwol taxonomy (2001),
procedural knowledge is increased by opportunities to create improved methods of inquiry and
criteria for policy design based on disaggregated data input. A strategy to close performance
gaps, based on the Clark & Estes framework (2008), would be for the BAC to create
opportunities for themselves to engage others within the institution. A recommended solution
for the BAC would be to host at least one annual institutional meeting to achieve the following
objectives: 1) validation of how cultural knowledge should importantly be applied to current
institutional circumstances; 2) critical analysis of additional differentiated information; 3)
evaluation of current frameworks; 4) recommendations for suggested new criteria for decision-
making involving cultural parameters. Accordingly, the BAC would need to facilitate objective
discussions that conveyed a necessity to incorporate racially specific diversity goals and
assessments for racially specific outcomes for Black students.
Expanding upon the recommended solution to create opportunities for discussion and
engagement of data, it is further suggested that these discussions are held in neutral settings that
enable relaxed conversation and also provide incentives for participation, as it is possible that
this task, or the act of participating in this task, will evoke substantial anxiety and tension at
executive policy-making levels and also with School Deans because they may possibly feel that
such an agenda would attack core philosophies felt to be valid and fair. These types of adverse
reactions could likely be assuaged though the utilization of behaviorism principals such as
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positive operant conditioning (Ambrose, 2010). Studies have shown the applicability of positive
operant conditioning in the institutional setting through the research of Devries and Jablonski
(1971), which examined the ways positive reinforcement changed the behavior and attitudes of
teachers and managers to maximize performance goals collaboratively. The BAC team would
need to message positively through courteous exchanges of information though empathetic
listening for understanding, and through inspirational projection of how their efforts would
benefit the institution because of new thinking and approaches, also increasing the perception of
respective participating leadership as well. Additionally, participants could be incented through
formal recognition of their leadership, provided by a tangible reward on an annual basis
bestowed by the BAC.
Metacognitive Knowledge Solutions
The BAC lacked metacognitive knowledge to widen their cultural agency and leadership
to consequentially engage policymaking that could increase and optimize middle- income Black
student enrollment. According to the Anderson and Krathwol (2001) taxonomy, metacognitive
knowledge is optimized through increased strategic and contextual self-awareness. A strategy to
close performance gaps, according to the Clark & Estes framework (2008), would be for the
BAC to expand their self-efficacy to enable them to generate a greater collective influence for
policy improvement advocacy. A recommended solution for the BAC would be to deepen their
diversity and inclusion advocacy through on-going analysis and evaluation of comparative
information in other settings, and attendance and/or participation in education that leverages their
professional expertise in diversity and inclusion leadership in institutional settings. This solution
strategy is supported by social cognitive theory and self-efficacy principals developed by
Bandura (Ambrose, 2010), where behavior is directed toward particular goals that individuals set
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for themselves, eventually becoming self-regulated and reinforced through specific vicarious
observational learning situations that would facilitate expectations for behavior with similar
consequences. In this case, BAC policy improvement leadership efforts would be better enabled
as they collectively increase their influence and capacity for institutional social justice advocacy.
It is likely that new actors to enable diversity and inclusion leadership are necessary due
to the changing student demographics within predominately white institutions. Yet, while this
may be the case, diversity leadership by grassroots cultural stakeholders does not exist in
research literature. Current research in the field of diversity policy revision concentrates on the
role of the institutional President to affect necessary change. However, in the case where
Presidential leadership does not yet prioritize diversity and inclusion goals specifically regarding
Black students, to also include middle-income Black students, other stakeholders at varying
institutional levels may be de facto charged with that advocacy, as is the case of the BAC.
Comparably, in organizational executive management research is the concept of stakeholder
identification and its impact upon management and leadership that is appropriate for BAC
comparison (Savage et al, 1991). The literature indicates the presence of organizational
stakeholders as key influencers of organizational strategy and policy. The stakeholder is
classified according to their positive or negative influence, and as such, the stakeholder can
become empowered as being either a supportive, mixed blessing, non-supportive, or marginal
stakeholder (Savage et al, 1991). Accordingly, as a supportive stakeholder, the BAC can be
perceived both as a highly cooperative organizational partner, and as a leader, the greater their
supportive influence grows institutionally.
However, legitimate barriers to supportive leadership for stakeholders of color in
predominately white institutions exist, as research further demonstrates. A recent study strongly
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indicated that senior administrators and leaders of color felt they faced a series of negotiation
variables in their advocacy for social justice (Reyes, 2012). The first of these negotiation areas
included tensions associated with the question, "Who is responsible for diversity?" According to
this study, participants felt they had to constantly educate others, be responsible for diversity but
were criticized for addressing diversity, received conflicting expectations from various
constituents about their roles, and, were alone in their advocacy but obligated to advocate for
students of color (Reyes, 2012). These findings were also consistent with BAC results and
findings. Further substantiated in the literature, participants faced a “negotiation of voice” in
their leadership positions. They believed that their presence was a form of advocacy and that
they brought unique perspectives about racial inequities to their administrative positions due to
their race and ethnicity. But at the same time, participants felt they had to negotiate the ways
they represented their institutions and communities of color, and spoke out about issues of social
justice in light of professional risks for doing so (Reyes, 2012). Finally, and most applicable to
BAC stakeholder leadership self-efficacy, the research indicated that study participants felt they
had to negotiate a sense of hope for change amidst daunting racial realities and inequities (Reyes,
2012). Like the BAC, study participants were simultaneously hopeful and discouraged by their
effectiveness in building alliances with White colleagues even while reinforcing a White
powerbase, and by their efforts towards fostering inclusive leadership styles in systems and
institutions that were often perceived as exclusionary (Reyes, 2012).
Increased BAC metacognition through evidenced based research modeling may be
limited, but studies do indicate preferred characteristics of diversity and inclusion leadership that
the BAC already imbues (Owen, 2009; Garcia, 2009). Key aspects of stakeholder leadership
were ascribed as identifying through: a) race, gender, class; b) degree of understanding of the
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nature and functioning of oppression; c) institutional history and context; d) socio-historical
context of the institution in general (Owen, 2009). In recognizing their influential impact as key
stakeholders, the BAC should be able to act with considerable influence as agents of change in
their diversity policy improvement challenge.
Summary of Knowledge Solutions
The recommended solutions for validated Knowledge causes direct the BAC to take a
confident, proactive stance to articulate the need for institutional diversity policy improvement.
As an institutionally supportive stakeholder, and growing influential institutional partner, it is
necessary for them to create inviting opportunities for collaborative efforts.
Solutions for Motivation Causes
Survey results and interview findings identified the resultant type of validated Motivation
causes to be classified as Goal Orientation. The validated cause for Motivation performance
gaps is referenced in Table 9. In order to close performance gaps, research-based motivation
theories and principles were provided for solutions based upon the Gap Analysis framework
(Clark & Estes, 2008). Recommended solutions for Motivation are listed in Table 11.

Table 11
Recommended Solutions for Motivation
Motivation Type Solution Theory or Principal Recommended Solution
Mastery Goal versus
Performance Goal
orientation
Motivation theories/Value
principals (Wakefield & Eccles)
Motivation theories/Performance
Goal Orientation Matrix
principals (Pintrich)
Formalization of the BAA
Scholarship Program
(BAASP) as an identified
“best practice.”

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As validated by surveys and interviews, the BAC did not lack motivation to make active
choices, set goals or work together collectively in pursuit of a goal. Their collective belief was
that the expert insight offered by people of color is critical for diversity policy improvement that
is currently bound by White diversity policymakers and White leadership. While performance
gaps for Motivation did not exist, a strategy to optimize performance according to the Clark &
Estes framework (2008) would continue to position the BAC’s goals to extend their mastery so
as to provide longer termed solutions. According to value theories developed by Wakefield and
Eccles (Ambrose et. al., 2010), the BAC would sustain a greater value orientation by developing
and leading their projects as subject matter experts. In doing so, the creation of a higher value
orientation would further increase collective intrinsic attachments and increase extrinsic rewards
in the long term, and would likely increase collective motivation to remain engaged.
Additionally, according to Pintrich’s Goal Orientation Matrix (Rueda, 2011), the BAC mastery
goal orientation also suggests that they approach project goals to expand mastery of issues
related to middle-income Black student enrollment at USC, striving for innovative solutions
versus a performance goal orientation only. Since the BAC is highly motivated to remove
barriers associated with issues of inclusion, and become an expert partner to improve discourse
and informational exchange, their expertise would provide an optimal orientation for new
approaches and innovative thinking that could deliver considerable institutional value.
A recommended solution for the BAC would be to develop a best practice that would
substantiate their collective expertise in a demonstrable manner. A best practice approach would
permit the BAC to become more authoritative in institutional diversity policy discourse through
examples of facts, project results and impacts. Specifically suggested would be the formalization
of the BAA Scholarship Program (BAASP) as an identified best practice. BAASP is sharply
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focused on Black student graduation outcomes, is formulated to align with the student
throughout their matriculation to ensure retention, and has realized a 100% completion rate of
more than 600 Black students at USC since 2008. Importantly, BAASP successfully impacts
nearly 30% of the graduating undergraduate cohort of Black students each year, and some form
of its programming impacts 100% of the cohort each year. To formalize the program, the BAC
would need to create a job-aid to train others about the program’s impact and benefits, as well as
be used for marketing communications collateral.
Research indicates the advantage of mastery orientation to articulate nuances associated
with diversity and inclusion process improvements. A similar organizational endeavor was
studied that confirmed the value of a constant support program of an intentional community
group, rather than crisis intervention, for Black youth navigating the college preparatory process
(Jayakumar, Vue & Allen, 2013). Through in-depth interviews and surveys with twenty-five
middle- and higher-income Black college students, the positive role of a community organization
program in facilitating college access is documented. Mastery performance goals would likely
be maximized through establishment of the best-practice model BAASP, where the success of
the scholar is embedded throughout the deep integration of financial assistance, mentorship and
career modeling that builds necessary links between what is institutionally taught (even in a
multicultural setting) with a student’s personal cultural identity.
Summary of Motivation Solutions
The recommended solutions for validated Motivation causes direct the BAC to
demonstrate their expertise by defining best practices associated with Black student retention
and completion. The BAC has a program in place that should be utilized to demonstrate their
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collective success, and substantiate a platform for continued involvement in diversity advocacy
issues.
Solutions for Organization Causes
Survey results and interview findings identified the types of validated Organization
causes as Processes, Values and Culture, and Resources. The validated causes for Organization
performance gaps are previously referenced in Table 9. In order to close performance gaps,
research informed organization theories and principles is provided for solutions were based upon
the findings in Chapter 4. Solutions recommended in accordance with the Gap Analysis
framework (Clark & Estes, 2008) are shown in Table 12.

Table 12
Recommended Solutions for Organization
Organization Type Solution Theory or Principal Recommended Solution(s)
Process and
Procedures
Lev Vygotsky’s Socio-
cultural Theory/Cultural
models versus Cultural
settings principals
(Gallimore and Goldenberg)
Integration of diversity frameworks
created into its own systems, and for
information sharing across other systems.
Culture and Values Socio-cultural
Theory/Cultural Leadership
principals (Schein)
Establishment of BAC as proxy for
institutional leadership to initiate
institutional organizational cultural change
Establish alignment of BAC under
national “Initiative for African American
Excellence”
Establishment of BAC’s own institutional
initiative for diversity outcomes.
Resources Performance Support
Organizations (Clark &
Estes)
Creation of Skunk works team to advise
BAC and lead diversity improvement
efforts.

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As substantiated by surveys and interviews, the BAC lacked organizational models that
sufficiently aligned in support of institutional diversity processes and goals. According to the
Clark & Estes framework (2008), BAC performance is optimized by strategies to align their
culturally contextual perspectives and processes within institutional systems. Lev Vygotsky’s
Socio-cultural Theory (Ambrose et. al., 2010) provides a basis to examine differences between
organizational culture and context. While culture and context are often discussed together, they
are differentiated. BAC culture (models) is derived from normative understandings of how the
world works or ought to work, which is often an automated sense at the individual level. BAC
context (settings) is shaped through specific activities where behavior is enacted. Because social
context becomes a mediator for organizational learning and thinking, within their social context
the BAC has developed specific skills, commitments, knowledge, and identity that have allowed
them to become proficient in practices that are valued in their specific communities. Therefore,
BAC strategies to increase performance through aligning their culture and context within
institutional systems should incorporate scaffolding and cooperative learning with other key
leaders across new institutional communities.
BAC solutions to close organizational culture performance gaps further require an
additional nuance because of their stakeholder leadership lens. While the BAC can operate
within institutional cultural settings in a general sense, they also fluidly move between cultural
models that are inherently derived from their values as ethnic and cultural leaders (Gallimore &
Goldenberg, 2001). Their leadership status in particular has direct implications regarding
approaches to change. It has been observed in the literature that, “Leadership creates and
changes cultures; management and administration act within it. It is the job of leadership to
manage cultural evolution in a manner that allows the organization to survive,” (Schein, 2004).
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Therefore recommended solutions for the BAC serve to provide acknowledgement of the cultural
influence of BAC leadership. Thus, the differences between the cultural leadership models of
the BAC and the cultural leadership settings of the institution need to be clearly acknowledged
and articulated, specifically in efforts to use their growing influence to improve policies
regarding Black student outcomes, to include increased and optimized middle-income Black
student enrollment. As such, solutions recommended for the BAC must prioritize the manner in
which the BAC can actually leverage their stakeholder leadership as a proxy for institutional
leadership, to expand institutional policy systems and influence diversity policy improvement
through a cultural lens.
Solutions specifically recommended for the BAC to address gaps in policies and
procedures are to incorporate the policy frameworks they develop for improvement as active
models for their own systems, and to share them also with internal and external partners.
Additionally, a recommended solution for the BAC to address gaps in culture and values
alignment is to identify internal and external partners whom it can collaborate with regarding a
shared interest in Black student outcomes, to include increased and optimized middle-income
Black student enrollment. While no systems exist currently at the institution, a national initiative
was announced by Executive Order on July 26, 2012: “The White House Initiative on
Educational Excellence for African Americans.” The Initiative supports President Obama’s
desire to “restore the country to its role as the global leader in education, to strengthen the nation
by improving educational outcomes for African Americans of all ages, and to help ensure that all
African Americans receive an education that properly prepares them for college, productive
careers, and satisfying lives” (The White House, 2012). Alignment with this initiative, as one
example, would allow the BAC to demonstrate their commitment to their cultural values at a
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highly visible national level, work within their existing system that accommodates a similar
cultural model, and enable them to develop and validate processes that should also be applicable
institutionally. Yet along with aligning with external programs, it is suggested that the BAC
create their own institutional initiative for Black student inclusion and outcomes that includes
focus upon increased and optimized middle-income Black student enrollment. A
recommendation is that the BAC does so in order to introduce new frameworks and information
at both the local public level and as well as internally, to share its cultural models and to instill
awareness that institutional cultural settings need to change. By moving forward with their own
initiative, institutional discourse will be created where there is none. Lastly, in terms of
addressing resource gaps, it is suggested that the BAC establish a sub-group that will be
responsible for advising the necessary conversations about Black student outcomes, to include
middle-income Black student enrollment advocacy. It is recommended that this group operate as
a self-contained sub-council that is tasked specifically to the complex effort of diversity policy
improvement. This would allow the BAC to have a specific expert work group, with a highly
specific set of skills that can creatively circumvent bureaucratic rules, such as the type of Skunk-
works team that is often deployed in corporate environments to increase organizational
performance for special projects (Clark & Estes, 2008).
Research investigating organizational change leadership to improve diversity and
inclusion policies confirms a conservative nature of institutional systems in predominately White
universities, by revealing a clear distinction between the kinds of diversity practices of an
institution and its leadership decision-making vision. The literature importantly suggests that an
institution’s response to diversity issues is determined by leadership decisions to either transition
or transform its organizational culture and institutional environment (Aguirre & Martinez, 2002).
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Models for transformational diversity policies for inclusion have already been substantially
documented in the literature (Aguirre & Martinez, 2002; Williams et al, 2005; Kezar & Eckel,
2007; Parker et al, 2007; Williams & Clowney, 2007; Deas et al, 2012). The common theme in
the literature is that diversity policy for inclusion is the responsibility of institutional leadership,
and that transformational change only occurs when policy improvement becomes included into
systemic strategic planning for the institution in total by its institutional leadership. In the
absence of institutional leadership, research suggests that those who do act as proxies become
aware of critical frameworks for successful advocacy. In a briefing that specifically focuses
upon the work entailed regarding diversity planning and leadership processes, the Inclusive
Excellence model is suggested as useable framework for change (Williams & Clowney, 2007),
with detailed references of collaborative organizational processes and structural alignment that
preclude successful institutional outcomes. These frameworks specify the roles of
administrators, leaders and faculty. The BAC, however, in using this kind of framework would
accordingly assume a type of hybrid administration/leadership role, as its leadership position is
presently outside of the traditional institutional stakeholder designation as has been indicated in
the current literature.
Summary of Organization Solutions
The recommended solutions for validated Organization causes are more complex than
those for Knowledge and Motivation because they require the BAC to expand their leadership
influence to change institutional cultural settings for diversity policymaking that are outside the
parameters of the traditional institutional considerations for stakeholder roles. Solutions for
organizational processes, cultural values and resources are greatly nuanced by the fact that the
BAC must act as a proxy for institutional leadership to cause change, therefore a highly focused
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sub-group is challenged with advising how the BAC should most effectively apply its research,
expertise and leadership to be successful.
Recommended Solutions Summary
Throughout the research of evidence-based solutions regarding the subject of diversity
policy improvement, one lacuna in particular arises. Research up to this point has not
investigated the incorporation or utilization of cultural alumni group leadership as being critical
institutional stakeholders or partners. Thus far, the literature only argues for, or proves change
through, the comportment of traditional internal institutional actors, resources and processes such
as faculty, administrative staff, or senior leadership. Importantly however, the efforts of the
BAC will prove impactful in this regard through expansion of traditional frameworks, because
change can also be greatly influenced due their external accountability, especially in an
institutional setting which has some level also of accountability to its cultural alumni community
and community at large. As an influential stakeholder that can leverage their connections with
former students as well as an externally supportive community, in addition to negotiating barriers
or resistance to change internally, the BAC is uniquely positioned as an organizational proxy for
institutional leadership on the matter of diversity policy improvement.
Given especially that the BAC can act from a foundation of informed evidence-based
solutions, there is a great likelihood that they can certainly develop a policy leadership
framework that other non-traditional cultural stakeholder leaders may also adopt. The success of
recommended solutions is conditioned upon feasible integration to enable the Diversity Policy
Leadership Plan (DPLP) as viable example and platform for leadership. Solutions integration and
implementation for the Diversity Policy Leadership Plan (DPLP) is discussed in the following
section.
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Implementation Plan
The intention of the Diversity Policy Leadership Plan (DPLP) is to memorialize a new
framework that incorporates the perspectives of cultural stakeholders in the processes of
institutional policy decision-making, creating policy that ultimately affects improved outcomes
for cultural/ethnic students, in this case Black students, and specifically increased and optimized
middle-income Black student enrollment. The Diversity Policy Leadership Plan (DPLP)
supports the strategies by which the BAC could influence institutional change most effectively.
It requires substantial focus to first develop adequate knowledge frameworks, requires the BAC
to secondly remain in synch motivationally, and lastly requires organizational change support
that must be carefully and thoughtfully planned. While the BAC members have already agreed
among themselves about the need to exercise their leadership to advocate for change, the goal of
the Diversity Policy Leadership Plan (DPLP) is that they agree to facilitate change according to
the recommended solutions to close performance gaps as identified in this inquiry. The
recommended solutions, feasible integration and clear implementation milestones for the
Diversity Policy Leadership Plan (DPLP) can be completed throughout a ten-month timeframe,
and are summarized in Table 13.

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Table 13
Summary of Recommended Solutions, Implementation and Integration Milestones
“The Diversity Policy Leadership Plan (DPLP)”
Validated
Cause/Theory Recommended Solution
Timeframe
(Month 1-10) Integration Plan
♦ Organizational/
Resources
♦ Agreement of all BAC
Members to support
DPLP
♦ Creation of Skunk-
works team to advise
BAC, and lead diversity
improvement
implementation efforts on
behalf of the BAC.
0 1. Vote at First Quarter
Meeting
1 2. Designate Team
Elect team members at First
quarterly BAC meeting.
♦ Knowledge/
Metacognitive
Social Cognitive
Theory/Self-efficacy
principals
♦ Deepen diversity and
inclusion advocacy
through analysis and
evaluation of comparative
information in other
settings, and attendance
and/or participation in
education that leverages
professional expertise in
diversity and inclusion
leadership in institutional
settings.
2-3 3. Individual Efforts
Ongoing sector education;
4. Collective Efforts
Conference attendance, speaking
engagements, hosting.
♦ Knowledge/
Conceptual
Behaviorism
Classical & Operant
Conditioning
Theories
♦ Create new information
frameworks for
institutional decision
makers in order to educate
them about the
importance of diversity
and inclusion goals to
improve Black student
outcomes, to include
increased and optimized
middle-income Black
student enrollment.
3-5 5. Develop Model to include
processes for guidance by BAC
coaching, scaffolding, modeling,
questioning and feedback;
6. Integrate into existing policy
design in terms of how the new
model would relate to other
departments;
7. Design how new policy
components would work within
the existing institutional systems.

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Table 13, continued
Validated
Cause/Theory Recommended Solution
Timeframe
(Month 1-10) Integration Plan
♦ Knowledge/
Procedural
Cognitive
Processing
Cognitive Load
principals
♦ Create opportunity to
host an annual discussion
of Black student
outcomes, in a pleasant
environment such as a
hosted lunch as the
backdrop for discussion,
and provide an incentive
of a highly recognized
reward at the end of each
year.
5-6 8. Present Model:
-Application of cultural
knowledge to current
institutional circumstances;
- Analysis of how additional
differentiated information is
necessary for policy change;
- Evaluation of current standards;
- Present new suggested criteria
for collaborative decision
making based on disaggregated
data that focuses on Black
student outcomes, to include
increased and optimized middle-
income Black student
enrollment.
♦ Motivation/
Goal Orientation
Values/Mastery
Goal Orientation
♦ Formalization of the
BAA Scholarship
Program
(BAASP) as an identified
“best practice.”
7 9. Create Job-Aid
Train others about the program’s
impact and benefits, & use aid
also for marketing and
communications collateral.
♦ Organizational/
Processes and
Procedures
Socio-
cultural/Cultural
Settings versus
Cultural Models
♦ Integration of BAC
cultural models into
diversity frameworks,
promoting shared
information across other
systems.
8 10. Move data analyses
information into BAC strategic
plan.
9 11. Provide
community/external partner
education based on data
evaluation.

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Table 13, continued
Validated
Cause/Theory Recommended Solution
Timeframe
(Month 1-10) Integration Plan
♦ Organizational/
Culture and Values
Socio-cultural
Cultural Leadership
♦ Establishment of BAC
as proxy for institutional
leadership to initiate
institutional
organizational cultural
change.
10 12. Create Communications
Plan
Develop plan to educate internal
and external partners about BAC
vision and goals, and
perspectives.
♦ Establish alignment of
BAC under national
initiative, i.e., “Initiative
for African American
Excellence”
10 13. Provide information to
internal and external partners,
i.e. press release.
♦ Establish BAC
institutional initiative for
Black student outcomes,
to include increased and
optimized middle-income
Black student enrollment.
10 14. Provide information to
internal and external partners,
i.e. press release

As suggested by the Diversity Policy Leadership Plan (DPLP), initially, once the BAC
decides favorably to lead diversity policy change for the common university good, the most
immediate action would be to designate those BAC members who would form the Skunk-works
team to lead the effort. Within the next two months, this team would challenge themselves to
increase their metacognitive knowledge regarding trends and research based solutions through
conference and/or workshop attendance on diversity management topics in the higher education
sector, as well as inform or share their experiences with like-minded groups also found in these
environments given their particular research findings and expertise. Armed with this new
knowledge, validation by their peers and clearer understanding of evidence-based solutions and
best practices, the Skunk-works team would be able to instill guidance to select and shape a wider
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collaborative group of institutional stakeholders concerning the importance of diversity policy
revision and the benefits to be realized. In order to successfully close conceptual gaps to develop
appropriate inclusion models, the Skunk-works team would next investigate the inadequacies of
current frameworks through discussion techniques such as coaching, scaffolding, decision
modeling, questioning and feedback with key institutional leaders regarding existing systems and
their interrelationships to other internal systems, or lack there of, institutionally.
By the sixth month, the BAC Skunk-works team should have enough of a baseline of
information to invite further discussion of what possible changes in diversity and inclusion
policy could look like in the institutional environment specifically. A setting designed for peer-
to-peer, open dialogue regarding benefits to be gained from enhanced intelligence provided from
granular ethnic and cultural data and perspectives would close procedural performance gaps for
institutional diversity policy framework improvement. The objective of these efforts would be to
create the most optimal alignment for policy decision-making processes inherent to all
institutional systems and programs that deal with diversity representation: from admissions to
enrollment to advising to learning, to matriculation and finally to graduation outcomes. One
such program that would benefit greatly from optimal alignment is the BAA’s Scholarship
Program (BAASP). With strategic institutional alignment, the BAA’s mastery in blending
cultural knowledge with student support could be acknowledged and utilized formally as a best
practice regarding Black student retention and successful matriculation. The key components of
this program could also be integrated into other institutional systems that focus, or should focus,
upon Black student success via the assistance of a job-aid that would list the primary facets of
the program.
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Closure of performance gaps also legitimizes the future organizational vision of the BAA,
where its cultural models could be fully integrated into the cultural settings of the institution in a
systematic manner that enhances, and then strengthens internal decision-making. Further, this
success would serve as a model for other cultural affinity stakeholders to be able to do the same,
thereby driving institutional diversity policy revision that is culturally responsive to students in
the short term, and creating a basis for deepened cultural alumni engagement in the long term.
Diversity policy change as a result of improved data management and cultural knowledge would
also have an impact on the strategic integration of the institution’s cultural organizations. In the
case of the BAA, BAC leadership could be further inspired to challenge additional encompassing
imperatives regarding institutionalized racism and its affects throughout higher education upon
the generational social and economic mobility of Black students. Focused upon affecting core
multi-cultural solutions, the BAC would likely gain an even broader circle of collaborative and
influential community partnerships locally, nationally and globally. Therefore, a
communications plan that positions the strategic importance of the BAC as an institutional
partner could close any remaining performance gaps associated with innovative socio-cultural
leadership of diversity policy improvement solutions.
Finally, it will be important to accurately measure whether the Diversity Policy
Leadership Plan (DPLP) effectively allows the BAC to reach their ultimate goal of increasing
and optimizing middle-income Black student enrollment. Evaluation of Diversity Policy
Leadership Plan (DPLP) solutions for the BAC will be discussed in Chapter 6.

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CHAPTER 6
EVALUATION AND DISCUSSION
Summary of the Study
Institutional diversity policy improvement was investigated in this inquiry through the
lens of Black alumni stakeholder leadership at a highly selective, predominately white
institution. Findings and results from a gap analysis, which was used as the environmental
framework for the study, suggest that cultural stakeholder leadership has an importantly
significant and meaningful role to play in shaping diversity policy that establishes parameters for
an institutional perspective concerning diversity and inclusion objectives, and that it also should
be the primary stakeholder of record to assess relevancy and accountability that is demonstrative
of purposeful gain. The Diversity Policy Leadership Plan (DPLP) is a suggested actionable
framework for changing and improving institutional diversity policy deliberation.
For this inquiry, the Diversity Policy Leadership Plan (DPLP) has a measureable
attainment goal of gaining the agreement of its 26 members to lead a transformative policy
change effort by following the solutions recommended. Agreement of each BAC member will
measure the attainment of the plan goal. The Diversity Policy Leadership Plan (DPLP) adds a
desired element of strategic importance and social uplift to the BAA mission, by sharply
focusing upon gains to be realized through systemic efforts to address access issues and
inequities caused by institutional diversity policy and practices. Since a leadership plan with the
specific focus to increase and optimize the enrollment of middle income Black students does not
yet exist, the gap from zero to 26 members who commit to the viability of the plan and its
execution is 100%.
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Key Policy Considerations
Executive action is strongly urged regarding institutional diversity policy improvement
based upon leading research and new knowledge created from this analysis of Black alumni
stakeholder position. Results and findings indicate positive student outcomes and alumni
engagement that balance requirements for inclusion with generational cultural and racial
progress. A proactive focus requires this university to firmly establish such policy deliberation
improvements in order to realize a transparent decision making infrastructure that improves
leadership knowledge to thoughtfully mobilize changes required to relevantly develop and
deliberate diversity policy, improves motivation for stakeholders to trust decision making and
practices, and improves organizational alignment to create a meaningful culture of confidence
for performance measurements that serve the regional, national and global interests of the
university and its society.
Recommendations for Evaluation
The Diversity Policy Leadership Plan (DPLP) is a set of solution recommendations
formed from its specific circumstance to address core multicultural diversity policy issues and
practices. Success of the Diversity Policy Leadership Plan (DPLP) would be measured through
evaluative methods that are reviewed in this section. Strengths and weaknesses of the study
approach, limitations and areas for future research subsequently conclude the inquiry.
The Kirkpatrick (2006) evaluation system, considered an industry standard in the
evaluation of learning processes, was used to assess the impact of the Diversity Policy
Leadership Plan on the following four levels: (a) Reactions (Did they like it, find it valuable?);
(b) Learning or Performance (What did they learn? or, Are they performing differently during
the intervention?); (c) Transfer or Behavior (Are they doing it after the intervention is
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completed?); and Impact (Is the gap closed?). This model importantly demonstrates how the
learning processes associated with the Diversity Policy Leadership Plan can be sustained so that
improvements, which close performance gaps, can be linked directly to results expected. The
results expected at each level, if the implementation of DPLP solutions is successful, will be
discussed in the next sections.
Evaluation Processes
The evaluative processes, based on the Kirkpatrick Four Level Model (2006) were
incorporated for the Diversity Policy Leadership Plan (DPLP) as follows:
Level 1 — reaction: Motivation, value. In order to measure the reaction of the BAC to
the Diversity Policy Leadership Plan, a simple survey would be administered to confirm the level
of motivation and beliefs of the group. The survey would be constructed as a Likert-scaled
instrument, with questions focused upon whether or not the Diversity Policy Leadership Plan
was perceived as being a tool to effectively prepare BAC members to lead a diversity policy
change effort. Questions on the survey would indicate whether they individually felt the DPLP
increased their performance, and whether they felt the recommended solutions allowed them to
meet their goals collectively. High scores indicating strong agreement would suggest that the
plan was considered as a valuable tool to increase BAC impact.
Level 2 — impact: Effectiveness. The impact of the Diversity Policy Leadership Plan
would be measured in terms of whether or not the BAC actually leads an institutional policy
improvement effort. Thus, a status report would be requested quarterly, regarding
accomplishment of milestones against an intended timeline. If problematic areas were revealed,
or trends that milestones were missed, the report would be used to recalibrate their efforts.
Reports that confirm actionable alignment according to planned targets would suggest that the
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BAC is accomplishing tasks effectively. The report could be slated as a discussion item at BAC
quarterly meetings until all milestones were completed.
Level 3 — transfer: Continued effectiveness. Continued effectiveness of the DPLP
would be assessed through an annual online survey that combined Likert-scaled questions and
open-ended questions to confirm BAC attitudes and beliefs that the plan was accomplishing their
goals for policy improvement that could ultimately increase and optimize middle-income Black
student enrollment. The Likert-scaled questions would measure the degree of satisfaction that
their leadership was resulting in sustainable change within the institution, and an open-ended
question section would provide the opportunity for individual comments regarding suggestions
for improvement or additional ideas. High scores would indicate that BAC leadership was
causing change, and positive comments would suggest that the quality of change was
meaningful.
Level 4 — Bottom line impact. The goal of the case study is to formulate a plan for
effective leadership of institutional policy improvement, which would ultimately increase and
optimize the enrollment of middle-income Black students. The bottom line impact of the BAC
Diversity Policy Leadership Plan (DPLP) would be twofold. First, as a result of increased and
optimized middle-income enrollments of Black students, the institution would be responsible for
successfully undergirding a needed positive momentum to be gained by generational college
completion to close racial wealth gaps. Secondly, and most important, the institution would be
able to attain its desired status as an elite institution through an undisputed reputation as an
intentionally inclusive environment for all students. The transformative characteristic of this
achievement would increase the intrinsic value of the USC legacy for all stakeholders, whether
through increased engagement throughout the Trojan Family Network, philanthropic motivation,
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or simply increased pride through deeper associations of community members, students and
alumni.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Approach
The Gap Analysis framework provided a strong foundational approach to examine
research-based evidence to validate possible causes of BAC leadership detachment, and then
solutions, for improved BAC stakeholder impact upon an issue central to the mission of the
Black Alumni Association. While evident gaps appeared to be organizational, the framework
also revealed that the BAC’s knowledge and motivation required to initiate change needed to be
fortified and integrated into organizational solutions. A weakness of the Gap Analysis
framework was that it does not definitively specify particular aspects of collective leadership as
primary factors to close performance gaps. Solutions in this inquiry however mitigate this
weakness by integrating the consequential impacts of collective leadership decisiveness into the
characteristics of motivation goal orientation and associated contexts for organizational
authority. BAC performance gaps are closed due to highly motivated goal orientation, and the
alignment of sub-group authority with larger institutional organizational processes for decision-
making.
Limitations
The three most obvious limitations of the study approach were that: 1) Data validation
efforts were self-constructed, and 2) were bound within the common perceptions of one specific
ethnic and cultural context within a specific predominately white institutional locale. Yet, since
the study existed to determine and assign value within the parameters of an ethnic and cultural
context, these limitations were also the primary strengths of this study, and provided culturally
relevant information concerning institutional success for Black students in similar environments.
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Additionally, 3) the study approach was designed and implemented by a researcher within the
same cultural strata that could observe and interrogate the data with an exact interpretation of the
cultural nuances under investigation. Although bias could not be completely ruled out, in this
case the researcher could effectively attempt to mitigate it by being able to formulate opinions
from a bi-racial viewpoint that could simultaneously be empathetic also to the logic of
traditionally White conservative reasoning.
There are further limitations to this study given that it is formulated primarily at a
qualitative level from subjective data in a particular setting, yet regardless the study has great
applicability to other predominately white institutional or organizational environments where
racial/ethnic stakeholders desire some type of cultural lens for diversity policy improvement
collectively. A primary limitation is that the study is confined to an institutionally specific
circumstance where a Black alumni organization has a vision for multicultural affinity that is
deeper and broader than is currently appropriated within the setting of its’ predominately white
institutional environment, and this circumstance of how Black organizations evolve their mission
critical objectives and vision generationally is not specifically referenced in current research.
Another limitation may also be the case regarding the similarity of Black alumni organizations
within their institutional settings, wherein other Black alumni organizations may or may not be
charged with providing the main institutional points of engagement for Black alumni, nor have
similar missions or organizational associations within their institution as does the BAC. A final
limitation is that this study does not fully engage the broader root causal issue of how
institutional policies effect systemic racism within the institutional setting itself, where it not
only permeates through limited diversity policy, but also through additional interrelated policies
that create the parameters and set tone for pedagogy and socialization. All of these factors
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combine to create the student experiences that transfer pervasively into an alumni connection
that is fostered. It is the lack of integration, assessment and accountability throughout these
policy areas in total that causes Black alumni stakeholder leadership to be wary of current
diversity policy intent in the first place.
On the other hand, clear considerations regarding how cultural affinity should be
introduced into policy deliberation is tangent to those means by which inclusive diversity
policymaking can substantively occur and diffuse systemic institutional racism. This study
purports that informed decisions, which are realized through stakeholder perspectives based on
cultural knowledge and life-experience, also corroborated with research rather than assumption,
would be significant. Informed deliberations in policymaking in this sense could provide the
most paramount of considerations for root causal change in predominately white institutional
environments.
Future Research
Since evidence increasingly confirms the distinction between “transitional” and
“transformative” institutional diversity leadership (Owen, 2009) (Aguirre & Martinez, 2002), it
is suggested that future research examines the possible role of other cultural stakeholders in
policymaking, as the rising issue of inclusiveness begs informed solutions regarding how it is
accurately defined and resolved. There is little research on what should constitute transformative
diversity leadership policy design that could cause sustained change in predominately white
institutional environments. Most research exists at the level of critical race theory refinement
and application in limited institutional practices, but at the policy change level little research
exists that is authored which informs from a cultural perspective. The complex issues associated
with diversity and inclusion improvements through policy action and the actors involved would
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correspondingly be illuminated through additional informed cultural inquiry. Consequently, new
results and findings would provide profound, in-depth research that could be applicable
throughout global contexts where comparable intersections of traditional institutional
environments versus entry-points for rising cultural perspectives and transparency pressures will
likely occur. The grand challenge for future research would be to elucidate how diversity policy
improvements could provoke effective solutions that could fully eradicate institutionalized
racism in higher education (Woolf, et al 2013). Perhaps this challenge lies ahead to shape the
future of visionary cultural stakeholder groups.
Conclusion
Ideal diversity policy at a predominately white institution would be responsive to the
equity and access needs of middle-income Black students, who now comprise the largest sub-
group within the Black student applicant pools. Due to racial status these students are still
underserved despite their middle class status, and their enrollment yields and graduation
outcomes remain tenuous. A policy environment aligned with these students’ needs would
balance institutional interests while addressing the praxis of academic excellence and
generational progress of racial subgroups (Lusane, 1998; Palmer et al., 2010; Anderson, 2012;
Reskin, 2012). Institutional practices throughout recruitment, admissions, and matriculation
would be systemically integrated (Hurtado, 2007; Schulz & Lucido, 2011; Melguizo & Chung,
2012). Thus, diversity policy frameworks may need to be recalibrated to best address the needs
of this emergent sub-category of Black students (Reardon, 2012; St. John, 2005).
Simply stated: input from key culturally underrepresented stakeholders does not yet exist
at the policy level in predominately white institutions regarding appropriately meaningful
diversity or inclusion practices throughout—yet it should. While the elements for policy
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leadership are examined in this inquiry at a non-senior institutional leadership level, policy
change requires bold authority. The cultural group stakeholder leader instinctively realizes that
successes will be hard fought because their cultural lens is perceived first as alien. Cautiously,
these stakeholder leaders must remain authentic to their constituencies, and remain on their
progressive courses with great conviction in order to trigger change.
Policy decision-making is a primary distinction of leadership regardless of the type of
organizational governance, where leaders have the authority to “legislate”, versus administrators
that are tasked to “execute” (Goodin et al, 2006). Thus, when responses to administrative
practices are problematic, there is a call for the leadership to reexamine policy processes, to
confront their relevancy, and decide upon improved solutions. BAC stakeholder leaders
sympathize with the sentiment, “You can't lead the people if you don't love the people. You can't
save the people if you don't serve the people,” (Gates &West, 1997).
Current diversity policy employment at predominately white institutions is typically
defined by admissions outreach and enrollment attainment at superficially gross percentage
levels. As such, in these settings it may likely be difficult for university leadership to understand
wholly the need for change because it may be argued that targeted metrics have been achieved.
Yet this ideal is a false one, and does not serve well the interests of the underserved Black
minority constituencies in this millennium. In contrast, the elite transformative institution would
be an exemplar of leadership that empathizes with the ambitions of, and inspires, the
generational success of Black students and alumni specifically. It would be that leadership that
cares to understand and provide an environment for improved access relative to the Black
student’s historical circumstances due to systemic and institutionalized racism which constitutes
looming realities today, and it would be that leadership that creates academic systems which
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specifically improves student outcomes, in synch with generational ambitions. The exemplar
institution would hold itself accountable for aggressive policy goals by mandating assessment
that would be transparent and available. Until that leadership could sustain good practices for
the Black students and alumni it serves, it would ensure the presence of advisors who could
provide oversight for the necessary solution perspectives to viably weigh policy decisions, and
ensure the highest translatable public good.
What this inquiry strongly suggests is that ethnic and cultural stakeholders can, and
should, tell their own story to define their own needs for institutional inclusion. In effect, their
narrative does not need to be translated by others, nor watered down, as if to describe water to
other fish, in order to be validated. If in fact an institution dares to say that it values diversity,
then those values can no longer be credibly affirmed without accountability to the people that are
of reference. Establishing an inclusive strategy with a focus upon access and equitable
optimization of enrollments for middle-income Black students, given Black alumni stakeholder
leadership perspectives, would finally align a predominately white institution’s quest for
excellence to lead, encourage and serve the totality of its students impressively. Evolving from
environments that still actually practice some measure of educational apartheid, to those that
would engage reparative solutions, secures the value proposition required in order for Black
alumni to believe that Black student inclusion at their alma mater is more than symbolic, but
rather that it is just--and finally on their own terms.
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APPENDIX A
SUMMARY OF PRESUMED CAUSES FOR KNOWLEDGE, MOTIVATION, AND
ORGANIZATION GAPS
Sources
Presumed Causes Knowledge Motivation Organizational
Scanning
interviews,
Personal
knowledge
♦ The BAC lacks clear
knowledge and understanding
of the diversity policy and
enrollment strategy
framework that guides USC.
♦ The BAC lacks
understanding of why and
how USC gathers and
manages applicant data and
assessment regarding Black
student enrollment trends,
and how those trends drive
diversity policies.
♦ The BAC requires
considerable self-reflection
concerning their leadership
role to create change in
policy that results in goal
attainment.
♦ The social and ethnic
values of each BAC
member confirm the
subject of low enrollment
of middle-income Black
students as a greatly
prioritized collective
interest.
♦ The BAC realizes that
great dedication and
commitment will be
required to influence new
ideas, therefore its
members are highly
engaged as a united
group.
♦ The BAC often feels
that its leadership efforts
are marginalized most
specifically because the
BAC is an organization of
decision makers of color
working on behalf of
students and alumni of
color.
♦ USC is highly
decentralized, there is
constant competition among
USC Schools and
departments for programs,
resources, donors and
funding. Collaborative goals
between the small BAC and
other larger USC
stakeholders do not exist.
♦ It has been difficult for the
BAC to be comfortably
forthcoming with cross-
organizational relationships
at levels of trust and
confidence.
♦ BAC culture remains
different from USC in total,
and has difficulty aligning.
♦ The BAC is a network of
high expertise, skills and
cultural experience but not
utilized effectively.
♦ The USC BAC is a
grassroots team that aspires
to emerge as an integral
leadership advocacy team
INSTITUTIONAL DIVERSITY POLICY IMPROVEMENT

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Sources
Presumed Causes Knowledge Motivation Organizational
Learning and
motivation theory
♦ The BAC lacks factual
knowledge of the USC
diversity policy framework.
♦ The BAC lacks conceptual
knowledge of USC’s
diversity philosophy
regarding middle-income
Black students.
♦ The BAC lacks procedural
knowledge to integrate its
disaggregated data and
knowledge with other
processes.
♦ The BAC lacks
metacognitive knowledge
that their leadership will be
an important factor to reshape
diversity initiatives and to
obtain transformative change.
Active Choice: N/A
Mental Effort: N/A
Persistence:
♦ As the BAC’s sense of
frustration with USC
enrollment strategy issues
rises, BAC members lack
individual trade-offs to
persist.
♦ The BAC lacks mastery
goal orientation vs.
performance goal
orientation, which will
increase intrinsic value,
therefore motivational
interest—results are
innovative thinking &
new approaches.
♦ The BAC cultural model
lack alignment to support
processes and goals.
♦ The BAC cultural model
lacks support to create
cultural settings to align for
increased performance.
♦ The BAC Network team
organization has served well,
but lacks the optimal
organizational structure to
improve performance. A
Skunk Works may provide
better process improvement
and performance goal
achievement for innovative
change.
Background and
review of the
literature
♦ Diversity policy
frameworks need to be
identified and understood
(Wolsko Park, & Judd, 2006)
♦ Policies can reinforce
exclusion and inequity
(VanDeventer, 2007).
♦ Policy shifts from social
justice to academic
excellence remain
exclusionary (Marichal,
2009).
♦ Addition of disaggregated
data is important to diversity
policy (Kezar, 2007).
♦ Leaders need to help their
peers first recognize the need
for changes in diversity
policies by mobilizing and
energizing the need for
change (Kezar, 2007).
♦ Expert leadership
insight of people of color
is critical for diversity
policy that is bound by
White diversity
policymakers and White
leadership (Owen, 2009).
♦ Diversity protagonists that
use the lens of Critical Race
Theory should embrace their
roles as Race Realists
(Harper et al., 2009).
♦ The goal of institutional
diversity is to create a
multicultural institution
(Owen, 2009).
♦ Until the institution reaches
the final stages as a
multicultural institution,
collaborative diversity
leadership is necessary
(Owen, 2009).
♦ Grassroots teams are
integral to creating cognitive
complexity for larger
institutions (Lester & Kezar,
2012).
♦ There are considerations for
leadership dimensions to be
accounted for in alumni
leadership styles (Henjy,
2010).
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APPENDIX B
SUMMARY OF PRESUMED CAUSES VALIDATION METHODS
Presumed Cause Survey Assessment Interview Artifact
KNOWLEDGE
♦ The BAC lacks factual
knowledge of the USC
diversity policy framework. (F)
Scaled Specific survey
question item: (1-4):
Strongly agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
N/A USC internal
whitepapers
regarding policy
philosophies and
initiatives
♦ The BAC lacks conceptual
knowledge of USC’s diversity
philosophy regarding middle-
income Black students. (C)
Scaled Specific survey
question item: (1-4):
Strongly agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
N/A USC student
admissions and
marketing
collateral targeted
to student diversity
segments
♦ The BAC lacks procedural
knowledge to integrate its own
disaggregated data and tacit
knowledge with other
departments and administrative
diversity processes. (P)
Scaled Specific survey
question item: (1-4):
Strongly agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
N/A USC Whitepapers
above, to include
process
information
♦ The BAC lacks
metacognitive knowledge that
confirms their realization that
leadership will be an important
factor to reshape diversity
initiatives and to also obtain
transformative change. (M)
Scaled Specific survey
question item: (1-4):
Strongly agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
Interview
Question
N/A

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Presumed Cause Survey Assessment Interview Artifact
MOTIVATION
♦ Persistence:
As the BAC’s sense of
frustration with USC enrollment
strategy issues rises, their
individual trade-offs to persist
are placed at risk (I)
Scaled Specific survey
question item: (1-4):
Strongly agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
N/A USC public
Enrollment
profiles
published
annually
♦ Persistence has been affected
by motivation killers such as
lack of high-level feedback or
visibility, perceived
administrative hypocrisy, or
little perceived work value,
which serve to distract
individual BAC members and
create barriers to inhibit
performance. (P)
Scaled Specific survey
question item: (1-4):
Strongly agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
N/A BAC Meeting
Minutes that
will
acknowledge
feelings of
members
♦ Mastery goal orientation vs.
Performance goal orientation
will increase intrinsic value,
therefore motivational
interest—results are innovative
thinking & new approaches. (G)
Scaled Specific survey
question item: (1-4):
Strongly agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
Interview
Question
BAC Meeting
Minutes that
acknowledge e
work of other
institutions and
other
involvement of
members
BAC/BAA
Documents and
emails

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Presumed Cause Survey Assessment Interview Artifact
ORGANIZATION
♦ The BAC cultural model
should align to support
processes and goals. (P)
Scaled Specific survey
question item: (1-4):
Strongly agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
Interview
Question
N/A
♦ The BAC cultural model
should support or create
cultural settings to align for
increased performance. (V)
Scaled Specific survey
question item: (1-4):
Strongly agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
Interview
Question
N/A
♦ The BAC Network team
organization has served well,
but the organizational structure
needs change to improve
performance. A Skunk Works
may provide better process
improvement and performance
goal achievement for
innovative change. (R)
N/A Interview
Question
USC
Whitepapers
regarding
organizational
alignment of
grassroots teams
and policy
affects.
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APPENDIX C
BAC SURVEY QUESTIONS
1. Gender:

Male
Female

2. Age:

25-35
35-45
45-55
55+

3. Prior involvement in the USC Black Alumni Association prior to becoming a BAC member:

None
Prior BAA Board Member
Prior BAA Committee Volunteer

4. Years as a BAC member

0-1
1-2
2+

5. Highest degree earned:

BA/BS
MA/MS
Doctorate
Other

6. USC Alumnus

Yes
No

7. Degree(s) from USC earned:

None
BA/BS
MA/MS
Doctorate
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8. To what extent do you agree USC diversity policy objectives should specify enrollment
targets for underrepresented racial/ethnic categories? (O/P)

Strongly disagree Disagree Agree Strongly agree
(1) (2) (3) (4)

9. To what extent do you agree USC diversity policy objectives should specify enrollment
targets for underrepresented sub-groups within racial/ethnic categories? (O/P)

Strongly disagree Disagree Agree Strongly agree
(1) (2) (3) (4)

10. To what extent do you agree USC diversity policy objectives should include income level
classification for underrepresented racial/ethnic categories? (O/P)

Strongly disagree Disagree Agree Strongly agree
(1) (2) (3) (4)

11. To what extent do you agree USC diversity policy objectives should include income level
classification for underrepresented sub-groups within racial/ethnic categories? (O/P)

Strongly disagree Disagree Agree Strongly agree
(1) (2) (3) (4)

12. To what extent do you agree diversity policy sets the tone for institutional leadership at
USC? (O/V)

Strongly disagree Disagree Agree Strongly agree
(1) (2) (3) (4)

13. To what extent do you agree USC diversity policy is made with sufficient regard to its effects
on racial/ethnic subgroups? (K/F)

Strongly disagree Disagree Agree Strongly agree
(1) (2) (3) (4)

14. To what extent do you agree USC diversity policy should be responsive to the changing
socio-economic status of racial groups? (K/C)

Strongly disagree Disagree Agree Strongly agree
(1) (2) (3) (4)

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15. To what extent do you agree USC diversity policy has accurately assessed the financial need
requirements of its underrepresented stakeholders? (K/P)

Strongly disagree Disagree Agree Strongly agree
(1) (2) (3) (4)

16. To what extent do you agree USC diversity policy addresses disparities in the outcomes of its
underrepresented stakeholders? (K/M)

Strongly disagree Disagree Agree Strongly agree
(1) (2) (3) (4)

17. To what extent do you agree cultural insight from the BAC could improve USC diversity
policy? (M/G)

Strongly disagree Disagree Agree Strongly agree
(1) (2) (3) (4)

18. To what extent do you agree the BAC’s role as the primary advocate for Black students is
necessary for diversity policy improvement to occur? (M/G)

Strongly disagree Disagree Agree Strongly agree
(1) (2) (3) (4)

19. To what extent do you agree internal USC department/organizational partnerships for policy
improvement could be energized through BAC leadership? (M/G)

Strongly disagree Disagree Agree Strongly agree
(1) (2) (3) (4)

20. To what extent do you agree the BAC could play a positive role in influencing diversity
policy at USC? (M/G)

Strongly disagree Disagree Agree Strongly agree
(1) (2) (3) (4)

21. The USC Office of Black Alumni Programs values my leadership as a BAC member. (M/I)

Strongly disagree Disagree Agree Strongly agree
(1) (2) (3) (4)
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APPENDIX D
BAC SURVEY BUILDER TABLE
Presumed Cause Knowledge Motivation Organization
The BAC lacks factual knowledge of
the USC diversity policy framework.
Question # 13
The BAC lacks conceptual knowledge
of USC’s diversity philosophy
regarding middle-income Black
students.
Question # 14
The BAC lacks procedural knowledge
to integrate its own disaggregated data
and tacit knowledge with other
departments and administrative
diversity processes.
Question # 15
The BAC lacks metacognitive
knowledge that confirms their
realization that leadership will be an
important factor to reshape diversity
initiatives and to also obtain
transformative policy change.
Question # 16
As the BAC’s sense of frustration with
USC enrollment strategy issues rises,
their individual trade-offs to persist are
placed at risk
N/A
Persistence has been affected by
motivation killers such as lack of high-
level feedback or visibility, perceived
administrative hypocrisy, or little
perceived work value, which serve to
distract individual BAC members and
create barriers to inhibit performance.
Question # 21
Mastery goal orientation vs.
Performance goal orientation will
increase intrinsic value, therefore
motivational interest—results are
innovative thinking & new
approaches.
Question # 17
Question #18
Question #19
Question #20

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Presumed Cause Knowledge Motivation Organization
The BAC cultural model should align
to support processes and goals.
Question #8
Question #9
Question #10
Question #11
The BAC cultural model should
support or create cultural settings to
align for increased performance.
Question # 12
The BAC Network team organization
has served well, but the organizational
structure needs change to improve
performance. A Skunk Works may
provide better process improvement
and performance goal achievement for
innovative change.
N/A
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APPENDIX E
BAC INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Briefly describe your USC BAA volunteer background and BAC leadership experience.

2. From your leadership perspective, what support does the BAC need to successfully
recommend policy improvements leading to increased middle-income Black student
enrollment at USC?

3. How does the focus of diversity policy improvement further substantiate the legacy of Black
alumni at USC?

4. What value does the BAC cultural perspective provide?

5. How should the BAC best organize to provide efficient and effective input into the
university’s policy processes?

6. What if internal collaborative support is not gained—what should we do?

7. What do you think the implications are for other Black alumni organizations that want to
evolve from primarily being stewardship organizations to also providing diversity policy
leadership, advocacy and input?

8. What implications would this grassroots effort hold for future minority group organizational
leadership within growing and emerging globalized societies?

9. What should I have asked that I did not think to ask?
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APPENDIX F
BAC INTERVIEW BUILDER TABLE
Presumed Cause Knowledge Motivation Organization
Knowledge:
The BAC lacks
metacognitive
knowledge that confirms
their realization that
leadership will be an
important factor to
reshape diversity
initiatives and to also
obtain transformative
policy change.
Question # 2
Question # 8

Motivation/Persistence:
Mastery goal orientation
vs. performance goal
orientation will increase
intrinsic value, therefore
motivational interest—
new thinking results.
Question # 3
Question # 4

Organization:
The BAC network
organization has served
well, but the
organizational structure
needs change to improve
performance. A Skunk
Works may provide better
process improvement and
performance goal
achievement for
innovative change.
Question # 5
Question # 6
Question # 7

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Resoundingly, the common spirals downward of Black enrollment and completion trends at highly selective institutions are symptoms of obsolete philosophies regarding diversity that have disadvantaged multicultural policy aspirations by and large. Seeking concrete solutions to reverse this momentum, findings and results from this mixed methods inquiry robustly indicate that the cultural lens of Black alumni leaders be considered to best attune diversity policy decision-making. Deliberate inputs specifically from the stakeholder of issue, based upon actual life experiences, cultural knowledge and vested institutional relationships, should be critically integrated throughout the policy making process to strengthen contemporary frameworks. Results confirm that Black alumni in predominately white institutional contexts are highly motivated to seek, lead and collaboratively develop efforts that would correlate to positive outcomes for all students, yet particularly increase access, parity and completion rates of middle-income Black students (that compose the preponderance of underrepresented Black students currently and in the future) whose needs are presently overlooked. This study suggests a “Diversity Policy Leadership Plan (DPLP)” as a solution plan framework for Black alumni leaders to effectively inform improvements through expanded knowledge of cultural perspectives, and closer alignment of organizational cultural settings that are credible, accountable and consequently mitigate Black alumni concerns regarding desired generational progress. By believing their legacies would no longer be threatened within racially conservative systems, Black alumni leaders could instead become empowered protagonists and global exemplars for institutional multicultural diversity policy transformation.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Turner, Michèle Gillenwater (author)

Core Title Institutional diversity policy improvement through the lens of Black alumni stakeholder leadership: a gap analysis

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Global Executive

Publication Date 09/15/2014

Defense Date 07/15/2014

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag access,Affirmative Action,African American alumni leadership,African American completion rates in higher education,African American cultural models,African American cultural perspectives,African American diversity,African American generational progress,alumni leadership,Black alumni leadership,Black enrollment trends in higher education,critical race theory,cultural diversity,cultural perspectives,cultural stakeholders,diversity policy,diversity policy improvement,diversity policy leadership,diversity policy plan frameworks,diversity policy transformation,equity,ethnic diversity,global diversity issues,global multicultural diversity,Higher education,highly selective institutions,inclusion,institutional leadership,middle income African Americans,middle income Black students,multicultural diversity policy,OAI-PMH Harvest,organizational cultural models,organizational cultural settings,predominately White institutions,private university environments,Race,race realists

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Robison, Mark Power (committee chair), Diamond, Michael A. (committee member), Picus, Lawrence O. (committee member), Yates, Kenneth A. (committee member)

Creator Email metroradcorp@aol.com,mmturner@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-477674

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