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Effective strategies urban superintendents utilize that improve the academic achievement for African American males
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Running Head: ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 1
Effective Strategies Urban Superintendents Utilize That Improve the
Academic Achievement for African American Males
by
Lushandra Prioleau
_____________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2013
Copyright 2013 Lushandra Prioleau
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 2
Abstract
This study examined the effective strategies, resources, and programs urban superintendents
utilize to improve the academic achievement for African-American males. This study employed
a mixed-methods approach to answer the following research questions regarding urban
superintendents and the academic achievement for African-American males: What programs are
in place now that prove beneficial for African-American students; What are the strategies in
academic and/or extracurricular programs that support African-American male achievement;
What are the strategies superintendents use or implement that support African-American males‘
academic achievement; and What are the resources necessary to implement an effective program
aimed at improving African-American males‘ academic achievement? In order to answer these
research questions, performance data from the 42 qualified California school districts was
reviewed, survey results of the 23 participating superintendents and four interviews was
conducted. The data was analyzed statistically for descriptive statistics, correlations, and
overarching themes. This research study resulted in the following key findings: urban
superintendents need to implement programs specifically designed for African-American males
that provide college access and positive role models; create a safe inclusive learning environment
for African-American male students with rigorous and culturally relevant curriculum for the 21st
century; create a sense of urgency to improve academic achievement for African-American
males; provide targeted, effective staff development. This study provides insight of what
successful urban superintendents in California are utilizing to improve academic achievement for
all students, and in particular African-Americans, and adds to the limited body of literature on
this topic.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 3
Dedication
Embarking on my doctorate was a very important decision and this would not be possible
without God‘s grace and the full support of my husband and son. I am truly blessed to be
married to my best friend and biggest supporter. Howard, you always encourage me to never
give up and strive to be the very best. I am blessed to share this life with my soul mate. You
sacrificed for me to become Dr. Prioleau and I will be eternally grateful for everything you did to
make this possible. I could not have done this without you and I dedicate my dissertation to you.
I would also like to dedicate my dissertation to my wonderful son, Howard. Howard, you
are the real reason mommy continues to dream and reach for the stars. I see God‘s grace and
mercy when I look into your beautiful brown eyes. I appreciate your encouragement and
infectious laughter that keeps me writing. I look forward to spending more time with you and
making it to all your games. I love you very much and it‘s an honor being your mom.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 4
Acknowledgements
I would like to extend my sincerest gratitude to my dissertation chair, Dr. Pedro Garcia
for your unwavering support and encouragement throughout my doctoral studies at the
University of Southern California. I would also like to thank my committee members Dr. Rudy
Castruita and Dr. Julie Marsh for your valuable feedback and continued support.
I want to recognize my dissertation cohort members Shanda Smoot and Lisa Zamora for
your friendship, encouragement, and support as we navigated through the last three years. A
special thanks to my dissertation writing partner, Cardenas Shackleford. We make a great team
and I have enjoyed working with you over the past year.
I am blessed to have a wonderful support system of family and friends. I want to
acknowledge everyone who took this journey with me and I appreciate all of your
encouragement and support. Thank you Nikki, Regina, Dawn, Candice, Joyce, Lynn, Drena and
my sisters Angela and Marquisa for keeping me grounded and encouraged. A special thanks to
my mother-in-law, Louise, and my fabulous Aunts Cheryl, Claudia and Patty. A special thanks
to the Hashimoto family for opening your heart and home to my son every other weekend so I
could write. Your kindness and generosity is the epitome of friendship.
Lastly, I want to acknowledge my mother, Henrietta Rogers, who instilled in me a
passion for learning. I stand on the shoulders of a praying grandmother and a loving mother as I
reach for my destiny. I would not be the woman I am today without your love and support.
Thank you for being the best mom anyone could ask for.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 5
Table of Contents
Abstract ...............................................................................................................................2
Dedication ...........................................................................................................................3
Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................4
List of Tables ....................................................................................................................10
List of Figures ...................................................................................................................12
Chapter One: Overview of the Study ................................................................................13
Introduction ..............................................................................................................13
Background of the Problem .....................................................................................16
Brown v. Board of Education .........................................................................16
The Coleman Report .......................................................................................17
Title I Funding ................................................................................................17
No Child Left Behind ......................................................................................18
Statement of the Problem .........................................................................................18
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................19
Research Questions ..................................................................................................19
Significance of the Study .........................................................................................20
Assumptions of the Study ........................................................................................20
Limitations of the Study ...........................................................................................21
Delimitations of the Study .......................................................................................21
Definition of Terms ..................................................................................................22
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 6
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature ............................................................................25
Introduction ..............................................................................................................25
African-American Males .........................................................................................26
Historical Perspective .....................................................................................26
Theories and Cultural Factors Related to the Underachievement
of African-American Males ...................................................................28
Strategies to Increase Academic Achievement for
African Americans .................................................................................32
Effective Achievement Increasing Programs for African American
Males ......................................................................................................37
Urban Superintendents .............................................................................................39
Urban Superintendency ...................................................................................39
Urban School District's Role in Improving Student Achievement .................40
Superintendent's Influence on Student Academic Achievement ....................44
School Site Leadership Influences on Student Achievement .........................47
Conclusion ......................................................................................................50
Chapter Three: Methodology ............................................................................................52
Introduction ..............................................................................................................52
Research Questions ..................................................................................................52
Design of the Study ..................................................................................................53
Quantitative Methodology .......................................................................................53
Qualitative Methodology .........................................................................................54
Population ................................................................................................................55
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 7
Superintendents Included in the Interview Criterion Sampling ...............................57
Instrumentation ........................................................................................................58
Urban Superintendent Leadership Survey Questionnaire ........................................58
Structured Interview Protocol ..................................................................................59
Data Collection ........................................................................................................61
Superintendent Survey Data Collection ..........................................................61
Structured Interview Data Collection .............................................................61
Data Analysis ...........................................................................................................62
Superintendent Survey Data Analysis ............................................................62
Structured Interview Data Analysis ................................................................63
Validity Concerns ....................................................................................................64
Ethical Consideration ...............................................................................................64
Summary ..................................................................................................................65
Chapter Four: The Findings ..............................................................................................66
Introduction ..............................................................................................................66
Response Rate .................................................................................................69
Quantitative Demographic Data .....................................................................69
Qualitative Demographic Data .......................................................................76
Research Question 1 ................................................................................................77
Programs for African-American Males ..........................................................80
Discussion .......................................................................................................81
Research Question 2 ................................................................................................82
General Student Learning ...............................................................................83
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 8
Staff Expectations for African-American Males ............................................85
Culturally Relevant Curriculum ......................................................................86
Discussion .......................................................................................................88
Research Question 3 ................................................................................................88
Non-Negotiable ...............................................................................................89
Personnel .........................................................................................................91
Environment ....................................................................................................93
Data Driven Interventions ...............................................................................95
Discussion .......................................................................................................96
Research Question 4 ................................................................................................97
Funding ...........................................................................................................98
Professional Development ..............................................................................99
Parental Support ............................................................................................101
Discussion .....................................................................................................104
Summary of Findings .............................................................................................105
Chapter Five: Conclusions and Recommendations ........................................................108
Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................109
Purpose of the Study .....................................................................................111
Research Questions .......................................................................................112
Methodology ..........................................................................................................112
Findings ..................................................................................................................113
Overall Findings .....................................................................................................116
Implications ............................................................................................................117
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 9
Recommendations ..................................................................................................118
Recommendations for Future Study ......................................................................118
Conclusions ............................................................................................................119
References .......................................................................................................................121
Appendices
Appendix A: Effective Strategies Urban Superintendents Utilize that Improve
the Academic Achievement for African-American Males .....................129
Appendix B: Survey Cover Letter ................................................................................135
Appendix C: Information Sheet ....................................................................................136
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 10
List of Tables
Table 1 Public School Enrollment Changes, 1968-1998 (in millions) ........................28
Table 2 Addressing the Achievement GAP .................................................................33
Table 3 Institutional Practices that Support Increased Achievement ..........................35
Table 4 District Strategies for Improving Student Learning ........................................42
Table 5 Urban School District Assessment Results for African Americans ................67
Table 6 Quantitative Survey: Response Rate ...............................................................69
Table 7 Quantitative Survey: Superintendent Gender .................................................70
Table 8 Quantitative Survey: Superintendent Age ......................................................71
Table 9: Quantitative Survey: Superintendent Education .............................................71
Table 10: Quantitative Survey: Superintendent Experience ...........................................72
Table 11: Quantitative Survey: Superintendent Experience in Current
District .............................................................................................................73
Table 12: Quantitative Survey: Participating Urban School District
API Results for African Americans ................................................................73
Table 13 Qualitative Interview: Characteristics for Superintendents
and Districts ....................................................................................................77
Table 14 SPSS Output Correlation Coefficient: Strong Instruction
and Targeted Interventions .............................................................................84
Table 15 SPSS Output Correlation Coefficient: Team Improvement
Strategies and Urgency for Improving ............................................................86
Table 16 SPSS Output Correlation Coefficients: Establish Explicit
Goals and Targets ...........................................................................................91
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 11
Table 17 SPSS Output Correlation Coefficients: Develop Instructional
Leadership Capacity ........................................................................................93
Table 18 SPSS Output Correlation Coefficient: Safe Learning
Environment and College Access Programs ...................................................95
Table 19 SPSS Output Correlation Coefficient: Allocate Funding and
Strong Instruction ............................................................................................99
Table 20 SPSS Output Correlation Coefficient: Staff Development
and Strong Instructions .................................................................................101
Table 21 SPSS Output Correlation Coefficient: Parent Involvement
and Sense of Urgency ...................................................................................102
Table 22 The Nation‘s Report Card: 2011 California Grade 4 Reading
Snapshot ........................................................................................................111
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 12
List of Figures
Figure 1 Qualitative Data: API Score Comparisons .....................................................75
Figure 2 Responses to General Programs ......................................................................79
Figure 3 Programs for African-American Males ..........................................................80
Figure 4 General Student Learning ...............................................................................83
Figure 5 Staff Expectations for African-American Males ............................................85
Figure 6 Culturally Relevant Curriculum ......................................................................87
Figure 7 Non-Negotiables .............................................................................................90
Figure 8 Personnel .........................................................................................................92
Figure 9 Environment ....................................................................................................94
Figure 10 Data Driven Interventions ...............................................................................96
Figure 11 Funding ...........................................................................................................98
Figure 12 Professional Development ............................................................................100
Figure 13 Parental Support ............................................................................................102
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 13
Chapter One
Overview of the Study
All, regardless of race or class or economic status, are entitled to a fair chance and to the tools
for developing their individual powers of mind and spirit to the utmost. This promise means
that all children by virtue of their own efforts, competently guided, can hope to attain the mature
and informed judgment needed to secure gainful employment, and to manage their own lives,
thereby serving not only their own interests but also the progress of society itself.
— A Nation at Risk, 1983
Introduction
Thirty years ago, then Secretary of Education T. H. Bell created the National
Commission on Excellence in Education and their first directive was to present a report on the
quality of education in America. In 1983, the National Commission on Excellence in Education
(1983) released their report, A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform, as an
open letter to Americans concerning the dire state of our educational system and presented
solutions to these problems. In order to correct these problems and guarantee ―all, regardless of
race or class or economic status, are entitled to a fair chance . . .‖ a quality, world-class
education, all Americans must acknowledge our problems and work together to rectify these
problems (p. 9).
In 1989, President George H. W. Bush and the governors of every state in America
declared that by the year 2000 the U.S. would be ranked number one in the world in math and
science (Darling-Hammond, 2010). This national goal never materialized and in 2006 the U.S.
ranked 21st in science and 25th in mathematics out of the 30 countries in the Organisation for
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD, 2007) based on the international assessments
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 14
administered by Programme International Student Assessment (PISA) (OECD, 2007). The
international ranking of the U.S. is alarming and a serious inequality exists for minority students
in America. White and Asian students score higher than the OECD average whereas their
African-American and Hispanic counterparts scored the lowest in all subject areas (Stage, 2005).
Minority students in America are falling far behind and African-American students rank the
lowest. However, African-American males are in a state of perpetual crisis; out of the 48 states
reporting, African-American males are the least likely to graduate from high school in 33 states
(Schott Foundation for Public Education, 2010).
In 2008, the U.S. Department of Education reviewed the progress of the American
Educational system 25 years after the release of A Nation at Risk in the report A Nation
Accountable. This report examined America‘s progress on the five areas of recommendations
outlined in A Nation at Risk. The National Commission on Excellence in Education (1983)
stressed the importance of leadership and financial support to transform the U.S. educational
system into a world-class system. The Commission specifically recommended that principals
and superintendents have the management and supervisory skills necessary to move our schools
from mediocrity to greatness.
Superintendents are the instructional leaders of school districts and serve as the liaison
between the community and the school system (Glass, Bjork, & Brunner, 2000). It is very
important that superintendents of the 21st century possess the skills needed to navigate the
current problems in education. Northouse (2004) presented several leadership styles and the
skills approach focused on the importance of utilizing technical, human, and conceptual skills in
leadership positions. The skills approach could prove beneficial to urban superintendents as they
implement programs to help our most vulnerable populations improve academically.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 15
Superintendents of large urban school districts have the unique responsibility of ensuring
that all students under their jurisdiction regardless of race, socio-economic status, and gender
have access to a quality, equitable education. Typically, large urban school districts have over
400,000 students that are predominantly minority students from impoverished areas. These
students are predominantly African American, Hispanics or Latinos, and immigrants and/or
English language learners. The challenges faced by urban superintendents are very different than
the challenges suburban superintendents face and are often on a greater scale and played out in
the media (Usdan & Cronin, 2003). Wagner (2010) suggested urban superintendents ―have the
courage to hold uncomfortable conversations about issues of poverty, race, and ethnicity‖
(p. 127).
African-American males are in a state of crisis and this is magnified in large urban school
districts where the population of African Americans is more concentrated. Waters and Marzano
(2006) concluded that district-level leadership has a statistically significant positive relationship
with student achievement. The role of superintendent is instrumental in improving academic
achievement for African-American students. A quality education is essential to achieving the
American dream and African-American males are in desperate need of a change in their
educational system to realize the American dream.
The state of California has four of the largest urban school districts in America with over
400,000 students. Sadly, California ranks first place with the highest number of students that
have less than a ninth-grade education (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010; Grant, 2010). African-
American students in California‘s educational system consistently have a below-average
Academic Performance Index (API) score. According to the 2011 California State API report,
the overall API was 778 (CDE, 2011); however, Blacks or African Americans scored 696 and
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 16
the only subgroup that scored lower were students with disabilities. California must take action
to stop the continued underachievement of African Americans.
Background of the Problem
Four significant historic events in the United States directly influenced the education of
African Americans: Brown v. Board of Education 1954 Supreme Court decision, the Coleman
Report 1966, Title I Funding of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (U.S.
Department of Education, 2004), and the passage of No Child Left Behind (NCLB, U.S.
Department of Education, 2001). All of the aforementioned events highlight the unequal
treatment of African-American students in the U.S. educational system and address ways to
provide a quality, equitable education to students of color.
Brown v. Board of Education. In Brown v. Board of Education (1954), the United
States Supreme Court addressed the inequality of Black schools compared to White schools by
declaring ―that, in the field of public education, the doctrine of separate but equal has no place.
Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal‖ (Brown v. Board of Education, 1954,
Opinion by Warren, para. 14). Segregation of public schools was ruled unconstitutional.
According to the ruling, desegregation of public schools improved the chances of Black students
reaching their dream and both races benefit socially from their interaction. This was the first real
step toward African Americans realizing the American dream (Hochschild & Scovronick, 2003).
Black children benefited from the use of newer books, materials, and facilities by attending
formerly all-White schools. The issue of equality in public education was formally being
addressed.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 17
The Coleman Report. The U.S. Commissioner of Education in the Civil Rights Act of
1964 explicitly directed a survey be completed and presented to Congress. The 1966 Coleman
report,
researched the lack of availability of equal educational opportunities for individuals by
reason of race, color, religion, or national origin in public educational institutions at all
levels in the United States, its territories and possessions, and the District of Columbia.
(Coleman et al., 1966, p. iii)
The results of the Coleman report (Coleman et al., 1966) found,
School resources do show a slight relationship to student achievement, such as science
laboratories, the variations in the facilities of Black students did create differences in
student achievement. For majority Whites, the variations make the least difference; for
minorities, they make somewhat more difference. (p. 22)
Additionally, the Coleman report (Coleman et al., 1966) discovered that differences in
Teacher quality have a cumulative effect on student achievement over the years and those
differences influence the academic achievement of disadvantaged minority groups more
than the achievement of White students. (pp. 318-319).
Around this time, the conversation shifted to equal educational opportunities.
Title I Funding. While the Coleman Report (Coleman et al., 1966) was being
conducted, the federal compensatory program Title I was enacted through the Elementary and
Secondary Education Act of 1965 (U.S. Department of Education, ESEA, 2004) to address the
issues of inequality. The purpose of this program was to allocate extra funds to schools with
high concentrations of poverty in order to improve the educational opportunities of poor students
(Murphy, 1971, pp. 35-63). Educators realized that federal funding alone was not the cure for
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 18
low student achievement; therefore, school leaders needed to explore academic interventions in
addition to financial assistance to effectively tackle low student achievement among African
Americans.
No Child Left Behind. In 2001, the United States Congress reauthorized ESEA and
renamed it the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB, U.S. Department of Education, 2001)
and President Bush signed it into law. According to Fusarelli (2004), NCLB represented a shift
in the federal education policy away from the federal government being the primary source of
funding for low-income students to being instrumental in shaping the goals and outcomes of
public education. The goal of the law is that all students will score at the "proficient" level in
reading and math by 2014 (EdSource, 2004). The federal government had a series of
consequences for schools or districts that do not meet their Annual Yearly progress (AYP).
Schools that do not show adequate progress after five years may be forced to take serious
corrective action such as replacing school personnel or extending the school year. Another
purpose of NCLB was to close the achievement gap between high- and low-performing students,
especially the gaps between minority and White students and between disadvantaged children
and their more advantaged peers. These four historic events have attached a sense of urgency to
the low academic performance of African-American students.
Statement of the Problem
Over five decades have elapsed since Brown v. Board of Education (1954) and the
achievement gap still exists for African Americans in the United States. There have been
numerous attempts to rectify this problem; however, African Americans continue to be
unsuccessful academically. African-American males in particular are in desperate need of an
intervention to increase their academic achievement. The American public is dissatisfied with
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 19
the ineffectiveness of our public schools and urban school superintendents must improve the
learning outcomes of all students.
The education system in California is in a state of turmoil and is systematically failing
African-American students. African-American males score the lowest with the exception of
students with disabilities. If urban school districts in California are to improve academic
achievement for African Americans, their superintendents must utilize proven effective strategies
to make a difference in the lives of this most vulnerable subgroup. All students have a right to
learn regardless of their race or gender and receive a quality education that prepares them to
reach their full, academic potential.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to determine the effective strategies that urban
superintendents in California utilized to increase academic achievement for African-American
males. This study will examine urban school districts in California that are successfully
improving academic achievement for African-American males and the programs they utilized to
sustain academic growth.
Research Questions
This study focused on the following questions:
1. What programs are in place now that prove beneficial for African-American students?
2. What are the strategies in academic and/or extracurricular programs that support African-
American male achievement?
3. What are the strategies superintendents use or implement that support African-American
males‘ academic achievement?
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 20
4. What are the resources necessary to implement an effective program aimed at improving
African-American males‘ academic achievement?
Significance of the Study
Typically the most impoverished students of color do not reap the full benefits of our
educational system (Darling-Hammond, 2004). In the state of California, an African-American
male has little over a 50/50 chance of graduating. The odds of not graduating are unacceptable
and their options are severely limited without a high school diploma. This study was designed to
determine the effective strategies urban superintendents utilized to improve academic
achievement for African-American males. These strategies will serve as a resource for other
districts struggling to help their African-American students.
Studies of urban districts successfully improving academic achievement for African-
American males must be added to the body of literature. This study could serve as a guide to
large urban school districts trying to close the achievement gap for their African-American
students. Superintendents, assistant superintendents, school board members, and other district-
level administrators can utilize the conclusions from this study to improve academic achievement
for underperforming students in their district. Additionally, these effective strategies can be
successfully implemented at the school site level.
Assumptions of the Study
The following assumptions were made during this study.
The superintendents in this study responded with accurate descriptions of the programs,
practices, and strategies utilized in their respective districts.
All questions on the survey were valid to ensure that the data obtained from the
instrument measured what was intended to be measured.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 21
The superintendents in the study accurately identified the programs, practices, and
strategies most responsible for improving student achievement for African-American
males in their district.
All data gathered from the CDE website was accurate and that the schools studied met
the criteria.
Limitations of the Study
The following limitations of the study were recognized.
The study did not independently evaluate the effectiveness of the identified programs and
strategies urban school superintendents in California perceived to be effective when
improving academic achievement for African-American males.
The study was limited to 23 urban school superintendents in California meeting the
criteria and who responded to the survey. Thus, the conclusions of the study cannot
necessarily be presented as a true reflection of the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of all
urban school superintendents in California.
The findings were limited to the degree of accuracy to which the respondents identified
and communicated their true perceptions.
Delimitations of the Study
The following delimitations of the study were recognized.
The study was delimited to surveying California superintendents serving as leaders
during the years examined by the study and their urban school district had an enrollment
of at least 15,000 African-American students. The urban school district met the
California School Boards Association‘s criteria for classification as urban districts.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 22
African American male students were deemed to show improvement if they met or
exceeded their projected API growth scores for a minimum of two consecutive years.
Definition of Terms
For the purpose of this study, the following terms are defined as:
Academic Performance Index (API): The purpose of the API is to measure the academic
performance and growth of schools. It is a numeric index (or scale) that ranges from a
low of 200 to a high of 1000. A school‘s score on the API is an indicator of a school‘s
performance level. The statewide API performance target for all schools is 800 (CDE
(2011, retrieved from http://www.cde.ca.gov/ta/ac/ap/).
Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP): A statewide accountability system mandated by the No
Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (U.S. Department of Education, 2001) which requires
each state to ensure that all schools and districts make Adequate Yearly Progress (CDE,
2011).
California Standards Test (CST): Per the California Department of Education, the
California Standards Tests in English-language arts, mathematics, science, and history-
social science are administered only to students in California public schools. These tests
were developed specifically to assess students‘ performance on California‘s Academic
Content Standards (CDE, 2011).
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA): ESEA was passed in 1965 as a part of
the "War on Poverty." ESEA emphasized equal access to education and established high
standards and accountability. The law authorized federally funded education programs
that are administered by the states. In 2002, Congress amended ESEA and reauthorized it
as the No Child Left Behind Act (U.S. Department of Education, 2004).
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 23
English Language Learners (ELL): Per the California Department of Education, English
learner is defined as an English learner or as a reclassified-fluent-English-proficient
(RFEP) student who has not scored at the proficient level or above on the CST in ELA
for three years after being reclassified (CDE, 2011).
No Child Left Behind (NCLB): NCLB is the latest reauthorization of ESEA and requires
states to set goals for all students to be at least proficient on statewide standardized
assessments based on statewide academic content standards by 2014. The major focus of
No Child Left Behind is to close student achievement gaps by providing all children with
a fair, equal, and significant opportunity to obtain a high-quality education (U.S.
Department of Education, 2001).
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OCED): OECD is a cohort of
30 countries committed to democracy and a free market economy. Additionally, OECD
administers PISA (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2007).
Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA): PISA is an assessment
administered to 15-year-olds in 43 countries and purports to assess critical thinking and
problem-solving skills by seeing how well students can apply knowledge to real world
situations (Programme for International Student Assessment, n.d.).
Similar Schools Ranking: Per the California Department of Education, the similar schools
ranking compares a school to 100 other schools of the same type and similar
demographic characteristics. This ranking is used in determining API (CDE, 2011).
Socio-Economically Disadvantaged: Per the California Department of Education, socio-
economically disadvantaged is defined as a student whose parents both have not received
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 24
a high school diploma OR a student who participates in the free or reduced-price lunch
program (CDE, 2011).
Superintendent: The chief executive officer of a school district that overseas all facets of
the district. This position is responsible to the Board of Education (Wilmore, 2008).
Urban school district: For the purposes of this study, an urban school district is one with a
population meeting the following requirements: 50% or more of the students are
minority, 50% or more of the students receive free or reduced-price lunch, and the district
has a minimum population of 100,000 students.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 25
Chapter Two
Review of the Literature
To be young and African American in the urban areas of the United States is to be subjected to
all the hardest elements of oppression at the most vulnerable period of one‘s life.
-Robert Staples, 1982
Introduction
The aforementioned quote highlights the plight of African-American students in urban
areas. It is very important to note that African-American males regardless of their grade level in
the United States educational system ―lag behind both their African American female and White
male counterparts‖ (Jackson & Moore, 2006, p. 201). To fully understand the persistent
underachievement of African-American males in public education, a historic context is
necessary. Ironically, Brown v. Board of Education (1954) declared separate was not equal and
over 50 years later the educational experiences for African-American males are still separate.
African-American males are identified more frequently for special education, have low
educational expectations, and are taught by teachers in large urban comprehensive schools
located in low socio-economic areas (Cooper & Jordan, 2005). Darling-Hammond (2000)
further explained African Americans have ―dramatically different learning opportunities–
especially disparities in access to well-qualified teachers, high quality curriculum, and small
schools and classes are strongly related to differences in student achievement‖ (p. 263). This
separation can be seen even prior to elementary school. Gilliam (2005) conducted a study of
prekindergarten expulsion and discovered that boys are expelled 4½ times more than girls except
with African-American students ―boys accounted for 91.4% of the expulsions‖ (p. 6).
Throughout the educational continuum, African-American males are at risk of academic
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 26
underachievement. The future for African-American males is in a state of emergency and
immediate action is necessary to make a difference for future generations.
This literature review is divided into two sections related to the overarching themes of
African-American males and urban superintendents. The first section reviews literature related
to the education of African-American males. This section is divided into four relevant
subheadings in regards to African-American males including the following: historical
perspective, theories related to the underachievement of African American, effective strategies to
increase academic achievement for African Americans, and effective achievement increasing
programs for African-American males. The second section reviews literature related to urban
superintendents. This section is divided into the following subheadings: urban superintendency,
urban school district‘s role in improving student achievement, superintendents‘ influence on
student academic achievement, and school site leadership influences on student achievement.
This chapter will provide an overview of the relevant research and concludes with a synthesis of
the previous sections to present a framework for understanding–how urban superintendents can
improve the academic achievement of African-American males.
African-American Males
Historical perspective. The underachievement of African-American males in public
education must first be examined from an historical perspective. In the United States, this
history begins with the institution of slavery. The institution of slavery outlawed the education
of the African slaves; in particular, they ―were forbidden to learn how to read and write‖
(Harmon & Ford, 2010, p. 3). The end of the Civil War was the next American history event
that directly influenced the education of African slaves. The abolishment of slavery led to
segregated schools located within the African-American communities. Segregated schools were
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 27
legal because Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896 allowed ―equal but separate accommodations‖ in
schools, facilities, and transportation (Hochschild & Scovronick, 2003, p. 32).
The next major court decision was Brown v. Board of Education. This court case
challenged the validity of de jure segregation and declared ―that, in the field of public education,
the doctrine of separate but equal has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently
unequal‖ (Brown v. Board of Education, 1954, Opinion by Warren, para. 14). Hochschild and
Scovronick (2003) chronicled the civil rights laws passed to fully desegregate public schools and
the following laws directly impacted the education of African-American students: 1964 Civil
Rights Act, 1965 Elementary and Secondary Education Act, and the 1972 Emergency School
Aid Act (ESAA). The 1964 Civil Rights Act made provisions for the federal government to ―cut
off funds from school districts that discriminated‖ and the 1965 Elementary and Secondary
Education Act ―provided federal funds . . . for schools with many poor children‖ (Hochschild &
Scovronick, 2003, p. 33). It is very important to note that 18 years after Brown v. Board of
Education (1954) required the desegregation of public schools the federal government passed the
Emergency School Aid Act (1972) to help schools desegregate (Hochschild & Scovronick,
2003).
The following table illustrates one of the direct effects of the Civil Rights Movement, the
increased diversity of public schools:
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 28
Table 1
Public School Enrollment Changes, 1968-1998 (in millions)
Race 1968 1980 1994 1996 1998 Change
1968-1998
Hispanic 2.00 3.18 5.57 6.38 6.90 + 4.90 (245%)
Anglos 34.70 29.16 28.46 29.11 28.93 -5.77 (-17%)
Blacks 6.28 6.42 7.13 7.69 7.91 +1.63 (26%)
Sources: DBS Corp., (1982, 1987 as cited in Orfield, George, Orfield 1988); Gary Orfield, Rosemary George, and
Amy Orfield, Racial Change in U.S. School Enrollments, 1968-84, paper presented at National Conference on
School Desegregation, University of Chicago, 1988; 1997-98 NCES Common Core of Data.
The number of African Americans in public school increased during this 30-year period.
Additionally, Harmon and Ford (2010) acknowledged the gains African-American students
experienced during the 1970s; however these gains began to decline in the 1980s. The Civil
Rights movement improved economic, housing, and educational opportunities; however, the
underachievement of African Americans still exits. There are two major theories that attempt to
explain the continued underachievement of African Americans.
Theories and cultural factors related to the underachievement of African-American
males. John Ogbu (1995) developed the Cultural Ecological Theory to explain the social-
cultural reasons why African-American students underachieve. Ogbu classified minorities into
two categories of immigrant/voluntary and involuntary/nonimmigrant. In particular, Ogbu
suggested that voluntary minorities came to the United States by choice and involuntary
minorities came by force. Osborne (1999) further explained Ogbu‘s theory as it relates to the
African Americans view on education. According to Osborne, African Americans considered
education ―as a system controlled by the group that subjugated and oppressed their ancestors‖
(p. 558). Therefore, it is harder for involuntary minorities to identify with academics.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 29
Voluntary minorities on the other hand view education as the necessary route to a better
future and place pressure on their children to excel in education (Osborne, 1999). Voluntary
minorities often face linguistic and cultural barriers upon entering this country; however, they
tend to excel in academics because they can identify with academics. The pressure to excel in
education does not always exist with involuntary minorities ―due to the social dynamics of their
home cultures and communities‖ (Osborne, 1999, p. 558). The identification with academics
correlates with student achievement and barriers exist that interfere with African-American
males‘ academic identification.
The Critical Race Theory (CRT) was developed in response to the race reform efforts
after the civil rights movement. According to Howard (2008), one of the basic tenets of CRT is
―that racism is and has been an integral feature of American life, law, and culture, and any
attempt to eradicate racial inequities has to be centered on the socio-historical legacy of racism‖
(p. 963). Critical Race Theory is applicable to educational achievement because it examined the
relationship between racism and inequities in education. Howard provided the following list of
how CRT in education challenges racism:
1. The intersectionality of racism, classism, sexism, and other forms of oppression in school
curriculum
2. Challenges dominant ideologies that calls for objectivity and neutrality in educational
research because CRT believes neutrality hides the ideology of dominant groups in the
United States
3. Oral storytelling has a rich history among communities of color to convey their struggles
4. To better understand the manifestations of discrimination by incorporating information
from women and ethnic studies
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 30
Critical Race Theory framework is apropos for discussions regarding the persistent
underachievement for African-American males in education in U.S. schools. The severity of the
persistent underachievement of African-American males leads critical race theorists to ask,
―What does race has to do with it?‖ (Parker & Lynn, 2002). The resounding answer critical race
theorists would provide is race has everything to do with it. Therefore, CRT provides a
conceptual framework that examines how the social constructs of race and gender affect student
academic achievement (Howard, 2008).
Additionally, Howard (2008) identified two areas amendable to African-American males
based on a Critical Race Theory examination. The two amendable areas include standardized
assessments and discipline. NCLB reformed public education and increased the importance of
standards-based instruction and assessments for all students. Ladson-Billings (2004) made a
salient point that ―from a CRT perspective, current assessment schemas continue to instantiate
inequity and validate the privilege of those who have access to cultural capital‖ (p. 60). Great
importance has been placed on high stakes testing and the results from these assessments
categorize students into subgroups to identify academic success. Therefore, it is very important
that African-Americans have the cultural capital to navigate these high-stakes tests successfully,
instead of perpetuating the cycle of underachievement.
Researchers have identified several cultural factors that influence academic achievement
for African-Americans. Harmon and Ford (2010) reviewed poignant literature that explained
three prominent cultural factors directly impacting African Americans‘ experiences in school.
Harmon and Ford concluded, African-American males are ―feeling particularly vulnerable
because of the preponderance of negative stereotypes and perceptions of African-American
males in the media‖ (p. 12). Perry, Steele, and Hilliard (2003) identified stereotype threat as a
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 31
cultural phenomenon that African Americans experience in academia when they feel others
perceive them negatively. This results in African-American students giving up because they do
not feel they can compete with their European classmates.
Relevant research identified the cultural factor of acting white that impedes academic
achievement. Fordham and Ogbu (1996 as cited in Harmon and Ford, 2010), identified the
following two cultural tendencies that African-American students may succumb to: They may
either reject their culture and culturally-based behaviors to ‗act white‘ to be successful in school
or they resist and assert their ―African Americanness‖ and reject academics completely (p. 13).
Consequently, Fordham and Ogbu argued a large number of African-American students perceive
that succeeding academically equates to ―acting white‖ while disregarding academics solidifies a
student‘s ―African Americanness.‖ Ford, Grantham, and Whiting (2008) noted negative peer
pressure presents a barrier for Black students who are high achievers because their peers view
them as ‗acting white.‘
Lastly, the phenomenon of acting white leads to the cultural factor of ―cool posing‖ in
African-American males. Majors and Billson (1993 as cited in Harmon and Ford, 2010),
identified ―cool posing‖ as ―aloofness, lack of emotion, fearlessness and detachment manifesting
in unique ways of speaking and walking‖ (p. 13). Osborne (1999) further defined ―cool pose as
a ritualized approach to masculinity that allows them to cope and survive in an environment of
social oppression and racism, including that found within U.S. schools‖ (p. 558). The downfall
of cool posing in school is that it is perceived as inappropriate, rude, and negative and leads to
unwanted or unwarranted negative attention from school personnel. The cultural factors of
stereotype threat, acting white and cool posing have a direct impact on the academic
achievement for African-American students and in particular African-American males.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 32
John Ogbu‘s (1995) Cultural Ecological Theory focused on the social-cultural reasons
African Americans underachieve and the Critical Race Theory examined racism and the
inequities in education. Both theories provided probable explanation for the underachievement
of African-American males. Harmon and Ford (2010) identified three prominent cultural factors
that also contribute to African-American students negative experiences with school.
Strategies to increase academic achievement for African Americans. A persistent
underachievement exists among African-American students compared to their White classmates.
The Center on Educational Policy (Kober, 2001) examined the history and development of the
achievement gap that exists in the United States. Kober (2001) prepared this report for the
Center on Educational Policy that discussed America‘s efforts to improve educational
opportunities for minority students with the following programs: War on Poverty, school
reforms, and Title I. It is very important to note she stressed the point that ―we shrunk the gap
once, during the 1970‘s and 1980‘s, and we can do it again‖ (Kober, 2001, p. 5). An
achievement gap exists today and Harmon and Ford (2010) developed the following table that
summarizes causes of this achievement gap and suggestions on how to reduce this gap.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 33
Table 2
Addressing the Achievement GAP
Factors that Contribute to the Gap School Strategies that Could Help
Reduce the Gap
Limited participation of minority
students in rigorous courses
Challenging curriculum and
instruction
(multicultural/ differentiated)
Watered-down instructions Improvements in teacher
preparation and professional
development
Multicultural education
Differentiation
Less-qualified or experienced
teachers
Experience with cultural diversity
Culturally competent teachers
Teachers with low expectations Culturally competent training
High standards and accountability
for subgroup performance
Resource disparities between high-
minority schools and other schools
Equitable distribution of resources
Concentration of low-income and
minority students in certain schools
Sustained class size reductions in
high minority schools
School climate less conducive to
learning
Comprehensive school reform
Caring community based upon
fostering resiliency
Student performance anxiety
Stereotype anxiety
Extended after-school and summer
learning opportunities
Support groups
Counseling
Providing sanctuary
Negative peer pressure Support groups
Anti-achievement /acting White Counseling
Sanctuary
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 34
Table 2 (Cont‘d.)
Factors that Contribute to the Gap School Strategies that Could Help
Reduce the Gap
Disparities in access to high-quality
preschools
Expanded access to high-quality
preschool
Limited learning supports in homes
and communities
Improved social conditions
Access to parenting education Parent education and involvement
Source: Harmon and Ford (2010, p. 7)
This table presents 14 factors contributing to the persistent achievement gap for African-
American students. This list of strategies that schools can use to reduce the gap is a concise list
based on a Howard University symposium discussing the underachievement of African-
American students (Roach, 2000). The table provides a guide on how to combat factors
contributing to the achievement gap.
Denbo (2002) discussed the importance of developing school culture that fosters
resiliency to increase academic success for African-American students. Resiliency is defined in
the context of ―the ability to bounce back from persistent stress and crisis‖ and this is
characterized by student ―optimism, resourcefulness and determination‖ (Denbo, 2002, p. 56).
School systems develop resiliency with establishing caring support systems for students that are
sensitive to their unique needs and diversity.
Furthermore, Denbo (2002) emphasized the need to create a powerful coalition of
stakeholders that includes: teachers, parents, students, communities, and administrators. This
coalition of stakeholders will drive the institutionalized change required to transform the school
site and systematically change the way African-American students are educated. In order to
create a school that supports high achievement of its African-American students, the school must
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 35
undergo a cultural transformation and implement new policies and practices. The following
table describes the institutional practices that Denbo (2002) identified that supports increased
achievement for African-American students:
Table 3
Institutional Practices that Support Increased Achievement
Develop School Community Relationships
Establish open communication that supports diversity
Encourage all parent and community members to support parent education
/involvement programs
Structure collaboration of all stakeholders and recognize their responsibility for
student achievement
Set Rigorous Academic Achievement Goals
Driven by data
Goals related to increasing achievement and closing existing achievement gaps
Goals designed to be measured and implemented incrementally
Prepare all Students for a Rigorous High School Curriculum
Four years of English and Math, including calculus
Three years of science, including biology, chemistry and physics
Three years of social studies
At least one honors course
Assess and Meet Student Needs
Implement procedures to identify and address individual student needs and
strengths
Assign teachers to ensure the best fit between teachers and students
Provide adequate resources–financial, academic support, social and emotional
support, extended learning opportunities such as tutoring, after school programs,
test preparation
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 36
Table 3 (Cont‘d.)
Cultivate Teacher and Administrator Professional Development
Provide professional development opportunities for teachers and administrators
that are aligned with student achievement goals
Encourage teachers to take on leadership roles
Encourage teacher collaboration and a professional learning community
Develop teacher schedules that support professional development, collaboration,
planning, and more time for instruction
Initiate Innovative Policies and Practices that Support African American
Student Achievement
Experiment with research-based pedagogy and innovative instructional practices
Introduce action-based research to evaluate your own in-school innovations
Reduce class size. Small classes help to reduce the Black/White achievement gap
Expand access to high-quality preschools and/or all-day kindergarten programs
Identify and assign culturally competent and highly qualified teachers
Introduce challenging before and after school curricula, multicultural curricula
and summer long opportunities
Source: Denbo (2002, p. 57)
Additionally, Denbo (2002) stressed the importance of increasing effective learning time.
In particular, ―if African-American students are not making progress, positive, constructive
changes in the students‘ educational environment should be made‖ (p. 60). A student‘s
educational environment can be changed in the following ways: teachers, time and length of
instruction, teacher strategies, support services available, and curriculum materials. It is very
important that changes are made at the onset of the problem and not at the end of the school year.
The need for change should be identified by frequent assessments to determine if progress is
being made or if basic skills are acquired. One way to increase effective learning time for
African-American students is to change the number of students in a class and adjust the length of
the class time. It is important to note that the body of research on strategies for working with
African-Americans is increasing however there are very few studies conducted.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 37
African-American students must be taught their culture, take responsibility for their
learning, and recognize the value of their education. Given a community of caring adults who
will foster their education and believe in their ability to be successful, African-American students
have the potential to be successful academically. Noguera (2003) noted the importance of
supportive relationships between teachers and students in effective schools with low-income
African-American students. It takes a group effort to decrease and ultimately close the
achievement gap for African-American students. Noguera suggested the strategies and practices
identified above when properly implemented will increase academic achievement for African-
American students.
Effective achievement increasing programs for African-American males. Effective
programs for African-American students are designed to provide positive role models and a
support system. These programs include afterschool and summer programs. Noguera (2003)
explained programs ―represent a tangible action that can be taken immediately to respond to the
needs of black youth, particularly males who often face the greatest perils‖ (p. 451). Toldson
(2008) identified the importance of community-based partnership to provide job opportunities to
help combat the impact low socio-economic status have on African-American males. Fashola
and Slavin (1998 as cited in Toldson, 2008) indicated ―successful afterschool programs
emphasized the bonds between students and teachers, future objectives and aspirations and
student work opportunities‖ (p. 11).
Fashola (2005) identified various programs throughout the United States that benefit
African-American males in particular. After-school programs are designed for school aged
children that offer academic support and various enrichment activities. Fashola described that
cultural enrichment activities can include professional or volunteers to teach ―ballet, tap dancing,
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 38
karate and chess‖ to list a few activities (p. 23). Fashola considered an afterschool program and
community-based program effective if it meets the following criteria: after-school and academic
focus, replicability, evaluation, and evidence of effectiveness for African-American students.
The following list contains some of the effective academically-orientated afterschool programs
and community-based programs Fashola identified effective for African-American students:
Howard Street Tutoring Program (HSTP) – Academically orientated remedial program
for low-achieving students. This cost-efficient program provides academic enrichment in
reading for students in grades 2 and 3 reading significantly below grade level.
Help One Student to Succeed (HOSTS) – This program features tutoring programs for at-
risk students using a mentoring approach. This program is designed to serve Title I
students.
Big Brothers / Big Sisters Program – This program pairs up children from single parent
families with adult mentors. This is not designed solely for African-American males,
however, they benefit immensely from this program.
Boys and Girls Clubs of America – This program emphasizes student educational
achievement, health, finances, and gang and violence prevention. They also provide
homework help. One of the greatest success stories from this program is Denzel
Washington, a famous academy award winning actor.
These are just some of the programs that are effective with improving academic
achievement for African-American males. These programs provide additional support and
mentoring programs to develop the talents of African-American males. These are not all the
programs; however, these programs meet the criteria established by Fashola (2005) and provide a
positive, supportive environment for African-American males during non-school hours. Further
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 39
research should be conducted on a larger scale to investigate if the effective components of these
programs can be duplicated to benefit all students and make a big difference in one of the most
vulnerable populations, African-American males.
Urban Superintendents
Urban superintendency. Urban school districts enroll a large share of students in
America. Snipes, Doolittle, and Herlihy (2002) explained ―
Of the approximately 47 million students attending the nation‘s 94,000 schools in 16,850
public school districts, approximately 23 percent are served by the 100 largest school
districts. These districts, many of which are located in urban areas, also serve 40 percent
of the 18.5 million minority students and 30 percent of the approximately 20 million
economically disadvantaged students in the United States. (p. 1)
Therefore, in order to improve the educational system in the United States and reduce the racial
academic achievement gaps, reform must occur in urban school districts where there is a
concentration of minority students.
The 21st century urban superintendent faces challenges very different and more complex
than smaller rural or suburban school districts. Usdan and Cronin (2003) identified four major
differences for urban superintendents including the following: size of the school district;
extensive media coverage; racial minorities that settle in the city; and problems inherent to larger
cities including issues with housing, poverty, social services, health problems, gangs and drugs
(p. 2).
The expectations for the 21st century superintendent changed dramatically. Urban
superintendents in the 21st century must reform curriculum, re-educate teachers, master the
instructional strategies necessary to raise student achievement for all schools regardless of the
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 40
school‘s immigrant or transient population, become system managers and administrative leaders,
and possess the ability to navigate budgetary constraints (Usdan & Cronin, 2003). The job of the
urban superintendent is to meet the needs of all students utilizing systematic and targeted
solutions focused on student achievement. The urban school district superintendent must assume
the role of initiator and sustainer of all academic improvement efforts (Snipes et al., 2002).
Typically, large urban schools districts are viewed as barriers to educational reform.
Fuller et al. (2003) discussed the many different roles urban superintendents play
including:
. . . chief executives of large organizations; occupants of a public office that symbolizes
community commitment to children‘s education; agenda-setters for the improvement of
schools that can never be good enough; and high-level managers charged with
implementing policies and contractual obligations established by legislatures, state and
national agencies, community boards, and the judiciary. (p. 7)
However, Fuller et al. (2003) highlighted an urban superintendent was considered
successful a generation ago if the budget was managed effectively and the district functioned
properly. Additionally, ―superintendents might also have been asked to make sure that all
children had access to a solid education, but few would have held them accountable for what
students learned‖ (Fuller et al., 2003, p. 7). The roles have dramatically changed for urban
superintendents especially in light of the passage of NCLB and other federal, state, and local
accountability systems. Superintendents are accountable for the academic achievement of all
students and particularly the minority student populations that historically underachieve.
Urban school district’s role in improving student achievement. School districts are
essential to bringing about systemic change for schools under their jurisdiction. School districts
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 41
can either advance or hinder the development of effective schools. Leithwood, Louis, Anderson,
and Wahlstrom (2004) discussed the results of a study conducted by Murphy and Hallinger
(1988) that studied 12 high performing districts in California and identified characteristics of
academically effective school districts. The following is a list of some of these key identified
characteristics:
1. strong instructionally-focused leadership from the superintendent and his/her
administrative team
2. an emphasis on student achievement and improvement in teaching and learning
3. the establishment and enforcement of district goals for improvement
4. alignment of district resources for professional development with district goals for
curriculum and instruction. (Leithwood et al., 2004, p.37)
These four characteristics focus on student achievement and improvement. Wagner
(2010) noted that effective superintendents build a culture of continuous improvement. Wagner
includes a very poignant quote from Dr. Juli Quinn, ―When we can stand in the classroom and
look back up the system and see the work of everyone from the superintendent to the custodian is
aligned to improve things for students, we will know our alignment is true‖ (p. 89). Alignment is
a crucial component of the effectiveness of a district program or plan to increase achievement.
Additionally, Leithwood et al. (2004) summarized historical and current research on the
district‘s role in educational change. The following chart synthesizes the 12 district strategies for
improving student learning Leithwood et al. (2004) identified:
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 42
Table 4
District Strategies for Improving Student Learning
Common Focus District Strategies
1. District-wide sense of efficacy. Willingness to identify poor performance
(student, teacher, school) and other
obstacles to success, to accept
responsibility and to seek solutions.
2. District-wide focuses on student
achievement and the quality of
instruction.
Emphasize instructional quality as one of
the keys to improvement to student
learning.
3. Adoption and commitment to district-
wide performance standards.
Serious attention is placed on state-
mandated standards for curriculum
content, student achievement and school.
4. Development/adoption of district-wide
curricula and approaches to instruction.
Greater coherence in curriculum content
and support for the use of specific
instructional strategies that work well with
content, learning outcomes and learners.
5. Alignment of curriculum, teaching and
learning materials and assessment with
relevant standards.
Alignment of curriculum and state
assessment program is a major focus of
attention.
6. Multi-measure accountability systems
and system-wide use of data to inform
practice, to hold school and the district
leaders accountable for results and to
monitor progress.
Considerable resources invested in
developing their capacity to assess the
performance of students, teachers and
schools. Assessments are utilized to inform
decision-making about needs and
strategies or improvement.
7. Targeted and phased focuses of
improvement.
Emphasize the importance of having a
concrete focus and goals for improvement
and sustainability over a number of years.
8. Investment in instructional leadership
development at the school and district
levels.
Investment in developing an intensive
long-term instructional leadership capacity
at the school and district levels
9. District-wide job-embedded
professional development focuses and
supports for teachers.
Intensive off-campus and school based
professional development experiences for
practicing teachers. This includes multi-
year goals for instructional improvement.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 43
Table 4 (Cont‘d.)
Common Focus District Strategies
10. District-wide and school-level emphasis
on teamwork and professional
community.
Teams of professional educators
collaborating with one another on student
achievement–focused district reform
initiatives.
11. New approaches to board-district and in
district-school relations.
School boards that hold superintendents
responsible for implementation plans but
avoid direct involvement in managing the
school system.
12. Strategic engagement with state reform
policies and resources.
Educators actively interpret external
reform initiatives in light of their own
beliefs, preferences and experiences and
mobile resources to fit local reform
agendas.
Source: Leithwood et al. (2004, pp. 41-45)
The aforementioned strategies ensure that school district level changes will support
student achievement reform. However, does this district level reformation translate to changes in
the classroom?
Another study was conducted by Togneri and Anderson (2003) on behalf of Learning
First Alliance that addressed how five high-poverty school districts promoted effective
instruction and improved student achievement. The researchers identified seven factors that are
essential to student achievement improvement. The following factors were identified: Districts
had the courage to acknowledge poor performances and the will to seek solutions; System wide
approach to improving instruction–one that articulated curricular content and provided
instructional supports; Visions that focused on student learning and guided instructional
improvement; Decisions based on data, not instinct; Adopted new approaches to professional
development that involved a coherent and district-organized set of strategies to improve
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 44
instruction; Leadership roles were redefined; Committed to sustaining reform over the long haul
(pp. 4-5).
NCLB and other state accountability systems require the academic performance of school
districts be widely reported. Studies by Togneri and Anderson (2003) and Leithwood et al.
(2004) identified the school district‘s willingness to accept responsibility for their poor
performance and seek solutions that would increase learning for all students. The appropriate
allocation of financial resources was essential to improving instruction and student achievement.
―Before allocating dollars, school boards, superintendents, and principals looked carefully at how
to stretch and prioritize their funds to address instructional needs‖ (Togneri & Anderson, 2003,
p. 7). Sustainability of educational reforms or initiatives to improve student achievement must
be a priority. Both studies identified numerous strategies school districts can utilize to improve
student achievement. It is important to note there is a gap in research specifically geared toward
superintendents‘ strategies for improving the academic achievement for African-American
males.
Superintendent’s influence on student academic achievement. The superintendent is
the instructional leader of the school district and is responsible for all facets of the district. One
of the most important aspects of this position is student achievement and the accountability
system established under NCLB. The Educational Leadership Constitute Council (ELCC, 2011
as cited in Wilmore, 2008) developed seven practical standards that all superintendents can
utilize to generate student success. Wilmore (2008) explained all seven standards and provided
strategies for application of each standard. ELCC Standard 2 is most applicable to this study and
it stated the following:
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 45
A school district leader who has the knowledge and ability to promote the success of all
students by promoting a positive school culture, providing an effective instructional
program, applying best practices to student learning and designing comprehensive
professional growth plans for staff. (Wilmore, 2008, p. 31)
The goal of education is for all students to learn. The ultimate role of a superintendent is for all
students to learn.
Wilmore (2008) explained ELCC Standard 2 as it applies to the superintendent‘s
leadership that promotes student learning in four basic components. The first component is to
promote positive school culture which enables teachers to teach effectively and students actively
learn. The second component is to provide an effective instructional program meaning every
teacher, administrator, and superintendent should be able to help teachers teach so that all
students can learn and see how the content applies to their lives. The third component applying
best practices to student learning requires superintendents to lead the district in the application of
best practices that improve student learning; however, this does not require being in the
classroom teaching every day. More importantly, superintendents should have trained educators
within the district capable of examining effective classroom practices. The final component is
the ability to design professional growth plans that reflect commitment to life-long learning and
best practices that promote new knowledge and skills in the workplace. Wilmore suggested
superintendents should actively seek ―to improve the performance of every student through
tailoring curriculum and instruction to a wide range of abilities, goals and other campus
qualities‖ (p. 48). The ultimate goal of education is for all students to learn and superintendents
must lead the way for this to happen.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 46
Cudeiro (2005) concluded ―superintendents can have a positive impact on student
learning, primarily through the promotion, support and development of principals as instructional
leaders‖ (p. 16). Cudeiro‘s research identified the importance of the superintendent‘s promotion
of principals to the position of instructional leaders. The position of instructional leader must be
clearly defined, evaluated, and principals held accountable for generating measurable student
learning. Superintendents must provide a support system for principals as instructional leaders in
the district office and provide professional development on how to develop proven leadership
skills. Superintendents must support the development of effective principal instructional leaders.
Togneri and Anderson (2003) provided recommendations on ways superintendents and
central office staff can improve instruction and student achievement. Their recommendations
included ensuring adequate resources for district needs; making improving instruction and
achievement the guide for decision-making and budgeting; creating structures that bring
principals together across the district to collaborate; working collaboratively with the school
board, union, and other district leaders; providing a clear curricular guidance to help teachers;
training and supporting principals to be instructional leaders; and using research-based strategies
and principles to guide professional development opportunities (p. 52). The last
recommendation emphasized assessing the needs of teachers and using this information to
propose and collaborate on ways to effectively meet these needs to improve instruction and
student achievement.
Waters and Marzano (2006) conducted a meta-analysis that examined the findings from
27 studies conducted since 1970 that used rigorous, quantitative methods to study the influence
of school district leaders on student achievement (p. 3). This meta-analysis yielded four
significant findings from this study that included the following: 1) district-level leadership
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 47
matters; 2) effective superintendents focus their efforts on creating goal-orientated districts;
3) superintendent tenure is positively correlated with student achievement; 4) defined autonomy
(Waters & Marzano, 2006, pp. 3-4). District leadership has a positive correlation of .24 in
regards to student achievement. Effective superintendents include all relevant stakeholders in
establishing non-negotiable, school board aligned, supported and continually monitored goals for
achievement and instruction. Additionally, necessary resources are allocated to accomplish these
goals. The length of the superintendent‘s tenure has a positive .19 correlation to student
achievement. Lastly, effective superintendents give principals ‗defined autonomy.‘ Waters and
Marzano further explained ‗defined autonomy‘ as principals have ―clear, non-negotiable goals
for learning and instruction, yet provide school leadership teams with the responsibility and
authority for determining how to meet those goals‖ (p. 4). It is important to note that ‗defined
autonomy‘ allowed principals to determine how their individual school sites will achieve the
superintendent‘s non-negotiable goals.
The aforementioned researchers indicated the ways a superintendent can influence
student achievement. Cudeiro (2005) encouraged superintendents to ―focus on student learning
by establishing a district wide vision centered on meeting student learning needs and by tying
district goals for student performance to that vision‖ (p. 16). Waters and Marzano (2006) found
there was a significant positive correlation between district leadership and student achievement.
Focusing on student learning and the promotion, support, and development of principal
instructional leaders are the keys utilized by superintendents to improve student achievement and
instruction.
School site leadership influences on student achievement. Teachers and school site
leadership teams play a significant role in improving student achievement. District level officials
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 48
provide the instructional framework and a clear vision on improving instruction and school site
leaders are instructional leaders for their school site. However, a focus on instruction is the core
of improving student achievement. Togneri and Anderson (2003) simply stated, ―Students learn
what they are taught; students will learn more if they are taught well‖ (p. 49). Additionally,
Fortune (2012) agreed school leaders and teachers must monitor what students are learning and
focus on what they actually need. Teachers do whatever it takes to get results, ―re-teach, assign
intervention teaching, collaborate with colleagues, arrange before and after school tutoring‖
(Fortune, 2012, p. 24). Therefore, it is imperative that any attempts to improve student
achievement addresses improving teacher instruction methods.
Districts utilize teacher leaders to improve instructional practices and behaviors. Togneri
and Anderson (2003) suggested most districts envision teacher leaders as a bridge between
school site administrators and the classroom. Teacher leaders are used to provide instructional
support, model lessons, assist struggling teachers, and provide resources and materials (Togneri
& Anderson, 2003, p. 41). Teacher leaders are beneficial at the district and school site level.
Thompson (2007) identified ways effective school leaders improve student achievement,
particularly by doing the following: creating learning communities based on respect that involves
all stakeholders, using test data to improve curriculum and instruction, positive relationships and
support for teachers. (p. 155)
Positive student teacher relationships are absolutely necessary to effectively teach
African-American students. Thompson (2007) considered the following eight core beliefs as a
mind-set teachers should have when teaching African-American students: 1) African-American
students are capable of academic success; 2) Teacher‘s job is to equip students with strong
academic skills; 3) High expectations are in the student‘s best interest; 4) Culturally relevant
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 49
curriculum; 5) Identify students‘ strengths and build on them; 6) Life skills should be
incorporated into the curriculum through current events and classroom discussions; 7) Effective
teachers teach the whole child; and 8) Develop a college-going mind-set for all students
(Thompson, 2007, p. 157). These core beliefs are the very essence of what effective teachers
utilize to develop positive relationships with African-American students.
Thompson (2007) further underscored the need for changing the culture of
underperforming schools to include African-American students and parents and welcome their
contributions as valuable stakeholders. It is very important for teachers to focus on aspects of
the job they can control and not place unnecessary emphasis on things they cannot change; i.e.
factors outside of school. Factors teachers can control include high expectations for all students,
rigorous curriculum, collaboration between teachers, and wise use of instructional time
(Thompson, 2007). Carter (2000) emphasized ―improving the quality of instruction is the only
way to improve overall student achievement‖ (p. 9). Thompson recommends teachers receive
professional development on a consistent basis that is truly based on a ―foundation of high
expectations, inclusiveness of historically marginalized groups and ongoing teacher support at
the school site . . .‖ (Thompson, 2007, p. 166).
Foster and Peele (1999) identified personal characteristics of effective teachers for
African-American males that included ―emotional stamina, persistence, and resilience that enable
them to negotiate the school bureaucracy, solve difficult problems and help their students cope
with day-to-day setbacks and misfortunes as well as serious hardship‖ (p. 10) Effective teachers
of African-American males develop relationships with their students, engage them in active
learning and critical thinking, and their classrooms are supportive and encourage collaboration.
Foster and Peele further identified lessons experts identified from working with African-
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 50
American students and their sentiments are echoed in Thompson‘s (2007) research. The
following list contains some of the lessons presented: Successful educators let African-American
males know they care; Believe that African-American males are capable of performing at high
academic levels; Do not assume that every Black male is a troublemaker (Foster & Peele, 1999,
pp. 18-19). African-American males want to be treated fairly, know their educator actually
cares, and believes in their ability to succeed. It is important to note there is limited research
specifically geared toward teaching African-American males.
Conclusion
Throughout the educational continuum, African-American males are at risk of academic
underachievement. The future for African-American males is in a state of emergency and
immediate action is necessary to make a difference for future generations. The literature
revealed strategies school districts, teachers, and school sites can take to improve the academic
achievement for students in general and some strategies beneficial for African Americans.
African-American males must feel their teachers care, value their opinions, believe in their
potential, and be treated fairly (Roach, 2000; Denbo, 2002; Noguera, 2003). The positive
components of afterschool and non-school hours programs provide mentors and additional
academic support for African-American males were explored (Fashola, 2005).
The role of urban superintendents is crucial to improving the educational outlook for at-
risk minority students and particularly African-American males. The literature reveals the
importance of superintendents creating a clear vision, supporting and developing principal
instructional leaders, and supporting effective teacher instruction (Wilmore, 2008; Cudeiro,
2005; Togneri & Anderson, 2003). Waters and Marzano (2006) concluded superintendents do
make a difference in student achievement. A gap in the literature exists in the area of strategies
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 51
urban superintendents can utilize to improve academic achievement for African-American males.
This study is designed to ascertain the strategies used by California urban superintendents in
districts where African-American males are academically successful. The following
methodology chapter will outline how this study will be conducted.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 52
Chapter Three
Methodology
Introduction
This chapter describes the population and participants of the study, the instrumentation
development, and the procedures used to collect and analyze the data. The main purpose of this
study was to identify the leadership functions, strategies, and practices that successful urban
superintendents in California reported to be most responsible for improving student achievement
for African-American males in their school district during the years following NCLB.
Ultimately, this study investigated the possibility that superintendents of urban districts in
California who improved academic improvement shared common leadership strategies and
practices.
Research Questions
The superintendents who participated in the study completed a survey questionnaire to
address the following research questions:
1. What programs are in place now that prove beneficial for African-American students?
2. What are the strategies in academic and/or extracurricular programs that support African-
American male achievement?
3. What are the strategies superintendents use or implement that support African-American
males‘ academic achievement?
4. What are the resources necessary to implement an effective program aimed at improving
African-American males‘ academic achievement?
The researcher recognizes that basic knowledge of what successful superintendents do is
not enough to help other superintendents transform their districts. District leaders must know
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 53
why certain leadership practices were chosen, when they should be used, and how to apply them
skillfully in their own districts (Waters & Cameron, 2007, p. 1). Four of the most successful
urban superintendents in California were interviewed to determine in greater detail how they led
consistent academic improvements for African-American males in their respective districts.
Design of the Study
According to Gall, Borg, and Gall (1996), qualitative research is best used to discover
themes and relationships at the case level, and quantitative data is best used to validate those
themes and relationships within the sample and population. To address the research questions of
this study, a mixed-methodology approach that combined both quantitative and qualitative
methods was used in collecting, analyzing, and reporting the data in the study. Greene,
Caracelli, & Graham (1989) and Patton, M. (2002) provided a strong rationale for utilizing
mixed methodology in a research study, stating that (a) triangulation seeks the convergence of
results, (b) overlapping and differing facets of the phenomenon may emerge, (c) each method is
used sequentially to help inform the other method, (d) contradictions may emerge, and (e) the
breadth and depth of the study are expanded. The strength of using a mixed methodology is that
it enables the researcher to collect data as comprehensively and completely as possible.
Quantitative Methodology
To address research questions two and three, a quantitative methodology was used to
obtain, interpret, and report the data. Specifically, a survey questionnaire was administered that
focused on the strategies, and practices used by California superintendents leading urban school
districts to improve student achievement for African-American students during the following two
academic years 2010-2011 and 2011-2012.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 54
Rea and Parker (2005) contended that surveys are designed to collect three types of
information: descriptive, behavioral, and attitudinal. The researcher wanted descriptive and
behavioral information from urban superintendents in California. The study sought to determine
what leadership strategies and practices were being used by successful urban superintendents in
California to improve student achievement in their districts. Additionally, the study required
demographic information from the superintendents. Given the behavioral and descriptive
information sought by this study, survey research was the best-suited methodology.
Qualitative Methodology
To address research questions one and four, a qualitative approach was used to collect,
analyze, and report the data. Qualitative methodology was well suited for this part of the study
because it is a form of research that permits the researcher to study selected issues, cases, or
events in depth and in great detail (Patton, 2002). According to McEwan and McEwan (2003),
qualitative research has three principal characteristics: (a) it is naturalistic, (b) it is descriptive,
and (c) it is focused on meaning and explanation. Qualitative research is naturalistic in that
researchers do not manipulate the environment or participants for the project; instead, qualitative
researchers place themselves where things are happening and then try to determine how and why
the phenomenon works as it does (McEwan & McEwan, 2003). Moreover, qualitative research
is descriptive, in that researchers using qualitative methods seek as much detail and information
as possible about the phenomenon that they are studying. Finally, qualitative researchers are
focused on explaining and interpreting what they observe, hear, and read. Ultimately, qualitative
research is about explaining how and why things work as they do in a particular setting.
The study met all three criteria for qualitative research according to McEwan and
McEwan (2003). First, the study was naturalistic in that superintendents were interviewed in
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 55
their district offices. Second, the study was both descriptive and focused on explanation because
it sought to describe in detail how, when, and why superintendents used particular leadership
strategies and practices to improve student achievement.
The qualitative portion of this study consisted of four interviews. According to Patton
(2002), ―The purpose of qualitative interviewing is to capture how those being interviewed view
the world, to learn their terminology and judgments, and to capture the complexities of their
individual perceptions and experiences‖ (p. 348). A set of interview protocols was assembled to
guide this process with a semi-structured approach utilized during the interviews. An interview
guide was prepared with appropriate questions for the various stakeholders interviewed, based on
the research questions previously listed. The interview method combined Patton‘s ―Interview
Guide Approach‖ with the ―Standardized Open-Ended Interview‖ to provide consistency while
conducting interviews in terms of questions asked. The ―Interview Guide Approach‖ permits
leeway to allow for the addition of probing questions.
Population
The population for this study consisted of the superintendents leading the 42 public
school districts in California that had been designated as urban by the California School Boards
Association (CSBA) during the 2011-2012 school year with the exception of the Los Angeles
Unified School District (LAUSD). LAUSD is unique due to their significant size in comparison
to the other urban school districts in California and the division of the district into sub-districts.
To meet the California School Boards Association‘s (CSBA) definition of urban, a school
district must have a minimum enrollment of 20,000 students and student demographics that are
above, at, or within 5% of the state average in at least two of the following categories:
percentage of minority students, percentage of students who qualify for free/reduced-price
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 56
lunches, and/or percentage of students classified as ELLs. Additionally, school districts were
selected if their African-American population exceeded 7% because this research is focused on
school districts that improve academic achievement for African-American males. According to
the California Department of Education Educational Demographics Unit (2012), in the 2011-
2012 school year California statewide enrollment for African American, not of Hispanic origin
was 6.51% of the 6, 214,204 students enrolled in K-12 (CDE, 2012). The two-thirds of the
African-American student population in California live in five of the 58 counties in California.
(EdSource, 2008) Therefore school districts within the five counties were closely examined if
there student population was over 10,000 with at least 7% African-American students.
The population of superintendents had to have maintained tenure for two years or more in
the same district during the five-year time frame studied (2007-2008 and 2011-2012 school
years) and who still served as district superintendent at the time of the study. Superintendents
who had started tenure before the end of July 2010 and remained in that position at the time of
this study were included in the population. The 2010-2011 and 2011-2012 California School
Directories (Local School Directory.com, 2005-2013) were used as the sources in development
of the study population. In addition, telephone calls were made to each of the superintendents‘
offices to confirm the start date of the employment as district superintendent and to ensure that
the superintendent still served in that position at the time of the study.
District student performance data for the 2007-2008 through 2011-2012 school years
were pulled from the CDE‘s Ed-Data (ED-Data, © 2013) web site and analyzed for all urban
districts that met the study‘s selection criteria for superintendent tenure and student
demographics. California superintendents who had led their urban districts to improve student
achievement for school years 2007-2008 through 2011-2012, as evidenced by meeting AYP
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 57
according to the stipulations of NCLB, were categorized as successful. In this study,
improvement in the API scores for African-American students within the selected school districts
was examined.
The current study used the criteria of making AYP for the last two years as a measure for
improving student achievement because it is consistent with the benchmark used by both the
state and federal governments to determine whether schools, districts, and/or states have
improved student achievement. Districts in California have struggled to make AYP. In fact,
according to Archer (2006), 37.7% of the 962 Title I districts in California did not make AYP for
at least two consecutive years and have been designated ―in need of improvement.‖ Given the
large number of California districts judged to be in need of improvement, it is a mark of
accomplishment for a California district to have made AYP in the last two years. Therefore, this
criterion was used to determine which urban district superintendents were successful at
improving student achievement.
Superintendents Included in the Interview Criterion Sampling
Purposeful sampling was used to select the superintendents for the structured interview
portion of the study. According to Patton (2002), ―Purposeful sampling focuses on selecting
information-rich cases whose study will illuminate the questions under study‖ (p. 230). More
specific, this study will use Criterion Sampling which ―is to review and study all cases that meet
some predetermined criterion of importance, a strategy common in quality assurance efforts‖
(Patton, 2002, p. 239). This study focused on the practices of effective urban superintendents‘ of
large school districts. The four urban superintendents who participated in the structured
interview process were chosen because they were superintendents who had led their districts to
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 58
meet the NCLB criteria for AYP for two school years included in the study. To protect their
anonymity, pseudonyms were assigned for both the districts and the superintendents.
Instrumentation
This study combined the methodologies of literature review, in-depth interviews, and a
survey questionnaire to address the research questions. The major strength of the mixed-
methods approach is that it enabled the researcher to collect data that are comprehensive and
multi-perspective.
Urban Superintendent Leadership Survey Questionnaire
All 42 urban California superintendents who met the criteria of a student population of
more than 10,000 students and more than 50% minority for the study were emailed the Effective
Strategies Urban Superintendents Utilize That Improve the Academic Achievement for African
American Males Survey (Appendix A). The literature-based survey was designed by practices
that urban superintendents have used in their effort to improve student achievement in their
districts. The survey included 40 items divided into three sections.
The first section of the survey asked respondents to answer 6 demographic items
regarding enrollment of the district, their gender, age, years of experience as a school
superintendent, years of experience as the superintendent of the current school district, and
highest degree held.
The second section of the survey consisted of 33 items that asked the superintendents to
rate importance of each leadership strategy and practice as it related to their overall effort to
improve student achievement in their districts. Superintendents rated each item using a 5-point
Likert-type scale (4=very significant aspect, 3=somewhat significant aspect, 2=somewhat
insignificant aspect, 1=very insignificant aspect, and 0=not used at all). Each item in this
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 59
section corresponded to a superintendent or district-level leadership strategy or practice that
previous research has demonstrated to be associated with improvements in instruction or student
learning.
The third section of the survey consisted of one open-ended question that asked
respondents whether there were additional leadership strategies and practices that they believed
promoted student achievement in their districts but was not included in the second section of the
survey.
In order to ensure content validity, the superintendent survey instrument was first piloted
with two experienced superintendents in California who did not participate in the formal study.
Each superintendent reviewed the instrument for wording, readability, clarity, and validity.
Feedback and recommendations were used to revise the survey instrument and to ensure content
validity. Based on the review, the instrument was presented to members of the dissertation
committee for approval. Feedback and recommendations were taken from the three members of
the dissertation committee and the data collection instrument was revised and approved for use.
Structured Interview Protocol
Following an extensive review of the literature related to urban superintendent leadership
and student achievement, an eight-item, open-ended superintendent interview protocol was
constructed to determine how, when, and why successful urban superintendents in California
used various leadership strategies and practices to improve student learning. To ensure
consistency and reliability, a standardized open-ended interview protocol was developed.
According to Patton (2002), the standardized open-ended interview approach ―consists of a set of
questions carefully worded and arranged with the intention of taking each respondent through the
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 60
same sequence and asking each respondent the same questions with essentially the same words‖
(p. 342). The interview protocol included the following eight items:
1. What programs does your school have that promotes student achievement?
2. What specific actions did you take to improve academic performance for African-
American male students?
3. What are the special challenges/demands of improving achievement for African-
American male students?
4. How does the program work?
a. Does it target a specific population?
b. Does it require any additional funding? What funding sources are utilized?
c. How do you measure its success?
d. Has it been successful in reducing the achievement gap for African-American
students?
5. Please describe your approach to leadership.
6. In what ways do you think superintendents of urban school districts can affect student
achievement?
7. What are the most important leadership strategies and practices you have used as
superintendent to improve student achievement in your district?
8. Imagine that I am a new superintendent of an urban school district much like your own
and I was hired to improve student achievement for African Americans. Additionally,
you were hired to be my leadership coach. What would you recommend my plan of
action be for the first 90 days on the job? The first year? Second year?
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 61
In order to ensure the validity of the interview protocol, it was reviewed by the study‘s
dissertation committee. Feedback and recommendations on each interview item were used to
revise and to ensure validity of the interview protocol.
Data Collection
Superintendent survey data collection. Data were collected from the urban
superintendents during the summer of 2012, using the Effective Strategies Urban
Superintendents Utilize That Improve the Academic Achievement for African American Males
Survey created by the researcher. The study followed the seven steps necessary for a successful
questionnaire described by Gall et al. (1996): (a) define the research objective, (b) identify the
population or sample, (c) determine the variables of the study, (d) design the instrument, (e) pilot
test the instrument, (f) create a cover letter, and (g) distribute the questionnaire.
The survey was administered using the web-based program Qualtrics and superintendents
were invited through an email that included the following: a link to the online survey, cover
letter (Appendix B) and informed consent form (Appendix C) that explained the purpose of the
research and to elicit participation from the selected superintendents. As the surveys were
returned, a log was maintained by the researcher to account for respondents and to identify non-
respondents for subsequent follow-up in 30 days. The follow-up included a phone call to the
superintendent‘s executive secretary and a reminder email that contained the survey link. A hard
copy of the survey was mailed out to non-respondents after 45 days from initial contact email.
Structured interview data collection. Data for the qualitative component of the study
were collected from four participating urban superintendents using the Superintendent Interview
Protocol. The in-depth structured interview process permitted the researcher to collect data
regarding the perceptions and thoughts of each superintendent related to how, when, and why
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 62
they used particular leadership strategies and practices to improve student achievement,
particularly African-American males.
The four urban superintendents were scheduled for a 45-minute interview each. For
convenience, the interviews took place in the superintendents‘ offices. The structured interview
process began with a brief explanation of the research study and its purposes as well as an
overview of the interview process. In an attempt to maintain the integrity and consistency of the
interview process, the interviews were conducted using a standardized format: The questions
were asked to all participants in the same order and using the same emphasis. No time limits
were imposed on any question, and each participant was invited to ask for clarification before
providing a response. In order to ensure the accuracy of the data for transcription, all interviews
were audio taped. Permission was granted by superintendents at the beginning of the interviews.
Data Analysis
Data analysis methods are described in terms of the quantitative data gathered via the
survey questionnaire and the qualitative data collected via the structured interviews. Descriptive
statistics were used to find variance within the quantitative data collected. The data was
collected using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) and was coded, scored, and
analyzed using this system. The qualitative data was collected during one-on-one interviews
where superintendents answered open-ended questions.
Superintendent survey data analysis. The methodology for this part of the study
employed quantitative techniques. Data analysis of the 33 close-ended items on the
superintendent survey questionnaire was conducted using Statistical Packages for the Social
Sciences (SPSS). Each variable was defined and assigned a variable label. The Likert-scale
response (0 to 4) for each of the 33 closed-ended items on each coded survey was entered into
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 63
that data set. Next, descriptive statistics were computed for the responses that included
frequencies, means, and standard deviations.
The SPSS Pearson correlation coefficient was utilized to examine relationships between
two variables. The correlation coefficient is the numerical index that reflects the relationship
between two variables and what they have in common (Salkind, 2007). The correlation
coefficient provided important information about the strength of relationships between leadership
strategies and/or practices used by the urban superintendents in California to improve student
achievement. The researcher purposely reviewed the results to specifically examine all the
strong and very strong correlations.
Structured interview data analysis. Creswell (2003) recommended a thorough analysis
of data in a qualitative case study; the process used here was continuous and on-going. Data
collected from the structured interviews was analyzed to identify the most essential leadership
strategies and practices used to improve student achievement.
As Patton (2002) pointed out, the challenge of qualitative analysis lies in making sense of
the vast amount of data collected. To analyze the transcribed interview data, the researcher used
the following data analysis procedure. All handwritten notes, reflections, and audio tapes of the
interviews were transcribed. Initially, each transcription was read carefully, without taking
notes. Next, the researcher recorded notes and observations regarding recurring themes and
patterns in the margins (inductive analysis). Ultimately, the data from each interview was coded.
This data was compared across cases to determine whether overarching patterns and themes were
shared between two or more successful urban superintendents with respect to how, when, and why
they applied particular leadership strategies and practices to improve student achievement.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 64
Validity Concerns
The current study employed triangulation to increase the validity of its findings. Patton
(2002) identified four basic types of triangulation: use of multiple data sources, researchers,
frameworks, and methodologies. The current study used three forms of triangulation to ensure
the validity of findings. First, a mixed methodology–combining both quantitative and
qualitative–was used to collect, analyze, and report data. Survey questionnaires and in-depth
interviews were conducted to provide insight into the leadership strategies and practices
successful urban superintendents in California have used to improve student achievement.
Lastly, the study used data triangulation to analyze both open-ended written responses on the
survey questionnaire and responses to the interview questions. Overall, the triangulation
techniques used in this study helped ensure the validity of the findings.
Ethical Consideration
The University of Southern California Institutional Review Board (IRB) guidelines and
procedures were followed. All participants consented to participate in the study and all were
informed of the purpose and nature of the research. Confidentiality and anonymity of all
participants in the study was adhered to strictly. Participation in this project was entirely
voluntary. The names of the districts, schools, and all the members have been changed. No
information has been published without the consent of the individuals from whom it was elicited.
All transcribed interviews have been stored in a secure location, access to which is limited to this
researcher.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 65
Summary
This chapter described the mixed research methodology used in the study, the population
and participants, the development and administration of the data collection instruments, and the
procedures used to collect and analyze the data.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 66
Chapter Four
The Findings
Introduction
Chapter four presents an analysis of the data collected from a mixed-method study
designed to identify effective strategies and practices urban California superintendents utilize to
improve academic achievement for African-American males. The purpose of this study was to
examine urban school districts in California that are successfully improving academic
achievement for African-American males and the programs they utilized to sustain academic
growth.
The quantitative data was obtained through an online survey and qualitative data was
collected from an open-ended question included on the survey as well as four one-on-one
interviews. This chapter presents the findings from a mixed-method approach which aligned
with the following research questions:
1. What programs are in place now that prove beneficial for African-American students?
2. What are the strategies in academic and/or extracurricular programs that support African-
American male achievement?
3. What are the strategies superintendents use or implement that support African-American
males‘ academic achievement?
4. What are the resources necessary to implement an effective program aimed at improving
African-American males‘ academic achievement?
Additionally, based on the quantitative data obtained from the California Department of
Education Data Quest 2012 (CDE, 2012), the researcher identified 42 school districts that met
the criteria of over 10,000 students enrolled with an African-American student population of at
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 67
least 7% and an increase in the CST scores for at least two years. Table 5 presents the urban
school districts identified with 5 years of API scores for African-American students in each
district.
Table 5
Urban School District Assessment Results for African Americans
District Enrollment Total AA
Students
Total
AA
Males
2008
API
Scores
2009
API
Scores
2010
API
Scores
2011
API
Scores
2012
API
Scores
1 20688 1961 987 734 749 763 774 804
2 25543 4788 2395 582 591 594 622 628
3 14430 4283 2207 634 635 649 650 672
4 83691 13158 6606 684 692 702 716 725
5 659639 62844 31768 627 641 663 679 696
6 20585 3413 1750 647 657 673 686 694
7 15929 1420 742 650 656 675 680 704
8 15302 1214 601 723 744 775 771 802
9 16057 1140 606 710 725 716 739 757
10 23677 1690 882 638 662 673 671 692
11 20987 1386 722 749 751 755 762 772
12 14676 1565 832 681 683 709 699 711
13 25065 2282 1191 723 734 736 750 764
14 13031 1481 780 797 813 829 842 851
15 23444 1874 947 642 644 664 693 713
16 26764 3663 1824 658 685 701 708 717
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 68
Table 5 (Cont‘d.)
District Enrollment Total
AA
Students
Total
AA
Males
2008
API
Scores
2009
API
Scores
2010
API
Scores
2011
API
Scores
2012
API
Scores
17 54379 8028 4074 626 643 666 672 688
18 11927 1005 515 729 724 748 749 772
19 11531 2198 1112 727 745 749 748 743
20 15186 2943 1423 609 609 627 645 638
21 21977 1621 885 681 694 693 684 683
22 35692 6251 3238 651 670 678 688 697
23 42406 3372 1761 717 733 754 757 761
24 19615 2754 1400 707 735 756 762 774
25 28321 2481 1241 626 646 657 654 673
26 16810 1858 957 690 715 722 733 729
27 10669 1241 633 674 679 700 713 726
28 46377 14169 7217 610 625 643 652 655
29 12123 1571 790 634 657 664 672 680
30 33977 1576 831 647 673 695 697 704
31 10381 2198 1119 635 647 673 684 698
32 29883 6129 3180 612 612 627 632 644
33 18877 4558 2320 640 634 656 649 673
34 21577 3891 1986 657 667 686 707 715
35 56310 5945 3056 591 596 616 616 628
36 47940 8623 4305 665 669 669 684 690
37 62126 9760 5068 685 693 699 700 711
38 12344 2418 1217 659 658 676 704 710
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 69
Table 5 (Cont‘d.)
District Enrollment Total
AA
Students
Total
AA
Males
2008
API
Scores
2009
API
Scores
2010
API
Scores
2011
API
Scores
2012
API
Scores
39 47245 3696 1867 689 679 683 674 678
40 38803 4604 2369 601 600 616 686 651
41 14896 1508 790 639 654 684 704 713
42 74235 7326 3807 648 647 663 661 664
Adapted from: California Department of Education Data Quest, 2012.
Response rate. Based on the selection criteria for this study, 42 superintendents
qualified to take the Urban Superintendent‘s quantitative survey. Table 6 indicates of the 42
eligible participants, 23 participated in the survey. This yielded a 55% response rate. It is
important to note that in comparison the demographics of the 45% of the superintendents who
did not respond are very representative of the 55% who did respond. The researcher was
satisfied with a response rate over 50%.
Table 6
Quantitative Survey: Response Rate
Measure Number Invited to
Participate
Number
Participated
Percentage
Participated
Superintendents 42 23 55
Quantitative demographic data. Demographic data was disaggregated by gender, age,
educational attainment, years of experience as a superintendent, and years of experience at their
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 70
current district. The demographic information was analyzed and presented in relevant tables,
charts, or in narrative form.
Out of the 23 superintendents surveyed, 14 were male and 9 female. Table 7 indicates
the respondents were 61% male and 39% female.
Table 7
Quantitative Survey: Superintendent Gender
Measure Male Female Total
Number of
Superintendents
14 9 23
Percentage of
Superintendents
61 39 100
Table 8 presents the age breakdown of the superintendents who participated in the
survey. The age categories are separated in bands of 10 years. The age criterion starts with 35
or under and ends with superintendents over the age of 66. The ages ranged between age 36 and
55. Of the 23 surveyed, 22% were 36-45, 35% were 46-55 and 43% were 56-65.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 71
Table 8
Quantitative Survey: Superintendent Age
Measure 35 or
under
36-45 46-55 56-65 66 or
older
Total
Number of
Superintendents
0 5 8 10 0 23
Percentage of
Superintendents
0 22 35 43 0 100
The highest educational attainment level of the superintendents who participated in the
quantitative survey is presented in Table 9. The superintendents were asked to identify if they
had a master‘s or doctoral degree. Of the 23 surveyed, 39% held a master‘s degree and the
remaining 61% held a doctoral degree.
Table 9
Quantitative Survey: Superintendent Education
Measure Master‘s
Degree
Doctoral
Degree
Total
Number of
Superintendents
9 14 23
Percentage of
Superintendents
39 61 100
Table 10 presents the distribution of the years of experience for the 23 respondents. The
years were categorized in four-year increments. The initial category was fewer than two years
and the last category was 18 or more years. The researcher noted that 30% of the respondents
had fewer than two years‘ experience. Sixty five percent of the respondents had less than nine
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 72
years‘ experience. The average years of experience for the respondents were 7.8 years.
Additionally, three of the respondents had 18 or more years of experience.
Table 10
Quantitative Survey: Superintendent Experience
Measure Fewer
than 2
years
2-5 6-9 10-13 14-17 18 or
more
Total
Number of
Superintendents
7 5 3 3 2 3 23
Percentage of
Superintendents
30 22 13 13 9 13 100
Of the 23 superintendents, 65% has less than seven years‘ experience in their current
district (see Table 11). The years of experience was distributed over three-year increments with
the initial category of fewer than two years and the last category of over 13 years. Nine percent
of the respondents had between 10-12 years of experience and no one had over 13 years of
experience in their current district. On average, the superintendents reported 3.8 years tenure in
their current district.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 73
Table 11
Quantitative Survey: Superintendent Experience in Current District
Measure Fewer
than 2
years
2-4 5-7 8-10 10-12 13 or
more
Total
Number of
Superintendents
9 6 4 2 2 23
Percentage of
Superintendents
39 26 17 9 9 100
Of the 42 urban school districts eligible to participate in this study, only 23 responded.
Table 12 presents the quantitative data of each participating school district. The data presented
includes student enrollment, total number of African-American students with a distinct category
for African-American males. African-American API scores for 2008-2012 are presented to
indicate if there was steady improvement for these students. For each year, the average API
score for African-Americans students was calculated. There was a 45 point increase from 2008-
2012.
Table 12
Quantitative Survey: Participating Urban School District API Results for African Americans
District Enrollment Total AA
Students
Total
AA
Males
2008
API
Scores
2009
API
Scores
2010
API
Scores
2011
API
Scores
2012
API
Scores
1 25543 4788 2395 582 591 594 622 628
2 14430 4283 2207 634 635 649 650 672
3 659639 62844 31768 627 641 663 679 696
4 20585 3413 1750 647 657 673 686 694
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 74
Table 12 (Cont’d.)
District Enrollment Total AA
Students
Total
AA
Males
2008
API
Scores
2009
API
Scores
2010
API
Scores
2011
API
Scores
2012
API
Scores
5 15929 1420 742 650 656 675 680 704
6 15302 1214 601 723 744 775 771 802
7 25065 2282 1191 723 734 736 750 764
8 13031 1481 780 797 813 829 842 851
9 23444 1874 947 642 644 664 693 713
10 11927 1005 515 729 724 748 749 772
11 11531 2198 1112 727 745 749 748 743
12 21977 1621 885 681 694 693 684 683
13 35692 6251 3238 651 670 678 688 697
14 42406 3372 1761 717 733 754 757 761
15 19615 2754 1400 707 735 756 762 774
16 28321 2481 1241 626 646 657 654 673
17 10669 1241 633 674 679 700 713 726
18 12123 1571 790 634 657 664 672 680
19 18877 4558 2320 640 634 656 649 673
20 21577 3891 1986 657 667 686 707 715
21 56310 5945 3056 591 596 616 616 628
22 12344 2418 1217 659 658 676 704 710
23 47245 3696 1867 689 679 683 674 678
Year
Average African-American API Scores
2008
670
2009
680
2010
695
2011
702
2012
715
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 75
The researcher also compared the API scores of the White students in the districts that
responded to the survey to provide a balanced perspective of API growth. The average API
scores for White students in 2008 was 792 and in 2012 the average score was 832. There was a
41-point growth during that five-year time span. Figure 1 provides a comparison of African-
American students‘ and White students‘ API scores for 2008 and 2012. The difference between
API scores for African-Americans and White students was 122 points in 2008 and 118 points in
2012. Interestingly, the API score percent increase for African-American students was 6.72% in
comparison to the 5.18% increase for White students in the same district. Notably, a gap still
does exist; however this gap is slowly narrowing.
Figure 1: Quantitative Data: API Score Comparisons
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 76
Qualitative demographic data. The qualitative data was collected through four
superintendent interviews and the open-ended question included on the survey. The respondents
answered to the following open-ended question:
Please list the top three leadership strategies or programs that you believe improved
student achievement for African-American males in your district.
This question yielded 20 responses. These responses were analyzed and compared to the
interview results.
At the conclusion of the survey, superintendents could elect to participate in a 45-minute
interview. Ten superintendents elected to participate and based on geographic location and
availability, four interviews were conducted. All four superintendents qualified to participate in
the interview based on at least two years at their current district and over 10,000 students with at
least 7% African-American student population.
Table 13 details the demographic data of the superintendents interviewed and
characteristics of the district they led. The superintendents interviewed all were between the age
of 56-65. Their overall experience as a superintendent ranged from 2 to 23 years with an average
of four years at their current district. Seventy five percent of the superintendents interviewed
held a doctorate degree and gender was equally represented. The superintendents interviewed
had the following ethnicities: White, African-American, and Hispanic. All four districts had
over 15,000 students and over 70% minority student populations.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 77
Table 13
Qualitative Interview: Characteristics for Superintendents and Districts
Superintendent Profile District
A Gender: Male
Ethnicity: White
Age: 56-65
Education: Doctoral degree
Years as superintendent: 23
Years in current position: 4
Enrollment: 42,406
Free or reduced meals: 62%
Minority: 72%
B Gender: Female
Ethnicity: White
Age: 56-65
Education: Master‘s degree
Years as superintendent: 6
Years in current position: 2
Enrollment: 15,302
Free or reduced meals: 61%
Minority: 93%
C Gender: Male
Ethnicity: Hispanic
Age: 56-65
Education: Doctoral Degree
Years as superintendent: 8
Years in current position: 8
Enrollment: 15,929
Free or reduced meals: 92%
Minority: 99%
D Gender: Female
Ethnicity: African-
American
Age: 56-65
Education: Doctoral degree
Years as superintendent: 2
Years in current position: 2
Enrollment: 35,692
Free or reduced meals: 75%
Minority: 88%
Research Question 1
What programs are in place now that prove beneficial for African-American students?
When superintendents were surveyed, they were given several statements regarding
programs that specifically target African-American males and programs that improve student
achievement. Superintendents were asked to rate the program as they relate to their overall effort
to improve student achievement. Superintendents were provided a 5-point Likert-type scale
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 78
(4=very significant aspect, 3=somewhat significant aspect, 2=somewhat insignificant aspect,
1=very insignificant aspect, and 0=not used at all). The statements on the survey that relate to
this research question were:
Provide college access programs that emphasize college preparation and funding for
higher education
Provide school-based drug prevention programs that encourage peer participation
Sponsor mentoring programs that are designed to reduce isolation among school-age
African-American males
Reinforce the need for college access programs for African-American male students
Provide programs in your district that systematically provide additional time and support
to African-American males who are experiencing difficulties learning
Develop programs designed to expand opportunities for African-American males to work
with adult role models
Provide programs that support African-American male students
Figure 2 illustrates the responses to the survey questions related to general programs
geared toward all students. This figure includes the average responses from the superintendents
surveyed. The responses ranged from 3.14 to 3.82. The statement ―Provide college access
programs that emphasize college preparation and funding for higher education‖ received the
highest average score of 3.82. This score was out of 4.0.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 79
Figure 2: Responses to General Programs
Figure 3 illustrates the survey average responses to the questions pertaining to specific
programs geared toward African-American males. The responses ranged from 3.27 to 3.73. The
highest ranking statement ―Reinforce the need for college access programs for African-American
male students‖ yielded an average score of 3.73 out of 4.0. The lowest rated response was
―Develop programs designed to expand opportunities for African-American males to work with
adult role models.‖ Notably, all statements were rated over 3.0 indicating the significance
superintendents placed on the value of programs designed to support African-American males.
The superintendents surveyed highly ranked the significance of both college access programs
aimed to help all students and specifically African-American males.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 80
Figure 3: Programs for African-American Males
Superintendents included numerous programs in response to the open-ended question on
the survey. The open-ended question asked superintendents to:
Please list the top three leadership strategies or programs that you believe improved
student achievement for African-American males in your district.
Respondent 10 included college access programs in response to this question which aligns with
the high Likert-type scale survey responses. Respondent 21 listed AVID Soar High School, a
specialized high school that integrates college classes into the high school curriculum. This high
school provides open access to college.
Programs for African-American males. Respondent 16 listed three programs
specifically designed for African-American males including African-American Male Academic
Network (AMAN), Brotherhood Academy, and African-American Mentorship programs.
Additionally, Respondent 21 included their African-American Male Initiative program as one of
the top three programs in their district. These programs correlate with the survey question:
Develop programs designed to expand opportunities for African-American males to work with
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 81
adult role models. The average for this question was 3.27 out of 4. This finding was significant
and it aligns with Fashola‘s (2005) research on the need for programs designed for African-
American males to include a role model and/or mentorship component.
Discussion. All school districts have programs designed to improve student
achievement. However, there are only a few programs specifically designed to improve
academic achievement for African-American males. During the one-on-one interview process,
superintendents were able to elaborate on specific programs utilized in their respective school
district. When asked what specific actions you took to improve academic achievement for
African-American males, Superintendent A expressed concern about the research topic, because
this superintendent firmly believes this is not just an African-American male issue — it‘s an
issue involving all kids. Superintendent A further commented on the benefit of role models for
African-American students, ―it is always helpful to have powerful role models where kids can
see themselves as being academically-able college graduates.‖
School districts with programs that specifically target African-American students showed
a steady increase. In particular, Respondent 2 utilizes two programs specifically designed for
African-American males which showed a 46 point API score increase during the 5-year time
frame defined in this study. Superintendent B and D both expressed the sentiments of having
courageous conversations about why African-American students are not being successful and
what can be done to correct this problem.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 82
Research Question 2
What are the strategies in academic and/or extracurricular programs that support
African-American male achievement?
When superintendents were surveyed, they were given several statements regarding
strategies that support African-American male achievement. Superintendents were asked to rate
the program as they relate to their overall effort to improve student achievement.
Superintendents were provided a 5-point Likert-type scale (4=very significant aspect,
3=somewhat significant aspect, 2=somewhat insignificant aspect, 1=very insignificant aspect,
and 0=not used at all). The statements on the survey that relate to this research question were:
Emphasize that strong instruction is the key to improving student learning
Help students retain skills learned and provide early interventions as needed
Expect staff members to do whatever it takes to make sure that African-American males
in particular are achieving
Have staff work in teams to plan and implement improvement strategies for African-
American males
Teachers trained with culturally responsive pedagogy
Replace culturally exclusionary curriculum
Utilize curriculum designed to help students understand historical events from
perspectives of various racial, ethnic, and cultural groups
The aforementioned survey statements were clustered together around the following
categories: General student learning, Staff expectations for African-American males, and
culturally-relevant curriculum.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 83
General student learning. Figure 4 illustrates the survey average responses to the
questions pertaining to general student learning. The responses range from 3.86 to 3.91. Both
average scores were highly ranked out of highest possible score of 4. The superintendents
surveyed found early intervention and strong instruction to be very significant when improving
student achievement.
Figure 4: General Student Learning
All survey statements were analyzed using the SPSS correlation coefficient test in order
to reveal any correlations. The researcher purposely reviewed the results to specifically examine
all the strong and very strong correlations. Salkind (2007) suggested the following guidelines for
determining the strength of the correlations:
.8 to 1.0 – very strong relationship
.6 to .8 – strong relationship
.4 to .6 – moderate relationship
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 84
.2 to .4 – weak relationship
.0 to .2 – weak or no relationship (p. 85)
The Pearson correlation coefficient, or SPSS test, was conducted and revealed a very strong
correlation coefficient of .947 between emphasizing strong instruction techniques and using
performance data to target interventions (see Table 14).
Table 14
SPSS Output Correlation Coefficient: Strong Instruction and Targeted Interventions
Survey Statements 22. Use performance data to target
interventions
26. Emphasize that strong instruction
is the key to improving student learning
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
.947
.000
23
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Interview data support the survey findings. For example, Superintendent A commented,
―It‘s all about the learning. If we‘re on track to learning, we‘re going to talk about the learning,
because that‘s what‘s going to make it happen.‖ Superintendent A‘s comment ties directly to
Superintendent B‘s comments regarding looking at student data:
I think it‘s really getting teachers to own the data and not be intimidated by it but to really
see it as a resource and to develop other forms of data to support learning throughout the
year. It‘s just always knowing where their kids are in the process and what they need to
do to get them to the next level.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 85
The above sentiments reflect the strong correlation between strong instruction and using data to
drive interventions. If the focus is on learning and data is used to support and drive learning,
then students should achieve.
Staff expectations for African-American males. According to Foster & Peele (1999),
successful educators do the following: let African-American males know they care; Believe that
African-American males are capable of performing at high academic levels; Do not assume that
every Black male is a troublemaker (pp. 18-19). Superintendent D identified low expectations
on behalf of teachers, administration, parents, and students as a challenge to improving
achievement for African-American males. Figure 5 depicts how superintendents responded to
questions regarding staff expectations for African-American males. The average response
ranged from 3.36 to 3.59. The statement expects staff members to do whatever it takes to make
sure that African-American males, in particular, are achieving received the highest rating of 3.59
out of 4.0.
Figure 5: Staff Expectations for African-American Males
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 86
The Pearson correlation coefficient, or SPSS test, was conducted and revealed a very
strong correlation coefficient of .895 between team improvement strategies for African-
American males when compared to developing a sense of urgency to improve student
achievement for African-American males (see Table 15). Naturally, if there is a sense of
urgency to improve academic achievement for African-American males then the improvement
strategies will be developed and utilized within the school district and/or individual school sites.
Table 15
SPSS Output Correlation Coefficient: Team Improvement Strategies and Urgency for Improving
Survey Statements 36. Create a sense of urgency for
improving student
achievement for African-
American males
28. Have staff work in teams to plan and
implement improvement strategies for African-
American males
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
.895
.000
23
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Culturally relevant curriculum. Superintendent C commented, ―There appears to be a
need to address the cultural gap that seems to exist with some of our faculty and staff as our
African-American population grows.‖ The cultural gap was an area of concern to this particular
superintendent. The open-ended survey question yielded the following strategies that pertain to
culturally relevant curriculum:
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 87
Provide culturally relevant pedagogy to teachers and administrators (Respondent 12)
Culturally relevant pedagogy (Respondent 13)
Culturally relevant and rigorous instruction and exposure to transformative and culturally
relevant literature (Respondent 14)
Teachers‘ professional development designed around culturally inclusive curriculum
(Respondent 23)
Of the 20 responses to the open-ended survey question, culturally relevant was listed five times
as an important strategy used in their respective school districts.
Figure 6 illustrates the average responses to the survey questions pertaining to culturally
relevant curriculum. The average response ranged from 3.59 to 3.73 out of 4. Teachers trained
with culturally responsive pedagogy received the highest rating of 3.73. Superintendents
surveyed considered all three statements significant.
Figure 6: Culturally Relevant Curriculum
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 88
Discussion. The survey respondents provided numerous strategies that can be utilized to
improve student achievement for African-American males. The majority of the programs
discussed involved programs within the traditional school day. However, Superintendent D
discussed a program in which a local fraternity provides mentorship for African-American
males. This program helped build stronger connections to community and careers for the limited
amount of students who participated. ―So many factors are going against the African-American
male. We need a full force effort to address the issues‖ (Superintendent D).
Respondents reported that it is important to provide culturally relevant pedagogy, and
replace curriculum that is culturally exclusionary. Superintendents must expect staff members to
implement strategies and they are doing whatever it takes to make sure all African-American
students are achieving. The African-American male is in a state of crisis as they continue to
underperform academically. However, emphasis must be placed on the basics of student
learning. In particular, strong instruction is the foundation for student learning and all students
must retain skills learned. This can be accomplished by utilizing early interventions to address
problems and concerns.
Research Question 3
What are the strategies superintendents use or implement that support African-American
males’ academic achievement?
When superintendents were surveyed, they were given several statements regarding
strategies they possibly use or implement that support African-American male achievement.
Superintendents were asked to rate the strategies as they relate to their overall effort to improve
student achievement. Superintendents were provided a 5-point Likert-type scale (4=very
significant aspect, 3=somewhat significant aspect, 2=somewhat insignificant aspect, 1=very
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 89
insignificant aspect, and 0=not used at all). The statements on the survey that relate to this
research question were:
Provide a safe learning environment for African-American males
Examine school safety policies and procedures for consistency throughout the school
district to make sure they are not being used for discriminatory purposes
Create a sense of urgency for improving student achievement for African-American male
students
Establish explicit goals and targets for student performance that are non-negotiable
Include school principals in the development of the non-negotiable goals for the district
Set specific time-tables for meeting the non-negotiable goals
Include key community members in the non-negotiable goal setting process
Adopt a 5-year non-negotiable plan for achievement and instruction
Develop the instructional leadership capacity of personnel throughout the district
Emphasize the importance of recruiting effective teachers and administrators
Support the instructional leadership of principals by restructuring the central office to
provide help, support, and coaching
Use performance data to target interventions
The aforementioned survey statements were clustered together around the following
categories: Non-Negotiable, Personnel, Environment, and Data-Driven Interventions.
Non-negotiable. Figure 7 illustrates the average survey responses to questions regarding
district-established non-negotiables. The average response ranged from 3.32 to 3.86 out of a
possible 4. Establish explicit goals and targets for student performance that are non-negotiable
received the highest average of 3.86. Adopt a 5-year non-negotiable plan for achievement and
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 90
instruction and include key community members in the non-negotiable goal setting process had
the same average of 3.32. Both questions would go hand in hand because it is important to
include key members in establishing non-negotiables.
Figure 7: Non-Negotiables
The Pearson correlation coefficient, or SPSS test, was conducted and revealed very
strong correlation coefficients between establish explicit goals and targets for student
performance that are non-negotiable and five other survey questions (see Table 16). According
to Salkind (2007), correlation coefficients between .8 to 1.0 indicate a very strong relationship
between the two statements being compared. Develop instructional leadership capacity and
emphasize strong instruction received the highest possible correlation coefficients of 1.0 out of
1.0.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 91
Table 16
SPSS Output Correlation Coefficients: Establish Explicit Goals and Targets
Survey Statements 9. Establish explicit goals and targets for student
performance that are non-negotiable
14. Develop the instructional leadership capacity
of personnel throughout the district
1.000
17. Provide targeted, effective staff development
.890
20. Allocate funds based on instructional priorities
.810
22. Use performance data to target interventions
.947
26. Emphasize that strong instruction is the key
to improving student learning
1.000
Additionally, the open-ended survey question responses offered the following strategies
regarding non-negotiable goals:
Defined autonomy-district sets non-negotiable parameters and sites are then allowed to
decide on the ―how‖ (Respondent 4)
Development of district-wide values that have been clearly communicated across the
district: Equity, Integrity, Caring, Collaboration, and Personal and Collective
Accountability (Respondent 5)
Personnel. Building personnel capacity is an important aspect to the success of all
students. According to the quantitative survey, when asked the importance of developing
instructional leadership capacity of personnel throughout the district, the superintendents
surveyed responded with an average rating of 3.86 out of 4. This high score corresponds to the
importance of building capacity amongst school district staff as it correlates to the
superintendents‘ beliefs of developing instructional leaders. Supporting the instructional
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 92
leadership of principals yielded an average score of 3.45. The question regarding recruiting
effective teachers received a 3.64 mean score.
Jim Collins (2001) stressed the importance of getting the right people on the bus at the
right time. The survey questions in Figure 8 align with Jim Collins‘ statement you must first get,
―the right people on the bus, and then the right people in the right seat‖ (p. 57). Once you have
the right people in the right seat, then you must develop their capacity to lead.
Figure 8: Personnel
The Pearson correlation coefficient, or SPSS test, was conducted and revealed very
strong correlation coefficients between Develop the instructional leadership capacity of
personnel throughout the district and five other survey questions (see Table 17). According to
Salkind (2007), correlation coefficients between .8 to 1.0 indicate a very strong relationship
between the two statements being compared. The following questions received the highest
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 93
possible correlation coefficients of 1.0 out of 1.0 when compared to develop instructional
leadership capacity:
Utilize curriculum designed to help students understand historical events from
perspectives of various racial, ethnic, and cultural groups
Emphasize that strong instruction is the key to improving student learning
Table 17
SPSS Output Correlation Coefficients: Develop Instructional Leadership Capacity
Survey Statements 14. Develop the instructional leadership capacity
of personnel throughout the district
20. Allocate funds based on instructional priorities .810
25. Utilize curriculum designed to help students
understand historical events from perspectives of
various racial, ethnic and cultural groups
1.000
17. Provide targeted, effective staff development
.890
22. Use performance data to target interventions
.947
26. Emphasize that strong instruction is the key to
improving student learning
1.000
** .8 to 1.0 – very strong relationship
Environment. Superintendents are responsible for creating a safe learning environment
for all students. This also includes creating a learning environment that is inclusive and
accepting of African-American males, and all students, which is essential for the students to be
successful. Figure 9 illustrates the average scores for the survey questions regarding
environment. The survey responses ranged from an average score of 3.55 to 3.86 out of 4.
Superintendents establish the mission and vision of the entire school district. Therefore, it is not
surprising that creating a sense of urgency for improving student achievement for African-
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 94
American males received the highest mean score of 3.86. The superintendents surveyed believed
it was significant to create a sense of urgency about helping struggling African-American
students. The following statement: provide a safe learning environment for African-American
males received the lowest mean score of 3.55. However, this score was within the significant
range. Superintendents deemed all areas concerning environment significant.
Figure 9: Environment
The Pearson correlation coefficient, or SPSS test, was conducted and revealed a very
strong correlation coefficient of .835 between providing a safe learning environment and
reinforcing the need for college access programs for African-American males (see Table 18).
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 95
Table 18
SPSS Output Correlation Coefficient: Safe Learning Environment and College Access Programs
Survey Statements 31. Reinforce the need for college
access programs for African-
American male students
7. Provide a safe learning environment for
African-American males
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
.835
.000
23
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
Data driven interventions. Urban superintendents engage in regular data collaborative
sessions with district personnel and site administrators. Superintendent C emphasized the
importance of using data to make decisions. This sentiment was echoed in all four interviews.
Superintendent D stressed the importance of having a structured accountability system that
includes using benchmarks to establish baseline data. After baselines are established, school site
principals conduct regular walkthroughs to complete a monthly report for the superintendent.
This monthly report identifies areas of strengths and areas of improvement. Superintendent B‘s
staff members participate in data talks on a regular basis to determine where students really are
and how to move them forward. Lastly, Superintendent A utilizes ―Principal Summits‖ where
the principals meet three times a year to discuss data and develop a game plan for improving
learning for all students. These districts utilize data to drive instruction and interventions.
Figure 10 illustrates the average score for data driven interventions. The average score is 3.82
out of 4.0. Superintendents surveyed considered data driven interventions as a significant
strategy to improve student achievement.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 96
Figure 10: Data Driven Interventions
Discussion. Urban superintendents utilize various strategies to support academic
achievement for African-American males. The superintendents who participated in this study
established non-negotiables that lay a strong foundation for learning. They recruited effective
teachers and administrators while building leadership capacity with existing personnel. These
school districts restructured their central offices to support and help principals. These
superintendents created a sense of urgency to improve academic achievement for African-
American males while providing a safe learning environment for this most vulnerable group of
students. The superintendents surveyed are meticulous about collecting data and using this data
to drive instruction and interventions.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 97
Research Question 4
What are the resources necessary to implement an effective program aimed at improving
African-American males’ academic achievement?
When superintendents were surveyed they were given several statements regarding
resources necessary to implement an effective program aimed at improving African-American
male achievement. Superintendents were asked to rate the programs as they relate to their
overall effort to improve student achievement. Superintendents were provided a 5-point Likert-
type scale (4=very significant aspect, 3=somewhat significant aspect, 2=somewhat insignificant
aspect, 1=very insignificant aspect, and 0=not used at all). The statements on the survey that
relate to this research question were:
Secure funds to initiate reforms and launch priorities
Allocate funds based on instructional priorities
Increase funding for school counselors and require a smaller ratio of counselors to
students which could help to improve the emotional wellbeing of students
Provide targeted, effective staff development
Provide targeted professional development for teachers on relationship building with
emphasis on African-American males
Encourage African-American parent involvement in school board policy and decision
making
Increase attention on African-American parent involvement in their child‘s learning
experiences at the school site
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 98
For the purpose of this study, the researcher defines resources as monetary sources and human
capital. The survey questions were clustered into the following areas: Funding, Professional
Development, and Parental Support.
Funding. The implementation of programs to improve student achievement typically
entails a funding source and professional development for the staff members required to use the
program. Figure 11 illustrates the mean scores for the survey questions regarding funding. The
mean scores ranged from 3.27 to 3.82. The survey question allocate funds based on
instructional priorities received the highest score of 3.82. It would be natural for a
superintendent to allocate funds based on district instructional priorities. The lowest score
pertained to increased funding for school counselors to reduce their caseloads to provide more
attention to students. All three questions were deemed significant with an average score of 3.0 or
higher.
Figure 11: Funding
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 99
The Pearson correlation coefficient, or SPSS test, was conducted and revealed a very
strong correlation coefficient of .810 between allocated funds based on instructional priorities
and emphasized strong instruction as key to student learning (see Table 19).
Table 19
SPSS Output Correlation Coefficient: Allocate Funding and Strong Instruction
Survey Statements 26. Emphasize that strong
instruction is the key to
improving student learning
20. Allocate funds based on instructional
priorities
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
.810
.000
23
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Professional development. Human capital is a vital resource when implementing
programs and strategies aimed at improving instruction. This requires professional development
to train teachers and staff. Carter (2000) emphasized ―improving the quality of instruction is the
only way to improve overall student achievement‖ (p. 9). Teachers must receive professional
development on a consistent basis that is truly based on a ―foundation of high expectations,
inclusiveness of historically marginalized groups and ongoing teacher support at the school site
. . .‖ (Thompson, 2007, p. 166).
Figure 12 illustrates the mean score responses to survey questions regarding professional
development. The mean scores ranged from 3.68 or 3.86. Both questions are considered very
significant with a mean score of 3.5 or higher out of 4.0.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 100
Figure 12: Professional Development
The Pearson correlation coefficient, or SPSS test, was conducted and revealed a very
strong correlation coefficient of .890 between providing targeted, effective staff development
and strong instruction as the key to improve student learning. This very strong correlation is
expected because if strong instruction is emphasized the district would provide targeted staff
development (see Table 20).
-
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 101
Table 20
SPSS Output Correlation Coefficient: Staff Development and Strong Instruction
Survey Statements 26. Emphasize that strong
instruction is the key to
improving student learning
17. Provide targeted, effective staff
development
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
.890
.000
23
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Parental support. Parental support is a valuable resource to have in education. The
quantitative portion of the survey included two questions regarding parental support, specifically
encouraging parental involvement at the school site and with school board policies made at the
district office. Figure 13 shows the mean scores ranged between 3.5 and 3.52. Superintendents
surveyed agreed that it is important for parents to participate in the education of their children
and have a voice in the development of policies that affect their education.
Toldson (2008) identified that afterschool programs help increase student achievement
for African-American males and policy/funding resources are needed to support these programs.
Parental support is a key factor in implementing new programs during the school day and
especially after-school programs. Superintendent D implemented a parent advisory board
designed to address the needs and concerns of the African-American student population and give
parents a voice in their child‘s education.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 102
Figure 13: Parental Support
The Pearson correlation coefficient, or SPSS test, was conducted and revealed a strong
correlation coefficient of .700 between African-American parent involvement and creating a
sense of urgency for improving the achievement for African-American males (see Table 21).
Table 21
SPSS Output Correlation Coefficient: Parent Involvement and Sense of Urgency
Survey Statements 36. Create a sense of urgency for
improving student
achievement for African-
American male students
39. Increase attention on African-American
parent involvement in their child‘s learning
experiences at the
school site
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
.700
.000
23
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
-
-
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 103
The qualitative interview asked superintendents to describe programs in their district that
promotes student achievement. The following follow-up question pertains to funding:
Does it require any additional funding? What funding sources are utilized?
Of the four superintendents interviewed, two reported the program or strategy they utilize does
not require additional monetary funding. Superintendent A utilizes ―Principal Summits‖ that do
not require monetary funding; however it does require human capital. All principals must take a
hard look at their data and devise a plan to ensure all students are learning. If any students are
not learning, a plan must be implemented and revised if the plan does not work. This program
requires principals to take a hard look at their instructional practices and determine if all students
are actually learning.
Superintendent B utilizes ―Data talk‖ as a strategy to analyze data and devise
interventions to help struggling students. This strategy does require monetary funding to pay for
a nominal fee to utilize an online program that disaggregates student assessment data. All
principals and teachers have access to the data and receive professional development on utilizing
the program.
Superintendent C utilizes numerous programs and initiatives to promote student
achievement. These include the following: Professional Learning Communities (PLC);
Response to Interventions (RTI); K-12 counselors; K-12 curriculum coaches; math, language
arts, and science programs. These programs target EL learners, students with disabilities, and
African-American students. The superintendent utilizes special grants and categorical funding.
Superintendent D utilizes the READ 180 program as a literacy intervention. System 44 is
a part of the READ 180 program that mandates the following: A focus on language development
and a climate of support. The climate of support requires a parent advisory group if a school site
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 104
has over 15% English language learners. African-American students in this district are the
lowest performers and there was not a program in place specifically for African-American
students. Superintendent D saw the benefits of the mandates of the READ 180 program and
devised a program for African-American students. This program does not require additional
monetary funding; however it requires human capital. The program is African-American Parent
Advisory Committee (APAC) designed to involve African-American parents in the educational
process and provide a forum to discuss issues. According to Superintendent D, ―this committee
is run by professional, good hearted parents who volunteer their time. These parents are highly
motivated and help make budgetary decisions.‖ This program is growing and is now in eight
school sites.
Discussion. The budgetary crisis in California reduced state funding to local school
districts. This has resulted in programs being cut and jobs lost. All programs require funding
sources in the form of money and/or human capital. School districts are doing more with less.
Superintendents utilize grants, categorical funds, and human capital to implement new programs
and strategies. Professional development is needed to ensure proper implementation of new
programs or strategies. Human capital is an invaluable component of any effective program.
Seventy five percent of the superintendents interviewed felt that if you focus on improving
academic achievement of all students, African-American students will naturally improve.
Superintendent D agrees that African-American students will improve; however, this
improvement is still disproportionate to Caucasian students. Therefore, this superintendent
devised a program specifically for African-American students. All superintendents looked at
data on a regular basis and allowed data to drive instruction and programs.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 105
Summary of Findings
This chapter presented the analysis of the survey completed by 23 urban California
superintendents. The qualitative and quantitative data was analyzed and suggest the following
findings.
Research question one asked, ―What programs are in place now that prove beneficial for
African-American students?” All school districts have programs designed to improve student
achievement. Respondents to the survey believed all programs utilized in their districts benefit
African-American students. Specifically, college access programs that emphasize college
preparation and funding for higher education received the highest response mean (3.82) on the
quantitative survey. However, there are only a few programs specifically designed to improve
academic achievement for African-American males. Superintendents significantly responded to
the need for programs to support African-American males including college access programs
(3.73) and adult role models or mentorships programs (3.27) on the quantitative survey.
Additionally, the qualitative interviews revealed the need for role models and college access
programs. This finding was significant and it aligns with Fashola‘s (2005) research on the need
for programs designed for African-American males to include a role model and/or mentorship
component. Urban superintendents need to implement programs specifically designed for
African-American males that provide college access and positive role models.
Research question two, ―What are the strategies in academic and/or extracurricular
programs that support African-American male achievement?” The survey respondents provided
numerous strategies that can be utilized to improve student achievement for African-American
males. Superintendents identified strong instruction as the foundation for student learning (3.91)
and all students must retain skills learned (3.86) as the two most important strategies on the
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 106
quantitative survey. Superintendents surveyed and interviewed stressed the importance of
culturally relevant pedagogy (3.73), and the replacement of curriculum that is culturally
exclusionary (3.77) on the quantitative survey. Thompson‘s (2007) research aligned with the
importance of culturally relevant curriculum. The superintendents surveyed had a mean
response score of 3.55 for providing a safe and inclusive learning environment for African-
American male students. Creating a safe, inclusive learning environment for African-American
male students with rigorous and culturally relevant curriculum for the 21st century was a
common strategy theme.
Research question three asked, ―What are the strategies superintendents use or
implement that support African-American males’ academic achievement?” Urban
superintendents utilize various strategies to support academic achievement for African-American
males. The superintendents who participated in this study established a 5-year non-negotiable
plan (3.32) that included key community members (3.32) in the development of these explicit
goals and targets for student performance (3.86) based on their survey responses. Additionally,
principals were included in the development of the district‘s non-negotiables (3.73) and specific
time-tables were established to meet these goals. All of the strategies identified were significant
with a score over 3.30.
Very strong correlations exist between establish goals and targets to the following
strategies and practices: developing instructional leadership capacity; targeted, effective staff
development; funds allocation; using data to target intervention; and emphasize strong
instruction. The superintendents surveyed create a sense of urgency to improve academic
achievement for African-American males (3.86) while providing a safe learning environment for
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 107
this most vulnerable group of students (3.55). Superintendents surveyed also considered data-
driven interventions as a significant strategy to improve student achievement (3.82).
Research question four, ―What are the resources necessary to implement an effective
program aimed at improving African-American males’ academic achievement?” The three areas
of resources identified in this study included funding, professional development, and parental
support. The survey question allocate funds based on instructional priorities received the
highest score of 3.82. All programs or interventions implemented required a funding source(s) in
the form of money and/or human capital. Superintendents interviewed and surveyed utilized
grants, categorical funds, and human capital to implement new programs or strategies.
Human capital is a vital resource when implementing programs and strategies aimed at
improving instruction. This requires professional development to train teachers and staff. Carter
(2000) emphasized ―improving the quality of instruction is the only way to improve overall
student achievement‖ (p. 9). The Pearson correlation coefficient, or SPSS test, was conducted
and revealed a very strong correlation coefficient of .890 between providing targeted, effective
staff development and strong instruction as the keys to improve student learning.
Parental support is a valuable resource to have in education. Superintendents surveyed
agreed that it is important for parents to participate in the education of their children and have a
voice in the development of policies that affect their education.
Chapter five entails a summary of the research study and recommendations for further
research.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 108
Chapter Five
Conclusions and Recommendations
African-American males are in a state of crisis and this is magnified in large urban school
districts where the population of African-Americans is more concentrated. Wagner (2010)
suggested urban superintendents ―have the courage to hold uncomfortable conversations about
issues of poverty, race, and ethnicity‖ (p. 127). Waters and Marzano (2006) concluded that
district-level leadership has a statistically-significant positive relationship with student
achievement. The role of superintendent is instrumental in improving academic achievement for
African-American students. The challenges faced by urban superintendents are very different
than the challenges suburban superintendents face on a greater scale and often played out in the
media (Usdan & Cronin, 2003).
The roles and responsibilities of the urban school superintendent today are more
numerous, complex, and demanding than in the past. The educational system of today is not one
size fits all (Collins, 2001). The high-stakes accountability provisions of the NCLB Act and the
California Public School Accountability Act (PSAA) have greatly increased public scrutiny of
the leadership abilities of urban school district superintendents. Urban superintendents must be
politically savvy on all levels of government including federal, state, city, and their local school
boards of education. These political entities hold California superintendents responsible for their
ability to educate all students and address the students with the greatest needs effectively. The
emphasis on student achievement and student sub-groups is a result of the growing
accountability measures established by NCLB and PSAA. These accountability measures have
reshaped the responsibilities of the urban superintendent.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 109
The role of urban superintendents is crucial to improving the educational outlook for
at-risk minority students and particularly African-American males. Effective urban
superintendents must possess a variety of leadership styles that will complement him/her as they
move their organization through various levels of reform. Glass, Bjork, & Brunner (2000) stated
that superintendents today find themselves in a leadership position that is significantly different
from a period of a decade ago. According to Archer (2006), urban superintendents have begun
responding positively to the growing pressure of accountability by taking on greater roles as
instructional leaders.
This chapter provides a summary of the study. It also provides a statement of the
problem, purpose of the study, research questions, and the methodology used. Additionally, it
will discuss the findings as they relate to the four research questions. In closing, implications
and recommendations for future study will be detailed.
Statement of the Problem
Over five decades have elapsed since Brown v. Board of Education (1954) and the
achievement gap still exists for African Americans in the United States. There have been
numerous attempts to rectify this problem; however, African Americans continue to be
unsuccessful academically. African-American males are in desperate need of an intervention to
increase their academic achievement. The American public is dissatisfied with the
ineffectiveness of our public schools and urban school superintendents must improve the
learning outcomes of all students.
The education system in California is in a state of turmoil and is systematically failing
African-American students. African-American males score the lowest with the exception of
students with disabilities. There were 213,413 African American male students in the 2010-2011
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 110
school year according to the California Department of Education (CDE, 2011). For example, in
Los Angeles County the graduation rate is 71.8% and it is only 58.5% for African Americans.
However, for African-American males the graduation rate is 54% (CDE, 2011). If urban school
districts in California are to improve academic achievement for African Americans, their
superintendents must utilize proven, effective strategies to make a difference in the lives of this
most vulnerable subgroup. All students have a right to learn regardless of their race or gender
and receive a quality education that prepares them to reach their full, academic potential.
This study is significant because the NCLB Act (U.S. Department of Education, 2001)
states that 100% of all students will be proficient in English language arts and mathematics by
the school year 2013-2014. California has established very clear cut scores on the California
High School Exit Exam (Grades 9-12) and on the California Standards Test (Grades 2-8), that
determines the proficiency level for California students. According to the 2011 National
Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP, cited in National Center for Education Statistics,
2011) report, only 20% of African-American students, in California, are at proficient or above at
the fourth-grade level in mathematics (see Table 22). Additionally, African-American students
scored 21 points lower than White students in California. However, in 1992 the performance
gap was 39 points between Whites and Blacks (National Center for Education Statistics, 2011).
The gap is closing but not fast enough to meet the NCLB deadline of 100% proficiency in 2013-
2014.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 111
Table 22
The Nation’s Report Card: 2011 California Grade 4 Reading Snapshot
Reporting groups
Percentage
of students
Average
scores
Percentages at
or above
Basic Proficient
Percent at
Advanced
Race/Ethnicity
White 25 229 76 40 10
Black 7 208 53 19 4
Hispanic 54 198 42 12 1
Asian 12 233 80 49 16
American Indian/ Alaska
native
Native Hawaiian/Pacific
Islander
Two or more races
Gender
#
1
1
‡
‡
230
‡ ‡
‡ ‡
70 43
‡
‡
20
Male
Female
50
50
209
214
54 23
59 26
4
7
National School Lunch
Program
Eligible 58 198 42 12 1
Not Eligible 41 230 77 43 12
# rounds to zero
‡reporting standards not met
Source: National Center for Education Statistics (2011), Retrieved December 29, 2012 from
http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/pdf/stt2011/2012454CA4.pdf
Purpose of the study. The purpose of this study was to determine the effective strategies
that urban superintendents in California utilized to increase academic achievement for African-
American males. This study examined urban school districts in California that are successfully
improving academic achievement for African-American males and the programs they utilized to
sustain academic growth. This study identified effective urban superintendents‘ strategies and
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 112
processes that were used in districts where there is steady growth and on-going academic
improvement that other urban superintendents could learn and use in their own districts.
Research questions. This study focused on the effective strategies urban
superintendents utilized to improve the academic achievement of African-American males and
the following questions guided this study:
1. What programs are in place now that prove beneficial for African-American students?
2. What are the strategies in academic and/or extracurricular programs that support African-
American male achievement?
3. What are the strategies superintendents use or implement that support African-American
males‘ academic achievement?
4. What are the resources necessary to implement an effective program aimed at improving
African-American males‘ academic achievement?
Methodology
This study utilized a mixed-methods approach in order to collect data from the
42 California urban school districts qualified to participate in this study. Of the 42 California
urban school superintendents qualified to participate in this study, 23 superintendents completed
the online survey. The researcher utilized Qualtrics, an online survey software, to distribute the
survey and disaggregate the data collected from the superintendents‘ survey responses. Only
superintendents who indicated a desire to participate in a 45-minute interview and met the
criteria of at least two years in the position with at least two years at the same school site were
able to participate in the interview portion of the study. Four of those superintendents surveyed
participated in qualitative, one-on-one interviews. All superintendents who participated in the
study were informed that their responses would be confidential and anonymous.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 113
The 40-item survey included six demographic items and 33-Likert scale items that asked
the superintendents to rate the importance of each leadership strategy and practice as it related to
their overall effort to improve student achievement in their districts. Superintendents rated each
item using a 5-point Likert-type scale (4=very significant aspect, 3=somewhat significant aspect,
2=somewhat insignificant aspect, 1=very significant aspect, and 0=not used at all). In addition,
the survey included a qualitative open-ended question that asked respondents to identify
additional leadership strategies and practices that they believed promoted student achievement in
their districts.
Subsequently, an interview protocol composed of eight interview protocol questions was
developed. Follow-up questions were also used to probe and clarify information provided.
Quantitative data was analyzed using SPSS while qualitative data was examined for specific
themes that may be related to the four research questions guiding this study.
Findings
The qualitative and quantitative data was analyzed and suggest the following findings.
Research question one asked, ―What programs are in place now that prove beneficial for
African-American students?” All school districts have programs designed to improve student
achievement. Respondents to the survey believed all programs utilized in their districts benefit
African-American students. Specifically, college access programs that emphasize college
preparation and funding for higher education received the highest response mean (3.82) on the
quantitative survey. However, there are only a few programs specifically designed to improve
academic achievement for African-American males. Superintendents significantly responded to
the need for programs to support African-American males including college access programs
(3.73) and adult role models or mentorships programs (3.27) on the quantitative survey.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 114
Additionally, the qualitative interviews revealed the need for role models and college access
programs. This finding was significant and it aligns with Fashola‘s (2005) research on the need
for programs designed for African-American males to include a role model and/or mentorship
component. Urban superintendents need to implement programs specifically designed for
African-American males that provide college access and positive role models.
Research question two, ―What are the strategies in academic and/or extracurricular
programs that support African-American male achievement?” The survey respondents provided
numerous strategies that can be utilized to improve student achievement for African-American
males. Superintendents identified strong instruction as the foundation for student learning (3.91)
and all students must retain skills learned (3.86) as the two most important strategies on the
quantitative survey. Superintendents surveyed and interviewed stressed the importance of
culturally relevant pedagogy (3.73), and the replacement of curriculum that is culturally
exclusionary (3.77) on the quantitative survey. Thompson‘s (2007) research aligns with the
importance of culturally relevant curriculum. The superintendents surveyed had a mean
response score of 3.55 for providing a safe and inclusive learning environment for African-
American male students. Creating a safe, inclusive learning environment for African-American
male students with rigorous and culturally relevant curriculum for the 21st century was a
common strategy theme.
Research question three asked, ―What are the strategies superintendents use or
implement that support African-American males’ academic achievement?” Urban
superintendents utilize various strategies to support academic achievement for African-American
males. The superintendents who participated in this study established a five-year non-negotiable
plan (3.32) that included key community members (3.32) in the development of these explicit
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 115
goals and targets for student performance (3.86) based on their survey responses. Additionally,
principals were included in the development of the district‘s non-negotiables (3.73) and specific
time tables were established to meet these goals. All of the strategies identified were significant
with a score over 3.30.
Very strong correlations existed between establish goals and targets to the following
strategies and practices: developing instructional leadership capacity; targeted, effective staff
development; funds allocation; using data to target intervention; and emphasize strong
instruction. The superintendents surveyed created a sense of urgency to improve academic
achievement for African-American males (3.86) while providing a safe learning environment for
this most vulnerable group of students (3.55). Superintendents surveyed also considered data-
driven interventions as a significant strategy to improve student achievement (3.82).
Research question four, ―What are the resources necessary to implement an effective
program aimed at improving African-American males’ academic achievement?” The three areas
of resources identified in this study included funding, professional development, and parental
support. The survey question allocate funds based on instructional priorities received the
highest score of 3.82. All programs or interventions implemented require a funding source(s) in
the form of money and/or human capital. Superintendents interviewed and surveyed utilized
grants, categorical funds, and human capital to implement new programs or strategies.
Human capital is a vital resource when implementing programs and strategies aimed at
improving instruction. This requires professional development to train teachers and staff. Carter
(2000) emphasized ―improving the quality of instruction is the only way to improve overall
student achievement‖ (p. 9). The Pearson correlation coefficient, or SPSS test, was conducted
and revealed a very strong correlation coefficient of .890 between providing targeted, effective
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 116
staff development and strong instruction as the key to improve student learning. Parental support
is a valuable resource to have in education. Superintendents surveyed agreed that it is important
for parents to participate in the education of their children and have a voice in the development
of policies that affect their education.
This study presented mixed results for the academic performance of African-American
students when reviewing the requirements of NCLB (U.S. Department of Education, 2001). The
research has discovered an increase in the performance of the African-American students in all
42 school districts that qualified to participate in this study. However, not all 42 school districts‘
CST data indicated a closing of the achievement gap. The data for the 2008-2012 time period
revealed the following: 62% of the school districts decreased the achievement gap; 33%
increased the achievement gap; and 5% showed no change between African-American and
Caucasian students.
Overall Findings
At the current rate, the academic gap closure for the 2013-2014 NCLB 100% proficiency
mandate will not be reached. More resources are required to improve academic success of
African-American male students. The notion or belief that raising the rigor to meet the demands
of the 21st century global economy for all students alone will close the academic gap for
African-American students and particularly African-American males is false. School districts
must utilize more specific, targeted interventions. Not all students learn at the same rate;
therefore, specific interventions are required to support students unable to perform at a higher
level of proficiency. Although the achievement gap is closing, it is too small of a closure rate to
meet the 2013-2014 deadline established by NCLB. There must be an enhanced sense of
urgency displayed by urban California superintendents.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 117
The significant findings from this research are as follows:
Urban superintendents need to implement programs specifically designed for African-
American males that provide college access and positive role models.
Create a safe, inclusive learning environment for African-American male students with
rigorous and culturally relevant curriculum for the 21st century.
Create a sense of urgency to improve academic achievement for African-American
males.
Targeted, effective staff development and strong instruction is the key to improve student
learning.
Implications
The significant findings associated with this study will add to the limited body of
knowledge regarding effective strategies urban superintendents use that improve the academic
achievement for African-American male students. This study provides insight of what
successful urban superintendents in California are utilizing to improve academic achievement for
all students and in particular African-Americans. The insights herein are useful to current and
aspiring superintendents embarking on the task to implement changes in their districts to
improve the academic success of their students and how they are successfully allocating
resources to support the academic achievement of their neediest students.
Although successful models are hard to duplicate, this study suggests that many
superintendents are utilizing many of the same strategies. The identification of common
strategies can provide support and guidance for superintendents who want to make systemic
changes in their organization to improve the academic achievement of African-American male
students. However, this study also indicates that many of the urban superintendents need a sense
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 118
of urgency in developing specific programs that will address the particular needs of the African-
American male students. There is a need for urgency to provide the resources necessary to help
this neediest population of students become as successful as the most gifted students in the
school district.
Recommendations
The study has important implications for urban superintendents developing effective
strategies that can be used to improve the academic achievement for African-American males.
The following are actions that should be taken to increase the academic success of the African-
American male student:
1. Find educators who really believe that the African-American male student can be
successful. Get the right people on the bus (Collins, 2001). Provide data-driven targeted
professional development that supports instructional leadership of principals and
teachers.
2. Create a strong sense of urgency. Examine academic and discipline data to develop a
strategic plan for success and develop tools to access plan/program effectiveness.
3. Provide culturally relevant pedagogy.
4. Provide the district and school site resources necessary to make African-American
students successful.
Recommendations for Future Study
Urban superintendents must possess and develop effective strategies that will continue to
support the success of African-American male students in the 21st century. The following are
suggestions for future possible research topics:
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 119
1. Urban superintendents will need to prepare for the Common Core State Standards
(CCSS) and the anticipated revised NCLB Act. Future research on how urban
superintendents allocate their resources with the new Common Core State Standards
(CCSS) to ensure all students are successful?
2. Future research on how principals in urban areas select, implement, and provide
professional development for teachers on programs designed to help African-Americans
students.
3. Urban school districts included in this study emphasized the need to provide college
access programs for African-American students. Future research on the effectiveness of
college access programs on increasing the numbers of African-American students
attending college.
4. Future research if a superintendent‘s experience makes a difference in African-American
male academic achievement.
Conclusions
This study examined the effective strategies that urban superintendents utilized to
improve the academic achievement of African-American male students. Urban superintendents
are under extreme pressure to improve the academic achievement of all students. Given the
current state of African-Americans students and the mandates of NCLB, urban superintendents
must take immediate action to assist our neediest students. To prepare our students for the 21st
century and the global economy, schools must become more inclusive, impartial, and effective
for our African-American male students to become successful.
The significant findings associated with this study will add to the limited body of
knowledge regarding effective strategies urban superintendents utilize that improve the academic
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 120
achievement for African-American male students. However, there is a growing body of
literature regarding educating African-American males and the findings in this study are
consistent with the latest strategies and suggestions on how to address their educational needs.
Ultimately, the strategies chosen and implemented by urban superintendents have a direct impact
on the academic achievement of African-American males.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 121
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Appendix A
Effective Strategies Urban Superintendents Utilize that
Improve the Academic Achievement for African-American Males
Survey
Thank you for taking 20 minutes to complete this survey about effective strategies and programs
you utilize to improve student achievement with emphasis on African-American males in your
district. Please read each statement carefully. Your response to each question will help develop a
comprehensive framework of leadership strategies and programs for improving student
achievement for African-American males. Your responses will remain strictly confidential.
Survey responses will be disaggregated so that your responses cannot be identified to you or
your school district.
I. BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Please complete the following:
1. Years of experience as a school superintendent: __________
2. Years of experience as the superintendent of your current school district: __________
3. Gender: ____Male ____ Female
4. Age: ____ ≤35 ____ 36-45 ____46-55 ____56-65 ____ ≥66
5. Highest degree held: _____Masters _____Doctorate
6. School District Name: ____________ Student enrollment:____________
II. Superintendent Leadership Strategies and Programs Utilized to Improve Student
Achievement for African-Americans
Please rate the importance of the following leadership strategies and programs as they relate to
your overall effort as the superintendent to improve student achievement in your current school
district.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 130
0=Do Not Use
1=Very Insignificant Aspect
2=Somewhat Insignificant Aspect
3=Somewhat Significant Aspect
4=Very Significant Aspect
Very
Insignificant
1
Somewhat
Insignificant
2
Somewhat
Significant
3
Very
Significant
4
Do Not
Use
0
7. Provide a safe
learning environment
for African-American
males
8. Examine school
safety policies and
procedures for
consistency throughout
the school district to
make sure they are not
being used for
discriminatory
purposes.
9. Create a sense of
urgency for improving
student achievement for
African-American
males
10. Establish explicit
goals and targets for
student performance
that are non-negotiable
11. Include school
principals in the
development of the non-
negotiable goals for the
district
12. Set specific time-
tables for meeting the
nonnegotiable goals
13. Include key
community members in
the nonnegotiable goal
setting process
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 131
Very
Insignificant
1
Somewhat
Insignificant
2
Somewhat
Significant
3
Very
Significant
4
Do Not
Use
0
14. Adopt a 5-year
nonnegotiable plan for
achievement and
instruction
15. Develop the
instructional leadership
capacity of personnel
throughout the district
16. Emphasize the
importance of recruiting
effective teachers and
administrators
17. Support the
instructional leadership
of principals by
restructuring the central
office to provide help,
support, and coaching
18. Provide targeted,
effective staff
development
19. Provide targeted
Professional
Development for
teachers on relationship
building with emphasis
on African-American
males.
20. Secure funds to
initiate reforms and
launch priorities
21. Allocate funds
based on instructional
priorities
22. Increase funding for
school counselors and
require a smaller ratio
of counselors to
students which could
help to improve the
emotional wellbeing of
students.
23. Use performance
data to target
interventions
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 132
Very
Insignificant
1
Somewhat
Insignificant
2
Somewhat
Significant
3
Very
Significant
4
Do Not
Use
0
24. Teachers trained
with culturally
responsive pedagogy
25. Replace culturally
exclusionary curriculum
26. Utilize curriculum
designed to help
students understand
historical events from
perspectives of various
racial, ethnic and
cultural groups
27. Emphasize that
strong instruction is the
key to improving
student learning
28. Expect staff
members to do
whatever it takes to
make sure that African-
American males are
achieving.
29. Have staff work
in teams to plan and
implement
improvement strategies
for African-American
males
30. Help students retain
skills learned
31. Sponsor mentoring
programs that are
designed to reduce
isolation among school-
age African-American
males
32. Reinforce the need
for college access
programs for African-
American male students
33. College access
programs that
emphasize college
preparation and funding
for higher education
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 133
Very
Insignificant
1
Somewhat
Insignificant
2
Somewhat
Significant
3
Very
Significant
4
Do Not
Use
0
34. Have programs in
your district that
systematically provide
additional time and
support to African-
American males who
are experiencing
difficulties learning
35. Have school-based
drug prevention
programs that
encourage peer
participation
36. Develop programs
designed to expand
opportunities for
African-American
males to work with
adult role models.
37. Provide programs
that support African-
American male students
38. Encourage African-
American parent
involvement in school
policy and decision-
making.
39. Increase attention
on African-American
parent involvement in
their child‘s learning
experiences at school.
Open-Ended Question
40. Please list the top three leadership strategies or programs that you believe improved student
achievement for African-American males in your district.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 134
Please indicate your willingness to participate in a one-on-one interview. This interview will
last approximately 45 minutes. Yes______ No _______
Thank you for participating in this survey.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 135
Appendix B
Survey Cover Letter
Dear Superintendent:
My name is Lushandra Prioleau and my dissertation partner is Cardenas Shackelford. We are
currently doctoral students at the University of Southern California pursuing an Ed.D. degree in
K-12 leadership, under the leadership of Dr. Pedro Garcia and Dr. Rudy Castruita. The purpose
of our study is to identify the effective strategies urban superintendents utilize to improve the
academic achievement for African-American males. Dr. Garcia and Dr. Castruita have identified
you as a successful leader in your district and we would appreciate your assistance with our
research endeavors. Collecting data from highly effective leaders is essential for the success of
our research.
We are very aware of your time constraints as a superintendent, and if it would be possible for
you to assist us with our research, please click on the enclosed link to fill out the survey. The
survey is designed to take no more than 20 minutes. At the conclusion of the survey, if you
decide to participate in a one-on-one interview, please indicate your willingness by marking the
appropriate box. The one-on-one interview will be approximately 45 minutes.
Participation in this survey is voluntary. This research study has been reviewed and approved by
the University of Southern California Institutional Review Board for Human Subjects Research.
The IRB believes that the research procedures protect your privacy, welfare, civil liberties,
anonymity, and rights. Please be assured that your voluntary participation and answers will be
kept confidential and anonymous. In no way will any data be presented in any manner where
any individual can be identified. If you have any questions, please feel free to contact us at
prioleau@usc.edu or shackelc@usc.edu.
Please kindly click the following link to take the survey at your earliest convenience:
Thank you very much for your time and kind assistance.
Sincerely,
Lushandra Prioleau & Cardenas Shackelford,
Ed.D. candidates USC
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 136
Appendix C
Information Sheet
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089
INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR NON-MEDICAL
RESEARCH
EFFECTIVE STRATEGIES URBAN SUPERINTENDENTS UTILIZE THAT IMPROVE THE
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN AMERICAN MALES
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study was to determine the effective strategies that urban superintendents in
California utilized to increase academic achievement for African American males. This study
will examine urban school districts in California that are successfully improving academic
achievement for African American males and the programs they utilized to sustain academic
growth.
Completion of the online survey will constitute consent to participate in this research project.
PROCEDURES
If you volunteer to participate in this study you will be asked to complete a 40 question survey
that consists of six demographic items, 34 items that ask you to rate the importance of each
leadership strategies and practices as it relates to your overall efforts to improve student
achievement for African American males in your district and one open ended question that asks
you if there are any additional leadership strategies or practices that you have used to improve
student achievement that was not included in the survey.
POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
There are no foreseeable risks to you for participating in this study. Any discomforts that you
may experience with questions may be managed by simply not answering the question.
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO SUBJECT AND/OR TO SOCIETY
Your participation in this study will add to the professional knowledge and understanding about
the leadership strategies and practices used to improve student achievement for African
American males. The findings will benefit other superintendents who strive to improve teaching
and learning in their districts.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT FOR AFRICAN-AMERICAN MALES 137
PAYMENT FOR PARTICIPATION
You will not be paid for your participation in this study.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Any information that is obtained in connection with this study and that can be identified to you
will remain confidential and will be disclosed only with your permission or as requested by law.
Only the researcher will have access to the data associated with this study. The data will be
stored in the investigator‘s office in a locked file cabinet and on a password protected computer.
The data will be stored for three years after the study has been completed and then destroyed.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no information will
be included that would reveal your identity.
The members of the research team, the funding agency and the University of Southern
California’s Human Subjects Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data.
The HSPP reviews and monitors research studies to protect the rights and welfare of research
subjects.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
You can choose whether to participate in this study or not. If you volunteer to be in this study,
you may withdraw at any time without consequence of any kind. You may also refuse to answer
any questions you do not want to answer and still remain in the study. The investigator may
withdraw you from this research if circumstances arise which warrant doing so.
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel to contact Lushandra
Prioleau at prioleau@usc.edu, Cardenas Shackelford at shackelc@usc.edu or Dr. Pedro Garcia,
Faculty Sponsor, at pegarcia@usc.edu
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park IRB, Office of the Vice Provost for Research Advancement, Stonier Hall, Room
224a, Los Angeles, CA 90089-1146, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edu
Abstract (if available)
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Prioleau, Lushandra
(author)
Core Title
Effective strategies urban superintendents utilize that improve the academic achievement for African American males
School
Rossier School of Education
Degree
Doctor of Education
Degree Program
Education (Leadership)
Publication Date
04/25/2013
Defense Date
02/11/2013
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
academic achievement,African American males,OAI-PMH Harvest,urban superintendents
Language
English
Contributor
Electronically uploaded by the author
(provenance)
Advisor
García, Pedro Enrique (
committee chair
), Castruita, Rudy Max (
committee member
), Marsh, Julie A. (
committee member
)
Creator Email
Mrsprioleau18@gmail.com,prioleau@usc.edu
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c3-242995
Unique identifier
UC11288252
Identifier
etd-PrioleauLu-1585.pdf (filename),usctheses-c3-242995 (legacy record id)
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etd-PrioleauLu-1585.pdf
Dmrecord
242995
Document Type
Dissertation
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Prioleau, Lushandra
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
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The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...
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Repository Location
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Tags
academic achievement
African American males
urban superintendents