University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Reclaiming the dream: credit recovery and graduation at a California model continuation high school

(USC Thesis Other)

Reclaiming the dream: credit recovery and graduation at a California model continuation high school

PDF

Download a page range

Download transcript

Copy asset link

Request this asset

Transcript (if available)

Content Running head: CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

1

RECLAIMING THE DREAM: CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION AT
A CALIFORNIA MODEL CONTINUATION HIGH SCHOOL

by

Jennifer Dall

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2016

Copyright 2016 Jennifer Dall

CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

2

Acknowledgements
For many years I dreamed of earning my doctorate, much the way that many students
dream of taking that final step and graduating from high school. Just like the students in this
study, life often got in the way of fulfilling this dream. While I did successfully complete this
journey, I was never alone. To start with, I could not have completed this journey without the
support of my family, so my first “Thank you!” goes out to my husband, Bryan, and our
wonderful daughter, Jacqueline. Without your support, I would not have begun, much less
completed, this program.
Support also came from many other sources. I would like to thank my dissertation
committee for their support, guidance and also the freedom to explore what interested me, in my
own way. Without my chairs, Dr. Patricia Tobey and Dr. Patrick Crispen, this process would
have been much more painful and much less enjoyable. I would also like to thank the third
member of my committee, Dr. Artineh Samkian, who taught me that the answer to most
questions is, “it depends.” Thank you all for helping me to achieve this dream!
Day in and day out I also received support from people at work. Dr. Rene Valdes, you
were a role model, a gatekeeper, and source of inspiration during this project. Dr. Amy Lambert,
I thank you for the encouragement and kind words as I’ve progressed through this journey. To
Tammy, Sara and Kelly, you all contributed to our group and I couldn’t have succeeded without
you in this three-year endurance event. Dr. Deb Albin, you were a source of wisdom and the
voice of reason during the final months of writing my dissertation and for that, I thank you. And
finally, I need to thank Dr. Houri Keuroughlian, for the support, the walks, the Starbucks and
Whole Foods runs and all while surviving teaching together and USC. I will never forget the
friendship you have shown me. Thank you all!
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

3

Table of Contents
Abstract 5
Chapter One: Overview of the Study 6
Background of the Problem 8
Statement of the Problem 11
Purpose of the Study 12
Significance of the Study 13
Limitations and Delimitations 14
Definition of Terms 16
Organization of the Study 17
Chapter Two: Literature Review 19
High School Requirements 19
Dropout from School 21
Reasons for Leaving School 22
When They Leave: Key Lifespan Events 25
What Happens When They Leave: Consequences 27
What Can Stop Them From Leaving: Mitigating Factors 27
Alternative Education 29
Options to Come Back 29
Continuation High Schools: Background 31
Continuation High School Concerns 32
Enrollment Policies 32
Academics/Mission 33
Stakeholder Perception 33
Effective Continuation High Schools 34
Programs 34
Effective Strategies 36
Sense of Community 37
Why This School? 38
Theoretical Framework 39
Social Cognitive Theory 39
Teacher Self-Efficacy 40
Perceived Collective Efficacy 41
Summary 42
Chapter Three: Methods 44
Purpose 44
Research Questions 45
Research Design 45
Sample and Population 46
Context 46
Sample 48
Selection Criteria 48
Instrumentation and Data Collection 50
Research Questions and Instrumentation 51
Document Review Method 51
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

4

Interview Instrumentation and Method 52
Observation Instrumentation and Method 54
Validity and Reliability 56
Data Analysis 57
Approach to Coding Collected Data 57
Ethical Considerations 57
Summary 58
Chapter Four: Findings 59
Research questions 60
Response to Research Questions 60
Data for Research Question One 60
Effective Programs 61
Strategies 65
Sense of Community 71
Summary of Results for Research Question One 74
Data for Research Question Two 74
Summary of Results for Research Question Two 79
Summary 79
Chapter Five: Discussion 82
Purpose, Significance and Methodology of the Study 83
Discussion of Findings 84
Implications for Practice 89
Future Research 91
Conclusions 92
References 94
Appendix A – Interview Protocol 99
Appendix B – Observation Protocol 103

CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

5

Abstract
High school students who find themselves credit deficient are at risk for dropping out of school
and not graduating with their peers. This can lead to a host of social, economic and health
problems for the student. One option for students who are credit deficient is to attend a
continuation high school. This study applies sociocultural theory in the form of teacher self-
efficacy and collective efficacy to understand factors that may contribute to success for credit-
deficient students at a school that was designated as a Model California Continuation High
School. The research questions for this study were: 1) What are staff and key stakeholders doing
to support their students in the quest to recover credits and earn a high school diploma? 2) What
are the perceptions of staff and key stakeholders about these instructional strategies and systemic
programs to support their students? Data collection procedures included interviews with staff and
key stakeholders, observations of school and classroom events and review of publicly available
documents. Data were coded and findings were analyzed according to themes related to the
research questions. Findings indicate that successful continuation high schools create student
focused programs, utilize a variety of strategies, develop a strong sense of community and
demonstrate high levels of teacher self-efficacy. This study shows a connection between these
factors and a successful continuation high school that assists credit-deficient students in
recovering credits in order to graduate from high school.

CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

6

CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Harlem
By Langston Hughes

What happens to a dream deferred?

Does it dry up
like a raisin in the sun?
Or fester like a sore—
And then run?
Does it stink like rotten meat?
Or crust and sugar over—
like a syrupy sweet?

Maybe it just sags
like a heavy load.

Or does it explode?

High school graduation is a dream for almost every high school student in America;
unfortunately, for some students, it is a dream that is deferred, often indefinitely. Successful
completion of high school to earn a high school diploma is viewed as a right of passage and a
requirement to be successful in the adult world outside of school. Unfortunately, research shows
that public schools are failing to ensure that all students are able to achieve this goal (America’s
Promise Alliance, 2013). A series of initiatives designed to guarantee success and set minimum
standards for completion, such as the California High School Exit Exam (CAHSEE), the federal
No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) and the Common Core State Standards (CCSS), make
success more difficult to achieve for students who struggle with the academic, social, structural
or personal aspects of public school.
In addition to requirements mandated by the state and federal government, secondary
schools, in particular high schools, implement strict credit requirements for students in order to
earn a high school diploma. Some students struggle with meeting the requirements and those
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

7

students who cannot or do not earn sufficient credits are among those at risk for dropping out of
high school. The national high school graduation rate is only 80% and 20% of students do not
graduate with their peers, if at all (America’s Promise Alliance, 2014). Minority, low socio-
economic status (SES), English Language Learners (ELL), and students with disabilities are at
greatest risk for dropping out of high school and not graduating with their peers (Scanlon &
Mellard, 2002). Therefore, failure to acquire sufficient credits to earn a high school diploma is a
factor that robs students of the ability to achieve their dreams and contributes to a crisis that will
continue to impact the nation unless this issue is satisfactorily addressed.
There are multiple pathways to high school dropout, including being credit deficient.
Students primarily dropout of school during high school; however, factors leading to dropout
have been shown to begin in elementary school and increase with age, becoming most critical in
the 8
th
-9
th
grade transition to high school (Allensworth, 2013; Cohen & Smerdon, 2009). The
National High School Center identifies four key indicators of dropout: poor grades in core
subjects, low attendance, failure to be promoted to the next grade, and disengagement in the
classroom, including behavioral problems (Kennelly & Monrad, 2007). So opportunities for
dropout and disengagement are pervasive among certain populations for a variety of reasons.
In addition, there are multiple school and personal factors associated with dropping out of
school. School-based reasons for dropping out include reliance on high-stakes testing, zero-
tolerance school discipline policies, and a stringent focus on college readiness (Freudenberg &
Ruglis, 2007). Personal issues outside of the school setting for dropping out include family,
economic and health issues (Allensworth, 2013; Kennelly & Monrad 2007). The lack of
education can lead to risky health behaviors (Freudenberg & Ruglis, 2007; Kennelly & Monrad,
2007) and the school-to-prison pipeline (Wald & Losen, 2003). Further, motivation, perceived
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

8

competence and issues of persistence impact student resistance to dropping out (Eisenman,
2007). One consequence of any of these factors is failure to earn credits required for high school
graduation. Failure to earn sufficient credits and a high school diploma can impact every facet of
a student’s life. These students require a different option from that offered to students who can
be successful at a comprehensive high school.
This study explored one possible solution to the dropout crisis for students who are credit
deficient for high school graduation. Many students who dropout do so because they are lacking
the credits, or are credit deficient, to earn a diploma and graduate with their peers. One possible
solution for these credit deficient students is attendance at a continuation high school aimed at
credit recovery leading to high school graduation. The staff and administration at successful
continuation high schools aim to assist credit deficient students to recover sufficient credits and
achieve their dream of graduating from high school. The remainder of this chapter begins with a
discussion of the background of the problem and the statement of the problem. Following this,
the purpose of the study and significance of the study will be presented. Finally, limitations,
delimitations, definitions of terms and the organizational structure of the study will be discussed.
Background of the Problem
One group of students who are at risk for dropping out of school and not earning a
diploma are students who are credit deficient. Students who drop out, or are on the path to
dropout due to earning insufficient credits, have been failed by their comprehensive high school.
This section will present a brief introduction to the concept of credit deficient students and credit
recovery options leading to high school graduation for these students.
High school students in California must earn a minimum of 220 credits before the end of
12
th
grade in order to earn a high school diploma. Once a student has failed several classes, the
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

9

student is labeled ‘credit deficient.’ The label of credit deficient indicates that the student
mathematically cannot earn enough credits in the comprehensive high school in the time period
specified to graduate with his peers. While there are a multitude of reasons for why students find
themselves credit deficient, there are limited pathways to get back on track to graduation. One
pathway back is through programs labeled ‘alternative education’ by the state of California. This
study will focus on how one kind of alternative education program, continuation high schools,
can help students once they are labeled credit deficient.
Alternative education programs, such as continuation high schools, offer one option for
students to recover credits and once again be eligible for high school graduation. Alternative
education programs are designed to provide students an alternative setting and program that may
lead to more success for the student than the one they left. Continuation high schools with a
focus on credit recovery are designed to give students a new start and an opportunity to earn
more credits and reclaim their dream of earning a high school diploma. A student at most
comprehensive high schools is expected to earn 30 credits a semester, or 60 credits a year. Under
this design, in four years a student would earn 240 credits, which is 20 more than the minimum
220 required for graduating with a diploma. Some credit recovery based continuation high
schools operate under a trimester plan so that a student can earn 30 credits during each of three
semesters per year. This allows a student who is credit deficient the option to earn 90 credits a
year instead of 60 credits a year. The design of a credit recovery continuation high school allows
options for student success.
Unfortunately, continuation high school programs vary widely in their effectiveness and
quality. Concerns about continuation schools include lack of focus on academics, lack of
stakeholder respect, and a concern over whether students are dropping out or being pushed out
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

10

which leads to conflicting admissions practices (Kelly, 1993). A few programs have been able to
overcome such criticism. Research has indicated that self-determination training and effective
instruction could be effective strategies for dropout prevention in a continuation high school
(Bost & Riccomini, 2006). In addition, programs that are successful in helping students to
graduate utilize strategies including identifying those most at risk, providing access to an adult
advocate, offering academic and behavioral supports, as well as providing personalized
instruction with rigorous and relevant instruction (Pyle & Wexler, 2012). Unfortunately, research
has found that many continuation high schools are not consistent in their programming or in
providing opportunities for success and as a result, students do not recover credits at an
appropriate pace, failing to ever earn a diploma (Kelly, 1992). Therefore, the documented lack of
consistent effectiveness at continuation high schools is a concern.
It is important to focus on students who are credit deficient and yet remain connected to
the school system before they drop out of school entirely. These students are still in contact with
school site staff and administration and are still part of the school system. Once they drop out of
school completely, contact and communication can be difficult, and students may be reluctant to
return. While credit deficient students are mathematically unable to graduate with their peers
according to the comprehensive high school system, continuation high schools focused on credit
recovery offer an option for students to recover credits and graduate. Within these systems there
are students who take advantage of the opportunity to successfully recover credits and reclaim
their dream to graduate from their continuation high school. In order to better prevent students
from dropping out and to better understand how continuation high schools work to provide
students an alternative pathway to graduation, it is important to determine the strategies and
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

11

systemic programs provided by successful continuation high schools to help students recover
credits and graduate from high school.
Statement of the Problem
This study of a credit recovery program leading to high school graduation focused on
staff and other key stakeholders (site based administrators, counselors, and psychologists) at a
school designated as a California Model Continuation High School in southern California. While
the study examined student dropout and credit recovery on the path to high school graduation,
the focus was on how staff and other key stakeholders provided support through strategies and
systemic programs to assist their student in recovering credit and earning a high school diploma
from the continuation high school. Without this support, fewer students will be successful in
graduating from high school. In addition, the study examined the perceptions of the staff and key
stakeholders about these strategies and programs.
Many factors systemic to comprehensive public high schools, including the new
Common Core State Standards’ focus on the College and Career Readiness Anchor standards
and also both school- and personal-based issues, impede student progress toward earning
sufficient credits for high school graduation and often lead to students leaving school without a
diploma. Credit deficient students, as well as those who have already dropped out of school,
struggle against multiple obstacles in order to earn a high school diploma. One option available
to these students is an alternative education program and in particular, a continuation high
school. However, continuation high schools vary in their ability to help students graduate due to
issues concerning curriculum, programs and staffing. Therefore, it is important to identify what
strategies and systemic programs within continuation high schools such as orientation programs,
academies and special programs, partnerships with community agencies, early warning system
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

12

and opportunities for parent participation are being implemented to support students in the quest
to recover credits and earn a high school diploma. It is also important to identify the perceptions
of the staff and stakeholders about their use of these strategies and systemic programs as these
perceptions may help determine the success of a program.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore the strategies and systemic programs
implemented at one public continuation high school in southern California, Page High School
(PHS, a pseudonym), by staff and key stakeholders to support their students in their quest to
recover credits and ultimately earn a high school diploma. It also examined staff and stakeholder
perceptions of these approaches.
The two research questions that guided this study are:
1. What are PHS staff and key stakeholders doing to support their students in the quest to
recover credits and earn a high school diploma?
2. What are the perceptions of PHS staff and key stakeholders about these strategies and
systemic programs to support their students?
This study examined the strategies and systemic programs at a public continuation high
school, which has earned the California Model Continuation High School designation. The
strategies and programs, as well as the staff and key stakeholder perceptions of these, were
examined through a lens of teacher self-efficacy. Research into teacher self-efficacy indicates
that success can be determined in part by how much a teacher believes in the ability to impact
students (Skaalvak & Skaalvak, 2007). This belief about personal abilities to impact student
success in recovering credits and graduating from high school may in turn lead to greater success
in these areas. This concept of teacher self-efficacy can also be applied to key stakeholders such
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

13

as administrators who, as leaders, work at the site to implement strategies and systemic programs
designed to help students recover credits and graduate from school. The lens of teacher and
administrator self-efficacy contributed to a discussion of what was being done to offer support
and how they perceived these actions.
Significance of the Study
This study is important because, as not all students are successful in their dream to
graduate from a comprehensive high school with a diploma, it is critical to examine alternative
pathways to graduation and earning a diploma. High school dropout statistics indicate that one in
five students does not graduate with peers (America’s Promise Alliance, 2013). In addition,
failure to earn a high school diploma can lead to a host of personal, health, legal, social and
economic issues (Freudenberg & Ruglis, 2007; Kennelly & Monrad, 2007; Wald & Losen,
2003). Successful alternative education programs, such as those at Page High School, can
mitigate these issues, as well as their lifelong impact on young people. It is important to study
the strategies and systemic programs implemented by Page High School so that other sites can
replicate their successes and increase student graduation rates. These strategies and systemic
programs include an orientation program, academies and special programs, partnerships with
community agencies, early warning system and opportunities for parent participation. Research
into these areas will add to the existing body of literature on credit recovery programs leading to
high school graduation for credit deficient students, which may increase high school graduation
rates.
This case study will add to the existing literature identifying what staff and key
stakeholders at a public continuation high school designated as a California Model Continuation
High School do to provide support to their students to recover credits and graduate from the
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

14

continuation high school. Current literature on the subject reveals a gap between successful
student credit recovery rates at the most successful continuation high schools with limited credit
recovery success at the majority of the schools. The information in this case study may assist
educators in determining which strategies will have the most likelihood to help create successful
continuation school programs at other locations. The implications for the wider population are
the ability to learn more about systemic programs and strategies that can help students recover
from credit deficit status and earn a high school diploma in a continuation school; and to develop
programs and strategies that can be replicated at other settings.
Limitations and Delimitations
Any outside organization that wishes to learn more about programs and strategies to help
continuation high school students recover credits and graduate from high school would need to
be aware of the limitations of the current study. The limitations of this qualitative study are
factors that could affect the outcome of this study and which are outside the researcher’s control.
The following are some of the identified limitations for this study related to the site and logistics
of the study. This case study will be limited to one public continuation high school designated as
a California Model Continuation High School in southern California and therefore, the findings
may not be generalizable to other schools or districts. This case study will also be limited to a
small sample size due to the limited number of staff members employed at the school site and
may not provide the breadth of results that a larger study would allow, and therefore, it might not
be reflective of all strategies and practices utilized by the school as a whole. Limitations related
to sample size and site location of study may impact the outcomes of the study and are outside
the researcher’s control.
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

15

There are additional limitations that may affect the outcome of the study and are also
outside the researcher’s control. Other limitations are related to staff and key stakeholders being
interviewed and observed for this study. The sample size for this study will be dependent on both
the size of the staff as well as the willingness of the staff and key stakeholders to participate in
this study. As PHS is a small site, some staff or administration may not desire to be a part of the
study. This may limit the amount and usefulness of the data collected. Another limitation of this
study is that participants may not answer questions truthfully, or may answer questions based on
what they believe they are expected to say, due to the belief that they might not be as proficient
in strategies or as knowledgeable as other teachers. Participants may not want to be perceived as
not being proficient or qualified. Finally, the collection of all data will be subject to the
knowledge, skills, and perspective of a single researcher. While the researcher will attempt to
acknowledge and try to address these limitations, they are best acknowledged. The preceding
limitations may affect the outcome of this study.
In addition to the stated limitations to the study, delimitations may affect the outcome of
the study. The delimitations of this qualitative study are the boundaries of the study (Best &
Kahn, 2006). The following are some of the identified delimitations of this study. The study will
be delimited to a total of the equivalent of six days of research accumulated over multiple days
on site. This was determined to be the most advantageous use of time available by the researcher
to gather data. Also, the research instruments were designed by an individual researcher to focus
on the strategies and systemic programs used by model continuation high school staff and key
stakeholders to assist students in credit recovery and graduation, and their perceptions about such
strategies and programs. As such, these instruments may focus on some aspects of PHS to the
detriment of others. The sample chosen is comprised of teachers and key stakeholders who have
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

16

been recommended by the principal and are considered highly qualified and certified to work
with and teach struggling students at the high school level. As such, the participants’
backgrounds will limit and define the scope of possible responses. The delimitations related to
this study set the boundaries for the study and may affect the outcome of the study.
Definition of Terms
The following terms are used in this case study. These terms are defined to provide an
understanding of their use in this qualitative study. For the purposes of this study, key terms and
concepts are used as described in this section.
• Alternative Education: Public school programs structured to serve students who are not
successful in traditional comprehensive school settings (Kim & Taylor, 2010).
• California Model Continuation High School: A state program recognizing exemplary
California continuation high school programs (CDE, 2015). Promising schools submit
documentation with an application to begin the process. Successful schools are awarded
the designation of being a California Model Continuation High School.
• College and Career Readiness Anchor Standards (CCRAS): Standards within the
Common Core State Standards designed to ensure students are prepared for college and
career success after high school (CDE, 2015).
• Common Core State Standards (CCSS): Nationally based educational standards adopted
by the state of California Department of Education that specify what each student needs
to learn in each grade (CDE, 2015).
• Comprehensive high school: A general public high school serving students on-track for
high school graduation (CDE, 2015).
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

17

• Continuation education: Public school programs serving students at least 16 years old
who are at-risk for not graduating from high school (CDE, 2015).
• Continuation high school: A public school program that provides services to at-risk
students through instructional strategies, flexible scheduling, intervention and guidance
(CDE, 2015).
• Credit deficient: A term used to describe a student who has not earned sufficient credits
to be able to graduate from a public high school with peers (CDE, 2015).
• Credit recovery: A general term used to describe various programs that enable students to
earn missed credits. These programs can be on-line, blended, or in person. For the sake of
this study, the credit recovery program examined is ‘in person’ (Center for Public
Education, 2015).
• Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC): The regional accrediting
association for California public secondary schools and colleges. It aims to recognize
schools that provide acceptable levels of quality education. The top recognition is being
awarded a 6-year review (WASC, 2015).
Organization of the Study
This study will be conducted to identify the strategies and systemic programs that PHS
staff and key stakeholders implement to support their students in their quest to recover credits
and earn a high school diploma from the continuation high school, as well as their perceptions of
these strategies and programs. This qualitative dissertation is divided into five chapters. The
chapters include an overview of the study, a literature review, the research design, the findings of
the study and a conclusion. Chapter one gave an overview of the study by providing a general
outline about the background and statement of the problem, purpose and significance of the
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

18

study, the limitations and delimitations of the study, definitions and information on how this
study is organized. Chapter two is the literature review based on the current literature relating to
factors leading to and consequences of high school dropout, alternative options for students to
earn a diploma, the history of continuation high schools, along with criticisms of continuation
high school programs, components of successful continuation high school programs, and a brief
discussion of the site chosen for study. Chapter three is the methodology used for this qualitative
study. It includes an introduction, the research questions and design, population and sample, the
instrumentation, data collection and analysis. Chapter four is a presentation of data of this
qualitative study based on the research conducted at Page High School, a public continuation
public high school with the California Model Continuation High School designation, in Foothills
Unified School District. Chapter five presents the conclusions of this study, discusses
recommendations for future research, and summarizes the findings, conclusions and implications
of this study.
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

19

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
As the final segment of a child’s compulsory school career, the high school program in
the United States is designed to both educate the student and prepare the student for the future.
Recent policies such as the California High School Exit Exam (CAHSEE), the Common Core
State Standards (CCSS), and federal legislation such as No Child Left Behind (NCLB), have set
lofty standards for all students and aim to guarantee that every child earns a high school diploma
and is prepared for career and college. For some populations of students, meeting these
expectations is a difficult task. As a result, many students are at risk for dropping out of school
and not graduating with their peers (America’s Promise Alliance, 2014). The following literature
review summarizing research into the basics of high school and graduation requirements, issues
contributing to the high school drop out crises, alternative education programs, in particular
continuation high schools aimed at credit recovery, and the related framework of teacher self-
efficacy, presents evidence of the importance of this issue. The literature review will address the
issue of helping students at risk for dropout due to credit deficiency to recover credits and
graduate from the continuation high school. In addition, this chapter will present suggestions
derived from the literature for how continuation high school staff and administration can help
mitigate the risk for further failure and drop out for students at risk for not graduating.
High School Requirements
In order to achieve the dream of graduating from high school with a diploma, students
must meet all graduation requirements. In a four-year high school program it is expected that
students will graduate at the end of the fourth year, with peers, after having met all of the
requirements. Requirements for high school graduation in California include performing at a
proficient level on educational standards, earning a preset number of credits in specified areas,
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

20

and completing the California High School Exit Exam (CAHSEE) requirement by passing the
test or obtaining an approved waiver or exemption (CDE, 2015). Failure to meet any one of these
requirements will hinder a student from graduating from high school with a diploma at the same
time as his or her peers.
Students earn passing grades in classes by meeting the standards or expectations of each
class. For almost all academic subjects, these standards are now determined by the Common
Core State Standards (CCSS). The CCSS provide a framework that seeks to guarantee that every
child graduates from high school having met core academic as well as College and Career
Readiness Anchor standards (CCRAS). Until the adoption of the CCSS, students in different
states were often held accountable to different standards. In the past some states aligned their
standards with a minimum level of competency and some with the highest level of competency
but CCSS has attempted to bring all states to the same level of expected competency (Venezia &
Jaeger, 2013). To date, these standards have been adopted by 46 states, including California, and
the District of Columbia (CDE, 2015). As the CCSS drive instruction and planning for all
students, students must meet these standards to earn class credit toward graduation. Therefore the
academic portion of the CCSS holds students accountable to expectations that some cannot meet.
The CCSS are an additional obstacle for students who struggle with staying in school and
earning a high school diploma. In particular, the College and Career Readiness Anchor standards
have implication for at-risk students working to graduate from high school. Venezia and Jaeger
(2013) point out that the CCSS focuses on core subjects instead of “habits of mind” related to
college readiness, the non-content related skills needed for college (p.18). College readiness
involves rigorous coursework in addition to these habits of mind (Venezia & Jaeger, 2013),
development of a college-going attitude (Barnes, Slate & Rojas-LaBouef, 2010), and ‘college
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

21

knowledge’ involving details of the admission process and other issues related to social capital
and access (Hooker & Brand, 2010). The CCSS’ focus on college and career readiness may not
meet the needs of all students but instead impede their ability to earn credits for graduation and
therefore hinder their preparation for life after high school. Unfortunately, the reality is that
college and career readiness is for the most part actually an expectation of being college ready
and does not accurately reflect a career- or job- ready path. Therefore, those who cannot or do
not meet the academic demands of CCSS at high school may leave unprepared for either college
or career (Barnes & Slate, 2013). A third group of students, identified as “the underserved third”
(Deil-Amen & DeLuca, 2010, p. 34) who have taken only lower level, non-college prep
academic classes but also not benefited from job or career guidance, find themselves untrained
for future work. Ironically, despite news reports, a majority of jobs are in areas that do not
require a college degree but the underserved third is not educated and not trained for or aware of
these jobs (Deil-Amen & DeLuca, 2010).
In conclusion, most students aim to achieve their dream of graduating from high school
with their peers. As the research documents, this path can be hindered by various state
requirements for graduation. Furthermore, when a student does not meet these standards, the
dream of a high school diploma may be unachievable.
Dropout from School
Students who leave public school for any reason are at extreme risk for never returning
and completing their education. The problem of leaving high school early without a diploma can
best be viewed by examining who leaves, why the leave, when they leave, what happens when
they leave, what could stop them from permanently leaving and, ultimately, where some of them
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

22

could go. The following sections discuss literature related to these aspects of high school
dropout.
Many students who are unsuccessful in school end up dropping out of school and never
earning a diploma. While the term dropout may refer to anyone who leaves school from one year
to the next without earning a diploma, in this discussion the term dropout will refer to those who
voluntarily leave school without a diploma and do not graduate from high school with their
peers. High school dropout rates continue to be a national concern given the populations that are
most at risk and the consequences for them. The statistics are sobering. The national graduation
rate is only 80% and 20% of students do not graduate with peers (America’s Promise Alliance,
2014). In addition, one in four African American and one in five Hispanic students attend high
schools where graduating is not the norm for the student body. The students most at risk are low
SES, ELL and students with disabilities, and males are far more likely to drop out than females
(America’s Promise Alliance, 2014; Scanlon & Mellard, 2002). On a more local level, the
statistics are only slightly better. The California Department of Education (CDE) reports that for
the 2013-14 school year the dropout rate was 12.7% in Los Angeles County, with special
education students dropping out at the rate of 15.6% and English Learners dropping out at the
rate of 23.7%. Racial dropout data rates range from 7.6% of White, not Hispanic students
dropping out, to 14.4% of Hispanic students to 18.8% of African American students. As
documented, high school dropout rates remain high and most impact those subgroups with the
fewest personal resources to return to school, recover credits and graduate from high school.
Reasons for Leaving School
Students leave school for a variety of reasons. One of the underlying issues impacting
successful solutions to high school dropout is the lack of clarity in terms used to describe these
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

23

students and their paths in and out of public education. Kelly (1993), in a classic work, explains
that the impetus of dropping out is on the individual, while the impetus of being pushed out is on
society. Both are a mutual process of rejection. In a report that compared the findings of seven
nationally representative studies of key government funded research since 1950, Doll, Eslami
and Walters (2013) found that for the most part, females and Hispanics reported feeling pulled
out of education by matters such as family issues while males and African Americans reported
feeling pushed out of education by the system. The authors identified a third option, falling out
or being disengaged from the process of schooling, which has become more prevalent due to
both societal changes and how the measurement of leaving school has changed since the 1950s.
Further research on reasons for leaving school indicates that those who report dropping out
report attendance and motivational issues while those who report being pushed out report
academic and behavioral difficulties (Scanlon & Mellard, 2002). While various terms are used to
describe the concepts of students no longer attending school with their peers, the end result is
students are unable to earn a high school diploma and graduate with their peers.
Some students do not graduate because of school-based issues. Research has found that
schools contribute to the rate at which students do not graduate with their peers. Freudenberg and
Ruglis (2007) summarized research on health benefits of graduating from high school and
determined that reliance on high-stakes tests, zero-tolerance school discipline policies, and a
focus on college readiness were all school-based issues leading to students dropping out of
school and not earing a diploma. In addition, other research has shown that ineffective
instructional strategies, as opposed to intensive and systematic instructional approaches that
should be used with at-risk groups, hinder students’ opportunities for success (Bost & Riccomini,
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

24

2006). The previously mentioned issues related to student failure to graduate from high school
originate within the school itself.
While school systems contribute to student dropout, many other factors related to failure
to graduate originate within the student. Within this realm, family, economic and health reasons
are cited as issues leading to dropout (Lessard, et al., 2008; Allensworth, 2013). In addition,
personal issues that impact the decision to leave or stay in school include motivation, perceived
competence and issues of persistence, with a lack of self-determination in goal setting and belief
also being a source leading students to dropout (Eisenman, 2007). As shown, personal issues
throughout the child’s life impact high school completion rates.
Friends and family are an additional factor that can impact a student’s decision to remain
in school. Strom and Boster (2007) found that negative messages in the home about educational
attainment, including a lack of positive discussion of educational goals and expectations, impact
a student’s chances of staying in school. In other words, students whose parents do not discuss
school in a positive manner are more likely to do poorly or drop out of school. Furthermore, it
has been found that peers and family attitudes toward the school system and having a sibling
drop out increase the chances of dropping out of school (Terry, 2008). In addition, some students
reported having to dropout to care for siblings or parents. The aforementioned negative messages
and lack of positive reinforcement from family and friends can lead students to not see the value
in education and therefore not stay in school.
As presented, there are various reasons, personal and systemic, why students leave
school. These can be traced back to school, personal and community concerns. In addition to
these reasons for why students leave school, there are key periods in a student’s life that predict
the likelihood of dropout.
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

25

When They Leave: Key Lifespan Events
Just as students leave school for a variety of reasons, they leave due to factors occurring
at different points of their lives. Two key lifespan events related to leaving school have been
traced to both the primary grades and the 8
th
-9
th
grade transition to high school. Kennelly and
Monrad (2007) identified four key indicators of dropout across time: failing grades in core
subjects, poor attendance, failure to be promoted to the next grade, and disengagement in the
classroom. While these indicators apply across grade levels regardless of when students leave
school, there are other specific age level indicators for dropout. Leaving school before
graduation is a problem because there are numerous documented consequences for failing to earn
a high school diploma.
The high school dropout problem does not begin in high school. In a review of 30 years
of literature on dropout, it was found that requiring a student to repeat a grade in elementary
school was a good indicator of dropout across these studies (Bowers, Sprott & Taff, 2013). In
addition, Hickman, et al., (2008) tracked a cohort from kindergarten to high school graduation,
focusing on 60 students who graduated and 60 students who dropped out, and found that by early
elementary those who would eventually dropout already had been identified as having lower
reading, writing and math performance, more absences and more behavior problems. Indicators
of future dropout risk originating in early elementary years should not be ignored when
investigating factors leading to high school dropout.
Much recent research has focused on early warning indicators of the 8
th
and 9
th
grade
years in school. Allensworth (2013), working with the University of Chicago Consortium,
examined ninth-grade early warning indicators of dropout involving 9
th
graders throughout the
district and determined that the freshman on-track indicator is a better indicator than test scores
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

26

for predicting future high school dropout. To be considered on-track for graduation, a student
could not have failed more than one core class freshman year. Only 37% of those who failed
more than one core class graduated in 4 years. Allensworth also found that unexcused absences
were the second clearest indicator of future dropout as, unfortunately, on average unexcused
absences quadrupled from 8
th
to 9
th
grade. Bowers, Sprott and Taff’s (2013) review of research
found that Allensworth’s early warning indicator is highly accurate for predicting dropout.
Reasons for the decline in student success during this time period are due to an increase in
instructional expectations, drop off of monitoring, and physical changes due to puberty (Cohen
& Smerdon, 2009). The authors argue that dropout and high school reform measures need to
include strong transition to high school components, including participation by family, staff and
students. Unfortunately, their research has shown that students who fall off track due to failing to
earn sufficient credits in core classes during this time period may never recover. Finally,
Hickman, et al., (2008) echo these findings in research that examined differential pathways
between high school graduates and high school dropouts. In a random sample of 119 high school
students they found that by the time students reach high school, there were two distinct groups of
students, those who would dropout and those who would not dropout. Those who eventually
dropped out were on a different course from the beginning. These students had a lower 9
th
grade
GPA and also took more remedial classes mandated by NCLB which made more work for the
students and took away elective classes, putting them into a further bind. Of the previously
mentioned indicators discussed regarding dropout, the freshman on-track indicators from the data
from 8
th
and 9
th
grade are the best predictors of likelihood of not graduating with peers.

CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

27

What Happens When They Leave: Consequences
Failure to stay in school and graduate with peers has been shown to have a lifelong
impact on students in almost every facet of their lives. Zero-tolerance discipline policies forcing
students to be suspended or expelled from school lead to the removal of a safety net that can
keep these students in school. Once students leave school it is difficult for them to return (Wald
& Losen, 2003). In addition, once they have left school, students are more likely to end up in
prison, use illegal substances, have health problems, rely on social services, be underemployed
and less involved in their communities (Kennelly & Monrad, 2007). In fact, the link to risky
health behaviors among dropouts has led to a call for the dropout crises to be labeled a public
health issue as poor health also impacts dropout rate due to illness, pregnancy, substance abuse,
psychological and behavioral issues (Freudenberg & Ruglis, 2007). The authors state that
education is the strongest factor influencing health and that a good education leads to better
housing, nutrition, medical care, insurance, and better resources. Therefore, those who fail to
earn a high school diploma may be subject to a life of problems encompassing health, legal, and
socioeconomic issues.
What Can Stop Them From Leaving: Mitigating Factors
Understanding the factors contributing to and lifelong implications for students not
graduating from comprehensive high schools is important for improving student success.
Research has shown that there are mitigating factors that can help impact a student’s decision to
resist dropping out and continue or return to school. Primarily these mitigating factors surround
family and self.
One source of mitigating factors against completely dropping out of high school is the
power of families. In a quantitative study using data from the National Education Longitudinal
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

28

Study of 1988, Anguiano (2004) examined parental involvement in relation to high school
graduation rates. The author found a positive link between two parent households, higher income
and maternal education with greater student graduation rates. In addition, issues surrounding
family involvement, social capital, and advocacy positively impact student dropout rates out by
providing students with access to needed resources. Rumberger, et al., (1990) in seminal research
out of the University of California, Santa Barbara, found that across demographic and grade
profiles, an authoritative parenting style (high acceptance, supervision and psychological
autonomy granting) was found to be the best for helping students stay in school, while a
permissive parenting style, marked by lack of monitoring and involvement, was the most likely
to lead to a student dropping out of school. Within this research, they found three main
differences in likelihood to drop out - parenting style, parental reactions to grades, and parents’
academic involvement. In follow-up research, it has continued to be shown that students with
authoritative parents are more likely to graduate, as these students are less likely to be
disengaged from school (Blondal & Adalbjarnardottir, 2014). As a result, findings indicate it is
important to develop and enhance parent-child relationships to reduce the risk of dropping out.
Research has shown that while positive messages in the home about educational attainment, as
well as shared parental expectations about the concept of educational attainment, help students
stay in school, simply talking about school is not enough (Strom & Boster, 2007). As shown,
given the right parenting style, involvement and educationally related messages, families are one
possible mitigating factor for students against high school dropout.
The personal role that the students can play in overcoming obstacles to graduation cannot
be underestimated. Lessard, Butler-Kisber, Fortin and Marcotte (2014) found four factors for
resiliency, what they call inreach or using own resources, outreach or asking for help,
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

29

establishing positive healthy relationships with adults, and being able to plan and follow through
on decisions and choices. Positive relationships with adults are important as the authors found
that those who dropped out had negative, if any, relationships with adults, moved a lot, and often
had suffered the loss of their mother. In further research, Knesting (2008) found that school
based issues impacted at-risk students decision to stay in school. Four factors were found to
improve a student’s persistence. These factors include being listened to, having a sense of caring
communicated, and having both the role of the school and the role of the student within the
school specifically addressed. Eisenman’s research (2007) offered hope in using self-
determination interventions as a link to high school completion as students who exhibit self-
determination are less likely to dropout. Therefore, resiliency, self-determination and persistence
can all impact a student’s ability to overcome difficulties and stay on a path to graduation.
There are many factors and determinants that can contribute to a student not making it to
graduation with his or her peers. Many of these are difficult to overcome, especially for students
who do not have the tools to be successful. However, mitigating factors involving family and self
are indicators that dropout does not need to be the only answer. Where students go when these
factors are not enough will be discussed next.
Alternative Education
For those students who find themselves credit-deficit, at-risk for dropout for personal
reasons, or have already left the education system, there are pathways back to earning a high
school diploma. While a variety of options exist for re-entering the system, the history and
success of these programs has been limited.

CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

30

Options to Come Back
A variety of options exist for students who are credit deficient and on the road to dropout
or have already dropped out but wish to work toward attaining a high school diploma or
equivalent. These include assessments such as the General Educational Development test (GED)
and the California High School Proficiency Examination (CHSPE), as well as alternative
education programs including continuation high schools, online programs and adult schools. Of
these options the two most well known are the GED test and continuation high schools. In
research into the success of students both with and without disabilities taking the GED, it was
found that those students most successful in passing the GED had dropped out of school in 11
th

grade or later (Scanlon & Mellard, 2002). These GED completers reported that they dropped out
because of attendance and interest difficulties, not academic difficulties, indicating that the GED
is a better option for a certain segment of those who have left school for personal, not academic,
reasons. In California, as legislated by the state government, alternative education programs can
either be continuation high schools, community day schools, community schools or regional
occupational programs (Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012). The most widely used public
school alternative education programs are the continuation high schools. Ruiz de Velasco and
McLaughlin (2012) report that while it is estimated that California has over 500 continuation
high schools serving more than 115,000 students, or almost 10% of high school age students,
their statewide study of California schools indicates that many of these schools are also failing to
provide the services that these students need in order to recover credit and earn a high school
diploma. The above mentioned research indicates that several options exist for students who
wish to finish their education, among them the GED and continuation high schools, with
continuation high school programs being the most prevalent for school-age students.
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

31

Continuation High Schools: Background
Alternative education, in particular continuation high school programs, has a history in
America going back more than 100 years. California is one of ten states to legislatively mandate
educational options for students under the age of 18 with academic challenges (Ruiz de Velasco
& McLaughlin, 2012). Historically, there have been three views toward fixing the dropout crises:
change the student, change the comprehensive school, or change the system. Historically there
have been problems with all three views, especially attempts to change the student or the school
(Quinn, et al., 2006). Kelly’s Last chance high: How girls and boys drop in and out of
alternative schools (1993), presents a detailed history of continuation high schools. These
programs have always been about credit recovery and keeping students in school longer but were
also focused on helping working students to stay in school part-time. Over time, some programs
began to focus primarily on behavioral issues as more students were forced out of comprehensive
high schools. Gradually, in the new era of accountability, many continuation high schools
attempted to become more academic to meet the needs of students pushed out of comprehensive
high schools for academic and behavior reasons. In follow-up research published in 2013,
Nygreen added her theory of the Mismatch frame that states that certain students don’t succeed
within the comprehensive public high school system because their needs and strengths do not
meet the expectations of the public school system. In other words, there is a mismatch between
the student and the school. Therefore, as the dropout rate has increased over time, the need for
better alternative educational settings has led to changes in how these students are viewed,
treated and educated.

CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

32

Continuation High School Concerns
California has been on the forefront of alternative education options for students to
recover credits, stay in school longer and graduate from high school. These programs attempt to
help a variety of students who, for a multitude of reasons, are unsuccessful at comprehensive
high schools. Due to the fact that continuation high schools serve approximately 10% of
California high school students, the programs have come under repeated scrutiny (Ruiz de
Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012). There are several concerns that have come up in the literature
about continuation schools including enrollment policies, academics and stakeholder perception.
Enrollment Policies One concern about continuation high schools is the belief that their
enrollment policies are not transparent. Traditionally, it has not always been clear whether
district policies force students to be involuntarily pushed out of the comprehensive high school to
the continuation school or if these policies allow the students to voluntarily choose to transfer
schools and attend the continuation school. While some students are pushed out and some
students are pushed in, how the student is labeled can impact their academic and emotional
wellbeing. In some districts, certain populations (male, Hispanic, African American) are referred
and accepted to continuation high schools at a higher rate than other populations (female, White)
(Kelly, 1993). In addition, Ruiz de Velasco and McLaughlin (2012) report that in parts of
California the local education agencies view these schools as dumping grounds and support the
use of involuntary transfers for poor performing students. In these districts, continuation high
schools are viewed as dumping grounds for troubled students. Therefore, a history of non-
transparent admission and enrollment policies within the school system has contributed to
criticism of continuation high schools.
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

33

Academics/Mission Another criticism of continuation high schools is that they are not
meeting the academic needs of the students and are created merely to house academically
deficient and disruptive students. Kelly (1993) reported criticisms such as academic classes not
being as rigorous as at comprehensive high schools due to lower standards and a compressed
calendar and that the mission of continuation high schools is to house the bad kids. Kelly also
reported that one area of student concern about continuation high schools is the desire to have the
option to attend college but not having access to college prep (A-G) classes and college
counseling while attending a continuation high school. In addition, students reported feeling that
they were second-class citizens within the district and community and were left out of events and
activities by both staff and students (Kim & Taylor, 2008). In an ethnographic study of 7
th
grade
males placed in an alternative education program because of behaviors and discipline, results of
interviews found that students felt that their program normalizes deviancy and is unjust and un-
democratic (McNulty & Roseboro, 2009). Therefore, concerns about academic rigor and a lack
of a clear academic focus can lead to negative public impressions of continuation high schools.
Stakeholder Perception Negative stakeholder perception of continuation high schools is
another criticism of some continuation high schools. Negative stakeholder perception can come
from community members, high school staff, and the students themselves. Kelly (1993) reported
that continuation high school staff and students stated that their districts exhibited a lack of
support and expressed negative viewpoints about their programs. In addition, staff within the
school site may have negative impressions of their own students, fellow staff and their personal
effectiveness, or self-efficacy. Finally, some students within the continuation high school report
negative self-perceptions about their own abilities and those of their classmates. De La Ossa
(2005) found students in focus groups reported that there is a negative public perception about
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

34

them in that people think they are lazy or on drugs. These students believe this is how the
community, school board, and comprehensive high school teachers and staff view them.
Therefore, negative stakeholder perception contributes to criticisms of continuation schools and
the impression that they are ineffective places designed to house troubled students.
The previously mentioned research indicates that although continuation high schools
attempt to be a place that high school dropouts and credit deficient students can recover credits
and graduate from high school, research has shown many programs may not be as effective as
they could be in helping students to regain credits and graduate from high school. Non-
transparent and inconsistent enrollment policies, inappropriate academics, and poor stakeholder
perception are some of the concerns about continuation schools’ ability to help students recover
credits can graduate from high school.
Effective Continuation High Schools
While much of the research indicates that many continuation high schools have a ways to
go to be uniformly successful, some programs have been found to exhibit effective components
that assist students in recovering credit, completing high school and earning a diploma. Based on
the following discussion, successful continuation school program components can be broken
down into focused programs, effective strategies, and caring school-based communities. Schools
demonstrating some level of success often demonstrate one or more of these components.
Programs One component of successful continuation school programs is focused
programming. Development of effective, focused programs enables some continuation high
schools to reach the level of effective schools that help students recover credit and graduate. Kim
and Taylor’s (2008) qualitative study examined one alternative education high school program
that changed to a structured program focused on credit recovery. As a result of the newly created
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

35

structured program format, students at this school stated that a positive component of the
program included believing that there were going from a dumping ground to a safety net. In
addition, those who recovered credits stated that once they had earned sufficient credits they
made the decision to stay at the continuation school instead of returning to their comprehensive
high school for graduation. Based on survey results and state administrative data findings from a
year long descriptive study of 40 California continuation high schools, Ruiz de Velasco, et al.,
(2008) identified qualities and practices of good continuation schools to include strong school
leadership, creation of partnerships with the community beyond the school, an orderly student
identification process, expressed high expectations for students and teachers, and use of student
data to guide change. Building on their related earlier research, Ruiz de Velasco and McLaughlin
(2012) revisited 23 continuation high schools and found that student success depends on student
access to teachers as well as attending schools that have figured out how to help these students
master the standards. In addition, Ruiz de Velasco and McLaughlin’s 2012 report states that
effective programs at these successful schools include strong administrators who articulate clear
and consistent academic goals and a school culture that reflects this vision. Successful schools
expanded school and community based learning time, offered richer curricular options and
provided time for teachers to collaborate and examine student data. In addition, their research
showed that clear and transparent identification, placement and intake processes were key in
successful programs. Finally, these schools built on existing innovative and successful programs
for academically vulnerable students, and offered behavioral intervention support not zero-
tolerance policies. In further study of 11 schools across three exemplary programs, students felt
that the psychosocial climate was fair, rules were enforced and they were treated with respect by
staff that was open to problem solving and change (Quinn, et al., 2006). The researchers posited
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

36

that these factors allowed students be successful. The Twilight Academy, a program for 60
students in urban Pennsylvania, studied by D’Angelo and Zemanick (2009), exhibited some key
components aligned with student success, including small class size, weekly counseling, teachers
who also functioned as job coaches, differentiated instruction and a reported motto of “give
respect to get respect." (p216) Consequently, many of these effective continuation schools are
shown to have developed components of highly effective programs designed specifically to meet
the needs of their students in supportive, educationally rich environments.
Effective Strategies One specific way in which effective continuation schools excel in
reaching their students is through the broad category of effective strategies. According to the
research from Rumberger, et al., (1990), in San Francisco Bay-area high schools, three areas
should be addressed to create successful programs at a continuation high school: social support,
academic encouragement, and academic assistance. In conjunction with these strategies,
successful continuation high school programs were found to have either strengthened and
improved parental relations or helped develop comparable support in the community for
students. Bost and Riccomini (2006) found in their research into dropout prevention factors that
self-determination training proved to be an effective strategy at continuation high schools that
helped students advocate for their academic needs. More importantly, they found that effective
instruction, an often-overlooked component that is completely controlled by the teacher,
provided the most benefits to student success. In particular, these strategies included scaffolding,
active engagement and explicit instruction. Finally, in research into preventing students with
disabilities from dropping out, Pyle and Wexler (2011) recommended strategies including
identifying those most at risk, providing access to an adult advocate, academic and behavioral
supports, as well as personalized instruction with rigorous and relevant instruction. As discussed,
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

37

use of effective teaching and management strategies in the classroom are ways that effective
continuation schools meet their goal of helping students to get back on the path to graduation.
Sense of Community A final positive factor of successful continuation schools focuses
on the positive sense of community that many of them are able to project to students. Research
into students who dropout lacking resilience indicates a need for positive relationship with
adults, adherence by teachers to tenants of good teaching, and systematically providing structure
and support (Lessard, Butler-Kisber, Fortin, & Marcotte, 2014). Kelly (1993) reported that
students in successful programs (those that enable students to recover credits and graduate from
high school report) get more time with teachers, and that more individual help in a smaller
environment offered additional opportunities for support and learning leading to higher
graduation rates. Research into a solution-focused brief therapy based alternative education
program found that positive teacher relationships, expectations of maturity and responsibility
versus reliance on rules and punishment, and focus on development of social issues helped
students stay in school and recover credits (Lagana-Riordan, et al., 2011). Finally, students at
one school in Puget Sound reported that a smaller school with smaller classes enabled more
interaction and support from staff, leading these students to report feeling listened to and
supported, which led to a desire to stay in school, recover credits and graduate from high school
(De La Ossa, 2005). As noted, the sense of community found in successful continuation high
schools increases student self-efficacy and success and therefore promotes higher graduation
rates.
While the field of alternative education encompasses a variety of options, the
continuation high school option is the one that is both best well known and, when done well, the
one that can most help their students. It is therefore important to learn more about what makes
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

38

effective continuation high schools effective and what can increase that effectiveness over time.
As noted above, focused programs, effective instructional strategies and caring school-based
communities are all important components of effective continuation high schools.
Why This School?
Page High School is a public continuation high school in Foothills Unified School
District. Page High School is a small campus of approximately 200 students (FUSD website,
2015) representing the ethnic diversity of the district as a whole. It has twice been awarded a 6-
year review from the Western Association of Schools and Colleges. A 6-year review is the
highest awarded by the organization (WASC, 2015). In addition, PHS has recently been granted
the California Model Continuation High School designation for the third consecutive time (CDE,
2015). This is an additional honor as it represents that the school is engaged in promising
practices. To become designated as a California Model Continuation High School, the school
submits an in-depth application that includes written statements from key stakeholders, WASC
documentation, and written data about programs and success. After a site visit and further review
of records, the most successful are awarded the California Model Continuation High School
designation. In 2015, out of 480 continuation high schools, 29 were awarded this designation.
Therefore, in the course of the WASC review and the most recent California Model Continuation
High School application, PHS has published documents detailing the programs that it
implements. Review of these documents suggests that PHS is offering numerous supports to
assist their students in their quest to recover credits and graduate from high school. These details
indicated that PHS offers an appropriate site to utilize for this case study examining what
stakeholders do to support students in credit recovery and graduation. Further demographic site
based data will be presented in chapter three, which will discuss the methods for this study.
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

39

Theoretical Framework
Successful continuation high school programs are an important way to combat the high
school dropout crises and all of the inherent social and personal problems that go along with the
crises. One way to examine successful programs is by studying the strategies and approaches of
school staff and key stakeholders in supporting the students and the program as well as their
perceptions of such strategies. This can be viewed through the lens of social cognitive theory
and, in particular, teacher self-efficacy and collective self-efficacy.
Social Cognitive Theory
Social cognitive theory is a lens through which teacher and other key stakeholder (such as
administrative) investment in practices and strategies to assist students in achieving high school
graduation can be analyzed. Social cognitive theory is attributed to Bandura who built off of
previous behavioral theories of learning (Santrock, 2009). The basic tenet of social cognitive
theory is that learning is an interaction of cognitive, behavioral and contextual factors, what is
known as a triadic reciprocity (Bandura, 1986; Denler, Wolters & Benzon, 2006). Of particular
importance for this study is the theory that people have the ability to influence both their own
behavior and the environment. One of the core concepts within social cognitive theory is self-
efficacy, which is a personal belief about being able to achieve a particular task. Self-efficacy is
viewed as a product of past performance, observation, persuasion of others in the environment,
and personal psychological state. The basis of social cognitive theory focuses on motivation and
learning in a social context and what one believes he or she is capable of achieving. Successful
programs will need staff and administration that are aware of the power of their participation in
encouraging student success toward recovering credits and graduating from high school.
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

40

Teacher Self-Efficacy Within social cognitive theory and self-efficacy theory, there
exists a subcategory of teacher self-efficacy. Teacher self-efficacy refers to a teacher’s beliefs
about his or her ability to help students learn or to influence student learning (Santrock, 2009). In
other words, teacher self-efficacy is the teacher’s beliefs in his or her ability to plan, organize,
and carry out the tasks and the steps needed to achieve the desired educational goal, (Skaalvak &
Skaalvak, 2007). Teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs are related to the effort teachers invest in the
goals they set, their persistence when things do not go well and their resilience in the face of
setbacks. Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2006) studied 225 novice and experienced teachers and
found that there was lower self-efficacy among novice teachers and that experienced teachers
indicated higher self-efficacy on instructional strategies and classroom management due to
greater number of mastery experiences to guide them. In addition, the researchers found that
between both groups, mastery experiences led to higher self-efficacy related to their teaching
behavior and student achievement. In further research on teacher self-efficacy, Wheatley (2002)
found that teachers with a positive sense of self-efficacy believe they can influence student
outcomes while teachers with a negative sense of self-efficacy believe there is little that can be
done to affect student outcomes, or that they personally lack the skill to do so, which then
impacts their teaching related behaviors. Wheatley also argued that teachers’ doubts about self-
efficacy can in fact be beneficial and further makes the argument that teachers with absolutely no
doubts about their abilities have no reason to try to do better. Wheatley argued that
disequilibrium leads them to believe they can change and be better able to learn and teach.
Research into teacher self-efficacy indicates that teacher beliefs about success are important, and
even when the teacher has some doubts about personal efficacy, these may impact student
success.
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

41

Perceived Collective Efficacy Teachers and other key stakeholders work within a
school-based community impacting each other regularly. As teacher self-efficacy refers to
individual teachers, perceived collective self-efficacy refers to the group. Perceived collective
self-efficacy refers to the belief of teachers within a group that, as a group, they can influence
student learning and outcomes (Santrock, 2009). In essence, individual beliefs of capability
relate to those of the whole group. Research has shown that higher levels of perceived collective
efficacy are linked to higher levels of individual teacher self-efficacy, which improves
instruction, learning and success (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2006). A school that exhibits high
levels of perceived collective efficacy should also be found to exhibit high levels of teacher self-
efficacy in key areas. Wheatley (2002) argued that his research into intra-teacher variance on
individual feelings of self-efficacy is related to perceived collective efficacy. Collective self-
efficacy is a subset of teacher self-efficacy, which bears looking into.
Self-efficacy, a category within social cognitive theory, is based on the concept that
people exercise some influence over what they do, how they do it and with what amount of
success. Teacher self-efficacy refers to teacher beliefs about their ability to influence students
and how the teachers act on those beliefs. Teacher self-efficacy and perceived collective self-
efficacy inform the strategies the faculty implements which in turn impacts the success of
programs to help the students. It also informs how teachers and key stakeholders perceive that
these strategies and approaches to support their students are based, at least in part, on their
beliefs about their own abilities and the effort they are willing to put into it. When examining
staff behavior and perceptions through the lens of self-efficacy in a strong program, one would
expect to find evidence of strong teacher self-efficacy and collective efficacy leading to student
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

42

success. In turn, high levels of teacher and stakeholder self-efficacy should lead to higher levels
of student success in recovering credits and graduation from high school.
Summary
In summary, while many state and federal guidelines and expectations, such as the
Common Core State Standards movement, have set the expectation for higher levels of student
success, not all students are meeting these expectations and graduating from high school with
their peers. As a result, while designed to help students achieve a positive future, not all students
can meet these higher standards and expectations, which appear to be setting certain populations
up for higher levels of failure. Students on the road to failure are unlikely to graduate from high
school with their peers. Failure to earn sufficient credits to graduate from high school can be
attributed to a range of personal, social and school-based reasons. Students who do not graduate
from high school are viewed by both themselves and the community as having been pushed out,
dropped out, or pulled out of school. Regardless of the reason for leaving school, it is difficult for
them to escape the path to poverty, poor health, trouble with the law and lack of personal success
that results from failure to earn a high school diploma.
Alternative Education programs are one way for students to attempt to make their way
back to earning a high school diploma or its equivalency. Within the field of alternative
education, continuation high schools are the largest and most well-known public school option
for credit deficient students. Unfortunately, continuation school programs vary in their
effectiveness and are often criticized by stakeholders and the community. Research has shown
that some continuation high schools have been able to create effective programs that lead to
increased chances of students succeeding in credit recovery and graduating from high school.
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

43

Research into successful continuation high school programs is inconclusive. Student
populations vary and state policies are not consistent. California is one of 10 states that to
legislatively mandate alternative education programs for students who are not successful at the
comprehensive setting. More specific research needs to be attempted to pinpoint programs and
strategies that can effectively help credit deficient high school student recover credits and earn a
high school diploma.

CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

44

CHAPTER THREE: METHODS
Purpose
The dream of most high school students is to earn a high school diploma and graduate
with their peers. However, there are multiple obstacles to students successfully achieving this
dream. The state of California Department of Education has determined that all students must
meet certain requirements to earn a public high school diploma (CDE, 2015). These
requirements include earning a predetermined number of credits from passing classes that meet
the Common Core State Standards and successful completion of the California High School Exit
Examination. Not all students are successful at meeting these requirements at a comprehensive
public high school (America’s Promise Alliance, 2013). In fact, some of these students fall
behind in credits (becoming credit deficient) and are unable to graduate without interventions;
others simply drop out of school and never fulfill their dream to earn a diploma. One intervention
option for students who are credit deficient is to attend a continuation high school but research
has shown that many programs are not successful in helping all students recover sufficient
credits and graduate with a diploma (Kelly, 1993). Those continuation high school programs that
are successful exhibit strengths in the areas of effective strategies, focused programming and a
sense of community (Kim & Taylor, 2008; Ruiz de Velasco & McLaughlin, 2012; Rumberger, et
al., 1990). The purpose of this study was to examine what is being done at a public continuation
high school awarded the California Model Continuation High School designation to help
students recover credits and realize their dream to graduate from high school with a diploma.
The purpose of this qualitative case study was to explore the strategies and systemic
programs Page High School (PHS) staff and key stakeholders implement to support their
students in their quest to recover credits and ultimately earn a high school diploma at a public
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

45

continuation high school. It also examined staff and key stakeholder perceptions of these
approaches as staff perception can impact positive student success as well as reflect teacher and
collective self-efficacy. This case study was developed to add to the existing literature
identifying how staff and key stakeholders at a public continuation high school designated as a
California Model Continuation High School implement strategies and systemic programs to
support students in credit recovery leading to high school graduation. The information in this
case study will assist educators in determining which strategies and systemic programs will help
them create successful continuation school programs at other locations to enable continuation
high school students to achieve their dream of graduating from high school with a diploma.
Research Questions
The research questions for this study aimed to provide descriptive information about staff
and stakeholder strategies and systemic programs at a public continuation high school designated
as a California Model Continuation High School designed to help credit deficient students
recover credits and earn a high school diploma. In addition, the research questions aimed to
provide information about staff and key stakeholder perceptions of these strategies and systemic
programs. The two research questions that guide this study are:
1 - What are PHS staff and key stakeholders doing to support their students in the quest
to recover credits and earn a high school diploma?
2 – What are the perceptions of PHS staff and key stakeholders about these strategies and
systemic programs to supporting their students?
Research Design
For this study, I conducted a case study using qualitative research methods including
interviews, observations and document review. Qualitative methods were used because they are
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

46

the most appropriate strategy to answer the stated research questions. Qualitative methods are
used in education because they provide thick, rich, descriptive insight into how people construct
and interpret their world and experiences as well as the meaning they ascribe to these
experiences (Merriam, 2009). I gathered rich data and evidence related to what the model
continuation high school is currently doing to help their students, how they perceive these
strategies and systemic programs, as well as insight into how this program could further be
improved. Past research (Kelly, 1993; De La Osso, 2005; McNulty & Roseboro, 2009) has
examined various successful and unsuccessful continuation high schools; this study examines a
public continuation school designated as a California Model Continuation High School.
Sample and Population
Context
This qualitative case study was conducted in an actual public continuation high school
that has earned the designation of California Model Continuation High School. All names of
staff and key stakeholders, organizations and locations have been identified with pseudonyms in
order to maintain confidentiality.
Page High School (PHS) is a continuation high school in Foothills Unified School
District (FUSD), an urban school district located in southern California. In addition to numerous
elementary and middle school sites, Foothills Unified School District has a continuation high
school, three comprehensive high schools, and a magnet high school. From throughout the
district, the three comprehensive high schools refer credit deficient students for acceptance into
PHS. Students from the magnet high school do not feed directly into PHS because if students are
not successful at that school, they are first returned to their home school. If those students from
the magnet high school continue to be unsuccessful and become credit deficient at their home
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

47

school, the home school would refer the student to PHS. In this manner, credit deficient students
are referred to PHS.
Page High School was founded in 1964 and moved to its current location in 2002.
Recently, PHS has earned two consecutive six-year WASC accreditations and its third
consecutive California Model Continuation High School designation. These are exemplary
honors as a six-year accreditation is the highest awarded and the California Model Continuation
High School designation was only presented to 29 out of 480 California continuation high
schools in 2015. Enrollment at the site varies from approximately160-240 students. The student
population reflects the ethnically diverse population of the entire district. Approximately 32% of
the students are English Learners, 4% are special education students and 68% qualify for
free/reduced lunch. Documents such as the WASC Self-Study (2012) indicate that this school is
developing innovative programs to increase credit recovery and graduation rates such as an
orientation program, academies, graphic arts and culinary programs, Acceleration early warning
system, site-based organizations and committees for parent participation, and partnerships with
community agencies. PHS operates on a trimester basis and offers a limited summer school
program in an attempt to provide more opportunities for success to credit deficient students.
The staff at PHS consists of 17 teachers, a principal, an assistant principal, one counselor,
one psychologist, a psychological services provider, two clerks, one secretary, two educational
assistants, one campus security coordinator, one cafeteria worker, one registrar, one nursery
staff, and one special education teacher specialist. The school site consists of an administration
building and a two-story L shaped building which houses the classrooms. There is an inner
courtyard and snack bar where students can purchase food and relax during their break and lunch
time. In addition, a portion of the adjoining District Offices property has been designated as a
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

48

garden for the Environmental Futures Academy to grow produce that they sell once a week at a
farmer’s market. The staff, site and student population is the smallest in the district but offers
unique benefits to the students who come to PHS to continue their education, recover credits and
earn a high school diploma.
Sample
The data for this study was culled from a sampling of possible participants at PHS. I used
purposeful sampling, or selecting participants according to specific selection criteria (Merriam,
2009). The types of sampling that I used are unique sampling, convenience sampling and
network sampling. Unique sampling is based on unique and rare attributes of the elements or
areas of interest, convenience sampling refers to selecting a sample of respondents based on
time, money, location, or availability, and network sampling involves locating key participants
who can then refer the researcher to other relevant participants (Merriam, 2009). I began by
using unique sampling to select a site that possessed specific, relevant attributes including
documented recognition of success. The next step was to contact respondents who were selected
due to their availability and interest in being a participant. Finally, I utilized network sampling
by asking initial participants to recommend other possible participants. Through the use of these
three types of purposeful sampling, I gathered data for this qualitative study.
Selection Criteria
For this qualitative study I selected a public continuation high school that has
demonstrated qualities identified as being present in effective continuation high schools. These
qualities include strategies and systemic programs designed to assist credit deficient public high
school students in recovering credits and graduating from high school and a strong sense of
community. This site was selected based on a review of eligible continuation high school sites
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

49

and related documents, including a WASC Self-Review and a California Model Continuation
High School application. I reviewed information from the California Model Continuation School
website to obtain a list of recognized schools in the area, reviewed many of their websites and
determined that due to its designations from WASC and California Model Continuation High
School, PHS best met the criteria for the study. Therefore, I selected PHS as the site for the case
study at a public continuation high school because it met several important criteria that
demonstrated promising practices. Page High School has twice received 6-year WASC
accreditation (the highest available) and three times a California Model Continuation School
designation. These unique designations qualify PHS as an appropriate and unique site. In
addition, I used convenience as a criterion for site selection as it is located in a district near
where I live. From my professional experience, I have prior knowledge of the site as well as
access to the site and the principal. Conflict of interest was not a problem because I am not
directly responsible to or for any one person or program at the site.
Page High School is one of five high schools in FUSD. Although it is a continuation high
school, the identifier of ‘continuation’ has been dropped from the school’s official name so as
not to identify Page High School students in a negative manner. Furthermore, a diploma granted
by PHS looks no different from a diploma issued by any other high school in the district or the
state of California. PHS is designed to assist credit deficient students to recover credits and
graduate from high school. A student at PHS who has recovered sufficient credits may return to
the home comprehensive school for the final semester(s) of senior year but most decline this
option and remain at PHS until graduation.
I began by contacting the principal of PHS, as I have a professional relationship with
him, and he agreed to be interviewed. I then used network sampling and asked the principal to
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

50

recommend staff and other key stakeholders to interview, events to observe and documents to
review. I further asked other interviewees if they had suggestions for stakeholders to interview or
events to observe that they believed would add to the data for my study. Initially, I considered
several groups of possible stakeholders, such as community members, parents, board members,
students, teachers and other site based staff. I determined that teachers and staff at PHS would
possess the greatest amount of access to site knowledge and insight into PHS. Ultimately, I
interviewed three teachers and three other key site-based stakeholders for the study.
Instrumentation and Data Collection
Triangulation of data is a critical strategy that qualitative researchers use to ensure
validity and reliability (Merriam, 2009). By triangulating data, or using multiple sources and
methods, the researcher is able to draw conclusions that are more credible than if only one source
or method for data collection is used (Maxwell, 2013). I triangulated data by collecting multiple
forms of data through different data collection methods in order to ensure the validity of my
findings. In particular I used interviews, observations and document review to answer my
research questions. In order to triangulate the data through these methods, I developed
appropriate research instruments based on the findings of current research in the field and the
research questions guiding this study. Due to scheduling constraints at a public school site, data
collection took place at Page High School over an extended period of time that was equivalent to
six days. Data collection began in May, 2015 towards the end of the academic school year,
continued during the summer session, as several stakeholders were available for interviews, and
was completed after the school session resumed in early August and during September. Any
additional, follow up information was obtained through personal contact, telephone calls, e-mail
and further document review. Specific methods of data collection, the process of obtaining
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

51

consent of participants and access to the site, as well as the approach to capturing data will be
presented in the following paragraphs.
Research Questions and Instrumentation
The instrumentation measures were chosen for this study in response to the specific
research questions being asked. Research Question One involves what staff and key stakeholders
do to support students. The process of observing and interviewing stakeholders provided rich
data that documented how the stakeholders are or are not supporting credit deficient students in
their efforts to recover credits and earn a high school diploma. The document review provided
additional information in the form of outside verification of student credit recovery. Research
Question Two involves perceptions of PHS staff and key stakeholders about the strategies and
systemic programs being used to support students in recovering credits and earning a high school
diploma. The process of interviewing staff and stakeholders provided rich data regarding how the
stakeholders perceive the implementation of their program. In addition to addressing the research
questions, the resulting data provided insight into teacher self-efficacy at the continuation high
school. The specific data collection methods I chose related to the needs of the research
questions and theoretical lens of teacher self-efficacy driving this study.
Document Review Method
A document review allows the researcher to triangulate information gained through
interview and observation. According to Merriam (2009), the term document includes any form
of data that is gathered outside of interviews and observations. In addition, these documents can
be in any written, visual or digital format available to the researcher. I analyzed documents
including the Page High School student handbook, school accountability report card (SARC),
site-created WASC materials, the California Model Continuation High School application,
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

52

school and district website information, relevant newspaper articles, published or posted school
rules and policies, school/district reports and data. These were gathered from on-line searches,
requests made of principal and other staff, and district available documents. The documents were
then reviewed through the lens of the two research questions and theoretical framework for this
qualitative study. Given that the WASC and California Model Continuation High School
documents were created by PHS staff and key stakeholders, I determined that they were
appropriate to answer the research questions. These documents presented a view into how the
staff sees their practices and how the school presents itself to the public, as well as verification of
stated strategies and systemic programs.
Interview Instrumentation and Method
I utilized interviews for data collection because they allowed access to important
information and provided a better understanding of those being studied (Maxwell, 2013). In
order to obtain data from participant interviews, I made use of semi-structured and informal
interviews using researcher created protocols. Open-ended, semi-structured interview questions
enable the researcher to focus on the specifics of the individual interviews by being flexible and
allowing the research participant to voice his or her perspective (Maxwell, 2013). As a result, as
each interviewee comes into the interview with different prior experience, knowledge and
perceptions based on individual experiences, a semi-structured format allows for relevant follow-
up questions and related data to emerge while also enabling the researcher to answer the research
questions established at the outset of the study. The interview protocol that I created is aligned
with the research questions and addresses both what the staff and key stakeholders are doing to
support students as well as what their perceptions are about these strategies and systemic
programs as well as questions related self-efficacy. I contacted the interviewees by email or in
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

53

person to obtain their consent to participate in the interview and determine a mutually convenient
date, time and location to conduct the interviews. With permission I was able to record the
interviews. I then transcribed the information as soon after the interview as possible onto a Word
document. If clarification of any information had been needed, I had continued access to
interviewees.
Obtaining consent is a key component of conducting qualitative research. The process of
obtaining consent involves contacting the prospective participant and explaining the proposed
study. I interviewed the Principal of PHS first and then requested suggestions from him for
names of additional stakeholders, such as the counselor, psychologist, or teacher specialist, and
three to four teachers. I asked the principal to first contact participants and inform them of the
proposed study and request their support and involvement. I then contacted the potential
participants by email or in-person. I provided information concerning the purpose of the study
and requested permission to interview the individual. Upon receipt of consent for participation, I
consulted with the interviewee to determine the best day, time and place to hold the interview,
keeping in mind that the interviewee needs to feel comfortable and at ease during the interview.
As a researcher, I helped the interviewee feel at ease by creating rapport (Merriam, 2009). I
began the interview by creating rapport by asking basic questions about the subjects’
background, training and experience in teaching, the field of education and at the site. The
interview then continued following the semi-structured protocol developed for this study.
Effectively capturing the data obtained during the interview is critical for later data
analysis. Merriam (2009) states that there are three options for recording interview data. These
three methods include audio recording, taking written notes, and reflecting after the interview is
finished. I implemented all three ways of recording interview data. I interviewed six participants
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

54

over a four-month period. Each interview lasted approximately an hour and was conducted at the
school site. In addition, I followed Merriam’s (2009) further suggestion of transcribing the
interview myself, as soon after the interview is conducted as possible. By following these
strategies, I obtained solid written documentation of each interview.
Observation Instrumentation and Method
In addition to semi-structured interviews, I triangulated data by observing the participants
in various settings. Qualitative observations take place in the natural settings where the desired
activities occur (Merriam, 2009). By observing behaviors and activities in the natural setting, the
researcher is able to gain a firsthand account of these behaviors and activities and compare this to
secondhand accounts from interviews. I used observations for data collection because they
allowed me to observe and therefore draw direct inferences about behavior and context that may
not be available in other ways (Maxwell, 2013). I observed participants at the following events: a
student placement meeting, parent/student orientation, classes, and a staff meeting. To the extent
possible, I observed staff and key stakeholders that I also interviewed. I observed four teachers in
their classrooms and two school events. The classroom observations ranged from 30 to 50
minutes and consisted of two math classes, a history class and an academy class. The Student
Study Team observation lasted an hour and I observed the Parent/Student Orientation for two
hours. I developed and used an observation protocol that was based on the research questions for
this study and provided insight into what strategies and systemic programs PHS is implementing
to support success in credit recovery leading to high school graduation.
After recording observational data on the protocol during the observation, I created
researcher field notes. It is recommended that field notes be written as soon after completing the
observation as is possible (Merriam, 2009). The combination of observation protocol and field
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

55

notes generated a comprehensive record of observed behaviors and the setting. I was as
unobtrusive as possible. Depending on the setting, I used a laptop or paper and pencil to record
observations, most often preferring the paper and pencil format. As soon after the observation as
possible, I reviewed my protocol notes for clarity and began making notes of emerging themes.
Taking full notes during the observation was not feasible or practical, but I made notes as soon as
possible after completion of the observation. In order to preserve confidentiality, pseudonyms
were used for the site, the district, anyone involved in being interviewed or observed, and any
relevant data pulled from the document review. In this manner, observation data was collected
and recorded.
Observations cannot be completed without gaining access to the setting. This is one of
the most important steps in the observation process (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Merriam, 2009).
The process of gaining entry begins with gaining the confidence and permission of gatekeepers
who control access to the setting or activity (Merriam, 2009). The gatekeeper of PHS is the
principal, a person with whom I have worked in various capacities for almost 20 years. While
this relationship could pose threats to the validity of my data, I triangulated all findings and was
aware of this possibility in order to help mitigate any threats to validity or credibility within this
study. In addition, the principal of PHS has also completed an Ed.D. degree and understands the
process involved in completing a study for a dissertation and the issues that may come up. I met
with the principal and received verbal permission to access the site. As the gatekeeper, he
initially stated that he would assist in accessing documents, setting up observations and
interviews, and otherwise provide access to needed resources at PHS, and was available for this
assistance throughout the study. Given the above details, I gained entry to PHS for observation
purposes.
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

56

I recorded observation data on an observation protocol created for this study. The
observation protocol was designed to focus observation data on the research questions for this
study of Page High School.
Validity and Reliability
Validity and reliability are essential for a strong qualitative research study. There are a
variety of methods and strategies available to ensure credibility of data. These include saturation,
triangulation, and disconfirming evidence (Maxwell, 2013; Merriam, 2009). One of the best
ways to ensure validity and reliability is through triangulation (Merriam, 2009). In this study, the
use of document review, interviews and observations ensured triangulation of data and validity
of results. In addition, I compared and crosschecked the data I collected through interviews and
observations. For example, during the interview one teacher stated that he would reteach difficult
concepts until students showed mastery of the subject matter and during the observation I made
note of when this strategy was demonstrated. Interview questions were field tested by completing
a test interview with a former PHS staff member. I used the Strategies for Promoting Validity
and Reliability checklist from Merriam (2009) to further ensure validity and reliability. In
addition, I disciplined my subjectivity by triangulating my findings from different data sources.
As I am acquainted with the school site and some of the stakeholders, in particular the principal,
I aligned reported information from one source to another source or another type of data. In other
words, I found confirmation of statements made during interviews in the documents I reviewed
and vice versa. I also used pseudonyms and, to the extent possible, clustered responses or
findings so that they are not linked to one identifiable person. In these ways I ensured both the
validity and reliability of my findings.

CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

57

Data Analysis
Approach to Coding Collected Data
Data analysis consists of making sense of data through consolidating, reducing, and
interpreting what has been said, observed or read (Merriam, 2009). The first step after collecting
and transcribing the data is to code it in a way to understand and retrieve ideas, themes, and
details (Merriam, 2009). I used a combination of a priori codes (predetermined) supplemented
with empirical codes (determined while analyzing the data), as recommended by Harding (2013).
The a priori codes were based off my research questions and concepts from the literature review;
the empirical codes were derived from reviewing my data. Findings were then reported by
research question. In addition, I utilized suggestions from Miles, Huberman and Saldana (2014)
and generated meaning as I progressed through the data analysis by using 1
st
and 2
nd
cycle
coding. I reviewed interview and observation notes as soon as possible after each event and used
an iterative process to refine themes and ideas. Interviews were recorded on a recoding app on
my iPad and were then transcribed using Word as a word processing program. As themes
emerged during this process, I was able to go back to other interview and observation records, as
well as, documents to determine if these themes were apparent in other sources. Through this
process data was coded for use.
Ethical Considerations
Validity and reliability are important constructs of a qualitative research study. The
validity and reliability of the study are dependent on the ethics of the researcher (Merriam,
2009). In this study, I conducted the research in an ethical manner and in accordance to my
university’s IRB. I completed the CITI training required by the University of Southern
California. In the course of this study I did not do research on any students, only on adults whose
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

58

participation was voluntary after signing an informed consent form. In addition, I used
pseudonyms for the school, district and all participants. Furthermore, as I had a previous working
relationship with the principal and some of the site members, I acknowledge that it may have
been easier to build rapport during some of the interviews. In response to this, I maintained a
professional demeanor with these participants, approached all events with an open mind and
validated findings from other sources. In this manner, I addressed all ethical considerations
related to the study.
Summary
The focus of this chapter is on the methodology used in this qualitative case study into a
public continuation high school designated as a California Model Continuation High School.
This case study examined what, in terms of strategies and systemic programs, PHS offers to
support students in recovering credits and graduating from high school, as well as staff and key
stakeholder perceptions of the aforementioned. The contents of this chapter include: an
introduction with the purpose of the study and a restatement of the research questions, an
explanation of the research design, sample and population, instrumentation, data collection
procedures, information on validity and reliability of the study and information on the process of
data analysis. The results of this case study will assist other continuation high school staff and
administration in identifying instructional strategies and systemic programs to improve their
continuation high school programs aimed at credit recovery.
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

59

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
Many California students dream of earning a high school diploma and graduating from
high school. Unfortunately, initiatives designed to set minimum standards for graduation and
requirements mandated by the state and federal government, such as strict credit requirements,
make it difficult for students who struggle with the academic, social, structural or personal
aspects of public school to achieve this dream. Failure to earn sufficient credits for a high school
diploma can severely impact a student’s life. Students labeled credit deficient require different
options from those offered to students who can more easily be successful at a comprehensive
high school. One solution for students who are credit deficient is attendance at a continuation
high school aimed at credit recovery leading to high school graduation. While some continuation
high schools are successful at helping students recover credits, many fail to reach this goal. The
staff and administration at successful continuation high schools aim to assist credit deficient
students recover sufficient credits and achieve their dream of graduating from high school.
The purpose of this study was to identify what PHS staff and key stakeholders are doing
to support their students in their quest to recover credits and earn a high school diploma, as well
as their perceptions of these strategies and programs. Chapter one presented an overview of the
study. Chapter two presented the literature review based on the current literature relating to high
school dropout, alternative options for students to earn a diploma, criticisms of continuation high
school programs and components of successful continuation high school programs, as well as a
brief discussion of the site chosen for study and review of teacher self-efficacy within
sociocultural theory. Chapter three explained the methodology used for this qualitative study,
including the research questions and design, population and sample, the instrumentation, data
collection and analysis. Chapter four will summarize and discuss the key findings of this
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

60

qualitative study based on the research conducted at Page High School. This chapter includes the
following sections: Research Questions, Response to Research Questions and Summary.
Research Questions
The research questions for this study focused on staff and stakeholder strategies and
programs to help credit deficient students at a model continuation high school recover credits and
earn a high school diploma, as well as staff and stakeholder perceptions of these strategies and
programs. The specific research questions were:
1. What are PHS staff and key stakeholders doing to support their students in the quest to
recover credits and earn a high school diploma?
2. What are the perceptions of PHS staff and key stakeholders about these strategies and
systemic programs to support their students?
Relevant data, collected and triangulated through interviews, observations and document
review, were analyzed and coded to address the specific research questions.
Response to Research Questions
Data for Research Question One
The first research question examined in this study was:
What are PHS staff and key stakeholders doing to support their students in the quest to
recover credits and earn a high school diploma?
In order to better understand what PHS staff and key stakeholders are doing to support
their students in the quest to recover credits and earn a high school diploma, the data collection
and analysis process included interviews, observations and a document review. The data
collection began with a review of documents including the Three Year Progress Report for the
Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC) self-review, Model Continuation High
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

61

School Application, PHS School Accountability Report Card (SARC), PHS Parent/Student
Handbook, PHS School-Parent Compact and PHS website. The document review was then
followed by interviews of staff and stakeholders and observations of key events and classes.
Those interviewed included an administrator, counselor, mental health provider, and three
teachers. In addition, there were observations. These observations included a parent/student
orientation, a staff meeting that served as an informal SST, intake meeting, a geometry class, an
algebra 1 class, a social science class and Roadtrip Nation (career prep) class. The only teacher
observed who was not interviewed was the geometry teacher and that was because of time
constraints. In this manner, data revealed documented programs and strategies aimed at
providing opportunities for success for credit deficient students.
Three key themes emerged for Research Question One. These themes relate to effective
programs, strategies to enable student success and a sense of community. Each of these will be
discussed in reference to the data culled from this study. The first theme to be discussed is the
benefit of effective programs. Programs revealed include academies, academics, and attendance
remediation.
Effective Programs. The review of Page High School documents indicated that the
primary mission of PHS is to prepare students for their future. This is reflected in the mission
statement published in PHS documents that emphasizes the personalized nature of the school and
the goals of preparing students for their future as lifelong learners and participants in society. In
addition, the document review identified that from the beginning of the process, parents and
students are provided with the School-Parent Compact, which includes documents such as
parent/student/school pledge, attendance buy-out policy, attendance standards and discipline
code and core beliefs. The information contained here is reiterated in multiple places including
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

62

the handbook, the website, and teacher classroom expectations. Included in these documents is
additional information about improving grades and character building aimed at developing
academic skills and academic attitudes that are lacking in many of the students. The document
review revealed programs including: Environmental Futures Academy, Culinary Arts Program,
GenYes Academy, Business Academy, Sports Academy, Roadtrip Nation, Guitar Academy,
Mural Program and Robotics. In addition, WASC documentation noted the options of the
Graphic arts program, Re-Connect Ed and Acceleration. As noted in the Model Continuation
High School Application staff statement, the academies are a source of pride for the staff that as
one staff member said, “collaboratively we have also restructured our schedule to add 6
th
period
academies to our school… These academies have brought prides and a sense of accomplishment
to our school and our students.” The document review provided information about key programs
at PHS.
The interview questions linked to Research Question One address what staff and
stakeholders are doing to help students recover credits. Throughout the interviews, the
participants described many of the same programs that are important for creating an environment
that helps credit deficient students stay in school and recover credits. Participants described the
programs referenced in the PHS documents including: trimesters, Tobacco Use Prevention
Education (TUPE), ACTION (drug and alcohol cessation), Friday buy-out, rewarding
attendance, advisement period 1, GenYes, graphic arts, Environmental Futures Academy (EFA),
Roadtrip Nation, Bistro, Young Parent Education Program (YPEP), APEX, ReConnect Ed, and
the no homework policy. In addition, one stakeholder pointed out, “We have the same things that
every other school does. We have our prom, our grad night, we have financial aid night, we have
college application night… we have a career fair…” (A. Allen, personal communication, June
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

63

17, 2015). These activities were reported to have more of a focus on community college and
trade school applications than on four-year universities, but they contribute to the culture of
acceptance that is prevalent at the school. This combination of programs is a sample of the
options offered to students.
Other interviewees described specific remediation programs. During the interview
process, one participant mentioned “two intervention classes for math and we have a literacy
program in English,” as being effective programs to help students graduate (R. Smith, personal
communication, June 10, 2015). It was noted that PHS is also the only school offering a 5
th
year
option to non-special education students. Another beneficial programming decision is that PHS
helps students by limiting class size. As the counselor stated, “We are trying to keep the classes
under 20…the average is 15… because you want to do the 1:1” (A. Allen, personal
communication, June 17, 2015). Other staff members shared personalized programs that they are
involved with including a voluntary probation program, Healthy Start, and work experience
classes (i.e. learning how to write a resume or tie a tie). In essence, as one mental health provider
stated, “anything that’s used to motivate and support our kids and help them feel that they are
someone and something” (M. Lara, personal communication, June 9, 2015). The programs were
created to help the students at PHS feel that they have purpose and value as themselves and that
their needs are understood. These are some of the many programs offered at PHS and mentioned
during the interview process.
While all staff members could describe programs at PHS designed to help students
recover credits and graduate from high school, there were some discrepancies in perception and
knowledge of these programs. One discrepancy related to the programs was revealed by a second
year teacher who initially stated, “I don’t know if we have any programs. I don’t think we have a
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

64

specific program, or at least not one that I know of…” (F. Lan, personal communication,
September 18, 2015). However, this participant was then able to discuss what he knew PHS was
doing to help students and could describe academies and programs but did not seem to categorize
them as established programs. This indicates that the staff is working to provide for the needs of
their students even if they may be communicating this in different ways. In addition, one
experienced teacher acknowledged that the academies could be difficult to implement over time
and that some of them had ceased to exist (M. Trippe, personal communication, September 24,
2015). In these instances it appears that not all PHS staff are utilizing the same definition of
terms such as programs or have the same understanding of what is happening on their site in
terms of program implementation.
Another discrepancy in perception was observed related to the buy-out program. Under
the PHS Friday buy-out program, a student who has completed all work and has 80% attendance
for the week can have all teachers sign off on a sheet and not be required to attend school on
select Fridays. Students who do not qualify for buy-out attend school and class time is used to
make up work and tests. According to the administration, the program is designed to be an
incentive for good attendance and work completion, not to create a study hall. One teacher stated
that the buy-out program was effective but by the way it was described it was apparent that it
was seen as a study hall, not a reward or day off (F. Lan, personal communication, September
18, 2015). In addition, an administrator expressed that the buy-out program seemed to operate as
a study hall and less as a reward system, as few students actually consistently qualified for the
buy-out program and those who did “would attend school anyway because they are that kind of
kid” (R. Smith, personal communication, June 10, 2015). Through the interview process
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

65

discrepancies concerning the meaning and purpose of programs, academies and the buy-out
program were revealed.
Practices supporting the findings about effective programs for credit recovery were also
observed during both formal planned observations and the informal observations that took place
over the data collection period. During an observation of the Roadtrip Nation class in which
students were involved in a process of researching unique careers and other post school options,
the students were all engaged in the project and appeared to find the work useful and relevant.
With a partner, the students practiced the interview questions that they planned to ask and how
they would introduce themselves. It was also observed during the Intake meeting that
representatives from the comprehensive high school sites discussed the fit between prospective
students and PHS. Part of this conversation involved whether a student would be able to benefit
from PHS or if he were not yet able to accept the help that PHS would offer to him. Furthermore,
during the parent/student orientation it was observed that numerous PHS programs were
discussed and offered as being key elements of a successful student’s progress at PHS. Finally,
informal observations of academies such as EFA and Bistro revealed students to be actively
involved in the programs and taking part in the real world activities of the class. In this manner,
data about the programs used to help students recover credit was also derived from observations.
Strategies. In further response to Research Question One, findings from the study
revealed the theme that PHS staff and key stakeholders use a variety of strategies to help credit
deficient students recover credits and graduate from high school. Data on strategies came
primarily from interviews but was triangulated by findings from both the document review and
observations. Strategies revealed include a career readiness and a life skills focus to some
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

66

instruction, implementation of effective teaching strategies and in-depth knowledge of the needs
of the specific population.
The document review revealed various strategies that PHS has created to help credit
deficient students recover credits and graduate from high school. One set of strategies address
the fact that many of these students have issues with attendance, including tardiness and
truancies, that has led to their current status. PHS is a closed campus and students are only
allowed to leave at the end of their day. School begins at 8:00 and students arriving after 8:05 are
not admitted to class. Students who come later than 8:05 are placed in the on-campus
intervention program for the day. This make up opportunity is limited to three times per month.
The point of this strategy is to encourage promptness while maintaining academic expectations
and yet allowing second chances.
Another related strategy that PHS uses is that students must maintain an 80% attendance
rate in order to receive course credit. In an effort to assist those students who fail to meet this
attendance expectation, students may then be placed in an on-campus intervention program until
attendance improves and course work is completed. In addition, these students lose the option for
buy-out, or being able to stay home, on Friday. Students have the opportunity to make-up these
absences by attending additional hours of instruction after school, which is also limited to three
times a month. The flip side is that students are rewarded for good attendance by being eligible
for the attendance buy-out policy.
Additional data collection was obtained through interviews. Through interviews with
staff and key stakeholders, a view of the strategies used at PHS to help students recover credits
emerged. One area of strategies involves teaching the students to adopt academic behaviors, such
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

67

as bringing supplies and study skills, and to be members of society. The administrator began the
process of data collection by noting:
A lot of our teachers feel a responsibility to teach social skills that they are going to need
to be successful in the work world, what’s appropriate in the classroom… a lot of the
teachers here believe it is their duty to teach them these life skills, social skills. It’s not
just about academic skills.
One way that it was reported that this happens is through the strategy of goal setting. As the
mental health provider pointed out, “We come up with goals. Every student who walks through
this door, they have a goal, specific goals ‘What am I going to work on the first trimester?’
There’s a short-term goal and a long-term goal” (M. Lara, personal communication, June 9,
2015). One teacher involved in an academy, noted:
[the] emphasis [is on]…a lot of community networking… skills that keeps them coming
back to school. When you have these CTE [Career and Technical Education] classes that
are really worthy, then the kids will come to school, just for that class, and then they have
to stick around for the other classes, too. So I did that as part of keeping kids here, and
then having them earn credits … our kids need more than paper and pencil studies.
Another basic, yet key, concept is that for many students, strategies include introducing them to
how to be a student. At their home school, man of they students did not demonstrate behaviors
that could lead to success such as bringing supplies and turning in assignments. A newer teacher
observed:
I observe that a lot of our students don’t really know how to be students. Some of them
come to school without even a pencil or piece of paper. So very basic things like that. I
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

68

try to teach my students the importance of taking notes and active participation or active
listening…
The teacher would then focus on the behaviors and skills needed for success. Finally, another
way that several teachers report that they use the strategy of connecting with students is through
sharing their personal stories and backgrounds. This strategy was reported to be quite effective
with this population as many of the staff and stakeholders had prior experience growing up in,
living with or teaching youth in difficult situations. Teachers and students would connect once
the student could realize that the adult understood the struggle. Throughout the data collection
process evidence was found of strategies aimed at helping students be better students based on an
understanding of the needs of the population.
Further data revealed another classification of strategies that directly impact instructional
methods and content. Students at PHS sometimes require more help than those at comprehensive
high schools in accessing the curriculum. As one stakeholder, a mental health provider, noted:
They [the teachers] are always trying to come up with creative ways… I think our
teachers are trying to implement common core but in a more creative way that makes the
change more… understandable… one of the things I see our teachers do is give them
topics about themselves to start writing…to put your thoughts and reactions on paper is
very difficult, you feel very vulnerable.
One academy teacher indicated the importance of finding unique methods to reach out to PHS
students, such as:
Differentiation…it’s different for every kid. Knowing your students is very important.
But also holding these guys to your expectations and keeping your expectations high….
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

69

So then it’s a way of being able to circumvent the way they’ve been able to thwart their
education because they know you’re going to expect if of them.
While all teachers strive for this, teachers at PHS need to focus on this more. In addition, this
teacher stated during an interview that she uses many strategies. In fact, the teacher stated that:
I use all kinds of strategies…a lot of media, a lot of reminders, progress reports every two
weeks, journal checks, communication, building relationships, and respect. Treating them
as you would want to be treated…just being completely open about what your
expectations are.
One experienced teacher with a background in special education reiterated a list of strategies
needed to help these students access the material in a manner that helps them successfully
recover credits. Strategies, she suggested included, “working on literacy, improving reading
skills, comprehension and application of those skills.” She continued by recommending, “basic
skill development, reading, improving reading fluency, comprehension, and application, and
writing skills” (M. Trippe, personal communication, September 24, 2015). Many teachers
indicated that while strategies such as graphic organizers, pair-share and modeling are used in
numerous settings at comprehensive high schools, they are relied on more frequently to reach the
students at PHS.
A key part of using strategies to help students access the curriculum is being able to
understand the curriculum in the first place. As one experienced teacher put it, “Part of what
teachers do is find out what are the essential things from the core that you need to teach and what
skills can you cover” (M. Trippe, personal communication, September 24, 2015). PHS teachers
place a specific emphasis on the need to capture the core instructional aims. A newer math
teacher had this to say about strategies:
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

70

I create my lessons for an audience that I want to captivate. I try to break down my
lessons to the simplest form and from there build on it. And I’m always available for my
students. I’m always very flexible with my students. I negotiate things with my students
so that it can work for the both of us.
As seen during interviews, staff and stakeholders reported a variety of strategies used to help
students recover credits.
During formal observations, many strategies were also observed. In particular, an
academy teacher was seen to frequently check for understanding and use mini lessons in a
multimodal manner with a focus on relationship building by checking in with the students in a
supportive manner. This teacher joked with her students and found ways to relate topics to what
she knew about their personal lives outside of school. Other key teaching strategies observed
during instructional time were scaffolding of instruction, teaching at the zone of proximal
development, relating instruction to both a student’s current life and future life, and modeling of
strategies such as reflective thinking and how to use a weekly calendar. Teachers were also
observed using strategies such as providing access to relevant tools such as calculators and free
reading books, in addition to those already discussed.
Successful strategies were also referenced during the staff meeting, which also functioned
that day as an informal SST. One administrator modeled how to work with students to discover
solutions by pretending to ask a student, “What do you want? What do you need to be
successful?” Other strategies discussed at this meeting included discussion of selecting a student
to mentor, brainstorming specific solutions to be implemented, and asking teachers who have
had success with a particular student to share out about how that success was achieved. While
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

71

strategies were discovered primarily through the data collection process of interviewing, these
findings were confirmed through observation and document review.
Sense of Community. The final important theme from the data analysis of Research
Question One is that a positive school community is important at PHS to help students recover
credits and graduate from high school. Data collected from the document review, interviews and
observations provide information on this theme. Key findings about the theme of positive school
community include the system-wide belief in the need for and benefit of a positive school
community.
The document review revealed comments about positive school community from many
sources. The Model Continuation High School Recognition Program application requires
statements from a student, a staff member, a parent or caretaker and a community member. All
four statements reflect the belief that a positive school climate is evident at PHS and viewed as a
crucial component of its success. The anonymous student concluded his statement by writing:
In conclusion this school changed my life in so many ways and the staff and teachers here
are amazing and care so much for us, you can honestly tell they love what they do and
don’t do it for the money.
The PHS website contains a section on “Why Page?” that touts the positives of the small,
supportive setting. In these ways and others, the image that PHS presents is of a positive school
climate staffed by caring staff.
This final key theme was found throughout the interview process. Interviewees stated that
a positive school community, in particular positive adult/student relationships, is viewed as a key
strategy to helping students stay in school and do what they need to do in order to recover
credits. This belief is seen from the top down. The top administrator stated his goal is to, “build
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

72

positive relationships with these kids… every decision I make is based on what is best for these
kids...” (R. Smith, personal communication, June 10, 2015). An important reflection on this
came from the mental health provider, who stated that:
…I think our kids have that sense of community. They feel safer because they come here
with this preconceived notion that they are really failures or they don’t have the ability or
they cannot do the work but I think the setup is such that, of course, it’s not just me, it’s
the system that we have at this school, we’re geared towards making that negative
thought go away and give them new hope and opportunities and we see that.
She continued to explain that teachers and other stakeholder meet the needs of the students by:
…bringing trust back into themselves, addressing their self-esteem and confidence. And
once a student believes that they can, it is a chain link, everything kind of untangles. But
another way is that letting them know that they are in control of their lives, not others, not
adults.
This positive school climate is also built into the school day during the period 1 Advisement
class, as noted by one teacher:
Advisement is a way of mentoring a smaller group of students… they all come with their
own bags of problems and stuff like that but you just develop relationships. It’s all about
relationships. You develop relationships with every kid… most of the time I’m the only
adult in their life that has taken an interest and speaks to them about their future and their
dreams and their desires…
The result of this strong, supportive sense of community is that, as the counselor stated, “The
majority of my kids, believe it or not, do not drop out because they feel very safe here” (A.
Allen, personal communication, June 17, 2015). She went on to indicate that, “The ones who
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

73

have been here for a while, they won’t leave because they are getting their needs met here, too.
You really feel like you are reaching… not all, but more than a few… it’s not just a job here” (A.
Allen, personal communication, June 17, 2015). Interviews with key staff members validate the
importance of strong, supportive school community.
Data collected from observations also indicated the importance of school climate to
student success at PHS. During the parent/student orientation, parents and students were told that
the orientation itself was created to help students get the information they need to recover credits
and stay at PHS. During orientation, participants were also told that PHS provides strategies and
encourages students to “stop digging your hole deeper… we provide you with a rope… if you
aren’t successful, you are choosing not to be successful.” The supportive community seen at PHS
as presented at the orientation includes that there are no F grades given because students are
expected to redo poor quality work and no homework is assigned because support is given in
class. Speakers at the orientation emphasized that extra support in literacy is provided to students
who need it, CAHSEE intervention classes are not a punishment but a support, and breakfast is
provided to those who are hungry. Furthermore, during the Intake meeting, several participants
expressed the belief that PHS is invested in making sure that the students who are accepted will
fit in with the culture and be successful with the opportunity for a new start. The participants at
the Intake meeting made sure that each student is appropriately placed and will be successful,
that the student is not too low academically and would require a large number of special
education services, is not too immature, and that the team believes that the student will put forth
the effort and take advantage of the opportunity. In many ways the data indicates that PHS offers
a strong, supportive community for its students.

CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

74

Summary of Results for Research Question One
Three important themes that resulted from the data analyzed for Research Question One
are the importance of systemic programs and strategies and the benefit of a strong, supportive
sense of community. Through the process of document review, interviews and observations, it
was shown that all three factors help to create a setting at PHS that encourages and enables credit
deficient students to recover credit and graduate from high school. As seen through the three
themes related to programs, strategies and community, PHS staff and key stakeholders are
supporting their students in the quest to recover credits and graduate from high school.
Data for Research Question Two
The second research question examined in this study was:
What are the perceptions of PHS staff and key stakeholders about these strategies and
systemic programs to support their students?
In order to better understand the perceptions of PHS staff and key stakeholders about
strategies and systemic programs to support their students in the quest to recover credits and earn
a high school diploma, the data collection and analysis process began with a document review,
followed by interviews and observations. Interviews were the primary mode of data collection
and analysis for Research Question Two. Observations occasionally served to reinforce or
corroborate what was stated in an interview. As a result of this process, one additional theme was
identified concerning perceptions about credit recovery at a continuation high school.
The key theme that emerged from this data review is that teachers and key stakeholders
feel positive about the strategies and systemic programs at PHS. In addition, they feel strongly
about their ability to implement these strategies and programs and their impact on student
success for recovering credit. This belief is reflected from the top down. In reference to why he
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

75

enjoys working at PHS, the Principal stated, “I can personally affect more change or affect more
students in this type of environment” (R. Smith, personal communication, June 10, 2015). This
was also reflected in statements from many other interview subjects. The counselor reported that:
Most of us got into education to make a difference. And you actually feel it here. And
you’re doing, I think you are doing it the right away. The kids learn, not just the
academics but how to survive in society, I believe. They learn the rewards and they get
their things taken away from them if they don’t do well. Which is like our
paychecks…Most of our kids, don’t want to go back. And they finish early. It’s just like,
I hate to be cliché or anything, but it is really taking care, it’s like Hillary, it feels like that
here, like everybody is doing it… to help the kids.”
An additional key indicator of staff and stakeholder perception is reflected in how success is
measured. One mental health provider stated:
We see that at the end when our kids are graduating. When they’re graduating we give
them a form where they have to fill out voluntarily as to what their thoughts are, do they
like the school, what do they like? They all, unanimously,… pretty much the common
denominator is that they feel supported, they feel validated here. Very important point, I
think validation is the key and that is a word that needs to be underlined.
As found in the interviews and observations, those staff and stakeholders that were part of this
study all expressed positive perceptions of the program at PHS.
Another finding is that most of the staff and key stakeholders perceive that the programs
and strategies are working and supporting the students. One mental health provider stated, “it is
[working] and if you go to the classrooms you’ll see them… they put it up there to show
everyone else that they’ve done something. These are students who have never been validated
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

76

before or they were validated but they just didn’t realize that it was validation that they were
getting” (M. Lara, personal communication, June 9, 2015). In addition, in response to the
teacher belief in the ability to impact student success through strategies and programs, an
academy teacher stated that, “When you have a smaller class size there is more opportunity,
there’s more opportunity actually to impact the lives of students” (A. Far, personal
communication, August 20, 2015). An experienced former special education teacher said, “I
think I do a good job of scaffolding work so it’s accessible and they meet with success early on.
It keeps them motivated to stay the course, get the credit” (M. Trippe, personal communication,
September 24, 2015). When asked if she could recommend additional strategies that PHS could
implement, she stated:
You know, I can’t because we are a pretty small school and we meet as a staff and I kind
of feel that I have a basic knowledge of what’s going on and I think everyone is
attempting to meet the Common Core State Standards and up the rigor and I think we try,
continually, try a variety of strategies.
Of note, one teacher spoke of the creation of the academies, the success and the personal feeling
of self-efficacy when she stated, “This is the first time in all my years I’ve seen something that
was actually teacher driven, came up from the bottom and permeated the whole entire school,
and get up and functioning” (M. Trippe, personal communication, September 24, 2015). Even
the new teacher stated, “We have a huge impact. We have very qualified teachers here” (F. Lan,
personal communication, September 18, 2015). In these ways, it appears that staff and
stakeholders do perceive that the programs and strategies are working.
All staff and key stakeholders interviewed reported enjoying their time working at PHS.
They report feeling supported, feeling ‘at home,’ and appreciate being tied to something that
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

77

each personally believes in. During a staff meeting, which served as an informal SST, this
researcher did notice that expressed perception of attitudes varied among staff. Some staff
members were not participating at all, while one staff member seemed to be arguing about the
process. However, as the meeting progressed, many teachers went on to become more involved
in the informal SST process and offered to be mentors or provide certain services or supplies to
students. It was also observed at the intake meeting that the staff and key stakeholders work
together as a team, show respect for the process and seem to believe the program will work for
those students selected for admission. As a team, staff members gave suggestions for how to
reach out to difficult students, specific suggestions such as agencies that could provide support,
and supported each other by offering encouragement in trying to help students. The members
projected a belief in the process and their ability to provide for the credit deficient students being
presented for acceptance at PHS.
Teacher Self-efficacy, a facet of social cognitive theory, which refers to a teacher’s
beliefs about his or her ability to implement success, was noted in the responses to the interviews
as well as the observations and document review. As stated in the California Model Continuation
High School application, “we as a staff are very proud of our accomplishments and of our future
endeavors. We have worked hard to create many opportunities for our students while nurturing a
safe and caring environment.” During observations and interviews, this researcher noted
repeatedly the sense of self-efficacy and pride demonstrated by the participants. In these ways
staff and key stakeholders at PHS exhibited traits of teacher self-efficacy linked to student
success.
While much of the data collected for this study supports the themes that staff have
positive perceptions of both the strategies and programs, as well as their individual and group
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

78

ability to perform, some concerns were noted. In reference to attempting to implement strategies,
one teacher stated that, “You bring things into the classroom and sometimes it works and
sometimes it doesn’t work for others” (E. Far, personal communication, August 20, 2015). She
elaborated that PHS’s programs are not always working because some students struggle with
drugs, mental illness and the relationship between the two. While there are many positive factors
about the programs, I found some mixed comments about the success and purpose of the
academies. One teacher reported that they were successful at first but only one academy was still
operating as originally conceived. This is confusing as this teacher herself is teaching a class that
should be considered an academy. Additionally, the newest teacher interviewed didn’t seem to
classify programs as programs, and another participant thinks some academies aren’t in effect
any more. When combined with the apparent lack of a clear and functional understanding of the
purpose of the buy-out day by the staff, it appears that not all staff and stakeholders have access
to the same information. Another concern regarding staff perception of programs came out of
other interviews about the policies and procedures of PHS. One teacher stated about the Tuesday
night class (which is designed for students with severe attendance issues), “I’m not too aware if
it’s beneficial but there are some students who really don’t like waking up at 7 am to come to
school so at least they can come one time a week.” (E. Far, personal communication, August 20,
2015). This may indicate perhaps a lack of communication between all stakeholders about what
is currently happening with the academies and programs.
A key theme related to Research Question Two was that, although there was a
discrepancy involving a lack of communication among stakeholders, teachers feel positive about
the strategies, programs and sense of community of the school as well as their individual and
collective ability to implement them. Staff and stakeholders involved in this study report that
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

79

they believe they are capable of creating the kind of environment that students need to be
successful. To the staff and the PHS as a whole, this means strong programs, strategies and a
sense of community that speaks to and helps credit deficient students recover credits and achieve
their dream of earning a high school diploma.
Summary of Results for Question Two
An important theme that resulted from the data analyzed for Research Question Two is
that teachers and key stakeholders feel positive about the strategies and programs at PHS, they
believe these programs and strategies are working, and they feel a sense of self-efficacy about
their ability to implement these programs. Through the process of document review, interviews
and observations, it was demonstrated that teachers and key stakeholders at PHS have mostly
positive perceptions about the strategies and programs to support their students, although some
discrepancies were apparent. As seen through the theme related to perceptions of programs and
strategies, PHS staff and key stakeholders report positive feelings about their ability to support
their students in the quest to recover credits and graduate from high school through strategies and
programs.
Summary
This chapter described the data collected in this qualitative case study of how staff and
key stakeholders at a continuation high school with the Model Continuation High School
designation help students recover credits and graduate from high school, as well as their
perceptions. The two research questions used to guide the study were:
1. What are PHS staff and key stakeholders doing to support their students in the quest to
recover credits and earn a high school diploma?
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

80

2. What are the perceptions of PHS staff and key stakeholders about these strategies and
systemic programs to supporting their students?
The data collected in this study provided examples of the strategies and programs, as well
as perceptions of these programs, in use at PHS to facilitate credit recovery and high school
graduation for credit deficient students.
Page High School was selected for this qualitative case study because it met several
criteria for the study. It had been named as a California Model Continuation High School,
received a 6-year WASC accreditation and provided a local setting to observe. Data collection
was triangulated through the use of document review, interviews and observations. Through this
process several themes emerged in response to answering the two research questions posed in
this study.
The first theme to emerge from the data was that strategic programs are one key to
achieving a successful credit recovery program at a continuation high school. PHS staff and
stakeholders understand and implement a variety of programs that are important in creating an
environment that helps credit deficient students stay in school and recover credits needed for
high school graduation
The second theme culled from the data was that a variety of strategies are also crucial to
providing a successful credit recovery program at PHS. Strategies noted at PHS reflect an
understanding of the needs of this population in their quest to recover credits and graduate from
high school.
The third theme addressed the strong sense of community that was evident at and
reflected in the practices seen at PHS. Students, staff and key stakeholders all maintain that they
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

81

enjoy working at PHS. Many students chose to graduate from PHS even when given the
opportunity to return to their home school due to this perceived sense of community.
The final theme to emerge from the Research Questions is that staff has a positive
perception of their ability to provide services to meet the needs of their students. This strong
sense of teacher self-efficacy and collective efficacy is reflected in the feelings that staff and
stakeholders have in the success of the strategies and programs and their beliefs in their own
ability to successfully help credit deficient students to be successful.
While PHS has demonstrated much success in helping credit deficient students recover
credits and graduate from high school, clarification and re-clarification of the current status of
programs and strategies might make the program at PHS even stronger and lead to more success.
The interviews and observations present a few areas of concerns such as the perception that some
of the academies no longer operate, that some staff are not able to identify programs and
strategies and not all on the same page.
Ultimately, this case study revealed strategies and programs that staff and key
stakeholders at PHS utilize to help credit deficient students graduate from high school. In
addition, it was shown that for the most part, staff and key stakeholders hold positive perceptions
of these strategies and programs as well as their ability, both individually and collectively, to
implement these strategies and programs and help students achieve their dream of earning a high
school diploma.
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

82

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
“But everything in life starts with a dream” (M. Lara, personal communication, June 9, 2015).
Given the current rate of high school dropout in American high schools, there is a need to
determine what can be done to ameliorate this societal problem and help students achieve their
dream of graduating from high school. Students who drop out of high school are at risk socially,
emotionally, and economically and these risks can impact the rest of their lives. While it is the
dream of most high school students to graduate from high school with their peers, many
obstacles exist to achieving this dream. Many of these students, before they ultimately drop out
of high school, find themselves unable to earn sufficient credits and become labeled as credit
deficient. It is these students who, if not provided with viable options and support, will fail to
earn a diploma and graduate from high school. One option for these credit deficient students is to
enroll in an alternative education program known as a continuation high school. While
continuation high schools have a long history in California, research has documented that many
programs fail to meet the needs of the students and simply contribute to their continued failure.
Fortunately, research shows that some continuation schools are successful at helping credit
deficient students recover credits and earn a diploma. The focus of this case study was to
examine what one successful continuation high school does to help their students recover
sufficient credits and graduate from high school.
Chapters one through four presented a background on high school dropout and credit
recovery options, a detailed overview of the proposed study, a literature review focusing on
current research, a description of the qualitative research design for this case study, and the
findings of the study. A total of three instruments were used to complete this case study of a site
designated as a California Model Continuation High School: document review, interviews and
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

83

observations. Four themes emerged from the in-depth analysis of the programs and strategies.
Chapter five discusses the finding from chapter four and provides overall conclusions,
implications and recommendations for future research.
Purpose, Significance and Methodology of the Study
The purpose of this study was to provide descriptive information about staff and
stakeholder strategies and systemic programs at a public continuation high school, designated as
a California Model Continuation High School, designed to help credit deficient students recover
credits and earn a high school diploma. In addition, the research questions aimed to provide
information about staff and key stakeholder perceptions of these strategies and systemic
approaches. This study is significant because, as not all students are successful in their dream to
graduate from high school with a diploma, it is important to examine alternative pathways to
graduation. This case study will add to the existing literature identifying what staff and key
stakeholders at a public continuation high school do to provide support to their students in their
quest to recover credits. This qualitative case study included data derived from observations,
interviews and document review. The two research questions that guided this study are:
1. What are PHS staff and key stakeholders doing to support their students in the quest to
recover credits and earn a high school diploma?
2. What are the perceptions of PHS staff and key stakeholders about these strategies and
systemic programs to supporting their students?
Triangulation of data was obtained by using multiple instruments of data collection,
thereby maximizing the validity and reliability of the study. This qualitative case study used
interviews of staff and stakeholders, observations of classes and events, and document review of
key school documents to answer the research questions.
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

84

Discussion of Findings
Four themes emerged from a review of the data collected in support of the two research
questions of this qualitative case. All four themes aligned with the research findings identified in
the literature of this case study. The themes are:
• Strategic programs are important to achieving a successful credit recovery program at a
continuation high school, such as Page High School.
• A variety of strategies are also crucial to providing a successful credit recovery program
to credit deficient students.
• A strong, supportive community, reflected in the practices observed at PHS, is important
to student success.
• A strong sense of teacher self-efficacy and collective efficacy is reflected in the
perceptions of staff and stakeholders regarding the success of the strategies and programs
and their own ability to successfully help credit deficient students to be successful.
The first theme that emerged in response to Research Question One is that strategic
programs are one key to achieving a successful credit recovery program at a continuation high
school. While all schools strive to provide successful programming, the staff at PHS understand
the need to raise this to a higher level to impact their population. The data collected through this
qualitative case study aligned with this theme. Data from the document review, interviews and
observations refer to academies, attendance related programs and scheduling. PHS was found to
have programs such as academies, parent/student orientation, Friday buy-out, and structured
hours for student attendance. In addition, PHS offered programs such as Tobacco Use Prevention
Education (TUPE) and ACTION (a drug and alcohol prevention program) that help students
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

85

address peripheral issues such as tobacco and drug or alcohol use that hinder their ability to learn
and graduate from high school.
Research into effective continuation high schools indicates that successful continuation
high schools have focused on creating successful programs. Page High School has structured the
core focus of all of school programs on credit recovery. Research by Kim and Tayler (2008)
found that a credit recovery focused program such as PHS’s created a positive school
environment in which students felt they had moved into a safety net and could be successful.
Many PHS students chose to stay at PHS even when given the option of returning to their home
school. The findings from PHS also connect to research from Ruiz de Velasco, et al., (2008) and
Ruiz de Velasco and McLaughlin (2012). Based on a year long study of 40 California
continuation high schools, they found that successful programs created partnerships with the
community (PHS has long standing partnerships with Lexus and the Kiwanis), maintained an
orderly student identification process (PHS participates in intake meetings), expressed high
expectations for students and teachers (presented at orientation and in the school mission
statement), offered rich curricular options as well as innovative and successful programs
(academies such as EFA and Roadtrip Nation), provided teachers with time to collaborate and
examined student data (PHS provides banking days and collaboration time). D’Angelo and
Zemanick (2009) found that program components such as small class size, weekly counseling
and teachers as job coaches contributed to successful continuation high schools. PHS brags about
its small class sizes in all programs and has a built in advisement program in all 1
st
period
classes. As documented, many of the programs utilized by Page High School align to research
findings linked to successful continuation high schools.
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

86

Another theme derived from the data analysis of this study is that a variety of strategies
are also crucial to providing a successful credit recovery program at PHS. Data indicates that
PHS utilizes a variety of strategies backed up by recent research into successful continuation
high school programs. Page High School was found to provide strategies related to supporting
the students both socially and academically.
Previous research indicates that there are a variety of strategies that have been found to
be successful in continuation high schools that meet the needs of their students. Rumberger, et
al., (1990) reported that there are three areas of successful strategies. These areas include social
support, academic encouragement, and academic assistance. PHS has been found to offer all
three types of strategies. It was also found that some strategies overlap in the type of support that
they provide to these credit deficient students. PHS has strategies such as counseling and the
newly founded Key Club to provide social support to the students. In addition, PHS provides
social encouragement through strategies such as helping students to create life goals, the student
of the month program, and teachers finding teachable moments within their day to relate their
personal success stories to the current struggles of each student. PHS also offers numerous
strategies for academic assistance to the students such as tutoring, English and math strategies
classes, and in-class teaching strategies. Strategies found at PHS coincide with research from
previously discussed sources.
Research has also found that there are additional strategies beneficial to helping students
find success at a continuation high school. Effective instruction, a strategy that should be within
the control of the teacher, has been found to be an effective academic strategy to help students
recover credits (Bost & Riccomini, 2006). In particular, their research stated that effective
instruction included scaffolding, active engagement and explicit instruction. During observation
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

87

it was found that teachers at PHS utilized all of the above detailed strategies. In further research,
Pyle and Wexler’s (2011) research recommended providing access to an adult, which PHS
accomplishes through the period one advisement time, in addition to access to three mental
health providers. Pyle and Wexler’s (2011) research found relevant instruction to be a crucial
strategy for student success. This is accomplished at PHS when the teachers integrate curriculum
and instruction into real life situations and the current needs of the students, both during their
time in school and in their future adult lives. As indicated, strategies observed at PHS align with
successful strategies documented in prior research.
An additional theme discovered from the analysis of data collection is that a strong sense
of community is evident and reflected in the practices of PHS. During interviews, staff and key
stakeholders asserted that there is a strong sense of community at PHS and in fact, most had not
felt that level of support and community at previous positions. Facets of this strong sense of
community reflect on the links to social cognitive theory and, in particular, teacher self-efficacy
and collective group efficacy. As discussed, references to the important and strength of this sense
of community were found in the document review and observational sessions. This strong sense
of community contributes to the strength of the program at PHS.
Prior research into community issues at continuation high schools is not well developed
but the findings do correlate with findings at PHS. Positive relationships with adults (Lessard,
Butler-Kisber, Fortin & Marcotte, 2014) were found to be a factor in creating a strong sense of
community at continuation high schools, which then led to increased student success. PHS was
seen to foster this in many ways. Teachers reported making connections with students throughout
the day. In addition, the period one advisement period allows connections with students on a
daily basis. Research has also shown that smaller class sizes enabled more class time for
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

88

interaction with staff and time for students to feel listened to and supported (De La Ossa, 2005).
PHS reports maintaining a small class size in order to better meet the needs of their students. The
sense of community created by the smaller classes at PHS was seen during observations,
reported on in the interviews, and documented in the PHS documents.
A final theme derived from the data collection process relates to social cognitive theory
and teacher self-efficacy. Social cognitive theory, from which the concept of self-efficacy
derives, states that people have the ability to influence their own behavior and the environment
with which they interact. Teacher self-efficacy refers to an individual teacher’s belief in the
potential to influence student learning and success (Skaalvak & Skaalvak, 2007). A strong sense
of teacher self-efficacy and collective efficacy was seen in the feelings that staff and stakeholders
express they have relative to the success of the strategies and programs at PHS and their beliefs
in their own ability to successfully help credit deficient students to be successful. Teachers’ and
staff members’ feelings about their own self-efficacy can impact their level of success with their
students. Data related to teacher self-efficacy and collective efficacy came primarily from
interviews of staff and key stakeholders.
The element of social cognitive theory that connects to self-efficacy refers to a teacher’s
beliefs about his or her ability to help students learn or to influence student learning (Santrock,
2009). Research by Skaalvak and Skaalvak (2007) found that this reflected teachers’ belief in
their ability to plan, organize and carry out the tasks needed to achieve the goal. Within this
study, the data collected indicated that staff and key stakeholders at PHS demonstrated high
levels of personal teacher self-efficacy. For example, teachers felt confidence in their abilities to
plan and teach lessons, as well as, impact student lives. These same staff and stakeholders
presented evidence of successful planning of programs and strategies through the day. In
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

89

addition, Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2006) found a relationship between teacher experience
level and teacher self-efficacy that was mirrored in the findings from this study. The more
experienced teachers and staff at PHS exhibited increased confidence and were more
forthcoming with information about success, while the newer teacher expressed less belief in his
own knowledge and abilities. Teacher self-efficacy at PHS reflected findings from prior research.
Another aspect of social cognitive theory, collective efficacy, or the belief of teachers
within a group that they, as a group, can influence student learning and outcomes (Santrock,
2009) has also been shown to be related to student success in school programs. Other research
(Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2007) found that higher levels of perceived collective efficacy were
related to higher levels of teacher self-efficacy. At PHS it was observed through the interviews
and observations that perceived collective efficacy was high. One example of the success of
collective efficacy can be seen in the planning, creation and implementation of the new
academies a few years ago. This example demonstrates how high levels of efficacy can lead to
success and reinforces findings in the research literature.
Implications for Practice
Based on the above discussion of the findings developed around the themes found in the
findings from this study, there are eight implications for practice.
• Continued development of programs, especially academies, is important to the continued
success of PHS as an avenue to help credit deficient students recover credits and graduate
from high school. Based on some of the reported lack of information and communication,
the school needs to continue to develop programs and guarantee the successful
continuation of current programs even if there are changes in staff, school leadership and
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

90

district policies. Student and community representatives may be a part of this
development team.
• Continued use of strategies to effectively assist students is also an area that needs to
continue to be developed. As is the case with the development of programs, many
strategies are being implemented by much of the staff but may not be utilized in a
uniform manner. Further development of school wide strategies that can continue over
time, faculty changes, and board policy changes is recommended. Teacher led teams
could investigate recent developments in research relating to best practices in order to
further develop this knowledge base.
• While evidence of teacher self-efficacy and collective self-efficacy is apparent, these
need to continue to be supported and developed. Both teachers who are new to the
campus and veteran staff may benefit from in-service time training about self-efficacy
and its impact on student success. Time should also be spent, possibly during banking
time, to actively build these skills within all staff, using peer models as available.
• While this is touched on in previous implications, as time goes on and staff or
management changes, the team at PHS should consider best practices for ensuring that
the gains made in recent years to benefit credit deficient students continue. Over time as
teachers, staff, and administrators change, effort should be made to ensure that the
essential components of PHS aimed at facilitating student success stay in place.
• In the spirit of expanding the community base of the program at PHS, leadership and staff
could develop more community-based opportunities for students such as the utility box
painting or the garden. Perhaps PHS could create a mentoring opportunity with a local
elementary or middle school to create their own community based garden.
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

91

• Allow students to develop future academies based on their expressed interests. These
could be short term, independent study projects or long term academies that develop and
grow even as the students who have created the program graduate and leave the school.
• Graduates of PHS could be brought in as mentors to help develop and maintain energy
and interest in the academies and other programs even as staff may leave and district
policies and foci may change.
• The team should consider coming together with other local model continuation high
schools to create a consortium to further develop all continuation high school programs
reflecting current research and best practices. This would allow a unique opportunity to
share best practices and brainstorm solutions to challenges and other concerns.
Future Research
Based on the overall findings from the data collected and analyzed in Chapter Four, the
following six recommendations for future research are presented:
• Further research replicating this study with a larger sample of continuation high schools,
focusing on the strategies and programs implemented, is recommended. With a larger
sample, findings could be validated across sites.
• Further studies should examine similar programs at smaller or bigger districts that would
have more or fewer resources. An abundance of or a lack of resources may impact
program success.
• Additional research should examine successful continuation high school programs over
time to determine if these programs remain effective. The question of whether or not
these programs change in positive or negative ways over time makes the findings more or
less applicable to other settings.
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

92

• Further research should delve into the theoretical framework of social cognitive theory to
further study the role of teacher self-efficacy and collective efficacy at a school in more
detail to determine additional factors of interest. This case study is limited to the findings
at one school site; findings may be different at other sites.
• Further research could focus on the impressions and reflections of the students who are
successful in this type of program at a school designated as a model continuation high
school. One limitation of this study is that only adults were included; student participants
would add another level of information and data.
• Further research could include an experimental or quasi-experimental design that focuses
on the programs’ effectiveness. This case study relied on qualitative design methods,
which provided only one type of data.
Conclusions
Most American students dream of earning a high school diploma and graduating with
their peers. In fact, most are successful at reaching this goal. However, there are those who, for a
variety of reasons, find this goal difficult, if not impossible. For those who struggle with this
goal, dropping out of high school is often the consequence. Continuation high schools, however,
aim to help students who are at risk for not graduating primarily due to being credit deficient.
Continuation high schools have a long history in the state of California but research has shown
that many of these programs are unsuccessful at helping many of the students they are tasked to
help. It is critical for educational leaders to look to those programs that contain successful
elements in order to provide opportunities for credit deficient students to be successful.
Fortunately, there are continuation high schools that demonstrate the ability to help credit
deficient students earn sufficient credits to graduate from high school, often catching up quickly
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

93

enough to graduate with their peers. Many of these schools have developed specific programs,
use a variety of teaching strategies and create strong communities of support aimed at reaching
their unique population. In addition, it has been found that the staff at these schools often
exhibits strong self-efficacy about not only their ability to help students but also in the collective
ability of the group to help students, and this is reflected in the success of the school and many of
the students. It is crucial to continue to study and support these programs in order to better serve
all students, but particularly those at risk for not graduating from high school. For these students,
who are our future, to be successful in life, they must have a greater chance of graduation from
high school. The state of California acknowledges the most successful of these schools by
awarding them the designation of Model Continuation High School. In addition, these schools
also generally receive high recognition from the Western Association of Schools and Colleges,
further indicating the lengths these schools go to in order to serve their unique populations.
Support for these successful continuation high school programs can lead to a wider acceptance in
the larger community, thereby hopefully bringing more resources and support to these students in
need. It has been shown that, given the right supports in the right environment, credit deficient
students can recover and achieve the dream of high school graduation.
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

94

References
Allensworth, E. (2013). The use of ninth-grade early warning indicators to improve Chicago
schools. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 18(1), 68-83.
America’s Promise Alliance, Dropout Crises Facts, downloaded July 14, 2014.
http://www.americaspromise.org/dropout-crisis-facts
Anguiano, R. P. V. (2004). Families and schools: The effect of parental involvement on high
school completion. Journal of Family Issues, 25(1), 61-85.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy; The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.
Barnes, W. & Slate, J. R. (2013). College-readiness is not one -size-fits-all. Current Issues in
Education, 16(1), 1-12.
Barnes, W., Slate, J., & Rojas-LaBouef, A. (2010). College-readiness and academic
preparedness: The same concepts? Current Issues in Education, 13(4), 1-27.
Blondal, K. S., & Adalbjarnardottir, S. (2014). Parenting in relation to school dropout through
school engagement: A longitudinal study. Journal of Marriage and Family 76, 778-795.
Bogdan, R. C. & Biklen, S. K. (2007). Qualitative research for education: an introduction to
theory and methods. Boston: Pearson.
Bost, L. W. & Riccomini, P. J. (2006). Effective instruction: An inconspicuous strategy for
dropout prevention. Remedial and Special Education, 27(5), 301-311.
Bowers, A. J., Sprott, R. & Taff, S. A. (2013). Do we know who will drop out? A review of the
predictors of dropping out of high school: Precision, sensitivity, and specificity. The High
School Journal, 96(2), 77-100.
California Department of Education, http://www.cde.ca.gov accessed April 4, 2015.
Center for Public Education, http://www.centerforpubliceducation.org accessed April 4, 2015
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

95

Cohen, J. S. & Smerdon, B. A. (2009). Tightening the dropout tourniquet: Easing the transition
from middle to high school. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for
Children and Youth, 53(3), 177-184.
Common Core State Standards California, March 2013, California Department of Education.
D’Angelo, F. & Zemanick, R. (2009). The Twilight Academy: An alternative education program
that works. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth,
53(4), 211-218.
Deil-Amen, R. & DeLuca, S. (2010). The underserved third: How our educational structures
populate an educational underclass. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk,
15(1), 27-50.
De La Ossa, P. (2005). “Hear My Voice:” Alternative high school students’ perceptions and
implications for school change. American Secondary Education, 34(1), 24-39.
Denler, H., Wolters, C., Benzon, M. (2006). Social cognitive theory. Retrieved from
http://www.education.com/print/social-cognitive-theory/
Doll, J. J., Eslami, Z. & Walters, L. (2013). Understanding why students drop out of high school,
according to their own reports: Are they pushed or pulled, or do they fall out? A
comparative analysis of seven nationally representative studies. SAGE Open, 1-15.
Eisenman, L. T. (2007). Self-determination interventions: Building a foundation for school
completion. Remedial and Special Education, 28(2), 2-8.
Freudenberg, N. & Ruglis, J. (2007). Reframing school dropouts as a public health issue.
Preventing Chronic Disease: Public Health Research, Practice, and Policy, 4(4), 1-11.
Glendale Unified School District http://www.gusd.net accessed April 4, 2015
Harding, J. (2013). Qualitative data analysis from start to finish. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

96

Hickman, G. P., Bartholomew, M., Mathwig, J. & Heinrich, R. S. (2008). Differential
developmental pathways of high school dropouts and graduates. Journal of Educational
Research, 102(1), 3-14.
Hooker S. & Brand, B. (2010). College knowledge: A critical component of college and career
readiness. New Directions for Youth Development, 127, 75-85. DOI: 10.1002/yd.364
Hughes, L. (1951). Retrieved from poetryfoundation.org March 29, 2015. Probably need a better
citation for this if I use it. Or find it in print
Kelly, D. M. (1993). Last chance high: How girls and boys drop in and out of alternative
schools. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Kennelly, L. & Monrad, M. (2007). Approaches to dropout prevention: Heeding early warning
signs with appropriate interventions. National High School Center. Betterhighschools.org
Kim, J. & Taylor, K. A. (2008). Rethinking alternative education to break the cycle of
educational inequality and inequity. The Journal of Educational Research, 101(4), 207-
219.
Knesting, K. (2008). Students at risk for school dropout: Supporting their persistence. Preventing
School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 52(4), 3-10.
Lagana-Riordan, C., Aguilar, J. P., Franklin, C., Streeter, C. L., Kim, J. S., Tripodi, S. J., &
Hopson, L. M. (2011). At-risk students’ perceptions of traditional schools and a solution-
focused public alternative school. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for
Children and Youth, 55(3), 105-114.
Lessard, A., Butler-Kisber, L., Fortin, L., & Marcotte, D. (2014). Analyzing the discourse of
dropouts and resilient students. The Journal of Educational Research, 107(2), 103-110.
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

97

Lessard, A., Butler-Kisber, L., Fortin, L., Marcotte, D., Potvin P. & Royer, E. (2008). Shades of
disengagement: High school dropouts speak out. Soc Psychol Educ 11, 25-42.
Maxwell, J. A. (2013). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (3
rd
ed.) Los
Angeles: Sage Publications.
McNulty, C. P. & Roseboro, D. L. (2009). “I’m not really that bad”: Alternative school students,
stigma, and identity politics. Equity & Excellence in Education, 42(4), 412-427.
Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M., & Saldana, J. (2014). Qualitative data analysis: A methods
sourcebook (3
rd
ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Nygreen, K. (2013). These kids: Identity, agency, and social justice at a last chance high school.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Pyle, N. & Wexler, J. (2011). Preventing students with disabilities from dropping out.
Intervention in School and Clinic, 1-7.
Quinn, M. M., Poirier, J. M., Faller, S. E., Gable, R. A., & Tonelson S. W. (2006). An
examination of school climate in effective alternative programs. Preventing School
Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 51(1), 11-17.
Ruiz de Velasco, J., Austin, G., Dixon, D., Johnson J., McLaughlin, M. & Perez, L. (2008).
Alternative Education Options: A descriptive study of California Continuation High
Schools. Brief. Retrieved December 29, 2014 from USC libraries.
Ruiz de Velasco, J. & McLaughlin, M. (2012). Raising the bar: Driving improvement in
California’s continuation high schools. The California Alternative Education Research
Project.
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

98

Rumberger, R. W., Ghatak, R., Poulos, G. P., Ritter, P.L., & Dornbusch, S. M. (1990). Family
influences on dropout behavior in one California high school. Sociology of Education,
63(4), 283-299.
Scanlon, D. & Mellard, D. F. (2002). Academic and participation profiles of school-age dropouts
with and without disabilities. Exceptional Children, 68(2), 239-258.
Strom, R. E. & Boster, F. J. (2007). Dropping out of high school: A meta-analysis assessing the
effect of messages in the home and in school. Communication Education, 56(4), 433-452.
Terry, M. (2008). The effects that family members and peers have on students’ decisions to drop
out of school. Education Research Quarterly, 31(3), 25-38.
Tschannen-Moran, M. & Hoy, A. W. (2006). The differential antecedents of self-efficacy beliefs
of novice and experienced teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23, 944-956.
doi:10.1016/j.tate.2006.05.003
Venezia, A. & Jaeger, L. (2013). Transitions from high school to college. The Future of
Children, 23(1), 117-136. DOI: 10.1353/foc.2013.0004
Wald, J. & Losen, D. J. (2003). Defining and redirecting a school-to-prison pipeline. New
Directions for Youth Development, 99, 9-15.
Western Accreditation of Schools and Colleges [WASC] Self-Study (2014) retrieved from
http://www.dailyhighschool.com.
Wheatley, K. F. (2002). The potential benefits of teacher efficacy doubts for educational reform.
Teaching and Teacher Education, 18, 5-22.
Vadeboncoeur, J. A. (2009). Spaces of difference: The contradictions of alternative educational
programs. Educational Studies, 45(3), 280-299.
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

99

Appendix A
Interview Protocol
Interview Protocol Form
Staff/Stakeholder Interview Protocol
Institution: _____________________________________________________
Interviewee (Title and Name): ______________________________________
Interviewer: _____________________________________________________
Date: ___________________________________________________________
Post Interview Comments or Leads:
________________________________________________________________
Research Questions
1. What are PHS staff and key stakeholders doing to support their students in the quest to
recover credits and earn a high school diploma?
2. What are the perceptions of PHS staff and key stakeholders about these instructional
strategies and systemic programs to supporting their students?
Credit Recovery/Continuation High School Graduation Interviews
Introduction
You have been selected to speak with me today because you have been identified as someone who
has a great deal to share about helping students recover credit and graduate from a continuation
high school. This research project as a whole focuses on the evaluation of credit recovery
programs at a model continuation high school, with particular interest in understanding
instructional strategies, systemic programs used and faculty perceptions of these programs. The
study does not aim to evaluate your techniques or experiences. Rather, I am trying to learn more
about successful continuation high schools, and hopefully learn about faculty practices that help
improve student credit recovery and high school graduation rates.
Introductory Protocol
To facilitate my note-taking, I would like to audio tape our conversations today. Please sign the
release form. For your information, only researchers on the project will be privy to the
recordings which will be eventually destroyed after they are transcribed. In addition, in order to
participate, please sign a form devised to meet our human subject requirements. Essentially, this
document states that: (1) all information will be held confidential, (2) your participation is
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

100

voluntary and you may stop at any time if you feel uncomfortable, and (3) I do not intend to
inflict any harm. Thank you for agreeing to participate.
I have planned this interview to last no longer than one hour. During this time, I have several
questions that I would like to cover. If time begins to run short, it may be necessary to interrupt
you in order to push ahead and complete this line of questioning. I appreciate the time you have
set aside for me, so I want to make sure to use that time as best as possible.
A. Interviewee Background
1. How long have you been …
_______ in your present position?
_______ in this district?
2. What is your highest degree?
3. What was your field of study?
5. What additional relevant training/education/background do you bring to this position?
6. Briefly describe your role (office, administration, teacher, etc.) at this continuation high school
(if appropriate).
Probes: How are you involved in working with students at this site?
7. What do you see is your role at the continuation high school?
Probe: What is your role in helping students to recover credits and graduate from high school?
8. What motivates you to work in this setting?
Probes: How did you get involved in working at a continuation high school?
B. Instructional Strategies
1. What do you perceive to be the instructional needs of the students in this population?
Probes: How are you meeting the needs of these students?
Walk me through how you design or assist in designing instruction in your classroom and/or the
school site to meet the needs of this population.
2. Describe/discuss some of the additional instructional strategies used at this institution for
improving credit recovery and high school graduation rates.
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

101

Probes: In your opinion, are they working – why or why not?
3. What is being accomplished through campus-based initiatives to improve student success
through instructional strategies?
4. Can you recommend strategies that are not in place that you would like to implement?
5. Tell me about the culture in this school.
Probe: Please discuss what about the culture of the school helps students be successful and
recover credits?
6. Have you or your colleagues encountered resistance to these reforms on this campus? . . . in
the district? If so, please tell me about them.
C. Systemic Programs
1. Describe the programs being implemented at the site that help students succeed in recovering
credits and graduating from high school.
Probe: How are you involved in these programs?
2. How do you assess the effectiveness of these programs for helping students recover credits?
Probe: How does the school as a team assess this?
Do you use evidence of student learning in your assessment of these programs?
3. How do you assess most accurately what students are learning in these programs?
4. How is systemic programming used to improve student success on campus?
D. Teacher/Principal self-efficacy
1. How effective do you believe you are at organizing instruction to meet the needs of all of your
students?
Probes: What are the major successes you have experienced?
What obstacles have you faced?
How do you feel you can impact success at your site?
How do you believe any barriers can be overcome?
How can opportunities be maximized?
CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

102

2. How certain are you that you can motivate students who have had little success so far?
Probe: How do you know when you are successful?
Please share a time when you felt success.
3. To what extent do you feel you can lead others at this site in creating a place for students to
achieve success?
E. Collective Teacher Beliefs
1. Explain how much you believe staff at your school can do to help students achieve at your
school.
Probe: why or why not?
3. As a group, how much can staff at your school foster student growth and success?
4. Are there any particular characteristics that you associate with staff who are leaders in creating
a positive climate?
Are there any particular characteristics that you associate with administrators or other
stakeholders who are leaders in creating a positive climate?
F. Conclusion
1. What would you like to share about the strategies and programs at PHS that I have not asked
you about?
2. What do you envision as the “next steps” at PHS?
Post Interview Comments and/or Observations:

CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

103

Appendix B
Observation Protocol

Observation Protocol

Date _______________________________ Location ____________________
Site ________________________________ Event ______________________
Observer _______________________________ Time _______________________

Research Questions
2. What are PHS staff and key stakeholders doing to support their students in the quest to recover credits
and earn a high school diploma?
3. What are the perceptions of PHS staff and key stakeholders about these instructional strategies and
systemic programs to supporting their students?

Observation Setting
Arrangement of Setting
Ø Take a picture or make a sketch of setting prior to beginning
observation

Number of participants
(identifiers if appropriate):

Description of Setting:

Specific observed examples of
instructional strategies:
Staff behaviors
Staff strategies

Description:

Specific observed examples of
systemic programs:
Academies
Classes
Orientation

Description:

CREDIT RECOVERY AND GRADUATION

104

Additional Classroom Environment Notes

Observation Notes

Abstract (if available)

Abstract High school students who find themselves credit deficient are at risk for dropping out of school and not graduating with their peers. This can lead to a host of social, economic and health problems for the student. One option for students who are credit deficient is to attend a continuation high school. This study applies sociocultural theory in the form of teacher self-efficacy and collective efficacy to understand factors that may contribute to success for credit-deficient students at a school that was designated as a Model California Continuation High School. The research questions for this study were: 1) What are staff and key stakeholders doing to support their students in the quest to recover credits and earn a high school diploma? 2) What are the perceptions of staff and key stakeholders about these instructional strategies and systemic programs to support their students? Data collection procedures included interviews with staff and key stakeholders, observations of school and classroom events and review of publicly available documents. Data were coded and findings were analyzed according to themes related to the research questions. Findings indicate that successful continuation high schools create student focused programs, utilize a variety of strategies, develop a strong sense of community and demonstrate high levels of teacher self-efficacy. This study shows a connection between these factors and a successful continuation high school that assists credit-deficient students in recovering credits in order to graduate from high school.

Linked assets

University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses

Conceptually similar

PDF

Examining the impact of continuation high schools on students' self-efficacy

PDF

A case study of student engagement in a high performing urban continuation high school

PDF

The effect of reading proficiency on student success in online credit recovery programs

PDF

Perceptions of inclusion: high school students diagnosed with learning disabilities and their level of self-efficacy

PDF

Key stakeholders' role in implementing special education inclusion program in an urban high school: leadership and school culture

PDF

Teachers in continuation high schools: attributes of new teachers and veteran teachers in urban continuation high schools

PDF

The effect on teacher career choices: exploring teacher perceptions on the impact of non‐instructional workload on self‐efficacy and self‐determination

PDF

Breakthrough: an outperforming model continuation school's leadership, programs, and culture case study

PDF

Key stakeholders' role in implementing special education inclusion: leadership and school culture

PDF

Uncovered leaders in hidden schools: effective leadership practices in California Model Continuation High School principals

PDF

Uncovered leaders in hidden schools: effective leadership practices in California Model Continuation High School principals

PDF

An exploration of student experiences in a preparation program for online classes in the California community college system

PDF

Advising strategies to support high graduation rates of transfer students

PDF

Blended learning in a credit recovery program: emerging insights and issues

PDF

High school single-gender science classrooms, minority females, and perceptions of self-efficacy

PDF

Self-regulation and online course satisfaction in high school

PDF

Teachers' pedagogy and perceptions of technology integration: a mixed‐methods case study of kindergarten teachers

PDF

Future ready schools: how middle and high school principals support personalized and digital learning for teachers and students at a mid-sized urban middle/high school

PDF

The issue of remediation as it relates to high attrition rates among Latino students in higher education: an evaluation study

PDF

An exploratory study on flipped learning and the use of self-regulation amongst undergraduate engineering students

Asset Metadata

Creator Dall, Jennifer (author)

Core Title Reclaiming the dream: credit recovery and graduation at a California model continuation high school

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 02/22/2016

Defense Date 02/22/2016

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag alternative education,continuation high school,credit deficient,Graduation,high school drop out,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Crispen, Patrick (committee chair), Tobey, Patrica (committee chair), Samkian, Artineh (committee member)

Creator Email jdall@usc.edu,jennifer13.1@att.net

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-212457

Unique identifier UC11277442

Identifier etd-DallJennif-4140.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-212457 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-DallJennif-4140.pdf

Dmrecord 212457

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Dall, Jennifer

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA