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Pivotal positions, critical experiences, and preparation programs in the career paths of superintendents

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Pivotal positions, critical experiences, and preparation programs in the career paths of superintendents

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Content Running head: THE CAREER PATHS OF SUPERINTENDENTS

1

PIVOTAL POSITIONS, CRITICAL EXPERIENCES, AND PREPARATION PROGRAMS
IN THE CAREER PATHS OF SUPERINTENDENTS

by

James William Raymond

________________________________________________________________________

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2016

Copyright 2016 James William Raymond

THE CAREER PATHS OF SUPERINTENDENTS

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To Joe Perez, my loving and supportive husband. Completing all of my assignments and
papers over the last three years has been challenging and at times, all consuming; especially
during the process of writing this dissertation. But, no matter what, you were always there to
support my efforts. Your encouragement, advice, and assistance has carried me through this
demanding period. Now, with its conclusion, all of the hard work has paid off. I can’t imagine
accomplishing this achievement without you. Thank you!
To Nancy Raymond, my amazing and optimistic mother. You instilled in me, the value
of being an educator and how to make a difference in the lives of children. You helped me to
realize that even though theory is valuable, it is through practical application that we learn the
most. You were an excellent role model who always encouraged me to follow my dreams. You
have inspired me to earn and ultimately use this degree to continue my work by improving the
educational system for the masses.
To Mario Carlos, one of my closest friends, confidant, and fellow educator. Carlos, you
challenge and inspire me to follow in your footsteps. I strive to be the kind of leader you are in
education. You have made a bigger impact on me and my life as an educator, than you will ever
know. Gracias!
To the members of my dissertation committee: Dr. Rudy Castruita, Dr. Pedro Garcia, and
Dr. Lena Richter. I’ve worked with each one of you during my coursework at USC and also on
this dissertation. I truly appreciate the support, time, and guidance that you have provided. I
could not image a more knowledgeable and supportive team to assist me during my studies at
USC, than the three of you. Thank you so much for all of your help!

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements 2
List of Tables 5
List of Figures 7
Abstract 8
Chapter 1: Introduction 9
Background of the Problem 10
Statement of the Problem 14
Purpose of the Study 14
Research Questions 15
Significance of the Study 15
Limitations and Delimitations 15
Definition of Terms 16
Organization of the Dissertation 19
Chapter 2: Literature Review 21
Introduction 21
Historical Evolution of Public Schools and the Superintendency 22
Description of the Studies Addressing Career Paths of Superintendents 28
Findings from Studies Addressing the Career Paths of Superintendents 38
Description of the Studies Addressing Critical Experiences 51
Findings from Studies Addressing Critical Experiences 55
Description of the Studies Addressing Preparation Programs 64
Findings Addressing Preparation Programs 65
Summary 71
Chapter 3: Methodology 73
Introduction 73
Research Questions 73
Sample and Population 75
Instrumentation 77
Data Collection 80
Data Analysis 81
Conclusion 82
Chapter 4: Results 83
Introduction: A Restatement of the Focus for the Study 83
Components of the Research 83
Reporting of the Findings 89
Summary 118
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Chapter 5: Summary of Findings 122
Background and Purpose of the Study 122
Research Questions 122
Summary of Findings 123
Implications for Practice 135
Limitations 136
Future Research 137
Conclusion 138
References 139
Appendices 147
Appendix A: Cover Letter Emailed to Superintendents Introducing the Online 147
Survey
Appendix B: Online Survey 148
Appendix C: Consent Form 154
Appendix D: Interview Protocol 156
Appendix E: Research and Interview Questions Table 161

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Empirical Studies Used for Identifying the Most Direct Career Paths to the 30
Position of Superintendent
Table 2. Career Paths of Superintendents 39
Table 3. Jordan’s (2008) Career Paths of Superintendents 41
Table 4. Superintendents’ First Administrative Positions 44
Table 5. Most Frequent Administrative Position(s) Held Prior to Becoming 45
Superintendent
Table 6. Last Position Title before Becoming a Superintendent 47
Table 7. Comparing Career Paths of Men and Women 50
Table 8. Empirical Studies Used to Identifying the Most Critical Experiences for 54
Aspiring Superintendents
Table 9. Categories of Tacit Knowledge Utilized and Percentage of Total Number of 57
Responses
Table 10. Is There an Old Boy/Old Girl Network in Your State That Helps Individuals 63
Get Positions As Superintendents?
Table 11. Demographic Data of Superintendents Interviewed 88
Table 12. Career Paths of Superintendents Interviewed 91
Table 13. Previous Positions Held, A Comparison of Survey Respondents and Interview 98
Respondents
Table 14. Tacit Knowledge Aspiring Administrators Need to Develop 102
Table 15. Skills Interviewees Identified That Are Needed By a Superintendent 103
Table 16. Comparison of Literature Review Data to Dissertation Data: Most Common 125
Career Paths of Superintendents
Table 17. Comparison of Literature Review Data to Dissertation Data: Percentages of 127
Superintendents to Receive Mentoring
Table 18. Comparison of Literature Review Data to Dissertation Data: Position(s) 128
Believed to Build Capacity before Becoming Superintendent
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Table 19. Comparison of Literature Review Data to Dissertation Data: Percentage of 129
Superintendents to Serve in the Position of Classroom Teacher
Table 20. Comparison of Literature Review Data to Dissertation Data: Percentage of 130
Superintendents to Serve in the Position of Principal
Table 21. Comparison of Literature Review Data to Dissertation Data: Last Position 131
Before Becoming a Superintendent
Table 22. Comparison of Literature Review Data to Dissertation Data: Percentage of 132
Superintendents Who Were Assistant Principals

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Hierarchy of career path of a superintendent 42
Figure 2. Ages when first superintendent positions were experienced 48
Figure 3. Percentages of superintendents to experience mentoring 61
Figure 4. Conceptual representation of Donald Super’s theory of self-concept and 69
career development
Figure 5. Gender of survey respondents 86
Figure 6. Number of years employed with the title of superintendent 86
Figure 7. Percentage of survey respondents to volunteer to be interviewed 87
Figure 8. Career paths of survey respondents 90
Figure 9. Percentage of survey respondents who had a superintendent mentor them 94
Figure 10. Percentage of survey respondents who recommend aspiring superintendents 94
receive the guidance of a mentor
Figure 11. Critical positions to build a superintendent’s capacity 96
Figure 12. Percentage of superintendents interviewed who determined that their 110
university program adequately prepared them for the position of
superintendent
Figure 13. Most important university courses for building capacity as a superintendent 112
Figure 14. Percentage of survey respondents who had an internship in their university 115
preparation programs
Figure 15. Percentage of survey respondents who believe internships in university 116
preparation programs would be beneficial to aspiring superintendents

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ABSTRACT
Farley-Ripple, Raffel, and Welch’s research indicated that up to the present time, there has been
insufficient exploration of the examination of the professional career trajectories of
superintendents. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to survey and interview successful
superintendents in order to elicit personal histories, opinions, and recommendations related to
their own career pathways. The population of this study was comprised of 51 superintendents
who were employed by unified school districts in six Southern California counties. The
quantitative data were collected via an online survey and qualitative data were a result of
personal interviews. The investigation, analysis, and examination of this study was intended to
inform prospective administrators in the field of educational leadership of the most effective
career paths to the superintendency. As these aspiring superintendents travel through their
careers towards the fulfillment and attainment of this role, they will be able to apply the
knowledge gained in this dissertation to create their own career paths and preparation plans. As a
result of the findings in this study, their plans will incorporate highly effective components
which will prepare them to be a successful superintendent.

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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Contrary to most research available, the Broad Foundation, in conjunction with the
Thomas B. Fordham Institute, assert that, “Administration preparation is basically irrelevant or
ineffective, thus making both it and state licensing unnecessary requirements” (Finn, Broad,
Meyer, & Feistritzer, 2003, p. 31). In stark contrast to this viewpoint, Glass, Björk, and Brunner
(2001) contend that an important aspect of any profession is the preparation of those who will
practice that profession in future years. Furthermore, Nestor-Baker and Hoy (2001) point out
that, “Tacit knowledge is practical. Perhaps the highest priority for practical application of
superintendent tacit knowledge research is in the training and development of superintendents”
(p. 125).
When ascending to the position of public school superintendent, it is believed that an
individual must serve in numerous positions and encounter a multitude of experiences before
they can truly be qualified to become a superintendent. This idea was reinforced by the research
of Cooper, Fusarelli, Jackson, and Poster (2002), who indicated that the time schedule of the
advancement of educators to the superintendency seldom corresponds to the period of
preparation and training required for the position. Thus producing a fundamental disruption
between when future administrators will receive the courses and experiences they need and when
they will put their wisdom and abilities to use in the role of superintendent. Insights that
superintendents have gained, ultimately prepare them with a wealth of knowledge and contribute
to their success. Traditionally, candidates with aspirations of becoming a superintendent must
complete a scholarly degree with mandatory credit hours, go through licensing procedures that
qualify them for state accreditation, and also complete years of required experience in both
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teaching and school-level administration (Kowalski, McCord, Peterson, Young, & Ellerson,
2011). However, Kowalski (2005) and Glass et al. (2001) revealed that once in office, first-time
superintendents usually realize that their new position is entirely divergent from former
administrative ranks that they have occupied.
Farley-Ripple, Raffel, and Welch’s (2012) research indicated that up to the present time,
there is insufficient exploration of the examination of the professional career trajectories of
superintendents. Therefore, it is important that this study uncover the most direct career paths,
critical experiences, and characteristics of outstanding preparation programs, in order to
adequately indoctrinate the superintendents of tomorrow.
Background of the Problem
Career Paths
The vast majority of superintendents travel along career paths from within the field of
education. However, it is not the only way to become a superintendent. In more recent times,
individuals seeking positions as superintendents actually come from various backgrounds. For
example, there are those who arrive via the business world and others who have gained notoriety
and experience serving as an elected official or even individuals who possess backgrounds in the
military. Ultimately, no matter what setting prospective administrators emerge from, candidates
who have aspirations to become superintendents express a desire and a need to know how to
access the most direct pipeline to the superintendency and gain the necessary knowledge and
experiences along the way in order to be successful.
Critical Experiences
Aspiring superintendents acquire critical experiences as they travel along their career
paths which, once in office, are impactful to their ability to be successful. When prospective
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superintendents advance through their career as teachers and administrators, they tackle
challenging situations and gain practical experience. To support this claim, Glass et al. (2001)
revealed that problem solving and networking have a major impact on a candidate’s
advancement to the position of superintendent. As candidates progress through the stages of an
administrator’s career they are shaped by work, self-development, and non-work dimensions
(Farley-Ripple et al., 2012).
Preparation Programs
According to Glass et al. (2001) there are three professional publications that serve as
benchmarks of professional standards for the practice and preparation of future superintendents
and they are:
1. Guidelines for the Preparation of School Administrators (Hoyle, 1982)
2. Professional Standards for the Superintendency (Hoyle, 1993)
3. Skills for Successful 21st Century School Leaders (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998)
Although these publications have been used as a measuring stick for practice and
preparation of aspiring superintendents, they, by themselves, are not enough to ready individuals
for the position of superintendents. There is a significant void and an authentic need for quality
preparation programs that should provide candidates with a thorough foundation of knowledge
and skills to effectively carry-out the responsibilities of their job. Glass et al. (2001) determined
that, “Preparing the superintendents of tomorrow should become a much higher priority for
states, higher education institutions and the profession itself” (p. viii).
The research of Sutton (2008) and Meyer and Feistritzer (2003) indicated that
participants in their studies were of the opinion that the creation of district-based leadership
academies, mentoring plans, and coaching programs were significant experiences that
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contributed to the capacity of aspiring superintendent. However, McCord’s (2009) study makes
the claim that, “Superintendent mentoring and leadership development seem to be rare, leaving
many, particularly new, superintendents ill-equipped for increasing accountability demands and
fiscal pressures in leading districts” (p. 1). To support this assertion is the fact that 80% of the
superintendents in Sutton’s (2008) study also acknowledged that they did not have a district-
level leadership training programs for ambitious administrators. Instead, the majority of
superintendents obtained mentoring or coaching unofficially and off the record (McCord, Jordan,
& Jordan, 2008).
Prospective superintendents have the opportunity to groom themselves for positions by
participating in several types of programs offered by professional organizations and state
agencies. Some school districts do furnish administrative leadership preparation programs that
provide a foundation for an individual’s role as superintendent. According to Meyer and
Feistritzer (2003), other types of preparation programs that may be influential along a
superintendent’s career path include contracting the services of a corporate training center,
business schools, or other school systems.
University-Based Degree Programs
Another way to increase an individual’s expertise for the position of superintendent is by
earning a university degree, where subject specific topics assist in the preparation for the future.
A growing trend for those intending to become superintendents, as well as being a requirement in
several states, has been the task of earning a doctoral degree, either a Ph.D. or Ed.D., from an
accredited college or university. In the findings of The Study of the American Superintendency,
2000, conducted by Glass et al. (2001), they revealed that “forty-five percent of superintendents
have doctoral degrees, and nearly all of those degrees are in educational administration” (p. viii).
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A more recent study by Glass and Franceschini (2007) shows an increase of superintendents who
earned their doctoral degree has gone up to 57%. But, Glass and Franceschini (2007) also note
that these academic programs were inadequately aimed at the preparation for superintendency. In
concurrence, Glass et al. (2001) also point out that most academic preparation programs are
problematic because they are too general and few of the university-based administrative
preparation programs center specifically on the role of superintendent. Kowalski, Young, and
McCord’s (2011) data indicated that most university-based programs have treated superintendent
preparation programs as an expansion of principal training, by simply calling for students to
finish supplementary courses. Furthermore, opponents of university-based superintendent
programs argue that the content in graduate programs is too theoretical and does not make
significant real-world connections or provide for practical application of newly acquired
knowledge (Hoyle, 2007).
Superintendent Shortages in the Future
It is predicted, that over the next five to six years, 14,300 public school superintendents,
or 82% of the superintendents in the United States, will be retiring (Danitz, 2000). To further
exacerbate this dilemma is the fact that there is also a decrease in interest for public school
employees to make the transition into the field of school administration. The findings of
DeAngelis and O’Connor (2012) advocate for additional specialized preparation programs,
training opportunities, and increased guidance and corroboration for future administrators.
Darling-Hammond, Orphanos, LaPointe, and Weeks (2007) disclosed data related to a
survey that was organized by CSU-Northridge. It was conducted in Los Angeles, Ventura and
Santa Barbara counties and uncovered that only 38% of candidates with preliminary
Administrative Services credentials in California were performing in administrative roles.
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Furthermore, 26% of these respondents were contemplating departing from the administrative
field altogether. They specified salaries, work hours, inadequate support, and job demands as the
rationale for this possibility (Darling-Hammond et al., 2007). Thus, there is a need for aspiring
superintendent candidates to acquire the working capital and develop their capacity in order to
effectively remain in the profession and ascend to the position of public school superintendent.
To accomplish this feat, they need to know:
1. What the most direct pathways are to the position
2. What critical experiences to partake in along the way that will support their
acquisition of knowledge and skills
3. What types of preparation programs are most effective on the university level,
through professional organizations, private consultants, and state agencies
Statement of the Problem
The objective of this study was to focus on the career paths of superintendents and
establish the most direct trajectory to the position of public school superintendent. Secondly, it
explored the critical events and educational experiences that have been most influential in the
development of aspiring administrators’ knowledge and skills.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study incorporates three elements, with the primary intention of
surveying and interviewing successful superintendents in order to elicit personal histories,
opinions, and recommendations as they relate to their career pathways. The secondary objective
of this study was to identify specific, critical experiences of superintendents which they deemed
as impactful to the performance of their jobs. It also compared the recommendations of current
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superintendent with the components of highly notable superintendent preparation programs that
have proven to be dynamic and efficacious. The following research questions guided this study.
Research Questions
1. What are the most direct career paths to the position of superintendents of schools?
2. What critical experiences, positions, or skills did superintendents value, which best
prepared them for the performance of their duties as a superintendent?
3. What are the essential components that must be included in the development of a
prototype for superintendent preparation programs?
Significance of the Study
The investigation and examination of this study was to inform prospective administrators
in the field of educational leadership of the most effective career paths to the superintendency.
As these aspiring superintendents travel through their careers towards the fulfillment and
execution of this role, they will be able to apply the knowledge gained in this dissertation to
create their own preparation plan. As a result of the findings, their plans will include high-quality
programs that effectively and realistically prepare them to be a successful superintendent.
With current research proving how impactful the stability of a superintendent can be to
student achievement, it is imperative for superintendents to acquire the best possible preparation
and training in order to prove their competence. Ultimately this will lead to an extension of their
employment, resulting in an increase in student achievement and a narrowing of learning gaps.
Limitations and Delimitations
There are several limitations and delimitations to this research study. The study is limited
in its findings in the following ways:
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1. The fact that the sampling size of respondents interviewed was very small, at six.
2. The time span of the survey research was limited to the month of September.
3. The sample of respondents interviewed was one of convenience, therefore, the results
of the study cannot be generally applied to a larger population, only suggested.
4. The geographic region was limited to Southern California based on the fact that
interviews needed to be within a four hour driving range of the researcher’s home.
The study is also delimited in its findings in the following ways:
1. The results of this study could be generalizable to superintendents in the state of
California, working in unified public school districts with an excess of 5,000 students.
2. Data collection of the surveys was limited to electronic response on the internet.
3. The literature that was reviewed did not include studies that were limited by sex or
ethnic backgrounds of the respondents.
Definition of Terms
American Association of School Administrators (AASA) — A group of city and state
superintendents engaged in supervisory work in schools. Also known as The School
Superintendents Association. AASA is the premier association for school system leaders and
serves as the national voice for public education and district leadership on Capitol Hill (AASA,
The School Superintendents Association, 2015).
Career Path — The way that you progress in your work, either in one job or in a series of
jobs (“Career path,” 2015).
Central Office Administrator — Administrators who exercise essential leadership, in
partnership with school leaders, to build capacity throughout public educational systems for
teaching and learning improvements (Honig, Copland, Rainey, Lorton, & Newton, 2010).
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Chief Executive Officer (CEO) — The highest ranking executive in a company whose
main responsibilities include developing and implementing high-level strategies, making major
corporate decisions, managing the overall operations and resources of a company, and acting as
the main point of communication between the board of directors and the corporate operations
(“Chief Executive Officer (CEO),” n.d.).
Ed.D. — A doctoral degree that has a research and/or professional focus. It prepares the
holder for academic, research, administrative, clinical or professional positions in educational,
civil, private organizations or public institutions (“EdD,” 2015).
Harvard Urban Superintendents Program — A doctoral program at Harvard University
that provides innovative training for aspiring superintendents to lead urban school districts
(Harvard Graduate School of Education, 2015).
Internships — Any official or formal program to provide practical experience for
beginners in an occupation or profession (“Internships,” 2015).
Mentoring — An effective way of helping people to progress in their careers and is
becoming increasing popular as its potential is realized. It is a partnership between two people
(mentor and mentee) normally working in a similar field or sharing similar experiences. It is a
helpful relationship based upon mutual trust and respect (Women’s Engineering Society, 2013-
2016).
National Association of Secondary School Principals (NASSP) — The leading
organization of and voice for middle level and high school principals, assistant principals, and
school leaders from across the United States and 35 countries around the world. Their mission is
to mission is to connect and engage school leaders through advocacy, research, education, and
student programs (National Association of Secondary School Principals, 2015).
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Networking — A social structure made up of a set of social actors (such as individuals or
organizations) and a set of the dyadic ties between these actors. The social network perspective
provides a set of methods for analyzing the structure of whole social entities as well as a variety
of theories explaining the patterns observed in these structures (“Networking,” n.d.).
No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) — A reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary
Education Act, which included Title I, the government’s flagship aid program for disadvantaged
students. NCLB supports standards-based education reform based on the premise that setting
high standards and establishing measurable goals can improve individual outcomes in education
(U.S Department of Education, 2015).
Ph.D. — Doctor of Philosophy (also abbreviated to DPhil or Dr. Philos). This is an
academic or professional degree that, in most countries, qualifies the degree holder to teach their
chosen subject at university level or to work in a specialized position in their chosen field
(Haidar, 2014).
Preparation Programs — Procedures and classes that are designed to prepare persons for
administrative responsibilities in a variety of educational settings and contexts. They provide
mentoring, ongoing support, and professional development targeted to the individual candidate’s
assessed needs (Commission on Teacher Credentialing, 2015).
Superintendent — The Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of the District. He/she is
responsible for the effective operation of the a school district; general administration of all
instructional, business or other operations of the district; and for advising and making
recommendations to the Board of Education with respect to such activities (Kohli, 2016).
Super’s 4 Stage Model Stages of Career Development — Donald Super’s emphasis on
the importance of the development of self-concept. According to his theory, self-concept changes
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over time, and develops as a result of experience. As such, career development is lifelong
(Kowalczyk, 2015).
Superintendent Preparation Programs — A vehicle for professional discourse about the
knowledge, skills, and curricular coherence, rigor, pedagogy, and structure to provide the kinds
of knowledge, skills, and dispositions needed to produce a large supply of exceptional school and
district leaders (Jackson & Kelley, 2002).
Tacit Knowledge — Unwritten, unspoken, and hidden vast storehouse of knowledge held
by practically every normal human being, based on his or her emotions, experiences, insights,
intuitions, observations and internalized information (“Tacit knowledge,” n.d.)
Organization of the Dissertation
This dissertation is structured into five chapters. Chapter 1 commenced with an overview
and then moved on to include background information in order to give context to and lay the
foundation for the problem. It advanced by expanding upon the purpose of the study and listed
the research questions. Chapter 2 consists of a literature review with a focus on the synthesis of
the current literature related to three topics, which correspond to the research questions. Then, a
theoretical framework will be provided in order to explain why and how the proposed theory is
relevant to the study. Chapter 3 will focus on the methodology that was executed in the study, a
rationalization for appropriateness of the methods, and a description of how the research
questions were answered. More specifically, it will include a description of the sample
population, the instrumentation used, a detail explanation of how data was collected, and it will
end with an account of the statistical techniques that were employed to analyze the data. Chapter
4 is a reporting of the results that were generated from conducting the actual research. It
includes a summary that presents the researcher’s reflections and insights about the meaning of
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the findings. Finally, Chapter 5 entails a more in depth discussion of the findings with
implications for practice and future research. The dissertation will end with a conclusion that
summarizes the study.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
This literature review will synthesize an accumulation of research and supporting data
that have contributed to the body of knowledge already explored on themes related to the career
paths of superintendents. In order to gain a comprehensive perspective of the responsibilities
and duties executed by individuals in this position, the review will commence with a historical
description of the establishment of public schools in the United States and the evolution of the
role of superintendents. By offering this account, the reader will be able to gain an awareness of
the events that took place in earlier periods, which will serve a foundation of knowledge on the
topic of superintendents.
After establishing this historical perspective, the literature review will continue with an
examination of studies that pertain to the traditional and most frequented positions held by
superintendents as they progressed to their role as the chief school administrator of a public
school district. The review identifies specific positions in the career paths held by
superintendents and isolates skill sets that build and individual’s capacity, which lead to the
successful performance of their duties. In addition, there will be a segment of the literature
review that will focus on university preparation programs that have varying levels of
effectiveness in the training and guidance of candidates for the role of superintendent. The
literature review will conclude with recommendations from the educational experts who
conducted the studies referred to in this chapter and then the researcher will present a theoretical
framework, which will provide a visual representation of the compilation of information
presented in this review.
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The literature review has a direct correlation to the topic of this dissertation in light of the
fact that both the literature review and the topic of the dissertation focus on the career paths of
superintendents. The rationale for presenting previously conducted research is to assist
prospective candidates who aspire to hold the position of superintendent, by enabling them to
create a career plan based on empirical, concrete data. More specifically, prospective candidates
will acquire an overview of pivotal positions they need to occupy, accentuate distinctive critical
experiences that must be pursued, pinpoint essential skills that necessitate mastery, and recognize
specific domains of study that they need to investigate in order to acquire the capacity which will
enable them to ascend to and become an effective superintendent. In summary, the intent and
overarching objective of this literature review is to provide previously gathered data to
prospective candidates for superintendent, in the most supportive and expedient manner possible.
Historical Evolution of Public Schools and the Superintendency
Origins of Public Schools
As established by Coulson (1999), “Early American education was primarily private or
religious, and it brought mass schooling and literacy to the nation well before the public school
system we know today was legislated into existence” (p. 1). According to Ornstein and Levine
(1985), schools in America were first established in the 1640s when Massachusetts passed a law,
the Massachusetts Bay School Law of 1642, which required parents to teach their children to read
and write. However, the implementation of this law was not effective, as there was little follow-
through on the part of parents (Brackemyre, 2016).
Therefore, legislation was amended to direct townships with 50 or more homes to appoint
an individual to teach children to read and write. This too, was unsuccessful because it did not
address the needs of the general public, only those of the elite class who were wealthy, British-
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born Puritans. Most colonies were not comprised of such a homogeneous background of citizens
or were they as densely populated as Massachusetts. Therefore, for the majority of colonist who
were not in the upper crust of society or for those who lived in areas sparsely populated, the
responsibility to provide instruction continued to fall upon the shoulders of parents and church
leaders.
According to Coulson (1999), public schooling evolved in order to cope with the influx
of settlers with numerous faiths and customs. Its fundamental function was to produce social
structure and integrate massive amounts of students into school. A mistrust of parents was
common during the birth of public schools (Coulson, 1999). Therefore, with the development of
larger cities and the westward expansion of the United States in the 1700s, the debate over the
necessity for public schools primarily revolved around three issues:
1. The need to educate children in order to support a growing and flourishing
democratic society
2. The need for taxation to fund a public educational system that was extended to and to
the benefit of all children, not just the wealthy
3. The need for children to attend school, instead of securing a job that would earn
income for their families
Origins of the Superintendent
It wasn’t until the beginning of the 1800s that the United States Congress commissioned
the designation of Superintendence of Public Schools, when it bestowed authority to the city
council of Washington, D.C. to administer education to the general public (Cuban, 1988).
Historians are unclear about when the introduction and use of the word Superintendent as a title
for an individual employed to supervise school business began (Cuban, 1988). One credible
THE CAREER PATHS OF SUPERINTENDENTS

24
account is that the word originated from religious annals in Europe during the fourteenth century,
when the term was used as a designation for clergy responsible for a group of communities
within the Lutheran Church (Cuban, 1988). Another perspective offered by Cuban (1988) was
that the position imitated the roles of those who managed the factories and mills during the
1800s. It is believed that workforce thought that the characteristics which superintendents
expected to see in their employees, such as compliance, diligence, and promptness, were the
same qualities that society anticipated from their children when they attended schools (Cuban,
1988).
As identified by The Learning House (2013), in 1802, New York created the first state
superintendent. By the 1830s, the term superintendent started to become more common as the
first superintendents were designated in cities along the east coast and in the Ohio Valley, in
such cities as Buffalo, Louisville, St. Louis, Missouri and Providence. The superintendents were
charged with the responsibility to oversee the daily functions of the schools (Bogotch, 2005; The
Learning House, 2013). By the late 1860s, 27 cities had employed school superintendents
because of a growth in population following the Civil War (Glass et al., 2001). Glass et al.
(2001) also revealed that an elected or appointed nonprofessional board of education had all
power because they assigned the initial functions to superintendents such as schoolmaster, head
teacher, and/or clerk. As the decades of the 1800s passed, superintendents became accountable
for all affairs in their district and many superintendents in larger cities advocated for common
schools that favored a supervisory style of management.
Gradually superintendents began to acquire additional control and authority, which was
also coupled with an increase in their responsibilities (The Learning House, 2013). They were
accountable for inspecting schools and overseeing the funds that were distributed to the district
THE CAREER PATHS OF SUPERINTENDENTS

25
by the state. In 1866, a group of superintendents formed the National Association of School
Superintendents (NASS) and in 1870 they united with the American Normal School Association
and the National Teacher Association to establish the National Education Association (NEA)
(The Learning House, 2013).
However, Bogotch (2005) attested to the fact that many teachers didn’t want to become
superintendents because an average salary of about $200 a year wasn’t enough to support a
family, as it required an individual in that position to take on a second job. As a matter of fact,
most superintendents were laymen from other lines of work, with limited knowledge about
schools. Furthermore, Callahan (1966) asserted that,
By the turn of the century the job of superintendent of schools had become a crucial one
in American public education. They wrestled with boards of education where a political
spoils system determined which teachers would be hired, what textbooks would be
purchased, and which vendors would be patronized. (p. 5)
Konnert and Augenstein (1990) confirmed this assertion by indicating that the status of
superintendent became a fundamental, influential, and prominent position in education.
Accompanying the continued growth of the United States was an increase in the
responsibilities and salary of school leaders and with these, came accountability in education.
Therefore, more districts employed the services of superintendents. By 1925, the role of the
superintendent of schools was analogous to a business administrator and by the mid-1950s, it
was comparable to a district-based politician (Callahan, 1966).
By the mid-1960s, approximately one hundred years after the formation of the NASS,
Konnert and Augenstein (1990) indicated that there were over 35,000 superintendents
nationwide; which established that a need for superintendents had firmly been established in the
THE CAREER PATHS OF SUPERINTENDENTS

26
American educational system. Furthermore, superintendents were the most recognizable
members in society and were also respected community leaders who exercised enormous
influence throughout their cities and within their own school districts (Konnert & Augenstein,
1990). Since its inception, 100 years beforehand, the role of superintendent had evolved into one
where all major decisions were now made by them and they were in turn, unconditionally
supported by the board of education.
Research conducted by Konnert and Augenstein (1990) also indicated that in the late
1960s, reverberations of the Civil Rights Movement spread when the public became more
involved with issues in education and school board members were being elected who were
advocates for their local communities. During this same period in the 1960s the professional
teachers’ associations across the country were being converted into the types of organizations
which bore a resemblance to working-class, blue-collar unions. Furthermore, students were
staging anti-war protests and were also making demands that focused on student rights (Konnert
& Augenstein, 1990).These events all merged together at the same time, creating a “perfect
storm” in public education, which in turn, had a direct effect on the position of the
superintendent. The public started to question the authority of school officials, more specifically
superintendents, and their decision-making authority. Therefore, the power that superintendents
had come to experience, once again shifted back to the local school boards of education (Konnert
& Augenstein, 1990).
In 1983, major educational change was initiated when the United States government
issued a report entitled, A Nation at Risk (Gardner, 1983), which focused on the shortcomings of
the American educational system in a global economy and it also issued a call for national
reform (Konnert & Augenstein, 1990). Thus, the resulting effects in the last two decades of the
THE CAREER PATHS OF SUPERINTENDENTS

27
20th century, were those of increased scrutiny and a focused interest from the government that
led to the creation of state standards in public education. Furthermore, with the implementation
of the No Child Left Behind Act in 2001, which was a reauthorization of the Elementary and
Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA) focusing on federal spending in public schools, a
system of accountability to measure student achievement was also established.
As the 21st century began, the role of the superintendent had evolved into a position with
shared power between the state and local governments, boards of education, and superintendents.
This affiliation was coupled with high expectations for superintendents from the school board
and community and a high degree of accountability for superintendents imposed by the
government, school boards, and communities of constituents (Kowalski, 2005).
Current Role of Superintendents
According to Björk, Browne-Ferrigno, and Kowalski (2014), since the establishment of
the position of superintendent, it has been characterized as a role that has endured continual
transformations. Kowalski, McCord et al. (2011) referred to the findings of Callahan (1966)
whose research established that four distinct traits embody the modern superintendent:
1. Teacher-Scholar
2. Business Manager
3. Statesman
4. Applied Social Scientist
Since these characteristics were identified in the 1960s, the role has continued to transform up to
and including the present-day. Now, as the American educational system embarks into the 21st
century, the research of Kowalski, McCord et al. (2011) has validated the findings of Callahan
THE CAREER PATHS OF SUPERINTENDENTS

28
(1966) and introduced a fifth trait that superintendents exhibit; that of an Effective
Communicator.
Furthermore, grounded on the data from their study, Kowalski, Young et al. (2011)
ranked these characteristics that superintendents utilize when they are performing their duties,
according to their significance:
1. Effective Communicator
2. Business Manager
3. Instructional Leader
4. Statesman or Political Leader
5. Applied Social Scientist
These updated roles offer a context for grasping the obligations and responsibilities of the
modern superintendent. They encompass wide ranges of intelligence and proficiencies, which
are essential in order for aspiring superintendents to meet the challenges of education in the years
to come.
Description of the Studies Addressing Career Paths of Superintendents
Due to the fact that there are numerous studies in this literature review that have been
specifically used to answer the first research question, What are the most direct career paths to
the position of superintendents of schools?, this segment will provide an overview or detailed
description of the larger studies that will be utilized. The first three studies are extensions of a
reoccurring investigation of superintendents in the United States, which have been conducted by
the American Association of School Administrators (AASA), customarily every ten years, since
1923. However, an atypical, mid-decade study is also included. Therefore, these empirical
THE CAREER PATHS OF SUPERINTENDENTS

29
studies which distributed surveys to superintendent across the nation, actually took place in the
years 2000, 2005, and 2010.
In addition, there are three other large-scale studies that are utilized in this section of the
literature review. The fourth study is a mega-analysis that was conducted by Gates, Ringel,
Santibanez, Chung, and Ross (2003), and it combined the results of five separate surveys. The
fifth study is a doctoral dissertation by Jordan (2008) that compares the career paths of
superintendents from the 50 largest school districts in the United States with those of 50 CEOs
from Fortune 500 Companies. The final study was conducted by Kim and Brunner (2009) and in
it, researchers investigated two sizable nationwide datasets from previously completed studies.
One dataset that focused on superintendents was the study previously referred to by Glass et al.
(2001) and a second dataset that was from a study that specifically investigated female
superintendents, which was performed by Brunner and Grogan (2007). Table 1 differentiates
between these six studies and establishes similarities and differences between them.
The first study used to answer the research question “What are the most direct career
paths to the position of superintendents of schools?” was a quasi-experimental study that
employed a quantitative research style and was entitled, The Study of the American
Superintendency, 2000: A Look at the Superintendent of Education in the New Millennium. The
methodology used by Glass et al. (2001) as they conducted the 2000 National Superintendent
Survey included the use of an 86 question survey that was mailed to 5,336 superintendents in the
United States. In a trial test of the survey, it took respondents an average of 25 minutes to
complete it (Glass et al., 2001). The study also used data from previous reports conducted by the
AASA in order to address long-term implications for specific topics (Glass et al., 2001).

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30

Table 1
Empirical Studies Used for Identifying the Most Direct Career Paths to the Position of
Superintendent
Name of the Study
Name of
Researchers
Year
Published Sponsor Methodology
Population
Studied
Number and/or
Percentage of
Participants
* The Study of the
American
Superintendency,
2000: A Look at
the Superintendent
of Education in the
New Millennium
Glass, Björk,
and Brunner
2001 American
Association of
School
Administrators
(AASA)
Mixed
Methods
Approach
Self-reported
Perceptions
U.S. Mail
Survey
U.S.
Superintendents
Total Population
of US
Superintendents:
2,262 / 13,700 =
16%
Returned
Surveys/Total
Sent:
2,262 / 5,336 =
42%
* The State of the
American School
Superintendency:
A Mid-Decade
Study
Glass and
Franceschini
2007 American
Association of
School
Administrators
(AASA)
Mixed
Methods
Approach
Self-reported
Perceptions
Electronic
Survey
U.S.
Superintendents
Total Population
of US
Superintendents:
1,338 / 14,063 =
9.5%
Returned
Surveys/Total
Sent:
1,338 / 7,958 =
17%
* The American
School
Superintendent:
2010 Decennial
Study
Kowalski,
McCord,
Peterson,
Young, and
Ellerson
2011 American
Association of
School
Administrators
(AASA)
Mixed
Methods
Approach
Self-reported
Perceptions
Electronic
Survey
U.S. Mail
Survey
U.S.
Superintendents
Total Population
of US
Superintendents:
1,867 / 12,600 =
15%
Returned
Surveys/Total
Sent:
1,338 / 7,958 =
17%

THE CAREER PATHS OF SUPERINTENDENTS

31
Table 1, continued
Name of the Study
Name of
Researchers
Year
Published Sponsor Methodology
Population
Studied
Number and/or
Percentage of
Participants
Who is Leading
Our Schools? An
Overview of
School
Administrators and
Their Careers
Gates,
Ringel,
Santibanez,
Chung, and
Ross
2003 Rand
Corporation
Mega Analyses:
 National
Center for
Educational
Statistics
 School and
Staffing
Survey
 Current
Population
Survey
American
Association of
School
Administrators
2000
U.S. Principals
and
Superintendents
Unknown
A Comparison of
the Profiles and
Career Pathways
of Public School
Superintendents
and Corporate
Chief Executive
Officers
Jordan 2008 The University
of Texas at El
Paso
Demographic
Data from
Various Sources
Including the
Internet and
Request Under
the Federal
Freedom of
Information
Act, 5 U.S.C.
552
Superintendents
from 50 Largest
School Districts
in the United
States
41 / 50 = 82%
50 CEOs from
Fortune 500
Companies
50 / 50 = 100%
School
Administrators’
Career Mobility to
the
Superintendency:
Gender
Differences in
Career
Development
Kim and
Brunner
2009 American
Association of
School
Administrators
(AASA)
Secondary
Analyses of
Two Large
National Data
Sets:
 Glass, Björk,
and Brunner
(2001)
 Brunner and
Grogan
(2007)
U.S.
Superintendents
2,262 / 5,336 =
42%
U.S. Female
Superintendents
723 / 2,471 =
29%
* Study is an Extension of the National Superintendent Survey Conducted by American
Association of School Administrators (AASA)

THE CAREER PATHS OF SUPERINTENDENTS

32
According to Glass et al. (2001), the questionnaire was distributed in 1999 and generated
replies from 2,262 out of 5,336 to whom it had been mailed, resulting in a 42% return rate. But
compared to the number of eligible superintendents in the United States, which was 13,700
active, public school superintendents, the overall study represented 16% of all public school
superintendents. Glass et al. (2001) noted that in the 2000 study 2,250 respondents identified
their gender, with 1,953 (87%) being male and 297 (13%) female. In addition, 114 or 5% of the
respondents indicated that they were minorities. The data from the survey was disaggregated
using computer software, by a professor at Northern Illinois University, Peter Abrams (Glass et
al., 2001).
Glass et al. (2001) had four objectives in the 2000 study:
1. “To provide current information on the superintendency to national, state, and local
education policymakers, the media, and superintendents themselves
2. To provide trend data that can be compared to studies conducted in 1960, 1971, 1982,
and 1992
3. To provide an overview of public education from the perspective of its executive
leaders
4. To provide researchers with data and analyses about public education and the
superintendent leaders in the 1990s who will lead American public school districts
into the 21st century” (pp. 9-10)
The second study was also an extension of the National Superintendent Survey conducted
by the AASA. It was a mixed-methods approach directed by Glass and Franceschini (2007) and
was titled, The State of the American School Superintendency: A Mid-Decade Study. The reason
that this study did not follow the usual 10-year interval implemented by the AASA can be
THE CAREER PATHS OF SUPERINTENDENTS

33
attributed to the increased pace at which transformations were taking place in public education
and the impact of their perceived influences that were believed to be a result of governmental
imposed accountability plans and No Child Left Behind regulations (Glass & Franceschini,
2007). Their study intended to offer a reliable interpretation of school management as it was
related to the work of superintendents, by focusing on the evolving demographics of
superintendents, board relations, and working conditions during this period of sudden change.
This study varied in comparison to those of the other two which were extensions of the
National Superintendent Survey, because it utilized both electronic surveys and surveys that
were mailed. The electronic surveys were sent via email to 7,958 superintendents and then
surveys were also delivered a second time, through the mail, to large urban school district
superintendents (Glass & Franceschini, 2007). According to Glass and Franceschini (2007), this
population was selected to receive both versions of the survey because of past low-return rates
and because it was assumed that the superintendents in that size of a district do not open their
own email.
Once the survey tool was initially sent via email and mail, there were four more
reminders that were sent within a month through emails and with the assistance of an electronic
professional publication. The response period was limited to a six week window and then
closed. The survey used in this study was very similar to the one used in 2000, with the
exception of some questions being modified and/or deleted. The total number of questions in
this study was reduced to from 86 to 49 and was estimated to take approximately 15 minutes to
complete. Additionally, one very relevant topic that was investigated in this study was the
Superintendent Career Paths and Preparation.
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34
According to Glass and Franceschini (2007), the questionnaire was distributed in May of
2006 and generated replies from 1,338 out of 7,958 to whom it had been emailed and mailed,
resulting in a 17% return rate. But compared to the number of eligible superintendents in the
United States, which was 14,063 active, public school superintendents, the overall study
represented 9.5% of all public school superintendents. The participation rates in this study were
significantly lower than the preceding study conducted in 2000. The analysis of the data was
performed instantaneously and electronically computed by the online survey host, Zoomerang.
The third study was managed by Kowalski, McCord et al. (2011) and was also an
extension of the National Superintendent Survey conducted by the AASA. It was named the
School Administrators’ Career Mobility to the Superintendency: Gender Differences in Career
Development. The purpose of the study was to “assess the reactions of superintendents to their
roles and responsibilities in their current job assignment” (Kowalski, McCord et al., 2011, p. 12).
The study was conducted between 2009 and 2010, it applied a mixed-methods approach that
included previously gathered data from prior AASA-sponsored studies, and it also incorporated
the responses of 1,867 sitting superintendents who completed an 88 question survey online.
The questions on the survey tool were either multiple choice or multiple-answer response
and were incorporated based on the fact that they retained a degree of resemblance tied to past
AASA sponsored surveys or that they addressed emergent issues that current superintendents
encountered (Kowalski, McCord et al., 2011). A panel of experts who were superintendents
and/or college professors edited the survey instrument to ensure its validity and then it was
administered in a pilot study of thirteen individuals. Grounded on the responses of these thirteen
individuals, the final revisions were made to the instrument before it was employed in the study.
THE CAREER PATHS OF SUPERINTENDENTS

35
Kowalski, McCord et al. (2011) report that qualified participants were identified by
AASA in November of 2009 and contacted by means of email to invite them to participate in the
study. An additional email was sent to those individuals who had not yet responded several
weeks later and a third email was sent encouraging possible participants to submit a hard copy of
the survey via the U.S. mail. In total, approximately 15% or 1,867 out of 12,600 of the
superintendents in the United States participated.
In the fourth study, Gates et al. (2003) created a mega-analysis entitled, Who is Leading
Our Schools? An Overview of School Administrators and Their Careers. Their research set out
to answer four key questions:
1. “What are the characteristics of a school administrator, and how have they changed
over time?
2. What type of movement into and out of the school administrative career field are
occurring and what factors are likely to affect these movements?
3. What kinds of movement between the different types of positions within the
administrative career path are occurring?
4. What kind of movements are occurring within the principalship and what do they
reveal about the relationship between position turnover and observable school
characteristics?” (Gates et al., 2003, p. 3).
In order to obtain the answers to these questions, they evaluated data from previously
conducted research pertaining to superintendents, by five organizations:
 National Center for Educational Statistics
 School and Staffing Survey
 Current Population Survey
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36
 American Association of School Administrators 2000
 Council of the Great City Schools
The fifth study was a dissertation conducted by Jordan (2008) that utilized quantitative
data from numerous sources and was and was entitled, A Comparison of the Profiles and Career
Pathways of Public School Superintendents and Corporate Chief Executive Officers. Jordan
(2008), a doctoral candidate from The University of Texas at El Paso, compared the career paths
of superintendents from the 50 largest school districts in the United States to 50 CEOs from the
largest Fortune 500 Companies who filed financial statements with a government agency
(Jordan, 2008). The questions that guided her study included:
1. “What are the similarities and dissimilarities in the profiles of public school
superintendents and CEOs of Fortune 500 companies?
2. What are the similarities and dissimilarities in the career pathways of public school
superintendents and CEOs of Fortune 500 companies?” (Jordan, 2008, p. ix).
To answer her questions, she researched websites of school districts and corporations in
2007 to assemble demographic information about these two populations of leaders. Furthermore,
in some cases she used media publications on the internet and also requested information
available through the use of the federal Freedom of Information Act. She was able to gather 41
out of 50 sets of data for the superintendents and 50 out of 50 for the CEOs.
The sixth and final study intended to answer this paper’s first research question was
conducted by Kim and Brunner (2009). It was sponsored by the AASA and entitled, School
Administrators’ Career Mobility to the Superintendency: Gender Differences in Career
Development. This study was a secondary analyses of datasets from two large national studies.
THE CAREER PATHS OF SUPERINTENDENTS

37
The first dataset was from the National Superintendent Survey which included the longitudinal
study that was previously referred to in this paper executed by Glass et al. (2001).
The second dataset was from a study that was originally supervised by Brunner and
Grogan (2007), which explicitly investigated women who were superintendents. It was entitled,
Women Leading School Systems: Uncommon Roads to Fulfillment. Kim and Brunner (2009)
affirmed that the study incorporated the responses of 723 female superintendents and 543 female
central office workers. Brunner and Grogan’s (2007) study encompassed almost 30% of all
female superintendents in the United States, which was the largest representation ever of women
in a nation study on superintendents. The report investigated the factors that compelled various
women to become superintendents and what pressures other women experienced causing them
to remain at the middle management level.
Kim and Brunner (2009) used statistics for the men and women in their analysis from the
Glass et al. (2001) study and statistics additional data for the women were also drawn from the
Brunner and Grogan (2007) study. The reason that statistical data for women was drawn from
the second dataset was because it was the first time in the history of the AASA National
Superintendent Survey that central office data had been disaggregated by gender.
The purpose of Kim and Brunner’s (2009) study was to compare and contrast the career
paths of men and women as they moved to the position of superintendent and its focus was on
two research questions that guided the study:
1. “What general mobility is typical for men superintendents, women superintendents,
aspiring, and non-aspiring women central office administrators
(assistant/associate/deputy superintendents)?
THE CAREER PATHS OF SUPERINTENDENTS

38
2. What types of career mobility patterns do women create/encounter in the process of
pursuing career advancement?” (Kim & Brunner, 2009, p. 77).
Findings from Studies Addressing the Career Paths of Superintendents
Career Paths
This section of the literature review is aimed at addressing the first research question,
“What are the most direct career paths to the position of superintendents of schools?” To
accomplish this goal, empirical data was gathered and analyzed from the six previously
described studies that provided concrete evidence detailing the career paths of superintendents.
Glass et al. (2001), Hayes (2002), Glass and Franceschini (2007), and Kowalski, McCord
et al. (2011), indicated that the traditional career path of a superintendent involved ascending
through a school district’s structural hierarchy from classroom teacher to building principal to an
assistant superintendent at the district office and eventually moving onto superintendent.
Kowalski, McCord et al. (2011) specified that 48.5% of the superintendents in their study
progressed this pathway. Furthermore, Kowalski, McCord et al. (2011) revealed that 31.2% of
the respondents advanced utilizing the second most frequented route for an individual who
became superintendent, which was via teacher to assistant principal or principal to
superintendent. Of these two career path described, the first path emerged with superintendents
working in large urban districts with 3,000-25,000+ students. The second pattern transpired in
extremely small districts with fewer than 300 students or within outlying residential and rural
districts with less than 2,999 students. These constructs make sense in view of the fact that
smaller districts employ fewer people and there are a smaller amount positions in route to the
superintendency.
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39
Glass et al. (2001) disaggregated their data and distributed the results for the career paths
of superintendents in Table 2 by the size of the districts’ student population, as indicated by
Groups A-D, and the various pathways or routes that were taken to arrive at the superintendency.

Table 2
Career Paths of Superintendents
Group A:
25,000 or More
Students
Group B:
3,000 - 24,999
Students
Group C:
300 - 2,999
Students
Group D:
Fewer Than 300
Students
Career Path # % # % # % # %
Teacher,
Principal, &
Central Office
65 68.4 322 59.0 624 46.4 74 29.5
Principal &
Central Office
3 3.2 11 2.0 15 2.0 2 0.8
Teacher &
Central Office
11 11.6 84 15.4 89 6.6 15 5.2
Teacher &
Principal
6 6.3 83 15.2 488 36.3 121 48.2
Central Office
Only
1 1.1 11 2.0 8 0.6 6 2.4
Principal Only 0 0.0 4 0.7 24 1.8 4 1.6
Teacher Only 1 1.1 3 0.5 27 2.0 18 7.2
Other 8 8.4 28 5.1 65 4.8 13 5.2
Total 95 100.0 546 100.0 1345 100.0 251 100.0

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40
Jordan’s (2008) findings are categorized slightly different than those of Glass et al.
(2001) because she breaks down her results into more categories (see Table 3). For example, she
has three different paths or categories for Teacher → “Principal” → Central Office, each one
being elementary, middle, or high. If we were to combine these results, they would total 57.0%
of the respondents who served as a Teacher → Building Principal → and Central Office
employee before moving onto the position of superintendent. For an accurate comparison, the
data from Glass et al.’s (2001) Group A, would be used since Jordan’s (2008) study included the
50 largest school districts in the United States. Jordan’s (2008) data is slightly skewed in
comparison to the results of Glass et al.’s (2001) 68.4%. But in general, her results also show
that the most tradition career path of a superintendent is that of Teacher → Building Principal →
Central Office Employee. Jordan’s (2008) data is quite compelling if we take a closer look
because her study reveals that the highest percentage of superintendents were actually secondary
principals. A fact that should be noted by current, prospective superintendents planning their
career paths.
In contrast to the Glass et al. (2001) study, the two later National Superintendent Studies
managed by Glass and Franceschini (2007), and Kowalski, McCord et al. (2011) indicated that
many administrators entered the school administrative ranks via an assistant principal position,
as opposed to the previous trend of entering by way of the principal position. These differences
indicate that as time has evolved, the career path of superintendents has gradually been modified.
A possible explanation for this phenomenon is that smaller school districts have merged with
larger districts, thus eliminating the overall number of positions available that individuals may
move into, as they climb their career paths (Kowalski, McCord et al., 2011).

THE CAREER PATHS OF SUPERINTENDENTS

41
Table 3
Jordan’s (2008) Career Paths of Superintendents
Career Pathway Number of People Percentage
Teacher → Elementary Principal → Central Office 6 17.1
Teacher → Middle School Principal → Central Office 3 8.5
Teacher → High School Principal → Central Office 11 31.4
Teacher → Principal 1 2.9
Teacher → Central Office 6 17.1
Principal → Central Office 2 5.7
Teacher Only 1 2.9
Principal Only 0 0.0
Central Office Only 1 2.9
Other 2 5.7
Teacher → Other 1 2.9
Other → Central Office 1 2.9
Total 35 100.0

In addition, Kim and Brunner’s (2009) disaggregation of data delineated the conventional
pathway to the superintendency as Teacher → Coaching Assignment → Assistant Principalship
or Department Chair in a High School → Central Office Administrator → Superintendent. The
difference could be attributed to the addition of Brunner and Grogan’s (2007) data in their study.

THE CAREER PATHS OF SUPERINTENDENTS

42

Figure 1. Hierarchy of career path of a superintendent

Superintendent
Assistant/Associate
Superintendent
Supervisor
Secondary
Principal
Director/
Coordinator
Elementary
Principal
Assistant
Secondary
Principal
Elementary
Teacher
Secondary
Teacher
Coach
Club
Advisor
THE CAREER PATHS OF SUPERINTENDENTS

43
First Administrative Position
Glass et al. (2001) revealed that 49% of superintendents obtained their first
administrative position before the age of 30 and 76% percent of superintendents gain their first
administrative position before they are 35. Furthermore, Kowalski, McCord et al. (2011)
identified specific positions that superintendents held during their first administrative
assignments in Table 4. According to this data, the top five positions with the highest
percentages were double-digit numbers. Therefore, if a teacher is considering a move into
administration, with the aspirations of one day becoming a superintendent, he/she would increase
their probability of success if they made a focused effort to apply for the vacancies of Junior
High School or Middle School Assistant Principal, Elementary Principal, High School Principal,
District Coordinator, or High School Assistant Principal, as their first administrative position,
before they are 35 years old.

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44

Table 4
Superintendents’ First Administrative Positions
Position Held Percentage of Superintendents
Elementary Assistant Principal 7.2%
Elementary Principal 13.4%
Dean of Students 2.7%
Junior High School or Middle School Assistant Principal 11.9%
Junior High School or Middle School Principal 5.0%
High School Assistant Principal 19.1%
High School Principal 14.1%
Athletic Director 3.4%
District Coordinator 14.9%
Assistant/Associate Superintendent 0.8%
State Education Department 0.7%
School Business/Chief Financial Officer 0.8%
District Treasurer 0.2%
Superintendent 3.5%
Other 2.5%
Total 100%

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45
Other Administrative Positions Held Along the Way
Furthermore, Kowalski, McCord et al. (2011) revealed in Table 5 that there were a wide
range of administrative positions that superintendents held before arriving at their position as
chief school administrator. These roles helped to build aspiring superintendents’ capacity. The
respondents were permitted to isolate as many positions that applied to them.
Results establish that a higher number/percentage of individuals who performed in the
roles of Principals (Elementary, Middle, or High), District Level Directors or Coordinators, and
Assistant/Associate/Deputy Superintendent, also became Superintendents.

Table 5
Most Frequent Administrative Position(s) Held Prior to Becoming Superintendent
Focal Position Number Percentage
Elementary School Assistant Principal 177 9.7%
Elementary School Principal 732 40.0%
Junior High or Middle School Assistant Principal 355 19.4%
Junior High or Middle School Principal 702 38.3%
High School Assistant Principal 545 29.7%
High School Principal 872 47.6%
District Level Director or Coordinator 823 44.9%
Assistant/Associate/Deputy Superintendent 695 37.9%

THE CAREER PATHS OF SUPERINTENDENTS

46
Ages and Average Periods of Times Working in Various Positions of Career Path
The majority of individuals who participated in Glass et al.’s (2001) study reflected on
their career paths and disclosed that they did not develop a desire to become a superintendent
until the mid-point of their career, often during the period when they served as a building
administrator. Glass et al.’s (2001) research also discovered that the typical avenue that the
traditional superintendent followed was initiated around the age of 23, as teachers. According to
Kowalski, McCord et al. (2011) by the age of 35, 65.4% of respondents in their study indicated
that their first position in education was as a teacher at the secondary level, where 85% of them
spent an average of five to ten years in the classroom before becoming a building administrator.
Gates et al. (2003) and Glass et al. (2001) maintain that 90% of superintendents state that they
were classroom teachers. For those who taught the longest period of time, Kowalski, McCord et
al. (2011) confirmed that 7% of the respondents reported that they were classroom teachers for
more than 21 years.
The ensuing career move was usually an advancement onto the district office by their late
30s. As the data in Table 6 exhibits, research conducted by Glass and Franceschini (2007)
indicated that the most frequently held position before an individual became a superintendent
was that of the principal (46.7%). All other positions listed were those that were traditionally
performed and situated at the district office. Among these positions, the responsibility of an
assistant superintendent (29.0%) had the most influence upon a candidate’s prospect for their
next role being that of a superintendent.

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47
Table 6
Last Position Title before Becoming a Superintendent
Title of Position Number Percentage
Associate/Deputy Superintendent 214 8.0%
Assistant Superintendent 768 29.0%
Director 178 6.7%
Principal 1238 46.7%
Other 254 9.6%
Total 2652 100.0%

Transition into the Superintendency
Once an administrator started applying for superintendent positions, Glass and
Franceschini (2007), have documented that 67.2% obtained their first position as a
Superintendent in less than one year (Glass & Franceschini, 2007). Furthermore, 78.2% of the
superintendents in the United States start in districts that have less than 300 students and with
time and experience, they move onto larger districts (Glass & Franceschini, 2007). This tendency
is viable considering the research completed by Glass et al. (2001) revealed that more than 68%
of superintendents had served in another school district before coming to their current
assignment. In contrast to this trend, women first migrated to a larger district to function as a
director or assistant/associate superintendent and then move into that district’s superintendent
role (Glass & Franceschini, 2007).
As displayed in Figure 2, 20 years of longitudinal data from the National Superintendent
Survey studies chronicles the ages when individuals were first hired as superintendents. In each
THE CAREER PATHS OF SUPERINTENDENTS

48
of the three studies, the modal ages for entering the superintendency were respectively between
the ages of 51-59, 56-60, and 46-50 (Glass et al., 2001; Glass & Franceschini, 2007; Kowalski,
McCord et al., 2011).

Figure 2. Ages when first superintendent positions were experienced

Glass et al. (2001) assert that most superintendents ascended to the position in their early
to mid-40s. When, in fact, this graphic establishes that this statement is incorrect. Glass et al.
(2001) also claim that the first assignment as superintendent was at a mid-career stage between
the ages of 41 and 55. This statement aligned with the data representing the ages in the studies
for Glass et al. (2001) and Kowalski, McCord et al. (2011), but not for the data presented by
Glass and Franceschini (2007), since their study identified the modal age-span when a person
first reaches the superintendency as 56-60 years old.
0.8
1.8
6.8
25.3
36.9
20.4
8
0.8
3.5
6.2
12.8
26.2
35.7
14.8
13.3
16.6
19.6
24.5
18.2
6.7
1.2
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Less than 36 36-40 41-45 46-50 51-55 56-60 61 or Greater
Percentage %
Age Spans
2000 Study 2005 Study 2010 Study
THE CAREER PATHS OF SUPERINTENDENTS

49
Career Paths of Women to the Superintendency
Although the career paths of women is not the focus of this dissertation, there would be
definite void if this group’s route to the superintendency was also not addressed. Therefore, the
following information provides a snapshot into the differences in career paths between women
and men.
Kim and Brunner (2009) established that that career paths for women seeking to move
into the superintendency are different than they are for men. Men traditionally take the career
path of Teacher → Principal → Central Office Position → Superintendent. However, for women
the customary progression has proven to be Elementary/Secondary Teacher → Club Advisor →
Elementary Principal → Director/Coordinator → Assistant/Associate Superintendent →
Superintendent. The implications when comparing the two career paths of men and women are
that men move up the vertical ladder of positions need to occupy fewer positions in a shorter
amount of time even though they possess less experience and knowledge usually gained from a
in a variety of positions. Furthermore, it takes women a longer period of time to hold more
positions and emerge as superintendents because in addition to vertical ladder movement they
are also being required to progress through horizontal movement.
This phenomenon becomes more evident by analyzing the comparative data in Table 7.
Kim and Brunner (2009) utilized one dataset gathered by Glass et al. (2001), but limited all
calculations to include the male superintendents’ career paths. Furthermore, they employed the
dataset from the other study conducted by Brunner and Grogan (2007), in order to limit the
results to female superintendents.

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50
Table 7
Comparing Career Paths of Men and Women
Men Women
Career Path Percentage to take Path Percentage to take Path
Teacher, Principal, & Central Office 49.0% 45.9% 50.5%
Principal & Central Office 1.4% 3.4% 1.7%
Teacher & Central Office 7.5% 17.2% 17.0%
Teacher & Principal 32.8% 20.6% 16.3%
Central Office Only 1.1% 1.7% 1.4%
Principal Only 1.7% 0.0% 0.6%
Teacher Only 1.9% 3.4% 1.5%
Other 4.6% 7.8% 10.9%
Total 100.0 100.0

Note in Table 7 that in the column for women who became superintendents, there are two
sets of percentages. The first is the figure that Kim and Brunner (2009) reported to be the
percentage from the Glass et al. (2001) study. The second figure is the percentage from the
Brunner and Grogan (2007) study. When summarizing this data, it is worth noting that men are
two times as likely over women to follow the shortest career path to the superintendency which
was reported to be Teacher → Principal → Superintendent (Kim & Brunner, 2009). By
continuing to analyze the data, one should also observe that the inverse is true when focusing on
the Teacher → Central Office → Superintendent career path; women are twice as likely to take
that very short route. In conclusion, once both men and women made the transition into
THE CAREER PATHS OF SUPERINTENDENTS

51
administration, it took them approximately ten years before they became superintendents (Kim &
Brunner, 2009).
Description of the Studies Addressing Critical Experiences
There are three salient studies and several other studies that support the findings in this
section of the literature review. They have been specifically used to answer the second research
question, What critical experiences, positions, or skills did superintendents value, which best
prepared them for the performance of their duties as a superintendent?
In order to adequately answer this question, several topics shall be explored. First,
critical positions to experience and crucial competencies to exhibit in the secondary school
setting will be discussed. Then, the literature review will highlight critical skills that focus on
the theme of the acquisition and development of tacit knowledge. Next, the paper will highlight
the fundamental and critical need for a mentoring program, as one moves closer to the position
of superintendent. Finally, the last topic to address the second research question is that of
networking.
Before disclosing the finding discovered in these studies, an overview or detailed
description of the studies that will be utilized will be provided. The first study was conducted by
Kim and Brunner (2009) and was previously described in detail in an earlier section of this
literature review. It was entitled, School Administrators’ Career Mobility to the
Superintendency: Gender Differences in Career Development.
The second study was conducted by Nestor-Baker and Hoy (2001) and entitled, Tacit
Knowledge of School Superintendents: Its Nature, Meaning, and Content. In their study, Nestor-
Baker and Hoy (2001) applied quantitative and qualitative methods to gather data that involved
interviews and the reevaluation of data from a study conducted by Horvath et al. (1994) on tacit
THE CAREER PATHS OF SUPERINTENDENTS

52
knowledge in military leadership. Data from the interviews were coded into 21 categories that
described tacit knowledge. The study focused on a correlation between the tacit knowledge of
public school superintendents in Ohio and their success, as measured by an expert panel’s
definition of reputationally successful. The purpose of the study was to compare the tacit
knowledge of reputationally successful superintendents and typical superintendents (Nestor-
Baker & Hoy, 2001).
There were 44 participants; 22 who were identified by the panel as reputationally
successful and 22 superintendents who did not meet the criteria to be reputationally successful,
and identified as typical superintendents. The typical superintendents also lived in the same
geographic region of Ohio as the other members of the study. Interviews for both groups were
competed between January and April of 1999. The reason that this study is relevant is because
Glass et al. (2001) offered verification that the success of superintendents could be related to the
accumulation and utilization of tacit knowledge. Additionally, this study is significant is because:
The AASA studies strongly suggested that evaluative criteria tend to be based on the tacit
knowledge of both the board and the superintendent. Thus, evaluation of success in the
superintendency appears to be predicated on how well the superintendent has understood
and acted on the tacit expectations of the board and the community. (Nestor-Baker &
Hoy, 2001, p. 91)
The third study was conducted by Alsbury and Hackmann (2006) and was entitled,
Learning from Experience: Initial Findings of a Mentoring / Induction Program for Novice
Principals and Superintendents. This study was conducted in the 2002-2003 and 2003-2004
school year by the Iowa Department of Education and it focused on evaluating two pilot
programs in education for mentoring principals and superintendents. The mentoring program
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53
was titled, Iowa Administrator Mentoring and Induction (IAMI) and the methodology in the
study utilized both quantitative and qualitative analysis that distributed two open-ended,
formative assessment surveys to principals and superintendents. The surveys were sent via email
to participants at the end of each year in the study. For the purposes of this paper, data
associated with the superintendent mentoring program will be incorporated. There were 66
participants in the superintendent mentoring program; 33 superintendents that served as mentors
for 33 superintendent protégés.
By viewing Table 8, the reader will gain a general synopsis of these studies. Table 8
differentiates between these six studies and establishes similarities and differences between
them.

THE CAREER PATHS OF SUPERINTENDENTS

54

Table 8
Empirical Studies Used to Identifying the Most Critical Experiences for Aspiring
Superintendents
Name of the
Study
Name of
Researchers
Year
Published Sponsor Methodology
Population
Studied
Number and/or
Percentage of
Participants
School
Administrators’
Career Mobility
to the
Superintendency:
Gender
Differences in
Career
Development
Kim and
Brunner
2009 American
Association of
School
Administrators
(AASA)
Secondary
Analyses of Two
Large National
Data Sets:
 Glass, Björk,
and Brunner
(2001)
 Brunner and
Grogan (2007)
U.S. Male
Superintendents
2,262 / 5,336 =
42%
U.S. Female
Superintendents
723 / 2,471 =
29%
Tacit Knowledge
of School
Superintendents:
Its Nature,
Meaning, and
Content.
Nestor-
Baker and
Hoy
2001 Independent Qualitative
Interviews and
the Quantitative
Analysis of a
Military Study
(1994)
Ohio
Superintendents
44
Learning from
experience: Initial
findings of a
mentoring /
induction
program for
novice principals
and
superintendents.
Alsbury and
Hackmann
2006 Iowa
Department of
Education
Quantitative and
Qualitative
Analysis Using
Two Open-Ended
Surveys of
Principals and
Superintendents
Iowa
Superintendents
52 / 66 = 79%

THE CAREER PATHS OF SUPERINTENDENTS

55
Findings from Studies Addressing Critical Experiences
Critical Positions to Experience
Kim and Brunner’s (2009) study validated the fact that the secondary principalship was
part of a particular career pathway in school administration that typically leads to the
superintendency. Furthermore, Glass et al. (2001) corroborated these finding because their data
proved that the most expedient route to the superintendency started with a secondary position.
More specifically, Glass et al. (2001) recommended the acquisition of a secondary teaching
position coupled with a coaching or club position, because it is an initial step toward
administration. They base this claim on their finding which revealed that most superintendents
were teachers in high schools or middle schools and had coaching experience (Glass et al.,
2001).
Kim and Brunner’s (2009) research indicated that core/line positions were significant
experiences for an aspiring superintendent. Their investigation examined and profiled critical
experiences associated with a core/line position that an individual should experience and/or
exhibit, in order to increase their capacity and exposure (Kim & Brunner, 2009). These
experiences were:
1. Positions that are fewer in number such as secondary principal or associate
superintendents
2. Positions that have greater visibility than others such as coaches and secondary
principals
3. Positions that have control over the largest amounts of money
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56
4. Positions that have interaction with the greatest number of parents and community
members such as secondary teachers, coaches, secondary principals and central office
administrators who interact with the most parents and community members.
5. Positions that have typically/historically been filled by men rather than women, such
as principals and coaching positions that have great control over budgets (Kim &
Brunner, 2009).
Critical Skills to Acquire
The use of tacit knowledge. Nestor-Baker and Hoy (2001) also revealed that
interpersonal and intrapersonal characteristics of tacit knowledge are particularly advantageous
to school administrators. In their study, they asked superintendents to respond to situational
questions and analyzed their answers by coding and categorizing their responses into 21
categories that described different types of tacit knowledge. Once the information was analyzed,
disaggregated and assembled, data indicated that four specific tacit knowledge categories were
more dominant for both the reputationally successful and the typical superintendents. These four
categories that outweighed the other 17 were:
1. Building and Sustaining Board Relations
2. Using Interpersonal and Intrapersonal Knowledge
3. Building Personal Performance Capacities
4. Managing Organizational Goal Achievement (Nestor-Baker & Hoy, 2001)
Each of these four categories of tacit knowledge will be discussed at more length. Table 9
lists the tacit knowledge categories and the percentage of times that they were utilized, compared
to the total number of responses.

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57
Table 9
Categories of Tacit Knowledge Utilized and Percentage of Total Number of Responses
Tacit Knowledge Categories
Reputationally
Successful
Superintendents’ Tacit
Knowledge
Responses (n = 279)
Typical
Superintendents’
Tacit Knowledge
Responses (n =
190)
Behaving Consistently 1.58
Building and Sustaining School Board Relations 20.79 20.53
Building Credibility 6.81 5.79
Building Personal Performance Capacity 17.20 5.79
Developing Administrators 0.40
Encouraging External Outreach 1.08 1.58
Fostering Organizational Stability 5.02 4.74
Handling Public Relations 7.17 7.89
Involving Subordinates 4.74
Maintaining School Board Unity 0.40
Managing Organizational Goal Achievement 11.83 8.42
Managing Problem Administrators 4.21
Meshing Staff and Organization 3.16
Negotiating and Negotiations 2.31 5.26
Reducing Conflict and Alienation 3.23 5.26
Responding to Perceptions 1.08 5.26
Sharing Mission and Goals 3.94
Strengthening the Role/Image of the Superintendent 3.23
Supporting School Board Decisions 0.40
Upholding Personnel Standards 3.23
Using Interpersonal and Intrapersonal Knowledge 11.83 15.79

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58
Building and sustaining board relations. The category of tacit knowledge with the
highest percentages for both superintendent groups was building and sustaining board relations
(Nestor-Baker & Hoy, 2001). To gain the insight to the magnitude of this topic, Nestor-Baker
and Hoy (2001) disclosed one of the reputationally successful superintendents’ comments
describing the relationship that he developed with his school board:
“Half my job is not letting board members do something that is going to undermine their
credibility, the trust that the community has with them, and so on. In some communities,
it’s been a full time job, okay? Because of the nature of the board . . . their perspective
sometimes — they have a limited view . . . so fifty percent of my job is keeping board
members from making decisions or announcements that are not in the best interests of the
district . . . because the community does accept the board as the authority. . . . I think it’s
really one of the surprises about being a superintendent. . . . All your career you’re
working for one person who has been trained in what you do, probably had the job you
had. Teacher, principal, whatever. And then you’re superintendent. Now you’re working
for five people, who, if you’re lucky, usually think 3-2. If you’re lucky. And . . . they’ve
never had your job. They have no clue what you do for a living, they have no idea what
things are coming at you and so on. . . . And the challenge is realizing and respecting that
the board ultimately does answer to the electorate for the things you’re about to do.” (p.
101)
Using interpersonal and intrapersonal knowledge. Nestor-Baker and Hoy’s (2001)
interpretation of interpersonal and intrapersonal knowledge might be best understood by
comparing it to a superintendent serving as a barometer for the emotions and behaviors of the
staff, community, and him/herself. According to Nestor-Baker and Hoy (2001), this type of tacit
THE CAREER PATHS OF SUPERINTENDENTS

59
knowledge enables a superintendent to interpret the behaviors and/or empathize with the feeling
of others, which is very valuable when trying to achieve a noteworthy or significant goal.
Furthermore, using this skill allows a superintendent to objectively use self-reflection skills in
order to monitor and adjust his/her own behavior (Nestor-Baker & Hoy, 2001).
Building personal performance capacities. Nestor-Baker and Hoy (2001) emphasized
that even though this type of tacit knowledge appeared on both superintendent lists, the
reputationally successful group of superintendents incorporated it much more frequently than the
typical superintendent group. Building personal performance capacities give attention to the
superintendent’s ability to encourage higher levels of production for himself/herself and in others
(Nestor-Baker & Hoy, 2001). Additionally, it concentrates on establishing situations favorable to
proficient implementation of plans.
Managing organizational goal achievement. Nestor-Baker and Hoy (2001) describe this
type of tacit knowledge as having the capability to motivate staff members in the organization in
order to achieve one’s goal. Nestor-Baker and Hoy (2001) released an example of one
superintendent’s optimistic representation to the staff in an attempt to motivate them and
continue forward progress towards a common goal:
“I think, one of the key things; when everybody’s whining, I can’t whine. I have to set
myself above that and be positive. . . Sometimes you walk away from it going
‘Aaauughh!’ but you can’t let them know. You can’t project that out there.” (p. 105)
Nestor-Baker and Hoy (2001) encouraged the use of tacit knowledge in the training and
development of aspiring superintendents. Furthermore, Nestor-Baker and Hoy (2001) advocated
using tacit knowledge in conjunction with “case studies, simulations, and observation of
superintendents in action” (p. 125). More specifically, the aspiring superintendent should center
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60
on the development of “interpersonal, intrapersonal, and organizational aspects associated with
goal achievement” (Nestor-Baker & Hoy, 2001, p. 88).
Finally, when it comes to critical experiences that an aspiring superintendent should note,
Hayes (2002) acknowledged that there are specific factors that support and individuals progress
when moving up the ladder of success and they are:
 “Must be effective in every job on his/her resume
 Demonstrate that they can LEAD
 Proof needs to be on resume and on recommendations
 Have a powerful group of references
 Ask…”Could you write a positive reference for me?”
 Resumes with a history of presentations at professional conferences
 Written articles for educational publications
 Be ready when the opportunity arises” (pp. 27-28)
Critical need for mentoring programs. Another avenue that aspiring superintendents
should explore is that of mentoring. Alsbury and Hackmann (2006) and Crow and Matthews
(1998) cited mentors as the primary source of assistance in becoming successful school leaders
as opposed to coursework or educational leadership professors.
Carefully convened mentoring programs can lead to novice leaders displaying more
confidence in their professional competence, more effectively translating educational
theory into practice, developing improved communication skills, feeling more
comfortable in their new positions, and becoming more aware of the tricks of the trade.
(Daresh, 2004, p. 504; see also Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006)
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61
As reported by Glass and Franceschini (2007), and pictured in Figure 3, 60.8% of
superintendents received some type of mentoring. Of those receiving mentoring, 33.0% received
it from the superintendent in their own district, 21.9% received mentoring from a superintendent
from another district, and 5.9% received it from someone who was not a superintendent.

Figure 3. Percentages of superintendents to experience mentoring

Furthermore, Alsbury and Hackmann (2006) contended that mentoring programs have
traditionally been employed in the field of industry, trades, and teacher education. Most recently
though, they have also been implemented in the careers associated with education administration
by promoting introspective procedures, offering the advice and guidance of professional
39%
33%
22%
5.9%
No Mentoring
Mentor from within own school district
Mentor from individual from another school district
Mentor from outside the field of education
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62
ingenuity, providing role interpretations, and creating opportunities for networking in a realistic
environment (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006).
Conversely, Alsbury and Hackmann (2006) also acknowledged that many mentoring
programs lack the quality aspiring superintendents need in order to make them beneficial.
Moreover, some mentoring programs lacked adequate financing and suffered from infrequent
planning that led to unsatisfactory training, a well-defined set of objectives, and poorly
procedures for coupling of mentors and protégés (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006).
As for the specific findings of this study, protégés stated that the most important benefit
that they experienced with their mentor was his/her ability to listen, supply diverse experiences
which were accompanied with introspective inquiries, and furnish universal assistance and
encouragement throughout the year. In addition, they also valued the development of informal
professional networking that enabled then to connect with other administrators that they solicited
for collaboration, encouragement, and support.
Lastly, since the quality of mentoring programs is indiscriminate, the study suggested that
aspiring administrators confirm that any potential mentoring program that they consider for
enrollment include the following recommendations:
1. “Mentoring programs need to begin before the onset of a new school year
2. Provide initial concurrent socialization activities in training plan, but separate skill
training for mentors and protégés as well as for superintendents vs. principals.
3. Encourage professional reflection such as cognitive coaching
4. Select mentor/protégé pairings that take geographic proximity, a shared style of
thinking, race and gender into consideration” (Alsbury & Hackmann, 2006, p. 184).
THE CAREER PATHS OF SUPERINTENDENTS

63
Critical need for networking. Researchers such as Grogan (1996) believed that the
superintendency has been manipulated by a “Good Old Boy” network of mentors and sponsors.
If a superintendent indicated that they benefitted from a Good Old Boy/Good Old Girl network,
it meant that an important person made a concentrated attempt to aid them in the hiring process
for their position. This contention was supported by the 1992 National Superintendent Study
which found that a Good Old Boy Network did exist according to 56.5% of superintendents (see
Table 10). Furthermore, 76.9% of women from that study indicated that they were beneficiaries
of this “network.” This translates to approximately half of all male superintendents and three-
quarters of all female superintendents divulged that a Good Old Boy/Girl network helped them to
gain a superintendency position (Glass et al., 2001).

Table 10
Is There an Old Boy/Old Girl Network in Your State That Helps Individuals Get Positions As
Superintendents?
Percentage of Superintendents
Year of National Superintendent
Survey Study
Responses to
Question Men Women All
1992 Study Yes 48.6% 76.9% 52.5%
No 36.3% 9.8% 32.7%
I Don’t Know 15.2% 13.3% 14.8%
Total 100% 100% 100%

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64
Glass et al. (2001) pointed out that this question was discontinued after the 1992 study.
The reason for this decision is unknown and the motives of the AASA are not clearly
understood. Furthermore, this raised a question for the researcher about how the AASA
acknowledged the practice of Good Old Boy/Girl Networks having taken place on a large scale,
but then discontinued the question in order to hide it because of the fact that it is a practice that
many professionals view in a negative light. Even though this topic is not overtly discussed,
connections through professional networks are prudent for those aspiring to become a
superintendent.
Description of the Studies Addressing Preparation Programs
There is one study and numerous reports that will be utilized to answer the last research
question of this dissertation, What are the essential components that must be included in the
development of a prototype for superintendent preparation programs? The title of the empirical
study that will be used in this section of the literature review is Voices of Superintendents: Give
Us Relevant and Challenging Preparation for a Tough Job, and the research in it was conducted
by Tripses, Hunt, and Watkins (2013). This study was sponsored by the AASA and elicited the
responses of 369 superintendents out of 873 public school districts in the state of Illinois for a
42% response rate. The study intended to answer two research questions:
1. “What knowledge and skills should be included in superintendent preparation
programs to prepare candidates for success in the superintendency?
2. What advice would superintendents offer professors of educational administration to
improve superintendent preparation programs?” (Tripses et al., 2013, p. 4)
Respondents in the study answered two open-ended questions about preparation
programs and it was executed with an online survey. In addition, the survey had three other
THE CAREER PATHS OF SUPERINTENDENTS

65
sections: Section 1 requested demographic data, Section 2 asked respondents to rate
characteristics of superintendent preparation programs applying a five-point Likert scale, and
Section 3 asked superintendents to elaborate on specific sets of skills and knowledge that they
would recommend to professors, who in turn would use the suggestions in their responses to
improve upon superintendent preparation programs in the future.
Findings Addressing Preparation Programs
History of Preparation Programs
Benjamin Franklin is quoted as saying, “By failing to prepare you are preparing to fail.”
Cooper et al. (2002) noted that official preparation programs for school superintendents
originated early in the 20th century and typically including courses in finance, law, management,
and leadership. From the very start, the preparation programs brought about skepticism relating
to their capacity to effectively train individuals to be successful superintendents (Cooper et al.,
2002; Kowalski, Petersen, & Fusarelli, 2009; Callahan, 1964).
After approximately 100 years, the study conducted by Glass et al. (2001) reported that
superintendents still found fault with university-based preparation programs because they have:
1. Inadequate hands-on applications (19.8% of respondents)
2. Insufficient accessibility to technology (18.9% of respondents)
3. A failure to link subject matter to practice (16.5% of respondents)
4. Placed too much significance on professors’ individual experiences (13.8% of
respondents)
Furthermore, to emphasize the significance of this situation, it should be noted that “Once
in office, first-time superintendents usually discover that their new position is quite dissimilar
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from previous administrative positions they have held” (Kowalski et al., 2009, p. 17). Therefore,
a high quality university preparation program is essential.
Responses to Research Question #1
Answers for the first of the two open-ended questions in the study by Tripses et al.
(2013), which requested participants to identify knowledge and skills should be included in
superintendent preparation programs, revealed that respondents identified eight specific topics
that universities should address in preparation programs for superintendents as:
1. Finance
2. Law
3. Curriculum and Instruction
4. Human Resources
5. Politics Including Collective Bargaining
6. Instructional and Ethical Leadership
7. Community Relations
8. Communications
Responses to Research Question #2
A significant number of responses for the second open-ended question, which solicited
advice about characteristics to improve preparation programs of the future, demanded that there
needed to be courses that emphasize the real world application of theories associated with
education and the role of the superintendent (Tripses et al., 2013). Basically, the superintendents
identified a need for practical know-how as it is related to eight topics expressed in the responses
to question one. More specifically, they identified the need to include and/or make internships
more demanding and insightful (Tripses et al., 2013). Moreover, superintendents elaborated on
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the need for interns to be frequently monitored by professors in order to validate that aspiring
superintendents are experiencing opportunities to apply theory or topics covered in courses and
that they have follow-up discussions with classmates about how they dealt with or could have
dealt with educational leadership experiences in their districts (Tripses et al., 2013).
Tripses et al. (2013) reported that the last topic respondents gave recommendations for
dealt with the credibility of university faculty. One of the superintendents wrote, “Make sure that
professors are current in their understanding of the present day public school leadership activities
that are necessary for new superintendents” (Tripses et al., 2013, p. 10).
The superintendents went on to comment that some professors didn’t completely
understand the responsibilities, pressures, and ordeals associated with the superintendency
(Tripses et al., 2013). They mentioned two factors that colleges and universities need to be aware
of that influence a professor’s lack of integrity; if they have not ever been a superintendent
and/or if they have not maintained contact with school districts in order to remain informed of
current professional practices (Tripses et al., 2013).
Ultimately, the superintendents in the Tripses et al. (2013) study requested college and
university preparation programs that offer germane and thought-provoking learning
opportunities. Additionally, they suggested that these types of preparation programs include
demanding internships and coursework that give aspiring administrators numerous opportunities
to apply principles and concepts to real world educational dilemmas (Tripses et al., 2013).
Therefore, in an effort to identify quality superintendent preparation programs, the next section
will elaborate on specific programs that have an excellent reputation for including internships
and the practical application of relevant educational theory.
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Model Preparation Programs
Jackson and Kelley (2002) claimed that most model preparation programs required
substantial support and an above average time commitment from professors, administrators and
collaborating districts. In their list of high quality superintendent preparation programs, Jackson
and Kelley (2002) identified five programs in the United States that aspiring administrators
might consider because they incorporate problem-based approaches, multiple perspectives, and
internships; they are the doctoral programs at:
1. University of Kentucky
2. Hofstra University
3. Fordham University
4. Miami University of Ohio
5. Harvard University
Furthermore, Cooper et al. (2002) have also identified Harvard University as a
preparation program that they would recommend. They elaborated by explaining that Harvard,
as well as the University of Texas, offer paid fellowships to some students that require
internships with a superintendent in an urban school district (Cooper et al., 2002).
Theoretical Framework and Model
According to Brown (2002), Donald Super’s Theory of Self-Concept and Career
Development (see Figure 4) emphasizes the importance of the development of self-concept; how
it changes over time, and develops as a result of experience. Brown (2002) outlines Super’s five
life and career development stages, in which progression lasts throughout a lifetime. In the field
of education administration, aspiring superintendents also go through these stages throughout the
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life of their careers. The five stages and approximate ages that an individual progresses through
each stage are:
1. Growth (birth - 14 years old)
2. Exploration (15 - 24 years old)
3. Establishment (25 - 44 years old)
4. Maintenance (45 - 64 years old)
5. Decline (65+) (Brown, 2002).

Figure 4. Conceptual representation of Donald Super’s theory of self-concept and career
development

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As indicated by the listed stages, the majority of aspiring superintendents fall into two
stages of development: Establishment (25 - 44 years old) and Maintenance (45 - 64 years old).
During these times, they characteristically find a calling in their field and advance within it by
developing skills and achieving an equilibrium (Brown, 2002). This is accomplished by
developing their capacity through varied experience and ongoing behavioral modifications until
their position is elevated to the next level on the career ladder. Brown (2002) also explained that
Super’s Theory claimed that,
In expressing vocational preferences, people put into occupational terminology their
ideas of the kind of people they are; that in entering an occupation, they seek to
implement a concept of themselves; and that after stabilizing in an occupation, they seek
to realize their potential and preserve self-esteem. (p. 165)
A connection to the traditional career paths of superintendents is apparent when a
comparison is made to the skill development and career progression that takes place as an
individual progresses through the roles of Teacher → Secondary Principal → Central Office →
Superintendent (Glass et al., 2001; Hayes, 2002; Glass & Franceschini, 2007; Kowalski, McCord
et al., 2011; Jordan, 2008).
Furthermore, according to Super’s (1990) research, self-concept is a result of numerous
elements, such as physical and mental growth, individual encounters, and a multitude of
characteristics/stimulation from the environment. A correlation can be made between the data
from earlier in the literature review pertaining to critical experiences and the development of
one’s self-concept as he/she prepares for the role of superintendent. Therefore, as a candidates
for superintendent continue along their career paths, participation in university preparation
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programs and/or internships develop their capacity, self-concept and confidence, which in-turn
motivates them to aspire to the highest career rung in public schools; that of superintendent.
Summary
The research identified in this literature review intended to support professional educators
who are considering a career path to the superintendency by using data from empirical studies to
develop a plan which will:
1. Identify the most expedient path to the superintendency
2. Identify critical personal experiences, positions, skills that build their capacity
3. Identify the characteristics of superior university preparation programs
According to the aforementioned research, the most expedient path to the position of
superintendent is to first work as a secondary teacher, then become a secondary principal and
finally advance to the district office as an assistant superintendent before ascending to the
superintendency (Glass & Franceschini, 2007; Kowalski, McCord et al., 2011).
Furthermore, in order to build their capacity along the way, it is important for an aspiring
administrator to develop skills associated with the tacit knowledge of superintendents (Nestor-
Baker & Hoy, 2001). In addition, Kim and Brunner’s (2009) study advised candidates to handle
critical experiences that highlight their visibility, contact with parents and community members,
and confirm their ability to properly handle of large budgets. Lastly, administrators need to
expand and develop their professional network and collaborate with a mentor.
Finally, when choosing a professional development program at a college or university,
candidates need to make sure that course work includes the topics of Finance, Law, Curriculum
and Instruction, Human Resources, Politics, Collective Bargaining, Instructional and Ethical
Leadership, Community Relations, and Communications. They should also incorporate
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internships that practice the application of theory to real-world educational dilemmas. Super’s
Theory of Self-Concept and Career Development indicated that careers are dynamic and through
the acquisition of critical skills and experiences and employment in various positions in an
individual’s career path, people develop a positive self-concept and confidence. By building
their own capacity, they are motivated to continue the accumulation of skills, experiences, and
education, thus continuing their ascension until they reach to the position of superintendent
(Brown, 2002). In the next chapter of this dissertation, a detailed description of the methodology
used in this study will be discussed. It will assist the reader in understanding how research
pertaining to the Career Paths of Superintendents will be conducted and original empirical data
gathered.

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CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
The chapter before you is a collection of the techniques that were utilized during a
mixed-methods research study with a primary focus on superintendents’ personal experiences,
thoughts, and opinions as they related to their career paths in the state of California. The study
was conducted in Southern California and elaborated on the specific, detailed experiences and
the positions held by superintendents as they progressed through their own personal careers.
This chapter will first reveal the research questions that were the impetus for this report. Then, it
will expand into further detail by explaining the decisions that were made in reference to
research design and the methods that were employed to gather data throughout the study. The
main sources for data collection involved online surveys and personal interviews.
Thereafter, the researcher will divulge the rationale that was used for the sampling and
population of the study. Additional details will be shared which will give specific details about
the instrumentation, data collection, and data analysis. Finally, in the conclusion, the report will
encapsulate the process that was followed to conduct this study.
Research Questions
The main purpose of this paper will be to further investigate and answer three questions:
1. What are the most direct career paths to the position of superintendents of schools?
2. What critical experiences, positions, and skills did superintendents value, which best
prepared them for the performance of their duties as a superintendent?
3. What are the essential components that must be included in the development of
superintendent preparation programs?
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To answer these questions and accomplish this goal, a mixed-methods approach was
chosen for this study because it combined the distinct attributes of qualitative and quantitative
methods, which enabled the researcher to develop a stronger understanding of the questions for
readers. This mixed-methods study included the sampling of data obtained through quantitative
surveys with the open-ended responses of superintendents who were interviewed, using
qualitative research. A mixed-methods study, empowered the researcher to:
1. “Compare different perspectives drawn from quantitative and qualitative data
2. Explain quantitative results with qualitative follow-up data collection and analysis,
which led to an overall interpretation
3. Understand experimental results by incorporating the perspective of individuals.”
(Creswell, 2014, p. 231)
Additionally, other advantages that were experienced using a mixed-methods study were
that it allowed the researcher to integrate both inductive and deductive research with the use of
better data collection and instruments. Furthermore, the researcher was able to establish a
corroboration of data through triangulation, which were presented in a variety of modes for the
reader to interpret (Samkian, 2014).
The practice of triangulation was established when a variety of sources was used for data
collection to authenticate the findings (Merriam, 2009). By utilizing triangulation and the
incorporation of multiple perspectives, the researcher was able to proceed with a concrete closed
approach coupled with a holistic, open-ended approach that integrated modifications as the study
evolved. In addition, Maxwell (2013) recommended using triangulation because, “this strategy
reduces the risk that your conclusions will reflect only the systematic biases or limitations of a
specific method” (p. 128). As triangulation is related to this study, the researcher gathered
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information through the use of a combination of data compiled from surveys, interviews, and the
collection of documents, which ultimately supported an authentic and meaningful understanding
of the superintendents’ experiences, with regard to their career paths in the state of California.
Sample and Population
The process of selecting the interview respondents was determined based on geographic
convenience to the researcher. All superintendent who were interviewed were employed by
unified public school districts that were within 200 miles radius to the researcher’s geographical
location of residence. In addition, all six respondents had experience as superintendents. This
parameter was implemented because the researcher wanted to make sure that the superintendents
had exposure to numerous situations, but at the same time, they were not too far removed from
the ascent up the career ladder and could still remember specific skills, experiences, and courses
that contributed to their success.
Another criterion used for these professionals was the fact that they were located in five
different counties in Southern California. The respondents were from:
1. Los Angeles County
2. Orange County
3. Riverside County
4. San Bernardino County
5. Santa Barbara County
This specification enabled the researcher to obtain a quasi-random explain this process sampling
of superintendents. All six interviews took place at the superintendents’ office locations in order
to limit interruptions.
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Process of Selecting the Survey Respondents
The participants in the surveys were identified as superintendents of public school
systems in six counties. The counties were: Los Angeles, Orange, Riverside, San Bernardino,
San Diego and Santa Barbara.
Appropriateness of Survey Respondents and Interviewees
All respondents and interviewees were superintendents who worked in public education
and advanced through the organizational hierarchy in the field of education. Therefore, they were
able to answer the interview questions with the knowledge and experience needed to address the
overarching research question.
However, according to Maxwell (1998), one of the shortcomings of using a qualitative
approach is that it includes research which is based on the insights of a limited number of
respondents — in this case six. Therefore, the limitations of this study include:
1. A small numbers of participants
2. The interviewees all progressed through their career paths in the traditional manner.
Process of Obtaining Consent from Interview Respondents
The procedure for acquiring consent was straightforward. The researcher contacted each
superintendent by phone and personally asked for their assistance. The researcher explained that
participation was voluntary and would be in the form of an interview for his doctoral
dissertation. All six superintendents verbally responded by saying, “Yes.” Furthermore, once
the interviews started, the researcher read his script requesting consent. All six respondents
verbally agreed by granting consent and also signed a consent form that the researcher provided
before the interview (see Appendix C).
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Process of Gaining Access to Survey Respondents
The procedure for securing consent for participation in the surveys was relatively simple.
The researcher emailed superintendents a cover letter introducing himself and the study (see
Appendix A). There were a total of 113 unified school districts in the six identified Southern
California counties. However, because of retirement, attrition, or inaccurate email addresses
provided by the Department of Education in California, five of the 113 districts were not invited
to participate in the study. Therefore, a total of 108 superintendents had a 15 day window, from
September 1, 2015 through September 15, 2015, within which to respond to the survey. Forty-
five superintendents responded within the identified time constraints of the study, yielding a 42%
return rate. Since the survey was anonymous, the researcher did not have any way to identify the
classification of the type of district in reference to rural, suburban, or urban. Furthermore, the
researcher did not have respondents identify their ethnic backgrounds for the study.
Instrumentation
Surveys are important in order to gain insight into other people’s point of view, while at
the same time, be able to assemble concrete, quantitative data. The survey created for this study
contained 20 questions (see Appendix B). All questions were close-ended where a set of pre-
selected answers were already provided (Fink, 2012). Ten questions were multiple choice, four
were Likert scales, and there were three pull-down menus and three questions were the
respondents could check all items that applied.
Rationale for the Structure of the Interview Protocol
The questions in the survey were grouped under three themes related to the research
questions:
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1. Career Paths (6)
2. Critical Skills and Experiences (6)
3. Preparation Programs (8)
The survey was created by the researcher and tested for feasibility and validity by a group
of 10 administrators, who were building principals.
Personal Interviews Were Important in Order to Elicit the Viewpoints, Ideas, and Opinions
of the Participants
Confirming this notion, Patton (2005) and Merriam (2009) both acknowledge that
interviews afford the researcher with an opportunity to gain insight to another person’s
perspective. Furthermore, Weiss (1994) indicated that, “Interviewing allows an interviewer the
opportunity to:
1. Develop detailed descriptions
2. Integrate multiple perspectives
3. Describe process
4. Develop holistic description
5. Learn how events are interpreted” (pp. 9-10)
With this intent to acquire the interviewee’s perspective, the researcher in this study made
use of a semi-structured format by using a set of questions that focused on answering the main
research questions. This format permitted the exploration of other topics or issues that were not
originally on the questioning protocol, to further elaborate on the research questions. When
developing questions for the interview protocol, the researcher modeled questions after four of
the six types of interview question that Patton (2005) and Merriam (2009) recommended using:
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1. Experience and behavior questions
2. Opinion and values questions
3. Feeling questions
4. Knowledge questions
Rationale for the Structure of the Interview Protocol
The type of interview that was used in this study can be categorized as semi-structured
because the interview was guided by a list of 20 questions and/or issues to be explored (see
Appendix D). It should be noted that this type of format was chosen in order to provide focus for
the researcher to address and find answers to his research questions. Similarly to the survey, the
interview questions were grouped under three themes related to the research questions:
1. Career Paths
2. Pivotal Positions, Experiences and Skills
3. University Preparation Programs
Appendix E — Research and Interview Questions Table, is a graphic representation of
how the interview questions have a direct correlation to the research questions. The structure of
the interview protocol enabled the researcher to gather specific information, while at the same
time gave him the flexibility to stray from the protocol and/or skip questions if in the course of
answering one question, another one had also been answered or if the researcher realized that a
question did not apply to an individual’s situation. Furthermore, this protocol design provided
needed support, since the researcher possessed limited experience at interviewing.
The climate during the interview was relaxed most of the time because of the fact that it
did not take on the design of a highly structured interview. Merriam (2009) describes a semi-
structured interview as,
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The type of interview where either all of the questions are more flexibly worded or the
interview is a mix of more and less structured questions . . . the interview is guided by a
list of questions or issues to be explored, and neither the exact wording nor the order of
the questions is determined ahead of time. (p. 90)
The interviews began with a scripted overview that gave way to discussing the consent
form. Next, there was informal discussion that eased the superintendents into the interview,
making an effort to assist the respondents in feeling comfortable. Then, the researcher focused
on the core of the protocol that addressed his research questions using open-ended questions,
with the anticipation of descriptive answers. After that, the researcher gave the interviewee an
opportunity to add other comments.
Data Collection
Capturing the Survey Data
The survey was created using Google Docs – Forms. Once the participants answered the
20 questions and clicked on the submit button, data was instantaneously sent to the server for
processing. Respondents were given a 15 day period to complete the survey, from September 1,
2015 until September 15, 2015. Furthermore, reminder emails were sent once a week to the
superintendents who had not submitted their completed survey.
Capturing the Interview Data
The researcher made appointments with those superintendents who volunteered to
participate and had met the criteria. The researcher wrote down as many comments as possible
during the interview and also recorded the conversation on a recording device. Furthermore, the
researcher utilized a professional website entitled Rev.com to accurately transcribe the
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interviews and another website identified as Dedoose.com to complete data analysis and the
coding process.
Data Analysis
Online Surveys
The online survey produced real-time results that were compiled instantaneously on a
corresponding spreadsheet provided by Google Docs. Frequencies were run on the data when
10% of the respondents had submitted their surveys. The rationale behind completing this data
run was to confirm that the survey was functioning accurately, as it was designed to do. Once the
15 days were over, all data was analyzed and it was transformed into graphs and charts for easy
interpretation. Then, data was compared to coded data from the interviews and other related
documents and/or literature, in an effort to triangulate.
Face-to-Face Interviews
Once the audio recordings from the interviews were transcribed with the assistance of an
online transcription service, Rev.com, the data was coded in an attempt to identify themes. This
was accomplished with a qualitative computer data analysis program provided by Dedoose.com.
The program coded, organized and sorted data. Furthermore, it had the function of making
queries that identified text with inter-related codes. Ultimately, the program was an excellent tool
that provided a proficient and effective approach to store, code, locate, and analyze the data.
Documentation
In addition to surveys and interviews used in this study, the researcher also collected
public documents. Some of these documents were provided by superintendents, others were
available via the internet, and some were pamphlets that described quality mentoring programs,
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internships, possible training provided by private agencies, and university preparation programs
that have been rated highly successful.
Conclusion
The process of conducting a mixed-methods data analysis was a long and arduous task.
However, with adequate preparation and detailed planning that involve the triangulation of
statistical information from surveys, interviews, and a collection of documents, it was a task that
was accomplished with a consistent focus given to answering the study’s research questions.

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CHAPTER 4
RESULTS
Introduction: A Restatement of the Focus for the Study
This chapter expounds upon the mixed-methods examination of data gathered and
evidence accumulated conducting research for the current study, which explores the career paths
of public school superintendents in Southern California. Research conducted to support this
investigation incorporated quantitative data with the surveying and interviewing of public school
superintendents and qualitative data gathered by elicited personal histories, opinions, and
recommendations, as they related to superintendents’ own career pathways. Additionally,
evidence is presented from participating superintendents who identified specific, critical
experiences and skills which they deemed as impactful to the performance of their jobs. Lastly,
the study compared the recommendations of current superintendents with components of highly
notable preparation programs that are proven to be dynamic and efficacious. The specific
research questions that the study aimed to answer were:
1. What is the most direct career path to the position of Superintendents of Schools?
2. What critical experiences, positions, or skills did superintendents value, which best
prepared them for the performance of their duties as a superintendent?
3. What are the essential components that must be included in the development of a
prototype for superintendent preparation programs?
Components of the Research
Process Used to Gather Quantitative and Qualitative Data
The quantitative data that was collected in this study was done so with the use of an
electronic survey that was created on Google Drive. The email addresses that were used to
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administer the survey were compiled by the researcher from one of the internet websites
affiliated with the California Department of Education (CDE, 2015) entitled, California School
Directory.
The California School Directory contains information about all California public schools,
private schools, nonpublic nonsectarian schools, school districts, and county offices of
education. The search feature allows users to search for educational agencies in
California by county, district, name, county-district-school (CDS) code, city, zip code,
type, or status. (CDE, 2015, n.p.).
Participant District Demographics
The researcher limited the creation of the database to all unified school districts in six
counties from Southern California. In California, public unified school districts are those that are
collectively composed of elementary schools, intermediate middle schools, and high schools.
The six counties that were included in the study were:
1. Los Angeles
2. Orange
3. Riverside
4. San Bernardino
5. San Diego
6. Santa Barbara
There were a total of 113 unified school districts in the six identified Southern California
counties. However, because of retirement, attrition, or inaccurate email addresses provided by
the Department of Education in California, five of the 113 districts were not invited to participate
in the study. Therefore, a total of 108 superintendents had a 15 day window, from September 1,
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2015 through September 15, 2015, within which to respond to the survey. Forty-five
superintendents responded within the identified time constraints of the study, yielding a 42%
return rate. Since the survey was anonymous, the researcher did not have any way to identify the
classification of the type of district in reference to rural, suburban, or urban. Furthermore, the
researcher did not have respondents identify their ethnic backgrounds for the study.
In addition to the quantitative data, qualitative data was also collected during personal,
one-on-one interviews that were conducted between the researcher and sitting superintendents
during the months of August, September, and October of 2015. Four of the six interviews were
conducted in person and two of the interviews were conducted over the phone. All interviews
were recorded by the researcher and they were sent to Rev.com for transcription. After
transcription took place, the files were then uploaded to a coding website, Dedoose.com, which
the researcher used to assist him with the analysis and coding of the qualitative data. After
analysis and coding was completed, data was incorporated into this study to create Chapter 4 and
Chapter 5 of the dissertation.
Demographic Data Related to Survey Respondents
Once the surveys were completed, it was determined that 18 out of 45 respondents on the
survey were female and 27 of 45 were male. Figure 5 reveals the overall percentages of each
gender, for the survey respondents who participated in the study.
Furthermore, data gather from the respondents indicated that out of the 45 surveys
returned, 17 respondents reported that they had five or more years of experience in the
superintendency, 9 had been employed as a superintendent between 4-5 years, 15 had been
superintendents between 1-3 years, and 4 had were new at their jobs and had less than 1 year of
experience as a superintendent. This information is exhibited in Figure 6.
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Figure 5. Gender of survey respondents

Figure 6. Number of years employed with the title of superintendent

40%
60%
Female Male
17
15
9
4
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
More than 5 Years Bewtween 4-5 Years Between 1-3 Years Less than 1 Year
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As indicated in Figure 7, 47.7% of the respondents, or 21 out of 45, indicated that they
would be willing to volunteer for the researcher’s 30-40 minute interview, during the qualitative
phase of his research.

Figure 7. Percentage of survey respondents to volunteer to be interviewed

Demographic Data Related to the Superintendents Who Were Interviewed
Superintendents who were interviewed in this study were employed in the same Southern
California counties that were identified for the survey. In order to gather a representative
sampling for the qualitative interviews, six superintendents were interviewed. Three of the six
superintendents interviewed were contacted directly by the researcher after he had heard them
speak about their career paths at an educational conference. The other three superintendents
interviewed came from the group of 21 whom volunteered to be interviewed. They were self-
identified when they provided contact information on their electronic surveys, which they
completed during the quantitative phase of this study. The six superintendents have been
identified in this paper as Superintendent A, B, C, D, E, and F. Table 11 will provide a summary
47.7%
52.3%
Did Volunteer Did Not Volunteer
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of the demographic information pertaining to each superintendent, yet maintain their anonymity.
The order of the superintendents in the table was based on the sequence that their actual
interviews took place.

Table 11
Demographic Data of Superintendents Interviewed
Pseudonym Date of Interview
Type of
District Ethnicity Gender
Type of
Interview
Superintendent A August 18, 2015 Urban White Female In Person
Superintendent B August 27, 2015 Suburban White Male In Person
Superintendent C September 2, 2015 Suburban White Male Over the Phone
Superintendent D October 6, 2015 Urban Latino Male In Person
Superintendent E October 7, 2015 Suburban White Male In Person
Superintendent F October 29, 2015 Rural Latino Female Over the Phone

From the respondents interviewed, 4 out of 6 were male and 2 were female. Their ethnic
backgrounds were 67% White and 33% Latino. The classification of each district’s size is based
on the population of the community, with urban being the most densely populated and rural
being the most sparsely populated. Therefore, 33% of the superintendents came from urban
districts, 50% of the superintendents came from suburban districts, and 17%, or one, from a rural
district.
Originally, the researcher had intended to conduct all interviews in person. However, the
interviews were conducted two different ways; four were done in person and two were conducted
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over the phone. An explanation for the rationale to conduct phone interviews is different for
each one that took place. Superintendent C’s schedule changed on the day of the planned
interview and his secretary was absent. Since he was out of the office when the researcher
arrived at his office, the superintendent was contacted by an office staff member and he
requested that the interview take place over the phone. On the second occasion, the researcher
scheduled an interview with Superintendent F, but an unforeseen situation arose the day of the
interview and Superintendent F asked that it be rescheduled. For the purpose of convenience,
Superintendent F and the researcher agreed to make this a phone interview.
Reporting of the Findings
Research Question 1
What is the most direct career path to the position of Superintendents of Schools?
Data used to answer research question 1. In an effort to disaggregate the data in an
organized way, the results were disclosed as they related to the three main research questions in
this study. The survey results revealed that the most direct career paths to the superintendency
were both composed of two positions: from the position of Teacher → Superintendent or the
position at the Central Office → Superintendent. However, these paths were not common and
each one only occurred at a rate of 2.3% of the time.
Additionally, the survey findings also revealed that the most common path among
superintendents was one where the respondents moved from Teacher → High School Principal
→ Central Office → Superintendent. This phenomenon occurred with 25% of the respondents.
The next two career paths identified by the survey data occurred at equal rates, with 22.7% of the
respondents identifying each one. They were very similar, with the exception of the type of
principalship that the superintendents had served in along their career path.
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They were Teacher → Middle School Principal → Central Office → Superintendent and
Teacher → Elementary School Principal → Central Office → Superintendent. Because of the
fact that the last three paths were so similar, if these results were combined without specifying
the type of principal each respondent functioned in, 70.4% of the superintendents in the survey
advanced through their professional career paths via their roles as Teacher → Principal →
Central Office → Superintendent.
Furthermore, it should be noted that 7 out of 10 career paths start with the position of
teacher. Figure 8 reveals the career paths of all respondents from the survey, as well as the
frequency of the career path, represented with percentages.

Figure 8. Career paths of survey respondents

25.0%
22.7%
22.7%
6.8%
6.8%
4.5%
4.5%
2.3%
2.3%
2.3%
Teacher → High School Principal → …
Teacher → Middle School Principal → …
Teacher → Elementary School Principal …
Teacher → Central Office → …
Teacher → Other → Superintendent
Teacher → Principal → Superintendent
Other
Teacher → Superintendent
Central Office → Superintendent
Other → Central Office → Superintendent
0.0% 5.0% 10.0% 15.0% 20.0% 25.0% 30.0%
Career Paths
Percentage of Respondents
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Although an option to choose a career path that included being an assistant principal was
not included in the surveys, 55.6% of the survey respondents indicated that their first
administrative job was serving as an assistant principal. Furthermore, 4 out of 6 superintendents,
or 67%, of those who were interviewed, also indicated that they were an assistant principal.
For the purpose of comparing interview data to the records gathered from the surveys,
when the position of assistant principal is deleted from the career paths of those superintendents
who were interviewed, 67%, or 4 out of the 6 interview respondents’ career paths were via
Teacher → Principal → Central Office → Superintendent. Table 12 provides a summary of this
data.

Table 12
Career Paths of Superintendents Interviewed
Superintendent Career Path Followed
A Teacher → Assistant Principal Elementary School → Assistant Principal
Middle School → Middle School Principal → Elementary Principal &
Middle School Principal → Central Office → Superintendent
B Teacher → Principal/Superintendent K-8 School → Junior High School
Principal → Central Office → Superintendent
C Teacher → Assistant Principal K-8 School → Principal K-8 School →
Central Office → County Office → Superintendent
D Teacher → High School Assistant Principal → Elementary Principal →
Middle School Principal → High School Principal → Alternative High
School Principal → Central Office → Superintendent
E Teacher → High School Assistant Principal → Central Office →
Superintendent
F County Office → Central Office → Superintendent

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When analyzing the career paths of the superintendents who were interviewed, there were
several anomalies. Superintendent F never served in the capacity of a teacher, assistant principal,
or principal. For this reason, her career path was the most direct to the superintendency via
positions in the County Office → Central Office → Superintendent. This career path only
occurred once, making it prevalent 17% of the time among superintendents interviewed.
Documentation revealed that two of six superintendents interviewed worked at their county
offices of education, at some point in their career. Lastly, other data indicated that two of the
superintendents interviewed actually had other careers before coming to the field of education.
Research Question 2
What critical experiences, positions, or skills did superintendents value, which best
prepared them for the performance of their duties as a superintendent?
Data used to answer research question 2. The data from the surveys and interviews will
now be identified that answered the second question in the study. All superintendents had
numerous critical experiences. The details of several events, shall be highlighted in order to gain
insight into their perspectives. Superintendent B was interviewed and he explained how his path
was forged through the encouragement of others by answering,
One experience was with the former assistant superintendent in the county ed. office who
said to me, ‘You should think about being a principal.’ I was like, I don’t really know if I
want to do that. She continued, ‘Talk to me, talk to me, talk to me.’ She told me about
that job. She said, ‘The county ed. office is doing this search . . . and I think you should
apply for the job.’ I didn’t want to disappoint her, basically. She had faith in me, so I
applied for the job and I got the job. Didn’t even have the credential. Then it was literally
four months later that I was the superintendent.
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Another topic that came up time and time again were experiences related to having a
mentor(s) and the impact that they had upon the superintendents’ careers. As indicated in Figure
9, 73.3%, or 33 out of 45, of the survey respondents had a superintendent that served as a mentor
to them and Figure 10 indicates that 95.6% of this group also recommended that aspiring
superintendents receive the guidance of a mentor.
All 6 superintendents who were interviewed had one or more people guide them and/or
take them under their wing as a mentor. Superintendent A recalled a specific superintendent and
said, “She was truly an advocate for me.” Superintendent C elaborated on his experiences with
mentors when he reported,
Yeah, I had a lot of good mentors and they were former superintendents. I got to see how
they interacted as superintendent and got to see what they did well and what they didn’t
do well, and where they made mistakes. Working closely, I think is key.
Furthermore, in reference to mentors, Superintendent B emphasized that he had,
Lots of them. Lots and lots and lots. I would say the path to the superintendency was
[mentor’s name]. He was a superintendent. [Another mentor’s name] who was a
superintendent. [A third mentor’s name] who was a superintendent. Great advice about
. . . . It’s interesting, because the advice I think from [a fourth mentor’s name] was, “You
need to study the district. Is it a good fit?”
Next, Superintendent E recalled,
Yes, I had a mentor. He had a profound impact of really helping me navigate the
political fields, the mines, the political mines that are out there. Really helped me remain
poised in the midst of adversary, to not be impulsive in making decisions, to really think
and analyze things out.
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Figure 9. Percentage of survey respondents who had a superintendent mentor them

Figure 10. Percentage of survey respondents who recommend aspiring superintendents receive
the guidance of a mentor

73.3%
26.7 %
Yes No
95.6%
4.4%
Yes No
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Superintendent D expanded upon his support from mentors when he indicated,
Yes, the superintendent I was under and then the superintendent that I worked for has
been a mentor. Well, he taught me what the role of superintendent is, the work that it
involves, and how to manage and work with a board.
Additionally, on the topic of mentors, Superintendent F affirmed,
[Mentor’s name] has taught me, and continues to teach me how to lead. I think how to
execute transformation leadership, because it’s like I say to my staff, if we do what we
did yesterday or even today, we will not be successful. In a world that’s changing, we
will not prepare our kids for what’s out there. What [mentor’s name] taught me and still
continues to teach me is how to transform: How do we continually guide and lead change
in an organization? I think what he’s taught me is how do you do it and gain that buy-in,
and there’s a way to do it. It takes a lot of time, but it’s not difficult, because what it is
. . . just giving people voices. He’ll tell me he’s like, “Hey, you’re going too fast. Listen
first and then see how you can guide and lead.”
Furthermore, Superintendent F also recommended that aspiring administrators seek the
assistance of a mentor when she explained,
As a superintendent, I recommend you get two or three of the people you trust and you’re
on the phone with them or you’re having breakfast with them regularly . . . because it is
an extremely difficult job. If you’re trying to, like I said, do it alone, it’s how you
interpret it. But when you have people that are watching you, you get multiple
perspectives.
Question 2 of this dissertation also was seeking to find the various positions that
superintendents have served in and viewed to be essential during their ascension to the
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superintendency. More specifically, item number 7 in the survey asked the superintendents to
identify as many positions, from the list provided, that they deemed critical to building their
capacity as they ascended to the superintendency. As indicated in Figure 11, the survey data
revealed that 93%, or forty-two out of forty-five, of the respondents identified the position of
Assistant/Associate Superintendent to be critical before becoming a superintendent. Eighty-nine
percent, or 40 out of 45, of the survey respondents actually held this position immediately before
becoming a superintendent.

Figure 11. Critical positions to build a superintendent’s capacity

Additionally, all six respondents who were interviewed, also served in the capacity as an
Assistant/Associate Superintendent prior to becoming a Superintendent.
27%
93%
51%
27%
58%
40%
27%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Other
Assistant/Associate Superintendent
Director
Coordinator
Secondary Principal
Elementary Principal
Coach
Name of Critical Position
Percentage of Respondents to Identify Position
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To support the significance of functioning as an assistant superintendent prior to
becoming a superintendent, Superintendent F said,
When I was Assistant Superintendent, every time I walked out the door, I knew I was
communicating a message. When you do that for six or seven years, it prepares you. I
don’t think there is a way to fast-track it. I know some people have skipped that step. I
cannot imagine it. I can’t imagine not being an assistant superintendent and learning
under a leader . . . whether that leader is good or bad. There are so many experiences in
leadership that I could not have learned in a book or talking to people.
Furthermore, when asked to identify the most important role/position that impacted
his/her ability to successfully be a superintendent, Superintendent D said, “I would say that was
the role as Assistant Superintendent of Business. I learned the whole business side of the house;
everything from maintenance, transportation, purchasing, the finance, debt management.”
Superintendent C also found value in the role as an Assistant Superintendent and Chief
Business Officer by emphasizing,
As a Chief Business Officer, learning just the day to day operations of how a district
works, I think was very beneficial for me, going through . . . construction program. We
had bond program. So, going through construction, going through different legal matters
helped kind of round it out. As an Assistant Superintendent, I worked with the school
board, the Superintendent and the principals.
Superintendent D indicated that being an Assistant Principal and a Director were most
important to him in his career. Table 13 identifies and compares the responses pertaining to
previous positions held by superintendents who responded to the survey, with those who were
interviewed.
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Table 13
Previous Positions Held, A Comparison of Survey Respondents and Interview Respondents
Data
Source
Average Age
When
Respondents
Became a
Superintendent
Percentage to
Serve in the
Position of
Assistant/
Associate
Superintendent
Percentage to
Serve in the
Position of
Principal
Percentage
to Serve in
the
Position of
Assistant
Principal
Percentage
to Serve in
the Position
of
Classroom
Teacher
Survey 46-50 yrs. old 89 % 76% 58% 87%
Interview 46-50 yrs. old 100% 67% 67% 83%

To support this claim, Superintendent D explained,
As an Assistant Principal, that prepared me for all the student services issues that you are
you are faced with. You really become an expert on suspension, expulsion, and education
law relative to students. That, to me, was huge.
As previously stated, the survey results indicated that 70.4% of those respondents also
followed a career path that included the principalship and 67% of the superintendents who were
interviewed identified the fact they also served in the role of Principal. Furthermore, during the
personal interviews, three out of the six superintendents went so far as to identify the role of
Principal as the one position in their career paths that was most influential at building their
capacity as a superintendent. Moreover, Superintendent D served as a principal on four different
levels: elementary school, middle school, high school, and an alternative high school. However,
he identified the traditional high school principalship as the one which prepared him most for the
superintendency. He offered the following rationale in support of his decision,
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Given the expectations from the community and the staff . . . being very different from
staffs at middle and elementary school . . . obviously dealing with kids’ futures,
transcripts, scholarships, athletics, things of that nature that are very sensitive, and where
the entire community is watching and where anything can go wrong overnight is very
similar to being a superintendent.
Of a concurring opinion was that of Superintendent B who claimed,
Being a high school principal was the number one job that prepared me to be a
superintendent, even more so than an assistant superintendent. I always think of high
school principals as the mayor of their community. Most people who have an association
with the high school really don’t say, “My kid goes to Central Unified School District.”
They say, “My kid goes to North High School or South High School.” I had a lot of
autonomy, a lot of decision making that was really left to me. That process really allows
me to think back on decisions that I make now and a lot of what I learned was from that
job. A lot of the things I do now as a superintendent, I think, “What is the best way for a
principal to manage whatever this thing is I’m asking them to do?”
Superintendent C was another superintendent from those interviewed, who
identified the position of Principal as being most significant. He affirmed this by
asserting,
Probably Principal . . . principal in a high performing school. That was the preparation
and understanding all the players. Yeah, working . . . working with parents in a high
performing school in a high performing district and teachers and kids, learning all the
. . . . Working with key stakeholders, I think was important.
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Additionally, findings indicated that thirty-nine out of forty-five, or 87%, of the
respondents worked as teachers at some point in their career path compared to 5 out of 6, or
83%, of the superintendents who were interviewed. When discussing this topic, Superintendent
D indicated,
Obviously the role as a teacher prepared me to be able to know what it’s like to walk in
the world of probably the largest group of employees that we have. As a superintendent,
it’s powerful when you can speak with knowledge of the role of that the teacher plays and
be able to empathize with them, relative to the demands of that job. To me, that is crucial.
I really think that in most cases, if you haven’t done that job . . . I think you’re hindered
in being a school superintendent.
Superintendent D was also able to elaborate on another position that he believed
propelled him to the superintendency. He continued by explaining, “When I was promoted from
a Director of Executive Services to Assistant Superintendent of Executive Services. I think
people began to see me as a potential Superintendent because I was working directly under the
superintendent.”
In contrast to the majority of all other responses on the topic of one position propelling
someone into the superintendency, Superintendent A responded by disclosing,
I don’t think there’s one route or one thing. For me, yeah. It set me apart that I was a
business person. I think that’s attractive to school boards. There’s a lot of business people
that aren’t good or aren’t superintendent material. I can see somebody as a teacher and
know if they can be a good superintendent. So, I don’t think there’s a . . . For me, yeah. I
guess just going the business route may have helped me. If anything, going back to the
previous question, what propelled me, was probably being successful in the small district.
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Several critical experiences were also centered on the school board. Superintendent B
also shared what he learned from his experiences with the school board. Although most data
about schools boards related to a superintendent already in office, this narrative also had value
for the aspiring superintendent. He revealed an anecdote to illustrate his experience,
The thing that new superintendents always have to realize, is that you could go to a
district where the board will tell you, “We’re looking for somebody to change things up.”
As soon as you do, they’ll go, “Whoa! Wait a second. We don’t want to change.”
Especially if it’s a board that’s very deep in the community, have been board members for
a long time, are heavily invested in the district, or even when they say they want to
change over here. As soon as you start to change something up, “Well, we didn’t mean
that.” It has to be in alignment with the board. That’s really key. I said to the school
board who wanted me to come back to this district, “I’m only really interested if we agree
on these basic ideas.” I’ve found that’s the only way to really be able to do what you
think needs to be done in that school district. Say, “This is the work I want to do. Do you
want to do it too?” to the school board. When they say, “Yes,” you’re gold.
Finally, dissertation Question 2 intended to identify skills that superintendents isolated as
being paramount to their success. In an effort to gather this data from those surveyed,
superintendents were asked to identify important skills that they regarded to be a contribution to
their success in the superintendency. Results from the survey, identified in Table 14, indicated
that several topics of Tacit Knowledge were recommended to be developed in preparation for the
position of Superintendent.

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Table 14
Tacit Knowledge Aspiring Administrators Need to Develop
Recommended Skill
Number to
Identify Skill
Percentage to
Identify Skill
Building and Sustaining Board Relations 39/45 86.7%
Using Interpersonal and Intrapersonal Skills 39/45 86.7%
Managing Organizational Goal Achievement 39/45 86.7%
Building Personal Performance Capacities 29/45 64.4%

Interview data, revealed in Table 15, indicated that here were a total of 8 different topics
that they identified which were associated with skills needed for the position. Several of the
topics in the table do overlap, but the researcher decided to break them apart and include all
topics in an effort to identify specific skills that aspiring superintendents should be cognizant.
The data also illustrated that in order to successfully execute the responsibilities of their
profession, there were 3 skills that all 6 superintendents were in consensus. These three skills are
associated with:
1. Interpersonal Relationship Skills and Building Trust
2. Networking
3. Business Skills: Management, Human Resources, and/or Finance

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Table 15
Skills Interviewees Identified That Are Needed By a Superintendent
Pseudonym
Counseling
and
Listening
Skills
Interpersonal
Relationship
Skills and/or
Building
Trust
Working
with Key
Stakeholders
Problem
Solving
Comm.
Skills Networking
Business Skills:
Management,
Human
Resources,
and/or Finance
Superintendent A X X X
Superintendent B X X X X X
Superintendent C X X X X
Superintendent D X X X X X
Superintendent E X X X X X
Superintendent F X X X X X X

The first of these is Interpersonal Relationship Skills and Building Trust. Superintendent
A stressed, “It’s absolutely all about relationships, and I shared with them that I think
relationships is the power in any organization. If you can’t have relationships, you’re not going
to get the work done, because they won’t work for you.” Furthermore, to illuminate its
significance, Superintendent D expanded by stating,
Interpersonal skills, knowing that you’re dealing with different stakeholder groups, and
that no one particular approach administrative approach works in every situation. I
believe that the quickest and most effective way to build trust is through actions. It’s your
behavior, your actions, you walk the talk, and in the end it’s really your integrity, work
ethic, and ability to relate to others that will bring them on board . . . . This has proven to
be a successful approach for me over the years.
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To corroborate and expand upon Interpersonal Relationship Skills and Building Trust,
Superintendent F affirmed,
I built that trust over the years. I can tell you, it’s fragile. It can be lost at any time. That’s
why you have to guard that. First impressions are so lasting. I tell people that what you
do in those first encounters with your staff, your people, is so important because they
remember it. They put a lot of importance on it. It’s hard to come back from it, if it’s
wrong.
The second skill identified by all six superintendents that aspiring leaders should develop,
was that of Networking. Contrary to those superintendents interviewed, only 68.9% of the survey
respondents believed that networking was a factor in education. To further illuminate its
significance among those interviewed, Superintendent A indicated,
The greatest thing for me was entering that doctoral program, broadened my network,
because it exposed me to people who have contacts throughout the state. What was
interesting was that when I think about the opportunity to become a Superintendent, I
don’t think I could have gotten my foot in the door without the greater network that I was
afforded at USC. Your opportunity to get picked is based on your network. It’s who you
know. If they don’t know you, you’re not going to get picked. It doesn’t matter what your
paper says. Not only it’s not just who you know, but it’s who’s your references. Who are
your letters from? It’s getting in the room, and you don’t get in the room unless you have
a network. I truly believe that.
Furthermore, Superintendent C expanded upon his experiences highlighted by the importance of
networking,
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I think networking’s important. More important is that you do good work and then good
people will be attracted to you. The USC program is great at if you are excellent at what
you do . . . that’s positioning you to be a superintendent through their network. No other
program has a network like USC’s. So, you are in the right program if you ultimately
want to be a superintendent.
When asked about how much of an impact networking had on his career, Superintendent
B asserted,
It’s great for career advancement and jobs. From my perspective, none of that happens
unless you’re doing a good job in the job right in front of you. I use that networking for
that, to do the best job I can where I’m at now . . . . That’s where I’ve met the most
influential people that have guided my career. I rely upon my colleagues all the time,
even though I’ve been a Superintendent for over 12 years now, I still ask people for
advice in my network. I say, “Hey, how would you do this?” I recently met with . . . two
retired superintendents. I saw them a month, no maybe a couples weeks ago. I had both
of them in the room, and said, “Hey, I’ve got this deal going with this one board member.
What do you guys think I need to do here?”
Furthermore, Superintendent F elaborated on the significance of networking by stating,
Networking is truly creating opportunities for my district. By networking with all the
superintendents, I’m fairly connected with every superintendent. When I’m at a
conference, I don’t care if the conference is good or bad . . . . It’s always about meeting
new people and finding out what are they doing. If I can find a district with similar
demographics and I hear, “You know, they’re really turning it around for their Latino
population or their African American or their underrepresented population,” I’m there.
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Like, tell me what you’re doing. Can I come visit? Can I bring teachers? As a
superintendent, I recommend you get two or three of the people you trust, and you’re on
the phone with them or you’re having breakfast with them regularly, because it is an
extremely difficult job . . . . Our learning comes from each other.
Finally, Superintendent D indicated that he has cultivated a vast network of associates.
Not only has he established and maintained relationships built on networking within the field of
education, but he has also fostered an expansive network within his local community. He
supported his experiences by asserting that,
The networking . . . the networking for support has been immense. Networking is a factor
in different organizations like . . . CALSA is one and ACSA is another. Really attending
community events, city sponsored events, county sponsored events, again not getting so
caught up with work where you don’t make time for others, has really allowed me the
opportunity to really confirm what is assumed common knowledge, that education is a
small community. You really get to see the smallness of our community, because so
many people know just about everybody, and so those networks, again, help reinforce the
strength of your support base in many ways.
Next, while still within the realm of networking, respondents surveyed and those
interviewed were asked about the existence of a Good Ol’ Boy Network. Seventy-eight percent
of the survey respondents indicated that they believed a Good Ol’ Boy Network still exists in the
field of education. In comparison to those superintendents interviewed, only 50% believed that
one existed.
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Furthermore, superintendents interviewed were asked if they were aware that one existed
and what the difference was between it and networking. In an attempt to clarify the difference
between the two, Superintendent E best described it as,
With the networking you’re really building on your authentic reputation, good reputation,
and you’re able to build networks of people that truly believe in the dignity and integrity
of the profession, and who develop trusting and lasting relationships with, versus the
good old boys’ network with no matter what you do, it seems, and more so when you do
things that you shouldn’t be, it’s as though they come to your rescue to protect you, and
not the integrity of the profession.
There were a wide range of responses, with experiences from one extreme to the other.
Superintendent C stated, “No, I haven’t seen it.” Contrary to his experience, Superintendent E
declared, “Oh yes, absolutely.”
Then, a response was given by Superintendent B that was more temperate. He indicated
that he had seen the effects of a Good Ol’ Boy Network in the past, but now in the age of
culpability, it is not good business. He summarized his experiences with Good Ol’ Boy
Networks when he replied,
You know, it’s interesting. Yeah, I would have to say twenty years ago, yes. I think now
the stakes are so dang high . . . with accountability. I’m not promoting people that aren’t
going to just hit a home run. You want the best qualified person for that position;
whoever that person is. The stakes are too high. We sit in this room in cabinet meetings
and I’ve got a really high quality group of senior leaders, and I can’t imagine anyone of
them not being in the room, just because they’re all so highly skilled.
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Lastly, the third skill area identified by all 6 superintendents was the importance of
possessing and using Business Skills: Management, Human Resources, and/or Finance. To
validate these findings Superintendent C disclosed,
As a Chief Business Officer, learning just the day to day operations of how a district
works, I think was very beneficial for me, going through . . . construction program. We
had bond program. So, going through construction, going through different legal matters
helped kind of round it out.
In addition, Superintendent F stated,
I also think my HR skills, seven years at HR, you learn to not only set goals and
implement them, but you also are dealing with very challenging situations. In those
challenging situations, which for me included layoffs three years in a row, terminations,
etc., you really learn to dig deep and to set your principles of what you believe in and
what you value, because you can’t take it personally. You also learn that it’s something
greater than yourself that you are developing and you’re a part of. I think all of those
things enabled me to move into the superintendent role.
Superintendent D was asked, “Had you had a background in business?” and responded by
disclosing,
I didn’t. It was a very unusual path that I traveled. I was placed in that position to oversee
that department with a limited knowledgeable, but really good directors underneath me
that knew it. I just managed the directors and they managed their roles. From that I
learned on the job really everything I needed to know that prepared me to be a
superintendent. When I go into meetings now . . . I just had one yesterday, we’re talking
about refinancing or restructuring debt, I know the questions to ask. I’m not going in
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there and relying on somebody else. I know it. That’s huge. That’s been huge for me.
Those are the things that as a director under executive services, I learned so much in what
a Superintendent does, the relationship with the board, and how a district office functions
completely different than a school site. That was powerful for me. Then as assistant
superintendent of business I learned the whole business side of the house: everything
from maintenance, transportation, purchasing, the finance, debt management.
Research Question 3
What are the essential components that must be included in the development of a
prototype for superintendent preparation programs?
Data used to answer research question 3. The data from the surveys and interviews will
now be identified that answered the third question in the study. Of the superintendents who were
interviewed, five out of six had their doctorates and the remaining superintendent had a master’s
degree. They were asked if their university preparation programs adequately prepared them for
their position as superintendent. Most did not believe that a university degree/preparation
program adequately prepared them to be a superintendent. Data indicated that four out of six, or
67% of those interviewed, determined that their university degree/preparation programs did not
prepare them for the position of superintendent. The two superintendents that did feel as though
their university program adequately prepared them, went to the same university. Figure 12
illustrates their responses to this topic.

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Figure 12. Percentage of superintendents interviewed who determined that their university
program adequately prepared them for the position of superintendent

When discussing this topic, Superintendent C stated,
Yeah, no. I don’t think that it prepared me at all for it. I think it helped me . . . It looks
good on paper and I got to meet a lot of great people, but there’s nothing covered in the
class that would prepare you for being a superintendent. That’s more on-the-job training.
No. It’s not the fault of the program. It’s just you can’t take a . . . Taking a class in
education is different than going to work every day in education. Right? So, there’s no
correlation to it. If anything, it provided me with the opportunity to meet people working
in other districts and hear a little bit about what they did. So, it did give me kind of a
framework of what’s going on in other school districts. Indirectly, I think that could’ve
helped. It didn’t help me at all on the day to day operations of my job.
Several other superintendents were in agreement with Superintendent C. Superintendent
F asserted, “I think what I learned, I learned on the job.” In addition, Superintendent E
33.3%
66.7%
Yes No
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maintained, “I would say that no preparation would adequately prepare you until, as you know,
until you hit the ground running on the job learning.” Lastly, Superintendent D indicated, “I
would say that the university program did a wonderful job in exposing me to various aspects of
the field of education. The job of superintendent was really gained through just experience . . . on
the job training.”
Furthermore, those interviewed were asked to elaborate and/or give specific examples of
why their university preparation program did not prepare them and Superintendent E said, “If I
said what was missing for a superintendent . . . there was a lack of first-hand experience relative
to the job of superintendent. It was really geared to maybe an entry level type position. It didn’t
target superintendents.” In stark contrast to these four superintendents, Superintendent B replied
with,
It was the best program I’ve ever been in . . . in anything. Because of its emphasis of
combining theory with practice. There was a professor there who is not there anymore,
who was on my committee, who was a full blown research guy, who was just fantastic as
far as me being able to ask non-practical, more theory related questions to. I had people,
incredible former superintendents as professors who knew the reality. That was great.
What was really great, was I had both sitting sups and retired sups as professors. I could
ask questions.
When asked if it was worthwhile to get your doctorate, Superintendent B continued by
declaring, “I got every penny I ever paid in that program back in my first superintendency
contract.”
As indicated, the majority of the respondents who were interviewed, did not believe that
their university preparation programs adequately prepared them for their job as a superintendent.
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Therefore, in order to more thoroughly answer question three of this dissertation, the positive
characteristics of their programs will be identified as well as other missing factors that they
recommended for future programs.
In reference to preparation programs, when asked to identify the specific courses that best
prepared them for their position as superintendent, survey respondents noted Leadership,
Communications, and Curriculum and Instruction as their top three courses. Figure 13 illustrates
the data from the survey and the respondents’ reaction to 9 different university courses.

Figure 13. Most important university courses for building capacity as a superintendent

When it came respondents who were interviewed and their feedback on the best
university coursework that prepared them for the superintendency, Superintendent B indicated,
“This would be the Leadership class.”
11%
31%
43%
26%
26%
14%
86%
21%
43%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%
Finance
School Law
Curriculum & Instruction
Human Resources
Politics
Collective Bargaining
Leadership
Community Relations
Communicattions
Name of Course
Percentage of Survey Respondents to Identify Course
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In addition, he identified a second class, Learning, because it was where he learned about
gap analysis. Furthermore, he stated that the gap analysis material, “Changed how I looked at
everything I did . . . how I do everything.”
Furthermore, Superintendent A identified courses dealing with Learning, Diversity, and
the Superintendency, as most influential.
Since many superintendents indicated that their university program did not adequately
prepare them for the superintendency, they were also asked to suggest other courses, trainings, or
programs should be implemented in preparation for the superintendency. Superintendent E
suggested,
Probably a course on really working in depth with the board, a course focused on politics
surrounding the superintendency, and if there were a book, per se, that really captures
case studies in a very articulated way . . . it would have been interesting for me.
In addition to university classes, other components such as trainings offered by
professional organizations were suggested for aspiring superintendents. The two professional
organizations that were made reference to were:
1. Association of California School Administrators (ACSA)
2. Fiscal Crisis Management Assistance Team (FCMAT)
The majority of superintendents have taken classes through ASCA. The ACSA trainings
that were specifically identified by the superintendents who were interviewed included:
1. Academy in Pupil Services
2. Personnel Institute/Human Resources
3. School Business
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4. Mentorship Programs
5. New Superintendent Trainings
Superintendent F attended ACSA’s Mentorship program and Superintendent B said, “For
leadership, I did a ton of stuff through ACSA.” Superintendent D spoke about the value of
ACSA trainings when he stated,
I did all the ACSA classes and they are extremely valuable. It’s great for networking! So,
yes. I think those are all very good. I went to the New Superintendent trainings. I went for
two years to two different classes on School Business that were year-long courses. That
was really impactful.
Finally, when asked about the ACSA trainings that helped to build his capacity as a
superintendent, Superintendent E recalled,
I’ve taken the ACSA Academy in Pupil Services. Oh, and the one in Human Resources. I
would recommend them, but it’s very fast paced. It’s one weekend a month through the
entire year. It’s a seven month program. It’s very intense, a lot of information. It’s a
crash course. It’s better than not taking it, but it could be done in a more effective way.
I’ve taken that.
In addition to ACSA, Superintendent C took a CBO certification program through
FCMAT. He explained,
This is a one-year program that was once a month in Sacramento, and it was and it still is
one of the best School Business training programs. So, I took that. In part of that
program, they pair you with a mentor who’s a current CBO [Chief Business Officer] in a
district. I thought that was helpful. That helped prepare me a little bit, but even that is
very different than the real job.
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Superintendent B attended trainings through both ACSA and CASBO. His comments in
reference to those trainings were,
I would say CASBO’s great! Their CBO Boot Camp I went to was excellent. That’s
probably the best finance I’ve learned, going to that. I also went to the Personnel Institute
through ACSA, to get to know the California. Those were all good.
The last topic that was explored, which addresses preparation programs focuses on
internships. According to the data gathered from the surveys, forty-two out of forty-five
respondents did not have internships included in their university preparation programs.
However, thirty-three of them indicated that including an internship, would be beneficial to an
aspiring administrator. Figures 14 and 15 provide a graphic representation of this data.

Figure 14. Percentage of survey respondents who had an internship in their university
preparation programs

6.7%
93.3%
Yes No
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Figure 15. Percentage of survey respondents who believe internships in university preparation
programs would be beneficial to aspiring superintendents

In addition, when those superintendents who were interviewed discussed the topic of
internships, none of them had actively participated in an internship that was part of their
university preparation program for the superintendency. Furthermore, 1 out of 5 indicated that
he was in favor of internships. Superintendent F said, “I think that there’s a lot of power in
internships, but I think there’s more power in collaboration.” Lastly, when discussing the
logistics of internships, Superintendent E declared,
Well, I’m always in favor of mentoring. If that involves coming alongside a
superintendent and observing . . . is important. I’m not sure about serving as an intern.
Giving my responsibilities over to someone to do my responsibilities. I wouldn’t be in
favor of that, but I am in favor of providing mentorship.
73.3 %
26.7 %
Yes No
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Additional advice for aspiring superintendents. The last section of finding includes
qualitative data from the superintendents who were interviewed. It incorporates words of advice
for the aspiring administrators as they travel on their own career path towards the
superintendency. All three superintendents involved in this section focus on doing the best job an
individual can do in their current position. This focused effort will help to build their capacity
and be successful in any position along their career path. First, Superintendent B explained what
worked best for him as he traveled along his career path by sharing, “What I tried to do was A+
on everything right in front of me.”
Superintendent C advised,
So, what you really need to do is focus on what you’re doing today and make sure you’re
doing it very well. If you’re doing it very well for two or more years, you’re ready to get
a promotion in education. When I was an assistant principal, my focus was on doing a
good job in being a principal. When I was a principal, my focus was doing a good job and
going for the district office. That’s the way you have to play the game. If the ultimately
goal is superintendency, there’s a logical path to get there, and you got to excel at each
level.
Finally, Superintendent F encouraged aspiring administrators to,
Enjoy the road. Don’t try to move too fast. I talk to young people all the time and they’re
like, “I want to be superintendent.” I’m like, “Hey, slow down and enjoy where you’re at
today, because you’re interviewing every day. Every day, you’re building who you are,
what are your core values, what do you believe.” Honestly, to me, climbers are not
attractive in any way. I do my best to avoid hiring them and bringing them into the
organization, because I want people that want to be in the present; that want to impact
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kids’ lives and adults’ lives with the skillset that they have; and they want to learn to lead
themselves and lead others.
Summary
Reflection on Findings
The first question in this dissertation was the driving force behind my research. After
analyzing all of the data that has been gathered, it’s obvious that the most direct career paths to
the position of Superintendents of Schools were from the position of Teacher → Superintendent
or from a position at the Central Office → Superintendent. However, this only occurred 2.3% of
the time. And although they are technically the most direct routes to the superintendency, they
are not the conduits that are most beneficial to students, school districts, and/or the
superintendent who travels them.
A person traveling on one of these pathways does not really amass professional equity or
understand the big picture in education and therefore is striving for the superintendency for all of
the wrong reasons. They aspire for their own personal gain. Therefore, it’s imperative for an
individual to ask themselves, “What is the best career path for me?” The researcher supported a
statement presented by Superintendent E when he suggested,
To serve, to serve others, to make a difference. It wasn’t for the title, it wasn’t for the
money, not the prestige. It’s really the ability to make a difference. Really, my motto, or
my take on this is that any administrative position, especially this one, given the attention
it receives . . . . It’s not a position of power or authority . . . it’s a position of
responsibility.
The evidence and knowledge gained from this dissertation that is most worthwhile and
beneficial to aspiring administrators and superintendents pertains not only to the pathways that
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lead to the superintendency, but also simultaneously build an individual’s capacity to be
successful in the position of superintendent. What the researcher had originally thought of to be
the secondary focus of this research, specifically Question 2 and the data gathered to support it,
has turned out to be the most significant. The evidence has enabled a theme to emerge: The
Superintendency is not a destination, but a culmination of knowledge and experiences amassed
during the journey.
It’s the critical experiences, positions held, and skills developed along the way that best
prepare an individual for the performance of their duties as a superintendent. Among those
topics, the most significant positions that notably appeared among superintendents who were
respondents to the survey as well as among those who were interviewed, were the positions of
Principal, and Assistant Superintendent. In addition the most prominent experiences that were
beneficial to both groups were building networks and working together with a mentor who
provided guidance and advice. Furthermore, it would be advantageous for aspiring
superintendents to concentrate on acquiring skills related to the development of Interpersonal
Relationships and Building Trust.
The researcher’s reaction to the findings related to the essential components in the
development of a preparation programs for superintendent can be summed up in one word:
disappointing. The researcher came to this conclusion because very little information was newly
discovered. The researcher felt that the reason why it turned out as it did, was because the
superintendents who participated in this study had little or no knowledge about specific doctoral
programs that currently exist. Speaking from their own experiences, they were able to
recommend specific coursework that they deemed valuable. However, an overwhelming
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majority of the superintendents indicated that most knowledge and skills required to be a
successful superintendent were obtained on-the-job and not in a university doctoral program.
In addition, the researcher was surprised to discover that the majority of the survey
respondents favored internships, but those interviewed were opposed to them. In the research
from the Literature Review in Chapter 2 of this dissertation, evidence was shared indicating that
Harvard University conducted internships as part of their doctoral degree program and that they
were deemed to be a valuable factor in the development of their doctoral candidates. The
researcher postulated that the opposition to internships in this study exists because of the
logistical nightmare perceived to be involved in order to conduct them. Additionally,
confidentiality surrounding sensitive topics was also a point of concern for superintendents.
All superintendents interviewed strongly recommended taking numerous trainings
through ACSA, in addition to earning a university doctoral degree. Although there was one
superintendent from the interviews who had not received her doctorate, based on superintendent
responses during interviews, the researcher recognizes it to be a very influential factor during a
job search. Furthermore, the researcher was in total agreement with Superintendent B, who
recommended,
I tell people all the time, get a doctorate. It’s interesting, because there will be
superintendents, there may even be more in the future, that don’t have doctorates because
everyone’s retiring and there won’t be as many candidates. I believe the respect that you
get accorded in any community that you would lead as a result of having a doctorate is
dramatically different than without one.
Now that all of the findings from the research have been reported in this chapter, the
dissertation will move into the final chapter. In Chapter 5, the researcher will focus on a
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Discussion of the Findings. This examination will start with a summary and then move onto an
analysis that will compare and contrast the data from the Literature Review with the Findings
that were recently revealed in this chapter. Finally, the researcher will recommend suggestions
for the implementation of professional practice, which will guide aspiring superintendents with
strategies that will assists them in the creation of their own career paths to the superintendency.

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CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
Background and Purpose of the Study
The primary aim of this study was to identify, gather, and analyze relevant, data-driven
research, which may be utilized by aspiring superintendents as they progress through their own
career paths to the position of Superintendent of Schools. This investigation was threefold and
focused on the researcher surveying and interviewing sitting superintendents in order to elicit
personal histories, opinions, and recommendations, as they related to their own career pathways.
During this process, the researcher was able to ascertain specific, critical experiences from
superintendents, which they deemed to be impactful to the performance of their duties. Lastly,
the researchers compared the recommendations of current superintendents with the components
of highly notable superintendent preparation programs that have proven to be dynamic and
efficacious. This was done in order to guide others with a desire to obtain their doctorate and/or
receive addition training, which will ultimately best prepare them for the position of
Superintendent of Schools.
Research Questions
1. What is the most direct career path to the position of Superintendents of Schools?
2. What critical experiences, positions, or skills did superintendents value, which best
prepared them for the performance of their duties as a superintendent?
3. What are the essential components that must be included in the development of a
prototype for superintendent preparation programs?
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Summary of Findings
In an effort to objectively evaluate the results of this dissertation, the researcher
compared Findings from Chapter 4 of this study with those previously mentioned in the
Literature Review, from Chapter 2. A large percentage of the data presented in the Literature
Review relied on empirical evidence gathered by the AASA, with the use of the National
Superintendent Survey, which has been customarily conducted every ten years to all
superintendents in the United States.
The researcher modeled the creation and administration of the survey used in this study
after the National Superintendent Survey, but limited questions to those that specifically
pertained to superintendents’ career paths. Qualitative research questions posed to
superintendents during interviews were also modeled after topics which appeared in the National
Superintendent Surveys.
Research Question 1
What is the most direct career path to the position of superintendents of schools?
As revealed in Chapter 4’s findings, the most direct career paths to the position of
Superintendents of Schools were from the position of Teacher → Superintendent or from a
position at the Central Office → Superintendent. However, this only occurred 2.3% of the time.
Although they are technically the most direct routes to the superintendency, they are not the
conduits that are most beneficial to students, school districts. So then, a more beneficial question
might be, “What direct route is the most common career path to the superintendency, which at
the same time also effectively develops a candidate’s professional capacity for the position?”
According to the aforementioned research from the Literature Review, Jordan (2008)
indicated that 57.0% of the respondents in his research served as Teacher → Principal → Central
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Office → Superintendent. Additionally, Glass et al. (2001), Hayes (2002), Glass and
Franceschini (2007), and Kowalski, McCord et al. (2011), also indicated that the traditional
career path of a superintendent involved ascending through a school district’s structural
hierarchy from classroom teacher to building principal to an assistant superintendent at the
district office and eventually moving into the superintendency. To this point, Kowalski, McCord
et al.’s (2011) data indicated that 48.5% of the superintendents in their study progressed utilizing
this pathway.
In comparison, the results of this study observed similar conclusions based on the
identical positions in route to the superintendency. In contrast however, dissertation data
identified an increase of 21.9% of superintendents, who followed the same Teacher → Principal
→ Central Office → Superintendent career path. This resulted in a total of 70.4% of the
superintendents responding to the survey, who moved from Teacher → Principal → Central
Office → Superintendent. Furthermore, when the position of Assistant Principal was deleted
from the career paths of those superintendents who were interviewed, 67%, or four out of six,
progressed via the career path of Teacher → Principal → Central Office → Superintendent. The
empirical evidence that is displayed in Table 16 is a Comparison of Literature Review Data to
Dissertation Data: Most Common Career Paths of Superintendents and it established that as time
forged ahead, an increasingly higher percentage of superintendents took this route.
The researcher believes that this phenomenon has occurred because as public education
has continued to evolve, unified school districts in Southern California have merged, creating
larger districts and fewer superintendents. Thus, when a candidate does ascend to the position of
superintendent, he/she should have the expertise and know-how associated with an individual
who has served in these pivotal roles.
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Table 16
Comparison of Literature Review Data to Dissertation Data: Most Common Career Paths of
Superintendents
Source of Data Career Path
Percentage of
Superintendents to
Follow Path
Literature Review:
Jordan (2008)
Teacher → Principal → Central Office →
Superintendent
57.0%
Literature Review:
Kowalski, McCord et al.
(2011)
Teacher → Principal → Central Office →
Superintendent
48.5%
Dissertation Interviews
(2015)
Teacher → Principal → Central Office →
Superintendent
67%
Dissertation Survey
(2015)
Teacher → Principal → Central Office →
Superintendent
70.4%

Ultimately, functioning in these positions enables aspiring administrators to acquire the
wisdom and skill necessary to develop their own professional equity and resulting in their
capacity to effectively execute their duties/responsibilities. Without these first-hand experiences
acquired in these roles, a superintendent would be limiting their breadth of knowledge and
therefore not be as effective as someone else who has served in these positions. During the
discussion related to the critical positions in research question 2, additional discussion will
address several of these roles, in detail.

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Research Question 2
What critical experiences, positions, or skills did superintendents value, which best
prepared them for the performance of their duties as a superintendent?
Critical experiences.
Receiving the guidance of a mentor. Based on the findings of this study, mentors served
as advocates who provided guidance associated with the various roles executed by veteran
superintendents and that embraced the following themes:
1. How to Lead
2. How to Implement Change in an Organization
3. How to Thoroughly Analyzing Issues as Opposed to Making Impulsive Decisions
4. How to Deal With and Navigating Through Political Issues
5. How to Manage and Work with a School Board
In accordance with Glass and Franceschini (2007), 60.8% of superintendents in their
study received some type of mentoring. As indicated in Table 17, 73.3%, or 33 out of 45, of the
survey respondents in this study had a superintendent that served as a mentor to them and 95.6%
of this group also recommended that aspiring superintendents receive the guidance of a mentor.
Furthermore, all superintendents, or six out of six, who participated in the interviews for this
study, received mentoring from one or more superintendents as well.
Table 17 illustrates that with the passage of time, there has been an increased percentage
of administrators who received the assistance and support of a mentor. The researcher credits
this trend to advancements that have been made in technology. To this point, it should be noted
that it has become commonplace for aspiring superintendents to more readily elicit the advice of
a mentor via the internet and/or email. In addition, there are more opportunities to meet people
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and develop networks at conferences or ACSA and university programs. Mentors have become
more a dominant factor in the development of an individual’s capacity to be a superintendent.
Therefore, there is an even greater need for aspiring candidates to incorporate the guidance and
assistance of mentors into their own career paths.

Table 17
Comparison of Literature Review Data to Dissertation Data: Percentages of Superintendents to
Receive Mentoring
Source of Data
Percentage of Respondents to
Receive Mentoring
Glass and Franceschini (2007) 60.8%
Dissertation Survey Respondents (2015) 73.3%
Dissertation Interview Participants (2015) 100%

Critical positions. Research data from the Literature Review conducted by Kowalski,
McCord et al. (2011) revealed that that there were three administrative positions that
superintendents believed to be most critical before arriving at their position as chief school
administrator. These were the roles of Principal, District Level Director/Coordinator, and
Assistant Superintendent.
In comparison to the previously completed studies, the evidence in this study revealed
that current superintendents also valued skills developed in three critical positions that a potential
candidate for superintendent should incorporate into their career path. Findings uncovered that
sitting superintendents believed that aspiring superintendents should strive to secure and then
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master the skills/responsibilities affiliated with being a teacher, a principal, and an
assistant/associate superintendent. Table 18 illustrates the lists linked with each study.

Table 18
Comparison of Literature Review Data to Dissertation Data: Position(s) Believed to Build
Capacity before Becoming Superintendent
Kowalski, McCord et al. (2011) Raymond (2015)
Principal Teacher
District Level Director / Coordinator Principal
Assistant/Associate/Deputy Superintendent Assistant/Associate Superintendent

The researcher noted that even though each study provided a list of three critical positions
to experience, the positions were not identical. Both investigations listed the positions of
Principal and Assistant/Associate Superintendent, but they differ in the remaining positions.
Dissertation data revealed that the opinions of present superintendents acknowledged that the
positions of District Level Director/Coordinator still exist, but they were not as prevalent. The
dissertation’s findings also indicated that currently superintendents valued the role/position of a
Teacher as more critical to their success.
Teacher. Gates et al. (2003) and Glass et al. (2001) maintain that 90% of superintendents
stated that they were classroom teachers. As identified in Table 19 of this study, respondents
also revealed that they possessed a high percentage, 83% and 87% respectively, who served in
the role of teacher. When comparing the previous studies with the current one, data indicated
that these rates have fallen slightly, which possible could be explained by an influx of
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superintendents who had a first career in another profession, before entering the field of
education. Within the group of superintendents who were interviewed for this study, two of six,
or 33%, came to education after first experiencing a career in another field and one did not ever
work as a teacher.

Table 19
Comparison of Literature Review Data to Dissertation Data: Percentage of Superintendents to
Serve in the Position of Classroom Teacher
Data Source
Percentage to Serve in the
Position of Classroom Teacher
Glass, Björk, and Brunner (2001) 90%
Gates et al. (2003) 90%
Interview (2015) 83%
Survey (2015) 87%

Principal. Findings reveal by Jordan’s (2008) revealed 65.5% of superintendents were
actually principals. In comparison, as indicated in Table 20, this study showed that 76% of
survey respondents and 67% of superintendents interviewed were a principal at one point in their
career.

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Table 20
Comparison of Literature Review Data to Dissertation Data: Percentage of Superintendents to
Serve in the Position of Principal
Data Source Percentage to Serve in the Position of Principal
Jordan (2008) 65.5%
Survey 76.0%
Interview 67.0%

The researcher noted that there is a slight increase in the percentages, but also felt
necessary to point out that five out of six superintendents interviewed identified the position of
Principal to be one that helped them develop their own individual capacity and how to
effectively run an organization. A skills that superintendents also must utilize.
Assistant superintendent. Research conducted by Glass and Franceschini (2007)
indicated that the most frequently held position immediately before an individual became a
superintendent was that of the Principal (46.7%). However, data collected in this study
indicated that only 2.2% of principals moved directly into a superintendency. Currently,
research indicates that 88.9% of candidates move into the superintendency from the position of
Assistant/Associate/Deputy Superintendent. Table 21 provides a comparison/breakdown
between the two studies.

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Table 21
Comparison of Literature Review Data to Dissertation Data: Last Position before Becoming a
Superintendent
Title of Position
Glass and Franceschini
(2007)
Raymond
(2015)
Assistant/Associate/Deputy Superintendent 37.0% 88.9%
Principal 46.7% 2.2%

Data clearly shows that in the 2006 study listed in Table 21, 37% of the superintendents
in Glass and Franceschini’s (2007) study served in the capacity of an assistant superintendent
immediately before becoming a superintendent. However, that means that 63% of the
superintendents skipped over that position and never served in the capacity of an Assistant
Superintendent, as opposed to only 11.1% of the responding superintendents, who participated in
this study’s survey.
The researcher believes that this difference can be attributed to the fact that over time,
numerous school districts in Southern California have unified. This created larger districts with
an expanded amount of upper administrative positions, such as specialized assistant
superintendents and a fewer number of superintendent positions. In addition, the researcher also
considered that by serving in the role of Assistant Superintendent, he/she has the opportunity to
work side by side with the superintendent and witness how they address their challenges and
responsibilities. Furthermore, by doing so, an Assistant Superintendent has an increased
likelihood to acquire and improve upon skills that build their capacity, thus enabling him/her to
be better equipped and groomed for the position of superintendent.
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Assistant principal. Although the position of assistant principal was not statistically
included as one of the positions listed in the most frequent career path, data from the Literature
Review, conducted by Glass and Franceschini (2007), and Kowalski, McCord et al. (2011)
indicated that the majority of administrators entered the school administrative ranks via an
Assistant Principal position. Previous trends established by the Nation Superintendent Survey,
indicated that they entered by way of the position of Principal. Kowalski, McCord et al.’s (2011)
research from the 2010 Nation Superintendent Survey, revealed that 38.2% of superintendents’
first administrative position was in the role of assistant principal.
In contrast, the survey and interview data in this study indicated that the majority of
superintendents, 55.6% and 66.7% respectively, served in their first administrative position as an
Assistant Principal. Note the comparison of the two studies in Table 22.

Table 22
Comparison of Literature Review Data to Dissertation Data: Percentage of Superintendents
Who Were Assistant Principals
Data Source
Percentage to Serve in the Position
of Assistant Principal
Glass and Franceschini (2007), Kowalski, McCord et al.
(2011)
38.2%
Survey (2015) 55.6%
Interview (2015) 66.7%

These differences indicated that as time has evolved, the position of Assistant Principal
has become a more prevalent position. The researcher attributed this phenomenon to the fact that
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there has been an increase in federal, state, and local mandates, which have required an increase
in the amount of administrative work. The responsibilities have become so voluminous that all
tasks cannot be completed by one principal in a large school. Therefore, for larger unified
districts in Southern California, the career path of superintendents has gradually incorporated the
initial administrative position of Assistant Principal.
Critical skills. Glass et al. (2001) revealed that problem solving and networking have a
major impact on a candidate’s advancement to the position of superintendent. Furthermore, data
from Nestor-Baker and Hoy (2001) identified the top four categories of Tacit Knowledge that
aspiring superintendents develop during their career path. The four categories were incorporated
into one of the questions in the quantitative survey and 86.7% of the respondents recognized
three of the four areas of Tacit Knowledge that had previously been identified by Nestor-Baker
and Hoy (2001).
The three areas of Tacit Knowledge identified by survey respondents were:
1. Building and Sustaining Board Relations
2. Using Interpersonal and Intrapersonal Skills
3. Managing Organizational Goal Achievement
In addition, the qualitative data from the interviews illustrated that in order to
successfully execute the responsibilities of their profession, superintendents identified three
critical skills that aspiring administrators should develop. These three skills were:
1. Interpersonal Relationship Skills and Building Trust
2. Networking
3. Business Skills: Management, Human Resources, and/or Finance
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134
The researcher valued the interviewed data pertaining to critical skills more than the
survey data because the responses during the interviews were extricated from subjective
conversations. The interviewees actually identified critical skills on their own, with no
prompting. Whereas, the survey provided feedback on four predetermined topics. Based on the
accumulation of data, the researcher concurred with the findings and would encourage aspiring
superintendents to develop these skills.
Research Question 3
What are the essential components that must be included in the development of a
prototype for superintendent preparation programs?
The Literature Review’s most compelling research on this topic was conducted by
Tripses et al. (2013) and they recommended that college and university preparation programs
offer germane and thought-provoking learning opportunities. In addition, they recommended that
preparation programs include demanding internships and coursework that give aspiring
administrators numerous opportunities to apply principles and concepts to real world educational
dilemmas (Tripses et al., 2013).
In this study, the superintendents who were interviewed indicated that 93.3% of them did
not participate in an internship program during their graduate work. However, 73.3% of survey
respondents were of the opinion that an internship that was incorporated into a graduate degree
program would be beneficial.
Furthermore, all 51 superintendents in this study, survey respondents and interviewees,
were of the opinion that particular classes dealing with specialized topics were valuable.
Furthermore, two-thirds of the superintendents interviewed believed that their preparation
program was beneficial, but that no single university preparation program really prepared them
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135
for the position of superintendent. The research also showed that the large majority of skills
needed for the superintendency were not acquired in university classes, but in fact developed
along the way or actually once in the position. In contrast to university coursework, it should be
noted that superintendents who were interviewed gained a valuable amount of knowledge and
skills, for example which focused on Business Management, Human Relations, and Leadership
as a Superintendent from classes or courses provided by ACSA.
Therefore, based on all data gather in this dissertation, the researcher recommends that in
order to ascend to the position of superintendent, a candidate in Southern California who aspires
to build his/her capacity and become an effective superintendent, should earn a doctoral degree
at an accredited university and take numerous training classes through ACSA.
Implications for Practice
This study contributes to the broad base of knowledge, theory and practice previously
conducted in the area of educational administration. It accomplished this tasks by merging data
from a comprehensive mass of empirical studies previously conducted with the mixed-methods,
quantitative and qualitative evidence from this study. Furthermore, the study also employed this
newly gained knowledge and presented it a different way. Essentially, this study became a
practical “How-to Guide” on becoming a superintendent. With this in mind, findings are
intended to inform and guide aspiring administrators who are planning a career as a
superintendent. Therefore, an individual wanting to take advantage of this research should
follow several suggestions in order to build their capacity and confidence:
1. Accumulate a vast and varied amount of knowledge and experience by becoming a
classroom teacher, a principal and an assistant superintendent. As Superintendent C
expressed, “What you really need to do is focus on what you’re doing today and make
THE CAREER PATHS OF SUPERINTENDENTS

136
sure you’re doing it very well. If you’re doing it very well for two or more years,
you’re ready to get a promotion in education.”
2. Enlist the guidance and assistance of mentors.
3. Develop an organized system for problem solving.
4. Enroll in a university doctoral degree program.
5. Network, network, network. Develop your professional network by joining
administrative organizations and develop relationships with peers at work, through a
university program, and at conferences and trainings.
6. Develop interpersonal relationship skills.
7. Build professional equity by taking training classes through ACSA.
Although the primary focus of the study was dedicated to guiding aspiring
superintendents, the research also calls for reform at the university level. If superintendents in
Southern California find value in the courses offered by ACSA, then universities should create
programs for aspiring superintendents that include similar courses with the intent to provide
practical application of the skills taught.
Limitations
Strengths
The research in this dissertation compiled data from 51 different superintendents, 45
surveyed and 6 interviewed, in six Southern California counties. The findings revealed that
demographical data pertaining to superintendents has evolved since the National Superintendent
Survey last conducted in 2010. It utilized existing research and combined it with this new study,
ultimately creating an informative, practical guide for aspiring superintendents.
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137
Weaknesses
The data gathered to answer Research Question 3 was weak and inconclusive. The reason
that this dilemma existed was two-fold:
1. Because sitting superintendents did not own a wealth of concrete data directly tied to
the quality of university doctoral programs. Most referred to specific classes that they
believed to be impactful in reference to the performance of their duties.
2. The researcher should have developed better questions associated with university
doctoral degree programs.
Future Research
As a result of the identified weakness associated with Research Question 3, the
investigator of this dissertation recommends that future research focus on identifying a
systematic method to evaluate educational doctoral programs nationwide. Included in this
research, would be a way to identify:
1. What superintendents want/need in a doctoral program, which specifically focuses on
the preparation of superintendents?
2. What evaluations tools will be used to assess university doctoral degree programs?
3. How to incorporate internships into an educational doctoral program that focuses on
the preparation of superintendents?
This study identified the most direct and most common career paths to the
superintendency. However, the researcher also deliberates about other ways to evaluate career
paths of superintendents. Therefore, the researcher would encourage future research to explore
the following topic, “What evaluation tools if any could be used to assess which career path is
most effective?”
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138
Conclusion
Kowalski (2005) and Glass et al. (2001) revealed that once in office, first-time
superintendents usually realize that their new position is entirely divergent from former
administrative ranks that they have occupied. In addition, Farley-Ripple et al.’s (2012) research
indicated that there was insufficient exploration of the examination of the professional career
trajectories of superintendents. Therefore, the researcher initiated this investigative dissertation,
with an objective to explore the career paths of superintendents.
After conducting this study, findings revealed that the most direct career paths, although
most expedient, were not necessary the most beneficial to students, school districts, and/or the
superintendent who traveled them. Furthermore, the researcher determined that an individual
who reaches the superintendency should ideally do so as a result of an accumulation of
knowledge and experiences amassed throughout their career. As a result of this study, it is
recommended that as an aspiring superintendent travels along his/her career path, that he/she
receive the guidance and assistance of mentors, focus on developing personal and professional
networks, and a earn a doctoral degree from a reputable university. Furthermore, the graduate
program they enroll in should focus specifically on a superintendent preparation program that
incorporates an internship and coursework modeled after duties and skills performed by
superintendents on a daily basis.
In closing, the findings in this dissertation support a declaration made by Glass et al.
(2001), who determined that, “Preparing the superintendents of tomorrow should become a much
higher priority for states, higher education institutions and the profession itself” (p. viii).
Therefore, aspiring superintendents need to plan their career paths very judiciously and with the
assistance of the findings from this dissertation.
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139
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APPENDIX A
COVER LETTER EMAILED TO SUPERINTENDENTS INTRODUCING
THE ONLINE SURVEY

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APPENDIX B
ONLINE SURVEY

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APPENDIX C
CONSENT FORM

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APPENDIX D
INTERVIEW PROTOCOL

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APPENDIX E
RESEARCH AND INTERVIEW QUESTIONS TABLE

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Abstract (if available)

Abstract Farley-Ripple, Raffel, and Welch’s research indicated that up to the present time, there has been insufficient exploration of the examination of the professional career trajectories of superintendents. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to survey and interview successful superintendents in order to elicit personal histories, opinions, and recommendations related to their own career pathways. The population of this study was comprised of 51 superintendents who were employed by unified school districts in six Southern California counties. The quantitative data were collected via an online survey and qualitative data were a result of personal interviews. The investigation, analysis, and examination of this study was intended to inform prospective administrators in the field of educational leadership of the most effective career paths to the superintendency. As these aspiring superintendents travel through their careers towards the fulfillment and attainment of this role, they will be able to apply the knowledge gained in this dissertation to create their own career paths and preparation plans. As a result of the findings in this study, their plans will incorporate highly effective components which will prepare them to be a successful superintendent.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Raymond, James William (author)

Core Title Pivotal positions, critical experiences, and preparation programs in the career paths of superintendents

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/12/2016

Defense Date 03/14/2016

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag career paths,OAI-PMH Harvest,school administrators,superintendents

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Advisor Castruita, Rudy (committee chair), Garcia, Pedro E. (committee member), Richter, Lena (committee member)

Creator Email jimraymond@sbcglobal.net,jwraymon@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-226359

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