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The role of educational leadership on participation in the Costa Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Atlantic Elementary in the Occidente Region

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The role of educational leadership on participation in the Costa Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Atlantic Elementary in the Occidente Region

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Content Running head: GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 1
THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP ON PARTICIPATION IN THE COSTA
RICAN NATIONAL PROGRAM OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FAIRS AT
ATLANTIC ELEMENTARY IN THE OCCIDENTE REGION
by
Cindy Chavez Swenson
____________________________________________________________________
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
May 2016
Copyright 2016 Cindy Chavez Swenson
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 2
DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my wonderful parents, Daniel Chavez and Eulalia Chavez, and
my amazing and supportive husband, Michael Patrick Swenson.
Podrá nublarse el sol eternamente;
Podrá secarse en un instante el mar;
Podrá romperse el eje de la tierra
Como un débil cristal.
¡Todo sucederá!
Podrá la muerte
cubrirme con su fúnebre crespón;
pero jamás en mí podrá apagarse
la llama de su amor
--Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 3
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The past 3 years have been a time warp. From my 6-hour drive to and from Los Angeles
to the crazy, sleepless nights at the Vagabond Inn, life as a USC student has been surreal. How
did I do it? How did I survive a tree branch nearly falling on my car, almost getting towed during
a red-carpet event, getting a flat tire on the highway, and my car battery dying in the USC
parking lot? How did I safely make it to L.A. from Merced weekly, barely missing car fires, car
pileups, grapevine snow storms, diesel truck explosion, 3 a.m. early drives, and the writing of
this dissertation? How am I still alive?
I am not sure how I did it, but I am grateful. I am here today knowing that I have
accomplished what many people cannot. It has been a whirlwind—many tears, sleepless nights,
frustrations, and anxiety.
However, I did not do this alone.
My husband, my constant companion and partner in life, has never said no to any of my
extreme and unrealistic plans; he believes in me in whatever project I tackle. He forever loves
me. He, more than I, deserves this degree.
My parents may not be too sure of what grandiose idea I have stored, but they know that I
will be the best at it. I am not the greatest daughter, but I hope that I have made them proud and
that they know that I love them more than life.
My USC peers and colleagues and I have laughed, cried, and screamed together. It has
been cathartic, including early morning classes, weekend study groups, the Costa Rican trip,
homegirl slumber parties, and an infamous ziplining adventure. The days have been long, but the
years have been short together. I thank them for their patience with my neurosis and keeping-it-
real attitude. They are all godsends.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 4
I would not have finished this dissertation without the help and guidance of Dr. Michael
Escalante, Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft, and Mrs. Phyllis Parmet: I thank Dr. E for accepting me into his
dissertation group. He is the leader I want to become. Dr. O was an amazing mentor and adviser,
and I wish her nothing but happiness and health. I thank her for advice and guidance throughout
this process. Mrs. Parmet is like the Wizard of Oz; I am not too sure that she exists, but she made
this dissertation sparkle and shine.
Thank you, everyone. I am now an official Trojan. Fight on!
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication 2
Acknowledgments 3
Abstract 9

Chapter 1: Introduction 10
The Problem 10
PBL Language 10
PBL 11
21st-Century Skills 11
Background of the Study 12
Globalization 12
Changing World 13
Costa Rica School Systems 13
Leadership 14
Statement of the Problem 15
Purpose of the Study 16
Research Questions 17
Significance of the Study 17
Limitations 18
Delimitations 18
Assumptions 19
Definitions of Terms 19
Organization of the Dissertation 20

Chapter 2: Review of the Literature 22
Globalization 23
Aspects of Globalization 25
Globalization’s story 25
Global marketplace 26
Evolution of globalization 26
Immigration and Migration 27
Global flows 28
Information technology 28
Technology advancements 29
Technology and English 29
Globalization and Costa Rica 30
Funding global education 31
Technology and the marketplace 31
Rote learning to soft skills 31
Globalization and Commerce 32
History of Costa Rica 32
Government 32
1520–1560 32
1821–1838 33
1850–1890 33
Cafetaleros 33
1847–1849 34
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 6
El Rizo 34
Colegio de Señoritas 35
United Fruit Company 35
Modern Costa Rica 36
Leadership 36
Economic hardships 37
Nobel Prize for Peace 37
Economy 38
Independence From Spain 38
Early 1900s 39
President Don Pepe 39
MNCs 39
Gross Domestic Product 41
General Education Level 41
UNESCO 42
MEP 42
Assessment 42
Primary school 43
High school education 43
MNCs in Costa Rica 44
Financial crisis 44
Manufacturing projects 45
FDI 45
Intel 46
Investment companies 47
GDP growth 47
Workforce 47
National English Plan 48
Leadership 48
Frameworks 49
Richard DuFour and Robert J. Marzano 50
Robert M. Capraro, Mary Margaret Capraro, and James R. Morgan 52
Bolman and Deal 53
Figure 1: Bolman and Deal’s overview of the four-frame model 54
Summary of Literature Review 56

Chapter 3: Methodology 58
Analytical Apparatuses: Frameworks 59
Research Design 61
Research Team 62
Exploratory Trip 62
Sample and Population 63
Instruments 64
Interviews 65
Survey 65
Observations 66
Data Collection 66
Data Analysis 67
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 7
Reliability, Validity, and Generalizability 68
Ethical Considerations 69
Chapter Summary 70

Chapter 4: Results 71
Interviews 72
Research Questions 73
Background Information on Atlantic Elementary 73
Participants 73
Table 1: Invited and Actual Study Participants From Atlantic Elementary and
Bayside Elementary 74
Findings for Research Question 1 76
Theme 1: School Directors Empowering Teachers 78
Theme 2: School Director to Communicate Vision 82
Summary of Results for Research Question 1 84
Findings for Research Question 2 85
Theme 1: PLCs 87
Theme 2: STEM PBL 91
Summary of Results for Research Question 2 96
Findings for Research Question 3 96
Theme 1: Social Responsibility Priorities 98
Theme 2: Professional Development 98
Leadership Framework 101
Summary of Results for Research Question 3 103
Findings for Research Question 4 103
Theme 1: STEM PBL Curricula and Resources 104
Theme 2: PRONAFECYT Curricula 109
Summary of Results for Research Question 4 112

Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations 113
Summary of Findings 115
Research Question 1 116
Research Question 2 117
Research Question 3 118
Research Question 4 119
Implications for Practice 120
Recommendations for Future Research 121
Conclusion 122

References 123
Appendices
Appendix A: Recruitment Letter 133
Appendix B: Consent Form 134
Appendix C: List of Research Sites 136
Appendix D: Teacher Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 137
Appendix E: School Director Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 139
Appendix F: Government Official/Business Leaders Interview Protocol: English
and Spanish Versions 141
Appendix G: Parent Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 143
Appendix H: Student Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 145
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 8
Appendix I: Teacher Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 147
Appendix J: School Director Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 151
Appendix K: Government Official Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 155
Appendix L: Business Partner Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 159
Appendix M: Parent Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 163
Appendix N: Student Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 167
Appendix O: Observation Protocol 171
Appendix P: Summary of the Research Proposal 177

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 9
ABSTRACT
In this research, science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) project-
based learning frameworks are used to analyze the effects of globalization and the development
and expansion of multinational corporations on educational leadership in Costa Rica. In Costa
Rica, particularly education has been affected in terms of leadership, curricula, and 21st-century
soft skills. The purpose of this study was to understand how educational leadership and develop-
ment of 21st-century skills in Costa Rican schools are being modified to enhance the success of
the National Science and Technology Fair (Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología [PRONAFECYT]) curricula in the academic setting. The study also identified the role
of school leaders in the development and implementation of curricular changes in major national
education initiatives to meet the global demands of the STEM fields. This study determined
whether these initiatives are meeting the national criteria of the PRONAFECYT in Costa Rica.
The analysis of data gathered through interviews, observations, and surveys revealed that Costa
Rica is focused on producing knowledge-ready workers. By partnering with Intel, the country has
been better prepared to provide that opportunity for many Costa Rican students. Schools in Costa
Rica that are partnered with Intel are integrating 21st-century skills into their curricula and
focusing on technology in order to prepare students for the global work force. School site leaders
are utilizing methods of instructional leadership to encourage teachers and students to embrace
this change in the focus of education.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 10
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
The Problem
With 21st-century soft skills looming over educators, academic leaders have had to revise
their teaching methodologies to improve and enhance STEM subjects. Globalization and multi-
national corporations (MNCs) have influenced how business and education are modified to meet
the needs and demands of the 21st-century student (Stromquist & Monkman, 2000). MNCs such
as the Costa Rican Investment Promotion Agency (CINDE), Intel, and Hewlitt Packard (HP)
have now enhanced the need to incorporate STEM into school curricula. However, with 21st-
century skills becoming more prevalent in society, the PRONAFECYT in Costa Rica has now
been incorporated into the academic curriculum to support science, technology, engineering and
mathematics (STEM) field through project-based learning (PBL).
PBL is currently one of the most effective ways to engage students with their learning
content in the 21st-century classroom (Bender, 2012). Initially, PBL was used for medical
students to help with problem solving and collaboration (Bender, 2012). However, it has recently
increased emphasis as educators and business leaders try to find new ways to understand and
apply technologies, problem solving, and collaboration in 21st-century classrooms and busi-
nesses. The overall objective is to have highly motivated people to work diligently toward a
solution to any problem. This typically results in high levels of engagement with content in com-
pleting a project, both in the classroom and outside. PBL thus increases motivation to learn,
teamwork, and collaborative skills (Bender, 2012).
PBL Language
With the increase in technology and the move away from traditional learning, the work-
force must be adequately prepared to respond to the demands of the morphing global market and
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 11
global demands. Applying the language of PBL in all settings will only teach students real-life
needs. For example, in the corporate world, students will learn early on with PBL language that
will be used in life after school: anchor (the basis for posing a question), artifacts (items created
within the course of a project that represent possible solutions to the problem or aspects of the
solution to the problem), authentic achievement (the emphasis that the learning stemming from
these projects should stem real-world scenarios), brainstorming (formulating a plan for the
project), driving question (primary question that drives the project), expeditionary learning
(taking actual trips to various locations), student voice and choice (student input), and Web 2.0
(adding technology; Bender, 2012).
PBL
Considering PBL, with foreign direct investment (FDI) playing a role in developing
nations, it is clear that the alignment of preparedness of human capital, as well as advances in
technology, provide the structure from which a nation’s economic potential can derive (Mughal
& Vechiu, 2009). Keeping FDI in mind, it is important to consider how such modes will not only
help students to learn in the classroom (without overwhelming them), but prepare them for a
world that needs human capital with the adequate resources to achieve those objectives. There-
fore, in order to be prepared, nations must supply their human capital with the resources and
skills necessary to generate success in the marketplace, which currently centers on a knowledge-
based economy (Spring, 2008). How can researchers apply PBL to developing nations that have
limited resources to compete in this global competition?
21st-Century Skills
Two of the main skills necessary in this 21st-century world are proficiencies in technol-
ogy and English (Tsui & Tollefson, 2007). Technology is not only flourishing but also becoming
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 12
a necessity in all aspects of living. Since the 1980s, Costa Rica has worked with MNCs and
political and education leaders to address the necessary changes that have to be made to better
prepare students for the global market. This global market is primarily focused on a knowledge-
based economy (Spring, 2008; State of Nation Program, 2011). Thus, this knowledge-based
economy’s driving force (and way of unifying) is technology. Therefore, the goal of this research
is not only to analyze what Costa Rica is doing to prepare students for the global competition,
but also to learn how others outside the United States are preparing the nation for the global
competition, primarily through Costa Rican K–2 curricula of the PRONAFECYT.
Background of the Study
The Ministry of Public Education (Ministerio de Educación Pública [MEP], 2007) has
recognized the need to help students to fulfill their secondary education needs and continue to
higher education in order to become prepared workers who are ready for the global market. As
outlined in the Action Plan for the Education of All, the MEP (2007) is focusing on making valid
the right to education for all inhabitants of Costa Rica. This program specifically seeks to
improve integration of technology in the classroom and to improve access to information for all
students. There is also a focus placed on lifelong learning and critical thinking skills. The
research focus was at 18 primary schools in Costa Rica. Therefore, the objectives of the research
were to analyze and synthesis how Costa Rican schools are preparing students for the
PRONAFECYT through PBL.
Globalization
With the advancement of technology and communication, nations have become much
more dependent on one another in terms of exports and imports (Spring, 2008). Therefore the
global market has greatly influenced the need to develop strong education systems that properly
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 13
prepare students to become successful participants in the global market. Properly preparing them
for the global market requires that students learn not only the demands of the world but how to
work in a collaborative setting to solve real-world problems. The demands of globalization have
led the global market to create common educational practices and policies based on global dis-
cussions regarding technology, human capital, lifelong learning, and the global migration of
workers, resulting in a knowledge-based economy (Spring, 2008).
Changing World
Globalization, a term first coined by Theodore Levitt, describes changes in global eco-
nomics affecting production, consumption, and investment (Stromquist, 2002). This term has
been attributed not only to the fiscal aspects of a nation but also to the political, cultural, and
educational phenomena that affect a nation (Spring, 2008). Globalization has changed the way
that nations prepare their human capital and creates increased competition among viable players
in the global market (Hitts, Keats, & DeMarie, 1998).
According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
Institute for Statistics (UNESCO; 2009), the literacy rate in 2009 was 96.06%. As a result of the
Constitution of 1869, Costa Rica became one of the first countries to make education necessary
and free, showing the first glimpse of the global competition affecting the education sector. Cur-
rently, Costa Rica distributes at least 6% of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP) from its
annual budget to educational programs (CINDE, 2011). In order to attain success in the global
market, one must attain global literacy skills, defined as proficiencies in technology and English .
Costa Rica School Systems
Costa Rica’s school system is divided into five cycles: Cycle I encompasses Grades 1–4,
Cycle II includes Grade 5 and 6, Cycle III includes Grades 7–9, and Cycle IV includes Grades
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 14
10–12. Higher education is divided into two opportunities: academic or technical schools.
Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 90% of age-eligible students. In that
same year, secondary school enrollment was about 53% of age-eligible students (Palmer &
Molina, 2004). Often, post elementary students do not continue to pursue higher education
because they need to obtain employment to help support their families. Females often leave
school to stay home and take care of younger siblings while parents work outside of the home
(Castro, 2010).
Leadership
According to Thomas J. Sergiovanni, who was known as an extraordinary teacher,
researcher and leader, however, mostly recognized on his training and preparation of leaders,
stated, “Viewing leadership as a group activity linked to practice rather than just an individual
activity linked to a person helps match the expertise we have in a school with the problems and
situations we face” (as cited in DuFour & Marzano, 2011, p. 1). Sergiovanni contended that
leadership was also a type of professional PBL. PBL is not simply a concept that children do in
preparing for a larger academic goal (e.g., PRONAFECYT); rather, PBL becomes a part of life,
professionally, personally, and academically. Leadership thus should be recognized not as a
solitary or independent concept but as a collaborative project with unanimous goals and objec-
tives. A leader is not detached from the project and simply giving orders; instead, a leader is
intertwined with the project, facilitating all aspects of the endeavor and making sure that time-
lines are being met and pupils are not forgetting objectives nor goals. A leader is leading through
collaboration and team work.
Effective leaders recognize that they cannot accomplish great goals alone. Great things
must be done collaboratively, with multiple minds working on the machine. This machine
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 15
becomes the apparatus that helps to attain the goal or solve the issue. Leadership thus is broadly
distributed (DuFour & Marzano, 2011). This distribution is like an engine: In order for an auto-
mobile to run, all parts must work simultaneously. Effective leaders do not micromanage but
macromanage. All team members are equally important to the project, no matter how small the
job.
The research team realized that the end result of the research project was the
PRONAFECYT. However, analyzing all aspects of the team (administrators, teachers, and
students) was imperative in order to recognize how PBL is implemented and applied by all team
players. How do leaders (e.g., administrators) in Costa Rican schools play a role in helping
teachers to prepare for the PRONAFECYT? How do teachers learn from leaders to prepare cur-
ricula for the PRONAFECYT? How do students gather all of the information that teachers and
administrators prepare (e.g., curricula) and transform them into a project for national science?
Using the automobile analogy, how does it run once all members of the PRONAFECYT team
are contributing?
Statement of the Problem
Misra (2012) defined globalization as the “integration of economies and societies through
cross country flows of information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance and
people” (p. 47). These global changes have led to a highly competitive and rapidly changing
environment for countries throughout the world. World societies are now more interconnected
and interdependent than ever before (Armstrong, 2007; Friedman, 2007). For a nation to succeed
in an increasingly interconnected global economy, changes to the local economy and education
system must occur (Biesanz, Biesanz, & Biesanz, 1999; Friedman, 2007). Globalization has
necessitated a change in the skills that students must develop in order to compete in an
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 16
increasingly global workforce (Friedman, 2007; Spring, 2008). As a result, educational systems
are no longer competing with other school systems in the same city, state, or even nation but
rather are competing with schools around the world (Wagner, 2008).
Costa Rica has endured many changes since gaining independence in 1859 (Biesanz et
al., 1999). Since its independence and the abolishment of its military, Costa Rica has placed its
primary focus on education (Palmer & Molina, 2004). During the past 30 years, Costa Rica has
adapted and reformed from a rural, agrarian society to a high-technology hub of innovation in
Latin America (Rodriguez-Clare, 2001). In addition, Costa Rica has initiated actions designed to
attract FDI, including tax incentives and investments in infrastructure, as well as changes to the
educational system (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD], 2012).
These 21st-century skills are meant not only to compete in this global competition but
also to become current and fluent in the technological advancements that others countries are
developing. In order to continue to attract FDI, Costa Rica’s economic future is dependent on
schools that produce knowledgeable and conceptually based workers with skills in STEM, in
addition to essential 21st-century competencies (Rodriguez-Clare, 2001). Moreover, teachers and
administrators must ensure a 100% literacy rate by 2017 and ensure that all students, including
those in rural and poor communities, have equitable educational access to rigorous, project-based
educational outcomes in all schools (CINDE, 2012). This equitable educational access will not
only help the students but will also support the surrounding community and nation.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to identify educational practices that Costa Rican schools
are implementing to prepare students with the necessary soft skills (also known as 21st-century
skills) to compete in the PRONAFECYT and eventually enter the International Science Fair.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 17
Therefore, the purpose was to identify what PBL practices and methodologies are used not only
by the teacher but by educational leaders to prepare students for the PRONAFECYT.
Research Questions
1. What role do educational leaders play in implementing the National Science and Tech-
nology Fair (Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología [PRONAFECYT])?
2. How does participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affect leadership and
instructional practices in Costa Rican schools? How do teacher practices at successful schools
differ from teacher practices at less successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa
Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
Significance of the Study
The significance of this study was to analyze, synthesize, and learn how Costa Rica is not
only meeting the academic demands of the global market but to understand how schools are
implementing soft skills to enhance PBL in the classroom. This research focuses on the
PRONAFECYT. The PRONAFECYT not only connects students globally; it also epitomizes the
concept of PBL in the classroom. Thus, this study compares leadership in the schools and its
influence on preparing students for the global competition.
Research on globalization and MNCs and how both affect socioeconomic status, fiscal
implications, and communication in Costa Rica shows a lack of evidence pertaining to the
aforementioned phenomena in education. Evidence is minimal regarding how globalization and
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 18
MNCs have affected the education system in Costa Rica, specifically through changes in educa-
tion leadership or implementation of 21st-century skills. However, instead, this study must ana-
lyze the gap to understand the impact of MNCs on Costa Rica and how such impact affects the
classroom.
Utilizing frameworks that identify specific skills to implement PBL while triangulating
the data, the researchers discovered the most effective and productive methods of implementa-
tion of soft skills in Costa Rican schools. From this research, MNCs, school leaders, and policy
makers must align funding with effective methods to create a system capable of producing
students who are globally literate and ready for the knowledge-based global economy. This guid-
ance will assist leaders to utilize the FDI allocated to education in Costa Rica to its potential.
Limitations
A limitation of the study was that research in Costa Rica consisted of a 5-day allotment of
time toward conducting research with the participants. The 4-day exploratory trip helped to
create and develop contacts with the participants; however, this, too, was limited by time.
Working only with schools recommended by the MEP limited accessibility, variety, data alloca-
tion, and population sample. Also, the validity of the interviews and surveys was limited to the
responding participants and the reliability of the instruments. In addition, the researchers had to
be aware of any bias that may have occurred during the study, as implications from the findings
affect various financial and dependent relationships.
Delimitations
A collaborative decision was made regarding the boundaries of the study that delimited
the studied MNCs to HP, CINDE, and Intel. This boundary eliminated researching perspectives
and impacts of other MNCs in Costa Rica. In addition, the study focused solely on schools and
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 19
school site leaders who have received technological resources from Intel, thereby not including
the perspective of schools that have not received resources and funding from MNCs.
Assumptions
The following assumptions were made about the study:
1. Leaders were equally enthusiastic about the PRONAFECYT.
2. Teachers recognized leaders’ enthusiasm and willingly prepared students for the
PRONAFECYT through PBL.
3. During the observations, the classroom would not be orchestrated to present a fictitious
image of 21st-century skill implementation.
4. Twenty-first-century skills help to prepare students for the global marketplace.
Definitions of Terms
Foreign direct investment (FDI): Investment by a company in a country other than the
place where the company is based.
Globalization: Changes in economics that affect production, consumption, and invest-
ments, which in turn affect larger segments of the world’s population. It has a direct impact on
cultural, geopolitical, and social changes, including education (Spring, 2008).
Knowledge age: The 21st-century Knowledge Age is seen as a tipping point, equivalent
in effect to the Age of Discovery, the Renaissance, the Industrial Revolution, and the internal
combustion engine (Snape, 2012).
Knowledge-based economy. The use of knowledge technologies such as knowledge engi-
neering and knowledge management to produce economic benefits and job creation (Machlup,
1973).
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 20
Multinational corporation (MNC): “A corporation that is registered in more than one
country or that has operations in more than one country. It is a large corporation which both pro-
duces and sells goods or services in various countries” (Ritzer, 2011, p. 81).
Project-based learning (PBL): An instructional model used to help students to confront
real-world issues and problems that they find meaningful, determine how to address them, and
then act in a collaborative fashion to create problem solutions.
Soft skills or 21st-century skills: Skills that are “a blend of content knowledge, specific
skills, expertise, and literacies” (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009, 21st Century Student
Outcomes section, para. 1).
Organization of the Dissertation
The dissertation consists of five chapters. Chapter 1 provides an overview of the study:
an introduction; a background to the problem; the problem statement; the purpose of the study;
research questions; significance of the study; limitations, delimitations, and assumptions for the
study; and definition of terms.
Chapter 2 reviews the literature pertaining to globalization, MNCs, 21st-century skills,
and leadership. This chapter also presents a historical review of Costa Rica, encompassing its
development as a nation, including economic, political, and educational growth over time. In
addition, the education system in Costa Rica is described to give breadth to the details of the
current system, its policies, infrastructure, and the makeup of the student body.
Chapter 3 presents the research methodology used in this study and deals with why a
multimethod qualitative approach is appropriate for this study. Also included is an explanation of
the sample and population, as well as the instrumentation used in the study. Chapter 3 also
describes how the data were collected and analyzed.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 21
Chapter 4 offers insight into the findings of the study, including a detailed description of
the data organized by the research questions. Chapter 5 presents a summary of the study to
include a conclusion and the possible implications for practice. Also included are suggestions for
future research opportunities relating to the same phenomena.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 22
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Technology has grown in the past decade to become an entity of its own: it speaks to us,
it guides us, it gives us suggestions as to where we eat . . . . How and why has technology
grown to become what it is? But most importantly how has it affected education and
student accessibility? Globalization is defined as increasingly omnipresent . . . and is
clearly a very important change in human history. (Ritzer, 2011, p. 2)
Globalization has provided this inter/intraconnection among peoples throughout the
world “in social relationships and social structures, especially those that are widely dispersed
geographically” (Ritzer, 2011, p. 2). “It can also be argued that globalization that globalization
does not assume the greater integration as an inevitable component of society” (p. 2).
Globalization affects many countries, whether in the financial, business, or education
sector. It is important for all countries to center their energy on understanding how the digital age
and globalization have affected the lives of their people and nation (Stromquist & Monkman,
2000). This connection, whether deemed positive or negative, provides an invisible union where
all people, everywhere, can connect. This invisible union helps not only to educate others about
the global competition of which Costa Rica is a part, but also allows students from lower socio-
economic backgrounds to have access to educational methodologies that will help them to
succeed.
Costa Rica is an dynamic contributor to the global market (Jensen, 2003). With the
emerging of MNCs in Costa Rica, the requirements and demand of the labor force have molded
with new requirements and expectations, therefore demanding the Costa Rican education system
to produce workers who are prepared to participate actively in the new globalized labor market.
This literature review explores globalization and the effects on Costa Rica’s society, specifically
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 23
the school leaders and application to 21st-century skills and how the national and international
science fairs and globalization play into such demands.
This literature review also analyzes six key areas pertaining to the history of Costa Rica
and its evolution over the course of the globalization process.
The first section of the literature review defines globalization and provides theoretical
perspectives of globalization (Spring, 2008); it examines the impact of globalization on educa-
tion (Spring, 2008). The second section discusses development of the Costa Rican government,
with an emphasis on early education and the changing economy. The third section provides
insight on the education system in Costa Rica, including a close analysis of MNCs and their
influence on classroom curricula, the decision-making process within the education system,
reform efforts and conflicts arising within the system, and the allotment of resources. The fourth
section establishes which companies have invested in Costa Rica and the impact of these compa-
nies on Costa Rica’s economy and education system. The fifth section is an overview of 21st-
century skills, teacher leadership, National/International Science Fair, and a clear understanding
and analysis of the framework titled Framework for 21st Century Learning (Partnership for 21st
Century Skills, 2012). The sixth section analyzes the operational framework by Bolman and Deal
(2008) as it applies specifically to the process of the PRONAFECYT. The framework by
Marzano, Waters, and McNulty (2005) regarding 21 responsibilities of leaders is also examined
to provide a multidimensional analysis of school leadership preparing students for the science
fair.
Globalization
Globalization is a “transplanetary process or set of processes involving increasing liquid-
ity and the growing multi-directional flows of people, objects, places and information” (Ritzer,
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 24
2010, p. 2). For the purposes of this study, this definition is used to investigate, technology in the
21st century and develop a language of commerce and business. In response to globalization, the
global market has been greatly affected, both within developing countries and developed coun-
tries, leading to modifications in the way human capital is produced. With technology advance-
ments and globalization, “technological advances often ‘hop’ over areas while landing on others”
(Ritzer, 2011, p. 136). This “leapfrogging” involves developing nations to adopt more advanced
technologies to enhance consumerism and capitalism (Ritzer, 2011).
National economies morphed from isolated and independent systems to intertwined,
complex organisms, dependent on the workings of other equally versatile and multifaceted
nations (Nathan Associates, 2003; Spring, 2008; Stromquist, 2002). Due to this technological
invasion of interdependency, globalization has increased competition among countries and
global markets (Hitts et al., 1998). With developing nations, “leapfrogging” will help nations
who may not have had initial technologies to catch up to developed nations by adopting more
advanced technologies immediately (Ritzer, 2011). In analyzing academic institutions in both
developing and developed nations, such opposition has allowed nations to analyze their aca-
demic institutions to guarantee that they are preparing students to enter the workforce equipped
for success in the global market.
Globalization is a long-term cyclical process (Ritzer, 2011). However, the effort to find
signs and signals of early evidence of globalization is truly irrelevant since there have long been
cycles of globalization. Thus, it is those cycles that are of utmost importance, not any particular
phase or point of origin (Ritzer, 2011). Similarly to Chanda’s perspective, this view tends to
contradict the idea that we live today in a new global age. Eventually, it, too, will be replaced by
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 25
a new cycle in the globalization process. Finding a single point of origin is difficult (Ritzer,
2011).
However, like the circle, globalization can be seen as an ongoing and timeless process.
This “further proposes of early [predecessors] of global ages that wheat out what appears to be a
new global age, or the high point of such an age, is destined to contract and disappear in the
future” (Ritzer, 2011, p. 18). Therefore, this cyclical analysis is providing evidence of Chanda’s
four stages of globalization in human existence where globalization proves to only make human
life better.
Aspects of Globalization
This section begins by discussing globalization and its impact on Costa Rica, using the
four major perspectives from Spring (2008). Theodore Levitt was credited with coining the term
globalization in 1985 to explain changes in global economics affecting production, consumption,
and investment (Stromquist, 2002). Since 1985, many technological advancements have
occurred that have created an eruption of globalization growth (Bradley, Hausman, & Nolan,
1993; Hrynyshyn, 2002). In essence, globalization includes educational impacts on students and
the workforce (Stromquist & Monkman, 2000).
Globalization’s story. Telling the story of the origins and history of globalization is not
easy. Due to the different perspectives and ongoing debates, Chanda provides four specific
aspects of globalization that relate to a basic “urge” for a better life: commerce (trade), religion
(missionary work), politics, and warfare (adventures and conquest; Ritzer, 2011).
[Chanda] argues that “globalization stems among other things, from a basic human urge
to seek a better and more fulfilling life” . . . . “Initial globalization of human species to
when in the late Ice Age, a tiny group of our ancestors walked out of Africa in search of
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 26
better food and security. In fifty years of wandering along ocean coasts and chasing game
across Central Asia, they finally settled on all the continents. (Ritzer, 2011, p.17)
Global marketplace. According to the World Bank (2012), “Globalization refers to the
growing interdependence of countries resulting from increasing integration of trade, finance,
people, and ideas in one global marketplace” (para. 3). Globalization is further explained as the
“freedom and ability of individuals and firms to initiate voluntary economic transactions with
residents of other countries” (World Bank, 2012, para 6): “(1) Dispersal of humans (20), (2)
Traders (37), (3) Transportation (55), (4)Technology, (5)Toxic (xvi), (6) Controversial: nation-
alism, outsourcing of jobs, local resources (291), (7) Fear and control derail globalization?”
(Chanda, 2008, p. 279). Some of the waves of globalization that we can distinguish and identify
are (a) the fourth to the seventh centuries, which witnessed the globalization of religions (e.g.,
Christianity and Islam); (b) the late 15th century, highlighted by European colonial conquests;
(c) the late 18th and early 19th centuries, during which various intra-European wars led to glob-
alization; (d) the mid-1oth century to 1918, the heyday of European imperialism; (e) the post-
World War II period; and (f) the post-Cold War period (Ritzer, 2011, p. 18).
Evolution of globalization. History shows that globalization today is not a unique
concept; globalization now perhaps rejects the concept of cyclical and more linear ideologies of
the global evolution. Whether globalization is cyclical or linear, research provides evidence that
globalization as a concept of “improvement of human life” is a reality and not simply a theory.
As societies prepare students to take on global market demands and challenges of becoming
knowledge-ready workers, they ultimately are creating an academia assembly line that has
proved that the demands that globalization are indeed affecting institutions of learning.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 27
Such global demands have created a path for the global market to create common educa-
tional practices to adhere to the requirements that nations are having about technology advance-
ments within nations, learning in a global market, human capital, and global migration of work-
ers. The “term ‘migrants’ encompasses both vagabonds and tourists (Ritzer, 2011, p. 179). How-
ever, unfortunately, due to xenophobia of the “different,” migrants are labeled as “vagabond” to
fit best with society’s definition of migrants (Ritzer, 2011). There has been great deal of popula-
tion movement associated with globalization (Ritzer, 2011). In a United Nations estimate, the
quantity of international migrants is over 190 million; however, such estimation is only about 3%
of the global population (Ritzer, 2011).
Immigration and Migration
Several arguments and debates have been made against the various obstacles currently
being erected in the path of immigrants: border patrol, deportation, walls, and even death. But
from the point of view of the South, immigrants from there to the North have benefited enor-
mously and many have sent money back home. Those who return eventually bring with them
money saved while working in the North, new skills and technical expertise, and innovative new
ideas (Ritzer, 2011). But the argument continues as to who benefits from immigration more,
legal or illegal.
In the end, such requirements and demands are resulting in a knowledge-based economy
(Spring, 2008). Besides creating a common global language, technology is the primal theme in
the knowledge-based economy because of its ability to transfer language through digital modes
and create a universal communication tool internationally (Rotherham & Willingham, 2010;
Spring, 2008).
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 28
Global flows. In order for nations to be successful in the global market, they must adapt
to these changing demands for a technology-savvy workforce. Economist Theodore Levitt
(1985) created the term globalization to describe changes in global economics affecting produc-
tion, consumption, and investment” (p. 2). Levitt stated that trade and technology are making all
nations of the world more alike
Arjun Appadurai introduced the idea of the flow of ideas, practices, institutions, and
people interacting with local populations provided evidence of: (1) Ethnoscapes—the
movement of people, (2) Mediascapes—the movement of images and ideas in popular
culture; (3) Financescapes—the global movement of trade and capital (4) Ideoscapes—
the global movement of ideas and practices regarding government and other institutional
practices; (5) Technoscapes—the global movement of advances in transportation, com-
munication, and information technology. (p. 2)
Therefore, to prepare the workforce to embrace and accept the advancements of technol-
ogy, it is imperative to recognize not only the development of industries that support globaliza-
tion but how the workforce and their knowledge are global.
Information technology. As a result, information technology (IT), including technolo-
gies associated with communications, computer hardware and related peripherals, and computer
software, have all experienced major changes, in both developing and developed countries
(Karoly & Panis, 2004). Furthermore, measures implemented in the 1980–1990s promoted and
increased foreign investment and policies moved toward an export-led model of nontraditional
agricultural exports with tax breaks. In 1995, Microsoft Inc. started operations in Costa Rica; in
1996, Intel relocated its $300 million semiconductor assembly and test plant to Costa Rica. Also
in 1996, Cisco started operations in Costa Rica and maintained an office that served as the
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 29
headquarters for Central America. Between 1999 and 2006 Intel alone accounted for nearly 25%
of the country’s exports (Spring, 2009).
Technology advancements. Advancements of technology over the past three centuries
affected the impact on the way work is organized and conducted (Hitts et al., 1998). These
changes have altered the way in which the global market does business, including how items and
services are produced, as well as how participants in global market communicate with one
another in business. The language that accompanies the international technology expansion not
only embodies a lexicon depicting a vast array of technological jargon but also has furthered the
expansion of English as the international language of business. Understanding these technologi-
cal advances and having experience with them are imperative to becoming a viable global market
workforce contender.
Technology and English
According to Tsui and Tollefson (2007), “Globalization is affected by two inseparable
meditational tools, technology and English; proficiencies in these tools have been referred to as
global literacy skills” (p. 1). The attainment of these global literacy skills allows a workforce to
have the necessary skills to compete globally. Due to the need for a knowledge-ready workforce,
globalization has also affected education. There are four major interpretations of the process of
educational globalization: the world culture view, the world systems approach, a postcolonial
analysis, and a culturalist approach (Spring, 2008).
Spring (2008) stated that the world culture view is based on the premise that contains
Western ideals of mass schooling, centered on the idea that schooling is based on a belief that all
children have the right to an education and that education is of utmost importance in maintaining
economic and democratic rights. The world systems approach sees the world as integrated but as
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 30
having two major unequal parts, with the United States and the European Union and Japan com-
prising the powerful half. A postcolonial analysis views globalization as an effort to impose par-
ticular economic and political agendas on the global society that benefit wealthy and rich nations
at the expense of the world’s poor.
The culturalists contend that local decision makers borrow and lend from multiple models
of education systems, thus melding what applies to their specific situation and leaving behind
what does not. Whichever view one assumes, it is undeniably obvious that globalization has
played and continues to play a major role in the shaping of nations’ education systems. It is
important to acknowledge these four perspectives as background knowledge because this study
focuses on the Costa Rican culture that may have a different perspective from the United States
on education.
Globalization and Costa Rica
How has globalization affected education in Costa Rica? In recognizing the significance
of an educated workforce, Costa Rica has made an important effort over the past 30 years to
increase resources assigned to tertiary education and to the scholarship system for university
students with scarce resources. As part of the initial conditional agreement between Costa Rica
and Intel, improvements were required in technical education. Intel’s annual contribution was
approximately $700,000. They also contributed to elementary and secondary education to create
laboratories and invested in teacher training to provide a shift to focus on 21st-century skills.
However, Costa Rica’s pura vida approach was threatened due to ramifications of the tourist
trade, the importation of technology, and threats of privatization through trade agreements
(Spring, 2009).
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 31
Funding global education. It is apparent that access and equity play roles in funding
education. As defined by the world culture view, one of the main goals of education is to prepare
youth to become participating citizens in society—individuals who contribute to economic and
democratic ideals. In order for citizens to be prepared to do so, the education system must adapt
to the transformation to a knowledge-based economy. According to Hitts et al. (1998), those who
have successfully adapted to the change of technology have been able to develop new strategies
and new ways of organizing to deal with the complicated demands of globalization.
This flexibility can rely heavily on available financial and information resources. Others,
more financially strained and technologically unaware, have not been able to do so, thereby
leaving a divide between the wealthy, technologically literate countries and the less-fortunate,
technologically developing countries (Funkhouser, 1998). It is therefore important that nations
not only recognize the need to develop a technology-savvy educational environment but also
learn how to acquire funding for such globally demanding skills.
Technology and the marketplace. In addition to schools having to prepare their students
for a technology-saturated marketplace, they must also teach skills that impart strategies for
lifelong learning as the ever-changing knowledge-based economy demands. In order to prepare
students to become lifelong learners, an emphasis in primary and secondary schools must be
placed on learning basic skills, in particular communication and mathematics skills, interpersonal
skills, and skills needed to learn other subjects (Spring, 2008).
Rote learning to soft skills. The shift from memorization of material to conceptual
understanding and application often associated with 21st-century skills is of utmost importance
to future applications of these learning strategies as students become lifelong learners (Silva,
2009). Rotherham and Willingham (2010) noted that skills and knowledge are intertwined and
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 32
must not be a one-time assessment but rather an ongoing process by which students develop the
ability to think critically and apply knowledge to appropriate situations.
Globalization and Commerce
Globalization surely has played a role in shaping education over the past several decades.
The advancement in technology and its resulting attributes to the field of communication have
contributed to the development of a knowledge-based economy with English as the language of
commerce. In the development and acceptance of 21st-century skills, many schools around the
world have adopted new curricula to indicate a focus on lifelong learning to include interpersonal
and communication skills, as well as basic mathematics and language arts skills necessary to
succeed in the global market.
History of Costa Rica
This background information provides a platform from which the study can build per-
spective and understanding of the education system’s origination. To understand the current edu-
cation system in Costa Rica, it is important to understand the political, economic, and academic
history of this dynamic nation.
Government
1520–1560. Spanish expeditions explored both coasts of Costa Rica and conquered part
of the indigenous population. From 1560 to 1610, the Spanish established several settlements in
the meseta central, the elevated valleys of the central mountains, but most failed due to indige-
nous hostility, isolation, and climate. Then in the surviving settlements the population gradually
spread out in the meseta and around the Gulf of Nicoya. However, for the first century of coloni-
zation, poverty and isolation discouraged immigration from Spain. In 1700, the census recorded
just over 2,000 Spaniards and their Costa Rican-born children. Some colonists came with
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 33
considerable “personal capital, and most received extensive encomiendas (land trusts) from the
crown, which eventually converted to private property. Efforts to cultivate cacao and tobacco for
export failed and there were almost no exportable minerals” (Booth, 2008, p. 718).
1821–1838. Costa Rica gained independence from Spain (Palmer & Molina, 2004). Inde-
pendence Day is September 15 and news arrived in the colonial capital, Cartago, a month after
independence was declared in Guatemala (Palmer & Molina, 2004). Then a union with Mexico
and a United States of Central America endured for only a short time. In 1823 the Mexican
Empire was dissolved; Costa Rica joined El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua as
the United Provinces of Central America (Palmer & Molina, 2004). Then in 1824, Juan Mora
Fernandez was elected first head of state and created an elite class of powerful coffee barons.
However, in 1838, Costa Rica became a fully independent country (Palmer & Molina, 2004).
1850–1890. According to Gudmunson (1986), coffee growers soon became powerful as
they learned how to market and sell their product. These coffee barons forced President Madriz
to resign, putting into power Juan Rafael Mora Porras, a member of one of the largest coffee-
growing families in Costa Rica. During the 1840s, coffee became a major export: “Transformed
Costa Rica from poor and miserable to rich and prosperous” in a relatively short time (Palmer &
Molina, 2004, p. 55). From 1850 to 1890 the “sale of coffee accounted for almost 90 percent of
the country’s export earnings” (Palmer & Molina, 2004, p. 55).
Cafetaleros. Coffee was initially cultivated, harvested, and processed around San Jose
but rapidly extended to other areas of the Central Valley and eventually to the entire country
(Palmer & Molina, 2004, p. 55). Cafetaleros (coffee barons) benefited most by controlling credit,
purchase prices, and processing facilities. But many small and medium-size growers made suc-
cessful transition to commercialized farming of coffee. However, indigenous communities of the
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 34
highlands were the “losers” (p. 57). With coffee as the new industry, businesses needed to be
regulated and a new system of government was needed.
1847–1849. Jose Maria Castro Madriz elected first president of Costa Rica but was
eventually overthrown by coffee barons. In 1849, Juan Rafael Mora became President and served
for the next 10 years (Palmer & Molina, 2004). In 1855, William Walker seized control of Nica-
ragua and sought to do the same to Costa Rica. President Madriz put together an army of 9,000
and went to battle with Walker. Costa Rica was victorious, but the cost of the war was great, not
only in soldiers’ deaths but also in having vast financial implications. As a result, the weakened
regime of Porras was dismantled by an army coup d’état that replaced him with José Maria
Montealegre. The Montealegres dominated Costa Rican politics for about two decades.
El Rizo. Juan Santamaria, “el rizo,” became the national symbolic hero (unknown
soldier) who volunteered to oust the Filibusteros led by the Gringo invader, William Walker
(Palmer & Molina, 2004). In 1859, Juan Rafael Mora was ousted in a coup (Palmer & Molina,
2004) and tried to regain power years later but was shot in 1860. In 1870, General Tomas Guar-
dia seized control of the government (known for some of the country’s most progressive reforms
in education, military policy, and taxation), and in 1880 “Monocrop export becomes duocrop
export” (Palmer & Molina, 2004, p. 56) and bananas are planted in Caribbean lowlands for
export to United States. They used failed commuter railroads as way to export bananas to Ala-
bama, New Orleans, and Boston. However, soon after, the province of Limon became an
agribusiness center (end of railroad) and a large influx of people of Afro-Antillean descent
become banana pickers (Palmer & Molina, 2004). At this time, the United Fruit Company was
very influential in Costa Rican history. Banana cultivation was started in 1871, and the United
Fruit Co. (now United Brands) made Costa Rica a major producer of bananas.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 35
In 1870, General Toma Guardia Gutierrez came into power through a coup not sanc-
tioned by the Montealegre family. General Guardia was determined to end the political power of
the coffee baron families. In 1871, General Guardia signed a Constitution that, although modi-
fied frequently, remained Costa Rica’s basic law until 1949. Article 78 of Costa Rica’s Constitu-
tion of 1871 made schooling both free and mandatory. General Guardia hired Minor Cooper
Keith to build a railroad to link the Meseta Central to the Caribbean coast at Puerto Limon
(Gudmunson, 1986). The success of the banana industry demonstrated Costa Rica’s ability to
adapt to available opportunities in the marketplace (Jones & Morrison, 1952).
Colegio de Señoritas. After President Guardia died in 1882, there was a period of politi-
cal instability that led to the Costa Rican Civil War of 1948. In 1949, a new Constitution was
created based on the Constitution of 1871, reinstating free elections and banning the army and
replacing it with a Civil Guard. A series of presidents followed, each serving only a few years
(Lehoucq, 1991). Then in 1889, the Colegio de Señoritas was founded, intended to train school
teachers for new public education system. In 1914, Alfredo Gonzalez Flores became president,
but soon after President Tinoco Granados took office during a coup in 1917. The agroexport
model started to show signs of distress (Palmer & Molina, 2004). However, in 1919, Tinoco was
overthrown as president in an uprising led by women educators and normal school students in
the capital city (Palmer & Molina, 2004). In 1919, Juan Quieros Segura (Tinoco’s vice president)
became president but was later forced to resign.
United Fruit Company. In 1934, the banana workers struck against the United Fruit
Company (Palmer & Molina, 2004). In one of most famous labor actions in Central American
history, the laborers were fighting against decreased wages and lack of adequate health care, led
by the Costa Rican Communist Party. The United Fruit Company director strongly urged U.S.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 36
President Roosevelt to intervene in ending the strike but was refused based on the Good Neigh-
bor Policy. However, if the United States did not intervene in ending the strike, the “entire sub-
sequent democratic history of Costa Rica might be undermined” (Palmer & Molina, 2004, p.
128). The United Fruit Company conceded to some demands but moved to the Pacific Coast,
leaving Black migrant workers behind and taking only the White Costa Ricans who fled from
depression in other cities (Sharman, 2005). Black migrant workers were jobless and at the mercy
of Costa Rican bureaucrats who were sent to Limon province to “reeducate the non-native set-
tlers” (Sharman, 2005, p. 137).
Modern Costa Rica
Events during the 1940s established a modern Costa Rica (political system, social welfare
state, economy). Prior to the 1940s, Costa Rica was governed by an elite class and tainted by
fraud or corruption. In 1940, Dr. Rafael Angel Calderon Guardia (candidate of the elite) was
elected. He introduced a social security system, pension system, and social welfare benefits,
aligned with Communist Party and Catholic church. In 1944, Teodoro Picado replaced Calderon
Guardia. In 1948, Guardia ran for election again against Jose Maria (Don Pepe) Figueres Ferrer.
Leadership. Also in 1948, incumbent Dr. Rafael Angel Calderon and the United Social
Christian Party refused to relinquish power after losing the presidential election. An exile named
Jose Maria (Don Pepe) Figueres Ferrer managed to defeat Calderon in about a month. Don Pepe
later proved to be one of Costa Rica’s most influential leaders. In 1948–1952, under Ferrer’s
(Don Pepe) leadership, vast reforms in policy and civil rights were made. Women and Blacks
gained the vote, the Communist Party was banned, banks were nationalized, presidential term
limits were established and a new Constitution was adopted after a bloody 44-day civil war. José
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 37
Figueres Ferrer won the civil war, installed his own junta for 18 months, and restored democratic
government, turning over the presidency to Ulate in 1949.
Economic hardships. During the 1980s, Costa Rica experienced economic hardship as a
result of the recession in the United States, as well as increasing political violence in the region.
The political violence settled down in large part due to the election of Oscar Arias Sanchez, who
focused on leading a peace movement to bring stability to the region. In 1987 a peace plan was
signed by Guatemala, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Honduras. The peace plan called for free elec-
tions in all countries, a guarantee of basic democratic freedoms in Nicaragua, a cease fire by both
the Sandinistas and the Contras, an end to outside aid to the Contras, amnesty for the Contras,
repatriation or resettlement of refugees from all countries, and an eventual reduction in the armed
forces for all countries (Palmer & Molina, 2004).
Nobel Prize for Peace. Arias was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace for his efforts in
healing the matter (Hey & Kuzma, 1993). In 1996, under the presidency of José Maria Figueres
Olsen, Costa Rica officially entered a recession. This led to massive reform efforts in the form of
raised taxes, privatization of parts of the state-owned banking and telecommunications systems,
and an end to the state insurance monopoly. A need to recover from the recession opened Costa
Rica’s eye to the benefits that FDI might have for the nation (Gindling & Berry, 1992). Miguel
Angel Rodriguez was elected President in 1998 by a slim margin. Angel’s government had some
important achievements in terms of increased tourism and foreign investment. Rodriquez’s
presidency was followed by the election of Abel Pacheco de la Espriella. In 2004, both afore-
mentioned presidents found themselves in the midst of a great scandal that also involved José
Maria Figueres. All political heads were forced to resign (Lehoucq, 2005).
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 38
Economy
The Costa Rican economy has experienced changes not only as a result of political
changes but also as a result of globalization and the effects of FDI. These economic changes
have affected the role of education as Costa Rica becomes a player in the global market. Once a
nation relying solely on farming and trade, Costa Rica now interacts with several MNCs and is
working to create an education system to prepare its students for the new requirements of the
workforce.
The historical political turmoil in Costa Rica had effects on the economy as it advanced
from a simplistic subsistence farming mentality to an active participant in world trade. Costa
Rica, separated from other nations by mountains and difficult low-land terrain, was initially a
place for farmers solely to provide for their families. The lack of roads to the coast further
impeded their ability to trade. The little export that Costa Rica achieved was in cacao, beans,
tobacco, and mules; however, because Costa Rica was a Spanish colony, Spain imposed a mer-
cantilist policy that required its colonies to trade only with Spain (Watkins, n.d.).
Independence From Spain
As a result of Costa Rica’s independence from Spain and the creation of the new consti-
tution, the military was abolished, leaving an extra cash flow that would be invested in develop-
mental sectors of the economy such as education and health care in addition to agriculture (Costa
Rica Information, n.d.). In the 1840s, Costa Rican farmers experienced much success in growing,
harvesting, and selling their new cash product: coffee. The farmers who were extremely success-
ful became known as coffee barons and were distinguished not only by their economic power but
by their political power as well, as noted earlier. Over time, this system of coffee baron control
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 39
led to a decrease in the number of landowners and an increase in landless peasants who worked
for the few landowners (Gudmunson, 1986).
In the 1870s, President Tomas Guardia tried to promote export trade by hiring Minor
Cooper Keith to build a railroad to link the Meseta Central to the Caribbean coast at Puerto
Limon. The railroad became operational in 1891. Keith not only accomplished this task but also
shaped the banana industry of Costa Rica and created the United Fruit Company (Mosheim,
2002).
Early 1900s. The early 1900s was a difficult time for Costa Rica’s economy due to
problems of social welfare, free education, and free health care and the implication of the tax
obligations that these amenities posed. In addition, World War I burdened Costa Rica’s export
industry because European markets were taken away (Germany had been the best market for
Costa Rican coffee). Coffee prices had been declining internationally, and World War I furthered
this trend (Jones & Morrison, 1952).
President Don Pepe. In 1951, President Don Pepe carried out his mission to turn Costa
Rica into a welfare state. Many public programs were aided, such as education, urban develop-
ment, and state agricultural programs. However, in order to pay for such programs, income taxes
were again increased on the wealthy, notably the coffee barons and the United Fruit Company
(Mosheim, 2002).
The completion of the Pan-American Highway in the 1950s provided a system of infra-
structure from which the country greatly benefitted. In addition, export prices were favorable
during the first two decades of the post-World War II period, and local manufacturing grew rap-
idly during the 1960s after Costa Rica joined its four neighbors to establish the Central American
Common Market (Nathan Associates, 2003). Due to the seemingly strong export conditions, the
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 40
Costa Rican government turned its focus on internal problems. However, this strategy failed to
keep abreast of the multiplying international debt that Costa Rica was accruing. The full crisis
began in 1971, when the United States decided to stop inflation using tight monetary policy, and
Costa Rica found itself bankrupt.
It was not until the 1980s, with a change in governmental power, that Costa Rica agreed
with the Internal Monetary Fund and began to pull itself out of the economic crisis (Rosenberg,
1979). It was decided that Costa Rica needed new export products to aid in its economic revival.
In order to do so, foreign investment would be needed to bring world market technology to the
country (Nathan Associates, 2003). In response to this goal, the law regarding Export Processing
Zones was loosened, and other necessities to encourage foreign investment and exports were
legislated.
MNCs
In 1984, CINDE was created. CINDE, largely funded by the United States Agency for
International Development (USAID), promoted foreign investment, encouraged domestic Costa
Rican firms to export, and provided training to businesses interested in exporting (Nathan Asso-
ciates, 2003). CINDE was successful in its mission to increase foreign investment in Costa Rica.
Costa Rica prides itself on differing from its Central American neighbors because of the
high level of education, its efforts in democracy, and its economic abilities (Palmer & Molina,
2004). However, it is important to keep abreast of the cultural, political, and economic chal-
lenges that constitute Costa Rica’s history as a nation (Gindling & Berry, 1992). Before under-
standing the impact of globalization and MNCs on the academic realm of Costa Rica, it is
important to understand how the education system evolved since its creation in 1869.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 41
As a result of the Constitution of 1869, Costa Rica became one of the first countries to
make education compulsory and free. The public school system was originally supported with
funds diverted from the abolished military, as well as funds from the state’s share of the coun-
try’s earnings from the sale of coffee.
Gross Domestic Product
Currently, Costa Rica is constitutionally required to allocate at least 6% of the country’s
GDP from its annual budget to educational programs (CINDE, 2011). Costa Rica spends a higher
share of GDP on education than the majority of Latin American countries, yet often has worse
outcomes in terms of enrollment, dropout, and retention rates, especially at the secondary level.
Over the past decade, the MEP has taken the greatest share of the central government’s budget,
just over 28%, increasing from 24% in 1997 to 31% in 2006 (World Bank & Inter-American
Development Bank, 2008).
General Education Level
The MEP has the largest number of employees (28,000) of any department in the country,
with almost 80% of educational expenditures allocated to salaries and wages. At the general edu-
cation level—preprimary, primary school, and secondary school—90% of expenditures are for
salaries and wages (World Bank & Inter-American Development Bank, 2008). When compul-
sory education was introduced, only about one tenth of Costa Rica’s population could read. Forty
years later, that number had reached 50%, and by the 1970s, almost 90% of the population was
literate (Rimolo, 2012).
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 42
UNESCO
In 2009, according to the UNESCO’s (2009) Institute for Statistics, the literacy rate for
Costa Rica—as defined by people age 15 and above who can, with understanding, read and write
short, simple statements about their everyday life—was 96.06%.
MEP
Costa Rica’s education system is ranked 22nd worldwide, the highest in Latin America
(CINDE, 2011). Costa Rica has national standards that are created and enforced by the MEP.
These standards are generic to the country, but their implementation is not necessarily consistent
through the country. According to CINDE (2011), schools are allowed to change the curriculum
to satisfy the needs of a changing society but are also monitored to ensure excellence and quality.
Assessment. The Costa Rican MEP requires testing of all students at the sixth- and ninth-
grade levels, as well as upon completion of high school. The sixth-grade examination tests
students in mathematics, social studies, Spanish, and science. The ninth-grade examination tests
students in mathematics, social studies, science, Spanish, English, and civics. To receive a high
school diploma, students must pass six examinations with a minimum 65% score in mathematics,
foreign language (English), science (biology, physics or chemistry), social studies, Spanish, and
civic education.
Assessment instruments are content based, not competency based, which, according to
Castro (2010), leads teachers and students to tend to spend class time rehearsing sample ques-
tions and answers to multiple-choice items instead of learning and internalizing important skills
such as reading, writing, speaking, critical thinking, or quantitative reasoning. To attend a uni-
versity, students must receive a high school diploma and pass the entrance examination of their
chosen university (InfoCostaRica, 2012).
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 43
Primary school. Primary school enrollment in 2003 was estimated at about 90% of age-
eligible students. In that year, secondary school enrollment was about 53% of age-eligible
students (Encyclopedia.com, 2007). Many post elementary students seek employment instead of
pursuing secondary education. Others, especially females, leave school to take care of younger
siblings while parents work to support the family (Castro, 2010).
According to the last Estado de la Educacion Costarricense, 35.1% of Costa Rica’s pop-
ulation had at least a high school diploma (Consejo Nacional de Rectores, 2013). However,
according to a report published by the Instituto Nacional de Estadistica y Censos (INEC) in
2013, only 25.71% of the population had at least a high school diploma. Regardless of which
number is referenced, when compared to other OECD countries, only Mexico, Portugal, and
Turkey were ranked as low (OECD, 2009).
High school education. The MEP has considered high school education as an area of
concern and is seeking to universalize high school education and eradicate the belief that a ninth-
grade education is enough (State of Nation Program, 2011). The MEP hopes to enhance the
quality of academic programs offered at the high school level . The goal of this program is to
validate the right to education for all Costa Ricans regardless of socioeconomic level. Explicitly,
the program plans to improve the opportunity for education services at all levels. This plan
provides accessible education to populations that have been excluded in the past.
The plan also provides access to technology and other vocational opportunities (State of
Nation Program, 2011). The goal is for students to become life-long learners and apply Wagner’s
survival skills to enhance the quality of life, thus to capitalize on the high literacy rate but apply
analytical and critical thinking skills (MEP, 2007). However, to attain these academic goals,
Costa Rica must allocate a large portion of the country’s GDP and look to indirect funding
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 44
opportunities from MNCs. Educational methodologies must be revised to meet such demands
and goals (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001).
MNCs in Costa Rica
FDI is the channel for economic growth, providing capital and employment opportunities
that might not otherwise be available in the host country. In addition, FDI is a method of tech-
nology transfer between countries, especially to the less-developed nations (Jensen, 2003).
MNCs have played a large role in the development of Costa Rica’s economy (Hanson, 2001;
Jensen, 2003; Paus & Gallagher, 2008). Development in the economy has led to a need for a dif-
ferent type of workforce than was needed when Costa Rica was solely an agrarian society. The
school system of Costa Rica had to adapt policies and curricula to prepare students for the
change in human capital necessitated by participation in the global market.
Financial crisis. In 1983, to attract FDI and emerge from financial crisis, Costa Rica uni-
fied exchange rates, officially acknowledging the de facto devaluation of the colon and closed
the gap between the black market and banking rates (Clark, 1995). Attracting FDI has become a
necessary part of many countries’ economic development strategies. Costa Rica, with the help of
CINDE, has increased the nation’s attractiveness to MNCs through incentive programs that
would prove effective in attracting corporations to invest in Costa Rica.
CINDE accelerated the Legislative Assembly through a series of export possibilities in
order serve to attract high-technology MNCs, including export contracts (a package of fiscal
benefits and tax exemptions), special import arrangements for industries engaged in light assem-
bly work and Free Trade Zone (FTZ) legislation (Clark, 1995). The FTZ regime provided many
incentives for export manufacturing companies, export trade companies (not producers), export
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 45
service companies, companies or organizations engaged in scientific research, or manufacturing
firms that could export (minimum export level not required; CINDE, 2010).
Manufacturing projects. One of the main incentives that these companies received was
that manufacturers that export more than 75% of the production in Costa Rican operation would
receive a 100% exemption on corporate income tax for the first 8 years and a 50% exemption
during the following 4 years. Second, manufacturers of large-scale projects, defined as $10 mil-
lion in spending and 100 employees, would receive a 100% exemption on corporate income tax,
a 10% income tax credit to be used toward domestic and foreign training, and up to 10 years of
income tax deferral. In addition to the aforementioned tax benefits, all companies operating
under the FTZ regime receive, with no time limit, 100% exemption on import duties, export and
excise taxes, and a repatriation tax on remittances, among others (CINDE, 2010). These tax
incentives, coupled with a well-educated workforce and a good infrastructure, have made Costa
Rica one of the most inviting host nations for FDI (Clark, 1995).
FDI. There are two theories of thought regarding FDI. The aforementioned incentives
seem to highlight only benefits; however, critics claim that FDI is not beneficial to the host
country. The critics state that those who seek FDI assume that FDI will have positive spillover
effects that will advance the host country’s knowledge-based asset; however, these expectations
contrast sharply with what is being found in case studies, particularly those researched in devel-
oping countries (Paus & Gallagher, 2008).
Regardless of whether FDI is viewed as an asset or detriment to the host country, empiri-
cal research has suggested that FDI is sensitive to both host country tax policies and economic
conditions, including the education level of the labor force, overall market size, and the size of
the local industrial base (Hanson, 2001). Focusing on Costa Rica, Giuliani (2008) found that
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 46
attracting high-tech FDI had more potential for spillover effects compared to other types of
investments, such as low-technology or natural resource-based materials. Moreover, high-
technology industries have a higher value added than either of the previously successful apparel
or natural resource sectors and are less subject to fluctuations in international price and product
commodification (Giuliani, 2008).
The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2001) World Investment
Report 2001 suggested that domestic suppliers can benefit from linkages to multinational sub-
sidiaries because these linkages can serve as channels for spreading knowledge and skills among
firms. Blalock and Gertler (2005) stated that this direct transfer of knowledge occurs because
MNCs have incentives to improve the productivity of their suppliers by providing training and
quality control, and upgrading suppliers’ production capabilities.
As a result of CINDE and the Figueres administration’s dedication to drawing FDI to
Costa Rica, Intel decided to locate its $300 million semiconductor assembly and test plant in
Costa Rica in 1996. In the same year, Cisco started operations in Costa Rica and maintained an
office that served as their headquarters for Central America. Although less recognized, Microsoft
Inc., started operations in Costa Rica in the year prior to Intel’s much publicized decision.
Although the mid- to late 1990s attracted high-stakes high-technology companies to Costa Rica,
other electronics companies were previously there. Firms such as Siemens, Bticino, Eaton, and
Panasonic began to invest in the 1950s to early 1970s (Giuliani, 2008).
Intel. Intel’s decision to invest in Costa Rica in 1996 created what is known as the sig-
naling effect, indicating that Intel had conducted an in-depth analysis before choosing its new
location and therefore paving the way for other investors to follow the lead (World Bank Group,
Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency [MIGA], 2006). By 2005, Costa Rica had attracted
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 47
more than 50 foreign companies in the electronics industry; these companies employed more
than 11,000 people and reached an export value of $2.12 million (Giuliani, 2008).
Investment companies. Initiated in 1987 by an investment from Baxter, there has been
investment by 18 companies manufacturing medical devices, including world leaders such as
Hospira, Boston Scientific, Arthrocare, Inamed, and Coloplast (CINDE, 2011). A successful
relationship was developed among foreign investors, CINDE, and the government of Costa Rica
that was visible within the country and promoted and recognized abroad (World Bank Group,
2006). Intel alone accounted for nearly 25% of the country’s exports between 1999 and 2006
(Paus & Gallagher, 2008).
GDP growth. In 1999, Costa Rica’s GDP grew 8.4%; however, excluding Intel’s contri-
bution, it would have grown only 3%, thus indicating that more than 60% of Costa Rica’s GDP
growth could be directly attributed to Intel (World Bank Group, 2006). Evidently, MNCs aided
the economic development of Costa Rica but also challenged the education system. Costa Rica
experiences a high rate of elementary enrollment as education is compulsory and free; however,
the country continues to struggle to increase enrollment at the secondary and tertiary levels. Only
61% of the Costa Rican workforce have completed elementary education, 16% have completed
secondary education, and 15% have a university degree (Monge-González & González-
Alvarado, 2007).
Workforce. In general, Costa Rica responded to the demand for a skilled workforce by
restructuring strategic parts of its overall education system. Recognizing the significance of an
educated workforce, Costa Rica has made an important effort over the past 30 years to increase
resources assigned to tertiary education and to the scholarship system for university students
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 48
with scarce resources (Monge-González & González-Alvarado, 2007). Universities were not the
only level of education affected by the influx of MNCs in Costa Rica.
National English Plan. The National English Plan was created in response to the
nation’s need to comply with the production sector’s increasing demand for human capital with
English language proficiency; its goal is to create competent English language users who are able
to communicate effectively in a work environment (CINDE, 2011). In addition to an overall push
toward an English-speaking workforce, there has been increased recognition of technology skills
to be taught at the elementary level in order to be fully fluent in the language of the globalized
business world.
Leadership
In this research, leadership meant more than analyzing how administrators or officers of
corporations led others to success. Leadership, in this research, focused on everyone who partici-
pated in implementing the PRONAFECYT curricula into the school’s curriculum. This research
analyzed leadership in the students, teachers, parents, administrators, classrooms, schools, corpo-
rations, and country. Some of the leadership assumptions used DuFour and Marzano’s (2011) as
analytical tools:
1. Schools can only be as good as the people within them.
2. If one of the most important variables in student learning is the quality of instruction
students receive each day, the schools must utilize strategies that result in more good
teaching in more classrooms more of the time.
3. If sustentative school improvement requires a coordinated, systematic, and collective
effort rather than a series of isolated individual efforts, then schools and districts must use
professional development strategies that are specifically designed to develop the
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 49
collective capacity of educators to meet the needs of students. Strategies based on sanc-
tions, punishments, attracting future generations of educators, or rewarding individual
teachers will do little to build the collective capacity of current educators to meet the
demands being placed on them.
4. The best strategy for improving schools and districts is developing the collective
capacity of educators to function as members of a professional learning community
(PLC).
5. Creating the conditions that foster high-performing PLCs can be done within existing
resources if schools and districts are willing to change some of their traditional practices.
(DuFour & Marzano, 2011, p. 21)
With these analytical tools in mind, the goal was to analyze how the Costa Rican schools
are utilizing several leadership models to implement PBL in their curricula in order to compete at
the PRONAFECYT. Analyzing leadership helped to discover modes of implementation and
practice into established school models.
Frameworks
The following leader frameworks were applied in this study. The framework by Richard
DuFour and Robert J. Marzano (2011) identified characteristics of successful leaders in educa-
tion who have contributed to student achievement. Robert M. Capraro, Mary Margaret Capraro,
and James R. Morgan (2013) introduce the concept of STEM PBL to enhance collaborative
learning in the classroom. Bolman and Deal’s (2008) leadership framework provided structure in
identifying how leaders’ perspectives and multiframed viewpoints enable them to meet the
current challenges of the education system. Due to the nature of the reform efforts in Costa Rica,
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 50
it is imperative that the leaders in education exhibit characteristics that elicit student achieve-
ment.
Richard DuFour and Robert J. Marzano
Research has shown that leadership is an imperative apparatus in creating an effective
learning environment for student success (DuFour & Marzano, 2011). Dess and Picken (2000)
stated that the strategic emphasis has shifted from a leader being a good manager of mass
markets and tangible goods to innovation and the effective use of knowledge and human capital
resources. Leaders must be prepared to respond to this transformation. This type of change
applies not only to the world of business but also, due to trickle-down effects, to the world of
education. In order to create a high rate of return, the future workforce must be educated effec-
tively.
DuFour and Marzano (2011) created a leadership framework for education leaders to
identify 21 leadership responsibilities that are significantly associated with student achievement.
This leadership framework is predicated on the notion that leaders possess not only the ability to
perform their responsibilities but also to know when and why to utilize their leadership
resources. An important aspect of this framework that coincides with changes in education in
Costa Rica resulting from the policy regarding improvement toward 21st-century skills is the
belief that effective leaders have a sense of balance when it comes to pushing for change but
respect aspects of culture, values, and norms that are worth preserving (DuFour & Marzano,
2011). This concept is extremely important because one of the key objectives of Costa Rican
education is to create civic lovers of the homeland who are aware of their rights and of their fun-
damental freedoms, with a deep sense of responsibility and respect for human dignity (MEP,
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 51
n.d.). Ensuring that frameworks coincide with cultural norms and yet hold leaders accountable
provides a realistic form of measurement.
The 21 responsibilities of leaders, according to DuFour and Marzano (2011), are the fol-
lowing: affirmation; change agent; contingent rewards; communication; culture; discipline;
flexibility; focus; ideals/beliefs; input; intellectual stimulation; involvement in curriculum,
instruction, and assessment; knowledge of curriculum, instruction, and assessment; monitor-
ing/evaluating; optimizer; order; outreach; relationships; resources; situational awareness; and
visibility. While all 21 are extremely important in the makeup of an effective leader, this study
focuses on a few key responsibilities that the research cohort found to be particularly associated
with the situation in Costa Rica: change agent, culture, focus, monitoring/evaluating, and
resources.
Change agent is defined as a leader who is willing to challenge and actively challenges
the status quo (DuFour & Marzano, 2011). The Costa Rican education system, as evidenced by
the National Inform produced by the MEP (n.d.) has to make changes to be an effective system
of education that is teaching 21st-century skills. The responsibility of culture is defined by a
leader who fosters shared beliefs and a sense of community and cooperation (DuFour &
Marzano, 2011). Again referencing the objectives of Costa Rican education, the culture is a very
central feature to its education system and must be referenced in any policy change in education
in order for it to be more effective. As a leader, focus is a critical responsibility that demands that
the leader establish clear goals and keep those goals in the forefront of the school’s attention
(Marzano et al., 2005). Change was never deemed an easy undertaking, and there are often
opportunities to lose focus. The researchers looked to see how Costa Rican education leaders
have maintained focus throughout their push to interject 21st-century skills into their schools.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 52
This study examines the leaders’ responsibility, defined as resources that are their
responsibility to provide teachers with materials and professional development necessary for
successful execution of their jobs (DuFour & Marzano, 2011). MNCs have donated ample
resources to the education system in Costa Rica. These resources, coupled with the MEP’s
(2013) Aims and Objectives, require effective allocation and consistent maintenance. This study
was designed to determine whether the education leaders were addressing this responsibility.
DuFour and Marzano (2011) continued their framework by identifying two underlying
factors of the 21 responsibilities, first- and second-order change. First-order change is incremen-
tal; second-order change involves dramatic departures from the expected, both in problem defi-
nition and in solution. The study examines both orders of change and how they pertain to the
leadership in education in Costa Rica. Based on the order of change identified, the study exam-
ines responsibilities strongly associated with effective leadership at that level.
Robert M. Capraro, Mary Margaret Capraro, and James R. Morgan
STEM PBL is the belief that genuine education comes from experience. What this means
is the only way students are able to learn is through the process of action and not sampling
listing. Although the concept is not new, the application is. Students have been taught through
archaic forms of lecturing and repetition. Rote learning is no longer applicable in 21st-century
settings. With the demands for soft skills, 21st century-skills, students must have the skills to
work collaboratively at solving global issues.
Furthermore, the need to apply STEM PBL in academia is imperative to aid the 21st-
century learner down the path of critical thinking and problem solving through real-life applica-
tion. Real-life application is what students need not only to solve global issues but also to work
in a collaborative setting, sharing through a cognitive compass of academic research and
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 53
findings. STEM-PBL is an interdependent nexus of learning objectives, assessment, and student
learning (Capraro et al., 2013). This nexus is the core is enhancing the problem-solving strategies
needed in all life settings.
With academic leaders, STEM PBL requires a highly trained teaching and leading force
to supply not only the materials needed for any project endeavor but the cognitive skills needed
to assist students in critically analyzing data. Helping students to analyze data critically requires
more than questioning on the part of teacher and leaders; it requires patience and guidance.
Often, while working on an academic endeavor, students can become frustrated; it is the
teacher’s and leader’s job to guide students through academic obstacles while not doing the
project for them (Capraro et al., 2013).
STEM PBL is also referred to as inquiry-based learning. Inquiry-based learning is the
instructional approach that uses student-directed inquiry processes during the discovery stage.
What this entails is the notion of asking, investigating, creating, discussing, and reflecting
(Capraro et al., 2013). Inquiry-based learning, like STEM PBL, is the learning and teaching
approach that engages students to explore their own questions and interests.
The ultimate goal of both STEM PBL and inquiry-based learning is to help the whole
child to grow academically. However, academics are not the only way a child will grow through
STEM PBL. Through the lens of inquiry-based learning, a student is able to gain inquiry skills
that will help him or her to succeed in facing any life obstacles. Through strategies and critical
analysis, students are able to solve real-life world problems on their own.
Bolman and Deal
Bolman and Deal’s (2008) leadership framework was utilized to evaluate the educational
leadership and their ability to incorporate 21st-century skills in their schools. This framework
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 54
identifies four distinctive frames from which people view their world: structural, human
resources, political, and symbolic. Figure 1 represents an overview of the four frames.

Frame Leader in: Leadership Process
Structural Social architect Analysis, design
Human Resource Catalyst, servant Support, empowerment
Political Advocate Advocacy, coalition build-
ing
Symbolic Prophet, poet Inspiration, framing ex-
perience
Figure 1. Bolman and Deal’s overview of the four-frame model. Adapted from “Leadership and
Management Effectiveness: A Multi-Frame, Multi Sector Analysis,” by L. G. Bolman, 1991,
Human Resources Management, 30, 509-534.
The first perspective is the structural frame. The focus of the structural frame is on goals
and efficiency. Structural leaders value analysis and data, set clear directions, hold people
accountable for results, and try to solve organizational problems with new policies and rules or
through restructuring (Bolman, 1991).
The human resource frame centers on what organizations and people do to and for one
another (Bolman & Deal, 2008). This frame evolved from the theory that workers had rights to
more than just a paycheck (Follet, 1918; Mayo, 1933, 1945). The human resource frame focuses
on the interaction between individual and organizational needs. These leaders value relationships
and feelings, seeking to lead through facilitation and empowerment (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
The political frame is rooted in political science and views organizations as arenas of
continuing conflict and competition among different interests for scarce resources (Bolman,
1991). From a political perspective, goals, structure, and policies emerge from an ongoing
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 55
process of negotiation among major interest groups (Bolman & Deal, 2008). Political leaders
spend a great deal of their time lobbying, networking, and creating coalitions to establish a basis
of power and influence.
In comparison to the political frame, the symbolic frame is subjective. The symbolic per-
spective sees facts as interpretative rather than objective and finds that organizations develop
cultural symbols that shape human behavior while providing a shared mission and identity
(Bolman, 1991). Symbolic leaders consider team building to be at the heart of an organization’s
success; they pay attention to myth, ritual, ceremony, and other symbolic forms (Bolman & Deal,
2008).
Reformation of education by leaders will likely have to utilize several skills, strategies,
and multiple perspectives in order to obtain results. Bolman and Deal (2008) defined this type of
thinking. Leadership is considered multiframe thinking that requires moving beyond narrow,
mechanical approaches to include multiple perspectives and viewpoints from which to gauge and
attack the situation. Bensimon (1998) suggested that the ability to use multiple frames is associ-
ated with greater effectiveness for managers and leaders. In a study conducted by Dunford and
Palmer (1995), leaders found that a multiperspective approach provided a way of broadening
cognitive perceptions of organizational issues and problems and the resulting actions taken to
address them. In order to address reform efforts and make changes as a leader, a multiframe
model of thinking is necessary to ensure a well-rounded diagnosis and solution.
Fidler (1997) suggested that a multiframed perspective approach is necessary for success-
ful leadership in education. Not only must school leaders logistically manage an institution,
including staff, children, and development; they must also create support within the community
and develop a mutually understood passion for an overall mission. This multifaceted approach
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 56
requires educational leaders to draw from different perspectives to properly address each
requirement.
Simkins (2005) suggested that, in order for educational leaders to function effectively,
they must utilize a sense-making agenda comprised of a multidimensional approach, including
attention to the organization’s purpose, a focus on power and authority, and development of the
mission—all centering on ethical, practical and personal values. A multiframed perspective
approach does not guarantee the success of an educational leader, but it helps to provide a better
foundation from which one can run one’s organization in an attempt to achieve the highest
success.
This study gathered data regarding the frames utilized by education leaders in Costa Rica.
Furthermore, the study assessed whether a multiframe thinking approach has proved advanta-
geous as leaders utilize resources gained from MNCs in advancing education to include 21st-
century skills.
Summary of Literature Review
Globalization has changed the face of education in several ways, most notably by
increasing the needs for education to incorporate 21st-century skills and the English language
into its underpinnings. The history of Costa Rica is dynamic and has created a military-free
nation that has made education compulsory and free since 1849. Current leaders of the nation
and the MEP have made incorporation of 21st-century skills into education a priority. Several
MNCs have invested in Costa Rica, setting up factories and contributing significantly to the
nation’s GDP, but they have also made financial commitments to the education system. Cur-
rently, there is a lack of research pertaining to how globalization and MNCs have influenced the
education system in Costa Rica. This study examined how national, district, and school
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 57
leadership has been impacted both directly and indirectly by policy changes due to globalization
and the resulting push for 21st-century skills. This study utilized two leadership frameworks, the
21 Responsibilities of Leaders (Marzano et al., 2005) and Bolman and Deal’s (2008) leadership
framework, to assess the effectiveness of the implementation of leaders to utilize resources, both
donated and allocated from state funding, to incorporate 21st-century skills in their schools. To
gauge these 21st-century skills, the researchers utilized Wagner’s (2008) list of seven survival
skills, as well as the Framework for 21st Century Learning (Partnership for 21st Century Skills,
2012) to provide an outline of student outcomes and necessary support systems.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 58
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
The forces of globalization and MNCs have influenced changes in education. These
changes are derived from the need to create human capital capable of succeeding in a
knowledge-based economy (Spring, 2008). Tsui and Tollefson (2007) stated that “globalization
is affected by two inseparable meditational tools, technology and English; proficiencies in these
tools have been referred to as global literacy skills” (p.1). In addition to globalization, MNCs
have influenced the education structure and format in Costa Rica. With CINDE’s influence and
assistance, Costa Rica has attracted several MNCs to invest in its infrastructure and economy;
companies such as Intel, Microsoft, and Cisco have entered into partnerships with the MEP to
provide resources to Costa Ricans (CINDE, 2013).
Currently, there is a notable lack of information regarding how resources from the MNCs
have been implemented in schools to achieve a higher level of education focusing on 21st-
century skills necessary for the knowledge-based economy. The current literature does not
explain how leadership in education has been affected by changes in education as an outcome of
policy changes resulting from globalization and the influence of MNCs. The purpose of this
study is to understand the impacts of globalization and MNCs on school leadership and the
development and implementation of 21st-century skills in Costa Rica. The purpose of the study
was addressed through the following research questions:
1. What role do educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT?
2. How does participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affect leadership and
instructional practices in Costa Rican schools? How do teacher practices at successful schools
differ from teacher practices at less successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa
Rican PRONAFECYT?
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 59
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
Chapter 2 examined the literature pertaining to the role of globalization in instructional
practices with PBL and the PRONAFECYT. This chapter focuses on the components of the
study: research design, sample and population, instrumentation, data collection, data analysis,
and ethical considerations.
Analytical Apparatuses: Frameworks
To identify this study’s purpose, the cohort used the following frameworks as a lens to
approach the research: (a) Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four-frame model, (b) defining globaliza-
tion (Spring, 2008), and (c) Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century skills.
Spring (2008) identified four prevalent aspects of globalization: the world culture view,
the world systems approach, a postcolonial analysis, and a culturalist approach. Spring noted that
culture perception is based on the hegemony. The hegemony, according to Spring, the world
culture view is based on the premise that Western ideals of batch schooling are based on the
concept that all children have the right to an education and that education is of utmost
importance in maintaining economic and democratic rights. This approach perceives the world as
integrated but with two significantly unequal parts, with the United States and the European
Union and Japan comprising the powerful half. Globalization leads to efforts to impose eco-
nomic and political agendas that benefit wealthy and rich nations at the expense of the world’s
lower socio-economic. Consequently, culturalists contend that local decision makers blend mul-
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 60
tiple models of education systems in order to apply their specific situation and leave behind what
does not apply.
In Reframing Organizations, Bolman and Deal (2008) identified four distinct analytical
frames by which Western society perceives the world: structural, human resources, political, and
symbolic. The structural frame focuses on goals and efficiency whereby leaders value analysis
and data, set clear directions, hold people accountable for results, and try to solve organizational
problems with new policies and rules of thorough restructuring (Bolman, 1991). In the human
resources frame there is a focus on the interaction between the individual and organizational
needs whereby leaders value relationships and feelings, seeking to lead through facilitation and
empowerment (Bolman & Deal, 2008). The political frame is rooted in political science and
views organizations as arenas of continuing conflict and competition among different interests
for scarce resources (Bolman & Deal, 2008). Politically framed leaders spend a great deal of
their time lobbying, networking, and creating coalitions to establish a basis of power and influ-
ence. The fourth frame, the symbolic frame, is much more subjective than the political frame
because this frame sees facts as interpretive rather than objective. Symbolic leaders consider
team building to be at the heart of an organization’s success; they pay attention to myth, ritual,
ceremony, and other symbolic forms (Bolman & Deal, 2008).
Wagner’s (2008) approach to 21st-century skills includes several characteristics outlined
by the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2012) and expands on them. Wagner’s outline
provides what he titled Seven Survival Skills for the 21st century: (a) critical thinking,
(b) collaboration and leadership, (c) agility and adaptability, (d) initiative and entrepreneurialism,
(e) effective oral and written communication, (f) accessing and analyzing information, and
(g) curiosity and imagination. Wagner stated that these necessary skills originated in response to
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 61
the following three transformations: (a) the rapid evolution of the new global knowledge econ-
omy, (b) access to and abundance of information, and (c) the profound impact of the media and
technology on how young people learn and relate to the world and to one another.
Research Design
A qualitative case study approach was used in the collection and analysis of the research
data.
Qualitative research is an effort to understand situations in their uniqueness. . . . This
understanding is an end in itself, so that it is not attempting to predict what may happen
in the future necessarily, but to understand the nature of that setting. The analysis strives
for depth of understanding. (Patton, 1985, p. 1)
This study was designed to observe and analyze the impact of globalization and its influ-
ences on PBL and the PRONAFECYT in Costa Rican schools. The qualitative approach allowed
for exploring and understanding the meaning of individuals and groups (Creswell, 2009).
The qualitative case study approach offers insights and illuminates meanings that could
be identified to create a working hypothesis to identify fissures in research and to identify possi-
ble answers to the research questions. This study was designed to assess the impact of globaliza-
tion on PBL and how the PRONAFECYT affects such teaching practices; conducting a case
study allowed for data to be analyzed.
To gather necessary information, interviews were conducted with the Minister of Public
Education of Costa Rica, school leaders, Costa Rican politicians, the Director of Education and
Academic Relations of Intel, and the Director of CINDE. Teachers who are employed by schools
receiving resources from Intel completed surveys, and classroom observations were conducted at
school sites where technological resources have been allocated by Intel.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 62
Research Team
The research team was led by Dr. Michael Escalante of the University of Southern Cali-
fornia (USC) Rossier School of Education. This dissertation group was comprised of 18 USC
doctoral students and faculty member Dr. Michael Escalante. The group began to meet in
summer 2014. Initial research was conducted via literature review and presented among group
members in winter 2013. The group met approximately two to three times per month to collabo-
rate, synthesize goals, and plan the study design. As a result of the many group aspects of the
thematic process, there may be similarities in the dissertations.
Exploratory Trip
The dissertation chair, Dr. Escalante, joined by four fellow dissertation group members,
participated in a 4-day exploratory trip to Costa Rica in June 2015. While on this trip, they met
with several political entities, corporate leaders, and educational representatives, including the
following: (a) a former president of Costa Rica; (b) officers of the MEP; (c) the Dean of the
College of Education and the Director of Educational Research at the University of Costa Rica
(UCR); (d) the director of the think tank that informs the government on policymaking decisions;
(e) the director of CINDE; (f) the Intel Director of Education Programs in Costa Rica; (g) the
director of the FTZ business association; (h) the director of Costa Rica-United States of America
(CRUSA), an organization that supports educational growth and research in Costa Rica; and (i)
the lead researcher and author of the Estado de la Nacion, an annual report on the status of the
education system in Costa Rica.
These initial meetings were set up with the support of the 18 group members’ initial cor-
respondence through email with the aforementioned people (Appendix A). The contacts that this
exploratory trip generated were utilized in identifying specific schools that have received
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 63
resources from Intel and identified which school leaders were to be interviewed. The exploratory
trip laid the groundwork for meetings with the political entities and MNC leaders who were to be
interviewed during the research trip of the full team in June 2015.
Sample and Population
In this study, purposeful sampling stemming from a snowball effect was utilized. The
initial contacts via email (Appendix A) and the exploratory trip led to creation of a list of 18
schools at which the research team would interview leaders and survey teachers. Purposeful
sampling was used because the study was focused on the impact of a specific phenomenon on a
specific identity, identified as globalization and the impact of MNCs on education in Costa Rica.
Nonprobability sampling methods are logical as long as the fieldworker expects mainly to
use his data not to answer questions like “how much” and “how often” but to solve qual-
itative problems, such as discovering what occurs, the implications of what occurs, and
the relationships linking occurrences. (Honigman, 1982, p. 82)
This is precisely what the study is designed to do by discovering themes and patterns among the
interviewees, school sites, and resource allocations.
The sample consisted of four groups: a Costa Rican political leader, directors of MNCs
and affiliated organizations, school site leaders, and teachers. The Costa Rican political leader
involved in this study is the Minister of Public Education, Dr. Leonardo Garnier. In addition, the
Director of CINDE, Gabriella Llobet, and the Director of the ODF, Dr. Maria Eugenia Bujanda,
were interviewed for the study. Natalie Valencia from the National Program of Science and
Technology were collaboratively interviewed. Intel is the MNC on which the study was focused;
therefore, the research team interviewed the Director of Education and Academic Relations at
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 64
Intel, Mary-Helen Bialas, as well as Patricia Escalante, former Director of Intel’s Teach the
Future Program.
The focus school sites were K–12 schools in the area surrounding San José, Costa Rica,
which has been identified as having received resources from Intel. This study specifically
focuses on the leaders and teachers of Colegio Tecnico Profesional (CTP) de Carrizal. The
director, Raul Cabezas Alvarez, was interviewed by this researcher and a translator. CTP de
Carrizal is a secondary school located in the province of Alajuela, Costa Rica. It is a public tech-
nical high school, rurally located, with a population of 733 students.
The research group collaboratively identified these four entities (i.e., political leaders,
directors of MNCs, and school site leaders and teachers) as necessary pieces in the triangulation
of data, providing for an opportunity to cross-reference information with a substantial depth of
understanding.
Instruments
The instruments for this study were interviews, surveys, and classroom observations. The
interview protocols were created in January 2015 and refined through early spring 2015. The
observation and survey protocol were created in spring 2015. Three piloted samples of the lead-
ership interview and the observation protocol were conducted in early spring. The group collabo-
ratively responded to feedback gathered during the piloting process. As a result, the protocols
became more aligned with the research questions and more succinct in their delivery(Appendices
A through O). The recruitment letter and consent form were created in spring 2015 to ensure
adherence to standards of research outlined by USC’s Institutional Review Board (IRB).
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 65
Interviews
In order to create the oral interview questions, the research group utilized Merriam’s
(2009) guidelines to give structure to and elicit substance from the questions. A semistructured
interview format was used to provide structured questions necessary for addressing the research
questions, as well as to allow for some flexibility in the form of follow-up or probing questions.
Three sets of interview questions were created to address the three groups to be interviewed:
education leaders, leaders of MNCs, and political leaders. The questions stemmed from the same
basic root question but were worded differently to make each applicable to its audience; how-
ever, the root of the question remained to provide for clear triangulation of responses. When
establishing interview questions, the cohort worked collaboratively to include the following six
types of questions that Patton (2002) identified as necessary to stimulate responses from the
interviewee: experience and behavior questions, opinion and values questions, feeling questions,
knowledge questions, sensory questions, and background/demographic questions (Appendices D
through H).
Survey
The sample for the survey consisted of teachers who taught at K–12 schools that have
received Intel resources. The surveys (Appendices I through N) were distributed once to gather
feedback and information with regard to implementation of leadership and 21st-century skills as
a result of globalization and the impact of MNCs on education in Costa Rica. Fink (2013) noted
that conducting surveys is a good form of data collection when researchers want to evaluate the
effectiveness of a program and to change people’s knowledge, attitudes, health, or welfare. In the
case of this study, the survey utilizes forced-choice questions to elicit specific information
regarding the impact of globalization and MNCs on school leadership and 21st-century skills in
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 66
Costa Rica. A 5-point Likert-type scale is used to indicate level of agreement with the state-
ments, detailing a specific piece of Wagner’s (2008) framework and its alignment with Costa
Rican education.
Observations
An observation protocol (Appendix O) was created to assess the implementation of 21st-
century skills in the classroom. The protocol was created using Merriam’s (2009) checklist of
observable elements: physical setting, participants, activities and interactions, conversation,
subtle factors, and the observer’s own behavior. In utilizing this observation protocol, each
researcher assumes the role of observer as participant, whereby the group knows about the
researcher’s observer activities but participation by the observer in the group is definitely sec-
ondary to the role of information gatherer (Merriam, 2009).
Data Collection
The researchers traveled to Costa Rica to gather data through interviews, surveys, and
observations. Four separate populations were addressed. Interviews were conducted with teach-
ers, education leaders, political leaders, and leaders of MNCs. Surveys were administered to sec-
ondary Intel school teachers. An observation protocol (Appendix O) was implemented in class-
rooms of secondary Intel schools.
Various methods were utilized to provide a depth of data to allow for triangulation of
data. Triangulation is the act of collecting data from a diverse range of individuals and settings,
utilizing a variety of methods. By using different methods with varying strengths, the researchers
reduced the risk that the conclusions reflect only the biases of a specific method and a more
secure understanding of the issues being investigated was allowed (Maxwell, 2013).
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 67
The interviews with the political leaders, education leaders, and directors of MNCs were
necessary to gain understanding of each individual’s perspective regarding how globalization
and MNCs have affected education in Costa Rica. In addition, observations of classrooms pro-
duced first-hand knowledge of implementation of 21st-century skills to either validate or negate
the survey responses from the classroom teachers. According to Merriam (2009), “Observations
can be used as a firsthand encounter with the phenomena of interest rather than a secondhand
account of the world obtained in an interview” (p. 117). Due to the limited time available to
spend in Costa Rica, the research team administered surveys to assess teachers’ perspectives on
how globalization and MNCs have influenced education in Costa Rica. Fink (2013) concluded
that surveys are best used when one needs information directly from people about what they
believe, know, and think in relation to the effectiveness of a particular program. Utilizing these
various methods is valuable in providing divergent perspectives, leading to understanding of the
studied phenomena (Greene, 2007).
Data Analysis
The process of data analysis involves finding patterns and themes from the collected data.
According to Creswell (2009), data analysis involves preparing the data for analysis, conducting
analyses, understanding the data, representing the data, and making an interpretation of the larger
meaning of the data. The data analysis for this study was done both collaboratively and individu-
ally. Both methods of analysis utilized Creswell’s (2009) six steps for data analysis in qualitative
research, identified as follows:
Step 1: Organize and prepare data for analysis. This step will involve transcribing inter-
views, typing up field notes from observations, and organizing data into different types depend-
ing on the sources of information.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 68
Step 2: Read through all the data. In order to gain a general sense of what the data have to
offer, all researchers will read through the data to gain a general understanding of and comfort
level with the material collected.
Step 3: Begin detailed analysis with a coding process. “Coding is the process of organiz-
ing the material into chunks or segments of text before bringing meaning to information”
(Rossman & Rallis, 1998, p. 171).
Step 4: Use the coding process to generate a description of the setting or people as well as
categories or themes for analysis.
Step 5: Advance how the description and themes will be represented in the qualitative
narrative.
Step 6: Make an interpretation of the data by answering the question, “What were the
lessons learned?” (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, pp. 185–190).
Reliability, Validity, and Generalizability
The researchers implemented several steps and checkpoints to assure that the findings
were accurate and credible. Three characteristics were addressed: validity, reliability, and gener-
alizability. Qualitative validity means that the researcher checks for the accuracy of the findings
by employing certain procedures; qualitative reliability indicates that the researcher’s approach is
consistent across researchers and projects (Gibbs, 2008). Generalizability refers to the external
validity of applying results to new settings, people, or samples (Creswell, 2009).
To ensure reliability, the dissertation research group utilized Gibbs’s (2008) reliability
procedures, including checking the transcripts to ensure that they did not contain obvious mis-
takes, checking to ensure that there was no drift in the definition codes, holding regular meetings
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 69
to ensure constant communication regarding the codes, and cross-checking codes developed by
the individual researchers.
Several validity strategies were utilized to check the accuracy of the findings. Of the
eight strategies recommended by Creswell (2009, pp. 191–192), this dissertation research group
utilized the following seven: (a) triangulate the data, (b) use member checking to determine the
accuracy of the qualitative findings, (c) use rich, thick description to convey the findings, (d)
clarify the bias that the researchers bring to the study, (e) present negative or discrepant infor-
mation that runs counter to the themes, (f) use peer debriefing to enhance the accuracy of the
account, and (g) use an external auditor to review the entire project.
Ethical Considerations
To obtain permission for data collection in Costa Rica, Dr. Michael Escalante and Dr.
Oryla Wiedoeft presented a summary of the research proposal to the Ministry of Public Educa-
tion (Appendix P). All 18 members of this study, including the research leader, Dr. Escalante,
completed the IRB application process that included the completion of the Collaborative Institu-
tional Training Initiative (CITI). This is an online training program that explains ethical conduct
toward human subjects in all research projects. After viewing four modules, each researcher
takes quizzes individually; an average score of 80% must be received for a passing mark to be
granted.
All instruments, including interview protocols, the observation protocol, and the survey
protocol, were cleared through the USC IRB. The IRB process ensures that all aspects of the
research project are compliant with necessary ethical considerations and that the project will not
cause harm (mental, physical or otherwise) to any participants.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 70
Chapter Summary
This chapter described the study’s research design model, the sample and population, the
instruments utilized, the data collection process, and how data were analyzed through collabora-
tive efforts. The chapter described qualitative research methodologies used to explain the impact
of globalization and its influences on PBL in Costa Rica and how students prepare for the
PRONAFECYT. The researchers gathered ample data from which to triangulate findings during
the data analysis process through interviews with political leaders, education leaders, and MNCs;
surveys of teachers at secondary Intel schools; and classroom observations at secondary Intel
schools.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 71
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS
In this chapter the primary school (Atlantic Elementary, a pseudonym) is discussed and
deconstructed, synthesizing the connection not only with the government perspectives of the
school but also how the research team observed and analyzed the findings for Atlantic Elemen-
tary . The purpose of this chapter is to present findings from analysis of the information gathered
through the qualitative tools: interviews, surveys, observations, and the literature review, primar-
ily from Atlantic Elementary. The findings are analyzed through the viewpoint of four frame-
works: (a) globalization (Spring, 2008), (b) reframing organizations (Bolman & Deal, 2008), (c)
STEM PBL (Capraro et al., 2013), and (d) 21st-century skills (Wagner, 2008). These frameworks
aid in deconstructing the data and the findings with the research on PRONAFECYT. It was
imperative to identify the frameworks within the data to identify themes and trends with schools
in Costa Rica.
The purpose of this study was to understand the influence of educational leadership on
participation in PRONAFECYT in Costa Rica primary schools and how such influence is
affecting the students in learning the necessary skills of STEM PBL. PRONAFECYT is the
acronym for the National Science Fair in Costa Rica. PRONAFECYT is the national standard to
enhance science, mathematics, technology, and collaborative learning within the country. Atlan-
tic Elementary not only followed the standards but provided adequate information to show how
PRONAFECYT objectives were being met. This study also examined how leadership capacities
restructured and/or supported PRONAFECYT, using the four frameworks mentioned above.
Consequently, the purpose of this study was to identify educational leadership and the develop-
ment of 21st-century skills in schools and universities in Costa Rica in order to determine how
students are being supported in PRONAFECYT. This study identified changes that educational
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 72
leaders had experienced as a result of development and implementation of policy changes seen in
major national education initiatives from PRONAFECYT.
Interviews
Interviews were divided by schools and regions and conducted as a team; the following
government individuals and business leaders were interviewed equally by designated research
team members: (a) government officials: Javier Cambronero, Assemblyman; Alicia Porras
Vargas, Vice Minister of Academic Education, MEP; Carolina Vasquez Soto, Vice Minister of
MICITT; Natalie Valencia, MICITT; Patricia Arias, Regional Science Advisor, Occidente
Region; and Sylvia Ugaide Fernandez, Consulate General; (b) business leaders: Vanessa Gibson,
CINDE; Mary Helen Bialas, Consejo de Promocion de la Competividad; Ana Lourdes Acuna,
Coordinator of Science; Eduardo Monge, Project Development and International Relations; Ana
Hernandez, Program Evaluation, Omar Dengo Foundation; and Maria Santos Passamontes,
Director of Estado de la Nacion, Unidad Nacionales; and (c) university leaders: Alejandrina
Segreda-Mata, Dean of Primary Teacher Education, UCR; and Hugo Navarro, Dean, School of
Technical Education, ITCR. A government official interviewed for this study was Javier
Cambronero, who is a governmental assemblyman. Natalie Valencia is the Coordinator of the
PRONAFECYT, in charge of the projects that promote science and technology in education in
Costa Rica.
In Costa Rica, the science fair is the national goal on which government officials and
educational leaders would like the academic curriculum to be focused. When setting up the
research, the schools provided by the government officials were based on two factors:
accessibility and application. Several schools were chosen based on whether researchers were
able to gain access, whereas other schools were chosen based on recommendations from the
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 73
government officials. According to school administrators and government officials, tailoring
curriculum to focus on the science fair will aid students to be globally trained in the STEM
fields. Being globally trained will help students to be prepared in STEM PBL fields. Currently,
STEM fields are excelling as technology is globally connecting people of the world.
Research Questions
The study was guided by four following research questions:
1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional prac-
tice?
Following the participant analyses, emergent themes are presented according to each
research question. Besides deconstructing and analyzing the data through the lens of the research
questions, Chapter 4 incorporates data that the study’s participants provided to identify themes
and codes to address the research questions. In order to support each theme, data pertaining to
surveys, interviews, and observations are cited.
Participants
The study focused on a sample of school site administrators, teachers, and students in
Costa Rica. Other participants included government officials and business leaders. Interviews
were conducted with participants and school sites involved in this study were preselected by the
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 74
exploratory research team. Participants from six groups informed the study, including teachers,
parents, and students. With the qualitative methodologies, the research group (herein referred to
as the Occidente Group) collaboratively identified these six populations in order to triangulate
the data through the qualitative tools. The 18 elementary school sites involved in this study were
preselected by Costa Rican officials from MEP and MICITT.
For purposes of confidentiality, the school site that is the focus of this study is referred to
Atlantic Elementary (a pseudonym). To inform this study, nine interviews were conducted at
Atlantic Elementary: the director, four parents, and four teachers. Surveys were completed by 8
teachers, 34 students, and 5 parents. In addition, two observations of the school and classrooms
were conducted by the researchers. At the second school, Bayside Elementary (pseudonym), four
interviews were conducted: the director, the Science Fair Coordinator (Mary Smith, pseudonym),
the Assistant Principal/Teacher, and a science teacher. Surveys were completed by 5 teachers
and 62 students. In addition, six observations of the school and classrooms were conducted by
the researchers. Table 1 summarizes the invited and actual participants in this portion of the
research.
Table 1

Invited and Actual Study Participants From Atlantic Elementary and Bayside Elementary

Factor Atlantic Elementary Bayside Elementary

Number of surveys distributed 50 68
Number of survey responses 50 68
Number of teachers interviewed 8 5
Number of observations 2 6

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 75
Atlantic Elementary is a public technical middle school (with an elementary school
attached) located in the province of Occidente (West). It is considered a technical school because
of its curricula, focused not only on meeting the country’s standards but also on teaching tech-
nical skills that students will need outside of academia.
The objective is for the child to be able to construct their own thought, because the
program was focused only on the child being able to develop knowledge; mainly,
knowledge, but not beyond knowledge. This new program strives for analysis, synthesis,
and thought by the student. (Director, Atlantic Elementary, June 20, 2015)
Atlantic Elementary has 682 students, which includes 26 students with several learning disabili-
ties, 80 with mild/moderate learning disabilities, and 4 with physical disabilities. A total of 34
teachers are on site: three English teachers, one physical education teacher, one music teacher,
one ceramics teacher, and two resource teachers, as well as 26 regular teachers.
To enhance the research data, several people were interviewed who hold leadership posi-
tions within the multidimensional world of government in connection with PRONAFECYT:
Alicia Porras Vargas, Vice Minister of Academic Education, MEP; Carolina Vasquez Soto, Vice
Minister of MICITT; Natalie Valencia, MICITT; Patricia Arias, Regional Science Advisor,
Occidente Region; and Sylvia Ugaide Fernandez, Consulate General. Business leaders who
interviewed were Vanessa Gibson, CINDE; Mary Helen Bialas, Consejo de Promocion de la
Competividad; Ana Lourdes Acuna, Coordinator of Science; Eduardo Monge, Project Develop-
ment and International Relations; Ana Hernandez, Program Evaluation, Omar Dengo Founda-
tion; and Maria Santos Passamontes, Director of Estado de la Nacion, Unidad Nacionales.
Business leaders who were interviewed explained PRONAFECYT from the business perspec-
tive. Educational leaders who were interviewed were Alejandrina Segreda-Mata, Dean of
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 76
Primary Teacher Education, UCR; and Hugo Navarro, Dean, School of Technical Education,
ITCR. In order to gather adequate data to analyze the connections to PRONAFECYT and STEM
PBL, these leaders provided perspectives from outside the classroom. For the purpose of this
research, it was important for researchers to gain several perspectives of the outcomes of
PRONAFECYT.
Findings for Research Question 1
Research question 1 asked, “What role do educational leaders play in implementing the
PRONAFECYT?” For the purpose of this research, it was important for researchers to draw the
connection to globalization and PRONAFECYT and how that affects the role of educational
leaders in PRONAFECYT. PRONAFECYT’s objectives are to increase current and future glob-
alization, which has had a great impact on education around the world and has increased the need
to produce a knowledge-ready worker (Spring, 2008). There are four major interpretations of
educational globalization; the one most applicable to this study is the world culture view that is
important to address issues to solve. Western ideals of mass schooling, for example, are centered
on the idea that all children have the right to an education (Spring, 2008). Therefore, Costa Rican
educational leaders hold that PRONAFECYT will help students to address issues from a global
perspective rather than from a localized point of view
Kotter (1995) contended that the change process is continuous and ongoing, specifically
from the perspective of the leader. Kotter (1995) posited that change is realized in a series of
phases and processes, erratically and not necessarily immediately. Often, these changes require
patience and time to implement and identify the change within the organization, specifically
those changes that require leaders to identify changes to enhance student learning and educator
teaching. The eight phases of the change leadership framework of Kotter (1995) are as follows:
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 77
(a) establishing a sense of urgency by identifying the need for change, (b) forming a group with
enough power to lead the change effort, (c) creating a vision to help direct the change effort and
a strategy for achieving the vision, (d) communicating the vision effectively, (e) removing obsta-
cles and empowering others to act consistent with the vision, (f) planning for and creating short-
term success opportunities, (g) using short-term success to build confidence and support to
address larger-scale change initiatives, and (h) institutionalizing new processes and behaviors
that have resulted from the change process. Researchers agree that educational leaders must
identify global issues in curricula to enhance the learning and teaching of PRONAFECYT.
Upon gathering the findings, data analysis revealed two common themes: (a) the role of
the school director in empowering teachers, and (b) the role of the school director in communi-
cating the vision, purpose, and urgency of PRONAFECYT. The following interview infor-
mation from the Director of Atlantic Elementary shows the school’s initiation of
PRONAFECYT in the school climate.
One of the main objectives of the school and the connection to PRONAFECYT’s cur-
ricula is that the school is completely organic and chemical free (Atlantic Elementary Director,
June 20, 2015). Another stand-out point is that the school has been recognized with the
Bandera Azul (Blue Flag) Award. The award is very similar to the concept of PRONAFECYT,
which is primarily focusing on enhancement and solving of global issues—whether concerning
the community, the environment, or the world as a whole. “They’re [PRONAFECYT and Blue
Flag] co-related projects; we can’t separate the health and nutrition committee; we don’t
distinguish them from the Scientific Fair or Blue Flag” (Director of Atlantic Elementary, June
20, 2015). Atlantic Elementary Director maintained that, in addition to implementing
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 78
PRONAFECYT, they have a civic duty to help the environment regarding teaching students
the need to be self-reliant and to think for themselves.
The objective is for the child to be able to construct their own thought, because
PRONAFECYT was focused only on the child being able to develop knowledge; mainly,
knowledge, but not beyond knowledge. This new program strives for analysis, synthesis,
and thought by the student. (Director of Atlantic Elementary, June 20, 2015)
Therefore, these research skills (analysis, synthesis, and thought) are important in the STEM-
PBL fields.
Theme 1: School Directors Empowering Teachers
According to Kotter (1995), for change to be successful and fruitful, individuals (specif-
ically leaders) need not only promote the idea but must also support and empower teachers to do
so. With connection to PRONAFECYT, empowering teachers includes removing obstacles or
barriers that can encumber implementation of the success initiative, such as teachers missing
appropriate PRONAFECYT skills and/or not providing resources required for successful imple-
mentation. At Atlantic Elementary, the Director discussed the courses that teachers take to
improve their teaching of PRONAFECYT:
Most of our teachers took the course “Students as Scientists,” so the advantage of that is
that they have the training to implement the process of the fair. . . . So this year we didn’t
have that feedback because they already know the information, because we have a per-
manent staff, and we haven’t had any change in that regard. Before the beginning of the
process but this group has remained the same, so we don’t need to start all over again.
(June 19, 2015)
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 79
To prevail over these obstructions, the role of the school director is to guarantee that teachers
obtain the necessary training and resources to succeed in the leadership initiative.
According to Wagner (2012), innovative institutions are employing instructional methods
such as STEM PBL, focused on building knowledge and innovative skills. STEM PBL empha-
sizes learning activities that are long term, interdisciplinary, student centered, and integrated with
real-world issues (Capraro et al., 2013). Teacher training is needed to overcome the challenges of
customary instructional approaches. STEM PBL differs from traditional classroom activities that
are teacher centered with short isolated lessons and the approaches bridge discrete subject areas
into projects that address challenging questions that are salient to students.
After triangulating the data, the theme emerged that the role of the school director is to
empower teachers by providing necessary support for implementation of the PRONAFECYT to
be successful. Removing barriers to empower teachers includes arranging for teacher training so
that teachers have the skills and knowledge required to implement the PRONAFECYT and
arranging for or advocating for resources required by the initiative.
Within the STEM PBL concept, teachers are viewed as facilitators, mentors, or coaches
rather than as deliverers of knowledge. Rather than providing students with direct information,
the role of teachers in STEM PBL is to guide the learning process through effective questioning,
organically. In STEM PBL, teachers share control of the learning environment with students.
When implementing PRONAFECYT, it is important to remove the potential barrier of having
unprepared teachers by providing training on pedagogical approaches aimed at building
knowledge and innovative skills. Therefore, the role of the school director is to evaluate the need
for teacher training and to provide training opportunities to teachers when needed.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 80
In addition to teacher training, resources are needed to support PRONAFECYT for items
such as laboratory facilities, supplies, and instructional materials needed by students who partici-
pate in science fairs. Students and teachers cannot use resources that they do not have, but the
resources that they do have are not self-acting (Cohen, Raudenbush, & Ball, 2003). If resources
are not available, the role of the school director is to communicate the need and advocate for
funding from sources such as the MEP, community, businesses, parents, and school employees.
In survey results from Atlantic Elementary, five teachers reflected the teachers’ position
on the role of the school director to remove obstacles, along with how well obstacles are
removed: (a) 95% agreed or strongly agreed that teachers need the support of the school director
to implement PRONAFECYT fully and effectively, (b) 68% agreed or strongly agreed that they
are provided with adequate training to prepare students for PRONAFECYT, and (c) 70% dis-
agreed or strongly disagreed that the school has adequate resources to allow teachers to prepare
students for PRONAFECYT. Survey results from four parents revealed that the position of the
parents was similar to that of the teachers on the role of the school director to remove obstacles
and how well obstacles are removed: (a) 100% agreed or strongly agreed that teachers need the
support of the school director to implement PRONAFECYT fully and effectively, (b) 91%
agreed or strongly agreed that they are provided with adequate training to prepare students for
PRONAFECYT, and (c) 64% disagreed or strongly disagreed that the school has adequate
resources to allow teachers to prepare students for PRONAFECYT.
The Director of Atlantic Elementary explained the importance of removing barriers to
implementation of PRONAFECYT by empowering teachers and providing teachers with
training. The director explained how training was important to the school and science fair effort
and was arranged months in advance. When asked how necessary resources are obtained to
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 81
participate in PRONAFECYT, the Director said, “Most of the resources are provided by the
parents” (June 20, 2015). When Jamie Mintz (pseudonym), first-grade teachers at Atlantic
Elementary, was asked how she prepares for PRONAFECYT, she explained that most of the
training is received specifically through UCR. Mintz also explained that the director empowers
teachers by arranging for teacher training. During the visit to Atlantic Elementary by the
Occidente Group, observations were made that substantiated the theme. On the day of the site
visit, teachers demonstrated an understanding of the science process and coached students
regarding the competition, which was evident in the sample science fair projects revealed by
Mintz. Atlantic Elementary also had a student garden, carbon-neutral rules throughout the
school, recycling containers, and posters throughout the school demonstrating the importance of
STEM PBL and Blue Flag initiatives.
The triangulation of data from the surveys, observations, and interviews indicated that a
important and imperative role of educational leaders in the implementation of PRONAFECYT is
to empower teachers by removing obstacles that can hinder or prevent implementation of
PRONAFECYT. However, leaders must also provide and maintain the materials needed to
succeed in implementation of PRONAFECYT. Removing obstacles faced by teachers includes
providing training to teachers and providing or advocating for a dedicated source of resources for
items such as materials, supplies, and laboratories. While educational leaders at Atlantic Ele-
mentary arranged for training of teachers, an improvement opportunity is for the school site and
national educational system to advocate for dedicated resources for supplies, material, and facili-
ties that support PRONAFECYT. Bayside Elementary lacked any evidence of growth toward
PRONAFECYT.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 82
Theme 2: School Director to Communicate Vision
According to Kotter (1995), actions are equally important as statements regarding com-
municating the vision of the organization. This was evident in Atlantic Elementary, where the
Director promotes PRONAFECYT to the community and helps the teachers to understand the
vision and mission of the objectives. In connection to PRONAFECYT, communications from the
school director targeting the vision, purpose, and urgency of the PRONAFECYT are ways of
building support and motivation for the PRONAFECYT. Atlantic Elementary demonstrated the
second theme revealed by the data. This theme focused on the role of the school director to
communicate the vision, purpose, and urgency of PRONAFECYT (Kotter, 1995). Communica-
tion from the school director is an important element in implementation of PRONAFECYT as it
supports and builds motivation for the initiative from teachers, students, parents, and the com-
munity. At Atlantic Elementary, Occidente Group witnessed the Director’s enthusiasm and drive
not only to communicate the vision but to see it flourish.
Once a comprehensible idea and plan have been established and set forth, the fourth
phase of change leadership framework of Kotter (1995) is to communicate the vision. Communi-
cation of the vision is a imperative area of the change process because it shares the vision with
others, communicates the importance of the vision, builds support for change, and continually
reinforces the vision. At Atlantic Elementary, the Occidente Group not only discussed the goals
of the vision with the Director but saw that they were supported and established throughout the
school. The Director was engaged and well aware of where the school was regarding the needs
of implementing the PRONAFECYT.
Survey results from eight teachers at Atlantic Elementary reflected their position on the
role of the school director to communicate the vision, purpose, and urgency of PRONAFECYT:
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 83
(a) 85% agreed or strongly agreed that there is a schoolwide vision for the initiative, (b) 100%
agreed or strongly agreed that the school director communicates the purpose and urgency of the
PRONAFECYT, and (c) 87.5% agreed or strongly agreed that the school director communicates
the goals for participation in the PRONAFECYT. Communication should not take place only
once. Kotter (1995) asserted the importance of frequently communicating the vision as a way of
reinforcing and encouraging the effort. In addition to common communication techniques, such
as newsletters and speeches, communication methods include actions taken by leaders that can
be viewed by others as consistent with or in conflict with change efforts.
Survey results from 682 students attending Atlantic Elementary and the 51 student
surveys revealed that the position of students was similar to that of the teachers on the role of the
school director to communicate the vision, purpose, and urgency of PRONAFECYT: (a) 82.3%
agreed or strongly agreed that there is a schoolwide vision for the initiative, and (b) 76.4%
agreed or strongly agreed that the school director communicates the purpose and urgency of the
PRONAFECYT. Related to the PRONAFECYT initiative, actions could include recognition of
students and teachers for progress aligned with the initiative, having the director visit classrooms
to observe, and providing frequent feedback to teachers and students. Javier Cambronero,
Deputy with the Costa Rican Legislative Assembly, said, “We need to have a framework that
enables the encouragement and reward of the good things that are being done. At the end of the
way there is recognition, but we don’t think it’s enough” (June 15, 2015).
The triangulation of data from the surveys, observations, and interviews indicated that a
key role of educational leaders in implementation of PRONAFECYT is to communicate the
vision, purpose, and urgency of PRONAFECYT. Communications from the school director and
leaders from MEP are important elements in implementation of the PRONAFECYT as they
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 84
garner support and build motivation for the initiative from teachers, students, parents, and the
community.
While the director at Atlantic Elementary appeared to be active in communicating the
vision, purpose, and urgency of the PRONAFECYT on the day of the site visit, comments made
by teachers during interviews suggested that his communications were infrequent. In addition,
actions from the MEP such as recognition of teachers and students at school sites are ways of
communicating the vision and importance of the PRONAFECYT.
According to Kotter (1995), actions can often be a more powerful message than newslet-
ters and speeches. An improvement opportunity is for the director of Atlantic Elementary and
leaders from MEP to engage in frequent communication of the vision, purpose, and urgency of
PRONAFECYT as a way to reinforce and encourage the effort. In addition to common com-
munication techniques such as newsletters and speeches, suggested methods of communication
include actions taken that can be viewed by others as consistent with the change efforts, such as
recognition of students and teachers.
Summary of Results for Research Question 1
While educational leaders range in levels within the Costa Rican educational system, the
focus of this study was leadership at the school site level. The data revealed two common themes
from Kotter’s (1995) framework of leadership: (a) the role of the school director to empower
teachers by removing obstacles that prevent or hinder implementation of the PRONAFECYT,
and (b) the role of the school director to communicate the vision, purpose, and urgency of the
PRONAFECYT.
The goal of Research Question 1 was to explore the role of educational leaders in imple-
menting the PRONAFECYT. Two themes revealed improvement opportunities. First, leaders at
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 85
the school site and national level are encouraged to advocate for dedicated resources for supplies,
materials, and facilities that support the PRONAFECYT. Second, leaders at the school site and
national levels are encouraged to engage in frequent communication of the vision, purpose, and
urgency of PRONAFECYT to reinforce and encourage the effort. In addition to common com-
munication methodologies, communications include actions that can be viewed by others as con-
sistent with the change efforts, such as recognition of students and teachers.
Findings for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, “How does participation in the Costa Rican National Science
Fair affect leadership and instructional practices in Costa Rican schools? How do teacher prac-
tices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less successful schools, as measured
by participation in the Costa Rican National Science and Technology Fair?” The purpose of
Research Question 2 was to identify teacher practices that contribute to the level of student par-
ticipation in the PRONAFECYT. In order to analyze student participation, it is important to
understand educational and leadership practices that increase student participation, which can
inform educational leaders about possible development opportunities to increase student partici-
pation.
For purposes of addressing Research Question 2, two schools sites were compared that
demonstrated different levels of student participation. Data demonstrated that Atlantic Elemen-
tary has a high level of student participation in the PRONAFECYT and the Director integrates
PRONAFECYT into the culture of the school. Even parents are aware of PRONAFECYT
demands and requirements, specifically regarding needed materials. Observation data from Bay-
side Elementary revealed a lower level of student participation than at Atlantic Elementary.
However, when teachers were asked whether there is a high level of participation in the
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 86
PRONAFECYT, all five teachers at Bayside Elementary strongly agreed or agreed with relevant
items. Observations noted students working in groups but merely copying words from the black-
board. Science projects were not visible nor were any activities of PRONAFECYT.
As for Bayside Elementary, despite its award-winning recognition for the Blue Flag
Award (mainly due to solar panels donated by a Texas company), the results of PRONAFECYT
and/or STEM PBL were not displayed. The school site is registered as a historical landmark but,
other than the few recognitions, the only evidence of STEM PBL was that students were
observed in groups merely copying lessons from the blackboard. There were no teachers in three
of the classrooms. In survey results from Bayside Elementary, three teachers reflected the teach-
ers’ position on the role of the school director to remove obstacles, along with how well obsta-
cles are removed: (a) 100% agreed or strongly agreed that teachers need the support of the school
director to implement PRONAFECYT fully and effectively, (b) 80% agreed or strongly agreed
that they are provided with adequate training to prepare students for PRONAFECYT, and (c)
40% disagreed or strongly disagreed that the school has adequate resources to allow teachers to
prepare students for PRONAFECYT. No parents were surveyed.
Two theoretical frameworks provided assistance in addressing Research Question 2 in the
areas of STEM PBL and PLCs. The first framework provides a basis for understanding STEM
PBL and is based on the work of Capraro et al. (2013). The second framework addresses compo-
nents of PLCs and is based on work by DuFour and Marzano (2011). The frameworks were used
as apparatuses to assess the data, specifically at Atlantic Elementary and Bayside Elementary.
The data analysis revealed two themes: (a) Elements of PLCs are more prevalent at the school
site with a higher level of student participation, and (b) STEM PBL practices are utilized to a
greater extent at the school with a higher level of student participation.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 87
There are three components of well-defined outcomes: (a) clearly stated deliverables
informing students what they are required to produce, (b) project constraints or limitations to
keep the project within boundaries, and (c) learning that takes place while projects are com-
pleted. Capraro et al. (2013) provided a framework used to support this study as it relates to
understanding STEM PBL education. STEM PBL outcomes result in various learning outcomes
by using projects assigned to students that give students the opportunity to utilize knowledge
from interdisciplinary subjects while employing creativity, collaboration, and imagination.
Project outcomes may include a variety of formats, such as speeches, presentations, products, or
models (Capraro et al., 2013).
The second framework is related to PLCs. The primary goal of PLCs is to provide teach-
ers with time to reflect and plan to fully engage in a professional mission (Krause et al., 2008).
Krause et al. (2008) demonstrated that PLCs create a positive community of collaboration with
common goals advancing STEM. PLCs represent an continuing progression in which educators
work collaboratively, using investigation and achievement research to advance student results
(DuFour et al., 2010).
Theme 1: School Director Supporting Professional Learning Communities
This study applied DuFour and Marzano’s (2011) framework to understand the seven
components in action in PLCs: (a) organize staff into meaningful teams, (b) provide teams with
time to collaborate, (c) provide supportive structures that help groups become teams, (d) clarify
the work the team must accomplish, (e) monitor the work of teams and provide direction and
support as needed, (f) avoid shortcuts in the collaboration team process, and (g) celebrate short-
term wins and confront those who do not contribute to their teams. Increased use of PLCs can
add to an increased level of student participation in the PRONAFECYT.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 88
PLC goals are to provide teachers time for reflection and planning to engage fully in a
professional project (Krause et al., 2008). PLCs support STEM education by improving curricu-
lum and STEM PBL implementation (Liddicoat, 2008). Krause et al. (2008) stated that PLCs
create a positive collaborative community with common goals advancing STEM. Data and the
themes within the data revealed that PLCs are more prevalent at the school site with a higher
level of student participation in the PRONAFECYT, relative to the school with a lower level of
student participation.
Survey results from teachers and parents revealed the opinion that teachers at Atlantic
Elementary utilize elements of PLCs to a greater extent than those at Bayside Elementary. Of the
six teachers interviewed at Atlantic Elementary, 62.5% strongly agreed that teachers work
together to plan and prepare for the PRONAFECYT. Of the five parents interviewed at Atlantic
Elementary, 80% strongly agreed that teachers work together to plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT. Indicators from Bayside Elementary revealed discrepancies in teacher inter-
views versus observations. Although no evidence of PRONAFECYT was observed in the class-
room nor in the school, all four of those surveyed at Bayside Elementary strongly agreed that
teachers work together to plan and prepare for the PRONAFECYT.
Interviews conducted at both school sites revealed evidence of a greater presence of the
seven elements of PLCs found in the framework of DuFour and Marzano (2011) at Atlantic
Elementary relative to Bayside Elementary. The finding was that elements of PLCs are used
more extensively at Atlantic Elementary than at Bayside Elementary. When the Director of
Atlantic Elementary was interviewed, she explained practices that indicated a greater presence of
the components or processes included in effective PLCs that are identified in the DuFour and
Marzano (2011) framework.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 89
Teacher interviews substantiated a greater presence of PLC elements at Atlantic Ele-
mentary relative to Bayside Elementary. When Jamie Mintz (first-grade teacher) was asked how
she has prepared for the PRONAFECYT, she identified training and support received from other
teachers.
From the beginning of the year, we try to motivate the students to participate. In first
grade, first we discuss with the children something they would like to investigate about,
to know what they would be interested in knowing more about, and that’s the beginning
of the process: They state what they are going to investigate about. Later, the investiga-
tion process starts.
So, with the assistance of the teachers, they start investigating. As from that, we elabo-
rate a justification as to why they have selected that specific subject. We help them a little
to elaborate the justification because they are very small children. After that, we define
the goals of their work and we help them to write it up. Then, we search for information.
Here at school we have Internet and they have the possibility to use a tablet at the library,
so that allows us to search for the information to design the theoretical framework.
After that, in case they have an experiment, we design the method and in the end we
draw the conclusions. That’s what we do in first grade, they exhibit their project here in
the classroom first, then we select those students whose ability to explain the project is
better or those who prepared a more elaborate project since they will exhibit their project
with other first grades. Then we select other children who are the ones who are going to
participate in school. (June 20, 2015)
Matt Jones (pseudonym), English teacher, explained how students prepare for the
PRONAFECYT:
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 90
Over here we have, first, like a competition. Each group needs to present different
science projects to their class, and the teacher for the group pick one, the best one . . . .
There are five first graders, so they get together and the five kids present their projects
and they pick out one. Then we have the whole school presenting their different projects
and they pick one of them. (June 20, 2015)
Observations performed by the research team supported the survey and interview data. At
Atlantic Elementary, teachers discussed collaborating and sharing information during the science
endeavor. The student science projects exhibited interactions between parents and teachers to
support the students in advancing in PRONAFECYT. Collaboration at Bayside Elementary was
observed only when the teacher was not in the classroom and students were put in groups to copy
what was on the board in their notebooks.
Interviews with the Director of Bayside Elementary indicated that elements of PLCs were
either absent or less frequently utilized relative to Atlantic Elementary. Teachers indicated that
training and support needed improvement. In addition, both the Director and teachers indicated
that collaboration among teachers was rare. The seven elements of PLCs included in the frame-
work by DuFour and Marzano (2011) can facilitate greater collaboration, serve as a medium to
progress instructional practices, and lead to increased participation during the PRONAFECYT
endeavor.
Theme 2: School Director Aiding in STEM PBL
There are three components of well-defined outcomes: (a) clearly stated deliverables
informing students what they are required to produce, (b) project constraints or limitations to
keep the project within boundaries, and (c) learning that takes place while projects are
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 91
completed. STEM PBL has been defined as projects or responsibilities used for the ability of
meeting the necessary outcomes from the specific endeavor (Capraro et al., 2013).
STEM PBL provides students opportunities to draw on knowledge and content from
interdisciplinary subjects and real-world issues (Capraro et al., 2013). STEM PBL projects can
be multifaceted, with slight guidance from teacher to students. STEM PBL results in a range of
learning outcomes by using projects that give students the opportunity to employ knowledge
from interdisciplinary subjects while using creativity, collaboration, and imagination, allowing
the application of creativity, imagination, and collaboration to move fluidly within the student’s
creative endeavor (Capraro et al., 2013).
STEM PBL emphasizes learning activities that are long term, interdisciplinary, student
centered, and integrated with real-world issues (Capraro et al., 2013). Through STEM PBL,
students are able to bridge the cognitive learning tools to deconstruct real-world issues and solve
problems. This type of teaching moves away from the rigid archaic way of teaching and sup-
porting students; rather than providing students with direct information, the role of teachers in
STEM PBL is to guide the learning process through effective questioning. Thus, teachers are not
in charge but instead become facilitators, mentors, or coaches, rather than deliverers of
knowledge (Capraro et al., 2013).
Survey results from teachers, parents, and students revealed a stronger opinion that ele-
ments of STEM PBL are utilized to a greater extent at Atlantic Elementary relative to Bayside
Elementary. Of the five teachers surveyed at Atlantic Elementary, 85% strongly agreed or agreed
that teachers utilize STEM PBL. Of the five parents interviewed at Atlantic Elementary, 80%
strongly agreed that teachers utilize STEM PBL. When asked whether teachers provide oppor-
tunities for students to engage in scientific inquiry as part of regular instruction, 87.5% of the
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 92
teachers and 82.4% of the students surveyed at Atlantic Elementary strongly agreed. The under-
lying theme revealed by the data was that teacher practices at Atlantic Elementary included a
greater level of STEM PBL instructional approaches relative to Bayside Elementary. This is an
important finding, as it suggests that an increased application of STEM PBL approaches can
contribute to an increased level of student participation in the PRONAFECYT.
Although no indications or evidence of PRONAFECYT were observed at Bayside Ele-
mentary, indicators from Bayside Elementary revealed an extremely high percentage of teachers
and students strongly agreeing that elements of STEM PBLs are utilized. All five teachers sur-
veyed at Bayside Elementary strongly agreed or agreed that teachers utilize STEM PBL. When
asked whether teachers provide opportunities for students to engage in scientific inquiry as part
of regular instruction, all five teachers and 96.9% of the 51 students surveyed at Bayside Ele-
mentary strongly agreed. Observations indicated that elements of STEM PBL are utilized to a
greater extent at Atlantic Elementary than at Bayside Elementary.
Capraro et al. (2013) identified elements of STEM PBL: (a) a variety of project outcome
formats, including speeches, presentations, products, or models; (b) well-defined outcomes;
(c) ill-defined tasks can be complex with little or no structure providing students with opportuni-
ties to draw upon knowledge and content from interdisciplinary subjects and real-world topics;
(d) learning activities are long-term, interdisciplinary, student centered, and integrated with real-
world issues; (e) discrete subject areas are bridged into projects that address challenging ques-
tions that are salient to students; (f) teachers are viewed as facilitators, mentors, or coaches rather
than delivers of knowledge; and (g) teachers share control of the learning environment with
students.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 93
Elements of STEM PBL were used more expansively at Atlantic Elementary than at Bay-
side Elementary, which was substantiated by interviews with primary persons from the school
sites, specifically the school directors. According to Pamela Homes, the Atlantic Elementary
Director, projects are completed over an extended period of time and students select projects to
complete based on their interests. Interviews conducted at both school sites revealed evidence of
a greater presence of STEM PBL elements at Atlantic Elementary than at Bayside Elementary.
When the director of Atlantic Elementary was interviewed, he explained practices that indicated
the presence of the STEM PBL elements that are consistent with elements noted by Capraro et
al. (2013).
Interviews with teachers at Atlantic Elementary provided additional evidence about
STEM PBL. Jamie Mintz provided information about the formats of projects, explaining that the
formats include a written report and an oral presentation and students have flexibility in the style
and content of reports. Comments by teachers Jamie Mintz and Mary Smith provided
information about work completed in teams as they explained that the students work on science
projects either individually or in teams.
When asked to describe how the curriculum, the pedagogy, and the culture have changed
in order to adopt the science fair, Jamie Mintz, first-grade teacher at Atlantic Elementary, said,
I feel that has been included in the class work. When we plan the classes, we have to
reflect that we are working for the science fair. We have to include it in the plans and it’s
something that we have included in each one of the classes. It is something that is
included in the investigation classes and not just for the scientific fair. Last year I worked
in two projects with my students; one was a simple research, based on school situations.
For example, they investigated why students like to write on the walls in the bathroom.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 94
We also worked on strategies that teachers could use to make the classes more pleasant.
Then, we carried out another project, which is the one they presented in the scientific fair.
So, this is not just done to participate in the fair; there is a constant research process in
every class. In fact, the curriculums have changed quite a lot and they are very focused on
having investigation processes in every class. (June 20, 2015)
Jones explained,
They need to pick up a copy and they need to do some research; . . . everything from the
scientific project. So the teachers need to work a lot with the students in class . . . . So it’s
kind of tough sometimes; a little difficult, but they have special time for both projects.
Sometimes they dismiss some students . . . they go home earlier . . . and they stay with
the ones that are presenting, so they prepare more those students to be more fluent and to
be more comfortable working in front of people. (June 20, 2015)
During the interview, the director of Atlantic Elementary clearly identified how
PRONAFECYT is implemented at the school. Interviews with the school director and teachers at
Bayside Elementary explained certain elements of STEM PBL but none was observed. The
director of Atlantic Elementary said,
This program consists of raising awareness to students of the worth of turning off a light,
the worth of shutting off the water, not leaving plate on the food because, it’s
contamination; if we can’t give it a process to turn it into organic fertilizer, it’s
contamination. That if we contaminate, we must plant trees, in other words. (June 20,
2015)
The director of Bayside Elementary explained how teachers are trained for STEM PBL.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 95
Through this course of Students as Scientists, that was the first motivation and the first
preparation and then through the science assessment, we always have the training process
and updates in regard to new guidelines. So the training is always focus on collaboration,
so from the regional management there is an open attitude and I also have an open atti-
tude to promote these spaces because it is very difficult to have their participation if we
don’t provide them with the necessary tools and resources. (June 19, 2015)
The Occidente Group observed several students giving oral presentations and demonstra-
tions of their science projects. The projects were noted as being varied and of interest to the
students. At Atlantic Elementary, teachers provided guidance to students in a manner that
encouraged students to think and solve problems. Although there was not a science competition
on the day of the visit to Bayside Elementary, observations were made that supported the survey
and interview data and the finding that STEM PBL was not utilized to the same extent at Bayside
Elementary as at Atlantic Elementary.
In addition to applying STEM PBL into the school curricula, training on STEM PBL
approaches is needed to empower teachers with the skills needed to utilize STEM PBL.
Although some training was done at UCR, not all teachers attended such training. Therefore,
professional development opportunities should be provided. The elements of STEM PBL
included in the framework by Capraro et al. (2013) can result in various learning outcomes by
using projects assigned to students that give students the opportunity to utilize knowledge from
interdisciplinary subjects while employing creativity, collaboration, and imagination (Capraro et
al., 2013).
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 96
Summary of Results for Research Question 2
The data analyzed revealed two themes: (a) Elements of PLCs are more prevalent at the
school site with a higher level of student participation, and (b) STEM PBL practices are utilized
to a greater extent at the school with a higher level of student participation. This identified how
teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less successful schools, as
measured by the level of student participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT. With respect
to PLCs, the seven elements of PLCs included in the framework by DuFour and Marzano (2011)
can facilitate collaboration, serve as a medium to improve instructional practices, and lead to
increased participate in the PRONAFECYT.
Findings for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, “How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to
equip students with 21st-century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican National
Science and Technology fair?” According to Bolman and Deal (2008), there are four frames of
leadership: political, symbolic, human resources, and structural. Through surveys, observations,
and interviews, it was evident that educational leaders in Costa Rica were attempting to imple-
ment PRONAFECYT into the academic curricula. Research shows that, in order to be an effective
leader, one must operate from a multiframe perspective by incorporating all frames or perspec-
tives into decision making and implementation (Bolman & Deal, 1991). This impact has resulted
in the educational leadership utilizing more of a multiframe approach regarding educational deci-
sions, mission, and vision. Two themes in particular were identified through the research: (a) a
focus on social responsibility priorities, and (b) a focus on professional development.
Attracting FDI in the form of capital, technology, and technical and managerial skills
serves as a catalyst for economic growth of developing countries. One of the ways to attract FDI
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 97
is to have an educated workforce with 21st-century skills (Hanson, 2001; Jensen, 2003; Mughal
& Vechiu, 2009). In response to the skills required from human capital as a result of globaliza-
tion, nations such as Costa Rica have implemented and are implementing instructional programs
to encourage and foster student learning in areas specifically related to 21st-century skills
(Wagner, 2010). For a nation to succeed economically in an increasingly interconnected global
economy, changes to the local economy and educational system must occur (Biesanz et al., 1999;
Friedman, 2007).
Developing the 21st-century skills of students is a key objective of Costa Rica and is a
direct result of the competitive world economy. Globalization has resulted in increased competi-
tion among nations that participate in the global economy and, as a result, has had a direct impact
on skills and knowledge required by employers and a direct impact on educational policy.
A leader who is socially responsible shows elements of the structural frame because he or
she has goals and objectives that are to be met through organized alliances. It is therefore evident
that, in order for a leader in education or business to be socially responsible, he or she must oper-
ate from a multiframe perspective. By definition, social responsibility elicits characteristics found
in all four frames of leadership identified by Bolman and Deal (2008). The structural aspect is
targeted by a connection between responsibly and the fulfillment of a logistical need. The politi-
cal aspect is fulfilled by the notion that social responsibility can create certain partnerships, alli-
ances, and/or networks. Social responsibility aligns with the human resources frame because it is
focused on an investment in people through training, support, and/or education.
Theme 1: School Director Participating and Modeling Social Responsibility Priorities
Research has shown that instructional leaders are conceived to be “strong, directive lead-
ers” (Hallinger, 2003, p. 331), with qualities similar to those of a leader operating not only from
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 98
a symbolic frame but also from a political frame. Instructional leaders also focus on coordinat-
ing, controlling, supervising, and developing curriculum and instruction in the school that aligns
with the structural perspective (Bamburg & Andrews, 1990; Hallinger & Murphy, 1985). As
evidenced through this study, instructional leaders exhibit multiframe characteristics, and this
style has been a focus of educational leadership in Costa Rica. With respect to instructional
leadership, there are characteristics that exemplify aspects of a multiframe leader. Instructional
leaders lead from a combination of expertise and charisma that reflect a human resources per-
spective (Cuban, 1984; Hallinger & Murphy, 1986).
Theme 2: School Director Provides Input & Ideas for Professional Development
Data analysis included a review of literature, surveys, interviews, and observations. The
data were aligned and analyzed using the following three frameworks: defining globalization
(Spring, 2008), reframing organizations (Bolman & Deal, 2008), and 21st-century skills
(Wagner, 2008). While teacher training was noted to some extent, an improvement opportunity
identified in the data was the need for increased teacher training related to 21st-century skills and
instructional practices designed to equip student with such skills. The underlying theme revealed
by the data was that there is conflicting teacher training related to 21st-century skills and
instructional practices designed to equip students with such skills. In connection with
PRONAFECYT, supporting teachers through professional development includes providing
teachers with training opportunities to overcome potential academic barriers of having teachers
who do not possess the skills required to equip students with the 21st-century skills necessary to
participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT.
Professional development is needed to address the challenges of traditional instructional
approaches. Innovative institutions are employing instructional methods, such as STEM PBL,
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aimed at building knowledge and innovative skills (Wagner, 2012). STEM PBL emphasizes
learning activities that are long term, interdisciplinary, student centered, and integrated with real-
world issues (Capraro et al., 2013). STEM PBL differs from traditional classroom activities that
are teacher centered, with short isolated lessons.
In STEM PBL, teachers share control of the learning environment with students. When
implementing PRONAFECYT, it is important to remove the potential barrier of having unpre-
pared teachers by providing training on pedagogical approaches aimed at building knowledge
and innovative skills (Capraro et al., 2013). The STEM PBL approach bridges discrete subject
areas into projects that address challenging questions that are salient to students. Teachers are
viewed as facilitators, mentors, or coaches, rather than deliverers of knowledge. Rather than
provide students with direct information, the role of teachers in STEM PBL is to guide the
learning process through effective questioning (Capraro et al., 2013).
Survey results from teachers, system leaders, government leaders, and business leaders
revealed that many shared the opinion that teachers are not provided with adequate training to
prepare students for PRONAFECYT nor have they received training on how to integrate 21st-
century skills in the classroom. At Atlantic Elementary, eight teachers were asked whether
teachers are provided with adequate training to prepare students for PRONAFECYT; 87.5%
agreed or strongly agreed and 12.5% were unsure. At Bayside Elementary, when asked whether
teachers are provided with adequate training to prepare students for PRONAFECYT, all five
surveyed teachers agreed or strongly agreed, while 40% of the 64 students disagreed or strongly
disagreed.
The finding of inconsistent teacher training related to 21st-century skills and instructional
practices designed to equip students with such skills was supported by interviews with key
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 100
persons from government, business, and Atlantic Elementary. When Nathalie Valencia-Chacón,
Director of the PRONAFECYT as part of the MICITT, was asked what skills should be pro-
moted by schools to prepare students for PRONAFECYT, it was clear that empowering teachers
through training is imperative.
I believe we have to empower the teachers more so that they understand what an investi-
gation process implies. They can’t teach something they don’t know, and that’s where we
find our limitations. Teachers don’t know how to investigate, so they prefer not to do the
process or they don’t do it in an optimal way. (June 15, 2015)
It was explained by the director of Atlantic Elementary that most teacher training is provided by
coordinators at the school site, who provide training based on training that they have received. It
was also explained that training must be requested months in advance because there are limited
trainers available.
While some of the teachers at Atlantic Elementary explained that they received training,
others stated that they started training during university studies. In contrast, the Bayside Ele-
mentary director stated, “We send teachers to this training workshops and all of them are
attending these training workshops, that is for the first and second period” (June 19, 2015).
Observations by the research team were limited, as teacher training was not directly observed by
the researchers. Teachers were observed providing guidance to students in a manner that demon-
strated inconsistent understanding of 21st-century skills.
Classes were not held on the day of the observation because the school was conducting a
science competition. While some of the teachers displayed an understanding of certain elements
of 21st-century skills, other teachers did not. For example, one of the teachers who was assisting
students to prepare for the competition was noted to be encouraging the student team to work
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 101
together and clearly communicate how their project was innovative and how they had solved a
problem. Another teacher observed in a similar situation failed to mention elements of 21st-
century skills.
The limited observational data supported the underlying theme, consistent with survey
and interview data. The triangulation of surveys, observations, and interviews indicated that
teacher training related to 21st-century skills and instructional practices designed to equip
students with such skills are inconsistent. An improvement opportunity is for site and system
leaders to increase the level of teacher training in the areas of 21st-century skills and instruc-
tional practices designed to equip students with such skills.
Leadership Framework
The framework by Bolman and Deal (2008) identifies four frames from which people
view organizational situations: structural, human resources, political, and symbolic. The struc-
tural frame highlights endeavors and efficiency while arguing that effective organizations define
clear goals, assign specific roles to people, and coordinate activities through polices, rules, and
chain of command. In the human resource frame, reasoning and logic are framed through the
organizations’ needs and how they support human emotions. According to Bolman and Deal
(2008), the ability to view situations with appropriate perspectives, or frames, can reduce the risk
of misreading situations that can lead to misguided decisions.
The political frame of organizations, from the leaders’ perspective, involves coalitions of
various individuals and interest groups with differences in values, beliefs, information, interests,
and perceptions of reality. The symbolic frame is the most subjective frame, where importance
and predictability are social creations and facts are subjective rather than objective. Symbolic
leaders use charisma and drama, paying attention to myth, ritual, and ceremony to instill a sense
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 102
of enthusiasm and commitment. The utilized frames can affect action taken by leadership and the
corresponding level of success or failure. Leaders who utilize the human resource frame value
relationships and feelings and often classify problems in individual or interpersonal terms.
The underlying theme revealed by the data was that site and system leaders utilized vari-
ous leadership frames to prepare their schools to equip students with 21st-century skills neces-
sary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT. This is important because, as explained
by Bolman and Deal (2008), the ability to view situations with appropriate perspectives, or
frames, can reduce the risk of misreading situations, which can lead to misguided decisions.
Survey results from teachers, system leaders, government leaders, and business leaders
revealed that many shared the viewpoint that site and system leaders utilized various leadership
frames to prepare their schools to equip students with 21st-century skills necessary to participate
in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT. Data from surveys indicated that leadership by the school
director at Atlantic Elementary plays a critical role in implementation of the PRONAFECYT.
When asked whether the school director plays a critical role in ensuring that teachers implement
PRONAFECYT, all eight surveyed teachers and four of the five parents surveyed agreed or
strongly agreed.
According to Bolman and Deal (2008), leadership utilizing the symbolic frame uses
charisma and drama, paying attention to myth, ritual, and ceremony to instill a sense of motiva-
tion and commitment. The specific frame used by the school director at Atlantic Elementary was
that of a symbolic frame, based on interview data and observations.
Summary of Results for Research Question 3
Two themes in particular were identified through the research: (a) a focus on social
responsibility priorities, and (b) a focus on professional development. According to Bolman and
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 103
Deal (2008), there are four frames of leadership: political, symbolic, human resources, and
structural. Through surveys, observations, and interviews, it was evident that educational leaders
in Costa Rica were attempting to implement PRONAFECYT into the academic curricula.
Research shows that, in order to be an effective leader, one must operate from a multiframe per-
spective by incorporating all frames or perspectives into decision making and implementation
(Bolman & Deal, 1991). This impact has resulted in the educational leadership utilizing more of a
multiframe approach regarding educational decisions, mission, and vision.
Findings for Research Question 4
Research Question 4 asked, “How has participation in the Costa Rican National Science
and Technology Fair affected instructional practices?” There are three components of outcomes:
(a) clearly stated deliverables informing students what they are required to produce, (b) project
constraints or limitations to keep the project within boundaries, and (c) learning that takes place
while projects are completed. The data analyzed identified two common themes: (a) Participation
in the PRONAFECYT has resulted in the application of elements of STEM PBL, and (b) partici-
pation in the PRONAFECYT has resulted in integration of science curriculum embedded in
multiple subjects. Capraro et al. (2013) provided the framework used to inform this study with
connection to understanding STEM PBL education. STEM PBL results in various learning out-
comes by using projects assigned to students that give students the opportunity to utilize
knowledge from interdisciplinary subjects while employing creativity, collaboration, and imagi-
nation. This concept can be applied in any educational setting from K–12 to higher education
and/or professional collaboration. However, for the purposes of this study, the primary focus was
to measure the outcomes in K–2 settings, specifically in Costa Rica. Project learning outcomes
may include a variety of formats, including speeches, presentations, products, or models.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 104
One of the main points noticed is that PRONAFECYT curricula must be implemented in
all schools. However, how it is implemented is at the school’s discretion. Thus, this research
question focuses on understanding instructional practices affected by PRONAFECYT and how
they can enlighten educational leaders on instructional practices and impending development
opportunities in the aspects of professional training and utilization of instructional practices. The
purpose of Research Question 4 was to identify how participation in the PRONAFECYT has
affected instructional practice.
Theme 1: STEM PBL Curricula and Resources
With the concept of STEM PBL (Capraro, et al, 2013), leadership dynamics change.
Teachers are viewed as facilitators, mentors, and/or coaches rather than deliverers of knowledge.
This change in perspective is important in learning self-reliance and independence with the
divergent and critical thinking process. The role of teachers in STEM PBL is to guide the
learning process through effective questioning in order to promote learning. This learning will
not only support and teach the student to advance in PRONAFECYT; it will also support
students outside of academics in a professional setting where students will apply such strategies
to address real-world issues.
In addition to professional development, teachers using STEM PBL share leadership of
the learning environment with students. STEM PBL approaches bridges discrete subject areas in
projects that address challenging questions that are salient to students. The characteristics of
STEM PBL make it a sound approach, supporting the objectives of the PRONAFECYT. There
are three components of well-defined outcomes: (a) clearly stated deliverables informing
students what they are required to produce, (b) project constraints or limitations to keep the
project within boundaries, and (c) learning that takes place while projects are completed.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 105
The underlying theme revealed by the data was that participation in the PRONAFECYT
has affected instructional practices at Atlantic Elementary by including elements of STEM PBL.
Survey results from teachers, parents, and students revealed a strong opinion that elements of
STEM PBL are utilized at Atlantic Elementary. Of the eight teachers surveyed at Atlantic Ele-
mentary, 87.5% strongly agreed or agreed that teachers utilize STEM PBL. All five parents
interviewed and surveyed at Atlantic Elementary strongly agreed or agreed that teachers utilize
STEM PBL. When asked whether teachers provide opportunities for students to engage in scien-
tific inquiry as part of regular instruction, 87.5% of the eight teachers and 82.4% of the 51
students surveyed at Atlantic Elementary strongly agreed or agreed. Student collaboration is a
key element of STEM PBL. When asked whether PRONAFECYT has improved student collabo-
ration, 87.5% of the teachers and 80% of the parents interviewed and surveyed at Atlantic Ele-
mentary strongly agreed or agreed.
Although there is a shared opinion that elements of STEM PBL are present as a result of
the PRONAFECYT, an improvement opportunity exists to increase the use of STEM PBL and
increase teacher training in the area of STEM PBL practices. When asked whether teacher
training was useful in preparing students for the PRONAFECYT, 75% of the eight teachers sur-
veyed at Atlantic Elementary strongly agreed or agreed. When asked whether teachers are
provided adequate training to prepare students for the PRONAFECYT, 87.5% of the eight teach-
ers surveyed at Atlantic Elementary strongly agreed or agreed. The percentage of those surveyed
who strongly disagreed or disagreed suggests room for improvement in teacher training related
to PRONAFECYT, and one of the areas of training is instructional practices such as STEM PBL.
The finding that participation in the PRONAFECYT has resulted in utilization of ele-
ments of STEM PBL at Atlantic Elementary was corroborated by interviews with key persons
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 106
from Atlantic Elementary. The STEM PBL framework by Capraro et al. (2013) identified ele-
ments of STEM PBL: (a) a variety of project outcome formats, including speeches, presenta-
tions, products, or models; (b) well-defined outcomes; (c) ill-defined tasks that can be complex
with little or no structure providing students with opportunities to draw upon knowledge and
content from interdisciplinary subjects and real-world topics; (d) learning activities that are long-
term, interdisciplinary, student-centered, and integrated with real-world issues; (e) discrete
subject areas that are bridged into projects that address challenging questions that are salient to
students; (f) teachers who are viewed as facilitators, mentors, or coaches rather than delivers of
knowledge; and (g) teachers who share control of the learning environment with students. The
director of Atlantic Elementary identified practices that indicated the presence of the STEM PBL
elements consistent with elements noted by Capraro et al. (2013). According to the director,
projects are completed over an extended period of time and students select projects to complete
based on their interests.
Interviews with teachers at Atlantic Elementary provided additional evidence of the
presence of STEM PBL. Mintz provided information about the formats of projects, explaining
that the formats include a written report and an oral presentation and that students have flexibil-
ity in style and content. Comments by Teachers C and D provided information about work com-
pleted in teams as they explained that the students work on science projects either individually or
in teams.
When asked to describe how the curriculum, the pedagogy, and the culture have changed
in order to adopt the science fair, Jamie Mintz, first-grade teacher, explained,
This process is quite beneficial for the students because it enables them to develop their
thinking capacity, their analysis and reasoning skills. They learn to search for
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 107
information. It’s not just a question of being satisfied with what they told me during the
class. I have to search for more information, I have to analyze it and investigate. So, it’s
very beneficial for them because it allows them to develop critical thinking. (June 20,
2015)
Matt Jones, English teacher, explained:
Sometimes you need to arrange many things in the curriculum because we also need to
follow the curriculum, complete everything. And with both projects, it takes a long time.
I feel they feel more secure. Their substance is like improved. They feel really smart and
they feel like they are showing something to the others, and the other people are listening
to them. So that’s great. Okay? Also, sometimes, those projects they work also at home,
so it’s also a family thing. The father and the mother is getting involved in the project, so
sometimes they feel like very proud because mummy or daddy help them; it’s not just
them. (June 20, 2015)
Jamie Mintz (Science Fair teacher) explained how students are provided opportunities to
draw on knowledge and content from interdisciplinary subjects and real-world topics:
I always tell the students the same things, it’s not a cat cliché, it’s the reality: “Children,
the power is in the words and the person who controls the words has the power. Now,
let’s use the power in a positive way. If you learn to research and not just to research but
to express what you have learned, you will the most benefited with this process, because
that will transform you into people with a good attitude, increasing your social abilities,
and that will be very useful for the rest of your lives, when you become citizens at the age
of 18, it will be useful for the university, when you have an interview to obtain a job, or
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 108
when you want to keep that job, it will always be very beneficial for you.” (June 19,
2015).
Mintz explained that teachers try to motivate students through research:
First, we motivate them, telling them that we’re going to carry out some research and
after that, we start the process. Once they have decided what they want to investigate, we
search for information, we analyze data, and we draw conclusions of what has been
investigated. At the same time, the work is exhibited. Every child exhibits the work he
has done. (June 20, 2015).
Observations performed by the Occidente Group supported the survey and interview data.
At Atlantic Elementary, as the director had reported, teachers were observed providing guidance
to students in a manner that encouraged students to think and solve problems. Classrooms were
interactive and energetic. All students were included. Furthermore, the Occidente Group noted
science projects samples that supported the concept of STEM PBL and PLC. The projects were
noted as being of a wide variety and of interest to students.
The triangulation of data from surveys, observations, and interviews indicated that par-
ticipation in the PRONAFECYT has affected instructional practices with the utilization of ele-
ments of STEM PBL at Atlantic Elementary. However, an improvement opportunity was
identified to make greater use of STEM PBL elements as a way of improving the skills devel-
oped by students.
In addition to greater use of STEM PBL, additional teacher training on STEM PBL prac-
tices is needed to further empower teachers with the skills needed to utilize STEM PBL. The
elements of STEM PBL included in the framework by Capraro et al. (2013) can result in various
learning outcomes by using projects assigned to students that give students the opportunity to
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 109
utilize knowledge from interdisciplinary subjects while employing creativity, collaboration, and
imagination.
Theme 2: PRONAFECYT Curricula and Resources
According to the literature, one of the benefits of STEM PBL is that students are given
the opportunity to utilize knowledge from interdisciplinary subjects while employing creativity,
collaboration, and imagination (Capraro et al., 2013). Thus, the STEM PBL concept bridges dis-
crete subject areas into projects that address challenging questions that are salient to students.
Project outcomes may include a variety of formats, including speeches, presentations, products,
or models. Ambiguous tasks of STEM PBL projects can be intricate and multifaceted, with
structure providing students with opportunities to critically analyze and solve real-world issues
(Capraro et al., 2013). Such tasks incorporate engineering principles with interdisciplinary
subjects, allowing application of creativity, imagination, and collaboration (Capraro et al., 2013).
The essential theme revealed by the data was that participation in the PRONAFECYT
affected instructional practices at Atlantic Elementary by integrating interdisciplinary subjects in
curricula. While amalgamating certain aspects of curriculum was noted, a progressive oppor-
tunity was identified to augment the level of integration of curriculum. Survey results from
teachers, parents, and students revealed a strong opinion that teachers provide opportunities for
students to engage in scientific inquiry as part of regular instruction at Atlantic Elementary.
When asked whether teachers provide opportunities for students to engage in scientific inquiry as
part of regular instruction, all eight teachers surveyed at Atlantic Elementary, all five parents
interviewed and surveyed at Atlantic Elementary, and 82.4% of the 51 students surveyed at
Atlantic Elementary strongly agreed or agreed.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 110
A school curriculum plan is a way to support and encourage integration of curriculum
from multiple subjects. Survey results from teachers, parents, and government and business
leaders revealed that, while there is a strong opinion that there is a school curriculum plan to help
prepare students for the PRONAFECYT, some disagreed. When asked whether there is a school
curriculum plan to prepare students for the PRONAFECYT, 87.5% of the eight teachers sur-
veyed at Atlantic Elementary strongly agreed or agreed. Of the five parents interviewed and sur-
veyed at Atlantic Elementary, 80% strongly agreed or agreed and 20% were unsure. Of the six
government officials surveyed, 100% strongly agreed or agreed. Of the three business leaders
surveyed, 67% disagreed and 33% were unsure. The responses to this survey item indicated
inconsistency in the opinion that there is a school curriculum plan that prepares students for the
PRONAFECYT.
Interviews with government leaders and the director and teachers at Atlantic Elementary
provided additional evidence regarding the finding. When Nathalie Valencia-Chacón, Director of
the PRONAFECYT as part of the MICITT, was asked to describe the vision of the government
for the integration of STEM in the subject curriculum of the schools in Costa Rica, she described
the importance of including the scientific investigation process in curriculum and the need to
make improvements in this area.
Regarding the curriculum, I believe that the transformation of the curriculum is funda-
mental in the sense that investigation has to be integrated as a component of the learning
process in science. To teach science, you have to do it practically, and investigation is a
key component to accomplish this. We should strengthen the curriculum where investi-
gation, especially in science, is seen as a mainstream. (June 15, 2015)
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When asked to describe how the curriculum, pedagogy, or culture has changed in schools
to adapt to PRONAFECYT, the director of Atlantic Elementary explained the importance of
focusing on mathematics and science. When asked the same question, teachers at Atlantic Ele-
mentary shared similar thoughts. Matt Jones, English teacher, described how curriculum has
changed to include a focus on science and the integration of material from various subjects.
Jamie Mintz (Science Fair teacher) explained the need to focus on all subjects and the
importance of integrating material from various subjects:
Two years ago the science area, which is the one that is more involved in the
PRONAFECYT, modified its curriculum, introducing the inquiry-based model. That has
been very favorable for us, but at the same time other programs have changed and it helps
in the correlation with the other areas, such as Spanish, social sciences, math, and it
encourages the students to learn, to research more, to know more. (June 20, 2015)
Triangulation of data from surveys, observations, and interviews indicated that participation in
the PRONAFECYT has affected instructional practices at Atlantic Elementary by integrating the
curriculum of multiple subjects. The data revealed that, while some areas of curriculum were
integrated, other areas lacked integration. An improvement opportunity is for the school site and
national educational system to increase the level of curriculum integration to further support suc-
cessful implementation of the PRONAFECYT and development of 21st-century skills.
Summary of Results for Research Question 4
The data analyzed identified two common themes: (a) Participation in the
PRONAFECYT has resulted in the application of elements of STEM PBL, and (b) participation
in the PRONAFECYT has resulted in integration of science curriculum embedded in multiple
subjects. There are three components of outcomes: (a) clearly stated deliverables informing
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 112
students what they are required to produce, (b) project constraints or limitations to keep the
project within boundaries, and (c) learning that takes place while projects are completed. Capraro
et al. (2013) provided the framework used to inform this study regarding understanding STEM
PBL education. STEM PBL results in various learning outcomes by using projects assigned to
students that give students the opportunity to utilize knowledge from interdisciplinary subjects
while employing creativity, collaboration, and imagination.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 113
CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Globalization has a direct impact on cultural, geopolitical, and social changes, which
encompass schooling (Spring, 2008). Globalization has resulted in increased competition among
nations that participate in the global economy and, as a result, has had a direct impact on skills
and knowledge required by employers and a direct impact on educational policy. For a nation to
succeed economically in an increasingly interconnected global economy, changes to the local
economy and educational system must occur (Biesanz et al., 1999; Friedman, 2007). Attracting
FDI in the form of capital, technology, and technical and managerial skills serves as a catalyst
for economic growth of developing countries. One of the ways to attract FDI is by having an
educated workforce with 21st-century skills (Hanson, 2001; Jensen, 2003; Mughal & Vechiu,
2009). In response to the skills required from human capital as a result of globalization, nations
have implemented and are implementing instructional programs to encourage and foster student
learning in areas specifically related to 21st-century skills (Wagner, 2010).
Costa Rica has been successful at attracting FDI and MNCs with incentives, infrastruc-
ture, and an educated workforce (Clark, 1995). To promote an educated workforce, stimulate
creativity in students, promote a culture of science and technology, and develop scientific think-
ing and knowledge of students, Costa Rica has mandated participation in the PRONAFECYT
(Chacón, 2011). While much research has addressed the impact of globalization on educational
policy, lacking is research examining the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa
Rican PRONAFECYT.
Chapter 1 provided an overview of the study, including the purpose and significance, as
well as the organization of the dissertation. The chapter also included background information
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 114
and key terminology pertaining to Costa Rica, MNCs, 21st-century skills, leadership, and the
impact of globalization on education.
Chapter 2 reviewed the literature pertaining to globalization, MNCs, 21st-century skills,
and leadership. This chapter also presented a historical review of Costa Rica encompassing its
development as a nation, including economic, political, and educational growth over time. The
education system in Costa Rica was described in depth to give breadth to the details of the
current system, its policies, infrastructure, and makeup of the student body.
Chapter 3 described the research methodology used in this study, discussing why a qual-
itative case study approach with multiple data collection methods was appropriate. Also included
was an explanation of the sample and population, as well as the instrumentation used in the
study. The chapter described how the data were collected and analyzed.
Chapter 4 presented the findings of the study, including a detailed description of the evi-
dent themes as they pertained to each research question. In addition, data analysis was presented
for each research question.
Chapter 5 presents a summary of the study and includes a conclusion and possible impli-
cations for practice. Also in this chapter are suggestions for future research opportunities relating
to the same phenomena.
The purpose of this study was to understand the effects of educational leadership on par-
ticipation in the PRONAFECYT in Costa Rican primary schools. The study identified the role of
school leaders in the development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. The
study also explored how schools have restructured their educational programs by focusing on
sharing of leadership and teacher training.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 115
The research team examined the problem through four theoretical frameworks: (a) the
multiframed leadership framework by Bolman and Deal (2008), (b) the change process frame-
work by Kotter (1995), (c) the STEM PBL framework by Capraro et al. (2013), and (d) the PLC
framework by DuFour and Marzano (2011). These frameworks were utilized to guide develop-
ment and addressing of four research questions:
1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practice?
In order to address these questions, the team utilized a qualitative case study approach
with multiple data collection methods. Participants from six groups informed this study: teachers,
school site administrators, political leaders, business leaders, parents, and students. Information
was gathered from participants using interviews and surveys. Observations were conducted at
school sites. Through this study, research has been provided to assist in understanding the effects
of educational leadership on participation in the PRONAFECYT in Costa Rican primary schools.
Summary of Findings
Through analysis of data gathered through interviews, observations, and surveys, eight
main themes emerged.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 116
1. Site and system educational leaders empower teachers by removing obstacles which
prevent or hinder implementation of PRONAFECYT.
2. Site and system educational leaders communicate the vision, purpose, and urgency of
the PRONAFECYT.
3. Elements of PLCs are used more extensively at the school with a higher level of
student participation in the PRONAFECYT.
4. Elements of PBL are used to a greater extent at the school with a higher level of
student participation in the PRONAFECYT.
5. Teachers receive an inconsistent level of training related to 21st-century skills and
instructional practices designed to equip students with such skills.
6. Site and system leaders commonly utilize the structural leadership frame when pre-
paring schools for the PRONAFECYT.
7. PBL elements are utilized with the PRONAFECYT.
8. The science curriculum is integrated within multiple subjects.
Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, “What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the
Costa Rican PRONAFECYT initiative?” Through analysis of data from interviews, surveys, and
observations, it was clear that one of the roles of the school director is to empower teachers by
removing obstacles that prevent or hinder implementation of PRONAFECYT. This finding is
consistent with the assertion by Kotter (1995) that individuals responsible for the activities of an
initiative must be empowered to act in a manner consistent with the vision of the initiative. As it
relates to the PRONAFECYT, empowering teachers encompasses removing barriers such as
arranging for teacher training to equip teachers with the skills and knowledge required to
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 117
implement the PRONAFECYT and arranging or advocating for resources required by the
initiative. While teacher training is currently being provided, dedicated resources for items such
as supplies, materials, and facilities are lacking.
The second theme related to Research Question 1 was that another role of the school
director is to communicate the vision, purpose, and urgency of the PRONAFECYT initiative.
This finding is consistent with the assertion by Kotter (1995) that communication of the vision is
a key area of the change process because it shares the vision with others, communicates the
importance of the vision, builds support for change, and continually reinforces the vision. While
some level of communication of the vision, purpose, and urgency of the PRONAFECYT was
noted, evidence indicated that communication from site and system leaders was infrequent. As
asserted by Kotter (1995), actions can often be a more powerful message relative to newsletters
and speeches. It was noted that actions such as recognition of students and teachers were infre-
quent.
Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, “How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from
teacher practices at less successful schools, as measured by the level of participation in the Costa
Rican PRONAFECYT?” The triangulation of data from surveys, observations, and interviews
indicated that elements of PLCs are used more extensively at the school with a higher level of
student participation in the PRONAFECYT. This finding is consistent with the assertion by
Liddicoat (2008) that PLCs can support STEM education by enhancing curriculum and improv-
ing the implementation of PBL. This is an important finding because it suggests that increased
use of the seven elements of PLCs included in the framework by DuFour and Marzano (2011)
can contribute to an increased level of student participation in the PRONAFECYT.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 118
Another theme revealed by the data was that elements of PBL are used more extensively
at the school with a higher level of student participation in the PRONAFECYT. While elements
of PBL included in the framework by Capraro et al. (2013) were noted to some extent, greater
use of PBL could contribute to increased student participation in the PRONAFECYT. Applica-
tion of the elements of PBL included in the framework by Capraro et al. can result in various
learning outcomes by using projects assigned to students that provide students opportunities to
utilize knowledge from interdisciplinary subjects while employing creativity, collaboration, and
imagination.
Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, “How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to
equip students with 21st-century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?” Analysis of the data revealed that teachers receive an inconsistent level of
training related to 21st-century skills and instructional practices designed to equip students with
such skills. While the data revealed that teachers receive training to a certain extent, the level of
training received by teachers varies, indicating a need for an increased level of teacher training
focused on 21st-century skills and instructional practices designed to equip students with such
skills. The Director of the PRONAFECYT as part of the MICITT, Nathalie Valencia Chacón,
supported this notion: “We have to empower the teachers more so that they understand what an
investigation process implies because they can’t teach something they don’t know” (June 15,
2015).
Another theme that emerged was that site and system leaders utilize the structural leader-
ship frame when preparing schools for the PRONAFECYT. According to Bolman and Deal
(2008), the structural leadership frame emphasizes goals and efficiency and posits that effective
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 119
organizations define clear goals, assign specific roles to people, and coordinate activities through
polices, rules, and chain of command. The data revealed coordination of efforts at the site level;
also, the manual provided to schools by the MEP covering guidelines for the PRONAFECYT
indicated a strong presence of the structural leadership frame. While use of the structural leader-
ship frame appears appropriate for many aspects related to preparing schools for the
PRONAFECYT, leaders are encouraged to consider other frames because the ability to view
situations with appropriate perspectives can reduce the risk of misreading situations, leading to
misguided decisions.
Research Question 4
Research Question 4 asked, “How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT
affected instructional practice?” A theme that emerged from the data was that participation in the
PRONAFECYT has affected the instructional practices at Escuela Santa Cruz by including ele-
ments of PBL. The characteristics of PBL make it a sound approach supporting the objective of
the PRONAFECYT. PBL emphasizes learning activities that are long term, interdisciplinary,
student centered, and integrated with real-world issues (Capraro et al., 2013). While the data
revealed elements of PBL to a certain degree, increased use of PBL is a potential way to improve
the skills developed by students. In addition, increased teacher training on PBL practices is
needed to further empower teachers with the skills needed to utilize PBL.
Another theme was that the science curriculum is integrated within multiple subjects at
Escuela Santa Cruz. This is consistent with the assertion by Capraro et al. (2013) that one of the
benefits of PBL is that students are given the opportunity to utilize knowledge from interdiscipli-
nary subjects while employing creativity, collaboration, and imagination. The data revealed that,
while some areas of science curriculum were integrated, the level of integration could be
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 120
increased to further support the successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT and the devel-
opment of 21st-century skills.
Implications for Practice
Findings from this study validated the positive effects of educational leadership on par-
ticipation in the PRONAFECYT in Costa Rican primary schools. Specifically, in regard to the
PRONAFECYT and educational leadership, much is to be gained from this study. This study
provided evidence that site and system educational leadership is critical to successful implemen-
tation of the PRONAFECYT, as well as student participation in the initiative. The role of site
and system educational leaders is important from the standpoint of empowering teachers and
communicating the vision, purpose, and urgency of the PRONAFECYT. Empowering teachers
includes removing barriers such as arranging for teacher training so that teachers have the skills
and knowledge required to implement the PRONAFECYT. While this study revealed that teach-
ers receive training to a certain extent, the level of training received by teachers varies, indicating
the need for an increased level of teacher training focusing on 21st-century skills and instruc-
tional practices designed to equip students with such skills. Empowering teachers also includes
arranging or advocating for resources required by the initiative. It was made evident by this study
that there is a need for dedicated resources for supplies, materials, and facilities supporting
activities related to the PRONAFECYT. While some level of communication of the vision,
purpose, and urgency of the PRONAFECYT was noted, evidence indicated that communication
from site and system leaders was infrequent. It was evident that increased recognition of students
and teachers by site and system leaders is a needed form of communication.
This study found that elements of PLCs and PBL are used to a greater extent at the school
site with a higher level of student participation in the PRONAFECYT. While the data revealed
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 121
the presence of PLCs and PBL to a certain extent, it was clear that increased use of PLCs and
PBL, as well as teacher training targeting these areas, is needed. Similarly, increased integration
of science curriculum can lead to increased student interest and participation in the
PRONAFECYT.
Recommendations for Future Research
This study was conducted by an 18-member team of researchers. The researchers shared
data collected from schools in Costa Rica. Several Costa Rican political figures were inter-
viewed, as well as business leaders and school site leaders. In addition, teachers, parents and
students were interviewed and several classrooms were observed.
It is suggested to conduct the same study in another developing nation that has imple-
mented a science fair program. The parameters could be set to examine the education system of a
country with approximately the same population and socioeconomic status. The results of such a
study could be compared with the current study to elicit best practices and strategies related to
the role of educational leadership on the participation in and implementation of science fair
programs. This, too, would serve as a significant comparison of leadership, noting how different
strategies may be more or less effective in certain aspects of development.
The present study could be expanded by including a longitudinal investigation in which
student participation in the PRONAFECYT is followed over an extended period of time. This
process would allow data to be collected pertaining to the effects of various leadership strategies
employed over an extended period of time. A longitudinal study could also focus on the schools
with changes in leadership or changes in leadership strategies to determine the resulting impact
on student participation. Similarly, a longitudinal study could focus on system-level changes in
leadership or strategies to determine the resulting impact on student participation.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 122
As identified by Kotter (1995), successful implementation of a change effort is dependent
on the extent of completion of eight phases of the change leadership process. The present study’s
surveys and observation rubrics focused on four of the eight phases. This study could be repli-
cated with adjustment of the questions to pertain to the four other phases identified by Kotter. It
would be interesting to see the impact of the other four phases on the implementation of the
PRONAFECYT.
Conclusion
The effects of educational leadership on participation in the PRONAFECYT were clearly
evident through this study. The findings validated the positive effects of educational leadership
on participation in the PRONAFECYT in Costa Rican primary schools. As noted through the
data analysis of surveys, observations, and interviews with leaders from government, business,
and education, as well as teachers, parents, and students, educational leadership directly contrib-
uted to student participation in the PRONAFECYT. Actions by leadership were key to empow-
ering teachers, garnering support, encouraging participation, integrating curriculum, and guiding
instructional practice targeting student development.
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 123
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APPENDIX A
Recruitment Letter

DATE

Dear XXX,

On June 15, 2015, a group of 18 doctoral students from the University of Southern California,
Rossier School of Education, will travel to Costa Rica as part of a study team led by Dr. Michael
Escalante. The purpose of our research is to understand the effects of educational leadership on
participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT) in
primary schools in Costa Rica. Specifically, we are interested in the roles of primary school
leaders in preparing and implementing this initiative. As part of our study, the following
questions will be addressed:

1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT
initiative?

2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?

3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?

4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional practice?

We would appreciate an opportunity to speak with you, members of the Ministry of Education,
and educational leaders at regional and school site levels. It is our goal to conduct surveys and
interviews to gather data to address these research questions. Your input will be invaluable to our
study.

Thank you for considering our request. We are available to meet with you any time between
from June 15 through June 19. Please feel free to contact any member of our study team if you
have any questions.

Sincerely,

USC Doctoral Students
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 134
APPENDIX B
Consent Form
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089

INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NON-MEDICAL RESEARCH

THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN PARTICIPATION IN THE NATIONAL
PROGRAM OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FAIRS IN COSTA RICA

You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who vol-
untarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You should
ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to understand the effects of educational leadership on participation
in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs in primary schools in Costa Rica.

PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a 15-minute survey, a
30-minute audiotaped interview, and/or a 10-minute classroom observation. You do not have to
answer any questions that you don’t want to answer; if you don’t want to be taped, you can still
participate in this study.

CONFIDENTIALITY
There will be no identifiable information obtained in connection with this study. Your name,
address, or other identifiable information will not be collected.

The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.

When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable infor-
mation will be used.

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 135
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION

Principal Investigator:
Dr. Michael Escalante, University of Southern California,
mescalan@usc.edumailto:mescalan@usc.edu; mailto:mescalan@usc.edu

Co-investigators:
Oryla Wiedoeft, Assistant to Dr. Escalante,
wiedoeft@usc.edumailto:wiedoeft@usc.edu
Patricia Brent-Sanco, Principal, Paramount Unified School District,
pbrent@usc.edumailto:pbrent@usc.edu
Cindy Chavez Swenson, MWP Lecturer, University of California, Merced,
ccswenso@usc.edumailto:ccswenso@usc.edu
Jesus Corral, Senior Director, Los Angeles County Probation Dept.,
jesuscorral1@gmail.commailto:jesuscorral1@gmail.com
Ricardo Esquivel, Principal, Partnership to Uplift Communities,
ricardoe@usc.edumailto:ricardoe@usc.edu
Carin Fractor, Teacher, Saugus Union School District,
fractor@usc.edumailto:fractor@usc.edu
Miguel Gonzales, Assistant Principal, Santa Barbara Unified School District
gonzalmm@usc.edumailto:gonzalmm@usc.edu
Denise Harshman, Coordinator, Orange County Department of Education
harshman@usc.edumailto:harshman@usc.edu
Mathew Kodama, Assistant Principal, Pasadena Unified School District
mathewwk@usc.edumailto:mathewwk@usc.edu
April Leon, Teacher, West Covina High School,
aprilleo@usc.edumailto:aprilleo@usc.edu
Jennifer Lashier, Assistant Principal, Arcadia Unified School District,
lashier@usc.edumailto:lashier@usc.edu
Omar Lopez, Clinical Associate Professor, Assistant Director of Field Education, USC School of Social
Work, omarl@usc.edumailto:omarl@usc.edu
Christin Molano, Principal, Glendale Unified School District, cwalley@gusd.netmailto:cwalley@gusd.net
Fernando Marquez, Teacher on Assignment, Oro Grande School District,
fmarquez@usc.edumailto:fmarquez@usc.edu
Maribel Martinez, Principal, Lynwood Unified School District
Mart632@usc.edumailto:Mart632@usc.edu
Wendy Poffenberger, Assistant Principal, Long Beach Unified School District,
wpoffenb@usc.edumailto:wpoffenb@usc.edu
Bea Spelker-Levi, Principal, Paramount Unified School District,
bspelker@paramount.k12.ca.usmailto:bspelker@paramount.k12.ca.us
Richard Storti, Vice President of Administrative Services, Fullerton College,
rstorti@usc.edumailto:rstorti@usc.edu
John Tung, Assistant Principal, Arcadia Unified School District,
johntung@usc.edumailto:johntung@usc.edu; mailto:johntung@usc.edu; mailto:johntung@usc.edu

IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los
Angeles, CA 90089-0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edumailto:upirb@usc.edu
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 136
APPENDIX C
List of Research Sites

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 137
APPENDIX D
Teacher Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Position:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. How have you been prepared for the PRONAFECYT?
2. In what ways do you elicit teacher feedback to improve implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
3. How do teachers ensure that all students participate in the PRONAFECYT?
4. How do you acquire resources necessary for participation in the PRONAFECYT?
5. How are teachers recognized for their efforts with regard to implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
6. Please describe how curriculum, pedagogy, or school culture has changed to
accommodate the PRONAFECYT.
7. How does the PRONAFECYT benefit students?
8. What instructional practices do teachers at your school use to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT?
9. How have your teachers been trained to help students to prepare for the PRONAFECYT?

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 138

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cómo se han preparado para el PRONAFECYT?

2. ¿De qué manera provocan los directores retroalimentación con respecto a la
aplicación de el PRONAFECYT?

3. ¿De qué manera aseguran que todos los estudiantes participen en el PRONAFECYT?

4. ¿Cómo obtienen los directores de escuelas los recursos necesarios para participar en
la PRONAFECYT?

5. ¿Cómo son reconocidos los maestros por sus esfuerzos en lo que respecta a la
aplicación de la PRONAFECYT?

6. Por favor describa cómo currículo, pedagogía, o la cultura de escuela ha cambiado
para adaptarse a la PRONAFECYT.

7. ¿De qué manera el PRONAFECYT beneficia a los estudiantes?

8. ¿Qué prácticas de enseñanza utiliza para preparar a los estudiantes para el
PRONAFECYT?

9. ¿Cómo ha sido entrenado para ayudar a los estudiantes prepararse para el
PRONAFECYT?

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 139
APPENDIX E
School Director Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Position:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. How have you been prepared for the PRONAFECYT?
2. In what ways do you elicit teacher feedback to improve implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
3. How do teachers ensure that all students participate in the PRONAFECYT?
4. How do you acquire resources necessary for participation in the PRONAFECYT?
5. How are teachers recognized for their efforts with regard to implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
6. Please describe how curriculum, pedagogy, or school culture has changed to
accommodate for the PRONAFECYT.
7. How does the PRONAFECYT benefit students?
8. What instructional practices do teachers at your school use to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT?
9. How have your teachers been trained to help students to prepare for the
PRONAFECYT?
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 140

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cómo se han preparado para el PRONAFECYT?
2. ¿De qué manera provoca retroalimentación con respecto a la aplicación de el
PRONAFECYT?

3. ¿De qué manera aseguran los maestros que todos los estudiantes participen en el
PRONAFECYT?

4. ¿Cómo obtiene los recursos necesarios para participar en la PRONAFECYT?
5. ¿Cómo son reconocidos los maestros por sus esfuerzos con respecto a la aplicación
de la PRONAFECYT?
6. Por favor describa cómo currículo, pedagogía, o la cultura de escuela ha cambiado
para adaptarse a la PRONAFECYT.
7. ¿De qué manera el PRONAFECYT beneficia a los estudiantes?
8. ¿Qué prácticas de enseñanza utilizan los maestros en su escuela para preparar a los
estudiantes para el PRONAFECYT?

9. ¿Cómo ha sido entrenado sus maestros para ayudar a los estudiantes prepararse para
el PRONAFECYT?

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 141
APPENDIX F
Government Official/Business Leaders Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Position:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. What are your country’s goals for economic growth and creating an innovation-based
society?
2. How are the goals coordinated among the various governmental agencies?
3. Based on your perception, who are the key leaders in developing an innovation-based
workforce?
4. How does the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT)
support the national goals of developing an innovation-based workforce?
5. What role(s) do educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT?
6. How does government policy encourage PRONAFECYT participation?
7. Does the government provide schools with resources necessary for participation in the
PRONAFECYT? If so, what kind of resources are provided? If no, what would those
resources be?
8. Does the government recognize schools and/or regions for successful participation in the
PRONAFECYT? If so, please describe.
9. What is the government’s vision for implementation of science, technology, engineering,
and mathematics (STEM) in Costa Rican Schools?
10. What skills should schools promote to prepare students for the PRONAFECYT?

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 142

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cuáles son las metas de su país para el crecimiento económico y la creación de una
sociedad basada en la innovación?
2. ¿Cómo son estas metas coordinadas entre las distintas agencias gubernamentales?
3. En base a su percepción, ¿quiénes son los líderes clave en el desarrollo de una fuerza
laboral que está basada en la innovación?
4. ¿Cómo apoya el Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología (PNFCT) a los
objetivos nacionales en el desarrollo de una fuerza laboral que está basada en la
innovación?
5. ¿Qué función(es) desempeña(n) los líderes del sistema educativo en la aplicación del
PNFCT?
6. ¿De qué manera la política del gobierno fomenta la participación en el PNFCT?
7. ¿El gobierno proporciona a las escuelas con los recursos necesarios para participar en el
PNFCT? Si es así, ¿qué tipo de recursos se proporcionan? Si no, ¿cuáles serían esos
recursos?
8. ¿El gobierno reconoce a las escuelas y/o regiones por su participación en el PNFCT? Si
es así, por favor describa como lo hace el gobierno.
9. ¿Cuál es la visión del gobierno para la integración de la ciencia, tecnología, ingeniería y
matemáticas en el plan de estudios de las escuelas en Costa Rica?
10. ¿Qué habilidades cree usted que las escuelas deben promover para preparar a los
estudiantes para el PNFCT?
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 143
APPENDIX G
Parent Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Position:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. How has your child been prepared for the PRONAFECYT?
2. In what ways do School Directors elicit parent feedback to improve implementation of
the PRONAFECYT?
3. How do teachers ensure that all students participate in the PRONAFECYT?
4. How do School Directors acquire resources necessary for participation in the
PRONAFECYT?
5. How are students recognized for their efforts with regard to implementation of the
PRONAFECYT?
6. Please describe how curriculum, pedagogy, or school culture has changed to
accommodate the PRONAFECYT.
7. How does the PRONAFECYT benefit students?
8. What instructional practices does your child’s teacher use to prepare him/her for the
PRONAFECYT?
9. How have you been trained to help your student(s) to prepare for the PRONAFECYT?

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 144

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cómo se ha preparado su hijo/a para el PRONAFECYT?

2. ¿De qué manera provoca retroalimentación los directores de escuela con respecto a la
aplicación de el PRONAFECYT?
3. ¿De qué manera aseguran los maestros que todos los estudiantes participen en el
PRONAFECYT?
4. ¿Cómo obtiene los directores de escuelas recursos necesarios para participar en la
PRONAFECYT?
5. ¿Cómo son reconocidos los estudiantes por sus esfuerzos con respecto a la aplicación
de la PRONAFECYT?
6. Por favor describa cómo currículo, pedagogía, o la cultura de escuela ha cambiado
para adaptarse a la PRONAFECYT.
7. ¿De qué manera el PRONAFECYT beneficia a los estudiantes?
8. ¿Qué prácticas de enseñanza utilizan los maestros de su hijo/a en su escuela para
preparar a los estudiantes para el PRONAFECYT?
9. ¿Cómo ha sido entrenado usted para ayudar a su estudiante (s) prepararse para el
PRONAFECYT?

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 145
APPENDIX H
Student Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Organization: Grade:
Interviewee: Interviewer(s):

Questions
1. How did you get ready for the science fair project?
2. How does your teacher make sure everyone participates in the science fair?
3. How do you get all the things you need for your science fair project?
4. Are you rewarded for participating in the science fair? If so, how are your rewarded?
5. How does participation in the science fair help you?
6. How do your teachers get you ready for the science fair?

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 146

Organización: Posición:
Entrevistado: Entrevistador:

Preguntas
1. ¿Cómo te preparas para el proyecto de feria de ciencias?

2. ¿Cómo se asegúra su maestro de que todos participen en la feria de ciencias?

3. ¿Cómo obtienes todo lo que necesitas para tu proyecto de ciencias?

4. ¿La escuela los recompense or celebra por su participación en la feria de ciencias? Si
es así, ¿Cómo celebra la escuela?

5. ¿Cómo te ayuda la participación en la feria de ciencia?

6. ¿Cómo te preparan los maestros para la feria de ciencias?

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 147
APPENDIX I
Teacher Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions

Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. The School Director plays a critical
role in ensuring that teachers imple-
ment the National Programs of
Science and Technology Fairs
(PRONAFECYT).
    
2. Teachers need support from the
school Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and
effectively.
    
3. The School Director elicits teacher
feedback to improve implementation
of the PRONAFECYT.
    
4. The School Director communicates
the purpose and urgency of the
PRONAFECYT.
    
5. I provide opportunities for students
to engage in scientific inquiry as
part of my regular instruction.
    
6. I utilize project-based learning
(PBL) in my teaching.
   
7. I am provided adequate training to
prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
8. My school has adequate resources
that allow me to prepare students for
the PRONAFECYT.
    
9. I am familiar with soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
    
10. My School Director talks about the
importance of soft skills and their
impact on student achievement.
    
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 148

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
11. Students develop soft skills through
participation in the PRONAFECYT.
    
12. I have received training on how to
integrate soft skills in the classroom.
    
13. Student participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized
throughout my school.
    
14. Teachers at my school work
together to plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration in my
classroom.
    
16. Teachers are given the leadership
capacity to make decisions about
projects for the PRONAFECYT.
    
17. There is a school-wide vision for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
18. There is a positive culture at my
school regarding the
PRONAFECYT.
    
19. The School Director communicates
the goals for participation in the
PRONAFECYT.
    
20. Teacher training was useful in
preparing students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
22. I am provided yearly training on the
PRONAFECYT guidelines.
    
23. There is a high level of participation
in the PRONAFECYT at my school.
    

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 149
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente
en
desacuerdo
No estoy
seguro
1. El director de la escuela tiene un papel
crítico en asegurar que los maestros
participen en el Programa Nacional de
Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología
(PNFCT).
    
2. Los maestros necesitan el apoyo del
director de la escuela para
implementar el PNFCT plena y
efectivamente.
    
3. El director de la escuela solicita
retroalimentación de los maestros para
mejorar la implementación del
PNFCT.
    
4. El director de la escuela comunica el
propósito y la urgencia del PNFCT.
    
5. Yo ofrezco oportunidades a mis
estudiantes para participar en
proyectos de investigación científica o
ingeniería como parte de mi
enseñanza regular.
    
6. Yo utilizo el aprendizaje basado en
proyectos (ABP) cuando doy clase.
    
7. Yo recibo formación y entrenamiento
adecuado para preparar a mis
estudiantes en la competencia de la
PNFCT.
    
8. Mi escuela tiene recursos suficientes
que me permiten preparar la
competencia estudiantil en la PNFCT.
    
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas,
colaboración, comunicación,
capacidad de adaptación, análisis,
curiosidad e imaginación).
    
10. El director de la escuela comunica la
importancia de las habilidades
sociales y su impacto en el
rendimiento estudiantil.
    
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 150

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente
en
desacuerdo
No estoy
seguro
11. Los estudiantes desarrollan
habilidades sociales a través de la
participación en el PNFCT.
    
12. He recibido capacitación de cómo
integrar habilidades sociales en el
aula.
    
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la
colaboración estudiantil en mi aula.
    
16. Maestros en mi escuela reciben la
capacidad de liderazgo para tomar
decisiones de proyectos relacionados
con el PNFCT.
    
17. Existe una visión en mi escuela sobre
el PNFCT.
    
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en mi escuela.
    
19. El director de la escuela comunica los
objetivos de participación en el
PNFCT.
    
20. La capacitación de maestros fue útil
para preparar a los estudiantes para el
PNFCT.
    
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la
escuela para preparar la competencia
estudiantil en el PNFCT.
    
22. Yo recibo capacitación anual sobre las
directrices del PNFCT.
    
23. Hay un alto nivel de participación en
el PNFCT en mi escuela.
    

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 151
APPENDIX J
School Director Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. School Directors play a critical role in
assuring teachers implement the
National Science and Technology Fair
(PRONAFECYT).     
2. Teachers need the support of the school
Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and effectively.
    
3. I elicit student feedback to improve
implementation of the PRONAFECYT .
    
4. I communicate the purpose and urgency
of the PRONAFECYT.
    
5. My teachers provide opportunities for
their students to engage in scientific
inquiry as part of regular instruction.

    
6. My teachers utilize project-based
learning (PBL) in their teaching.
   
7. I am provided adequate training to
prepare teachers and students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
8. My school has adequate resources to
prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
9. I am familiar with soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
    
10. I communicate with teachers about the
importance of soft skills and their
impact on student achievement.
    
11. Students develop soft skills through
participation in PRONAFECYT.
    

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 152
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
12. I have received training on how to
integrate soft skills in the classroom.
    
13. Student participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized
throughout my school.
    
14. Teachers at my school work together to
plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration at my school.
    
16. Teachers are given the leadership
capacity to make decisions about
projects for the PRONAFECYT.
    
17. There is a school-wide vision for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
18. There is a positive culture at my school
regarding the PRONAFECYT.
    
19. I communicate the goals for
participation in the PRONAFECYT.
    
20. My teachers receive useful training that
assists to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
22. I am provided yearly training on the
PRONAFECYT guidelines.
    
23. There is a high level of participation at
my school in the PRONAFECYT .
    

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 153
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente
en
desacuerdo
No
estoy
seguro
1. Los directores de las escuelas tienen un
papel crítico en asegurar que los
maestros participen en el Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología (PNFCT).
    
2. Los maestros necesitan el apoyo del
director de la escuela para implementar
el PNFCT plena y efectivamente.
    
3. Yo solicito retroalimentación de los
estudiantes para mejorar la
implementación del PNFCT.
    
4. Yo comunico el propósito y la urgencia
del PNFCT.
    
5. Mis maestros ofrecen oportunidades a sus
estudiantes para participar en proyectos
de investigación científica o ingeniería
como parte de enseñanza regular.
    
6. Mis maestros utilizan el aprendizaje
basado en proyectos (ABP) cuando dan
clase.
    
7. Yo recibo formación y entrenamiento
adecuado para preparar a los maestros y
estudiantes en la competencia del
PNFCT.
    
8. Mi escuela tiene recursos suficientes para
preparar la competencia estudiantil en el
PNFCT.
    
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas, colaboración,
comunicación, capacidad de adaptación,
análisis, curiosidad e imaginación).
    
10. Yo comunico la importancia de las
habilidades sociales y su impacto en el
rendimiento estudiantil con mis
maestros.
    
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 154

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente
en
desacuerdo
No
estoy
seguro
11. Los estudiantes desarrollan habilidades
sociales a través de la participación en
el PNFCT.
    
12. He proporcionado capacitación de cómo
integrar habilidades sociales en el aula.
    
13. La participación estudiantil en el
PNFCT se reconoce en mi escuela.
    
14. Los maestros en mi escuela trabajan
juntos para planificar y prepararse para
el PNFCT.
    
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la colaboración
estudiantil en mi escuela.
    
16. Mis maestros reciben la capacidad de
liderazgo para tomar decisiones de
proyectos relacionados con el PNFCT.
    
17. Existe una visión en mi escuela sobre el
PNFCT.
    
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en mi escuela.
    
19. Yo comunico los objetivos de
participación en el PNFCT.
    
20. Mis maestros reciben capacitación útil
que ayuda a preparar a los estudiantes
para el PNFCT.
    
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la escuela
para preparar la competencia estudiantil
en el PNFCT.
    
22. Yo recibo capacitación anual sobre las
directrices del PNFCT.
    
23. Hay un alto nivel de participación en el
PNFCT en mi escuela.
    

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 155
APPENDIX K
Government Official Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. School Directors play a critical role
in assuring teachers implement the
National Program of Science and
Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT).
    
2. Teachers need the support of the
school Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and
effectively.
    
3. School Directors elicit student feed-
back to improve implementation of
the PRONAFECYT.
    
4. Schools communicate the purpose
and urgency of the PRONAFECYT.
    
5. Schools provide opportunities for
students to engage in scientific
inquiry as part of my regular
instruction.
    
6. Teachers utilize project-based
learning (PBL) in their teaching.
   
7. Schools are provided adequate
training to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
8. Schools are provided adequate
resources to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
9. I am familiar with soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
    
10. We communicate the importance of
soft skills and their impact on
student achievement.
    

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 156

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
11. Students develop soft skills through
participation in PRONAFECYT.
    
12. We have provided training on how
to integrate soft skills in the
classroom.
    
13. Student participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized
throughout the schools.
    
14. Teachers in this region work
together to plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration at schools in
my region.
    
16. Teachers are given the leadership
capacity to make decisions about
projects for the PRONAFECYT.
    
17. There are school-wide visions for
the PRONAFECYT.
    
18. There is a positive culture at schools
regarding the PRONAFECYT.
    
19. The goals for participation in the
PRONAFECYT are communicated
by school site leaders.
    
20. Teachers receive useful training that
assists to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
22. Teachers and administrators are
provided yearly training on the
PRONAFECYT guidelines.
    
23. There is a high level of
PRONAFECYT participation at
schools in my region.
    

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 157
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente en
desacuerdo
No
estoy
seguro
1. Los directores de las escuelas tienen
un papel crítico en asegurar que los
maestros participen en el Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología (PNFCT).
    
2. Los maestros necesitan el apoyo del
director de la escuela para
implementar el PNFCT plena y
efectivamente.
    
3. Los directores de las escuelas solicitan
retroalimentación de los estudiantes
para mejorar la implementación del
PNFCT.
    
4. Las escuelas comunican el propósito y
la urgencia del PNFCT.
    
5. Las escuelas ofrecen oportunidades
para participar en proyectos de
investigación científica o ingeniería.
    
6. Los maestros utilizan el aprendizaje
basado en proyectos (ABP) cuando
dan clase.
    
7. Las escuelas están provistas con
formación y entrenamiento adecuado
para preparar la competencia
estudiantil en el PNFCT.
    
8. Las escuelas tienen recursos
suficientes para preparar la
competencia estudiantil en el PNFCT.
    
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas, colabora-
ción, comunicación, capacidad de
adaptación, análisis, curiosidad e
imaginación).
    
10. Comunicamos la importancia de las
habilidades sociales y su impacto en el
rendimiento estudiantil.
    
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 158

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente en
desacuerdo
No
estoy
seguro
11. Los estudiantes desarrollan habili-
dades sociales a través de la participa-
ción en el PNFCT.
    
12. Hemos proporcionado capacitación de
cómo integrar habilidades sociales en
el aula.
    
13. La participación estudiantil en el
PNFCT se reconoce en las escuelas.
    
14. Los maestros de mi región trabajan
juntos para planificar y prepararse
para el PNFCT.
    
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la
colaboración estudiantil en las
escuelas de mi región.
    
16. A los maestros se les da la capacidad
de liderazgo para tomar decisiones de
proyectos relacionados con el PNFCT.
    
17. Existe una visión en todas las escuelas
de esta región sobre el PNFCT.
    
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en las escuelas.
    
19. Los maestros y los directores de las
escuelas comunican los objetivos de
participación en el PNFCT.
    
20. Los maestros reciben capacitación útil
que ayuda a preparar a los estudiantes
para el PNFCT.
    
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la
escuela para preparar la competencia
estudiantil en el PNFCT.
    
22. Los maestros y administradores
reciben capacitación anual sobre las
directrices del PNFCT.
    
23. Hay un alto nivel de participación en
el PNFCT en las escuelas de mi
región.
    

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 159
APPENDIX L
Business Partner Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. School Directors play a critical role
in assuring teachers implement the
National Program of Science and
Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT).
    
2. Teachers need the support of the
school Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and
effectively.
    
3. School Directors elicit student
feedback to improve implementation
of the PRONAFECYT.
    
4. Schools communicate the purpose
and urgency of the PRONAFECYT.
    
5. Schools provide opportunities for
students to engage in scientific
inquiry as part of regular instruction.
    
6. Teachers utilize project-based
learning (PBL) in their teaching.
   
7. Schools are provided adequate
training to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
8. Schools are provided adequate
resources to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
9. I am familiar with soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
    
10. We communicate the importance of
soft skills and their impact on
student achievement.
    
11. Students develop soft skills through
participation in PRONAFECYT.
    

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 160

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
12. We have provided training on how
to integrate soft skills in the
classroom.
    
13. Student participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized
throughout the schools.
    
14. Teachers at my local schools work
together to plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration at the schools
with which I work with.
    
16. Teachers are given the leadership
capacity to make decisions about
projects for the PRONAFECYT.
    
17. There are school-wide visions for
the PRONAFECYT.
    
18. There is a positive culture at schools
regarding the PRONAFECYT.
    
19. The goals for participation in the
PRONAFECYT are communicated
by school site leaders.
    
20. Teachers receive useful training that
assists to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
22. Teachers and administrators are
provided yearly training on the
PRONAFECYT guidelines.
    
23. There is a high level of
PRONAFECYT participation at
schools I work with.
    

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 161
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente
en
desacuerdo
No
estoy
seguro
1. Los directores de las escuelas tienen un
papel crítico en asegurar que los maestros
participen en el Programa Nacional de
Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología (PNFCT).
    
2. Los maestros necesitan el apoyo del
director de la escuela para implementar el
PNFCT plena y efectivamente.
    
3. Los directores de las escuelas solicitan
retroalimentación de los estudiantes para
mejorar la implementación del PNFCT.
    
4. Las escuelas comunican el propósito y la
urgencia del PNFCT.
    
5. Las escuelas ofrecen oportunidades para
participar en proyectos de investigación
científica o ingeniería.
    
6. Los maestros utilizan el aprendizaje basado
en proyectos (ABP) cuando dan clase.
    
7. Las escuelas están provistas con formación
y entrenamiento adecuado para preparar la
competencia estudiantil en el PNFCT.
    
8. Las escuelas tienen recursos suficientes
para preparar la competencia estudiantil
en el PNFCT.
    
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas, colaboración,
comunicación, capacidad de adaptación,
análisis, curiosidad e imaginación).
    
10. Comunicamos la importancia de las
habilidades sociales y su impacto en el
rendimiento estudiantil.
    
11. Los estudiantes desarrollan habilidades
sociales a través de la participación en el
PNFCT.
    
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 162

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente
en
desacuerdo
No
estoy
seguro
12. Hemos proporcionado capacitación de
cómo integrar habilidades sociales en el
aula.
    
13. La participación estudiantil en el
PNFCT se reconoce en las escuelas.
    
14. Los maestros en las escuelas con las que
colaboro trabajan juntos para planificar
y prepararse para el PNFCT.
    
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la colaboración
estudiantil en las escuelas con las que
trabajo.
    
16. A los maestros se les da la capacidad de
liderazgo para tomar decisiones de
proyectos relacionados con el PNFCT.
    
17. Existe una visión en todas las escuelas
con las que trabajo sobre el PNFCT.
    
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en las escuelas.
    
19. Los maestros y los directores las
escuelas comunican los objetivos de
participación en el PNFCT.
    
20. Los maestros reciben capacitación útil
que ayuda a preparar a los estudiantes
para el PNFCT.
    
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la escuela
para preparar la competencia estudiantil
en el PNFCT.
    
22. Los maestros y administradores reciben
capacitación anual sobre las directrices
del PNFCT.
    
23. Hay un alto nivel de participación en las
escuelas con las que trabajo en el
PNFCT.
    

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 163
APPENDIX M
Parent Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. My child’s school director plays a
critical role in assuring teachers
implement the National Program of
Science and Technology Fairs
(PRONAFECYT).
    
2. My child’s teachers need the support of
the School Director to implement the
PRONAFECYT fully and effectively.
    
3. My child’s school director elicits
student feedback to improve
implementation of the PRONAFECYT.
    
4. My child’s teachers communicate the
purpose and urgency of the
PRONAFECYT.
    
5. My child’s teachers provide me oppor-
tunities to engage in scientific inquiry as
part of my child’s regular instruction.
    
6. My child’s teachers utilize project-based
learning (PBL) in their teaching.
   
7. My child’s school is provided with
adequate training to prepare students for
the PRONAFECYT.
    
8. My child’s school has adequate
resources to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
9. My child is familiar with soft skills (i.e.
critical thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
    
10. My child’s teachers communicate the
importance of soft skills and their
impact on my child’s achievement.
    

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 164
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
11. My child developed soft skills through
participation in PRONAFECYT.
    
12. My child’s teachers have shared how
they have integrated soft skills in the
classroom.
    
13. My child’s participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized at my
school.
    
14. My child’s teachers work together to
plan and prepare for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
15. The PRONAFECYT has improved
student collaboration in my child’s
classroom.
    
16. My child’s teachers are given the
leadership capacity to make decisions
about projects for the PRONAFECYT.
    
17. There is a school-wide vision for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
18. There is a positive culture at my child’s
school regarding the PRONAFECYT.
    
19. Teachers and the Director at my child’s
school communicate the goals for
participation in the PRONAFECYT.
    
20. My child’s teachers receive useful
training that assist to prepare students
for the PRONAFECYT.
    
21. There is a school curriculum plan to
help prepare my child for the
PRONAFECYT.
    
22. My child’s teachers share
PRONAFECYT guidelines with me.
    
23. My child participated in the school’s
PRONAFECYT.
    

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 165
Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente
en
desacuerdo
No
estoy
seguro
1. El director de la escuela de mi hijo/a
tiene un papel crítico en asegurar que
los maestros participen en el Programa
Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y
Tecnología (PNFCT).
    
2. Los maestros de mi hijo/a necesitan el
apoyo del director de la escuela para
implementar el PNFCT plena y
efectivamente.
    
3. El director de la escuela de mi hijo/a
solicita retroalimentación de los estudi-
antes para mejorar la implementación
del PNFCT.
    
4. Los maestros de mi hijo/a comunican el
propósito y la urgencia del PNFCT.
    
5. Los maestros de mi hijo/a ofrecen
oportunidades para participar en
proyectos de investigación científica o
ingeniería como parte de la enseñanza
regular.
    
6. Los maestros de mi hijo/a utilizan el
aprendizaje basado en proyectos (ABP)
cuando dan clase.
    
7. La escuela de mi hijo/a está provista con
formación y entrenamiento adecuado
para preparar la competencia estudiantil
en el PNFCT.
    
8. La escuela de mi hijo/a tiene recursos
suficientes para preparar la competencia
estudiantil en el PNFCT.
    
9. Mi hijo/a esta familiarizado/a con
habilidades sociales (e.g. pensamiento
crítico y resolución de problemas,
colaboración, comunicación, capacidad
de adaptación, análisis, curiosidad e
imaginación).
    
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 166

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente
en
desacuerdo
No
estoy
seguro
10. Los maestros de mi hijo/a comunican la
importancia de las habilidades sociales
y su impacto en su rendimiento
estudiantil.
    
11. Mi hijo/a desarrolla habilidades sociales
a través de la participación en el
PNFCT.
    
12. Los maestros de mi hijo/a platican de
cómo integran habilidades sociales en el
aula.
    
13. La participación de mi hijo/a en el
PNFCT se reconoce en su escuela.
    
14. Los maestros de mi hijo/a trabajan
juntos para planificar y prepararse para
el PNFCT.
    
15. El PNFCT ha mejorado la colaboración
estudiantil en el aula de mi hijo/a.
    
16. Los maestros de mi hijo/a reciben
capacidad de liderazgo para tomar
decisiones de proyectos relacionados
con el PNFCT.
    
17. Existe una visión sobre el PNFCT en la
escuela de mi hijo/a.
    
18. Existe una cultura positiva sobre el
PNFCT en la escuela de mi hijo/a.
    
19. Los maestros y los directores las
escuelas comunican los objetivos de
participación en el PNFCT.
    
20. El director de la escuela y los maestros
de mi hijo/a reciben capacitación útil
que ayuda a preparar a los estudiantes
para el PNFCT.
    
21. Existe un plan de estudios en la escuela
que prepara a mi hijo/a para el PNFCT.
    
22. Los maestros de mi hijo/a platican de
las directrices del PNFCT conmigo.
    
23. Mi hijo/a participo en el PNFCT de su
escuela.
    
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 167
APPENDIX N
Student Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
Please rate the following statements.

Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
1. n/a     
2. n/a     
3. n/a     
4. My teachers talk about why we are
doing science fair projects.
    
5. My teachers often help me learn
about the scientific method through
science and technology activities.
    
6. My teachers have us work on group
projects where we solve problems
and work together.
    
7. My teachers help me get my science
fair project ready.
    
8. My school has all the things I need
to help me with my science fair
project.
    
9. I know about soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication,
adaptability, analysis, curiosity, and
imagination).
    
10. My teachers talk about the import-
ance of soft skills and how they will
help me do well in school.
    
11. I can improve my soft skills when I
do projects for the science fair.
    

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 168
Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Sure
12. n/a     
13. My school rewards students who
participate in the science fair.
    
14. n/a     
15. n/a     
16. n/a     
17. People at my school enjoy getting
ready for the science fair.
    
18. n/a     
19. n/a     
20. n/a     
21. n/a     
22. n/a     
23. n/a     

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 169

Por favor conteste las siguientes preguntas:

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente
en
desacuerdo
No
estoy
seguro
1.     
2.     
3.     
4. Mis maestros hablan del por qué
estamos haciendo proyectos para la feria
científica.
    
5. Mis maestros a menudo me ayudan a
aprender del método científico por
medio de actividades de ciencia y
tecnología.
    
6. Mis maestros nos asignan proyectos de
trabajo de equipo donde colaboramos
para resolver problemas.
    
7. Mis maestros me apoyan para que mi
proyecto esté listo para la feria
científica.
    
8. Mi escuela tiene todo lo que necesito
para mi proyecto de la feria científica.
    
9. Estoy familiarizado/a con habilidades
sociales (e.g. pensamiento crítico y
resolución de problemas, colaboración,
comunicación, capacidad de adaptación,
análisis, curiosidad e imaginación).
    
10. Mis maestros hablan de la importancia
de las habilidades sociales y de su
impacto en mi rendimiento como
estudiante.
    
11. Mejoro mis habilidades sociales cuando
participo en la feria científica.
    
12.     
13. Mi escuela recompensas a alumnos que
participan en la feria científica.
    
14.     
15.     

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 170

Totalmente
de acuerdo
De
acuerdo
En
desacuerdo
Totalmente en
desacuerdo
No
estoy
seguro
16.     
17. La gente de mi escuela disfrutan la
preparación para la feria científica.
    
18.     
19.     
20.     
21.     
22.     
23.     

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 171
APPENDIX O
Observation Protocol

School:

Grade Level: Total Students:
Teacher:

Observer(s):

Questions
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Evident
1. School Directors communicate with teachers.
2. School Directors are visible in the classrooms.
3. STEM/PBL activities related to NSTF are
apparent (process).

4. Evidence of student projects is related to the
implementation of the NSTF. (outcome)

5. The school has resources to prepare students for
the NSTF.

6. Teacher collaboration is evident.
7. Teachers are facilitating soft skills (critical
thinking and problem solving, collaboration,
communication, adaptability, analysis, curiosity,
and imagination).

8. Training and professional development are
evident.

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 172

9. Other
Notes:

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Evident
1. School directors communicate with
teachers.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Evident
2. School Directors are visible in
classrooms.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 173
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not
Evident
3. STEM/PBL activities related to NSTF
are apparent (process).
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
4. Evidence of student projects is related to
the implementation of the NSTF (outcome).
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 174

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
5. The school has resources to prepare
students for NSTF.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
6. Teacher collaboration is evident. 4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 175

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
7. Teachers are facilitating soft skills
(critical thinking and problem solving,
collaboration, communication, adaptability,
analysis, curiosity, and imagination).
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
8. Training and professional development is
evident.
4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:
GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 176

Question
Strongly
Agree
Agree Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Not Evident
9. Other 4 3 2 1 0
Field Notes:

Observation Checklist
Capraro
(STEM PBL)
Wagner
(Soft Skills)
Observed
Student Group Work/Collaboration X X
Discourse and Questioning
(student-student, teacher-student)
X
Student Work
Student Engagement X X
Computers in the Classroom X
Student Centered X X
STEM Integration Across Content Areas X

GLOBALIZATION, PBL, AND NATIONAL SCIENCE FAIR 177
APPENDIX P
Summary of the Research Proposal

USC Rossier
School of Education
March 1, 2015

Summary of the Research Proposal: Globalization has resulted in increased competition among countries
for economic growth. Costa Rica has initiated many actions designed to increase the nation’s
competitiveness. In the educational system, changes have been made to increase development of student
competencies in the STEM areas, one of those changes being mandated participation in the National
Program of Science and Technology Fairs (NPSTF). Unfortunately, there is currently a disparity in the
levels of success across the country in participation and quality of the NPSTF initiative at individual
school sites.

Goals of the Research: The purpose of this study is to understand the effects of educational leadership on
participation in the NPSTF in primary schools in Costa Rica. The study will identify the role of school
leaders in development and implementation of the NPSTF initiative. Also, the study will explore how
schools may have restructured their educational programs by focusing on sharing of leadership and
teacher training.

Brief Description of the Methodology: Interviews of leaders: School Director interviews will typically
last about 30 minutes. In the past, interviews were longer only when the director wanted to talk more
about the school—which is great!

Teacher surveys: There will be no teacher interviews, just a short survey. Last year we put it online so
teachers could complete it before our students arrive. For those with limited Internet access, we had paper
surveys for them when we arrived.

Classroom observations: Classroom observations are about 10 minutes per room unless the Director or
teacher wants our students to stay longer.

Most of our students are subdirectors or directors or hold higher positions, so they understand the pressure
on school directors and are very respectful of their time and the time of their teachers. We do not want to
be an interruption or imposition. We are very grateful for the time that people spend with us and are
humbled by the high quality of academics that we see in Costa Rican schools, particularly with respect to
the science fairs.

Thank you for your assistance.

Sincerely,
Dr. Michael Escalante and Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft
Michael Escalante, Ed.D. Oryla Wiedoeft, Ed.D.
Executive in Residence Adjunct Assistant Professor
USC Rossier School of Education USC Rossier School of Education

University of Southern California
3470 Trousdale Parkway, Suite 1004B, Los Angeles, California 90089-1234
 Tel: 213 740 3711  Fax: 213 740 3553

Abstract (if available)

Abstract In this research, science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) project-based learning frameworks are used to analyze the effects of globalization and the development and expansion of multinational corporations on educational leadership in Costa Rica. In Costa Rica, particularly education has been affected in terms of leadership, curricula, and 21st-century soft skills. The purpose of this study was to understand how educational leadership and development of 21st-century skills in Costa Rican schools are being modified to enhance the success of the National Science and Technology Fair (Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología [PRONAFECYT]) curricula in the academic setting. The study also identified the role of school leaders in the development and implementation of curricular changes in major national education initiatives to meet the global demands of the STEM fields. This study determined whether these initiatives are meeting the national criteria of the PRONAFECYT in Costa Rica. The analysis of data gathered through interviews, observations, and surveys revealed that Costa Rica is focused on producing knowledge-ready workers. By partnering with Intel, the country has been better prepared to provide that opportunity for many Costa Rican students. Schools in Costa Rica that are partnered with Intel are integrating 21st-century skills into their curricula and focusing on technology in order to prepare students for the global work force. School site leaders are utilizing methods of instructional leadership to encourage teachers and students to embrace this change in the focus of education.

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Asset Metadata

Creator Swenson, Cindy Chavez (author)

Core Title The role of educational leadership on participation in the Costa Rican National Program of Science and Technology Fairs at Atlantic Elementary in the Occidente Region

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/19/2016

Defense Date 02/19/2016

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag Costa Rica,Educational,leadership,National Program of Science,OAI-PMH Harvest

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael (committee chair), Garcia, Pedro E. (committee member), Hinman, Charles (committee member)

Creator Email ccswenso@usc.edu,ccswenson22@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-234066

Unique identifier UC11277099

Identifier etd-SwensonCin-4294.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-234066 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-SwensonCin-4294.pdf

Dmrecord 234066

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Swenson, Cindy Chavez

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA