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Building the leadership capacity of women in K-12 education: successful strategies that create the next generation of women school and district leaders

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Building the leadership capacity of women in K-12 education: successful strategies that create the next generation of women school and district leaders

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Content Running head: BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 1

BUILDING THE LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN K-12 EDUCATION:

SUCCESSFUL STRATEGIES THAT CREATE THE

NEXT GENERATION OF WOMEN SCHOOL AND DISTRICT LEADERS

by

Clara A. Finneran

A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2016

Copyright 2016 Clara A. Finneran

BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 2
Acknowledgements
The support and encouragement of various persons made this dissertation possible. My
USC classmates and professors provided immeasurable support. I am especially thankful for Dr.
Kathy Stowe, my chairperson. Thank you, Dr. Stowe, for being tremendously encouraging, all
the while bold in your expectations, shaping the evolution of my research as well as my future.
Additionally, I thank my committee members, Dr. Courtney Malloy and Dr. Maria Ott, who
provided exceptional insight and support. I am also deeply grateful to numerous mentors and
sponsors, especially Mr. Gary Gelo, Mrs. Pat Bailey, Mrs. Jody Rummer, Dr. David Gomez,
Dr. Kris DeVillers, and Mrs. RaeAnne Michael, all of whom pushed me to persist.
I am indebted to my friends, family and colleagues who supported me in many ways
throughout my doctoral journey, and thank them for reminding me of the value of relationships. I
look forward to spending more time with you all, especially so that I can attempt to express my
gratitude for your patience and understanding. My parents, Michael and Virginia Finneran, were
my first unconditional supporters, and never wavered, which I can only hope to emulate for my
own children. My husband’s parents, Jim and Elaine Janson, also modeled unequivocal support.
My sisters, despite their own busy lives, called me and visited me, providing one-of-a-kind
inspiration, often with a healthy dose of much-needed laughter. My children, Sophia, Lucas, and
Grace, sat next to me quietly while I worked, wrote sweet notes of encouragement, smiled and
gave me high-fives when I completed a milestone, patiently and diligently took on additional
household obligations, and asked only a few times, “Are you finished yet, mommy?” My
husband and remarkable, brilliant partner, Greg Janson, quietly and humbly took on more than
his fair share, and served as the most incredible advocate. Thank you to all of you for always
believing in me and giving so generously. I am grateful and indebted.
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 3
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................................................... 2
Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................................................... 3
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................................................. 5
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................................ 6
Abstract ...................................................................................................................................................................... 7
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY .................................................................................................... 9
Background of the Problem ................................................................................................................................. 12
Statement of the Problem ..................................................................................................................................... 16
Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................................................................ 17
Research Questions .............................................................................................................................................. 18
Significance of the Study ..................................................................................................................................... 18
Limitations, Delimitations, Assumptions ............................................................................................................. 20
Glossary of Terms ................................................................................................................................................ 21
Organization of the Study .................................................................................................................................... 21
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................................... 23
Significance of Leadership................................................................................................................................... 24
Influence of Principals ..................................................................................................................................... 24
Influence of Superintendents ........................................................................................................................... 26
Historical Context ................................................................................................................................................ 28
Women in Education ........................................................................................................................................ 30
Women as Superintendents .............................................................................................................................. 31
Women & Gender Discrimination ....................................................................................................................... 34
Gender Stereotypes & Schemas ....................................................................................................................... 34
Other Perceived Barriers to Advancement ....................................................................................................... 35
Leadership Styles ................................................................................................................................................. 36
Transformational Leadership ........................................................................................................................... 37
Leadership Capacity-Building Strategies ............................................................................................................. 39
Skills Necessary for Education Leaders ........................................................................................................... 39
Effective Leadership Capacity-Building Strategies ......................................................................................... 41
Inconsistency Identifying, Recruiting, Developing Leaders ............................................................................ 43
Building Pipelines, Pools, and Reservoirs of Leadership ................................................................................ 44
Distributed Leadership ..................................................................................................................................... 45
Mentoring as an Effective Leadership Capacity-Building Practice ................................................................. 46
Strategies Used to Build Leadership Capacity in Women ............................................................................... 48
Summary .............................................................................................................................................................. 51
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................ 53
Research Questions .............................................................................................................................................. 53
Research Design ................................................................................................................................................... 54
Sample and Population......................................................................................................................................... 55
Overview of Organization and Participants ......................................................................................................... 57
Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................................................................ 57
Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................................................................ 58
Data Collection .................................................................................................................................................... 60
Instrumentation .................................................................................................................................................... 63
Data Analysis ....................................................................................................................................................... 64
Ethical Considerations ......................................................................................................................................... 66
Summary .............................................................................................................................................................. 67

BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 4

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS ............................................................................................................................... 68
Overview of Participants ...................................................................................................................................... 69
Findings................................................................................................................................................................ 73
Research Question One: Ways SUSD Builds Leadership Capacity ................................................................ 73
Inspirational Leadership from the Top ......................................................................................................... 73
Clarity of Vision........................................................................................................................................... 76
Culture of Learning ...................................................................................................................................... 78
Deliberate Action ......................................................................................................................................... 82
Seeking the Best and Growing Their Own .................................................................................................. 85
Discussion of Research Question One ............................................................................................................. 87
Research Question Two: Perceptions Regarding Influence of District Strategies ........................................... 88
Overall Positive Perceptions with Room for Growth................................................................................... 88
Perceptions Regarding Gender Imbalance in Particular Departments ......................................................... 91
Importance of “Fit” ...................................................................................................................................... 92
Framing the Challenges of the Work as Manageable .................................................................................. 93
Similarities & Differences Related to Desired Characteristics of Rising Leaders ....................................... 94
Discussion of Research Question Two ............................................................................................................ 97
Research Question Three: Factors that Facilitate and Inhibit District Strategies ............................................. 98
Push-Pull of Organization and Individual .................................................................................................... 99
Gender Stereotypes and Schemas, and Leader Stereotypes ....................................................................... 100
Gatekeeping, Glass Ceilings, Queen Bees ................................................................................................. 104
Perception of Good Ol’ Boys’ Club and Issue of Golf .............................................................................. 106
Women’s Own Experiences, Perceptions, and Beliefs .............................................................................. 107
Women’s Experiences with Mentoring ...................................................................................................... 108
Women’s Desires to Advance .................................................................................................................... 110
Discussion of Research Question Three ........................................................................................................ 111
Summary ........................................................................................................................................................ 112
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................. 114
Purpose of the Study .......................................................................................................................................... 115
Summary of the Findings ................................................................................................................................... 117
Implications for Practice .................................................................................................................................... 119
Recommendations for Future Study .................................................................................................................. 122
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................... 124
References .............................................................................................................................................................. 125
Appendix A ............................................................................................................................................................ 138
Appendix B ............................................................................................................................................................ 140
Appendix C ............................................................................................................................................................ 142
Appendix D ............................................................................................................................................................ 144

BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 5
List of Tables
Table 1: Interview Participants and Length of Interviews 62

Table 2: Key Observations and Length of Observations 62

Table 3: Research Questions as Instrumentation 64

Table 4: Participant Overview 70

BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 6
List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of the Study 60

Figure 2: Creswell’s (2003) Model for Qualitative Data Analysis, Adapted 66

BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 7
Abstract
Increased demands, retirement rates, and attrition rates have caused a growing instability
in the quantity and quality of education leaders, thereby mandating leadership capacity-building
efforts. While women are nearly 75% of the teaching force, they are markedly absent from the
education leadership picture, especially at the secondary principal and superintendent level. Few
studies related to women in education leadership have assessed specific practices that have been
attempted to increase the numbers of women education leaders.
The purpose of this study is to examine how a district in southern California works to
build the next generation of women school and district leaders. Specifically, it investigates the
strategies employed by the district, explores perceptions of district stakeholders, especially
women, regarding the influence of the leadership capacity-building strategies, and identifies
factors that facilitate and inhibit these strategies. Transformational leadership and social role
theory serve as the theoretical framework for the study. A combination of interviews,
observations, and document analysis are utilized in the qualitative case study methodology.
While not intentionally conducted for women, the district’s inspirational leadership, clear
vision, culture of learning, deliberate action, and seeking the best and growing its own, move
women to reach positions of leadership, including secondary principal and superintendent.
Inconsistency regarding descriptors of tapped leaders, the idea of “fit” for a position, and the
need to make the work of education leadership look appealing were raised by participants.
Facilitators and inhibitors to the district’s efforts include gender stereotypes and leader
stereotypes, the good ol’ boys’ club, women’s experiences with mentoring, and their own career
aspirations. Implications for practice include: acknowledgement of gender-based barriers, clarity
of desired characteristics and skills of tapped leaders, assistance for women in connecting with
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 8
mentors and networks, increased personalization of stretch opportunities, improved district-
university partnerships, and analysis of district leadership distribution by sex. Recommendations
for further study include expanding the demographics of the study (especially ethnic and age-
based differences), and closer examination of gatekeeping, and the nuances of mentoring,
networking, and sponsoring.
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 9
CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
Leadership is largely regarded as mandatory for organizational success (Bolman & Deal,
2013; Collins, 2008; Northouse, 2013). When defined as a process by which an individual
influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal, leadership is critical for modern
education (Northouse, 2013). Driven by goals such as the preparation of students for 21
st
century
careers in an increasingly diverse and global society, educators are initiating and experiencing
pervasive transformations in teaching practices, curricular standards, funding models, and
assessment and accountability methods. Education today requires leaders who readily combine
multiple areas of expertise, including curriculum and instruction, assessment, technology,
finance, law, and politics. These education leaders combine objectivity and creativity, analysis
and artistry, and realism and passionate commitment, creating clarity amid tumult and change
(Northouse, 2013).
During this revolutionary time in education, the demands of its leaders are increasing,
affecting job conditions, time commitment, work load, and stress, which may dissuade potential
aspirants from pursuing a leadership position. The expanding responsibilities of education
leaders, combined with other factors such as retirements and attrition rates, intensifies the need
for education leaders, especially in underperforming areas (Fink, 2010; Gajda & Mitillo, 2008;
Hewitt, Denny, & Pijanowski, 2011). Retirements among principals and superintendents are
increasing, and attrition rates are climbing, especially in schools serving high proportions of
students who are poor, non-White, or do not speak English as their first language, and in schools
with many inexperienced teachers (Béteille, Kalogrides, & Loeb, 2012; Loeb, Kalogrides, &
Horng, 2010). Based on the Schools and Staffing Survey released by the National Center for
Education Statistics in 2010, of the approximately 10,690 public school principals who left the
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 10
profession in 2008, 4,850 (45%) did so through retirement. The principal attrition rate
nationwide averages 45%-55% over eight years, with rates at the higher end in schools with large
concentrations of so-called low achieving or high needs students (Béteille, et al., 2012). Several
studies based on projected retirement and enrollment patterns predict that the United States will
need to add 10,000 principals in the next ten years. California will need to add or replace 3,000
principals by 2018 (White, Fong, & Makkonen, 2010).
Superintendent turnover rates are similar to, if not higher than, principal turnover rates,
with rates as high as 71% in urban areas (Béteille, et al., 2012; Fink, 2010; Glass, Björk, &
Brunner, 2001; Grissom & Andersen, 2010). While the average tenure of a superintendent
nationwide is five to six years, in California, the average is three years (Glass, et al., 2001; Glass
& Franceschini, 2007). Together, the turnover rates of principals and superintendents can have
several negative outcomes, including interruption of program or reform implementation, low
teacher morale, and the development of cultures that resist change (Fink & Brayman, 2006).
Additionally, the age of current superintendents in California and across the nation remains
stagnant, at between 56 and 60 years of age, yet the age of principals is decreasing, highlighting
the need for superintendents who are capable of shaping less experienced, but potentially
effective, school leaders (Kowalski, et al., 2011). Increased demands, retirement rates, and
attrition rates have caused a growing instability in the quantity and quality of leaders, thereby
mandating leadership capacity-building efforts, that is, efforts to expand and improve the
intellectual and professional competencies necessary for successful school and district
leadership.
To complicate matters, women are markedly absent from the education leadership
picture, especially in particular roles. Over the past 40 years there have been some gains at the
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 11
central office level and in the elementary principalship, both nationwide and in California, but
the majority of educational leaders in schools and districts are men, with the most disparate
figures at the superintendent level (Blount, 1998; Gilmour & Kinsella, 2009; Glass, et al., 2001;
Glass & Franceschini, 2007; Grogan & Shakeshaft, 2011; Shakeshaft, et al., 2007; Tallerico &
Blount, 2004). In fact, the U.S. Census Bureau (2000) characterized the superintendency as the
most male-dominated executive position of any profession in the United Sates, and one author
reports that a male teacher is four times more likely to become a superintendent than a female
teacher (Skrla, 2003). Women constitute nearly three-quarters of the teaching force in the United
States, yet they are less than 25% of the superintendents, less than 60% of elementary principals,
and less than 30% of secondary principals (Kowalski, et al., 2011).
The Association of California School Administrators (ACSA) recently acknowledged the
importance of increasing the presence of women and persons of color in school and district
leadership roles through reinvigorating its Equity, Achievement and Diversity for Success
Committee. The committee is actively bringing awareness to its members regarding the need for
increasing the leadership capacity of diverse educators as well as their access to positions of
leadership through a survey conducted in April, 2015, the roll out of an Equity Toolkit in May,
2015, and the development of Equity Institutes, fulfilled in late 2015 and early 2016. Since 2007,
ACSA has also cultivated a statewide Women’s Leadership Network, with state and regional
events to foster professional development and networking for women. In collaboration with the
American Association of School Administrators (AASA), ACSA hosts an annual “Women in
School Leadership Forum,” providing professional and personal growth opportunities
specifically for women. Building leadership capacity among women in education would
primarily address the immediate need for vibrant leaders in education today and could, among
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 12
other effects: provide role models for an increasingly diverse student population, provide role
models and support for potential leaders, especially women, challenge the leader stereotypes that
are overwhelmingly masculine, reduce gatekeeping behaviors (those behaviors that prevent
access to leadership positions), and ultimately increase gender equity throughout education.
Background of the Problem
The effects of principal and superintendent leadership on student achievement have been
well documented, and studies point to the unique strengths of women education leaders (Branch,
Hanushek, & Rivkin, 2013; Hallinger & Heck, 1998; Leithwood, Harris, & Hopkins, 2008;
Leithwood, Patton, & Jantzi, 2010; Leithwood, et al., 2004; Togneri & Anderson, 2003). While
effects of leadership can be challenging to interpret, the conclusion of many researchers is that
the effect of a leader is second only to the impact of a teacher among all school-related factors
that contribute to what students learn at school (Hallinger & Heck, 1998; Leithwood et al., 2004;
Leithwood et al., 2008). Notably, these leadership effects are considerably greater in schools and
districts that face more difficult circumstances, such as more students who are socioeconomically
disadvantaged or who are English learners (Leithwood et al., 2004; Togneri & Anderson, 2003).
Anecdotes of so-called turnaround schools or districts rarely are told without praising a
strong leader by name. When Branch, Hanushek, and Rivkin (2013) separated principals’
contributions from other factors that drive student achievement, they found that, across schools,
having a principal that was one standard deviation more effective than an average principal
meant an increase in student achievement that was equivalent to seven months of learning in a
single academic year. Togneri and Anderson (2003) uncovered policies and practices of high-
poverty districts that have improved achievement across multiple schools, and one significant
finding pointed to the presence of key leaders who accepted and faced their challenges and
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 13
sought solutions without placing blame. Thus, the relevance of education leaders has been
established and continues to be confirmed.
The need for dynamic school and district leaders has evolved over time, as have the roles
themselves. Recently, the role communicator was added to the five role conceptualizations of the
superintendent: teacher-scholar, manager, democratic leader, applied social scientist, and
communicator (Björk & Kowalski, 2005). Similarly, the roles of a principal, including manager,
motivator, and visionary have expanded and become more challenging to fulfill (Grogan &
Andrews, 2002; Hargreaves & Goodson, 2006). These role conceptualizations are complicated
by, and perhaps rendered insufficient due to, key transformations occurring throughout education
today. In California, many of the ongoing educational changes are magnified because its
businesses are pioneers of globalization and technological advancement, and the demographics
of the state’s population are changing, all of which combine to create a situation that necessitates
highly qualified leaders, including principals and superintendents.
In addition to these complicated roles, the challenges for women who desire to advance
into the principalship or superintendency are confounded by a patriarchal system, in which most
women take care of and teach the children, and men take administrative roles (Young & Skrla,
2012). The domain of educational administration continues to be reserved for men, with less than
25% women superintendents and less than 30% women secondary principals. Gender stereotypes
and schemas, gatekeeping, the glass elevator, the glass ceiling, old boys’ networks, and queen
bees are among the barriers for women aspiring to leadership positions in education
(Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010; Bell, McLaughlin, & Sequeira, 2002; Chase & Bell, 1990;
Wood & Eagly, 2002). The real barriers faced by women are sometimes disregarded and
frequently simplistically attributed to preconceived notions of women’s leadership style.
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 14
The impact of leaders is described and analyzed in various ways, including through the
lens of leadership style. Some of the earliest information regarding leadership styles of men and
women distinguishes men as task-oriented and women as interpersonally oriented, and some
research has continued to support similar distinctions, although with increased nuances (Bales,
1950). Social role theory contends that due to women’s societally perceived roles, they are
perceived as less effective as leaders, which means women must work harder than men to be
deemed effective (Eagly & Karau, 2002). However, much research points to a female advantage
in leadership (Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, van Engen, 2003; Helgesen, 1995; Yukl, 2002).
Although sometimes viewed as one-dimensional, the research that overlaps gender and
leadership style can provide unique insight into the capacity-building strategies that will be most
effective.
Transformational leadership has recently garnered considerable attention, and numerous
studies have demonstrated its effectiveness (Lowe, Kroeck, & Sivasubramaniam, 1996). By
fostering capacity development as well as higher levels of personal commitment to
organizational goals, transformational leaders in education gain extra effort and greater
productivity from staff as well as students (Leithwood & Jantzi, 2000). A compelling meta-
analysis of 45 studies concluded that women leaders are more transformational than men leaders,
underscoring their unique value as leaders (Eagly, et al., 2003). Transformational leadership and
social role theory are advanced as theoretical foundations for the present study as they lay the
groundwork for the skills, competencies and attributes that need to be recognized, developed and
fostered in various leadership capacity-building efforts that may fill current and future gaps in
educational leadership.
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 15
Leadership capacity-building efforts occur throughout education, at the individual level
(for example: teacher-leader coaching teacher; principal mentoring teacher), the school-site level
(for example: principal shaping teacher leaders through a leadership committee), and the district
level (for example: aspiring principals academy). These leadership capacity-building efforts are
sometimes interchangeably called succession planning efforts, although some argue that
succession planning, which may name pools or reservoirs of specific individuals for certain
positions, entails leadership capacity-building. While noting the lack of systemic leadership
capacity-building efforts in education, various researchers and practitioners emphasize the need
for an individual and organizational focus at the same time, so that both the individuals and
organizations grow simultaneously, resulting in personal and organizational success (Avolio,
2007; Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Conger & Benjamin, 1999; Davis, et al., 2005; Fink, 2011; Fink
& Brayman, 2006; Rothwell, 2010). Effective sustainable leadership endeavors include
acknowledgement of the importance of diversity, learning in an authentic context, clearly
identifying and communicating skills necessary, cohort grouping, collaborations with
universities, mentoring, and stretch job assignments (Davis et al., 2005; Fink, 2011; Grogan &
Andrews, 2002; Groves, 2007; Turnbull, et al., 2013, Zepeda et al., 2012). “Grow your own”
programs, in which districts work with aspiring leaders in a variety of ways, such as providing
professional development and networking opportunities, have received less attention (Sherman,
2005). Very few programs thoroughly integrate the above features, thus the sustainable
leadership of schools and districts is currently insufficient.
Additional research has been conducted on leadership capacity-building strategies
specific to women, and some begin with the often-cited differing value orientations or motivators
of women and men (Vinnicombe & Singh, 2003). Efforts to build leadership capacity in women
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 16
should encompass networking, negotiations, leading change, and career planning. Overarching
principles include recognizing women as a strategic business advantage and anchoring
participants in their leadership purpose (Ely, Ibarra, & Kolb, 2011; Hopkins, et al., 2008). There
have been few studies of the various efforts to actualize this research into practice through
statewide or districtwide efforts; this gap needs to be corrected to expand the reach of current
programs and ultimately to have more women education leaders.
Statement of the Problem
Today’s rapidly changing educational environment is facing a significant leadership gap.
Without effective strategies for building leadership capacity, future school and district leaders
remain untapped and underdeveloped. Women, who are underrepresented at the superintendent
level and overrepresented as elementary principals, offer a viable solution to the deficit.
Planning for the succession of school leaders, especially women, is critical as principals
and superintendents, and, in turn, the teams that they build, affect student achievement (Chingos,
Whitehurst, & Lindquist, 2014; Hallinger & Heck, 2011; Leithwood et al., 2010; Robinson,
Lloyd, & Rowe, 2008). Marzano, Waters, and McNulty (2005) explain that principal and teacher
effectiveness account for nearly 60% of a school’s impact on student achievement.
Over the past 40 years there have been some gains at the central office level and in the
elementary principalship but the majority of educational leaders in schools and districts are men,
with the most disparate figures at the superintendent level (Glass, et al., 2000; Mertz, 2006;
Shakeshaft et al., 2007). Building the leadership capacity of women in education may increase
role modeling, grow the pool of qualified candidates for leadership, and perpetuate a culture of
diversity and equity.
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 17
Researchers have explored multiple explanations for the lack of women superintendents,
such as barriers to women administrators, career paths of women administrators, and leadership
behavior of women administrators. A number of frameworks and theories such as communities
of practice, power issues, feminist postmodern, social network theory, and career mobility theory
have been utilized to study, interpret and pose solutions to the problem. (Brunner & Grogan,
2007; Dana & Bourisaw, 2006; Glass, et al., 2000; Mertz, 2006; Muñoz et al., 2014; Shakeshaft
et al., 2007). Building leadership capacity, the ability of district or school leaders to help those
around them take on leadership roles, is critical to school improvement and sustained change
(Bolman & Deal, 2013; Darling-Hammond, et al., 2007; Northouse, 2013). Too few studies
related to women in education leadership have examined and assessed specific practices that
have been attempted to increase the numbers of women education leaders. Efforts to recruit,
select, and develop women education leaders deserve attention so that women may help fill the
growing educational leadership gap.
Purpose of the Study
Some schools and districts are defying the ominous statistics and aggressively building
future education leaders. Some districts are doing this remarkably well in terms of women. This
study examined how a district works to build the next generation of women school and district
leaders. Specifically, it examined the strategies employed by the district in order to build the next
generation of women leaders, explored perceptions of district stakeholders, especially women,
regarding the influence of the leadership capacity-building strategies, and identified factors that
facilitate and inhibit these strategies.
Identifying strategies that a school district uses to successfully build the next generation
of women school and district leaders may provide a guide for other districts to follow. Exploring
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 18
the perceptions of stakeholders regarding the influence of the leadership capacity-building
strategies, with a particular focus on women, may enhance the current strategies employed by
districts, especially as it relates to increasing the diversity of school and district leaders. Studying
the perceptions of district stakeholders regarding current strategies may also improve the content,
execution and reach of such programs. Finally, identifying facilitators and inhibitors of the
district leadership capacity-building strategies for women may help other districts recognize
catalysts and pitfalls for their current or future leadership capacity-building strategies for women.
Research Questions
To gain insight into the successful leadership capacity-building strategies for women in
education, the study asked the following research questions, which were developed
collaboratively by the author’s thematic dissertation group:
1) In what ways does Smith Unified School District work to build the next generation of
women school and district leaders?
2) What are the perceptions of district stakeholders regarding the influence of the leadership
capacity-building strategies?
a) What are the perceptions of women regarding the influence of the leadership
capacity-building strategies?
3) What are the factors that facilitate and inhibit district strategies for building women’s
leadership capacity?
Significance of the Study
While there is a substantial amount of theoretical literature that focuses on building
leadership capacity among educational leaders, there is little evaluation of actual district
strategies to build leadership capacity, as well as a similar lack of study on building the capacity
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 19
of women. Because of the importance of gender equity and appropriate role modeling, as well as
the increasing numbers of education leaders retiring and choosing to leave the field, it is critical
to address this need for research regarding strategies for building leadership capacity in women.
The research findings are instructive for teachers and principals who aspire to advance
because it may provide criteria for evaluation various leadership development opportunities.
Women teachers who aspire to leadership positions as well as women principals who aspire to
district leadership or superintendency may find it particularly instructive. The study may also
inspire women who discover that their pursuit of leadership roles, despite the challenges, is
worthy of research. Men in leadership roles may find the research helpful for building their
awareness of the shortage of women leaders in education and the issues that surround the
shortage, and it may suggest ways they can support their female colleagues.
Principals and district leaders who are instrumental to the development and
implementation of leadership capacity-building efforts may more carefully consider their
strategies for identifying, recruiting, and developing leaders. They may also find new elements
that are relevant for their school or district context. Given the lack of research focusing on
women’s experiences with leadership development opportunities, examining the perceptions of
women participants will assist those who are developing and implementing the leadership
capacity-building strategies.
Policymakers may use the findings to advocate for better support funding for
systematically building a diverse cadre of education leaders through effective, research-based
strategies. Colleges and universities may discover beneficial ways to enhance partnerships
between school districts and institutions of higher education. For scholars, this research
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 20
augments the literature on building the next generation of education leaders and adds the
dimensions of district strategies with an emphasis on women.
Limitations, Delimitations, Assumptions
This study’s limitations were beyond the control of the researcher, but they may have
affected its results. The small sample size –one district – prevents any broad generalization,
despite efforts of the researcher to expand application to a larger population. The experience of
participants in Smith district may be limited to the unique context of the district.
The qualitative methodology of the study required participants to provide thoughtful
responses to interview questions and candid engagement in observations. There is no assurance
of truthfulness in responses to interview questions, nor is there assurance of authenticity during
observations. The researcher attempted to validate the findings through triangulation of data,
utilizing interviews, observations, and artifacts.
Due to time constraints, the researcher was limited to a four-month time span for data
collection, making time a final limitation of the study. The short timeframe had an impact on the
size of the sample.
In terms of delimitations, the researcher selected several parameters for the unit of study.
The researcher determined that the district had previously demonstrated successful leadership
capacity-building efforts through a “grow your own” leadership program as well as a large
teacher on special assignment system. The superintendent explained that several women had
been promoted to or within district leadership positions over the past several years. The
researcher intentionally chose potential participants for observations and interviews in the
interest of understanding the experience of women. She chose mostly women for participation,
selecting a diverse group based on years and type of education experience, and presumed age.
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 21
Several men were invited to participate so as to not delimit the data to only the voices of women.
This mixture of participants provides thorough insight into their experiences related to the
district’s leadership capacity-building strategies.
Glossary of Terms
a. Leadership capacity: the room for growth in a person or organization that, when
addressed, improves knowledge, dispositions, and skills related to effective leadership
b. Transformational leadership: a style of leadership in which followers are inspired,
intellectually stimulated, and individually considered by their leader
c. Instructional leadership: a style of leadership marked by a focus on teaching and
learning in an effort to improve student achievement
d. Mentor: someone who shares his/her knowledge, wisdom and experience in an influential
manner with a protégé
e. Network: a group of contacts who provide support, feedback, insight, information, and
resources
Organization of the Study
This study examined the ways that Smith Unified School District works to build the next
generation of women education leaders. Chapter 1 provided an overview and established its
importance for women education leaders and education in general. Chapter 2 offers a review of
the literature, which discusses the importance of school and district leaders, provides a historical
context of women in education, and describes barriers to advancement for women. Studies of
leadership capacity-building efforts are considered, and the factors that inhibit and facilitate
leadership capacity-building efforts for women in education are discussed. Chapter 2 also
provides a theoretical framework for the study. Chapter 3 discusses the research methodology
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 22
and the reasons for selecting a qualitative approach. It also provides information about the
sample and how the location and participants were chosen. Information about the study’s
instrumentation and framework for data collection and analysis are also provided. Chapter 3 also
includes the conceptual framework guiding the study. Chapter 4 details the findings of the
research, answering the research questions and relating the results to existing literature. Chapter
5 connects all of the parts of the study and addresses the implications of the study’s findings.
Chapter 5 also offers recommendations for future research.

BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 23
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
While the demands of school and district leaders are increasing and changing, especially
due to a progressively more politically charged and accountability-driven system, rates of
retirement and attrition are climbing (Kafka, 2009; White, et al., 2010). Additionally, women
leaders are missing from the ranks of superintendent and secondary principal throughout the
country, causing a significant leadership gap (Glass, et al., 2000; Mertz, 2006; Shakeshaft et al.,
2007). The most recent figures indicate that approximately 24% of superintendents are women,
and less than 30% of secondary principals are women (Kowalski, et al., 2011). The lack of
women in particular leadership positions in education is anomalous given that nearly three-
quarters of teachers nationwide are women. Additionally, women occupy nearly 60% of middle-
management positions in education, including assistant superintendent positions, which are
traditionally viewed as pipeline or stepping-stone positions to the superintendency (Brunner &
Grogan, 2007; Gilmour & Kinsella, 2009; Mertz, 2006; Shakeshaft et al., 2007). Moreover,
women earn approximately 75% of the bachelor’s and master’s degrees in education and more
than 60% of the doctorates (Shakeshaft et al., 2007).
Various reasons for the absence of women from leadership positions in education have
been explored, such as barriers to women administrators, career paths of women administrators,
and leadership behavior of women administrators. A number of frameworks and theories have
been utilized to study, interpret and pose solutions to the problem, including communities of
practice, power issues, feminist postmodern, social network theory, and career mobility theory.
Very few studies have reviewed how districts actually are building leadership capacity in women
in ways that both acknowledge and transcend previous research.
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 24
This chapter reviews existing research, with a particular focus on organizational
leadership, especially with regard to principals and superintendents. This inquiry requires an
examination of existing literature regarding women leaders in education, including a brief
historical overview of women as teachers and as school and district leaders. The sections
regarding the relevance of leadership and the history of women in education are followed by a
survey of societal expectations, gender stereotypes, and leadership styles, including an
examination of how gender can be a limiting, and occasionally advantageous, factor for women.
This section advances transformational leadership and social role theory as theoretical
frameworks. Leadership capacity-building strategies, such as mentoring and collaboration with
universities, are then reviewed, and particular strategies that are proposed for women are
discussed. This section discusses building pipelines, pools and reservoirs of leadership, as well as
offering a review of the skills deemed necessary for education leaders. The chapter concludes by
connecting existing scholarship to the present study.
Significance of Leadership
Influence of Principals
Despite some disagreement regarding the significance of school leaders, particularly how
to measure their influence, various studies have demonstrated that principals affect student
achievement (Béteille, et al., 2012; Branch, et al., 2013; Darling-Hammond & Rothman, 2011;
Hallinger & Heck, 2006; Leithwood et al., 2004; Marzano, et al., 2005; Seashore Louis, et al.,
2009). In a critical review of 40 studies, Hallinger and Heck (2006) conclude, “principals
exercise a measurable, though indirect effect on school effectiveness and student achievement”
(p. 186). The authors blend several frameworks that hypothesize four areas through which
leadership may impact the school system: 1) purposes and goals; 2) structure and social
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 25
networks; 3) people; and 4) organizational culture. Thus, like other researchers, Hallinger &
Heck describe leadership as influencing both individuals and the organizational system, which
suggests the relevance of leadership capacity-building efforts that simultaneously address the
individuals who are potential leaders and the system in which they work. They explain, however,
that the studies they reviewed do not explain the exact means by which principals impact
schools, nor do they illuminate the contextual factors that influence school leaders.
Other studies, such as the five-year Learning from Leadership Project commissioned by
The Wallace Foundation, which studied 43 school districts and 180 schools across nine states,
attempt to answer more precisely how high-quality school leaders achieve their impact
(Leithwood, Harris, & Hopkins, 2008; Marzano, et al., 2005; Seashore Louis, et al., 2009).
Setting directions, developing people, and redesigning the organization are means by which
education leaders can create synergy across variables that affect student learning (Seashore
Louis, et al., 2009). Marzano, Waters, and McNulty (2005) propose 21 leadership
responsibilities, such as affirmation; change agent; and involvement in curriculum, instruction
and assessment, that create synergy and impact student achievement, and Leithwood, Harris, and
Hopkins (2008) explain that influencing staff motivation, commitment and working conditions
affect student achievement. When principals’ contributions were separated from other factors,
Branch, et al. (2013) found that having a principal who was one standard deviation more
effective than an average principal meant an increase in student achievement that was equivalent
to seven months of learning in a single academic year. Additionally, when reporting on 10 large-
scale quantitative studies Seashore Louis et al. (2009) write that leadership explains 5–7% of the
variation in student learning. Thus, researchers concur that principals, second only to teachers,
influence student learning.
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 26
Principals influence student learning through their significant responsibilities, including:
recruiting high-quality teachers, motivating teachers, articulating school vision and goals,
allocating resources, and developing organizational structures to support instruction and learning.
The extent to which leadership capacity is developed in individuals and school systems affects
the execution of these responsibilities, which, in turn, affects student achievement (Bryk, et al.,
2010; Hallinger & Heck, 1996; Harris, et al., 2010; Leithwood, et al., 2004).
Turnover also affects the influence of principals and averages 15-30% nationwide each
year (Béteille et al., 2012). While the majority of principal turnover is intra-district, 30% of
principals in schools with high concentrations of low achieving students leave their schools each
year, whereas 15% of principals in schools with low concentrations of low achieving students
leave (Béteille et al., 2012). Loeb, Kalogrides, and Horng (2010) assert that principal shortage
problems are particularly acute in schools serving high proportions of students who are poor,
non-White, or do not speak English as their first language. Leadership instability can have
negative effects on school climate and student achievement as teachers and students are less
likely to build relationships with and be influenced by a revolving roster of leaders. Leadership
turnover also leads to teacher instability, as teachers are 19% more likely to leave a school with a
new principal (Béteille, et al., 2012). Just as principals are key to school leadership,
superintendents are fundamental to district leadership.
Influence of Superintendents
During his 1987 State of Education speech, then U.S. Secretary of Education William
Bennett described all of those employed in the education system working outside of classrooms
as a “blob … soaking up resources and resisting reform without contributing to student
achievement” (Waters & Marzano, 2006, p. 8). Several studies, however, contradict Bennett,
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 27
noting that district leaders, particularly superintendents, affect student achievement in a variety
of ways.
A meta-analysis of 27 studies concluded that the relationship between district leadership
and student achievement is a positive correlation of 0.24. This analysis also explained that
superintendent tenure matters, because as the tenure of a superintendent increases, so does
student achievement within that district (Walters & Marzano, 2006). Contradicting this statement
is the recent report of the Brown Center on Education Policy at the Brookings Institute, which
explains the influence of superintendents as minimal, describing it as 0.3%, a fraction of a
percent, of student differences in achievement (Chingos, et al., 2014). This report also claims
that student achievement does not increase as superintendent tenure increases and purports that
superintendents who have an exceptional influence on student achievement cannot be reliably
identified. However, the effects of superintendents are far-reaching, and perhaps most tangible in
their daily leadership decisions.
The influence of superintendents may be most visible through their investment in
instructional leadership development at the school and district levels, which includes the hiring,
placement, and development of teachers and principals (Leithwood et al., 2004). A study of 12
high-performing districts in California found that they shared an intentional selection of
principals with curricular knowledge and interpersonal skills (Murphy & Hallinger, 1988). And
when Togneri and Anderson (2003) studied five high poverty districts that had demonstrated
significant improvement in student achievement, they found that the efficiency and efficacy of
the schools was achieved when key leaders were active and when a central office takes the lead.
They also acknowledge the effects of “in house,” or within district, leadership development.
While the number of studies that demonstrate and commend district leadership are far fewer than
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 28
those that pay tribute to principals, their results convincingly point to the positive effects of and
the need for effective district leadership.
Notably, the studies agree on the importance of “defined autonomy” (Waters & Marzano,
2006) or “decentralization without fragmentation” (Leithwood et al., 2004) to the success of
high-performing districts. These ideas downplay the district leader as a lone hero and emphasize
shared leadership, in which principals are supported and developed to make site-based decisions,
such as those related to school goals or budget expenditures, within a well-defined yet flexible
district framework. While avoiding the leader-as-hero perspective, these studies point to the
significance of a functional leadership system with built in autonomy, thereby underscoring the
need for robust leadership capacity-building efforts that help leaders at all levels to balance
control and independence.
Historical Context
The current need for dynamic school and district leaders has evolved over time and stems
from increasing demands on – and rising retirement and attrition rates for – both principals and
superintendents (Kowalski et al., 2011; White et al., 2010). Societal expectations, gender
stereotypes, and leader stereotypes also contribute to the lack of women secondary principals and
superintendents (Dana & Bourisaw, 2006; Fullan & Grogan, 2013; Kowalski et al., 2011;
Shakeshaft et al., 2007). Although there is some disagreement among researchers regarding the
causes of the current demand for educational leaders, nearly all agree that leaders and their
formation are a significant priority for the future of education.
The role of the principal and superintendent have, in tandem, evolved over time,
culminating in the current job descriptions that some describe as nearly impossible to fulfill
(Hewitt, et al., 2011; Muñoz et al., 2014). The superintendent, for example, is expected to be a
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 29
teacher-scholar, manager, democratic leader, applied social scientist, and communicator (Björk
& Kowalski, 2005). Similarly, the roles of a principal include shaping a vision of success for all
students, creating a climate hospitable to education, cultivating leadership in others, improving
instruction, and managing people, data and processes (Darling-Hammond, et al., 2007). If these
roles and responsibilities are fulfilled effectively and bolstered by sound leadership capacity-
building strategies, the impact on student achievement could be formidable.
When the position of school principal first came into being in the 1920s, the principal
had a values-based concern with pedagogy (Grogan & Andrews, 2002). The role of district
superintendent began as a means for boards of education to simplify their duties. As more and
more women entered teaching in the early 20
th
century, more principalships and
superintendencies were established, and both positions, populated mostly by males, increased in
significance (Blount, 1998).
By the 1980s, education leaders had turned their focus on preparing students for an
increasingly demanding workplace. Hargreaves and Goodson (2006) describe the late 1970s
through the mid-1990s as “a transitional age of complexity and contradiction” for education,
marked by a decline of traditional social democracy and an increase in postmodern uncertainty.
The mid-1990s through today marks an “age of standardization and marketization” in which
economies are integrated, student populations are less homogenous, information is instant, and
community relationships are in rapid decline (Hargreaves & Goodson, 2006). Escalating
performance requirements, including high-stakes testing, and diminishing public support, are
significant burdens on educators. Future leaders need to be prepared for the next era of
education.
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 30
The Change Over Time? study, conducted by Hargreaves and Goodson (2006), examined
long-term educational change over a 30-year period and found that the political, historical, and
longitudinal aspects of change are often neglected by mainstream educational change theory and
practice. The authors explain that large-scale economic and demographic shifts produce five
change forces: waves of reform, changing student demographics, teacher generations, leadership
succession, and school interrelations. They propose a strategic theory of sustainable change that
includes “treating history and experience as strengths to be drawn on rather than obstacles to be
overcome” (p. 35). After extensively studying eight high schools in the United States and Canada
in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, they explain that the past should not be treated as a problem used
to rationalize political mandates that direct the future. They conclude that the five change forces
reaffirm the traditional identities and practices of high schools and have drawn innovative high
schools toward the traditional norm. Leadership succession is one of these change forces that
could be utilized for innovation rather than maintenance of the status quo.
Within the context of the history described above, in the interest of better understanding
their experiences and extending their leadership capacity, the experiences of women in education
are described below.
Women in Education
Social injustices experienced historically by women, such as voter, wage, and workplace
inequity, have limited opportunities for women. Education, with rare exception, has historically
been a male-dominated profession, despite the disproportionate number of female teachers
(Blount, 1998; Shakeshaft et al., 2007).
Men dominated the teaching profession through the early- to mid-1800s, working largely
by themselves in schoolhouses throughout the country, and women were prohibited from
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 31
engaging in this kind of work. Women were described as less intelligent than men, and education
was perceived to be wasted on them. However, eventually public opinion shifted toward the
belief that women could best serve their country and their own children with sufficient education
to enhance their motherly duties. Thus, by the early 1900s, women held 70% of all teaching
positions, and this figure peaked in 1920, when women held 86% of all school positions (Blount,
1998).
Women’s entrance into the classrooms immediately resolved a teaching shortage in the
mid- to late-19
th
century. As an added bonus, they typically were paid less than half the wages of
male teachers (Blount, 1998). In the mid-1800s, an interesting trend in educational employment
“developed in parallel with emergence of women teachers. Local and state officials created the
domain of school administration, a realm reserved from the beginning for men” (Blount, 1998, p.
26). A traditional educational organization is a patriarchal system, an assumed hierarchy in
which women take care of and teach the children, and men take administrative roles (Young &
Skrla, 2003). Historically, this patriarchy has been questioned on occasion, such as during an
1853 meeting of New York teachers, when Susan B. Anthony violated an association rule
preventing women from speaking. When finally permitted to contribute to the discussion
regarding why teachers were not as well respected as lawyers, ministers or doctors, she pointedly
challenged the men in attendance to consider exalting their profession and making it more
equitable and lucrative (Blount, 1998, p. 24). Anthony’s challenge was repeated by Ella Flagg
Young, the first woman superintendent in the United States.
Women as Superintendents
Ella Flagg Young, upon being selected as the first woman superintendent of Chicago
schools in 1909 declared, “Women are destined to rule the schools of every city. I look for a
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 32
large majority of the big cities to follow the lead of Chicago in choosing a woman for
superintendent. In the near future we will have more women than men in executive charge of the
vast educational system” (Blount, 1998, p. 1). After Young stepped down in 1915, it would be 70
years before another woman was superintendent in Chicago (Blount, 1998). Young’s prediction
that future generations would see more women than men as leaders in the educational system has
not yet come to fruition; today, more than 70% of superintendents nationwide are men
(Kowalski, et al., 2011).
Proportionally, fewer women lead school systems today than did in Young’s day
(Kowalski et al., 2011). While statistics regarding women in educational leadership have been
sometimes difficult to uncover, which Tyack and Hansot (1982) labeled a “conspiracy of
silence,” recent figures indicate that 24.1% of superintendents are women, nearly 60% of
elementary principals are women, and nearly 30% of secondary principals are women (Kowalski
et al., 2011).
The early 20
th
century was the “golden age” of women in educational administration.
Suffrage activism and the women’s movement challenged previous social norms and propelled
women into school leadership positions across the nation (Blount, 1998). By 1930, 28% of
county superintendents, and 11% of superintendents nationwide were women. Men, wary of
women’s voting power and the formidable number of women in leadership positions at that time,
challenged the electoral status of school administration, and it evolved into an appointed position
(Blount, 1998). Additionally, in the late 1940s and early 1950s, women voluntarily left school
administration to allow men returning from war an opportunity to pursue teaching and
educational administration with retraining and support from the GI Bill (Brunner & Grogan,
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 33
2007). As a result, from World War II to about 1970, the number of women in the
superintendency dropped from 9% to an all-time low of 3% (Blount, 1998).
At the same time, the social tide turned against economically independent and
educationally privileged women, and single women became regarded as a threat to the
masculinity of male students and teachers (Blount, 1998). Whereas marriage or pregnancy had
previously been discouraged and cause for dismissal, now single educators were less socially
acceptable. As recently as 1988, the National Center for Education Information indicated that
94% of the nation’s superintendents were married, compared to 57% of the general population
(Blount, 1998).
Despite the enactment of legislation to correct sex-based inequalities in the nation’s
education system, women’s representation in the superintendency and the secondary
principalship still significantly lags behind men’s representation in the same positions (Kowalski,
et al., 2011). An outcome of President Kennedy’s 1960s Commission on the Status of Women
was Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which protected against employment
discrimination based on race, gender, creed and national origin. In 1972, Title IX of the Civil
Rights Act prohibited gender discrimination in any program or agency receiving federal funds,
which inspired a period of observation, analysis and debate about the changes needed for women
to advance in positions of education. The Women’s Educational Equity Act of 1974, which
designated federal funds for the purposes of researching and correcting sex-based inequalities in
the nation’s education system, and the Civil Rights Restoration Act, which prohibited sex-
exclusive social groups and educational organizations that included women, followed Title IX.
The Civil Rights Act of 1991 and the Federal Glass Ceiling Commission acknowledged artificial
barriers that were inhibiting the advancement of women, and supported the increase of
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 34
opportunities and development experiences of women in order to foster their advancement
(Blount, 1998; Brunner & Grogan, 2007). In spite of these federal activities, barriers, such as
those described below, persist, and women continue to lag behind men in their advancement to
leadership positions in education.
Women & Gender Discrimination
Gender Stereotypes & Schemas
Historically sex differences have disadvantaged women because patriarchal social
structures cause men to hold the majority of the power and authority. Divisions of labor emerged
historically due to women’s reproductive ability and men’s size and strength, which resulted in
the stereotype of women in the caregiver role and men in the provider role. Thus, society has a
difficult time viewing women as leaders in the workplace, and the leader stereotype is male
(Wood & Eagly, 2002). Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell, and Ristikari (2011) conducted a meta-analysis
that examined the extent to which stereotypes of leaders are culturally masculine. After
reviewing over 100 studies, they confirmed that there is a masculine construal of leadership.
Male leader stereotypes, shaped by observed social roles, use descriptors such as agentic,
commanding, authoritarian, and confident (Eagly & Karau, 2002). Gender schemas, which
operate on an unconscious level, also cause many to view men as more effective in leadership
roles (Valian, 2005).
Social role theory asserts that due to women’s societally perceived roles, they are
perceived as less effective as leaders. Thus women to have to work harder than men to be
deemed effective (Eagly & Karau, 2002). Several studies in education have confirmed the
existence of gender stereotypes and schemas and several reference social role theory (Blount,
1998; Cognard-Black, 2004; Dana & Bourisaw, 2006). Some researchers, however, point to the
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 35
fact that research on educational leadership is inevitably the study of male administrative
behavior because men occupy more administrative positions (Shakeshaft, et al., 2007). These
researchers assert that there is a significant need to study women specifically and authentically in
the gender-imbalanced education context, which the present study aimed to do.
Other Perceived Barriers to Advancement
Gatekeeping, the glass elevator, the glass ceiling, old boys’ networks, and queen bees are
among the barriers for women education leaders and those aspiring to leadership positions, some
of which can be addressed through leadership capacity-building efforts (Shakeshaft, et al., 2007).
Chase and Bell (1990) studied school boards and explained how school board members
and superintendent search consultants – gatekeepers – may “participate in the processes that
reproduce men’s dominance,” confirming the existence of gender stereotypes among board
members (p. 170). Cognard-Black (2004) conducted a study of 5,734 secondary and elementary
teachers and confirmed the existence of a “gendered organizational structure,” in which men are
more likely to be appreciated and rewarded. He describes a “glass elevator” in which men enjoy
privilege in predominantly female jobs, such as education, and are more likely to be promoted
into administration.
The glass ceiling, a concept coined in 1980, describes invisible or artificial barriers,
including attitudes, behaviors and practices that prevent women from advancing (Bell, et al.,
2002). For example, the practice of screening women out of applicant pools helps create the
glass ceiling. Eagly and Carli (2007) prefer the metaphor of a labyrinth instead, explaining that it
better reflects the non-linear path to the top, including obstacles, detours and unexpected paths
along the way. They propose that women are able to find ways to the top and that “barriers to
women’s advancement are now more permeable” (p. 1).
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 36
Women may encounter old boys’ networks en route to top-level leadership positions.
These networks emerged from early stereotyped social roles, and are used by established male
leaders to limit their mentoring to other male leaders, therefore perpetuating the male-dominated
leadership narrative (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010). In a study across three states, researchers
identified three significant barriers faced by women superintendents in their efforts to access the
superintendency: a lack of professional networks, a dearth of influential sponsors, and “the old
boys’ club” (Sharp, Malone, Walter, & Suppley, 2000). Old boys’ networks or clubs, often part
of the golf-playing, cigar-smoking, post-work drinking culture that exists in some organizations,
ignore the capacity of women and perpetuate gender discrimination by preventing access to
social capital and support relationships.
Lastly, “queen bees” may block the advancement of women by not supporting younger
women who wish to advance (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010). Whether this obstructive
behavior is due to a belief that top positions should be earned, insecurity or jealousy, it is
detrimental to potential women leaders. Despite these barriers, women have many promising
supports such as role models, mentors, and support networks.
Leadership Styles
How leaders make their impacts may be described in terms of leadership style. Some of
the earliest information regarding leadership styles of men and women distinguishes men as task-
oriented and women as interpersonally oriented (Bales, 1950). Popular accounts of leadership
style describe women as less hierarchical, more cooperative and collaborative, and more oriented
to enhancing others’ self-worth; however, academic writers have often maintained that women
and men leaders do not differ (Bartol & Martin, 1986; Nieva & Gutek, 1981). A meta-analysis
that included studies conducted between 1961 and 1987 found that in laboratory experiments,
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 37
styles were somewhat gender stereotypic, in that women, more than men, demonstrated
interpersonally oriented and democratic styles. However, the same meta-analysis noted
organizational studies that showed flattened results, in which women were only slightly more
democratic or participatory leaders than men (Eagly & Johnson, 1990).
In her seminal book, The Female Advantage, Helgesen (1995) writes about her intensive
study of four women leaders and asserts throughout that the leadership style of women aligns
them exceptionally well to a range of executive leadership positions. Studying women in
corporate leadership positions, Rosener (1997) explains that women are an asset to corporations
as they are able to enhance the organization’s ability to be flexible and handle ambiguity. She
concludes that the underutilization of women is a national economic problem because those
organizations that are fully employing the diverse talents of women are at a distinct advantage
over those who do not. While sometimes viewed as simplistic or limiting, the research that
overlaps gender and leadership style can provide unique insight into the capacity building
strategies that will be most effective.
Transformational Leadership
As varying styles of leadership emerged in the 1980s and 1990s, transformational
leadership gained popularity and numerous studies demonstrated its effectiveness (Lowe, et al.,
1996). Transformational leaders move followers beyond immediate self-interest through
envisioning a desirable future, articulating and exemplifying how to reach this future, setting
high standards, and showing determination and confidence. They also help followers to become
more innovative and creative, and they pay attention to the developmental needs of followers,
supporting and coaching them (Bass, 1999). By fostering capacity development as well as higher
levels of personal commitment to organizational goals, transformational leaders in education
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 38
gain extra effort and greater productivity from all in the school or district setting (Leithwood &
Jantzi, 2000). A compelling meta-analysis of 45 studies concluded that women leaders are more
transformational than men leaders and more engaged in the contingent-reward behaviors
(providing rewards for satisfactory performance) that are part of transactional leadership (Eagly,
Johannesen-Schmidt, & van Engen, 2003). Transformational leaders who inspire, intellectually
stimulate, and are individually considerate align with the current diverse goals of education
(Bass, 1999; Burns, 1978).
When Leithwood and Sun (2012) focused on unpublished research drawn from 79 theses
and dissertations, they found that transformational leadership is strongly related to perceptions of
leader effectiveness (0.82), job satisfaction (0.76), teacher use of knowledge (0.69), and
perceptions of school effectiveness (0.63). These statistics highlight the broad potency of
transformational leadership, but the approach is not without controversy. When Lloyd and Rowe
(2008), for example, studied transformational leaders versus instructional leaders (who focus on
the accomplishment of instructional goals that improve student learning), they found that the
overall effect of transformational leaders was 0.11 versus an overall effect of 0.42 for
instructional leaders. Numerous authors, such as Printy, Marks, and Bowers (2010) express the
need for integrated leadership, which combines transformational and instructional leadership.
Nevertheless, transformational leadership will serve as the theoretical framework for this
study in tandem with social role theory. Coupling transformational leadership with social role
theory creates a strong foundation for the exploratory nature of this study. Three of five pillars of
transformational leadership will focus the theoretical framework: enable others to act; inspire
shared vision, and model the way. These three elements are visible in the following discussion of
leadership capacity-building strategies, particularly the skills necessary for education leaders, the
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 39
myopic approach to identifying, recruiting and developing leaders in education, and strategies
that have proven effective universally and specifically for women.
Leadership Capacity-Building Strategies
Education today requires leaders who readily combine multiple areas of expertise, and
these education leaders must create clarity amid tumult and change (Northouse, 2013). The
demonstrated effects of education leaders and their expanding responsibilities further intensifies
the need for education leaders, especially in particular states and in urban areas (Fink, 2010;
Hewitt, 2011; Gajda & Mitillo, 2008). Additionally, the marked absence of women as
superintendents and secondary principals compels education leaders to consider specific
strategies to enhance their development (Blount, 1998).
Skills Necessary for Education Leaders
Which specific skills are necessary for successful leadership? Experts agree on the need
for a combination of cognitive and affective skills, such as the 18 posed by Miles, Saxl, and
Lieberman (1988), and the 21 responsibilities posed by Marzano, et al. (2005). Grogan and
Andrews (2002) explain that defining important qualities of effective leaders needs to begin with
an appropriate vision of effective schools, so that current context is maintained. Defining skill
dimensions of educational leaders is one means to summarize which qualities, competencies and
skills reflect the vision of effective schools.
Skill dimensions of educational leaders are described by multiple professional
associations and organizations as well as by state and federal agencies. For example, the National
Association of Secondary School Principals and the Interstate School Leaders Licensure
Consortium (ISLLC) have published lists of skills for education leaders, as has the state of
California (National Association of Secondary School Principals, 2015; Council of Chief State
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 40
School Officers, 2014; Commission on Teacher Credentialing, 2014). The ISLLC standards,
include vision and mission, instruction, and professional culture for teachers. One study
compared 65 principals who graduated from one of four exemplary leadership preparation
programs to a national sample of 111 principals and found that participating in the exemplary
program had a significant positive association with learning about effective leadership and
engaging in the practices outlined by ISLLC (Orr & Orphanos, 2011). Valentine (2000) found
that when a principal preparation program was restructured to be concept driven, cohort based,
carefully mentored, and accompanied by a year-long, full-time, intensive experience at a school
site, prospective leaders scored higher on the Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium
performance assessments. They also performed at higher levels in the day-to-day operations of
the principalship and received higher evaluations by prospective employers.
Leadership studies have evolved over the past 100 years from studies of internal
dispositions to broader inquiries that entail cognitions, attributes, behaviors, and contexts in
which leaders and followers are dynamically embedded and interact over time (Avolio, 2007).
Integrated models or frameworks that are holistic, including adult development, moral
development, cognitive development, self-development and self-regulation, increasingly guide
leadership capacity-building efforts (Avolio, 2007; Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Riggio, 2008). Part
of this holistic approach is the distinction between leader development and leadership
development, which Day (2001) describes as the difference between individual (leader) and
collective organizational (leadership) development. The most effective programs and strategies
simultaneously develop leadership at the individual and organizational levels (Avolio, 2005,
2007; Conger & Benjamin, 1999; Day, 2001; Groves, 2007). The next section specifies what
these leadership capacity-building strategies look like in practice.
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 41
Effective Leadership Capacity-Building Strategies
Leadership capacity-building efforts are sometimes interchangeably called succession
planning efforts. Rothwell’s (2010) Effective Succession Planning: Ensuring Leadership
Continuity and Building Talent from Within, is an often referenced, thorough guide. Rothwell
proposes 15 characteristics of effective succession planning and management programs,
including top management participation and support, a systematic approach, programs extended
to all levels, specific developmental programs implemented, and an emphasis on formal
mentoring. Conger & Benjamin (1999) emphasize the need for an individual and organizational
focus at the same time, and Groves (2007) writes that “best practice leadership development
methods” include: 360 degree feedback, executive coaching, mentoring, networking, job
assignments, and action learning. Many books and studies outline similar components of
effective leadership capacity-building efforts specific to education (Davis, et al., 2005; Fink &
Brayman, 2006; Hargreaves & Fink, 2006; Orr & Orphanos, 2011; Zepeda, Bengtson, & Parylo,
2012).
Additional research has been conducted on leadership capacity-building strategies that
are specific to women, and some begin with the often-cited differing value orientations of
women and men (Vinnicombe & Singh, 2003). Although controversial, Sturges’s (1999)
research explains that women define career success through intrinsically rewarding roles,
personal achievements, self-development, and work-life balance, whereas men define career
success with high salaries, moving up the corporate ladder and achieving status. These differing
motivators, as well as the idea of leader stereotypes, are drawn upon in creating women’s
leadership development programs (Ely, et al., 2011; Hopkins, et al., 2008). The work of Eagly
and Karau (2002) and others describes leader stereotypes as the perceived incongruity between
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 42
the female gender role and typical leader roles (often aligned with male behaviors) that may
cause women to have: 1) a less favorable evaluation of their potential, and 2) a less favorable
evaluation of their actual leader behavior. Ely, Ibarra, and Kolb (2011) cite Martin and
Meyerson’s (1998) criticism of the “add-women-and-stir” approach to building leadership
capacity, and Ely and Meyerson’s (2000) work criticizing the “fix-the-women” approach. They
recommend including topics such as networking, negotiations, leading change, career planning,
combined with overarching principles such as recognizing women as a strategic business
advantage and anchoring participants in their leadership purpose (Ely, et al., 2011; Hopkins, et
al., 2008). Various statewide or districtwide efforts to actualize this research need to be
thoroughly studied in order to expand the reach of current programs and ultimately generate
more women education leaders.
Sherman (2005) investigated the experiences of 15 women related to their participation or
lack of participation in an in-house district-based aspiring leaders program in a public school
system and concluded that the numerous needs of a diverse group of aspiring administrators were
not met. The women in the study were clearly seeking leadership positions, but felt constrained
by traditional norms surrounding educational administration in the district. The researcher
suggests more targeted strategies for women and persons of color, a stronger connection between
universities and school districts, as well as increased internship and informal mentoring
opportunities. She concludes by stating that the district’s program, which had over 50
participants, served to perpetuate the status quo of conformity and homogeneity in educational
administration.
Education has been criticized for its nearsighted, haphazard replacement approach to
leadership development and succession planning (Fink, 2011; Hargreaves & Fink, 2006;
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 43
Hargreaves & Goodson, 2003). Zepeda, Bengston, & Parylo (2012) cite The National Academy
of Public Administration, which listed multiple barriers to planning and managing the succession
of school leaders: organizational culture, succession as a low priority of leaders, insufficient
resources, inadequate rewards, limited mobility, and lack of role models. These barriers are
reflected in the following section regarding the limited approach to leadership capacity-building
in education.
Inconsistency Identifying, Recruiting, Developing Leaders
Inconsistency in identifying, recruiting and developing those with appropriate skills is a
major cause of education’s myopic approach (Fink, 2011; Fink & Brayman, 2006; Myung, Loeb,
& Horng, 2011). Systematic methods of identification, recruitment and development are often
not used, and traditional self-selection is often relied upon, in addition to numerous informal
methods (Fink, 2011; Fink & Brayman, 2006). In a survey of 15,840 teachers, 9% reported being
tapped for leadership by their principals, and 22% reported being tapped by their peers, and male
teachers were found to be almost two times as likely to be tapped (Myung, et al., 2011).
Principals do tap teachers who feel better equipped to take on the principalship and who have
more school-level leadership experience, but they also disproportionately tap teachers who are
male and who share their ethnicity (Myung, et al., 2011). These results and the results of other
studies point to the importance of explicit training of principals to tap teachers with attributes
that research demonstrates are tied to effective school leadership rather than unknowingly (and
likely unintentionally) tapping teachers based on gender and ethnicity.
While there are no studies that document the tapping of assistant superintendents or
district directors in order that they become superintendents, there are data that reflect the
numbers of women who aspire to the superintendency. A study of 723 superintendents and 472
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 44
central office administrators gathered information from approximately 30% of the women
superintendents in 2005 and found that 40% of the central office administrators aspired to the
superintendency. Those women not aspiring to the superintendency gave four reasons for not
aspiring to the top level position: 1) satisfied with current position, 2) politics of the job are
unappealing, 3) too much stress, and 4) superintendent salary not high enough for weight of job
(Brunner & Grogan, 2007). The thorough study conducted by Brunner and Grogan (2007) also
emphasizes the importance of mentoring and support networks, as demonstrated by 90% of the
women of color respondents and 71% of the White women respondents expressing lack of
mentors/mentoring as a perceived barrier, making it the number one barrier limiting
administrative opportunities. The benefits of mentoring will be addressed in a later section.
Building Pipelines, Pools, and Reservoirs of Leadership
The Wallace Foundation began a Principal Pipeline Initiative after several years of
research. As part of the initiative, between $7.5 million and $12.5 million was given to six large
school districts with student populations ranging between 82,000 and just over one million in
order to strengthen and align their work with aspiring and new principals. Policy Studies
Associates and the RAND Corporation evaluated the participating districts’ plans and activities
during the first year of the program and found that leaders in all districts sought to identify and
develop leaders as early as possible in their careers, and were increasing district-run training
programs for graduates of university training programs who aspire to be principals. They also
found that districts actively working on all of the pipeline components: 1) developing standards
and identifying competencies to guide principal training, hiring, evaluation and support; 2)
initiating or strengthening partnerships with university training programs; 3) using standard
performance tasks and developing systems to capture data on candidates’ experience; and 4)
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 45
using diagnostic evaluation tools to build the principal supervisors and mentors in order to
support principals’ skill development (Turnbull et al., 2013). The efforts of the initiative are
ongoing and indicate some capacity building practices that were mirrored in the current study.
The idea of developing “pipelines” of leaders is sometimes viewed as a limiting
metaphor. Instead, some researchers suggest that sustainable leadership will only come through
the development of “pools” or, better yet, “reservoirs” of leadership that develop the “latent
capacity inherent in any organization and directing it in ways that give teachers and other
educational workers opportunities to exercise their leadership potential in rewarding and
productive ways” (Fink, 2011, p. 672). The long-term development of many potential leaders
ensures that the pipeline will continue to flow (Fink, 2011; Groves, 2007). Busine and Watt
(2005) argue that before developing pool members, administrators must define success at key
leadership levels, using an objective process to identify people with high potential, conducting a
comprehensive diagnosis of the developmental needs of participants, and defining specific job
actions. Participants in the pool development process: experience assignments that offer the best
learning and highest visibility opportunities; receive stretch assignments; complete additional
and more personalized training; prepare for (but are not guaranteed) specific jobs; and have an
assigned mentor (Busine & Watt, 2005). These steps to develop pool members and the
experiences of those in the pool development process currently are inconsistently applied, and
this study aimed to uncover where and how these steps and experiences are implemented to
improve consistency.
Distributed Leadership
Aligned with development of pipelines, pools or reservoirs of leaders is the idea of
distributed or shared leadership, which is often highlighted as a key overarching approach to
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 46
building leadership capacity (Fink, 2011; Spillane, 2012). Some researchers downplay its
importance or refer to it as “just another stylistic explanation”; however, when recognized as a
way that “leadership is stretched across schools in ways that are creative, spontaneous and
emergent,” it can be useful. Effective distributed leadership is not glorified delegation, but
includes practices that change or challenge current leadership structures through temporary
committees, unexpected initiatives and activities that build reservoirs of leadership potential
(Fink, 2011, pp. 675 & 680). Mentoring is one such way to distribute leadership and build
reservoirs.
Mentoring as an Effective Leadership Capacity-Building Practice
Mentoring is consistently mentioned as an effective way to address leadership capacity;
however, it is infrequently used in most administrative training programs (Alsbury & Hackman,
2006; Bush & Coleman, 1995; Daresh, 2004; Groves, 2007; Orr & Orphanos, 2011; Turnbull et
al., 2013). If applied appropriately and thoroughly, via means such as matching the personalities
and career goals of mentors and protégés, and providing well-planned training for both parties,
mentoring can be effective in recruiting, preparing, socializing, and developing principals and
superintendents (Alsbury & Hackman, 2006; Bush & Coleman, 1995; Daresh, 2004). Mentoring
can be mutually beneficial for mentors and protégés, providing career development and
psychosocial development for both (Bush & Coleman, 1995). Additionally, mentoring can
provide a context for self-disclosure without fear of judgment, reduce isolation, increase
confidence, and improve reflective practice for the protégés (Bush & Coleman, 1995; Daresh,
2004). For mentors, the rewards of encouraging and supporting a colleague are often
underestimated yet beneficial (Bush & Coleman, 1995). Districts also benefit from effective
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 47
mentoring, through creating more capable staff, lifelong learning norms, increased levels of
employee motivation, improved self-esteem, and increased productivity (Daresh, 2004).
One study indicates that women and minorities are concerned about keeping “themselves
from succumbing to the attitudes and beliefs that discriminate against so many others like them,”
and for that reason they suggest a collaborative mentoring structure that is designed to reach
those of talent regardless of gender and color (Gardiner, Enomoto, & Grogan, 2000). In this
context, Kamler (2007) describes all-male or all-female networks as less beneficial than an
egalitarian mentoring network, which can advance diversity in the superintendency (p. 301). In
Nassau County, Long Island, New York, the superintendents’ council, in affiliation with the
regional school leadership center and a local university, developed a mentoring network called
the Aspiring Superintendents’ Study Group. According to Kamler, “Designed to tap promising
leaders and attract them to the position of chief school district officer, this study group aimed to
increase interest in, diversity of, and access to the school superintendency through mentoring” (p.
298). Invited aspirants were able to interact with superintendents who would provide inspiration
and support to promote interest in the superintendency, as well as relevant knowledge and skills.
The structure of the program addressed both psychosocial and career development aspects.
Aspirants rated it highly for developing their understanding the superintendents’ role, providing
knowledge and skills, as well as networking, fellowship, support and encouragement. Women
and persons of color found the program to be particularly beneficial.
Women who have been mentored report greater job success and job satisfaction than
women who do not have a mentor (Noe, 1988). However, the researcher in this oft-cited study
explains that women mentors are often lacking, and barriers to cross-gender mentorships exist,
including: lack of access to information networks, tokenism, stereotyping, socialization practices,
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 48
norms regarding cross-gender relationships, and reliance on inappropriate power bases. Noe calls
for an extensive research agenda that includes the career and psychosocial functions provided by
mentors, the characteristics of protégés who have benefited from mentoring relationships, and
further exploration of the barriers to cross-gender mentorships. This study addressed several of
the items in Noe’s (1988) research agenda and explored a program similar to the one Kamler
(2007) describes.
Strategies Used to Build Leadership Capacity in Women
In Business Week, Sharpe (2000) offers a succinct answer to the question, “How to boost
the odds of getting a great executive?” – “Hire a female.” While it is true that contemporary
approaches to leadership, which reduce hierarchy and are associated with coaching and teaching
rather than directing, align with the ways that women lead, this may be an excessively simple
approach, as it reduces the leader to his or her gender, and may abridge the complexities of
leadership (Eagly & Carli, 2003). The following section describes several strategies that are
suggested as necessary for building leadership capacity in women, and it concludes by
elaborating upon the overlap between effective leadership capacity-building strategies for all and
those specifically tailored to women, with a caution regarding not oversimplifying leadership.
Several researchers have objected to the “add women and stir” or “fix the women”
approaches to leadership capacity-building (Ely, et al., 2011). The “add women and stir”
approach refers to leadership development that does not pay careful attention to the particular
needs of women, such as internalizing a leader identity, anchoring one’s purpose, and increasing
social and political capital (Ely, et al., 2011; Vinnicombe & Singh, 2010). “Fix the women”
approaches are slightly different, in that they perceive women as inherently flawed and requiring
motivational and leadership adjustments to more resemble a stereotypical male leader. Although
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 49
there is much overlap between what has been demonstrated to be successful with women and
what is successful with leadership development in general, consideration of specific strategies
that help women to “clarify their leadership ambitions, recognize their leadership strength, and
access leadership positions” may prove to be beneficial in the attempt to widen and strengthen
the pool of leaders in education (Vinnicombe & Singh, 2010, p. 294).
Women-only or women-specific leadership capacity-building strategies may be better
able to address some of the particular barriers that women describe. In addition, role models,
mentors, networks, support systems, and professional organizations, which may be part of
women-only or women-specific leadership capacity-building strategies or may be stand-alone
strategies, may assist women to reach top level positions.
Role models. Role models serve an important purpose as they exemplify the ideal skills,
behaviors, and attitudes of effective leaders. For women, research on role models confirms that
women look to other women when making career decisions (Basow & Howe, 1980). When
women aspire to advance or increase their influence, often they turn to other women and may
observe and/or interact with them directly regarding their ambitions. More recently, Christman
and McClellan (2008) studied women administrators in educational leadership departments
(higher education) and found that the fourth-highest resiliency marker was serving as a role
model for others. In addition to the benefits of having role models, women benefit from serving
as role models.
Networks, support systems, and professional organizations. Networks, support
systems, and professional organizations also assist women in their quest for top-level education
administration positions. Networks are divided into several categories: interpersonal, interunit,
and interorganizational (Brass, Galaskiewicz, Greve, & Tsai, 2004). These can be formal or
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 50
informal and include colleagues, supervisors, personal friends, or family members. They transfer
information that causes attitude similarity, imitation, and generate innovation, and they mediate
transactions among organizations and cooperation among persons. They also give differential
access to resources and power (Brass, et al., 2004). Support systems may include mentors, role
models, and networks that mediate the loneliness and isolation that women may experience in
top-level positions (Astin & Leland, 1991). Women need a combination of support from their
personal and professional spheres in order for women to feel successful (Marcinkus, Whelan-
Berry, & Gordon, 2007). Professional organizations, ranging from local to statewide to national
associations, provide various psychosocial and career advancement opportunities and sometimes
include mentoring, networking, and support systems. All of these strategies used to build
leadership capacity in women, it could be argued, are effective strategies for all leaders. The
study sought, among other things, to determine how significant these strategies are for women as
compared to men without oversimplifying the complexities of gender and leadership as
constructs.
Specific teaching regarding gender and diversity. Explicit teaching regarding gender
and diversity has been raised as one way to increase leadership capacity in women. In one study,
Young, Mountford, and Skrla (2006) found that, after exposing doctoral students to a set of
readings on gender, diversity, leadership, and feminist thought, few students had undergone
significant transformations in their learning regarding gender issues. Many students resisted
reading, reflecting on and discussing gender issues, and the authors concluded that faculty need
to increase knowledge in order to address student responses to difficult content, and that faculty
need to learn and practice transformative teaching strategies.

BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 51
Summary
Increasing and changing demands of school and district leaders, in combination with
rising rates of retirement and attrition, have caused a considerable need for principals and
superintendents in the coming years (Kafka, 2009; Kowalski, et al., 2011; White, et al., 2010).
Furthermore, women leaders are missing from superintendencies and secondary principalships
throughout the country (Glass, et al., 2000; Mertz, 2006; Shakeshaft et al., 2007). The influence
of principals and superintendents was asserted in this literature review, which was followed by a
description of the valuable historical context of school and district leaders, including the
historical context of women in education. Barriers to advancement for women, such as gender
and leader stereotypes, gatekeeping, and old boys’ networks, were described. Transformational
leadership and social role theory were proposed as theoretical frameworks for the study in that
they may illuminate the myopic approach to leadership capacity-building in education. Research
contends that women leaders are more transformational than men leaders and that women may
be uniquely qualified for 21
st
century leadership (Eagly, et al., 2003).
The skills necessary for effective education leaders were discussed and related to
beneficial leadership capacity-building strategies. Of significant concern is the inconsistency in
identifying, recruiting and developing leaders in education, which signals a need for robust
succession planning efforts. The ideas of building pipelines, pools, and reservoirs of leadership
were examined. Effective capacity building strategies, both in general and specific to women,
were explored. These strategies include mentoring, networking, and role modeling. While
numerous studies address various capacity building strategies, only one study has examined
women’s experiences with a district-based aspiring leaders program (Sherman, 2005). The
present study attempted to discover how schools and a district are building leadership capacity
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 52
and creating the next generation of women school and district leaders in ways that are both
research-based and innovative. In the interest of providing new information to illuminate the
study of and need for leadership capacity-building, especially in women, the researcher
attempted to fill the gaps in the research. The study highlighted strategies that a district uses to
build the next generation of women leaders, explored perceptions of district stakeholders,
especially women, regarding the influence of the leadership capacity-building strategies, and
identified the factors that facilitate and inhibit district strategies for building leadership capacity
in women. The next chapter will address the research methods utilized to answer the research
questions.
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 53
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
The intent of this study was to discover how a district is building leadership capacity and
creating the next generation of school and district leaders despite the ominous statistics regarding
retirements, attrition, lack of desire and/or motivation among teachers, and the increasing
demands of educational leaders. For various reasons, women are underrepresented as secondary
principals and superintendents; thus, this study also intended to discover what strategies are in
place to build the next generation of women school and district leaders. To that end, the study’s
goals were: to examine the strategies employed by a district in order to build the next generation
of women leaders, to explore perceptions of district stakeholders, especially women, regarding
the influence of the leadership capacity-building strategies, and to identify the factors that
facilitate and inhibit district strategies for building leadership capacity in women.
This chapter outlines the research design of the study and summarizes the participants
and sample selection. It also describes the theoretical framework and gives a visual
representation of the conceptual framework, which together are the foundation of the study. Data
collection and instrumentation procedures are explained. The chapter concludes by defining how
data will be analyzed as well as ethical considerations used to ensure the safety and
confidentiality of the participants.
Research Questions
To gain insight into the successful leadership capacity-building strategies for women in
education, the study asked:
1) In what ways does Smith Unified School District work to build the next generation of
women school and district leaders?
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 54
2) What are the perceptions of district stakeholders regarding the influence of the leadership
capacity-building strategies?
a) What are the perceptions of women regarding the influence of the leadership
capacity-building strategies?
3) What are the factors that facilitate and inhibit district strategies for building women’s
leadership capacity?
Research Design
The research questions framed the study and guided the selection of research methods for
data collection. Qualitative methodology was utilized for this study because of the researcher’s
interest in gaining an in-depth understanding of the leadership capacity-building strategies
alongside a comprehensive understanding of how the stakeholders, especially women, interpret
and attribute meaning to their experiences (Merriam, 2009). A thorough grasp of the phenomena
through the understanding of implemented strategies as well as women’s experiences could
effectively shape resolutions to the problem. Additionally, a phenomenological approach suits
this research problem better than an empirical approach because of the complexity of the
numerous issues surrounding women and educational leadership, such as the need to hear as
directly as possible from the women leaders. The literature review also points to several key
concepts, including gender discrimination, mentoring, and authentic learning, which are
challenging to study in an experimental and deductive manner.
Conducting a combination of interviews, observations and data analysis was critical to
this study as they provided multiple lenses thorough which the researcher attempted to
understand how participants interpreted and attributed meaning to their experiences. The process
orientation of qualitative research, as described by Maxwell (2013) and enacted through
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 55
triangulation of interviews, observations, and document analysis, aligns with five intellectual
goals for which qualitative studies are suited: understanding the meaning of events, situations,
experiences, and actions; understanding particular contexts within which participants act, and the
influence that these contexts have upon actions; understanding the processes by which events
and actions take place; identifying unanticipated phenomena and influences, and generating new
theories; and developing causal explanations. Through rich interview and observation
preparation, experiences, and analysis, the researcher aimed to achieve one or more of the above
goals, which likely would be impossible through quantitative methods.
This study utilized a qualitative case study method, described by Merriam (2009) as “an
in-depth description and analysis of a bounded system” (p. 40). The case study method is
especially suited because the study at hand addressed practical problems, those which Merriam
(2009) describes as arising from everyday practice. The need to build leadership reservoirs that
are especially inclusive of women is a tangible problem faced by many school and district
leaders. Additionally, through the researcher’s gathering and analysis of various forms of data in
this case study the reader may discover new meaning or extend his or her knowledge or
experience (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2007; Merriam, 2009). The vivid, contextual knowledge learned
by this case study is intended to be heuristic, in that, when combined with the readers’ own
understanding and experience, it contributes to or creates new knowledge around leadership
capacity-building strategies in general and for women.
Sample and Population
Sample size in qualitative research is small, allowing for extensive, contextual study of
multiple variables (Gall, et al., 2007; Merriam, 2009). This study examined the experiences of
ten stakeholders: six district-level administrators, two principals, one assistant principal, and one
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 56
teacher on special assignment, eliciting rich, deep descriptions from each (Gall, et al., 2007).
Although small sample size prohibits broad generalization, it allows for transferability. While
each participant’s experience is unique, features of the individual experiences may overlap and
connect across participants. The participants’ experiences may also be relatable to experiences of
stakeholders in other districts as well as those of readers, thus contributing to understanding and
expanding knowledge regarding building leadership capacity.
This study utilized purposeful snowball sampling to identify the district studied as well as
the specific participants who were observed and interviewed. The district was selected through
conversations with superintendents, retired superintendents, and other colleagues with whom the
researcher is affiliated. Multiple women within the district studied have been promoted within
the last several years, and the male superintendent in the district is perceived to be particularly
supportive of the development of women. Additionally, the district has a “grow your own”
leadership development strategy in place for both certificated and classified leaders as well as a
robust teacher on special assignment system that has targeted and expanded the leadership
capacity of over 300 teachers. The researcher explained the research problem and questions to
the superintendent and invited the district to participate in the study, to which the superintendent
agreed. Throughout the study, the researcher gathered information regarding participants in the
“grow your own” leadership development program implemented by the district as well as the
teacher on special assignment system and selected diverse potential participants for observations
and interviews. Each potential participant was emailed a recruiting letter (see Appendix A),
which requested participation in the study, stipulated criteria for participation, and outlined
requirements of participants.

BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 57
Overview of Organization and Participants
Smith Unified School district, located in southern California, serves nearly 25,000
students in over 25 schools. The “grow your own” leadership program that the district has
developed, as well as the teacher on special assignment system, demonstrate the district’s
commitment to leadership development strategies. And while the superintendent clarified that
these strategies are not established particularly for women, numerous women have participated
and benefited as evidenced by the number of promotions of women over the past several years.
In the district, three of the six district-level administrators are women, and two of the four
secondary principals are women.
The researcher purposefully selected potential participants for observations and
interviews in the interest of understanding the experience of women. She intentionally chose
mostly women and selected a diverse group based on years and type of education experience,
ethnicity and presumed age. Several men were invited to participate so as to not delimit the data
to solely the voices of women. This cross section of participants provides thorough insight into
their experiences related to the district’s leadership capacity-building strategies.
Theoretical Framework
Transformational leadership theory and social role theory ground this study of leadership
capacity-building strategies implemented by schools and districts. As described in Chapters 1
and 2, transformational leaders in education gain extra effort and greater productivity from all in
the school or district setting by fostering capacity development as well as higher levels of
personal commitment to organizational goals (Leithwood & Jantzi, 2000). In the interest of
leading dynamically, as demanded by education today, transformational leaders, who inspire,
intellectually stimulate, and are individually considerate, align with the current diverse goals of
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 58
education (Bass, 1999; Burns, 1978). Additionally, as described in Chapter 2, women have been
described as aligning with transformational styles of leadership more frequently than men, and
they have been portrayed as well-suited to the contemporary approaches to leadership that
emphasize teaching and coaching rather than hierarchy (Eagly & Carli, 2003; Eagly et al, 2003).
Social role theory also grounds this study, in that it acknowledges that social roles affect
the behavior and experiences of women at work (Dulin, 2007). Gendered social roles cause
society to perceive women primarily as communal caregivers and men to be perceived as agentic
and leader-like (Eagly, 2013). These social roles cause women to experience challenges when
they act outside of the perceived norm for their gender, such as having to work harder than their
male counterparts to overcome stereotypes and advance as leaders (Dulin, 2007; Eagly, 2013).
Conceptual Framework
The need for dynamic leaders in education is growing, given the rates of retirement,
attrition, lack of teacher desire to enter administration, and the rapidly increasing demands and
pace of change in education today (Kafka, 2009; White, et al., 2010). The rates at which women
are becoming education leaders, while increasing, continue to demonstrate an absence of women
at the superintendent and secondary principal levels (Glass & Franceschini, 2007; Kowalski, et
al., 2011). These low rates of women education leaders persist despite increasing rates of women
in school and district middle management positions as well as increasing rates of women
attending graduate school (Brunner & Grogan, 2007; Gilmour & Kinsella, 2009; Mertz, 2006;
Shakeshaft et al., 2007).
As described in Chapter 2, women have historically been perceived as caretakers and
subordinate to men, even in the education profession, in which women outnumber men as
teachers. The glass elevator (for men) and glass ceiling (for women) describe the phenomenon
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 59
whereby men are four times more likely to become a superintendent than women (Skrla, 2003).
Despite challenges for women who enter the male-dominated top-tier leadership positions, some
leadership capacity-building strategies are preparing women and men to take on challenging
education leadership roles. The leadership capacity-building strategies include district “grow
your own” programs, mentorship and coaching, and stretch job assignments.
The following conceptual framework, designed by the thematic group, was based on
emerging themes from the literature review. The framework illustrates the cyclical impact of
transformational leadership on building the reservoir of leaders. Aligned with the review of
research in Chapter 2, the influence of principals and superintendents, along with data regarding
retirement and attrition rates in the current changing context of education, points to the need for
dynamic leadership capacity-building strategies, especially deliberate “tapping” of leaders,
succession planning and other effective strategies, such as stretch assignments and mentoring.
Transformational leadership practices, along with social role theory, ground and guide the study,
and are visible throughout district-level practices. Combined, the leadership capacity-building
strategies visible in district-level practices should create a reservoir of high-quality
administrators who will contribute to maintaining and extending the cycle of effective
leadership-capacity building.
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 60

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework of the study.
Ed.D. Thematic Group, 2015
Data Collection
This study collected data through multiple semi-structured interviews, observations, and
document analysis. The interview protocols were developed in collaboration with other
researchers as part of a thematic dissertation group and are included as Appendices B and C.
Appendix B is the protocol utilized for interviews with teachers or teacher leaders, and Appendix
C is the protocol utilized for interviews with school and district-level leaders. Interview
questions are directly related to the research questions. At least one pilot interview with each
protocol was conducted to ensure that the interview questions were clear to the interviewees and
that responses were relatable to the research questions. The pilot interviews also allowed the
researcher to allot an appropriate amount of time for each interview.
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 61
First, the researcher interviewed the superintendent. Then she observed several leadership
capacity-building activities which provided the foundation for future interviews and
observations. Next, the researcher interviewed the district-level administrator who coordinates
the district’s “grow your own” initiative, who recommended several principals and teachers who
had participated in the program as potential participants. The researcher contacted these
participants and conducted observations of them as well as interviews. Finally, the researcher
conducted several additional observations and interviews that included a superintendent in a
neighboring district, and a teacher on special assignment. Interviews varied in length from
approximately 45 minutes to one-and-a-half hours. Observations ranged in length from five
minutes to four hours. Table 1 gives the pseudonym, job title, and sex of each participant, as well
as the length of his or her initial interview. Table 2 summarizes key observations.

BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 62
Table 1
Interview Participants and Length of Interviews
______________________________________________________________________________
Pseudonym Title Sex Length of Initial Interview
______________________________________________________________________________
Mr. Williams High School M 1 hour, 3 minutes
Assistant Principal

Dr. Long Chief Personnel Officer M 1 hour, 1 minute

Dr. Rock Assistant Superintendent F 52 minutes
Administrative Services

Mrs. Maureen Middle School Principal F 53 minutes

Mrs. Brennan Chief Academic Officer F 1 hour, 3 minutes

Mrs. Ruiz High School Principal F 42 minutes

Dr. Jones Assistant Superintendent F 52 minutes
Special Education

Dr. Honas Superintendent F 1 hour, 3 minutes

Mrs. Kathryn Teacher on F 1 hour, 24 minutes
Special Assignment

Dr. Bailey Superintendent M 1 hour, 15 minutes
______________________________________________________________________________
Note. Follow-up phone conversations and e-mails extended the researcher’s interface time with
some participants.

Table 2

Key Observations and Length of Observations
______________________________________________________________________________
Context Location Length of Observation
______________________________________________________________________________
Beginning of School Year Ocean Education Institute 4 hours
Leadership “Advance” for
All District Leaders

SUSD Leadership Academy Elementary School 1 hour, 30 minutes
Session for Aspiring Leaders
______________________________________________________________________________
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 63
Instrumentation
Instrumentation for this study included semi-structured interviews with participants,
observations in various settings, and document analysis. The semi-structured interviews allowed
the researcher to respond to the situation at hand, to the emerging worldview of the respondent,
and to new ideas on the topic (Merriam, 2009). The interview questions, listed in the interview
protocols in Appendices B and C, provided a means for the researcher to understand the school
and district leadership capacity-building strategies as well as the participants’ experiences with
these strategies. The researcher carefully considered and used follow-up and probing questions
(listed in Appendices B and C) that provided means for the researcher to obtain rich responses.
Interviews were conducted in a place conducive to the comfort of the interviewee, such as in his
or her office. All interviews were digitally recorded and the data transcribed, providing accurate
accounts of the participants’ perspectives and experiences. The interviews occurred over a four-
month span.
The researcher developed an observation protocol to maintain consistency across
observations. The observation protocol includes means for the researcher to note: general
information, summary, physical space, people/participation, purpose of events/observation,
sequence of events, observer role, and pictures/drawings.
The researcher also utilized documents, including: district and school websites, district
and school mission and vision statements, School Accountability Report Cards, agendas from
various meetings, outlines of plans for each session of district leadership academies, and contents
of the digital literacy grant. The use of several methods of data collection triangulates the data,
providing “cross-data validity checks,” reducing error in data analysis and providing a means to
test for consistency (Patton, 2002, p. 248).
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 64
The following table shows how the research questions were used to determine the
appropriate sources of instrumentation. Interviews, observations, and document analysis
facilitated the collection of data to answer all three research questions.
Table 3
Research Questions as Instrumentation
Research Questions Interviews Observation Document Analysis
1) In what ways does
Smith Unified School
District work to build
the next generation of
women school and
district leaders?
X X X
2) What are the
perceptions of district
stakeholders regarding
the influence of the
leadership capacity-
building strategies?
a) What are the
perceptions of women
regarding the
influence of the
leadership capacity-
building strategies?
X X
3) What are the factors
that facilitate and
inhibit district
strategies for building
women’s leadership
capacity?
X X X

Data Analysis
The author considered various approaches to data analysis, or the process of making
meaning, such as generic and constant comparative approaches (Merriam, 2009). The author
found that relying upon the breadth and strength of the literature review and concepts presented
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 65
therein presented the most robust means to review the interview and observation data and move
toward drawing conclusions. Thus, an a priori approach was the most influential. Multiple codes
and themes were realized and applied, thereby underscoring the idea that data analysis is
inductive and comparative (Merriam, 2009).
Following suggestions from Bogdan and Biklen (2007), the researcher developed analytic
questions and changed them as necessary, planned data collection sessions according to what is
found in previous observations, and played with concepts. For example, the author adjusted the
persons who were planned for interviews when she realized that rich data might be obtained
from various participants. The researcher found that data analysis, including transcription,
researcher memos, and the beginnings of categorization occurred throughout the study, and that
the ongoing, inductive nature of the analysis contributed to the strength of the findings.
While coding or categorizing, the researcher attempted to keep the research questions at
the forefront and to adhere to the criteria proposed by Merriam (2009). Specifically, codes
should be: as sensitive to the data as possible, exhaustive, mutually exclusive, and conceptually
congruent. As the researcher attempted to align or integrate the a priori codes with the open
codes she was challenged to ensure that the above criteria were met. The researcher employed
multiple analytic tools from Corbin and Strauss (2008), such as: using questions, making
comparisons, drawing upon personal experience, and looking at language.
The model for data analysis for this study relies upon Creswell’s (2003) six steps for data
analysis. This guiding framework is represented pictorially below. The pictorial version was
developed by the researcher’s 2015 thematic dissertation group. As the model shows, the data
from interviews, observations and documents is first organized. Then, the researcher reads
through all of the data to get a general sense of the data and form initial observations. Third, the
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 66
data is coded into categories. Fourth, themes are developed from the coded data and are applied
to and analyzed for each interview, observation, and document. The focus in this fourth step is
on interviews, as the participants’ interpretation of their experiences is especially relevant to the
interview questions. Fifth, the themes are incorporated into a descriptive narrative for the study.
Lastly, the researcher conducts a thorough examination of the data and attempts to make
meaning from the results.

Figure 2. Creswell’s (2003) Model for Qualitative Data Analysis, adapted by Ed.D. Thematic
Group, 2015.
Ethical Considerations
To a large extent, the reliability, generalizability, and ultimate contribution(s) of a study
rely upon the ethics of the investigator (Merriam, 2009). Merriam (2009) refers to Patton (2002),
who describes the credibility of the researcher as an essential element of effective qualitative
Use the coding process to develop descriptions
and themes that add to the complexity of the
analysis
STEP 1
STEP 2
STEP 3
STEP 4
STEP 5
STEP 6
Organize and prepare the data for analysis
Examine all the data, obtain a sense of the
the overall meaning, make notations about
these initial observations
Begin the coding process by organizing the
data into chunks and creating categories
Determine how the descriptions and themes will
be represented in the qualitative narrative
Interpret the data, make meaning from the
findings and results
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 67
research and defines the credibility of the researcher as dependent upon “training, experience,
track record, status, and presentation of self” (p. 552). The researcher relied upon her background
in education, ensured that she was following expected protocols, and enlisted assistance from
more experienced researchers as necessary. The researcher followed university procedures for
ethical conduct in research designated by the Institutional Review Board (IRB), and IRB
approval was granted for the implementation of this study.
The researcher ensured the ethical soundness of this pilot study by protecting subjects
from harm, ensuring the right to privacy, and securing informed consent. For example,
interviews were conducted in a comfortable, safe place with questions that were carefully
considered, and the researcher assured participants of the confidentiality of their responses.
Pseudonyms for organizations and participants were used from the outset of data collection. She
also ensured that the purpose of the study was clear, that participants were willing, and that
recording was only with permission. During observations all participants were informed of their
participation and the purpose of the study. All data were kept in a secure location.
Summary
This chapter has provided an overview of the qualitative case study methodology that
was used for the study and has described the theoretical and conceptual frameworks. The chapter
has also summarized data collection and instrumentation procedures. Means by which data were
analyzed were described as were ethical considerations made in order to ensure the safety and
confidentiality of the participants. The following chapter, Chapter 4, presents the study’s
findings as they align with the research questions. The second part of Chapter 4 reviews the
findings and examines their meaning related to the purpose of the study.

BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 68
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS
The goal of this study was to examine how a school district works to build the next
generation of women school and district leaders. It examined the strategies employed by the
district in order to build the next generation of women leaders; explored perceptions of district
stakeholders, especially women, regarding the influence of the leadership capacity-building
strategies; and identified factors that facilitate or inhibit these strategies. Identifying successful
strategies may provide a guide for other districts to follow. Exploring the perceptions of
stakeholders regarding the influence of the strategies may enhance current strategies employed
by districts and may improve the content, execution, and reach of such programs. Identifying the
facilitators and inhibitors of the district leadership capacity-building strategies for women may
help other districts recognize catalysts and pitfalls for their current or future leadership capacity-
building strategies for women. This chapter first introduces details about the study participants
then presents the results of the inquiry arranged by research question.
To gain insight into the successful leadership capacity-building strategies for women in
education, the study asked three research questions, which were developed collaboratively by the
thematic dissertation group. Participant interview protocols were generated based on these
questions:
1) In what ways does Smith Unified work to build the next generation of women school and
district leaders?
2) What are the perceptions of district stakeholders regarding the influence of the leadership
capacity-building strategies?
a) What are the perceptions of women regarding the influence of the leadership
capacity-building strategies?
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 69
3) What are the factors that facilitate and inhibit district strategies for building women’s
leadership capacity?
Data collection occurred through interviews with participants, observations of meetings
and events, analysis of documents such as meeting agendas, district goals, district brochures, and
analysis of items available on the district’s website, including videos. Triangulation of these
multiple data sources increased the validity of the study’s findings.
Overview of Participants
Ten participants were purposefully selected for this study. An initial conversation with
the superintendent of Smith Unified, during which the researcher outlined the study and research
questions, guided the researcher to four participants and multiple observation opportunities.
During their interviews, several participants assisted the researcher with the selection of
additional participants; therefore, some participants were selected via snowball sampling
(Creswell, 2012). All participants agreed to one in-person interview and follow-up
communication via phone or e-mail, if necessary.
Nine participants hold various roles within Smith Unified School District, ranging from
teacher on special assignment to superintendent. One participant is a superintendent in another
district but was previously the chief personnel officer in Smith Unified. Three participants are
men and seven are women. The researcher intentionally spoke to women secondary principals
because less than 30% of secondary principalships are held by women (Young & Skrla, 2012).
Additionally, due to research that indicates that more than 60% of women assistant
superintendents aspire to the superintendency, yet less than 24% of superintendents are women,
the researcher studied one woman chief academic officer and two women assistant
superintendents (Brunner & Grogan, 2007; Shakeshaft et al., 2007). The researcher did not ask
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 70
participants directly for their ages, but, based on information given during interviews,
participants ages range from approximately 37 to 60, and their years of experience in education
ranged from 15 to over 30 years. Pseudonyms are used to protect participants’ confidentiality.
Table 4 below gives an overview of information regarding participants.

Table 4 Participant Overview
______________________________________________________________________________
Pseudonym Title Sex Age Years in Ed Key(s) to Own Advancement
______________________________________________________________________________
Mr. Williams HS Asst. Prin. M 45 22 Leadership Academy
Ask questions

Dr. Long Chief Personnel M 52 25 Happened accidentally
Officer

Dr. Rock Asst. Supt. Admin. F 37 16 Took action; was noticed
Services

Mrs. Maureen MS Principal F 42 20 Patient for the right fit

Mrs. Brennan Chief Academic F 57 32 Fell into it;
Officer Serve others; Work hard

Mrs. Ruiz HS Principal F 62 35 Strong mentors;
Develop leadership presence

Dr. Jones Asst. Supt. F 60 28 Gained experience in
Special Education multiple locations

Dr. Honas Superintendent F 53 27 Secure in who I am
Know why I wake up

Mrs. Kathryn Teacher on Special F 36 14 Followed passion
Assignment

Dr. Bailey Superintendent M 53 30 Decisions are about students
______________________________________________________________________________

Participants’ perception of key experiences and persons who were important to his or her
own advancement may have significantly affected their responses to the interview questions and
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 71
how they presented themselves during observations. For example, Dr. Rock, the assistant
superintendent of administrative services in Smith Unified (SUSD), described her mother,
saying: “My mom is absolutely who I always look to. She’s a huge ‘women’s libber.’ That was
just part of my vernacular growing up. It had nothing to do with gender. It’s all about just you
can do it.” Another respondent, Dr. Jones, assistant superintendent of special education in SUSD,
said, “I moved a lot.” She described experiences in at least six states that shaped her perceptions
of education, especially its leaders. The researcher recognized the impossibility of capturing the
breadth of the participants’ formative experiences, yet thought it important to note those that
were referenced by the participants, thus they are summarized in Table 4 above and are
occasionally referenced throughout this chapter.
Historically gender differences have disadvantaged women because patriarchal social
structures cause men to hold the majority of the power and authority. As a result, society has a
difficult time viewing women as leaders in the workplace, and the leader stereotype is male
(Eagly & Karau, 2002; Koenig, et al., 2011; Wood & Eagly, 2002). Social role theory, which,
along with transformational leadership, served as the theoretical foundation for this study, asserts
that due to women’s societally perceived roles they are regarded as less-effective leaders, and
they have to work harder than men in order to be deemed effective (Blount, 1998; Cognard-
Black, 2004; Dana & Bourisaw, 2006; Eagly & Karau, 2002). Each of the women participants,
despite a wide range of opinions and experiences related to gender in the workplace, referenced
common gender stereotypes and schemas, and each described at least three of the barriers to
advancement described previously, such as gatekeeping, the glass ceiling, and good ol’ boys’
networks (Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010; Bell et al., 2002; Chase & Bell, 1990). One
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 72
participant mentioned at least seven barriers, yet she was one of the firmest and most unwavering
participants, saying, “I can hold my own.” She also said:
There are realities that we are judged differently as women. I’m married, and I have three
children. “Are you sure you can do this job? Can you do this job, because, you know, you
have kids?” The man over there, he’s got three kids too. Can he do it? There are gender
stereotypes that we still live in and we have to address and so forth.
Another participant said, “It is fascinating. I always do think about all the men are up here. All
the women are down here. It’s so real but it’s also like so insane to me. . . . I’m like, ‘Where did
you guys come from? Seriously.’”
Two of the three men interviewed downplayed barriers for women, insisting, “There’s no
good ol’ boys’ club here.” Mr. Williams, the assistant principal at a high school in SUSD said, “I
think [ABC News reporter] John Stossel just did a report about ‘Do women really get paid less?’
And found that they really don’t.” He continued, “Women are smarter than men because they’re
not going to go work on an oil rig and be away from their family . . . I don’t see a lot of barriers,
particularly in this district.” The discussion of barriers for women, as perceived by the
participants, which consumed a considerable segment of each interview with women
participants, will continue throughout this chapter, especially in relation to research question
number three. Overall, the study’s findings reveal effective concentrated efforts to build
leadership capacity in SUSD, although the efforts are not deliberately gender-specific.
Furthermore, despite inhibitors, women continue to advance to positions both within and outside
the district.

BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 73
Findings
Research Question One: Ways SUSD Builds Leadership Capacity
The first research question was intended to capture the various ways that Smith Unified
School District is working to build the next generation of women school and district leaders.
Despite participant comments such as, “I don’t know if it’s [leadership capacity-building efforts
for women] as deliberate as it could be,” and “I think we could do better at a more formalized
system,” five themes emerged: inspirational leadership from the top, clarity of vision, culture of
learning, deliberate action, and seeking the best and growing their own.
Inspirational Leadership from the Top
Despite vast challenges districts and schools sustain forward momentum due to the
motivating leadership of their superintendents and principals, and when a superintendent is
particularly inspiring, the trickle-down effect is tangible and significant. When Dr. Bailey,
superintendent of SUSD, began his introductory session at SUSD’s Leadership Academy, a
monthly series of after-school learning sessions for aspiring leaders within the district, he quoted
teacher and psychologist Haim Ginott regarding the critical role of school leaders: “I’ve come to
a frightening conclusion that I am the decisive element in the [classroom] school.” He explained
to the Leadership Academy participants, “Nothing matters as much as who the principals are.
The rest of us don’t really do anything except support them. Our priority is to find the best
leaders which translates into success for the kids.” Multiple times during the study, Dr. Bailey
became visibly emotional when discussing the importance of school leaders. During his
interview, he said, “This is weird. It’s really silly. I get emotional about things. This matters so
much to me.”
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 74
Studies point to the positive correlation between superintendent and principal leadership
and student achievement as well as the significance of the hiring, placement, and development of
teachers and principals (Leithwood et al., 2004; Waters and Marzano, 2006). Dr. Bailey
recognized this, saying during his interview:
. . . people just need to be reminded of the why, because if you’re reminded of the why in
education, there’s nothing more important . . . education was really important to me as a
kid. [I had a] single mom, and so the coaches, teachers, that was all a big deal. I relate to
the importance for the kids.
From captivating rooms full of educators (widely acknowledged as a difficult task) with humor
and intensity, to admitting that he hadn’t used a SmartBoard before, to hosting 175 visitors from
35 districts on one day, to hiring and growing dynamic leaders, Dr. Bailey’s leadership is
markedly inspiring. His humility was apparent as well. “I recognize that I don’t do any work,” he
admitted. “Everybody else does the work.” Without his influence from the top, though, the
district’s leadership capacity-building efforts, and many other successful endeavors, such as the
garnering and allocation of municipal bond funds, and the execution of cutting-edge teaching and
learning strategies, would not materialize.
His leadership style contains elements of transformational leadership, such as: moving
followers beyond immediate self-interest through envisioning a desirable future, articulating and
exemplifying how to reach this future, setting high standards, inspiring innovation and creativity,
and moving others to act while offering support or coaching (Bass, 1999; Lowe, et al., 1996). All
participants mentioned that Dr. Bailey was critical to the district’s leadership capacity-building
efforts with words and phrases such as: “intuitive,” “models his expectations,” “relationship
builder,” “energetic,” “hands-on,” “articulate,” “visible,” and “positive but firm.” Mrs. Kathryn
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 75
remarked, “I would say he is like the epitome of instructional leader and also a transformational
leader straight up. . . . It sounds so cheesy but he literally is one in a million.” The assistant
principal of an SUSD high school described Mr. Bailey as “just a regular guy, but he’s
extraordinary too.”
All participants stressed Dr. Bailey’s ability to build relationships and the effects these
relationships have on individuals and the district as a whole. Mrs. Ruiz emphasized, “One of his
great strengths is his ability to build relationships. . . . He knows us all.” Several participants who
had worked under multiple prior superintendents praised his accessibility: “We saw him more in
the first few weeks of his tenure than we saw the previous superintendents over their whole time
in the district.” One participant noted, “. . . until he came here, the superintendents that we had
before, you’d be like, ‘What’s that guy’s name again?’” Mrs. Maureen added, “He wants to
know us personally,” and according to Mrs. Kathryn, “He is everywhere . . . He knows
everyone’s names. . . . He’s genuinely interested, really honestly, genuinely interested in what’s
going on. That makes such a huge difference.” Confirming his visibility and relationship-
building, Dr. Bailey mentioned that he had recently phoned a new principal and when he
identified himself, it was “like crickets on the other end.” She later confessed that “she just didn’t
know what to say” because she wasn’t used to a superintendent being so interested and involved.
Dr. Bailey’s inspirational leadership from the top, which cultivates other inspirational
leaders, is important for the growth of women leaders because previous research demonstrates
that role models who inspire are important factors in women’s leadership growth (Astin &
Leland, 1991; Marcinkus, Whelan-Berry, & Gordon, 2007; Leithwood & Sun, 2012). While
research demonstrates increased leadership capacity-building benefits for women who have
women role models, Dr. Bailey’s inspirational leadership fosters the growth of women leaders
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 76
who serve as role models for other women. Each of the seven women participants described
serving as a role model in some capacity, which will be further addressed in the discussion of
research question number three. This trickle-down leadership capacity-building effect is
demonstrated by a handful of recent promotions of women who work in or have worked in
SUSD, such as Dr. Honas, the superintendent in a neighboring district, who spent seven years as
the chief personnel officer in SUSD.
Clarity of Vision
Without a distinct vision, leadership and organizational success falter. In particular,
educational organizations, given their current unique challenges require lucid, bold vision. All
participants noted the relevance of the district’s cohesive, well-defined vision. They used
different examples to illuminate the clarity of vision, yet all claimed that the district’s success,
especially with building its next generation of leaders, is directly related to communicating and
enlivening its distinct vision. SUSD’s chief academic officer, its assistant superintendent for
administrative services, and the principal of one of its middle schools recited the district’s vision:
“rigorous standards, engaging instructional strategies, fueled by technology, resulting in
achievement for all students.” SUSD Connect, an effort to create “future ready students,” who
are well prepared for higher education and careers of the 21
st
century was referenced as a driving
factor in the vision for the district. SUSD Connect efforts are backed by a municipal bond that
raised approximately $135 million for 21st century materials, programs, and systems, 20,000
technology devices (such as 3D printers, laptops, iPads), and STEM (science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics) initiatives at all grade levels. The bond funding also supports site-
based digital learning coaches and technology fellows. The digital learning coaches guide
hundreds of teachers, who are called technology fellows, to incorporate technology tools into
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 77
teaching and learning. The assistant superintendent for special education described Dr. Bailey as
the best of the four superintendents with whom she has worked in terms of leadership capacity-
building, “You have to have a vision for it. . . . It’s not about recognition or advancing oneself.”
Dr. Rock, the assistant superintendent of administrative services for SUSD, said, “[Dr.
Bailey’s] vision is so clear.” She explained that Dr. Bailey, when addressing all 6
th
through 12
th

grade teachers during a beginning of the school year kick-off meeting, unexpectedly declared, “If
your primary method of delivering instruction is to stand in front of the room and talk, you’ve
heard it here first. It’s time to stop.” Mrs. Brennan agreed with her colleagues, “It’s [Dr. Bailey’s
vision] so clear everyone’s rowing in the same direction . . . it’s how you get traction.” In his
own words, Dr. Bailey offered a summary of his vision during the beginning of the year
leadership team meeting. As he described the district’s successes and ongoing efforts related to
“rigorous standards, engaging instructional strategies, fueled by technology, resulting in
achievement for all students,” he said, “Attracting and retaining high quality people is our
number one priority.” He continued, “When there’s a focused effort, there’s nothing we can’t get
better at.”
While the district’s vision statement did not directly address women leaders, the
inclusivity of the vision as one that inspires action across all district stakeholders was noticeable.
While the acknowledgement of diversity of leaders was mentioned in the context of diversity of
thought, not directly in terms of diversity of gender, the vision as experienced by and explained
to the researcher was such that all stakeholders in the district, especially its leaders, had
important roles to play related to accomplishing the 21
st
century vision. The researcher perceived
that if a leader did not embrace and work toward the vision, the leader would not last long in the
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 78
district. According to Mr. Williams, district administrators “weeded out the stuffy, old ‘I’m in
my office, don’t bother me’ leaders.”
Culture of Learning
Research regarding effective leadership indicates that a culture of perpetual learning is
critical to leader and organizational success (Busine & Watt, 2005; Fink, 2011; Leithwood &
Jantzi, 2000; Rothwell, 2010; Turnbull et al., 2013). In addition, research regarding women
leaders indicates that they are an asset as they are able to enhance the organization’s ability to be
flexible and handle ambiguity, encouraging learning and collaboration to conquer challenges
(Helgesen, 1995; Rosener, 1997). SUSD’s culture of learning, while not deliberately designed to
enhance the leadership capacity of women, affects women within the district and spurs them
toward leadership or toward improving their leadership practice and capacity.
The woman president of the management association within the district began the yearly
“advance” or district leadership kick-off meeting with the comment, “How fortunate we are to be
in a forward-thinking district.” All participants commented upon what Mrs. Maureen, a middle
school principal, described as “the learning culture” in the district. This culture was summarized
by Dr. Bailey when he said, “None of us are done getting better.” Mrs. Maureen praised this
mindset, pointing out, “[The district] is always looking for ways to improve; they’re always
seeking feedback; they’re always willing to try new things.” A teacher on special assignment,
Mrs. Kathryn, explained that she doesn’t want to leave because of the excitement in the district
about “What are we going to do next?” One participant said she’d really like to read the results
of the present study because she said she was “always looking for ways we could be better.” The
chef personnel officer, Dr. Long explained: “It’s really about maintaining our culture. It’s a work
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 79
hard, positive, enthusiastic, optimistic culture. We’re not a district that believes we can’t
improve. We’re a school district with lots of room to grow.”
All participants described the district’s program to encourage reading about current
educational research or other relevant information. Dr. Bailey reported that over 250 employees
are participating in the 2015-16 district book study. During the Leadership Academy (the
district’s series of classes for aspiring leaders) kick-off meeting, Dr. Bailey quietly revealed his
personal passion for learning. He placed at least 10 books related to leadership on various tables
where academy attendees were sitting and referenced the books throughout his remarks. The
study participants brought up other ways they foster their individual learning and growth, such as
the high school principal who said she is currently researching homework in high schools as well
as college application stress.
The start-of-the-school-year meeting for all district leaders included approximately 90
minutes of facilitated activities and discussions related to the book Mindset (Dweck, 2007),
which participants had been asked to read over the summer. Dweck (2007) differentiates
between a “fixed” and a “growth” mindset. Functioning with and encouraging a growth mindset
creates love of learning and resilience that breed success. Discussion regarding a growth-mindset
leader included phrases such as “praises effort,” “works and learns from feedback,” “shuts down
elitism,” and “has clear expectations and concrete plan for growth.” The district’s growth
mindset was lighthearted at times. For example, one activity asked each participant to share two
things about themselves that their tablemates did not know. Next, they shared this information
with the large group, with facts such as, “She was a rock star Girl Scout,” and “He has chickens,
but he can’t eat their eggs, not because he’s allergic to them,” causing much laughter.
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 80
Research on leadership capacity-building indicates the benefits of programs and
strategies that simultaneously develop leadership at the individual and organizational levels
(Avolio, 2005, 2007; Conger & Benjamin, 1999; Day, 2001; Groves, 2007). This simultaneous
individual and organizational leadership development includes stretch job assignments and
action or authentic learning (Conger & Benjamin, 1999; Davis et al., 2005; Fink, 2011; Fink &
Brayman, 2006; Groves, 2007). Each of the 10 participants confirmed the importance of learning
individually and together in the context of stretch opportunities without micromanagement. One
participant, who was in his first year as an assistant principal, explained that he would not have
advanced to his current position had he not been given the opportunity during the previous
school year to coordinate a unique attendance recovery program that took place on Saturdays. A
year earlier, when he did not attain an assistant principal position, he had asked for opportunities
to grow, which led to the Saturday program. Mrs. Ruiz, a high school principal, described her
own “cross training” experiences (across departments and roles) as vital for her leadership
development, and she listed the frequent opportunities that she now creates for rising leaders. Dr.
Rock, the assistant superintendent for administrative services, said that district administrators
encourage staff to follow their passions. She elaborated with information about staff members
who began a robotics team and a book club on Instagram, both of which are expanding. Dr.
Jones added, “We challenge people to go into uncharted territory . . . there’s no nitpicking . . .
‘No’ is rare.” The unique balance of high expectations and opportunities for professional growth,
backed with appropriate support, facilitate leadership growth across the district, including
women, and some participants described it as the most important element of their capacity-
building efforts.
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 81
The district’s simultaneous focus on individual and organizational leadership growth
appeared to create many opportunities for individuals that led to shared or “flattened” leadership,
which encourages leadership growth by minimizing hierarchies. Mrs. Maureen said, “There are
so many opportunities for teacher leadership . . . It’s trying to find where do people shine.” Dr.
Honas said:
You don’t have to have a title to be a leader. You have to have the skillset and the
mindset to be a leader. . . . If you think it’s just those who have a title or who have some
position in the hierarchical structure of the organization, you miss a huge group of people
that lead in the organization.
This idea of everyone as leaders, or distributed leadership with support, is described by Waters
and Marzano (2006) as “defined autonomy” and by Leithwood et al. (2004) as “decentralization
without fragmentation.” Dr. Jones said that the district administrators are actively “flattening the
organization,” through growth opportunities and through opening the so-called gates to
leadership. She used the example of the superintendent’s teacher advisory committee, which
used to be a committee with limited participation and set terms. Over the past few years, Dr.
Bailey and the cabinet members (assistant superintendents and directors who form the
superintendent’s executive committee) have decided to allow the members to stay on if they
choose, so the committee now has approximately 50 members. “The more the merrier,” she
added. Mrs. Brennan also described the current Leadership Academy, which has 21 participants.
She said that the cabinet had decided that limiting the attendees for the leadership academies
does not align with the district’s priorities, so anyone who completed the lengthy application
process was accepted. Dr. Honas recalled that when she first developed the leadership academies
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 82
(while at SUSD), they initially expected approximately 30 applicants, but when they received 72,
they allowed everyone to attend. Dr. Honas commented:
When the principal of the school was having a conversation in a staff meeting with
certificated and classified employees, people in that audience understood the decision-
making process, problem solving, how things happen. It upped the game, as well, of
principals to say, ‘What is a decision that you make unilaterally, and what are decisions
that should be shared? . . . How do you understand where other people are coming from?’
all those types of things. It built capacity in the organization.
Dr. Bailey took the idea of flattened leadership one step further when he said, toward the
end of the first Leadership Academy, “We’ll help you wherever you want to go.” To him,
building leadership capacity wasn’t simply about keeping the rising leaders within the district,
but was about shaping excellent leaders for education everywhere. He told the story of a rising
principal who “had to” go to another district to become a high school principal because there
weren’t going to be openings in SUSD within the near future. While other participants did not
address this concept of shaping leaders for education everywhere as directly as Dr. Bailey did, all
but three of the participants did not start their careers in SUSD. Each of them explained that they
were warmly welcomed, demonstrating that Dr. Bailey is willing to assist leaders to find their
way, or the “best fit,” both within and outside of the district. One participant reflected: “One of
the best leadership lessons that I’ve gotten from him [Dr. Bailey] is that you need to go where
you’re needed and where your work is going to be valuable, and [where it’s] good for you.”
Deliberate Action
Education has been criticized for its nearsighted, haphazard replacement approach to
leadership development and succession planning (Fink, 2011; Hargreaves & Fink, 2006;
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 83
Hargreaves & Goodson, 2003). Zepeda, et al. (2012) cite the National Academy of Public
Administration, which listed multiple barriers to planning and managing the succession of school
leaders: organizational culture, low priority, insufficient resources, inadequate rewards, limited
mobility, and lack of role models. Each of these barriers was addressed by at least two
participants, and their comments highlighted Smith Unified as a school district that is neither
nearsighted nor haphazard in its leadership development and succession planning. The most
consistent theme expressed by participants related to these barriers was deliberate action by
district leaders. The chief personnel officer said, “We are actively and consciously looking at our
bench, who’s available, who has the potential to be a leader. . . . This is a proactive
organization.”
The seven participants who are cabinet members similarly expressed the approach as
“building the bench.” Mrs. Brennan, the chief academic officer said, “I think it’s purposeful.
We’re always looking at and thinking about our bench, discussing that, and giving people
opportunities to try it [leadership] on in a safe way.” Dr. Long summarized the objective of the
conversations about potential leaders: “We are triangulating on who they are, and what their
potential is, and how do we help them.” Dr. Jones described “direct conversations” about future
career paths at the cabinet level, which Mrs. Brennan suggested are due to the trust that cabinet
members have with one another. Mrs. Brennan described these conversations as “not casual.”
She said, “These are people’s lives we’re talking about.” She also recalled discussions that
involved healthy levels of disagreement; for example, Dr. Bailey does not necessarily agree with
her own candidate to replace her in the future. Such disagreements actually make their bench-
building strategies stronger as they are forced to articulate perceptions regarding precisely what
is required for a particular leadership position. Mrs. Maureen, a middle school principal,
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 84
described the cabinet activity, saying, “They build a pool of people that could possibly fill a role,
and then they wait to see who is going to be the best fit.”
Participants repeatedly emphasized the importance of on-site leadership. “Each site needs
to build its capacity,” Dr. Jones emphasized. “We don’t want a position to be person-specific.”
Mrs. Ruiz, the high school principal, continued this explanation. “My job is to prepare assistant
principals to become principals. We have the Leadership Academy . . . We’re always looking for
who has ‘that spark.’ [Dr. Bailey] is always asking too.” Mrs. Kathryn explained the unique
opportunity she has to “forage” for new leaders as she has the opportunity to visit many
classrooms, and she said that she has “discovered” leaders over the objection of principals who
had “different opinions.” The participant who was the most specific regarding succession
planning and “bench building” was Dr. Honas, who described the need for one-year, three-year,
and five-year plans for leadership positions throughout the district. Specifically, “When you get
into trouble, when you hire too many people outside is when you haven’t built capacity inside.”
She was also the only participant who cautioned against “premature promotion,” explaining that
experience is valuable, especially in education.
In addition to these deliberate conversations regarding the next district-level and school-
site-level leaders, participants mentioned the need for rigorous selection processes as well as
post-interview feedback. Five participants explained that persons within the district who apply
for leadership positions “always get an interview.” Mrs. Brennan commented, “There are not a
lot of heir apparents here,” while Mrs. Maureen emphasized the need to be cautious regarding
succession planning so as to not give the appearance that one or more persons are “in line” for a
position. Dr. Honas agreed that selection processes must “always be rigorous.” She said that
these processes must be followed by honest conversations, especially with the person or persons
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 85
who did not get the job. She told the story of a recent applicant who did not get a director
position because “he is not a broker of new ideas.” She explained her obligation to have a
conversation with him as part of her work, as did several other participants. Three participants
described benefits of application and interview feedback, such as becoming more self-aware and
seeking and gaining particular experiences.
Seeking the Best and Growing Their Own
More than half of the participants were confident that seeking and hiring the best
candidates for leadership positions contributed to their district’s success. Nearly all participants
acknowledged the tension between diversity efforts and seeking the best applicants, reflecting
research, such as that by Sherman (2005), that indicates that conformity and homogeneity is
often perpetuated in leadership capacity-building efforts. Dr. Honas addressed the dilemma,
asserting that the succession planning process “is not about gender and ethnicity” but is about
“technical skills and personal skills.” Dr. Long echoed this thought:
We’re always going to choose the best candidate and that’s the hard thing. Sometimes
you’re not going to take a lesser candidate just to add diversity. You need the strongest
potential candidate. When all things are equal, that can be a real asset. To bring in
different perspectives and different cultural backgrounds; it can be very helpful.
None of the participants expressed the need to intentionally hire persons of a particular
gender, yet several agreed that those with differing perspectives should be mentored and hired.
Dr. Honas described working with someone who was “rough around the edges,” who turned out
to be Mr. Williams, the assistant principal interviewed for the study. (Mr. Williams received
helpful feedback after an unsuccessful interview, and sought out several stretch experiences.) Dr.
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Rock suggested that a potential leader needs to “see things differently than I do because I need
someone to fill in my weaknesses.” She continued:
Able to get along with others, but I would say that’s less important to me, because your
superstars have a bit of a personality, and so I can help tame that, but I don’t want them
to lose their good ideas. It’s like those kids in your class that have those best personalities
. . . the little boys get snuffed out. I don’t like to snuff out.
The participants agreed with Dr. Long’s belief that “the more we can hire quality people, the
more we continue to attract, so there’s intentionality behind what we do.” Perceptions regarding
characteristics that create “quality people” and the dilemmas of diversity efforts will be
discussed further as part of research questions two and three.
All participants commented regarding the district’s efforts to grow its own leaders, with
one participant saying, “They like to promote from within.” Another added, “There’s lots of
teaching on the job.” All participants described stretch job assignments as an important means to
grow its own leaders, which research has demonstrated to be an effective leadership capacity-
building strategy (Busine & Watt, 2005; Togneri & Anderson, 2003; Turnbull et al., 2013).
Additionally, all participants declared the district’s classified and certificated Leadership
Academies to be vital to the district’s leadership capacity-building efforts and key to growing its
own leaders, which all participants described as important for the district’s continued success.
The outline of the eight monthly Leadership Academy sessions for the 2015-16 school year
included sessions regarding district goals, teacher evaluation, resource allocation, special
education, and mock interviews. Three participants also praised the digital learning coaches and
the technology fellows as another way the district grows its own leaders. These coaches and
fellows are district- and site-based teacher coaches for incorporating technology tools into
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 87
teaching and learning, and are funded through the district’s 2012 bond issue. In reference to the
coaching model utilized by the district, Dr. Bailey said, “You’ve got to get the right people,
number one. You’ve got to have a good model, number two. Number three, you can’t assume
they know how to do it. The trainers require training. Then, following up and checking in . . .”
Discussion of Research Question One
Five themes emerged as the researcher studied Smith Unified and the means by which it
builds the next generation of women school and district leaders: inspirational leadership from the
top, clarity of vision, culture of learning, deliberate action, and seeking the best and growing
their own. Each of the themes is relevant to building leadership capacity in women, in that each
has the potential to develop leadership capacity in women, however, there were no district level
strategies or themes related to specific, deliberate efforts for women.
In other words, the inspirational leadership of Dr. Bailey and his leadership team was not
specifically tailored to motivate women, although it did. The clear vision communicated by all
participants did not include reference to diversity efforts of any type, of which gender diversity
efforts would be particularly relevant to this study. The culture of learning, while distinctly
inclusive of all, through such efforts as including all applicants in the Leadership Academies, did
not include learning regarding gender diversity or particular barriers or facilitators for building
leadership capacity in women. The fourth theme of deliberate actions, which included intentional
conversations at the cabinet level and discussions with potential leaders, did not entail actions at
the district level that addressed the needs of women in their leadership development. The fifth
and final theme of seeking the best and growing its own indicated some tension between hiring
and growing the “best candidates,” who may not respond to the expressed desire for increased
diversity within the organization. While the district’s efforts were markedly research-based and
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 88
perceived as largely successful, which will be discussed in the following section, the efforts were
not described or experienced as specific to women. This lack of explicit strategies for women,
such as teaching about gender diversity and addressing the leadership needs of women, may
leave a gap between what the district has accomplished and what it may be able to accomplish
with more precise efforts for women.
Research Question Two: Perceptions Regarding Influence of District
Leadership Capacity-Building Strategies
The second research question sought to identify how the participants perceive the
influence of the district’s leadership capacity-building strategies. The perceptions of the
participants, who are key district stakeholders, are important as they address the perceived
success or failure of the leadership capacity-building strategies, and they may provide insight as
far as how the district and other districts can improve perceived success of such. The sub-
question, “What are the perceptions of women regarding the influence of the leadership capacity-
building strategies?” allows for the particular perceptions of women, which may address the
concern expressed in education research that the study of administrative behavior and
perceptions is largely the study of the behavior and perceptions of men (Blount, 1998;
Shakeshaft, et al., 2007; Tyack & Hansot, 1982).
Overall Positive Perceptions with Room for Growth
Overall, the participants spoke positively regarding SUSD’s leadership capacity-building
strategies, with several perceiving room for additional growth. Dr. Rock pointed to the five
digital learning coaches who have been promoted over the past two years, and Dr. Long said that
his review of Leadership Academy attendees over the past few years was a “who’s who of
leaders in the district.” Dr. Rock also referenced and presented compelling positive data
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 89
regarding the impact of digital learning coaches and digital fellows on student experiences and
achievement. Dr. Bailey described the importance of engaged employees during several
observations, and explained that the various leadership capacity-building strategies contributed
to increased employee engagement, but expressed that there always is room for improvement. He
also conceded, “I feel more concerned about getting administrators that are ethnically diverse.
It’s easy to find really qualified women.”
Amidst the overall positive perceptions of the district’s leadership-capacity building
strategies, several perceived areas for growth include personalizing support, formal mentoring,
and university partnerships. In terms of considering gender when personalizing support, Dr.
Long said, “I don’t know if it’s as deliberate as it could be.” When asked about personalizing
support for potential leaders, none of the participants had an answer other than something similar
to, “Well, it depends.” The idea of personalizing support according to specific needs is supported
by research, and several researchers describe women-specific personalization such as
recognizing differing value orientations and motivators of women and men, clarifying leadership
ambitions, recognizing leadership strengths, accessing leadership positions, and experiencing
role models (Ely et al., 2011; Hopkins et al., 2008; Sturges, 1999; Vinnicombe & Singh, 2003).
The only contexts in which participants described the above women-specific personalization
were personal conversations that could be described as informal mentoring. Dr. Brennan, for
example, mentioned a woman in the district who was pregnant and seeking career advice related
to applying for a principal position. The woman asked questions such as, “Will it be held against
me if I don’t apply now?” “Should I apply now?” and, “Will there be more opportunities like this
one?” Dr. Brennan revealed, “I find myself coaching women a lot . . . I give them perspective
about the road . . . Women don’t want to fail; they need appropriate support.” These types of
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 90
interactions, illustrated by several women participants, are described in the literature as informal
mentoring (Daresh, 2004; Noe, 1988).
Dr. Rock, who described her experiences as a mentor through university programs, said
leadership-formation efforts in the district could incorporate more mentoring. The chief
personnel officer also alluded to this when he wondered aloud regarding what formal mentoring
opportunities exist in the district. Mrs. Ruiz, the high school principal who had benefitted from
strong personal mentors herself, simply said, “We need to formally mentor [in the district].” The
researcher asked most participants at least one question regarding mentoring, both personally and
related to the district’s leadership capacity-building efforts, and none of the participants
described formal mentoring as part of the district’s efforts. Yet studies show that if applied
appropriately and thoroughly, via matching the personalities and career goals of mentors and
protégés, and providing well-planned training for both parties, mentoring can be effective in
recruiting, preparing, socializing and developing principals and superintendents (Alsbury &
Hackman, 2006; Bush & Coleman, 1995; Daresh, 2004). Mentoring can benefit both mentors
and protégés, providing career development and psychosocial development for both (Bush &
Coleman, 1995). Several studies highlight the benefits of mentoring for women in particular
(Gardner, Enomoto, & Grogan, 2000; Kamler, 2007; Noe, 1988). Dr. Bailey described “district
systems” that support mentoring, such as a three-month evaluation that provides an opportunity
for conversation and connection between a new employee and his or her supervisor. He
emphasized, “We’re not about compliance, we’re about performance,” yet explained that some
of these systems facilitate informal and formal mentoring.
Several participants mentioned the potential benefits of partnering with colleges and
universities for leadership capacity-building, yet the district’s efforts do not include such a
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 91
component. Mrs. Ruiz agreed and said bluntly, “We need to partner with colleges and
universities.” She explained that this would bolster the district’s efforts, making them more
cohesive and beneficial. Several studies suggest that carefully planned collaboration between
universities and districts can contribute to holistic programs that effectively prepare school and
district leaders (Davis et al., 2005; Grogan & Roberson, 2002; Orr & Orphanos, 2011; Turnbull
et al., 2013; Zepeda et al., 2012). Mrs. Kathryn described annual cohorts of SUSD employees
attending courses at a local university, which are not planned by the university or the district, yet
she attested to the positive effects of the collegiality of the cohort. She said that this inadvertent
gathering of colleagues to learn together is productive for both the employees and the district.
Another participant said that she was part of a spontaneous cohort that attended a local university
in order to earn their administrative credentials and master’s degrees, and she expressed the
value of learning with and spending time outside of work with colleagues.
Perceptions Regarding Gender Imbalance in Particular Departments
Toward the end of her interview, Dr. Rock volunteered, “I know where I see a gender
issue—in the IT [information technology] department. We have only one woman. Women don’t
apply.” She laughed about this, but then discussed it with seriousness, saying that she hoped that
the district’s efforts would help to create future women IT employees. During her interview, Dr.
Jones, the assistant superintendent for special education, noted the gender gap in her own
department:
I work with all women. I’ve had no males in years past. This year I have two men
employees. . . . I have worked for no male administrators in my special education jobs,
and lately I’ve seen a definite increase in the numbers of women in higher level positions.
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 92
While gender imbalance in certain segments of education was not part of the literature review for
this research, the perceptions of the participants suggest that this is an area that may benefit from
further investigation. While some gender stereotypes and schemas may explain the reasons for
the gender imbalance in certain departments, further insight into these imbalances may provide
ideas for leadership capacity-building that may extend across all segments of education (Blount,
1998; Cognard-Black, 2004; Dana & Bourisaw, 2006).
Importance of “Fit”
All but two participants described their perceptions regarding the concept of “fit,” even
though there was not a direct interview question related to it. The women participants spent more
time discussing the idea, causing the researcher to wonder if some of their comments were veiled
attempts to address barriers such as the glass ceiling (Bell, et al., 2002; Eagly & Carli, 2007). Dr.
Honas stated, “By the time you’re interviewing in front of a board, you can do the job. It’s about
a fit and about a match and all of those types of things. I believe that in any position.” Mrs.
Maureen explained that she had applied for a particular job (for which a male colleague
interviewed and accepted), and realized that “it was about fit.” Dr. Rock said, “You have to be
the right fit.” As Dr. Bailey explained, during his presentation at the Leadership Academy kick-
off, “You may not get the first, second or third job you apply for . . . it’s about the right fit . . .
come talk to us.” Mrs. Kathryn commented that the idea of “fit” can sometimes lead to “people
thinking you’re looking for Mary Poppins,” the administrator who “can do everything,” and she
said over-emphasizing this idea may “hold people back” or discourage them from applying. The
comments regarding fit, and perhaps unspoken negative perceptions related to the concept,
provided the researcher an unexpected interpretation and warrant further research.
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 93
Dr. Bailey provided unique insight related to the idea of “fit,” when he shared multiple
situations in which administrators had been moved to different school sites with the belief that a
“change of scenery” might cause them to experience greater success as a leader. He also
described, in detail, the importance of having “slots for developing leaders.” However, good
leaders may get “stuck” in a particular “fit” if there is no place for them to advance to, which in
turn limits the opportunity for the “slot” to be utilized by a less experienced rising administrator.
Dr. Bailey offered the case of an excellent assistant principal who had been in the same position
for 13-14 years. “Sometimes we can find people other opportunities,” he acknowledged,
referring to positions in other districts, “which can be very helpful.” He also described creating
opportunities for people, and gave a specific example of an outstanding Latino leader who was
not yet ready to be an assistant principal, so a district-level position was designed for him.
Framing the Challenges of the Work as Manageable
Two participants echoed research indicating the challenge of nurturing education leaders
in the current era, saying, for example, “It’s a unique time to try to grow leaders,” referencing the
rapid pace of change across many elements of education, from standards to technology, and the
extreme demands placed upon education leaders (Kafka, 2009; White, et al., 2010). Dr. Honas
agreed, “The work is hard,” and expressed frustration with those who desire to advance within
the field in order to attain a title or to earn more money. Several of her responses indicated
perceptions related to the importance of communicating the challenges of the profession, because
if the work is not explained as extremely challenging, persons with misguided motivation,
whether men or women, may enter the field.
Similarly, Mr. Williams argued that administrators themselves “make it [the work]
unattractive,” through belaboring some of the potentially negative elements of the profession. He
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 94
became an administrator after attending SUSD’s Leadership Academy, questioning and
observing several administrators, and concluding that the work was personally and professionally
manageable and rewarding. Dr. Bailey elaborated regarding gender and manageability: “They
[women] need permission to still be moms, and there’s no need for an apology that you this thing
or that thing with your own kids.” These comments reflect research regarding the increasing
demands of education leaders and point to the need to incorporate real, yet positive perceptions
into leadership preparation efforts (Fink, 2010; Gajda & Mitillo, 2008; Hewitt, Denny,
Pijanowski, 2011). All women respondents indicated that social role expectations and gender
stereotypes complicate their perceptions of the challenges of the work, which will be addressed
in the section regarding research question number three.
Similarities & Differences Related to Desired Characteristics of Rising Leaders
The most variety regarding perceptions of the strategies was related to the descriptions of
skills, traits, and qualities of potential leaders that are “tapped.” Several studies discuss the
importance of clearly articulating consistent characteristics of rising leaders, such as the
cognitive and affective skills posed by Miles, Sax, and Lieberman (1988), or the 21
responsibilities posed by Marzano, et al. (2005). Leadership studies have evolved over the past
100 years from studies of internal dispositions to broader inquiries that entail cognitions,
attributes, behaviors, and contexts in which leaders and followers are dynamically embedded and
interact over time (Avolio, 2007). Inconsistency regarding reasons for tapping prospective
leaders includes disproportionate tapping of male teachers (Myung et al., 2011). SUSD did not
appear to have clearly defined characteristics and skills that were consistently referenced when
tapping would-be leaders.
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 95
Responses from participants regarding descriptions of leaders that had been or would be
tapped included the following words and phrases: “a balance of personal skills and technical
skills,” “initiative,” “works well with different people,” “uses technology,” “visionary,” “ability
to develop teachers,” “engaging,” “builds relationships quickly,” “smart and nice,” “does what’s
best for kids,” “people want to follow them,” “flexible,” “passionate,” and “genuine.” Using an
athletic metaphor from his days coaching football, Dr. Bailey explained, “I want the person who
wants the ball and says, ‘Follow me,’ and gets people to follow.” He described conversations
with people who simply “want a turn” without demonstrating what they have “done to make the
place better.” The chief personnel officer, Dr. Long, said, “The organization can never be
something the people are not.” He elaborated, “We’re looking for human beings who work very
well with other human beings. We are in the business of people not widgets. Those become
extremely important skills. The rest we can teach.” Mrs. Maureen commented about those who
are not “tapped,” saying, “We need good teachers. If that’s the pinnacle of what they want to do,
that’s OK.” Busine and Watt (2005) argue that before developing pool members, administrators
must define success at key leadership levels, using an objective process to identify people with
high potential, conducting a comprehensive diagnosis of the developmental needs of participants,
and defining specific job actions. Participants in the SUSD pool development process experience
assignments that offer the best learning and highest visibility opportunities; receive stretch
assignments; complete additional and more personalized training; and prepare for (but are not
guaranteed) specific jobs.
Further, all participants expressed that the personalized strategies were not gender
specific, but considered the individual aspiring leader’s needs. They expressed a wide range of
views regarding what these needs are. Some men and women participants did not articulate a
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 96
need for women to have a separate leadership capacity-building experience. Several women
wondered aloud if gender-specific leadership capacity-building strategies would help, and three
strongly argued that gender-specific efforts would help women to feel more comfortable and
possibly achieve more. One participant explained that women need help with “confidence . . . not
confidence in themselves, but confidence in moving forward with the work.” Another participant
conceded, “I’m a little embarrassed to say that our efforts are not geared towards women
specifically.” Dr. Bailey noted that women “want to talk more, so we listen.”
Communication. Several participants suggested that all potential leaders should focus on
improving communication skills. Elaborating on this deficiency, one participant complained that
she is tired of the “everything is fine” mantra in education. “Things aren’t all fine.” Rising
leaders need to learn and practice how to have difficult conversations, which she said, “are not
easy.” She continued, “That’s why we call them courageous conversations.” She told of masking
various teacher evaluations and explained that administrators were unable to determine who was
below, at, or above standard. When asked whether or not the skills related to challenging
conversations are more difficult for women, she said that she felt that it might actually be more
challenging for men because men “don’t want to hurt women’s feelings.” Leader stereotypes
which describe women as sensitive and collaborative frequently contradict this expressed idea
that challenging conversations are more difficult for men, although no participants addressed it
directly. Other participants addressed the demanding nature of many conversations facilitated by
educational leaders, whether male or female. For example, Mrs. Brennan said that she “probably
fired more people than anyone on cabinet,” and that the processes and conversations were not
easy but were necessary for the sake of the district. Dr. Long addressed the importance of
language, saying, he had learned how important it is for him to focus on exactly how he
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expresses himself. He gave the example of the expression “we gave” versus “we agreed” when
discussing interest-based bargaining. The concepts regarding communication discovered during
the study, such as perceived differences between men and women, the challenges of tough
conversations, and the importance of language could be examined further in the interest of
shaping communication strategies for building leadership capacity among women.
Discussion of Research Question Two
Research question two attempted to address how the participants perceive the influence
of the district’s leadership capacity-building strategies, with a sub-question specifically regarding
the perceptions of women. While the perceptions of all participants related to the influence of the
district’s leadership capacity-building strategies were largely positive, there were perceived areas
for growth, including personalizing support, formal mentoring, and university partnerships. The
researcher discovered perceptions related to gender imbalance in particular departments (such as
information technology and special education), the idea of “fit,” and the perceived importance of
framing the work of school and district leaders positively. Women discussed the idea of “fit”
significantly longer and in more depth than men did. Additionally, women listed more areas for
growth; however, more women were interviewed, potentially influencing the researcher’s
perception related to these areas for growth as emerging more strongly from women.
The most significant discrepancies related to participants’ perceptions of SUSD’s
leadership capacity-building strategies involved perceptions of skills, traits, and qualities of
potential leaders or leaders who are tapped for additional training. While the descriptors used by
participants overlapped, such as “smart and nice,” and “people skills,” and “ability to work with
different people,” the combined list of characteristics of tapped leaders was extensive and
divergent. The differences in perceived necessary skills and traits points to both the complex
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demands placed on education leaders, as well as the lack of a consistent list of desired
characteristics in SUSD, which previous research cites as a challenge faced by leaders attempting
to create a pool of incoming leaders (Fink, 2011; Myung et al., 2011).
Overall, the perceptions of the participants contributed to a deeper understanding of the
themes discovered in response to research question one, and provided some additional themes.
SUSD and other districts could consider these perceptions, such as desire for more personalized
support, gender imbalance in particular departments, and differences in perceptions of skills,
traits, and qualities of potential leaders or leaders who are tapped for additional training, as
opportunities to carefully examine organizational culture as well as practices and policies. For
example, creating a concise list of desired characteristics of rising leaders could be a productive
process, and integrating the list into daily activities could increase consistency and effectiveness
among rising leaders.
Research Question Three: Factors that Facilitate and Inhibit
District Leadership Capacity-Building Strategies
Research question three asked what specific factors facilitate or inhibit the district’s
leadership capacity-building strategies for women. Identifying such facilitators and inhibitors
may help other districts recognize catalysts and pitfalls for their current or future leadership
capacity-building strategies as they relate to women. The discoveries related to the facilitators
and inhibitors fall under five themes: (1) the push-pull of the organization and individual; (2)
gender stereotypes and schemas and leader stereotypes; (3) other external barriers, including the
perception of a good ol’ boys’ club; (4) women’s own perceptions and beliefs, including their
experiences with mentoring, and (5) women’s desires to advance.
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 99
Push-Pull of Organization and Individual
Despite some level of discomfort, all participants freely discussed various issues related
to gender and leadership, yet the researcher concluded that there is a push-pull between
responsibilities regarding leadership formation that fall to the individual and those that fall to the
organization. For example, engaging in women-only networks may be beneficial for women
leaders, and women of SUSD sought out these networks on their own, both within and outside
the district. The women leaders of SUSD are resourceful and create opportunities for themselves
to grow as leaders, but more district-provided opportunities may prove beneficial.
Multiple studies point to the importance of simultaneous organizational and individual
leadership capacity-building, but to what extent is the organization responsible for the particular
needs of a rising leader (Avolio, 2007; Conger & Benjamin, 1999; Day, 2001; Groves, 2007)?
When organizations like SUSD assert that they have significant responsibility for individual
leadership development, which, in turn, affects the leadership capacity of the organization, does
this entail gender-specific formation responsibilities? Several women participants wondered
aloud, “Maybe more district-provided opportunities for women, like mentoring, would be good
for us,” and “I think we could do more for women.” Two women were uninterested in district-led
strategies for women, saying, for example, “it’s not about gender and ethnicity . . . [it comes
down to] technical skills and personal skills.” In SUSD, gender-specific opportunities (such as a
women’s leadership group, or women-to-women formal mentors) other than those sought out by
participants, were not apparent, however, the leadership capacity of the district was
fundamentally perceived as strong. The district’s inspirational leadership from the top, clarity of
vision, culture of learning, and deliberate action contribute to the perceptions of the depth and
breadth of its leadership capacity. Some may perceive the lack of gender-specific opportunities
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as a facilitator, and others may perceive it as a barrier for building leadership capacity in women.
Hence, clarification at the district level regarding its beliefs, vision, and goals related to building
leadership capacity for women may provide both understanding and direction for stakeholders as
to the district’s stance regarding individual and organizational responsibilities. Stakeholders can
then make appropriate decisions regarding which opportunities to seek outside of what the
district provides.
Gender Stereotypes and Schemas, and Leader Stereotypes
All women participants described experiences with gender stereotypes, schemas, and
leader stereotypes, which may inhibit SUSD efforts to build leadership capacity. Dr. Honas, the
superintendent in a neighboring district who spent seven years as chief personnel officer in
SUSD, explained that she was coached by a mentor to address the issue of gender stereotypes
and schemas up front with her board during her interview:
Gender has been a factor, just in terms of letting them know . . . I probably had to say
things to them that a man would not have to say. Like, “I understand that this job is seven
days a week, 24 hours a day. And I am available. I get it. When you check my references
or as you work with the search consultant who has already checked my references, that
they will attest to that.” No man has to say that. That “I realize it’s not a nine to five job
and I’m going to go get a mani-pedi afterwards or whatever.” There are some of those
kinds of things that I thought probably need emphasis, as well as children. As well as, “I
have a very supportive husband,” was part of it . . . “Sometimes [a man will] say, “I have
a supportive wife, a network of people.” I’m like, “My kids are grown . . .”
Dr. Jones articulated several gender stereotypes when she said, “Women do a lot of the family
stuff . . . You’ve got to do it all.” Mrs. Kathryn added, “Particularly since I’ve had my second
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 101
son and gone back to school . . . I’m defending myself and defending what I’m doing almost
constantly.” And Mrs. Maureen, a middle school principal, alluded to leader stereotypes:
I’ve seen some females almost come off on the almost too harsh side because they’re
trying to establish themselves and they almost feel like in order to gain respect I have to
be hard-nosed because that’s what people are going to expect from a girl, they’re going to
be soft and easy to push around. It’s finding that balance.
Mrs. Ruiz addressed social role theory, which contends that women are perceived as less
effective as leaders and that they have to work harder than men to be deemed effective, directly
when she said, “I have had to work harder” (Eagly & Karau, 2002). When the researcher
requested specific examples regarding “working harder,” Mrs. Ruiz described more physical
presence at events. She said that she makes a concerted effort to be highly visible around school
and at school events, especially athletic events, which she said, are “definitely a good ol’ boys’
club.” “Women have to work harder to be noticed,” said Mrs. Maureen, confirming Mrs. Ruiz’s
experience as a high school leader. Mrs. Brennan elaborated on the “working harder” concept:
The notion of “having it all” has really caused women to work like maniacs to juggle
both home and career. Although my children are grown and gone, I still have a weird
mentality to try and do everything and not let anything drop.
Dr. Rock echoed the thoughts of Mrs. Ruiz and Mrs. Brennan, saying, “I think that women take
on the stress of the dual role of parent and worker . . . There are expectations for women to be
perfect in both fronts . . . I’ve never been able to get over the pull.”
Three participants described leadership in education and/or the superintendency as “a
man’s world.” Mrs. Ruiz, the high school principal participant commented: “Our lives are
different as women . . . we have to know how to operate successfully in a man’s world.” Dr.
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 102
Brennan added, “I’m feeling like I don’t want to play that game [becoming a superintendent]
because it’s a man’s world.” Notably, these two women were older than several other women
who did not comment regarding “a man’s world,” which may point to their cumulative
experiences over time, or their experiences as women of a particular generation. Two women, for
example, who did not reference “a man’s world,” are part of Generation X (born between 1965
and 1980) or Generation Y (born between 1981 and 2000). These generational differences
suggest an area for further research.
Dr. Bailey condensed his observations regarding gender stereotypes, saying:
Whether it’s sexist or not, I think there’s still a great expectation for women to be moms
and for moms to take a more-than-50-percent role in raising kids. At the secondary level,
middle school not so much, but at the high school level, oh my God, the hours are
unbelievable. It’s that second shift that just knocks you down—the choir, band, dances,
football.
Dr. Long, the chief personnel officer in SUSD, who is a man, offered several stories
related to gender stereotypes and leader stereotypes. He remembered when he went to a board
meeting at which he was confirmed as an elementary principal, a board member said he was
pleased that the board/superintendent had hired a male. Dr. Long said this “made him feel
uncomfortable.” He also described the location of the men’s restroom at several schools where
he worked. He said the men’s restroom was located next to the principal’s office and/or near the
custodian’s storage room. He said, “I guess they thought the principal and custodian were going
to be male.”
Another participant, Mr. Williams, a high school assistant principal, commented about
another assistant principal at the school where he works. He described her as a woman who isn’t
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married and doesn’t have children, and he said, “That’s easy.” Then he wondered, “Maybe
women just don’t want to be administrators” . . . which he followed up with, “like sports
broadcasters, my wife says, ‘why do they [women] even want to do that?’”
As with the push-pull related to the individual and organizational responsibilities that the
researcher uncovered and the challenges that this push-pull causes, the researcher also
discovered contradictions in the stories told by several women participants, and she was
challenged to make meaning of them. These expressed apparent incongruities may be inhibitors
for the women and for the district in its leadership capacity-building efforts. For example, Dr.
Rock, the assistant superintendent for administrative services, declared, “I’ve never experienced
an issue with gender,” noting that she was pregnant when promoted, and then she elaborated:
Not too long ago I read Lean In by Sheryl Sandberg . . . finally there was a way to
quantify the way I felt about being a career person. In my final interview with [Dr.
Bailey], I was like, “I have,” at the time, “a two- and a five-year-old. I need to be home
for dinner. If it’s a board meeting or a work commitment, absolutely I’ll be there, and I
will work at home all night long if I have to, but I need to be home at dinner. He’s like,
“Done. OK.” When you think about Lean In . . . it’s all about don’t scoot back, don’t lean
back while you’re growing your career, in anticipation of potentially wanting a family
because then when you reach the levels that you do, I have way more flexibility than I
would have as a teacher. I can afford high-quality child care . . . I know that when I’m
here, things are good at home, and I have a supportive husband, so that helps too.
Dr. Rock’s explanation of achieving in her career as a means by which she is afforded
increased flexibility and earnings, which allows her not to worry about stereotypical woman’s
concerns (such as child rearing, “things at home”) has inherent gender implications. Dr. Honas
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also expressed contradictory experiences when she said that she “never . . .felt that a man
thought I was incapable because of my gender,” yet she gave details regarding her interview with
the school board that hired her as a superintendent and the ways that she directly addressed
gender concerns with them. These conflicting messages from the women participants may inhibit
women from recognizing the extent of gender stereotypes and schemas, and leader stereotypes. If
they are not aware of them, they may not proactively address them individually or
organizationally.
Gatekeeping, Glass Ceilings, Queen Bees
Female participants described several other external barriers to leadership capacity-
building, including gatekeeping, the glass ceiling, and the queen bee syndrome. Mrs. Brennan,
the chief academic officer, captured gatekeeping when she related a search consultant’s
interview tips, offered during an Association of California School Administrators (ACSA)
academy (series of classes), saying, “no dangly earrings.” Mrs. Brennan retorted, “How about we
talk about test scores from [SUSD] over the past eight years? Forget about dangly earrings!”
While Mrs. Brennan did not describe gatekeeping as an inhibitor within the context of the
district’s efforts, she felt it was a barrier for her personally and said, “This is echoed across the
country.” Dr. Rock and Dr. Honas also expressed ideas related to gatekeeping when they both
mentioned search firms and/or boards as critical to the hiring process along with their need to
address concerns related to gender with the search firms and/or boards.
Evidence of the glass ceiling was broached by Mrs. Ruiz when she told the researcher
about her discussion with Dr. Bailey regarding his golfing outings with men, especially men who
are leaders in the district. She said that she told him, “Be aware of creating a little bit of a glass
ceiling without meaning to.” The glass ceiling, a concept coined in 1980, describes invisible or
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 105
artificial barriers, including attitudes, behaviors, and practices that prevent women from
advancing (Bell, et al., 2002). Mrs. Maureen said, “The men that have been here a long time
think that they secretly run this place,” in reference to the middle school where she is the new
principal. She then described various efforts to build a collaborative team working on the same
goals in order to help students achieve. The glass ceiling, which can alternatively be described as
an undercurrent of suppression of women, did not appear strong in SUSD, however, it was
described by several women, and may be an inhibitor of district strategies for building women’s
leadership capacity.
Finally, at least three women participants mentioned the queen bee syndrome, in which
“queen bees” – high-ranking women – may block other women who wish to advance
(Baumgartner & Schneider, 2010). Whether this obstructive behavior is due to a belief that top
positions should be earned, insecurity, or jealousy, it is detrimental to potential women leaders.
Dr. Honas said, “Females are also very competitive with each other, much more so than men are
towards women. Women often would like to suppress other women . . . .” Mrs. Kathryn said, “I
know a lot of my friends in many different schools who have perceived that when working for a
female that there’s almost like a competitive aspect. That keeps people down.” Dr. Rock agreed,
“The larger conversation is that women are not nice to other women . . . There’s a lot of
pressure.” The researcher did not observe women suppressing or competing with other women,
nor did she ask directly about this in her interviews with participants, however, mention of it by
participants confirmed previous research, affirms its existence as a potential inhibitor for some
women, and presents an idea for further research.
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Perception of Good Ol’ Boys’ Club and Issue of Golf
Without prompting, four of the seven women interviewed described golf, specifically the
superintendent’s golf outings, as a way that a good ol’ boys’ club is perpetuated in SUSD. Old
boys’ networks, often part of the male golf-playing, cigar-smoking, post-work drinking culture
that exists in some organizations, perpetuate gender discrimination by preventing access to social
capital and support relationships. One study identified “the old boys’ club” as one of three
significant barriers that women face in their efforts to access the superintendency (Sharp, et al.,
2000). None of the women who described the good ol’ boys’ club created through golfing
described it as intentional. Three women said that they believed that it was “unintentional.” Mrs.
Brennan commented:
I think it’s really an innocent kind of . . . I don’t think anyone’s purposefully excluding
women. I really don’t. That’s not it. But I think we do have a little bit of a boys’ club
here. Golfing together, we’re going to go this, we’re going to go do that.
She continued, “It’s not like I really want to do that, but on the other hand, I’ve had women
maybe feel the same way, but say, ‘But what are we missing? What conversations, what
everything else?’” Mr. Williams said, “[Dr. Bailey] has made an effort to get them [women] out
there [golfing] and say, ‘Look you don’t have to be good. We’re just having fun.’” Mrs. Kathryn
doubted that “things really happen there [on the golf course].” She said that she wasn’t sure there
was “an instance where someone’s gone or done something there and it resulted in something
positive for them.” She wondered aloud, “If women went [golfing], I think it would be a
leadership ‘fox hunt,’ (a time during which leaders would be vying for attention from Dr. Bailey)
and wouldn’t be the same.” Dr. Bailey confirmed Mrs. Kathryn’s thoughts and questions, when
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he indicated that good things don’t always happen on the golf course. He said that people with
whom he has golfed have been “demoted or let go.”
Three women reported approaching Dr. Bailey with their concerns related to the golfing
and perceptions of a good ol’ boys’ club, and all said that he was receptive to their feedback.
Mrs. Ruiz reported, “It has gotten better. I can’t explain exactly how, but it’s better.” When
asked how to remedy the situation, women said things like, “I don’t know what that exactly is.
What is that – that all women like to do?” Mrs. Ruiz commented, “They shouldn’t stop playing.
. . . We’ve tried to find alternatives, but then it gets too social and that’s weird.” Dr. Honas
explained, “I don’t like it . . . I don’t have four hours to walk the course . . . I’ll have a beer. I’m
not going to smoke a cigar, and I probably won’t golf. Don’t invite me because then I have to
come up with a reason why I can’t.” She said, “I’m pretty secure in who I am and what I believe
in and I can hold my own,” and she described joking about not being invited or included in
outings. Dr. Honas was the only woman participant who said she has coached men
administrators about perceptions related to good ol’ boys’ networks. She explained that she has
talked with male administrators about excluding female administrators when going to lunch
together. She said that she has advised them to be sure to include the women and has encouraged
the men to think about if their time alone with men is all that different than time with mixed
gender company.
Women’s Own Experiences, Perceptions, and Beliefs
As described previously, the women participants had varying experiences, perceptions
and beliefs related to gender and leadership in education. For example, Mrs. Brennan said, “I’ve
never worked for a woman with a family before,” and Dr. Rock described her involvement with
collegiate athletics as important to her belief in her capacity as a woman. All except two women
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participants describe a moment of pause or consideration in their career that revolved around
their stereotypical gender role. Mrs. Ruiz, said, for example, “I hadn’t thought of it [becoming an
administrator] because my kids were a bit young.” The chief academic officer in SUSD, Mrs.
Brennan, agreed, “I wouldn’t do this job with young kids.” Mrs. Maureen recalled an open
administrative position several years prior, and stated, “I didn’t apply because it wasn’t the right
time with my kids and my family.” Dr. Jones described an employee, “She hasn’t done it
[finished her administrative credential] because she decided to have kids.” Dr. Honas described
several situations related to timing and gender roles, saying:
But you also have to have a conversation with your family, and look inward to say, “Is
this what you’re ready to do right now?” It isn’t whether or not you’re prepared for the
next step. It’s all about priorities. The same thing with men. I was recruiting a male
candidate for the CBO [Chief Business Official] position. I was talking with him and so
forth. He had young boys and said, “You know, I am not ready.” He was already a CBO,
but in a smaller district, so this would be the next step. He says, “I want the position but
right now, I want to be at my kids’ baseball games more than I want that position. I am
going to make that choice.”
These experiences, perceptions, and beliefs may serve as both facilitators and inhibitors for
district strategies, as they are authentic, personal means by which individuals are shaped, and
may affect their receptivity – or lack thereof – to district leadership capacity-building strategies.
Women’s Experiences with Mentoring
All of the women interviewed addressed mentoring, and several addressed networking as
facilitators of district strategies for building women’s leadership capacity. All of the women who
described mentors as important to their advancement referenced informal mentoring, which
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occurs without formal structures. One participant said that the district needed “more formal
mentoring,” while another said she worried that formal mentoring would be “too political,” and
that “people would equate it to being groomed for positions.”
One woman participant mentioned only male mentors, another mentioned more male than
female mentors, and two participants described their mentors as half women and half men. The
men participants described only mentors who are men. Dr. Jones described being “chosen” by
one of her mentors, Dr. Barbara Rossier (namesake of the University of Southern California’s
School of Education), saying, “She was tough. . . . I’m not sure why she chose me.” Mrs.
Maureen said that her women mentors show her “how to get to the next step,” “how to network,”
“how to be political,” and “how to balance.” Mrs. Kathryn described her mentor: “. . . she’s a
young mom . . . [she] was very much like a cheerleader about it [going back to school] . . . I was
pregnant. I had a two-year-old.”
One participant admitted, “I haven’t had as many mentors as I wish I had.” When asked
to describe what she might have achieved with increased mentoring, she attempted to describe
differences between men leaders and women leaders, and said she would have moved “forward
more quickly in the work.” She added, “I just think that the higher you rise, the fewer women
who have done the work and have the inclination to lead the way in a mentoring role.” Dr. Honas
commented, “It makes me uncomfortable sometimes when we do women’s leadership
breakfasts. . . . We have to help each other, but I can learn just as much from a man than a
woman.” She described one mentor, a man, as important to her career. Another participant
explained that women-only mentors or networks are “not important” to her because, as she
explained, she likes to model herself after “the best,” whether a man or woman. Mrs. Kathryn
explained education as being “very personal,” and suggested that this increases the importance of
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mentors for women, and she explained that especially since having children she has found
mentors to be very helpful. She also described a man mentor as important to her because her
women mentors had been more “demure” and were “rule followers,” while he coached her to be
bold.
Most of the women participants explained that they were currently mentoring or coaching
other women, which they find gratifying. Mrs. Maureen, the middle school principal, is
mentoring her assistant principal, while the high school principal, Mrs. Ruiz, reported her
constant mentoring of assistant principals. She proudly recalled mentoring a man who is now a
sought-after speaker with a prominent education consulting firm. Even without a formal
program, the women of SUSD are mentoring one another, serving as a facilitator for their
leadership capacity as well as their personal satisfaction. Some women expressed a desire for
increased structures in order to facilitate mentoring, yet they continued to create mentor-protégé
relationships that were productive.
Women’s Desires to Advance
The women participants may facilitate or inhibit their own advancement through their
desire or lack of desire to advance. Three of the four women participants who are part of the
Baby Boomer generation expressed a lack of desire to advance. Dr. Jones said, “I never wanted
to be a superintendent,” attributing her rationale to her dislike for “politicking,” and “not wanting
to deal with the board and all those kinds of things.” Mrs. Ruiz said that she had considered
advancing, but that now says she doesn’t want to because “I love what I do.” Another
participant, also a Baby Boomer, explained her lack of desire more ambiguously, but concluded,
“I don’t want it, but somebody should.” The women participants who were members of
Generation X or Y expressed desires to advance, although with hesitation. One of the younger
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 111
participants wondered: “Who will hire me as a superintendent as a young female. I do have
concerns about that.” Brunner and Grogan (2007) found that 40% of women central office
administrators aspired to the superintendency, and those that did not aspire to a school district’s
highest role cited reasons such as being satisfied with their current position and aversion to
politics. The fact that only one of the non-superintendent participants referenced wanting to be a
superintendent mirrors previous research and triggers concern regarding how to address low rates
of aspiration for this important leadership position. The added layer of generational differences
in desire to advance, as demonstrated by data from the current study, has not been thoroughly
studied and warrants further exploration.
Discussion of Research Question Three
Various factors facilitate and inhibit SUSD’s strategies for building leadership capacity in
women. Stakeholders perceive some factors as both facilitators and inhibitors, such as
mentoring. Because research demonstrates the many advantages of mentoring when applied
thoroughly and appropriately, consideration of the integration of formal and informal mentoring
into district systems may produce stronger leadership-capacity building in the district. Overall,
the push-pull of organizational and individual leadership-capacity building strategies, or the
question of where the burden falls for individual leadership formation, is an overarching
consideration when addressing how particular strategies can be propelled or hindered. For
example, in SUSD, gender-specific opportunities (such as a women’s leadership group, or
women-to-women formal mentors) other than those sought out by participants, were not
apparent; however, the leadership capacity of the district was fundamentally perceived as strong.
District leaders may find it beneficial to consider adding some of these district-driven
opportunities with an evaluation component in order to assess whether or not increasing the
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 112
district’s role with regard to gender-specific opportunities would increase the number and quality
of rising leaders, especially women.
The strategies discussed in the above response to research question one – inspirational
leadership from the top, clear vision, culture of learning, deliberate action, and seeking the best
and growing its own – are facilitated and hindered by multiple factors. Gender stereotypes and
schemas and leader stereotypes were largely perceived by men and women respondents as
barriers to leadership capacity-building for women, as were other external barriers such as
gatekeeping, glass ceiling, queen bees, and good ol’ boys’ networks. However, multiple
participants described SUSD’s efforts to address these barriers. Women’s own experiences,
perceptions, and beliefs, especially their experiences as mentors and protégés, as well as their
career aspirations, were described as facilitators and inhibitors for their personal leadership-
capacity building.
Summary
This chapter discussed the study’s findings by research question, describing the ways that
SUSD works to build the next generation of women school and district leaders. The chapter
explored the perceptions of stakeholders regarding the influence of the strategies, and the factors
that facilitate and inhibit the district’s strategies for building women’s leadership capacity. The
results indicate that SUSD builds its leaders in five ways – inspirational leadership from the top,
clear vision, a culture of learning, deliberate action, seeking the best and growing its own – that
are effective for both women and men leaders. The chapter also surveyed the specific effects of
these strategies on women, such as personalizing the needs of rising leaders, as well as the
overall positive perceptions of the district’s leadership capacity-building efforts. Additionally,
the gender imbalance in different departments, the idea of “fit,” and the need to frame the
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 113
challenges of educational leadership as manageable were described. Major differences in
stakeholder perception were illustrated in relation to the characteristics and skills of leaders who
are tapped.
Factors that facilitate and inhibit the district’s strategies for building leadership capacity
for women included gender and leader stereotypes, gatekeeping, good ol’ boys’ club, women’s
personal experiences, including those related to mentoring, and their own desires for
advancement. Overall, the study’s findings point to effective and concerted efforts to build
leadership capacity in SUSD, and although the efforts are not deliberately gender-specific, and
despite inhibitors, women continue to advance to positions both within and outside the district.
The implications of these findings, as well as what the data did not reveal, are important
to consider. To that end, Chapter Five will examine the implications of these results and offer
suggestions for future research to provide further insight into leadership capacity-building efforts
for women.

BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 114
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY
During this revolutionary time in education, the demands of its leaders are increasing,
affecting job conditions, time commitment, work load, and stress, which may dissuade potential
aspirants from pursuing a leadership position. The expanding responsibilities of education
leaders, combined with other factors such as retirements and attrition rates, intensifies the need
for education leaders, especially in underperforming areas (Fink, 2010; Hewitt, et al., 2011;
Gajda & Mitillo, 2008). These challenges have caused a growing instability in the quantity and
quality of leaders, thereby mandating leadership capacity-building efforts; that is, efforts to
expand and improve the competencies necessary for successful school and district leadership.
To complicate matters, women are markedly absent from the education leadership
picture, especially in particular roles. Over the past 40 years there have been some gains at the
central office level and in the elementary principalship, both nationwide and in California, but
educational leaders in schools and districts remains a male-dominant sector, with the most
disparate figures at the superintendent level (Blount, 1998; Gilmour & Kinsella, 2009; Glass et
al., 2001; Glass & Franceschini, 2007; Grogan & Shakeshaft, 2011; Shakeshaft, et al., 2007;
Tallerico & Blount, 2004). Women constitute nearly three-quarters of the teaching force in the
United States, yet they are account for less than 25% of the superintendents, less than 60% of
elementary principals, and less than 30% of secondary principals (Kowalski, et al., 2011).
Planning for the succession of school leaders, especially women, is critical as principals and
superintendents, and, in turn, the teams that they build, affect student achievement (Chingos, et
al., 2014; Hallinger & Heck, 2011; Leithwood et al., 2010; Marzano, et al., 2005; Robinson, et
al., 2008).
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 115
The challenges for women who desire to advance into the principalship or
superintendency are confounded by a patriarchal system, in which most women take care of and
teach the children, and men take administrative roles (Young & Skrla, 2012). Social role theory
contends that due to women’s societally perceived roles, they are regarded as less effective as
leaders, which means women must work harder than men to be deemed effective (Eagly &
Karau, 2002). However, much research points to a female advantage in leadership (Eagly,
Johannesen-Schmidt, van Engen, 2003; Helgesen, 1995; Yukl, 2002). The present study
advanced social role theory as well as transformational leadership as theoretical foundations as
they lay the groundwork for the skills, competencies, and attributes that need to be recognized,
developed, and fostered in efforts that may fill current and future gaps in educational leadership.
Too few studies have examined and assessed specific practices in order to increase the numbers
of women education leaders. Efforts to recruit, select, and develop women education leaders
deserve attention so that women may help fill the growing educational leadership gap.
Purpose of the Study
This study examined how one district in California is working to build the next
generation of women school and district leaders. To that end, the study asked the following
research questions:
1) In what ways does Smith Unified School District work to build the next generation of
women school and district leaders?
2) What are the perceptions of district stakeholders regarding the influence of the leadership
capacity-building strategies?
a) What are the perceptions of women regarding the influence of the leadership
capacity-building strategies?
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 116
3) What are the factors that facilitate and inhibit district strategies for building women’s
leadership capacity?
The study may provide a guide for other districts to follow, and may improve the content,
execution, and reach of efforts to increase the numbers of women education leaders. Identifying
facilitators and inhibitors of the district leadership capacity-building strategies may help other
districts recognize catalysts and pitfalls for their current or future leadership-capacity building
strategies for women. Policymakers, college and university personnel, and scholars may also find
this research instructive.
While there is a substantial amount of theoretical literature that focuses on building
leadership capacity among educational leaders, there is little evaluation of actual district
strategies to build leadership capacity, as well as a similar lack of study on building the capacity
of women. Because of the importance of gender equity and appropriate role modeling, as well as
the increasing numbers of education leaders retiring and choosing to leave the field, it is critical
to address this need for research regarding strategies for building leadership capacity in women.
This study utilized a qualitative case study method, described by Merriam as “an in-depth
description and analysis of a bounded system” (2009, p. 40). The case study method is especially
suited because the study addresses practical problems, those which Merriam describes as arising
from everyday practice. The need to build leadership reservoirs that are especially inclusive of
women is a tangible problem faced by many school and district leaders. The research
triangulated interviews, observations, and document analysis in order to bolster its results. The
vivid, contextual knowledge learned by this case study is intended to be heuristic, in that, when
combined with the readers’ own understanding and experience, it contributes to or creates new
knowledge around leadership capacity-building strategies in general and for women in particular.
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 117
Summary of the Findings
The previous chapter summarized the findings by research question, with an overall
conclusion that the leadership capacity-building strategies in SUSD are effective for women,
even if they are not specifically designed for women. The five key means by which SUSD builds
its next generation of women leaders are: inspirational leadership from the top, a clear vision, a
culture of learning, deliberate action, and seeking the best and growing its own. SUSD’s
Leadership Academy, a series of classes and experiences for rising leaders, and its system of
digital learning coaches and digital fellows are two specific ways that the district provides
leadership opportunities and grows its own leaders. Its superintendent, described as “one in a
million” by his staff, provides inspiring leadership that trickles down to all levels of the district.
He was seen unashamedly crying when conveying the importance of leaders throughout the
district. His ability to facilitate genuine relationships was viewed as critical to his effective
leadership. Several participants gave examples of conversations with him regarding “where
they’d like to go next” and described him as a relationship-centric role model. Multiple
participants identified high levels of accountability coupled with high levels of support as key to
the district’s strategies for building the next generation of leaders. The deliberate actions
regarding “building the bench” of leaders in the district included conversations about
departments, positions, and which persons to tap for leadership, as well as stretch opportunities
that are personalized for each rising leader. The researcher confirmed Dr. Bailey’s statement that
“attracting and retaining high quality people is our number one priority.”
Data revealed that perceptions regarding the five strategies described above were largely
positive, albeit with some room for improvement, such as “I don’t know if it’s [building diverse
leaders] as deliberate as it could be,” and “I think we could do better at a more formalized
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 118
system.” In terms of whether to emphasize ethnic or gender diversity, Dr. Bailey stated, “I feel
more concerned about getting administrators that are ethnically diverse. It’s easy to find really
qualified women.” One participant described the importance of “solid teachers,” saying, “It is
OK if that’s the pinnacle of what they want to do.” Gender imbalance in certain departments,
such as information technology and special education, was perceived as an issue that needed to
be addressed. The perceptions regarding a leader’s need to be a good “fit” for particular positions
were described by nearly all participants, yet some questioned the overemphasis on “fit,” with
one participant complaining, “It’s like we’re looking for Mary Poppins,” which may discourage
some from striving for particular positions. Several participants described the perception that
leaders in education need to make the work look appealing and “manageable.” When the
strategies, such as those that SUSD implements, are clouded by leaders who complain about the
work or make it look difficult, it diminishes the desire for others to enter the ranks of educational
leadership.
SUSD was described by its own employees as a district that seeks and grooms leaders
who celebrate and enjoy the work. One of the strongest findings related to perceptions of the
strategies was that there was extreme variation in the characteristics and skills of potential
leaders who are tapped. Previous research points to the need for consistency and clarity related to
traits and skills of rising leaders (Davis, et al., 2005; Fink, 2011; Turnbull, et al., 2013; Zepeda et
al., 2012). While this inconsistency regarding descriptive factors of tapped leaders did not result
in weak leaders for SUSD, clarifying these factors may result in a refined vision and leaders with
more consistent qualities.
Overall, the factors that facilitate and inhibit the district’s strategies for building women’s
leadership capacity pointed to push-pull activity between leadership formation responsibilities
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 119
that fall to the district versus those that fall to the individual. This dynamic, addressed in
previous research, is important to note, as it may need to be tipped toward the district, instead of
toward the individual, when it comes to building women leaders (Avolio, 2007; Avolio &
Gardner, 2005; Conger & Benjamin, 1999; Rothwell, 2010). Some women participants perceived
that if the district “did more” for women, such as establish a formal mentoring system, that their
leadership capacity would be enhanced. Men and women participants both described gender
stereotypes and schemas, as well as leader stereotypes as inhibitors for district leadership
capacity-building strategies. Women also described the good ol’ boys’ club as unintentional, but
as a potential barrier for their advancement. Women’s experiences and perceptions regarding
mentoring were described as both facilitators and inhibitors of the district strategies. In addition,
women’s own desires for advancement facilitated and inhibited the district’s strategies, as some
expressed strong desires to advance, and others expressed the opposite, dismissing the
superintendency as “a man’s world.”
Implications for Practice
The findings from this study have implications for education, especially for those who
can influence district-level activities related to building leadership capacity in women. No one
particular method emerged as most effective for building leadership capacity of women in
education, yet several in combination may prove to be effective in practice. Acknowledgement
of the barriers for women, as generated by this and previous research (such as gender stereotypes
and leader stereotypes), and as thoroughly expressed by men and women participants in this
study, may provide common ground and common language for dialogue and action. Programs
and systems for acknowledging the barriers could include time to acknowledge and discuss them
in the context of a Leadership Academy session, for example.
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 120
While there are multiple descriptions of the combination of cognitive and affective skills
necessary for successful education leadership, this study discovered that SUSD did not have a
consistent list of traits and skills it was seeking in leaders it tapped (Miles, Saxl, & Lieberman,
1998; Marzano, et al., 2005; NASSP, 2015; Orr & Orphanos, 2011, Valentine, 2000). K-12
school district leaders may find that discussion regarding these desired characteristics and skills
would prove beneficial in order to clarify its picture of a rising leader. These conversations may
also reveal hidden bias in terms of who is being tapped. Several participants understandably
expressed hesitation regarding consideration of ethnic and gender diversity in relation to hiring,
however, more deliberate consideration of diversity in relation to leadership formation, such as
what is the make-up of the Leadership Academy, and who is “on the bench” awaiting stretch
opportunities, for example, may prove beneficial in terms of broadening the reach of leadership
capacity-building strategies. The inspirational leadership and the culture of learning in SUSD
may facilitate these conversations in a district like SUSD; however, in other districts that have
less-than-inspirational leadership at the top, and where “getting better” is less valued, these
conversations regarding diversity may be more challenging, yet necessary.
The women in the study described different experiences with and benefits of mentoring
and networking, with one saying, “I can learn just as much from a man than a woman.” Yet all
acknowledged the need for sharing with women regarding their common challenges, such as
those related to being judged for having children and working in high-demand positions. Helping
women to establish mentor relationships and networking opportunities with other women within
and outside districts may facilitate their leadership growth. These efforts may build social capital
and camaraderie, potentially reducing the effects of the queen bee syndrome, and the perceived
negative effects of the good ol’ boys’ club.
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 121
Further personalizing stretch opportunities, taking into consideration a rising leader’s sex,
may enhance district leadership capacity-building strategies. For example, when placing a
woman assistant principal in a position that is intended to grow her leadership capacity, district
leaders could consider placing her with a particular principal who may serve as a personal and
professional mentor. Women participants in the study described being affected by both men and
women mentors, so careful consideration of personalities and career goals is necessary to
establish an appropriate mentor-protégé relationship (Kamler, 2007; Noe, 1988). Also, districts
may benefit from analyzing their leadership positions by sex, in other words, how many and
which positions are occupied by women, and how many and which positions are occupied by
men. While in SUSD there seemed to be a general understanding that the cabinet was half men
and half women, and that half of the secondary principals are men and half are women,
broadening this investigation to include directors, assistant principals, teachers on special
assignment, and other leadership positions may assist the district and other districts to readily see
what the breakdown of men and women in leadership positions is throughout the district, and
whether or not there are patterns.
Implementing the above recommendations could increase the numbers of women
entering school and district leadership positions, especially secondary school principalships and
superintendencies, thus providing effective role models to encourage aspiring women to advance
to leadership. K-12 school districts need to acknowledge the barriers experienced by women in
the pipeline for leadership positions and create systems that are supportive of their advancement,
which include inspirational leadership from the top, a clear vision, a culture of learning,
deliberate action, and seeking the best and growing their own.

BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 122
Recommendations for Future Study
This case study explored strategies used by SUSD to build the next generation of women
school and district leaders, the perceptions of these strategies, and the factors that facilitate and
inhibit these strategies. The bound case study looked at only one district in southern California
through interviews with 10 participants, multiple observations, and analysis of documents. While
the case study provided rich, descriptive data collection and analysis, study of other districts in
California and throughout the country would provide further insight into capacity-building
strategies for women. Including smaller and larger districts as well as rural and urban districts in
a more comprehensive study would provide additional evidence to complement or contradict this
and other research on leadership capacity-building strategies for women. Further, a longitudinal
study of a district or districts over multiple years would provide rich data regarding capacity-
building strategies and their effects, such as numbers and qualities of rising and accomplished
leaders.
Additionally, this study only included one participant who was not White, and, since
research indicates that there are even fewer women of color than there are women secondary
principals and superintendents, it would be beneficial to learn how the experiences of women
education leaders of color compare to the experiences of this study’s participants. Other
populations that may be studied in order to illuminate the experience of all women include
women without children, unmarried women, single mothers, and lesbian education leaders. All
of these populations are understudied in the literature related to education leaders and face
unique challenges such as additional discrimination (Shakeshaft et al., 2007). Research that is
inclusive of their experiences may enhance district and collegial support for their particular
needs.
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 123
Additional possible areas of future study related to demographics include the gender
make-up of particular departments, generational differences, and women’s leadership purpose.
Specific study of departments such as information technology and special education – and the
perceived or real gender imbalance in these areas – may contribute to building leadership
potential across education. This study’s findings described some generational differences, such
as three participants in the Baby Boomer generation describing district leadership or the
superintendency as “a man’s world,” and, simultaneously expressing a lack of desire to advance
in their careers. Generation X or Y participants, on the other hand, expressed desires to advance
in their careers. Further study of these and other generational differences may clarify strategies
for women’s leadership development that may or may not be generation-specific. The differing
value orientations and motivators or leadership purpose for women and men discovered in
previous research was confirmed, although not as plainly, in the current study, and warrants
further study.
The many nuances of mentoring, networking, and sponsoring expressed by study
participants illuminates an area for further study. Formal versus informal mentoring, same-
gender versus mixed-gender mentoring, same-gender versus mixed-gender networking, as well
as the idea of sponsoring would provide increased awareness of what strategies are most
beneficial for rising women leaders. Research regarding the roles of state and national
organizations related to mentoring, networking, and sponsoring, and other barriers and
facilitators, such as good ol’ boys’ networks and queen bee syndrome, could also provide
worthwhile insight.

BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 124
Conclusion
This study was intended to illuminate the ways Smith Unified School District works to
build the next generation of women school and district leaders. Its findings suggest that the
strategies implemented by SUSD, while not specifically intended to affect women, do, indeed,
affect women’s leadership capacity within the district. The district’s inspirational leadership
from the top, clear vision, culture of learning, deliberate action, and seeking the best and growing
its own move women to attempt and reach positions of leadership, including superintendent.
Study participants revealed their perceptions of the strategies as well as facilitators and inhibitors
to the district’s efforts, such as gender stereotypes and leader stereotypes, the good ol’ boys’
club, women’s experiences with mentoring, and their own career aspirations.
These findings should prove beneficial for current and aspiring women leaders in
education, inform men education leaders of the experiences of women leaders, and provide
policymakers, college and university personnel, and scholars with valuable insights related to
what K-12 districts can do to build the leadership capacity of women in education.

BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 125
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BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 138
Appendix A
Participant Recruitment Letter

You have been selected to participate in this study due to your experiences with leadership
capacity-building strategies in your school or district. As a participant in this study, your
contribution will assist those interested in implementing or expanding leadership capacity-
building strategies, especially for women, in the educational settings in which they work.

The intent of this study is to discover how some schools and districts are building leadership
capacity and creating the next generation of women school and district leaders. Some schools
and districts are able to shape the next generation of women leaders despite the low percentages
of women serving as secondary principals and superintendents, the increasing rates of retirement
and attrition of educational leaders, teachers’ lack of desire and/or motivation to enter leadership,
and the increasing demands of educational leaders.

To that end, the following research questions are posed in an effort to gain insight into successful
leadership capacity-building strategies:

1) In what says does Smith Unified School District work to build the next generation of
school and district leaders?

2) What are the perceptions of stakeholders regarding the influence of the leadership
capacity-building strategies?

a) What are the perceptions of women regarding the influence of the leadership
capacity-building strategies?

3) What are the factors that facilitate and inhibit district strategies for building leadership
capacity?

Identifying strategies that schools and districts use to successfully build the next generation of
women education leaders may provide a guide for other districts to follow. Exploring the
perceptions of stakeholders regarding the leadership capacity-building strategies may improve
the content, execution and reach of such programs. Finally, the identification of facilitators and
inhibitors of the strategies may help others recognize catalysts and pitfalls for their current or
future leadership capacity-building efforts.

Your participation in this study should take approximately two hours of your time over a period
of six weeks and will consist of the following activities:

• One or two interviews

• One observation of you in your work setting

BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 139
Thank you in advance for considering my request for you to participate. Your involvement is
critical to the success of this study.

BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 140
Appendix B
Interview Protocol for Teacher/Teacher Leader

1. Tell me briefly about your experience and role at this site.
2. What is the mission/vision of your school?

3. What influenced you to take on a leadership role? With women, follow up: Did you have
women role models or mentors?

4. What informs your daily leadership practices?

5. Your school is identified as having promising practices in leadership succession. How are
those practices communicated to you?

6. What does your site/organization succession plan look like? How has that been
communicated to you? What has been your response?

7. How have you been supported by the leadership at your site/organization?

8. How is this support personalized? Does it look different for different groups of people
(such as women, persons of color)?

9. When you think about a dynamic or transformational (great) leader, what qualities or
characteristics stand out to you?

10. What leadership opportunities have been offered to you? How were these opportunities
communicated to you? How did you benefit from these opportunities?

11. What school/district supports are in place to help develop future leaders? What support
have you received from your school/district in developing your leadership capacity?

12. What obstacles have you faced in growing as a leader?

13. What forms of formal and informal mentoring are available at your site/in your district?
Can you give an example?

14. What else would you like to share with me about your experience as a leader?

Follow-Up/Probing Questions:
How did your gender affect your experience with (program, mentor, etc.)?
That is interesting. Could you please tell me more about . . .?
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 141
I want to make sure I understand. Could you please tell me what you mean by . . . ?
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 142
Appendix C
Interview Protocol for School/District Leader

1. Tell me briefly about your experience and role as a leader at the school/in the district.
2. What is the mission/vision of your school/district?
3. What was significant in you becoming an administrator? Who was influential in your
decision to become an administrator? With women, follow up: Did you have women role
models or mentors?
4. What informs your daily leadership practices?
5. Your school/district is identified as having promising practices in leadership succession.
How would you articulate those practices?
6. What does a succession plan look like to you? How is that plan communicated to the
different stakeholders? How do they respond?
7. How do you support potential leaders at your school/in your district?
8. How is this support personalized? Does it look different for different groups of people
(such as women, persons of color)?
9. When you are thinking about identifying a potential leader, what are you looking for
(skills, traits, qualities, etc.)?
10. Give me an example of a leader you identified. Tell me about the process form you
recognizing him or her, to him or her becoming a leader (principal, etc.).
11. What opportunities that you provide to potential leaders on your staff do you find most
useful in developing their leadership capacity? How are those communicated?
12. How do you address those that aren’t ready to be leaders, but show an interest in
leadership?
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 143
13. What school/district supports are in place to help develop future leaders? What support
have you received from your school/district in developing leadership capacity?
14. What obstacles have you faced in helping to develop leadership capacity in future
leaders?
15. What forms of formal and informal mentoring are available at your site/in your district?
How have these mentoring relationships led to leadership succession?
16. What are the areas that need the most development/attention before moving potential
leaders into leadership roles?
17. Give me an example of how you build upon the strengths of future leaders.
Follow-Up/Probing Questions:
How did your gender affect your experience with (program, mentor, etc.)?
That is interesting. Could you please tell me more about . . .?
I want to make sure I understand. Could you please tell me what you mean by . . . ?

BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 144
Appendix D
Matrix of Interview Protocol to Research Questions

Teacher/Participant
Question
Administrator
Interview Question
Research Question
1

In what ways does
Smith Unified
School District
work to build the
next generation of
women and school
district leaders?
Research Question
2

What are the
perceptions of
district
stakeholders
regarding the
influence of the
leadership
capacity-building
strategies? A) What
are the perceptions
of women
regarding the
influence of the
leadership
capacity-building
strategies?
Research Question
3

What are the
factors that
facilitate and
inhibit district
strategies for
building women's
leadership
capacity?
1) Tell me briefly about
your experience and
role at this site.
1) Tell me briefly
about your experience
and role as a leader at
the school/in the
district.

2) What is the
mission/vision of your
school?
2) What is the
mission/vision of
your school/district?

3) What influenced you
to take on a leadership
role? With women,
follow up: Did you
have women role
models or mentors?
3) What was
significant in you
becoming an
administrator?
A) Who was
influential in your
decision to become an
administrator? With
women, follow up:
Did you have women
role models or
mentors?
X X X
4) What informs your
daily leadership
practices?
4) What informs your
daily leadership
practices?
X X
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 145
5) Your school is
identified as having
promising practices in
leadership succession;
how are those practices
communicated to you?
5) Your
school/district is
identified as having
promising practices in
leadership succession;
how would you
articulate those
practices?
X X X
6) What does your
site/organization
succession plan look
like? A) And how has
that been
communicated to you?
B) What has been your
response?
6) What does a
succession plan look
like to you?
A) And how is that
communicated to the
different
stakeholders?
B) And how do they
respond?
X X X
7) How have you been
supported by the
leadership at your
site/organization?
7) How do you
support potential
leaders at your
school/in your
district?
X X X
8) How is this support
personalized? Does it
look different for
different groups of
people (such as women,
persons of color)?
8) How is this support
personalized? Does it
look different for
different groups of
people (such as
women, persons of
color)?
X X X
9) When you think
about a dynamic or
transformational (great)
leader what
qualities/characteristics
stand out to you?
9) When you are
thinking about
identifying a potential
leader, what are you
looking for (skills,
traits, qualities, etc.)?
X

10) Give me an
example of a leader
you identified. Tell
me about the process
from you recognizing
him or her, to him or
her becoming a leader
(principal, etc.)
X X X
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 146
10) What leadership
opportunities have been
offered to you? A) How
were these
opportunities
communicated to you?
B) How did you benefit
from these
opportunities?
11) What
opportunities that you
provide to potential
leaders on your staff
do you find most
useful in developing
their leadership
capacity? How are
those communicated?
X X X

12) How do you
address those that
aren't ready to be
leaders, but show an
interest in leadership?
X X
11) What
school/district supports
are in place to help
develop future leaders?
What support have you
received from your
school/district in
developing your
leadership capacity?
13) What
district/school
supports are in place
to help develop future
leaders? What support
have you received
from your
district/school in
developing leadership
capacity?
X X X
12) What obstacles
have you faced in
growing as a leader?
14) What obstacles
have you faced in
helping to develop
leadership capacity in
future leaders?
X X
13) What forms of
formal and informal
mentoring are available
at your site? A) Can
you give me an
example?
15) What forms of
formal and informal
mentoring are
available at your
site/in the district? A)
How have these
mentoring
relationships led to
leadership
succession?
X X X

16) What are the
areas that need the
most
development/attention
before moving
potential leaders into
leadership roles?
X
BUILDING LEADERSHIP CAPACITY OF WOMEN IN EDUCATION 147

17) Give me an
example of how you
build upon the
strengths of future
leaders.
X
14) What else would
you like to share with
me about your
experience as a leader?

Follow-Up/Probing Questions:
How did your gender affect your experience with (program, mentor, etc.)?
That is interesting. Could you please tell me more about . . .?
I want to make sure I understand. Could you please tell me what you mean by . . . ?

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Asset Metadata

Creator Finneran, Clara A. (author)

Core Title Building the leadership capacity of women in K-12 education: successful strategies that create the next generation of women school and district leaders

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/18/2016

Defense Date 03/08/2016

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag boys' club,district leadership,education,education leaders,gender equity,gender-based barriers,leadership capacity,leadership development,mentoring,OAI-PMH Harvest,school leadership,social role theory,sponsoring,succession planning,transformational leadership,women and education leadership,women and leadership

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Stowe, Kathy (committee chair), Malloy, Courtney (committee member), Ott, Maria (committee member)

Creator Email cfinnera@usc.edu,clarafinneran0@gmail.com

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-229952

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Legacy Identifier etd-FinneranCl-4266.pdf

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Document Type Dissertation

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