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The role of educational leadership in participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs in elementary schools in the coastal region of Costa Rica

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The role of educational leadership in participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs in elementary schools in the coastal region of Costa Rica

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Content Running head: ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 1
THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN PARTICIPATION IN THE
NATIONAL PROGRAM OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FAIRS IN
ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN THE COASTAL REGION OF
COSTA RICA
by
Christin Molano
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2016
Copyright 2016 Christin Molano
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 2
Dedication
If people had told me 3 years ago that I would be sitting here, writing a dissertation, I
would have told them that they were crazy. I have always dreamed of earning my doctorate; but
with a busy job and three children under the age of 7 at that time, the prospect seemed impossi-
ble. That was until one person who believed in me and gave me the confidence to even turn in
the application came along and told me that I could accomplish anything. This entire process is
dedicated to Michelle and her love, support, and confidence in me that makes me a better person
every day. I could have never started or finished without her, and I love her for making me
complete this journey. I cannot wait to spend the rest of my life with her.
I also dedicate this dissertation to my three beautiful children—Colin, Jake and Cate—
for their patience during the times that I was busy working on my “school”; and my parents,
Howard and Lynn, for instilling me with the skills to word hard and always telling me that I
could become whatever I wanted to in life.
I cannot forget my Fremont work family for their understanding when my workload
became tough and my dear friend (who is more like family) Cynthia for being my mentor from
the moment I came to Glendale and for steering me in the right direction ever since.
Finally, I am very appreciative to Dr. Michael Escalante for all of his hard work and
guidance throughout this process and especially for picking me to be a part of this prestigious
group. To team central: You are all amazing, and I will miss our times together. Thank you!
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 3
Table of Contents
Dedication 2
List of Tables 6
List of Figures 7
Abstract 8
Chapter One: Introduction 10
Statement of the Problem 10
Purpose of the Study 11
Research Questions 11
Significance of the Study 12
Limitations 12
Delimitations 13
Assumptions 13
Definitions of Terms 14
Organization of the Dissertation 15
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature 16
Globalization 17
Brief History of Costa Rica 20
Government 20
Economy 24
Education 26
Multinational Corporations 30
CINDE 30
Cisco 32
Intel 33
Omar Dengo Foundation 35
National Program of Science and Technology Fair (PRONAFECYT) 35
STEM Education and PBL 39
Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) 40
Leadership Frameworks 44
Bolman and Deal’s Four Frames of Leadership 45
Kotter’s Change Framework 47
Classroom Instruction 49
Chapter Summary 53
Chapter Three: Research Methodology 55
Research Team 55
Research Design 56
Population and Sample 59
Instrumentation 60
Data Collection 61
Data Analysis 63
Ethical Considerations 64
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 4
Chapter Four: Research Results 65
Participants 66
Research Organization 67
Primary School Participation 67
Government, Business, and Higher Education Leader Participation 69
Results for Research Question 1 70
Strong Leadership at All Levels 71
Positive Culture With Recognition 76
Discussion for Research Question 1 79
Results for Research Question 2 79
Soft Skill Integration 80
Teacher Collaboration and Student Collaboration 82
Discussion for Research Question 2 86
Results for Research Question 3 86
Clear Vision but Lack of Execution 87
Training and Ongoing Professional Development at the School Site 90
Discussion for Research Question 3 92
Results for Research Question 4 92
Integration of Scientific Method and PBL in Classroom Instruction 93
Discussion for Research Question 4 97
Chapter Summary 97
Chapter Five: Conclusions and Recommendations 100
Summary of the Findings 102
Research Question 1 102
Research Question 2 104
Research Question 3 106
Research Question 4 107
Implications for Practice 108
Recommendations for Research 109
Conclusion 110
References 112
Appendices
Appendix A: List of Research Sites 117
Appendix B: Observation Protocol 118
Appendix C: Teacher Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 124
Appendix D: School Director Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 126
Appendix E: Government Official/Business Leaders Interview Protocol: English
and Spanish Versions 128
Appendix F: Parent Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 130
Appendix G: Student Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 132
Appendix H: Teacher Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 134
Appendix I: School Director Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 138
Appendix J: Government Official Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 142
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 5
Appendix K: Business Partner Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 146
Appendix L: Parent Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 150
Appendix M: Student Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions 154
Appendix N: Recruitment Letter 158
Appendix O: Summary of the Research Proposal 159
Appendix P: Consent Form 160
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 6
List of Tables
Table 1: Summary of Study Participants Surveyed and Interviewed 68
Table 2: Summary of Participants Surveyed and Interviewed by Category 70
Table 3: Survey Responses for Teachers: Questions 1 and 2 74
Table 4: Survey Responses for Government and Business Leaders: Questions 1 and 2 75
Table 5: Survey Responses for Teachers: Questions 13, 18, and 23 77
Table 6: Survey Responses for Teachers: Questions 9, 10, 11, and 12 83
Table 7: Survey Responses for Teachers: Questions 14 and 15 84
Table 8: Survey Responses for Teachers: Questions 7 and 22 91
Table 9: Survey Responses for Teachers: Questions 5 and 6 95
Table 10: Survey Responses for Students: Questions 5 and 6 96
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 7
List of Figures
Figure 1: Costa Rica, Latin America’s #1 destination for foreign direct investment
(FDI) that is seeking efficiency 26
Figure 2: Framework for 21st-century student learning 52
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Abstract
Globalization and the influx of multinational corporations over the past 30 years have
significantly impacted the educational system in Costa Rica. The need for knowledge-based
workers has become essential in continuing to strengthen the economy and attracting foreign
direct investment. The purpose of this qualitative study was to understand the effects of educa-
tional leadership on the participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs
(Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología [PRONAFECYT]) in primary schools in
Costa Rica. The goal was to identify the role that educational leaders play in effectively imple-
menting the PRONAFECYT initiative. The research team collected data through interviews,
surveys, and observations from political, business, and educational leaders in Costa Rican
schools during a 10-day visit in June 2015.
The data were analyzed using John Creswell’s six-step process. The findings revealed
significant themes: The role of a strong leader and his or her capacity to build a positive culture
with recognition will provide the necessary tools for successful implementation of the
PRONAFECYT initiative. Teachers at successful schools integrate soft skills into their class-
room instruction. They collaborate together; their students collaborate; and professional learning
communities are part of the school’s practices. System leaders (government and business) have a
clear vision for the PRONAFECYT and the tools that schools should be receiving; however, the
vision is not always executed. Strong leadership is connected to training and ongoing profes-
sional development at the site for the PRONAFECYT and in 21st-century skills. Participation in
the PRONAFECYT has influenced the integration of the scientific method and PBL in classroom
instruction. The findings and recommendations were shared with the Ministry of Public
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 9
Education and the Ministry of Science, Technology, and Telecommunications in an effort to
improve practices related to educational leaders’ roles and preparation for the PRONAFECYT.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 10
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Statement of the Problem
Misra (2012) defined globalization as the “integration of economies and societies through
cross country flows of information, ideas, technologies, goods, services, capital, finance and
people” (p. 69). These global changes have led to a highly competitive and rapidly changing
environment for countries throughout the world. World societies are now more interconnected
and interdependent than ever before (Armstrong, 2007; Friedman, 2007). For a nation to succeed
in an ever increasingly interconnected global economy, changes to the local economy and educa-
tion system must occur (Biesanz, Biesanz, & Biesanz, 1999; Friedman, 2007). Globalization has
necessitated a change in the skills students must develop in order to compete in an increasingly
global workforce (Friedman, 2007; Spring, 2008). As a result, educational systems are no longer
competing with other school systems in the same city, state, or even nation but rather are compet-
ing with schools around the world (Wagner, 2008).
Costa Rica has endured many changes since gaining its independence in 1859 (Biesanz et
al., 1999). Since becoming independent and abolishing its military, Costa Rica has placed its
primary focus on education (Palmer & Molina, 2004). During the past 30 years, Costa Rica has
evolved from a rural, agrarian society and adapted to a high-tech hub of innovation in Latin
America (Rodríguez-Clare, 2001). In addition, Costa Rica has initiated actions designed to
attract foreign direct investment (FDI), which has included tax incentives and investments in
infrastructure as well as changes to the educational system (Organisation for Economic Co-
operation and Development [OECD], 2012).
To continue attracting FDI, Costa Rica’s economic future is dependent on schools that
produce knowledgeable workers with skills in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 11
(STEM) in addition to other essential 21st-century competencies (Rodríguez-Clare, 2012). How-
ever, according to Americas Society & Council of the Americas (2011), 20% to 30% of students
in Costa Rica do not matriculate from secondary school. To ensure a 100% literacy rate by 2017,
including students from rural and poor communities, principal and teacher leadership must first
secure equitable educational access for all. One method of providing such access would be to
guarantee that all students begin participation in the National Program of Science and Technol-
ogy Fairs (Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología [PRONAFECYT]) early in their
educational career.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to understand the effects on educational leadership in Costa
Rican primary schools as a result of having participated in the PRONAFECYT. The study
identified the role that school leaders have in the development and implementation of the
PRONAFECYT. Additionally, the study explored how schools may have restructured their
educational programs by focusing on PRONAFECYT teacher training and the sharing of leader-
ship between the school director and the teachers.
Research Questions
The four research questions that guided this study were the following:
1. What is the role that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 12
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
Significance of the Study
The findings of this study will be shared with the Costa Rican Ministry of Public Educa-
tion (MEP); the Ministry of Science, Technology, and Telecommunications (MICITT); multina-
tional corporations (MNCs); and educational leaders in Costa Rica. The expectation is the
findings should provide information about the effects of leadership on participation in the
PRONAFECYT at the primary school level. The findings can assist the MEP and the MICITT in
developing a plan of action to improve the level of participation based on their support of educa-
tional leaders. MNCs can use the findings to improve strategies for attracting younger students
to be interested in science and technology. The findings can also be used to guide educational
leaders of primary schools in approaches utilized by other successful schools, as revealed by this
study. The findings from this study may ultimately impact curriculum, student outcomes, and
preparation of students to be successful in science, technology, engineering and mathematics
(STEM) in addition to understanding the essential 21st-century competencies for the workplace,
as previously described.
Limitations
One limitation of this study was the scope—primarily the number of participants and the
time allotted for the study. The research team used purposeful sampling; therefore, the schools,
government officials, regional PRONAFECYT directors, and the multinational corporate execu-
tive were carefully chosen by the MEP when the purpose of the study was shared with this
agency. The selection of the schools was limited by their proximity to San José, with 90% of
them being located less than 20 minutes away. Because the international research trip was short,
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 13
just 10 days, time was also a limitation. The data collected were limited by the amount of infor-
mation and access that each leader, teacher, and student was willing to offer. Therefore, the
generalizability of the findings is limited to primary schools located in an urban environment.
Regardless, this case study provides an in-depth and comprehensive analysis that can be utilized
by similar organizations to identify best practices in leadership.
Delimitations
There are several delimitations that applied to this study. The number of schools that
were visited were carefully and purposefully determined due to the short amount of time that the
research team spent in Costa Rica. Every moment of time was effectively utilized by prear-
ranging interviews in specific time slots and creating a comprehensive yet flexible schedule. The
research team also allowed time for analyzing the raw data during the trip. Finally, the schools
that were visited were geographically mapped out to ensure the availability of accessible trans-
portation.
Assumptions
The following assumptions were made about the dynamics of this study:
1. That the Costa Rican MEP supports the PRONAFECYT initiative;
2. That STEM and project-based learning (PBL) implementation assists in preparing
students to participate in the PRONAFECYT;
3. That leadership, both by the MEP and the school site administration, plays a vital role
in the successful participation of the PRONAFECYT;
4. That all respondents would reply truthfully when completing the surveys and inter-
view questions; and
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 14
5. That classroom observations would be authentic and would consist of the normal
routine of teacher and students.
Definitions of Terms
Costa Rican Investment Promotion Agency (Coalición Costarricense de Iniciativas para
el Desarrollo [CINDE]): A private, nonprofit foreign investment promotion agency, CINDE was
established and funded with U.S. aid; its main role is to attract FDI to Costa Rica.
FDI: This is an investment made by a company or entity based in one country into a
company or entity based in another country.
Globalization: This is a phenomenon of increased economic integration among nations,
characterized by the movement of people, ideas, social customs, and products across borders
(Spring, 2008).
MNC: This is a company that has its facilities and other assets in at least one country
other than its home country. MNCs have offices and/or factories in different countries and
usually have a centralized head office where they coordinate global management.
MEP: This is the government agency that oversees education in Costa Rica. The mission
is to promote development of an exceptional education system that provides access to quality
education for the entire population, centered on personal development and promotion of a Costa
Rican society united through opportunity and social equality.
MICITT: This government agency is the institution that promotes the development of
science, technology, innovation, and telecommunications to improve the quality of life of citizens
through joint actions from the academic, private, and government sectors.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 15
PBL: This is a teaching method whereby students gain knowledge and skills by working
for an extended period of time to investigate and respond to a complex question, problem, or
challenge relevant and applicable to the real world.
STEM: This refers to an interdisciplinary and applied approach that is coupled with
hands-on, problem-based learning.
Organization of the Dissertation
This dissertation is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 provided an overview of the
study including the statement of the problem,; the purpose of the study; the research questions;
the significance, limitations, delimitations, and assumptions of the study; and the definitions of
common terms referenced throughout the dissertation.
Chapter 2 provides a review of the literature as it relates to this study. The chapter begins
with an overview of the history of globalization. The history of Costa Rica is discussed, includ-
ing the political, economical, and educational systems. The presence of MNCs and their influ-
ence on STEM–PBL education in the country is described. Finally the leadership frameworks
and classroom instructional practices are reviewed.
Chapter 3 presents the details about the research team and trip, the sample and popula-
tion, the instrumentation, data collection, and data analysis and discloses all ethical consider-
ations.
Chapter 4 presents the findings in detail. In conclusion, Chapter 5 discusses the findings
and presents a prospectus for additional and future research.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 16
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Globalization has been described as the process by which the experience of everyday life,
marked by the dissemination of commodities and ideas, can foster a standardization of cultural
expressions around the world (Watson, 2007). This is a worldwide movement toward global
economic, political, and educational integration. There are three broad and powerful forces that
drive globalization: technological change, domestic market maturation within the more devel-
oped countries, and the collapse of Communism (Watson, 2007). Around the world, countries
are feeling the effects of globalization, and Costa Rica is a prime example of a nation that has
experienced significant changes because of it.
The educational system is just one area that has changed in Costa Rica. The
PRONAFECYT is an important component that was added in an attempt to ensure that students
were becoming ready to enter a knowledge-based instead of a skill-based society. However, it is
dependent upon the leadership at the government and, more importantly, the site level if there is
to be fidelity in the application of the PRONAFECYT. The primary purpose of this study was to
understand the effects of educational leadership as a result of participation by primary schools
throughout Costa Rica in the PRONAFECYT. This study identifies the role that school leaders
have had in the development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. Additionally,
the study explored how schools may have restructured their educational programs by focusing on
sharing leadership responsibilities and teacher training.
This chapter examines the history of globalization and how it has impacted the Costa
Rican educational system. It also deals with the effects of globalization on the leadership and in
the development of 21st-century skills. The literature review explores (a) the history of global-
ization; (b) the history of Costa Rica, including the economic, political and educational systems;
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 17
(c) the presence of MNCs in Costa Rica,; (d) the role of STEM PBL in education in Costa Rica;
(e) school leadership; and (f) classroom instruction frameworks.
Globalization
In order to understand the immense effects of globalization on a country such as Costa
Rica, it is important to explore the history and the background of this movement. Economist
Theodore Levitt coined the term globalization in the 1980s to describe the changes in economics
that affect production, consumption, and investments that, in turn, affect larger segments of the
world’s population (Spring, 2008). Before globalization, agrarian societies required humans to
set down roots in a specific location. In time, such rooted efforts grew into communities and
then transformed into principalities and kingdoms. The connections between territories were
minimal, primarily relating to the exchange of goods or launching attacks in an effort to gain
additional territory (Chanda, 2008). Explorers extended this process to lands further away than
their local borders.
An obvious and famous example of this was in 1492, when Columbus’s journey resulted
in opening trade between the Old World and the New World (Friedman, 2007). This led to the
concept of global agents or “traders” who catalyze globalization—people who produce or carry
products and services to consumers in distant parts of the planet and have created an intercon-
nected world (Chanda, 2008). This movement lasted until the 1800s and these kinds of trading
inspired new professions such as shipwrights, metalworkers, jewelers, and potters. Between the
19th and 20th centuries the ship—and eventually the steamship—critically impacted globaliza-
tion, particularly migration and commerce. Besides the massive immigration to the United
States, there were other countries experiencing newcomers: Chinese in the Caribbean and Latin
America and Jamaicans in Britain (Chanda, 2008). The steamship allowed for products from all
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 18
over the globe to be available to everyone, thus changing the size of the world from a medium to
a small (Friedman, 2007).
In the 1990s, when deregulation and technological advances drove worldwide trade and
investment, the term globalization became a buzzword (Chanda, 2008). Advances in technology
reinforced the notion of being a part of one world. MNCs began to emerge and create businesses
all over the globe, thus reinforcing the small world concept. By the year 2000, the world became
even smaller and the playing field was further flattened by the creation of the Internet. With this
momentous development, individuals were now able to collaborate and compete globally (Fried-
man, 2007). Another way to describe how globalization has evolved is to look at three products
—cotton, coffee, and microchips—and explore their path to globalization and global intercon-
nectedness. Cotton originated in India and extended to the world before being grown in the
United States. It is now one of the most widely used fabrics on earth. Coffee, once known only
in Arab countries, has spread globally and is now a common product worldwide. The microchip
is considered the most powerful tool of today’s globalization and has driven the information
revolution. As the world continues to grow and progress, the history of globalization will
continue to transform.
Globalization also has a connection to education. According to Spring (2008), globaliza-
tion applies to political and cultural changes that affect large segments of the world’s populations
in common ways, with one such change being schooling. Spring also noted that formal education
is the most commonly shared experience of all individuals in the contemporary world. The
globalization of education refers to the worldwide discussions, processes, and institutions
affecting local educational practices and policies.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 19
When one looks at the components of globalization within education, one can see that the
process is comprised of many valuable and “public good” pieces. The process of globalization,
as it is relevant to the educational process, requires an examination of similar educational prac-
tices that have been adopted by various nations. One also has to look at the global discourses that
are influencing local and national educational policymakers, along with intergovernmental and
nongovernment organizations that influence national and local educational practices and the
global flow of ideas and practices (Spring, 2008). There are the added dimension and benefits of
global information technology, e-learning, and communications among communities all over the
world.
Multiculturalism is also a mitigating factor on the effects that the world migration of
peoples has had on national and local school policies and practices. There are various theories on
this ongoing mass migration. One belief is that all cultures are slowly evolving into what might
be conceptualized as a single global culture. Another idea is that the dominant countries (e.g.,
the United States, Japan, and the European Union) are the “core zones,” according to Spring
(2008). These zones of influence are imposing their ideas and beliefs, thereby creating an unbal-
anced culture. There is some validation for this theory when one considers that English is the
global language of commerce; that fact alone has an influence on local school curricula and
cultures. From this perspective, the “globalization of education is part of an effort to impose
particular economic and political agendas that benefit wealthy and rich nations at the expense of
the world’s poor” (Spring, 2008, p.13)
There are also a global marketing aspect and the opportunity to make a profit in the
globalization of education. There are MNCs that create and market educational products such as
tests, curricula, and school materials. The global marketing of higher education and educational
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 20
services can be highly lucrative for private companies. The World Bank is an example of a for-
profit company that benefits from education and, in turn, economic globalization.
Founded in 1944, the World Bank is the world’s largest funder of education, providing
direct loans to developing countries with the idea that investing in education will subsequently
provide a public good through economic development. The World Bank Global Education
Agenda includes supporting public-private partnerships in education; advocacy of a global school
curricula that would focus on literacy, math, and science; foreign languages for the global
economy (mainly English); and supporting the concept of lifelong learning so that global workers
could adapt to new technologies (World Bank, 2012).
The World Bank is not the only game in town. The OECD, the United Nations, and even
Sesame Street Workshop International are in the business of globalizing education. “The global
market in educational services is estimated by Merrill Lynch to be worth outside of the United
States $111 billion a year with a potential consumer base of 32 million students” (Spring, 2008,
p. 84).
Costa Rica has been significantly influenced by modern globalization over the past 30
years. The country’s education system has been forced to change due to the new demands from a
global society. In order to comprehend the current system, it is important to understand the
history of Costa Rica.
Brief History of Costa Rica
Government
Humans have resided in what is now considered Costa Rica for at least 11,000 years
(Biesanz et al., 1999). When Spanish settlers first arrived in Costa Rica, rather than becoming
feudal lords who typically exploited the natives of the country, they were forced to till the soil as
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 21
independent farmers. This situation was caused by the lack of precious metals and a significant
indigenous population to serve as workers in Costa Rica at the time. This process developed a
“rural classless democracy of peace-loving white farmers who greatly valued freedom and fam-
ily” (Biesanz et al., 1999, p. 13). This was a considerably different situation than what was
experienced in other countries, such as the United States, when wealthy colonizers arrive to
inhabit a new land.
However, from 1502 to 1560, part of the indigenous population was conquered by the
Spanish while they explored both coasts of Costa Rica. Between 1560 and 1610, the Spanish
began several settlements in the meseta central, the elevated valleys of the central mountains.
Unfortunately, most of these settlements were unsuccessful due to indigenous hostility, geo-
graphic isolation, and climate. Settlements that were successful started to become populated and
then gradually spread out into the meseta and around the Gulf of Nicoya. Due to the scarcity of
resources and seclusion physically, the Spaniards were unenthusiastic about immigrating to Costa
Rica. In 1700 the census recorded just over 2,000 Spaniards, including their Costa Rica-born
children (Booth, 2008).
Some colonists arrived with substantial personal capital, and most received large land
trusts from the crown that eventually were converted into private property. The colonists at-
tempted to farm cacao and tobacco for export but were unsuccessful, and there were almost no
minerals available to sell. In 1821 Costa Rica gained independence from Spain; and from this
time onwards until the mid 1900s, there were years of turmoil as a result of powerful coffee
barons being elected in the government and creating an elite ruling class that was tainted by fraud
and corruption. Many people became angry, and this situation led to diverse oppositional groups
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 22
(e.g., women educators, students, the lower classes) overthrowing the leadership throughout this
tumultuous period (Booth, 2008).
In the 1840s, coffee became an valuable export and “transformed Costa Rica from poor
and miserable to rich and prosperous” (Palmer & Molina, 2004, p. 55) in a relatively short time.
From 1850 to 1890, the sale of coffee accounted for almost 90% of the country’s export earnings.
Coffee was initially cultivated, harvested, and processed around San José but rapidly extended to
other areas of the Central Valley and eventually to the entire country. Cafetaleros (coffee
barons) benefitted the most by controlling credit, purchase prices, and processing facilities;
however, many small medium-sized growers made successful transitions to the commercialized
farming of coffee (Palmer & Molina, 2004).
In 1880, bananas were planted as a crop by Minor Cooper Keith, who founded the United
Fruit Company, currently known as Chiquita, in the Caribbean lowlands. Eventually, bananas as
an export crop became very profitable and Costa Rica was able to export bananas to Alabama,
New Orleans, and Boston using the (since failed) commuter railroad. This new mode of trans-
portation also expanded coffee exporting. The Province of Limon, which was located at the end
of the railroad, became an agribusiness center, and there was a large influx of people of
Afro-Antillean descent who emigrated there to become banana pickers (Palmer & Molina, 2004).
The United Fruit Company was an influential force on the history of Costa Rica. In 1934
one of most famous labor actions in Central American history occurred when banana workers
went on strike against United Fruit Company (Palmer & Molina, 2004). It was led by the Costa
Rican Communist Party, and laborers were fighting against decreased wages and lack of adequate
healthcare. This event had such an enormous impact that the United Fruit Company director
strongly urged U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt to intervene in ending the strike; however, he
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 23
refused according to the Good Neighbor Policy, citing that if the United States did intervene in
ending the strike, the “entire subsequent democratic history of Costa Rica might be undermined”
(Palmer & Molina, 2004, p. 128).
Eventually the United Fruit Company conceded to some demands but ended up moving to
the Pacific Coast, leaving Black migrant workers behind and taking only the White Costa Ricans
(Sharman, 2005). Unfortunately Black migrant workers were jobless and at the mercy of Costa
Rican bureaucrats who were sent to Limon Province to “reeducate the non-native settlers”
(Sharman, 2005, p. 137). The events during the decade of the 1940s established the modern
country of Costa Rica, including the political system, social welfare state, and the economy.
The movement toward the present-day Costa Rica began in 1940 with Dr. Rafael Angel
Calderon Guardia being elected as president. He was aligned with the Communist Party and the
Catholic Church and introduced a social security system, a pension system, and social welfare
benefits. In 1944 Teodoro Picado replaced Calderon Guardia as president. His presidency
enacted the electoral reform of 1945, which created a modern Electoral Code of Laws and a
Supreme Tribunal of Elections. These new laws were enacted in the 1948 election and resulted
in annulling the results of the presidential election held in February, when there was suspicion by
the opposing party that the triumph of candidate Otilio Ulate had been achieved by fraud. This
incident began the significant 44-day civil war in which over 20,000 people are believed to have
died (Palmer & Molina, 2004). In the end, the new 1949 constitution was adopted (Constitution
of, 1949).
From 1948 to 1952, José Maria (Don Pepe) Figueres Ferrer was elected as president and
proved to be one of Costa Rica’s most influential leaders. There were vast reforms in policy and
civil rights such as suffrage reforms for women and blacks, the banning of the Communist party,
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 24
presidential terms being limited, and banks being nationalized. Since then, there have been 12
elections, with the most recent in 2014; the current president is former educator, Luis Guillermo
Solis (Palmer & Molina, 2004).
Economy
As mentioned previously, Costa Rica’s early economic history was dominated by the
ability to grow coffee and bananas, and these two products added greatly to the country’s pros-
perity. Then there was an economic downturn in the early 1900s. Social welfare, free education,
and free healthcare were draining the economy. The impact of World War I was significant in
that it led to coffee no longer being a major export, as international prices were declining. In
addition, Costa Rican coffee growers were being taxed heavily and their largest market, Ger-
many, was buying less. The wealthy began to leave Costa Rica to avoid heavy taxation. All of
these factors brought about a financial crisis for the country (Palmer & Molina, 2004).
However, by the late 1900s, Costa Rica began to recover by expanding its products and
services. Due to structural reforms to improve economic stability, by the end of the 1980s and
early 1990s, and the establishment of Free Trade Zones (FTZs), there was a dramatic shift in
Costa Rica’s export composition (Ciarli & Giuliani, 2005). In 1998 the arrival of Intel was a
game changer in the explosion of technology. Other MNCs, such as Baxter Healthcare and
Procter and Gamble, set up shop in Costa Rica and contributed greatly in the economic growth of
the country. Over the past 2 decades, Costa Rica has transitioned from a dependence on primary
products to high-tech manufacturing exports (OECD, 2012) and services exports. While fresh
fruits and coffee continue to play an important role in the country’s exports, electronics and
medical devices have been strong export sectors since 2005 (OECD, 2012).
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 25
Globalization, in general, has been evolving at a faster pace over the last 20 years.
Between 2000 and 2007, the world economy grew at its fastest pace in nearly 4 decades;
consequently, the income per person across the globe also rose at a faster rate (3.2%) than in any
other period in history (CINDE, 2013). Costa Rica benefitted from this upswing. In 2012, 40
additional high-technology investment projects came to Costa Rica. The new companies, in
conjunction with the MNCs already established, generated more than $574 million and employed
8,236 people, thereby setting a new record for Costa Rica (CINDE, 2013). FDI and globalization
have been the driving forces behind these huge gains.
FDI has contributed greatly to Costa Rica’s development. Such investments have pro-
moted export diversification and upgrading, creation of better jobs, and accumulation of business
capabilities. The three main sectors are advanced manufacturing, services, and medical devices
and when combined account for over 66,000 jobs in Costa Rica (OECD, 2012).
Between 1996 and 2005, FDI in the manufacturing sector accounted for 68% of total FDI
inflows. That figure compares with an FDI share in manufacturing of 21% in Argentina, 28% in
Brazil, 11% in Chile, and 48% in Mexico (OECD, 2012). Costa Rica also is a leader in Latin
America with respect to efficiency (see Figure 1). What sets Costa Rica apart even further from
most Latin American countries are significant amounts of foreign investment in high-tech indus-
tries, namely in electronics and medical instruments. Costa Rica’s FDI recruitment strategy is to
promote the country as an export platform for efficiency seeking firms, supported by a stable
political system and a skilled labor force (CINDE, 2013). Costa Rica is not the only player; it
competes with Ireland, Malaysia, and the Czech Republic for business. Costa Rica benchmarks
itself against these countries and is trying to find new innovative ways to attract other companies.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 26
Country
Natural
Resources Manufacturing Services
Market Size
(Million
People)
FDI per Inhabitant
(Excluding FDI From
Natural Resources [$])
Costa Rica 1% 39% 60% 4.5 444
Chile 41% 10% 49% 16.6 373
Mexico 6% 50% 44% 111.2 209
Brazil 14% 39% 47% 198.7 150
Colombia 50% 17% 33% 45.6 99
Argentina 53% 29% 18% 40.9 66
Figure 1. Costa Rica, Latin America’s #1 destination for foreign direct investment
(FDI) that is seeking efficiency. Adapted from Investing in Costa Rica, by Costa Rican
Investment Promotion Agency, 2013, retrieved from http://www.cinde.org
One of the pillars of the Costa Rica’s economic development has been trade liberalization
that resulted in the exportation of goods and services increasing 13 times, reaching almost 40%
of the gross domestic product (GDP) over the last 32 years (CINDE, 2013). This trade liberaliza-
tion has led to a productive transformation, diversification of the economy, and a higher level of
investment. Costa Rica has the region’s highest standard of living, and unemployment is rela-
tively low. The national unemployment rate in 2011 was 10.4%, yet analysis of the key regions
where the high-tech manufacturing and service sectors are located (Alajuela, Cartago, Heredia,
and San José) reveals much lower unemployment rates of 2.9% to 3.5% (CINDE, 2013). Costa
Rica’s economic growth continues to be steady and is currently stable.
Education
Education in Costa Rica has been free and mandatory since 1870. In 1889, the Colegio de
Senoritas was founded and was intended to train school teachers for the new public education
system. The 1949 Constitution mandated education and required free access to preschool
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 27
through high school. The MEP oversees education, and the Ministry of Treasury allocates funds
based on enrollment. Each community has a board of directors for primary schools and an
administrative board for the high schools. Because teachers want to work in urban areas with
better schools and neighborhoods, Costa Rica’s rural schools are left understaffed and/or staffed
with inexperienced teachers, aspirantes (intern teachers), and those who had not been selected by
the more desirable schools.
As mentioned previously, since the very beginning of Costa Rica’s history, education has
been a priority, as echoed by the first president, José Maria Castro, a teacher, who served two
terms (1847–1849 and 1866– 1868), who was a teacher (Baker, Bernal, Wiedoeft, & Burton,
2012). Public school funding is a priority at both the primary and secondary levels and beyond.
Article 78 of the Costa Rican Constitution explains this emphasis on education:
Preschool education and general basic education are compulsory. These levels and the
diversified education level are, in the public system, free and supported by the Nation.
Public expenditure in State education, including higher education, shall not be less than
six percent (6%) per annum of the gross domestic product, in accordance with the law,
without detriment to the provisions of Articles 84 and 85 of this Constitution. The State
shall facilitate the pursuit of higher studies by persons who lack monetary resources. The
Ministry of Public Education, through the organization established by law, shall be in
charge of awarding scholarships and assistance. (Constitution of Costa Rica, §VII, as
cited in CINDE, 2013, para. 7)
Public schools are administered under the authority of the MEP. The Education Minister
is appointed by the President. The Minister along with the Vice Minister of Academics, the Vice
Minister of Administration, the Vice Minister of Institutional and Regional Planification oversee
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 28
all the major subdivisions of the system. The Superior Council of Education is the organization
that makes decisions related to policy and curriculum. The MEP spends 98% of its budget on
salaries and controls everything from supplies to curriculum (Biesanz et al., 1999). The MEP
allows schools to change the curriculum to satisfy the needs of a changing society, but
they are monitored to ensure excellence and quality. As a result of this organizational
axiom, Costa Rica has developed a diverse and sophisticated educational framework that
adequately fulfills the needs of the private sector through enhancing the abilities and
knowledge of the students. (Rosenberger, 2016, Educational Institutions section, para. 9)
An overview of the school structure in Costa Rica is helpful to understand the educational
system. Primary school, referred to as escuela, has a total of six grades, and students usually
graduate at age 12. The first 9 years of a student’s education is divided into three cycles: (a)
Cycles 1 and 2 (Grades 1–6): primary grades, which focus on Spanish, math, social studies, and
science; and (b) Cycle 3 (Grades 7–9): secondary grades, where students participate in Spanish,
English, French, math, social studies, religion, civics, science, and electives (CINDE, 2013).
In the last year of secondary study, students are required to pass a test on all subjects that
have been studied during high school years. Earning a Bachilerato is required for admission to
universities, along with learning the English language and computer skills. Students who do not
follow the technical track can also opt to pursue vocational and technical education through the
Instituto Nacional de Aprendizaje (INA; National learning Institute) after completing the ninth
grade. The INA is an autonomous public institution created in 1965 that offers its services free
of charge and is financed primarily by resources coming from an earmarked 1.5% payroll tax,
resources from the private sector and the government budget. The INA offers a wide range of
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 29
courses in all productive sectors. In 2010, INA trained over 37,000 people in Costa Rica
(CINDE, 2013).
Students usually graduate at age 17; however, students who choose to take technical
instruction usually graduate at age 18 with a technical degree. Costa Rica has five public
universities that provide tertiary education and several private universities and institutions offer-
ing professional training (CINDE, 2013). Only one of the public universities offers specialized
training in science and technology; the others include science and engineering training oriented
toward social sciences. Tertiary education is also well funded, at 37% GDP per capita, as com-
pared to the rest of Latin America (CINDE, 2013). Secondary education is funded at the same
level as the rest of Latin America. The secondary enrollment of 89% is lower than OECD
countries (CINDE, 2013). Although the country is focused on developing upper-end ICT
services, Costa Rica does not have any active PhD course in engineering and electronics. The
country introduced two PhD programs that started in 2014 (CINDE, 2013).
Costa Rica’s literacy rate is one of the highest in Latin America and developing countries.
According to the United Nations Human Development Report 2014 (as cited in CINDE, 2013),
Costa Rica’s literacy is 96.3%. According to the World Economic Forum (as cited in CINDE,
2013), the Costa Rican education system ranks 21st in the world, the highest in Latin America.
According to the MEP (as cited in CINDE, 2013), there are 2,831 preschools and 4,063 elemen-
tary schools. “As a result of the advances in elementary schooling, Costa Rican high school
graduates are educated; enjoy a working knowledge of English, an increasing ability to use
computers and a proven aptitude for developing new skills and tasks” (Rosenberger, 2016,
Educational Institutions section, para. 11). The primary and secondary education system has
established the foundations for a continuous improvement of university education and technical
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 30
training that, in turn, have enhanced the business environment and attracted foreign companies to
set up in Costa Rica (CINDE, 2013).
Multinational Companies
MNCs and their presence in Costa Rica have significantly changed the economic and
educational landscape of the country. As mentioned previously, over the past 30 years, MNCs
transformed the main export of Costa Rica from coffee and bananas to microchips and
technology-related products. This change has resulted in a need for the education system to
better prepare students for the new demands of the workforce. There are various agencies
working to attract MNCs, improve the standard of living in Costa Rica, and interconnect the col-
laborative and critical thinking needed—particularly in the areas of science and technology.
Suffice it to say that the MNCs have affected the very culture of the education system.
CINDE
One agency that is reflective of the influence of the MNCs is CINDE. Created in 1982,
the U.S. Agency for International Development established and funded the foreign investment
promotion agency, CINDE, which was the first of its kind in Latin America. The Costa Rican
government declared this private, nonprofit, nonpolitical organization a public interest in 1984.
CINDE offers free services to assist companies in moving their business to Costa Rica. The
main objective is to attract companies to come and establish their business in Costa Rica
(CINDE, 2013, 2015).
CINDE offers many services to companies that are new to the country. For example, the
agency offers support to companies during the site selection process by providing information to
the investor, such as setting up meetings with local service providers, real estate brokers, attor-
neys, and so on, and by facilitating networking with other MNCs. Once a company is established
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 31
in Costa Rica, CINDE provides specialized support geared to new operational expansion projects
or promoting product diversification. CINDE has an office in New York that functions as a link
for U.S.-based companies (CINDE, 2013).
CINDE (2013) has prides itself on its successes over the past 30+ years. It has evolved
from sponsoring just a few products to now facilitating more than 4,000 products exported to 145
countries. The work includes a range of activities from very simple to complex, utilizing mostly
high technology. CINDE-sponsored activities account for most of the economic growth of the
last few years and are considered a main job generator. Over time CINDE has become highly
sophisticated and diversified and now has extensive experience in strategic sectors such as life
sciences, advanced manufacturing services, and clean technologies-renewable energy.
CINDE (2013) has attracted some the largest worldwide companies to Costa Rica, such
as Proctor and Gamble (P&G), Baxter, Cisco, and Intel. P&G began operations in Costa Rica in
1999. As of the beginning of 2014, it employed approximately 1,500 employees in two different
operations: financial services and business transformation (CINDE, 2013). In June of 2014,
P&G announced a new supply chain planning center that employed another 500 employees.
P&G’s presence and expansion in Costa Rica have signified a commitment to the country and to
the employment of Costa Rican citizens. P&G has had a combination of both skill- and
knowledge-based positions in the corporation, and students with either skill set are attractive to
the company. Baxter opened a plant in Costa Rica in 1987 and was one of the first MNCs in the
country. Baxter employs approximately 1,200 workers with the main job of manufacturing
intravenous devices (CINDE, 2013). This is a primarily skill-based position, and the company
recruits employees for basic manual labor.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 32
Cisco and Intel have changed the economic landscape of Costa Rica and brought technol-
ogy to the forefront. The presence of these two companies in Costa Rica has had a significant
impact on the economy and economic potential of the country and has correspondingly affected
the skill set required for students to be successful and gain employment with them. They are also
prime examples of how a reciprocal training relationship between MNCs and the education
system could be beneficial for stakeholders.
Cisco
Cisco opened a small office in Costa Rica in 1996 with just two employees. The main
products are hardware, software, and services that can be used to create Internet productivity for
companies. Cisco’s engineers have been considered leaders in developing Internet Protocol-
based network technology. The company’s business practices are considered a model in using
the Internet to be cost effective and efficient. Cisco has recognized the need for technology
training early in employees’ careers, even before they join the workforce, and has implemented a
successful program to assist with this task (CINDE, 2013).
In 1997 Cisco created the Cisco Networking Academy Program that began operation in
Costa Rica in 1999. It is an educational program to help provide skills in ICTs. It trains students
to plan, create, and support computer networks so that they learn the necessary skills needed for
high-tech jobs and can pursue recognized certifications in the ICTs industry. After they complete
the program, students can perform their duties in Internet- and computer-related jobs or they can
pursue higher education careers in engineering, computer sciences, and related fields. The Net-
working Academy incorporates a hands-on method to its curriculum, which meshes well with the
educational goals in Costa Rica. The approach to learning moves the teacher from direct instruc-
tor to facilitator (CINDE, 2013).
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 33
Intel
Intel has had a presence in Costa Rica since 1997 and is considered the pioneer of the
MNC movement and presence in Costa Rica. Intel has provided over 2,800 jobs in manufactur-
ing of microprocessors and more recently in product design. The culture of the company is to
contribute to the community through education, technology, and environmental awareness (Intel,
2014). Intel invests an average of $1 million annually to support education and to promote 21st-
century skills (Intel, 2014). In 2001, Intel donated $2.5 million in electronic equipment and
English language laboratories to Costa Rican schools (Monge-González & González-Alvarado,
2007). Together with the MEP, Intel works to strengthen technological knowledge through
donations of equipment and promotion of skills required in the workforce (Intel, 2014). The
company has unarguably been the most significant influence as a MNC and has paved the way
for the increase in FDI in Costa Rica.
The skill set that Intel needs for employees is similar to that of Cisco and other
technology-based companies. Employees must have the capacity to communicate, be creative,
and—most importantly—think critically. In addition, computer science and math competency
are essential. The education system in Costa Rica did not promote these skills with fidelity until
Intel arrived, at which time the workforce dynamic was changed forever. Intel recognized that to
create employees who would be valuable to the organization, the company had to be part of the
training early on in the education process and consequently began several programs to assist with
this training (CINDE, 2013).
The Intel Teach Program (ITP) is the largest initiative by the company to collaborate with
the educational system (Intel, 2014). This program assists teachers in integrating technology in
their classrooms to enrich instruction. The program also focuses on digital literacy, problem
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 34
solving, and collaboration. The ITP is coordinated with the MEP and supported by the Omar
Dengo Foundation (ODF). The commitment is not only to provide equipment and training but
also to build capacity by promoting the teachers-train-teachers model. The ITP has trained over
3.5 million teachers in more than 40 countries, and Costa Rica was the first Spanish-speaking
country to join the program (Intel, 2014). It has been so successful that the MEP has made it part
of the mandatory professional development training for all teachers (CINDE, 2013).
Contributing to higher education has also been a priority for Intel. Donations of program-
ming labs to the University of Costa Rica (UCR), Costa Rica Institute of Technology (Instituto
Tecnológico de Costa Rica; ITCR), and the National University of Costa Rica have benefitted the
students by offering a computer science curriculum that has not been available to these schools in
the past. Intel has also developed a relationship with the faculty at these institutions and has
created research collaboration that enables a professor from a university to conduct research a
particular topic at the Intel site while keeping in touch with his or her students. This hands-on
approach is valuable to both teachers and students as their experience is disseminated through
curriculum and lessons. Furthermore, Intel provides many scholarship opportunities to students
who pursue engineering. For students who join the workforce at MNCs, there is an English as a
second language (ESL) scholarship to increase success in their careers (Intel, 2014).
Intel (2014) promotes the importance of education in technology through the Intel Inter-
national Science and Engineering Fair (Intel ISEF). It is the world’s largest international pre-
college science competition, with participation from 1,700 high school students from over 70
countries. The students compete for approximately $5 million in awards in 17 categories. The
Intel ISEF benefits from this competition in two ways. The competition showcases the talents of
top young scientific minds, which are reviewed and judged by scientists, and participation in the
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 35
competition also encourages students to enter the field of science and technology. Additionally,
the competition gives Intel the advantage of scouting out early the new, fresh talent emerging
from schools worldwide to hire for the company. The significance of the Intel ISEF has trickled
down to Costa Rica and has influenced the importance of the science fair at the national level.
Omar Dengo Foundation
In 2008 the ODF, a private, not-for-profit organization that promotes and implements
innovative programs to improve the quality of education, and the Costa Rican MEP established
the Youth Network Administrators Program, which includes Networking Academy training.
This program services students from the 59 technical vocational high schools in the country
(including students in the 11th and 12th grades) who choose to specialize in computer science.
This program enables students to continue their efforts in combining the two curricula of the
Networking Academy and the Costa Rica Core Curriculum. According to Elena Carreras,
Director of the Department of Entrepreneurship and Digital Productivity, ODF in Costa Rica has
had the following effect:
In our country, our two main priorities for education are to transform the teacher’s role
from a source of knowledge to a much more sophisticated role of facilitator, guiding
individual learning processes. Secondly, our goal for education is to provide learning
materials and content of more contextual, creative, and dynamic subjects. (as cited in
Cisco, 2011, p. 1)
National Program of Science and Technology Fair (PRONAFECYT)
In 1987 the first PRONAFECYT, managed by the UCR, was held in Costa Rica. Ap-
proximately 40 high schools participated, with participants coming mostly from private schools.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 36
In the 1990s, Law 7169 was established that formalized the PRONAFECYT. The law states the
following:
Article 1: For the purposes of the scientific and technological development that this Law
seeks to promote, the general aim shall be to facilitate scientific research and technologi-
cal innovation, leading to greater economic and social progress within the framework of a
strategy of comprehensive sustained development, in order to preserve the country’s
natural resources for future generations and guarantee that Costa Ricans enjoy a better
quality of life and wellbeing and to enhance their knowledge of themselves and of
society.
Article 2: The long term goal of scientific and technological development shall be
to create the necessary conditions for the implementation of a policy in this respect.
Article 3: The specific goals of scientific and technological development shall be
the following: (a) to guide the definition of specific policies for the promotion and foster-
ing of scientific and technological development in general; (b) to support scientific and
technological activities carried out by any private or public entity, national or foreign,
which contribute to scientific and technological exchange with other countries or which
are linked to national development goals; (c) to provide stimuli and incentives for the
private and public sectors and for university institutions of higher education and other
educational centers, with a view to enhancing capacity to generate science and technology
and encouraging links between such bodies; (d) to create the appropriate conditions to
ensure that science and technology can play their key role as basic factors in the achieve-
ment of greater competitiveness and growth in the national productive sector; (e) to
stimulate technological innovation as an essential element for building national capacity,
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 37
adapting to changes in international trade and the global economy and raising the living
standards of Costa Ricans; (f) to stimulate technological innovation at the national level
with a view to converting Costa Rica’s productive sector and enhancing the country’s
capacity in terms of competitiveness, in order to meet the basic needs of the population;
(g) to encourage all activities that support substantive scientific and technological
development; postgraduate studies and human resource development, the improvement of
the teaching of the sciences, mathematics and technical education, as well as scientific
and technological documentation and information; (h) to support any measures designed
to encourage greater creativity and original scientific thinking on the part of Costa Ricans;
(i) to promote regional development in the country by means of the use of appropriate
technologies for the development of agricultural, agroindustrial, forest and aquacultural
activity and related industry in rural areas; (j) to foster and support ethical, legal, eco-
nomic, scientific and social research in general, aimed at improving understanding of the
relationship between science, technology and society, as well as the applicable legal
framework in this field, with a view to revitalizing the role of science and technology in
respect of culture and social wellbeing; (k) to foster any activities which support the
process of technological innovation: technology transfer, consultancy and engineering,
standardization, metrology and quality control and other scientific and technological
services. (World Intellectual Property Organization, n.d., pp. 1–3)
In 1998 the PRONAFECYT expanded to the primary school level and 300 schools
participated. Then, in 1999 the PRONAFECYT became affiliated with the ISEF; however, the
biggest push came in 2004 when National Decree # 3900 MEP-MICITT mandated that the
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 38
institutional science fairs were required and would be incorporated in the National School
Calendar. Consequently, in 2004, 2,300 schools participated (Valencia-Chacón, 2011).
The PRONAFECYT processes are ruled by the guidelines of the National Science and
Technology Fairs Program, which includes all students from preschools, primary schools, and
high schools. There is an organizational structure for executing the program starting with a
competition at the school site (Institutional), then local (Circuit), then to a Regional, and finally
to the National level. As part of the National Decree, a timeline was established for consistency
among competitions, with the Institutional being held in June-July and the National competition
in the last week of October. The overall objective of the program is “to promote a science and
technology culture, starting with the development of scientific knowledge, as a stimulus to new
generations of Costa Ricans, through the demonstration and discussion of research projects
designed by students” (Valencia, 2009, p.2).
There are five different categories for students to participate in, including one for pre-
school, and nine subjects that can be addressed including computer science and engineering and
technology. Teachers receive training to assist their students in creating their projects, with one
accredited program being Intel Students as Scientists (SAS). The SAS is a 40-hour teacher
training curriculum that focuses on integrating science research in the classroom and understand-
ing science fair processes. It includes how to design lessons to teach research, techniques for
managing long-term projects, and supporting students with extra assistance such as tutoring to
ensure completion of the project. This program and the sponsorship by Intel of the first- and
second-place winners to attend the ISEF are examples of the strong influence of the company on
education and the collaboration between the organization and the MEP (Valencia, 2009).
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 39
With the influx of MNCs, the requirement for employment is not only being fluent in
technology but also workers who can collaborate, have appropriate communication, can problem
solve, and be self-directed learners. Intel’s presence is a prime example of these proficiencies
being utilized in the workforce. At the beginning of Intel’s existence in Costa Rica, skill-based
workers were recruited to do more labor-intensive jobs (i.e., making microchips). These jobs are
now obsolete, and knowledge based employees are the individuals who are being hired to create
and design microchips. The need for teachers and students to learn science and technology skills
as well as problem solving is critical to compete in the national and international workplace.
STEM Education and PBL
As indicated, technology today has influenced almost every aspect of people’s lives. It
plays an essential role in education, especially in STEM education (Capraro & Slough, 2013).
STEM focuses on all four areas together not only because the knowledge in each discipline is
essential for student success but also because these subjects are deeply interwoven in the real
world and consequently determinative of how students learn most effectively. STEM is an
interdisciplinary approach that is coupled with hands-on PBL and students in the best STEM
programs are asked to solve real-world problems (California STEM Learning Network
[CSLNET], 2015). A STEM-literate student “is not only an innovator and critical thinker, but is
able to make meaningful connections between school, community, work and global issues”
(CSLNET, 2015, STEM Literacy section, para. 1). The STEM–PBL process develops individu-
als who will be more likely to succeed in postsecondary institutions and the workplace where
these skills are essential (Capraro & Slough, 2013).
PBL is the purposeful involvement and integration of several academic disciplines and
methods to study a central problem or project. It is a teaching method in which students gain
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 40
knowledge and skills by working for an extended period of time to investigate and respond to a
complex problem. PBL is not a new concept and has a long history in America’s public schools,
going back to the 19th-century work of Francis W. Parker and John Dewey. Originally this
method was focused on developing solutions to real-world problems but later was adapted and
applied to encompass activities that were of interest to students (Capraro & Slough, 2013). It
was a popular method for general education in the early to mid 20th century. “The project
method borrowed its theory from agriculture and the industrial arts education and applied that
theory to all subjects” (Capraro, Capraro, & Morgan, 2013, p. 13). There was a brief period of
time when PBL was rejected because educational leaders believed it was failing to meet the
needs of children, teachers, or society (Capraro et al., 2013). However, from 1965 until today,
PBL has been considered an established instructional method and is in the third wave of its
international dissemination (Knoll, 1997). Capraro et al. (2013) contend that PBL “provides the
contextualized, authentic experiences necessary for students to scaffold learning and build
meaningfully powerful science, technology, engineering, and mathematics concepts supported by
language arts, social studies, and art” (p. 2).
These are essential experiences that were mentioned earlier for students to participate in
to be successful in the current Costa Rican workforce in Costa Rica. Teacher training is a crucial
piece to ensure STEM and PBL is delivered properly.
Professional Learning Communities (PLCs)
In a PLC an environment is created by educators that fosters creativity, mutual coopera-
tion, and emotional support as they work together to achieve success that they may not have
accomplished if working alone. A PLC can successfully engage STEM teachers in discussions
about the mathematics and science they teach. “STEM teaching is more effective and student
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 41
achievement increases when teachers join forces to develop strong professional learning commu-
nities in their schools” (DuFour, DuFour, Eaker, & Many, 2010, p. 4). Teacher preparation for
STEM PLCs has resulted in STEM teachers acquiring greater knowledge in mathematics and
science and using more research-based methods for teaching in these disciplines (DuFour et al.,
2010). The traditional culture of the education profession is working in isolation, which has been
known as the “profession without practice” (Wagner, 2008, p. 154). While there are standards
for the content and curriculum, there are no standards for what is effective teaching or leadership.
Without standards and collegial collaboration, educators try to figure out how to be competent on
their own. This situation is ineffective, as “isolation is the enemy of improvement” (Wagner,
2008, p. 157). Instead of being a team, some teachers think of themselves as independent sub-
contractors and see administrators as compliance cops.
The concept of PLCs represents an ongoing process in which educators work collabor-
atively in recurring cycles of collective inquiry and action research to achieve better results for
the students they serve (Dufour et al., 2010). According to Dufour et al. (2010), there are three
main ideas that drive the purpose of a PLC: (a) ensuring that all students achieve at a high level;
(b) remembering that helping all students learn requires a collaborative and collective effort; and
assessing effectiveness in helping all students learn requires focus on the evidence of student
learning and using the results to inform and improve professional practice and respond to stu-
dents who need intervention or enrichment.
Empowering teachers in this way and providing them with opportunities to lead are based
on the simple but profound idea that if schools are to become better at providing learning for
students, then they must also become better at providing opportunities for teachers to innovate,
develop, and learn together. The research suggests that participation in PLCs has increased
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 42
teachers’ deliberation about students’ mathematics or science thinking and that when teachers
work together on the right task, even for as little as 1 hour each week, gains in student achieve-
ment can be expected. This process can also successfully engage teachers in discussion about
content knowledge or knowledge about how to teach it (i.e., pedagogical content knowledge),
thus positively impacting their understanding of or preparedness to teach content or their atti-
tudes toward teaching methods. Truly effective PLCs weave expressions of appreciation and
admiration into the routine life of the school. Another key piece to the success of a PLC is
having leaders who are willing to be direct in addressing those who make no contribution to their
teams. “Leaders who are unwilling to confront staff members who ignore the collaborative team
process not only undermine that process but also damage their relational trust with the rest of the
faculty” (DuFour, et al, 2010, p. 86).
Teacher leadership is a key component of PLCs. Silins and Mulford (2004) concluded
that student outcomes are more likely to improve where leadership sources are dispersed
throughout the school community and where teachers are empowered in areas of importance to
them. However, some teachers feel that they are lacking in experience and confidence when
taking on leadership roles. A study by Harris and Muijs (2002) identified a wide variety of
barriers to the development of teacher leadership. Three main barriers emerged: First, external
accountability mechanisms, especially in low-performing schools, put a strong burden on teach-
ers and on senior management that made the distribution of leadership more difficult and more
risky. Second is the lack of time to engage in activities outside the classroom and teachers’
capacity to take on extra work. Third is leadership not willing to relinquish control, considered
weak, or poor communicators. It is imperative to address these issues to have a successful PLC.
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PLCs are an important component in the success of utilizing STEM education and PBL.
They allow for teachers to participate in the skills that they are expected to instill in their stu-
dents. If it is necessary for educators to prepare their students to be competitive in the global
marketplace, the integration of technology is critical; however, other 21st-century skills are
equally important to incorporate into their instruction (Wagner, 2008).
Wagner (2008, 2012) has completed extensive research in the globalization of education
and 21st-century skills. His research has revealed that increasingly in the 21st century, what one
knows is far less important than what one can do with what one knows. The interest in and
ability to create new knowledge to solve new problems is the single most important skill that all
students must master today. All successful innovators have mastered the “ability to learn on their
own ‘in the moment’ and then apply that knowledge in new ways” (Wagner, 2012, p.142). They
believe that the essential elements of educating students are hands-on projects where students
have to solve a real problem and demonstrate mastery of learning the importance of using aca-
demic content from multiple disciplines to solve a problem and learning to work in teams (Wag-
ner, 2012). These concepts are the cornerstone of STEM–PBL education.
STEM education and PBL are synonymous with the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT. The
skills that are required for success in the PRONAFECYT are emphasized in STEM PBL. Using
STEM with PBL is the perfect model and in complete alignment with the goals of the
PRONAFECYT. One of the main goals of the PRONAFECYT is to promote a culture of science
and technology, which is demonstrated through students creating a hypothesis and determining
whether it is correct through PBL. All of these skills are imperative to be a successful student
and, in the bigger picture, these skills are crucial for being successful in the current Costa Rican
workforce.
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For students to achieve and acquire the necessary proficiencies for competing in the
global workforce that modern Costa Rica now requires, a solid 21st-century education is essen-
tial. The leadership behind the local schools and classrooms must have the capacity to teach
these skills.
Leadership Frameworks
The leadership capacity of the administration of the schools in Costa Rica is a key aspect
of student success in acquiring proficiency in 21st-century skills. In his leadership self-
assessment book, Eicher (2005) provided definitions of leadership versus management. Leader-
ship is required when an action is needed to materially shape the future. Comparatively, manage-
ment is needed to fulfill current needs. Eicher contended that effective leaders must be able to
communicate organizational direction, develop key relationships, and inspire others, whereas a
manager must direct operations, develop the organization, and reinforce performance. Given the
dynamics of globalization and the reforms within education that will necessarily follow, the need
for leaders, not managers, has never been greater (Eicher, 2005; Wagner, 2008).
Bolman and Deal (2008) have done extensive research about the different styles of lead-
ership and how they influence individuals and the organization they lead. Their four frames
model—structural, human resource, political, and symbolic—assist in understanding organiza-
tional culture, what to anticipate in terms of change, and how to address such changes. Each of
these four frames has a range of concepts, metaphors, and values and how they correlate to the
experiences that surround them.
Kotter (1996) is regarded as a renowned transformational leader and an authority on
leadership and change. According to Kotter, to implement successful change there must be true
commitment, a sense of urgency, stakeholder engagement, openness, clear vision, good
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 45
communication, strong leadership, and a well-executed plan. His eight-step change model
recognizes each of these characteristics and is popular in both the education and business envi-
ronments. Each stage has a distinct purpose. The first four help to weaken the status quo; Stages
5–7 introduce new practices; and the last one grounds the changes into the organization’s culture.
Both Bolman and Deal (2008) and Kotter’s frameworks provide insight and models for the
changes in educational leadership that would ensure that students in Costa Rica obtain 21st-
century skills, and a detailed discussion of these frameworks follows.
Bolman and Deal’s Four Frames of Leadership
Structural frame. The structural frame defines the rules and roles of the organization.
The structural manager tries to implement a process or structure appropriate to the problem and
the circumstances. This job includes focusing on the task at hand and not worrying about emo-
tions. This approach is useful when goals are clear; when technologies are strong; and when
there are little conflict, low ambiguity, and a stable authority. The metaphors for this frame are a
factory or a machine. Effective structural leaders do their homework; focus on implementation;
and experiment, evaluate, and adapt.
Human resource frame. In the human resource frame, the emphasis is on support and
empowerment. The human resource manager views people as the heart of any organization and
attempts to be responsive to needs and goals to gain commitment and loyalty. These types of
managers listen well and can communicate personal warmth. This approach is appropriate when
employee morale is low or declining. The metaphor for this frame is family. Effective human
resource leaders believe in people and communicate that belief, are visible and accessible, and
empower others.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 46
Political frame. In the political frame, the leader understands conflict and limited
resources. The political leader recognizes the political reality of organizations and how important
interest groups are. The leader creates arenas for negotiating differences and coming up with
reasonable compromises. This approach is appropriate where resources are scarce and where
there is goal and value conflict. The metaphor for this frame is the jungle. Effective political
leaders are clear about what they want and what they can get; they build linkages to key stake-
holders and persuade first, negotiate second, and coerce only if necessary.
Symbolic frame. In the symbolic frame, the leader views vision and inspiration as
critical to success. These leaders believe that people will give loyalty to an organization that has
a unique identity and makes them feel that what they do is really important. These leaders tend to
be very visible and energetic; they rely heavily on organizational traditions and values as a base
for building a common vision and culture. This approach seems to work best when goals and
information are unclear and ambiguous. The metaphors for this frame are a carnival, temple, or
theater. Effective symbolic leaders lead by example, tell stories, use history to guide the future,
and communicate a vision.
The four frames of Bolman and Deal’s (2008) theory provide a clear picture of the four
distinct leadership styles that exist. As the four frames suggest, the circumstances that already
exist in the organization can dictate which type of framework would be most effective to produce
the desired results. Effective leaders are able to accurately assess the extant situation and then
decide which frame would be the most appropriate style to utilize at that moment. Successful
leaders have the capacity to borrow various aspects of the four frames to solve one problem.
Change under these four frames generates four categories of potential issues.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 47
When problems are viewed through the human resource lens, change affects individuals’
ability to feel effective. To assist with this problem, the leader needs to provide training and
support. Regarding looking at issues through the structural lens, change disrupts existing pat-
terns and the leader needs to realign the structure. Within the political lens, change creates
conflict, and there is a need for arenas to negotiate conflict and reach agreements. Through the
symbolic lens, change creates loss of meaning for recipients, and there is a need for transition
rituals to mourn past and celebrate future.
Kotter’s Change Framework
The eight steps of Kotter’s (1996) change framework incorporate two important patterns.
First, “change tends to be associated with a multistep process that creates power and motivation.
Second, high-quality leadership, not just management, drives the process” (p. 18). These eight
steps will now be described in detail.
1. “Establishing a sense of urgency” (p. 47). One must examine the market and compet-
itive realities to identify crises, potential crises, or major opportunities. To be successful in this
stage, it is necessary to create a crisis by allowing a financial loss or allowing errors to blow up
instead of correcting them at the last minute. Also, insist that people talk regularly with unsatis-
fied stakeholders.
2. “Creating the guiding coalition” (p. 57). One has to construct a group with enough
power to lead the change and transform the group to work together like a team. To be successful
in this stage, it is essential to get the right people in one’s group by considering their expertise,
credibility, and leadership capacity.
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3. “Developing a vision and strategy” (p. 72). One must create a vision to help direct the
change effort and develop strategies for achieving that vision. To be successful in this stage, the
vision must be imaginable, desirable, feasible, focused, flexible, and communicable.
4. “Communicating the change vision” (p. 90). One must use every vehicle possible to
constantly communicate the new vision and strategies and have the guiding coalition role model
the expected behaviors. To be successful in this stage, it is essential to have simplicity, repeti-
tion, multiple forums for spreading the word, and leadership by example.
5. “Empowering broad-based action” and “getting rid of obstacles” (p. 115). This stage
is critical. One must change systems or structures that undermine the change vision. Encourag-
ing risk taking and nontraditional ideas, activities, and actions is important. To be successful in
this stage, one needs to communicate a sensible vision to employees, make structures compatible
with the vision, provide the training that employees need, align information and personnel
systems to the vision, and confront supervisors who undercut needed change.
6. “Generating short-term wins” (p. 123). One must plan for visible improvements in
performance, or “wins,” and then create those wins. Finally, visibly recognize and reward people
who made the wins possible. To be successful in this stage, it is important to provide evidence
that sacrifices are worth it, to regard change agents with a pat on the back, to help fine tune vision
and strategies, to undermine cynics and self-serving resisters, and to keep bosses on board.
7. “Consolidating gains and producing more change” (p. 143). One needs to build
momentum. Use increased credibility to change all systems, structures, and policies that do not
fit together and do not fit the transformation vision. Reinvigorate the process with new projects,
themes, and change agents. To be successful in this stage, it is imperative to have more change,
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 49
not less; more help; leadership from senior management, project management, and leadership
from below; and the reduction of unnecessary interdependencies.
8. “Anchoring new approaches in the culture” (p. 157). One must create better perfor-
mance through customer-oriented behavior, more and better leadership, and more effective
management. The connections must be clear between new behaviors and organizational success.
To be successful in this stage, it is vital to remember that this comes last as most alterations in
norms and shared values come at the end of the transformation process. New approaches usually
sink into a culture only after it is very clear that they work and are superior to old methods. This
stage requires a lot of talk and may involve turnover, because sometimes the only way to change
a culture is to change key people.
Kotter’s (1996) framework is a straightforward method of how to initiate and sustain
change. Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four frames provide insight into leadership styles and how
they can affect and contribute to change. Both frameworks can be applicable to the educational
leadership in Costa Rica. The change process must begin from the top with administrators
guiding the instruction and filter down to the classroom teachers who execute the delivery.
Classroom Instruction
As indicated earlier, there presently exists a “newly flattened world” (Friedman, 2007, p.
7) in which children must compete against the impressive economic growth of countries such as
India and China. The global achievement gap refers to what the best schools in the United States
are teaching and testing versus what all students will need to succeed in today’s global knowl-
edge economy. This gap remains invisible due to the economic, social, political, and technologi-
cal changes that have taken place so rapidly over the last 2 decades. Much of Friedman’s (2007)
theory pertains to the schools in the United States; however; this philosophy carries over into
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 50
other countries such as Costa Rica. According to the Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2009),
21st-century skills are essential to prepare all students for the challenges of work, life, and citi-
zenship in the 21st century and beyond. To be effective in the classroom when instilling these
proficiencies, teachers need these skills taught to them through their educational preparation
program. Wagner (2008) contended that teacher preparation is a substantial problem and that
there is lack of quality as well as continuing professional development.
There are few programs that focus on skill development to become an effective teacher,
and rarely do they provide meaningful experiences and/or supervision. “More than three out of
five (62 percent) report that schools of education do not prepare their graduates to cope with the
realities of today’s classrooms” (Wagner, 2008, p. 145). The lack of adequate preparation and
support for teachers is the primary cause for the astounding rate of attrition among public school
teachers, which is nearly 1 in 2 teachers leaving in just 5 years (Wagner, 2008). Educating
School Leaders (Levine, 2005) concluded that “most university-based preparation programs for
administrations range in quality from inadequate to appalling” (as cited in Wagner, 2008, p. 146).
With teachers not being trained properly, the hope for the content and instruction to be meaning-
ful and effective is extremely low.
When observing classrooms, what Wagner (2008) most often saw as classroom instruc-
tion was factual recall rather than students being asked to reason, analyze, or hypothesize. It was
clear that these skills were needed when students from a highly rated high school were inter-
viewed during their 1st year of college. Their collective response was that when they started
college, they started all over in their academics. They needed to have more writing, research,
collaboration skills, and time management techniques. These students indicated that they had
received a traditional approach to teaching in which academic content is taught through a process
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 51
of rote memorization, with few opportunities for students to ask questions or discover things on
their own—essential practices of innovation (Wagner, 2008).
When people talk about creating a more innovation-driven economy, they almost always
argue for more education for all students. But what I have learned is that merely giving
students more of the same education will not create students who can innovate. For
students to become innovators in the twenty-first century, they need a different education,
not merely more education. (Wagner, 2012, p. 201)
The Partnership for 21st Century Skills (2009) has the same philosophy as Wagner
(2008). This organization contends that an education that incorporates life skills, technology,
innovation, and core subjects is necessary for being competitive in a world that is ever changing.
Figure 2 provides a clear graphic of this framework for 21st-century learning.
Wagner’s (2008, pp. 14-–40) research focused on the seven key survival skills that
students must master to succeed and to solve some of the most demanding issues and challenges
of the 21st century: (a) “critical thinking and problem solving,” (b) “collaboration and leader-
ship,” (c) “agility and adaptability,” (d) “initiative and entrepreneurialism,” (e) “effective oral
and written communication,” (f) “accessing and analyzing information,” and (g) “curiosity and
imagination.”
The crux of critical thinking and problem solving is the ability to ask the right questions.
Collaboration and leadership is working across the globe to understand global issues and to
understand and respect differences among people. Agility and adaptability describe being
flexible, adaptable, and being a lifelong learner. Initiative and entrepreneurialism represent the
ability to seek out opportunities, ideas, and strategies for improvement. Effective oral and
written communication is clear and concise writing; speaking; and presenting with focus, energy,
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Figure 2. Framework for 21st-century student learning. Taken from Overview:
Framework for 21st Century Learning, by Partnership for 21st Century Skills,
2009, retrieved from http://www.p21.org/overview/skills-framework
and passion. Accessing and analyzing information is the capability to access and evaluate infor-
mation from a variety of sources and being able to synthesize it. Finally, curiosity and imagina-
tion represent the capacity to think out of the box and to develop unique solutions (Wagner,
2008).
These seven survival skills are all addressed when teachers utilize a STEM–PBL curricu-
lum. PBL calls for classroom activities that shift away from the classroom practices of short,
isolated, teacher-centered lessons and instead emphasize learning activities that are long term,
interdisciplinary, student centered, and integrated with real-world issues and practices (Capraro
et al., 2013). PBL focuses on the critical assessment of students’ progress in thinking through
writing about what they learn and why they believe that they have learned. Formative
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 53
assessment, which is empowered by such writing and reflection tasks, is more likely to lead
students to be flexible with their knowledge (i.e., agility, adaptability, and effective communi-
cation). PBL assessments evaluate both the individuals and the group’s performance (i.e.,
collaboration). The typical approach to assessment outside of PBL leads students to strive to do
well on tests in order to get a good grade rather than to develop learning strategies through
self-improvement and understanding (i.e., initiative and entrepreneurialism). PBL instruction
provides opportunities for students to ask their own questions, refine those questions
through the design and conducting of personally relevant investigations, evaluate data and
scientific evidence according to their own personal understanding, and verbalize their
own theories and explanations (i.e., analyzing information and curiosity. (Capraro et al.,
2013, p. 16)
In order to prepare students to excel in the PRONAFECYT and to meet the current
workforce requirements in Costa Rica and for globalization in general, classroom instruction
must reflect the strategies used in STEM PBL. The shift from teacher-led to student-led instruc-
tion and providing opportunities for collaboration, communication, critical thinking, and creativ-
ity are imperative for gaining proficiency in Wagner’s (2008) seven skills for success in the 21st
century.
Chapter Summary
Globalization is a force in the modern world that has picked up significant steam with the
rapid pace of technology. Due to the presence of MNCs, Costa Rica is one country that has been
drastically impacted by this development and has adapted its education system to address the
needs of the current workforce. One initiative by the country, the PRONAFECYT, has been a
strong piece in the shift toward incorporating STEM PBL in the educational program. However,
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 54
the role of school leaders is vital to implementation of the initiative. Success depends on how
schools are restructured and how they implement their educational programs.
To provide a background for this research study, the history of Costa Rica, including the
government, economy, and education, was introduced. The chapter also explained the current
educational climate, the instructional and leadership needs, and the frameworks that were utilized
to analyze the data collected in the research study.
The next chapter explains the methodology that was used to research current leadership
practices at the primary school level in Costa Rica and their function in implementing the
PRONAFECYT. Through this research, the team hoped to discover how the capacity of the
leader has shaped the implementation of the PRONAFECYT and the educational programs
created to support it.
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CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Costa Rica’s education system has been significantly changed over the last 20 years with
the influx of MNCs. Now students need skills compatible with the workforce demands of these
new, technology-based companies. Schools must provide a rigorous, STEM-based curriculum
with well-trained teachers to deliver effective instruction. The MEP responded to this demand by
implementing and then mandating the PRONAFECYT with the expectation that by making it a
requirement that schools would be forced to teach the skills (i.e., PBL, collaboration, critical
thinking) and a curriculum that focused on science and technology. Unfortunately, not all
primary schools are implementing with fidelity the expectations set forth by the MEP. The
present study researched primary schools to determine how successful school leaders are affect-
ing the development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT and whether educational
programs developed to support the PRONAFECYT have been successful.
This chapter is structured in six sections. The first section describes the research team and
the responsibilities of its members. The second section deals with the research design. The third
section explains the population and sample type and why each group was chosen. The fourth
section provides an overview of the instrumentation that was utilized to collect the data. The
fifth section specifies the methods for analyzing the data and the Institutional Review Board
(IRB) process. The final section identifies the ethical considerations.
Research Team
The research team was comprised of 18 doctoral students from the University of Southern
California’s (USC) Rossier School of Education under the direction of Dr. Michael Escalante and
Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft. The group met bimonthly to research existing literature; generate research
questions; decide on the frameworks that would guide the study; and collaborate about interview,
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 56
observation, and survey protocols. The data were collected at 18 primary schools in research
pairs, one bilingual student and one monolingual student, with each pair visiting two schools (see
list of school sites in Appendix A). The schools were selected by their current level of participa-
tion in the PRONAFECYT. The intention of this study was to present the findings to the MEP
and MICITT.
The students in the research team represented many different job responsibilities and
levels of education, from elementary classroom teacher to high school principal. This diversity
assisted with rich discussions and multiple perspectives when researching this topic. The
research team had nine bilingual and nine monolingual students and were paired to visit the
research schools. The research team began meeting in July 2014 and met bi-monthly. Other key
participants were Natalie Valencia, Director of the PRONAFECYT, and Alicia Vargas-Porres,
Vice MEP. Valencia, Vagas-Porres and Dr. Wiedoeft were instrumental in organizing the indi-
viduals to interview and the school visits.
Research Design
The purpose of the study was to seek to understand the effects of educational leadership in
Costa Rican primary schools on participation in the PRONAFECYT. The study identified the
role that school leaders have in the development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT
initiative. Additionally, the study explored how schools may have restructured their educational
programs by focusing on sharing of leadership and teacher training.
Four research questions were addressed in this study:
1. What is the role that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative?
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 57
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
The research team used qualitative methodology to address the research questions.
Qualitative methods were chosen because they were the appropriate strategies to answer the
research questions. Interviews, surveys, and observations were utilized for gathering the infor-
mation relevant to the research aims of this study. According to Merriam (2009), qualitative
methods provide a rich description of people’s experiences. Qualitative researchers are interested
in understanding how people interpret their experiences, how they construct their worlds, and
what meaning they attribute to their experiences. During the interview process, the research team
asked initial and follow-up questions, observed the interviewees’ body language, and established
a rapport to gain the needed information. To provide further data, surveys were distributed to the
interviewees and to participants that the team was unable to interview. Each interview was
approximately 30 minutes in duration; interviews were conducted at the school sites or at the
offices of the corporate and government leaders. The interviewees had the choice of the inter-
view being conducted in either English or Spanish. All interviews were recorded, transcribed,
and translated.
Maxwell (2013) described five intellectual goals for which qualitative studies are espe-
cially suitable. Observation was used as a method because the first of the five goals is under-
standing the meaning of events, situations, experiences, and actions in which participants are
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involved or engaged. To truly understand the environment and experiences of the subject,
observation was critical (see observation protocol in Appendix B).
There are multiple types of qualitative research. According to Creswell (2013), these
types are narrative, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, and case study. A case study,
according to Creswell, is when the researcher explores in depth a program or a process of one or
more individuals. The case(s) are bounded by time and activity, and researchers collect detailed
information using a variety of data collection procedures over a sustained period of time. The
present study was an attempt to understand the effects of educational leadership on the participa-
tion in the PRONAFECYT at the primary level and employed the methods used for a case study.
Merriam (2009) defined three types of qualitative case studies: historical and observa-
tional, intrinsic and instrumental, and multisite. A multisite case study collects and analyzes data
from multiple sources to find commonalities. This research study used the methods for a multi-
site case study. To assist with this process, Maxwell (2013) indicated that use of a conceptual
framework is beneficial. The research team chose three: leadership (Bolman & Deal, 2008),
STEM PBL (Capraro et al., 2013), and change (Kotter, 1996). There was also an overarching
lens of 21st-century skills (Wagner, 2008, 2012).
Merriam (2009) referred to the observational case study as one that involves major data
gathering through participant observations. However, she also indicated that observations
should be supplemented with formal and informal interviews. For this study, the primary method
of data collection was through interviews’ however, for the purposes of triangulation (Fielding &
Fielding, 1986), observations and surveys were also used to analyze the data.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 59
Population and Sample
This case study was to observe the effects of educational leadership on the participation of
the PRONAFECYT initiative in Costa Rica. The selection of the participating schools was done
by the MEP and coordinated with the regional directors. Access to political leaders, directors,
and schools was obtained specifically by Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft through her work with previous
research cohorts at the University of Southern California. With her help, the research team was
able to obtain the contact information of key political leaders, regional directors, and schools that
met the criteria for the study.
The research team traveled to Costa Rica during the 2nd week of June 2015. The partici-
pants who were initially provided to the team were contacted prior to the visit and were inter-
viewed during the visit. The participants for this qualitative case study included government
officials, regional PRONAFECYT directors, primary school site administrators, teachers, stu-
dents, and a former MNC executive. Government officials included Vanessa Gibson from
CINDE, Eugenia Morales from the ODF, and Isabella Roman from the Estado de Nacion.
Additionally, Alejandrina Segreda-Mata, Dean of Primary Teacher Education from the UCR’s
Department of Education and Hugo Navarro, Dean, School of Technical Education, Instituto
Tecnológico de Costa Rica (ITCR), were interviewed and surveyed to understand the perspective
of individuals working in higher education.
Patton (2002) contended that purposeful sampling in qualitative designs allows for an
in-depth study of a problem and phenomenon. The research team was granted access to different
yet all equally important groups, from the government to private MNCs, to collect data. Merriam
(2009) noted that unique purposeful sampling is based on the unique and rare attributes of the
elements or areas of interest. Unique sampling was used because the research group was
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interested in primary schools in Costa Rica and the subjects who were chosen for interviews,
surveys, and observation fit this criterion.
The research team interviewed the government officials and business leaders on the first 2
days of the trip. The next 2 days were dedicated to visiting school sites in pairs of a bilingual and
a monolingual doctoral student. The primary schools selected to research were chosen based on
their direct influence on educational leadership in regard to the participation in the
PRONAFECYT.
Instrumentation
For this research, a qualitative case study design was used that was comprised of observa-
tions and interviews, with the primary instrument being the researcher. A one-time survey was
administered with specific questions aligned to the study’s research questions and theoretical
frameworks about perspective, practices, and training. The survey consisted of 23 questions for
all groups with the exception of the student survey, which contained only 10 questions. Educa-
tional leaders, teachers, and students from the targeted schools, government leaders, regional
leaders, and MNC executives completed the surveys. A survey was provided to them during the
interview and was also available online. The surveys were analyzed using descriptive statistics
and frequency distributions.
One interview also took place with each member of the above identified groups using a
semistructured interview approach (Merriam, 2009) in which researchers typically begin by
asking participants questions regarding topics that have been predetermined prior to the
interview. However, all research team members were open to exploring relevant topics that came
to light during the course of the interviews. The interview were transcribed, translated if needed,
and evaluated using Patton’s (2002) qualitative analytical framework.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 61
Observations were conducted to observe teaching methods and pedagogy being imple-
mented in Costa Rica’s classrooms. The role that the researchers assumed was as complete
observers. This role requires that the researcher be either concealed from the group while observ-
ing or observing individuals in public locations (Merriam, 2009); the interviews for this study
were all conducted in public locations.
The research team began developing the questions for the interviews and surveys and the
protocols for the observations in January 2015. The instrumentation used by each researcher on
this team is located in Appendices C-M. The protocols reflect the emphasis of the three frame-
works (i.e., Bolman & Deal, 2008; Capraro et al., 2013; Kotter, 1996) selected to guide this
study. The survey utilized a Likert-type scale for participants’ responses.
Data Collection
The research team completed the USC IRB process to gain permission to conduct the
study prior to visiting Costa Rica. The process entailed completion of the Collaborative IRB
training initiative (CITI). The CITI is an online training program that offers various modules with
the aim to earn a certificate that ensures understanding of ethical considerations in conducting
research. The IRB process is necessary for all research studies on human subjects. This study
was in an exempted status because the research was conducted in a commonly accepted educa-
tional setting. No payment was given for any subject’s participation in this research study. All
18 members of the research team completed the IRB CITI, and all data collection protocols for
this case study were submitted to the USC IRB for review.
Prior to the visit the team created a recruitment letter (Appendix N) and summary of the
research (Appendix O) based on the previous doctoral research team’s recommendation. These
were sent to Ms. Porres, Vice Minister of Public Education. The research team established
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contact via email and phone conversations with Ms. Porres, who introduced the team members to
the three regional directors: Paula Céspedes, Patricia Arias, and José Sanchez. They informed
the primary school site administrators that the team would interview them and their teachers
during the visit to Costa Rica. Participants were also observed and asked to complete a survey.
A consent letter (Appendix P) was signed by all participants. Each interview was recorded,
transcribed, and translated if needed. The survey was administered and collected on the same
visit. Observation data were collected using a protocol created by the research team. All data
were coded and distributed to the team using a web-based application, Dedoose, which allowed
for all members to share their findings easily with the rest of the group. After returning from the
research trip, the team met to analyze the data collected.
Creswell (2013) identified ethical practices during data collection, analysis, and the
interpretation process: (a) protect the anonymity of individuals, roles, and incidents in the case
study; (b) keep data in a safe location; (c) resolve issues of data ownership prior to data collec-
tion; (d) debrief respondents to ensure an accurate account of the data; and (e) be aware of the
repercussions of conducting the research on certain audiences and avoid misuse of results to the
advantage of any one group.
To ensure confidentiality, the research procedures were conducted in person in a private
setting. The data captured were reviewed also in a private setting. Only authorized research
study personnel were present during research-related activities. The true names of the schools,
site directors, and teachers were not used in case study. The collection of information about
participants was limited to the amount necessary to achieve the aims of the research. Participants
were not approached in a setting or location that might constitute an invasion of privacy or could
potentially stigmatize them. All data and/or specimens were labeled with a code that the research
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team previously agreed on and were accessed only by the team. The data were housed in a locked
office on a secure laptop. All data collected were retained by the investigators for possible future
research use, as noted in the consent letter. The potential benefits of this study to humanity
justified exposure of the participants to the risks. The team did not use any language that would
be biased toward any particular group.
Data Analysis
When the research team returned, the data were analyzed both individually and as a group
using Creswell’s (2013) six-step model: (a) organize and prepare data; (b) read through data and
identify general ideas; (c) code the data for a detailed analysis; (d) categorize the data into themes
for analysis and generate a description; (e) describe how the themes will be represented in the
qualitative narrative; and (f) interpret the data and provide a detailed interpretation of the lessons
learned.
The data from the interviews was transcribed and the interviews, surveys and observa-
tions were all translated. Each individual researcher organized the data to look for emerging
ideas. Then the group met to compare findings and analyzed how the data fit into the three
frameworks. The team reached a consensus about the universal codes that were used for this case
study.
Using Dedoose, each team member entered their individual data set and attached a code
to each piece of information. The codes provided a method to recognize themes and a platform
for analyzing the data and describing the findings from the study. Then each team member
provided their own narrative about the conclusions from the study, the knowledge they gained
from the study and their recommendations for future research.
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Ethical Considerations
Creswell (2013) identified six good ethical practices and were followed during the data
analysis and interpretation process. Anonymity of individuals, roles, and incidents in the case
study were ensured. Data were kept in a safe location. Issues of data ownership were resolved
prior to data collection. In order to provide an accurate account, the researchers and respondents
debriefed to check for accuracy of the data. Data were not misused to present advantage to any
participating group. The research did not use language that was biased toward any racial or ethnic
group, gender, sexual orientation, age, or disability.
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CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH RESULTS
The purpose of this study was to understand the effects of educational leadership on
participation in the PRONAFECYT initiative in Costa Rican primary schools. The study identi-
fied the role that school leaders have in the development and implementation of the
PRONAFECYT initiative. Additionally, the study explored how schools may have restructured
their educational programs by focusing on the sharing of leadership and teacher training. This
chapter focuses on two primary schools in the one of the regions of San José and the effect of
educational leadership on participation in the PRONAFECYT initiative at the school sites.
Pseudonyms were used for the region and for each school to protect the confidentiality of partici-
pants’ responses and to ensure that the study was completed and analyzed with fidelity. In the
discussion of findings, the region is to as Coastal and the two schools as Apple Elementary
School and Bear Elementary School.
For this research, a qualitative case study design was used that included surveys, observa-
tions, and interviews, with the primary instrument being the researcher. A one-time survey was
administered to one director, 23 teachers, one support staff, three parents, 101 students, seven
government leaders, and three MNC executives. It consisted of 23 questions for all groups with
the exception of the students, which contained only 10. Observations took place in classrooms,
and data were collected using a format aligned to the research questions developed by the team.
An interview took place with each member of the groups identified above; however only four
teachers and no students participated. Interviews were semistructured (Merriam, 2009) and used
predetermined questions; however, the research team explored relevant information that was
related to the research questions during the course of the interview. A summary of the findings is
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presented as a result of these research methods (i.e., surveys, observations, interviews), and
emergent themes are discussed.
The results were analyzed using the frameworks chosen by the research team: leadership
(Bolman & Deal, 2008), STEM PBL (Capraro et al., 2013), change (Kotter, 1996) and an over-
arching lens of 21st-century skills (Wagner, 2008, 2012). The goal of the study was to under-
stand the effects of educational leadership on participation in the PRONAFECYT initiative in
Costa Rican primary schools Rica and was guided by these four research questions:
1. What is the role that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
Participants
The participants were selected based on their relationship with educational leadership on
participation in the PRONAFECYT initiative in primary schools. This section describes an
overview of the research team and how participants were selected, the roles of each participant,
the information that the researchers were attempting to obtain, and a summary of participants’
response rate.
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Research Organization
The research team was comprised of 18 doctoral students from the University of Southern
California’s (USC) Rossier School of Education under the direction of Dr. Michael Escalante and
Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft. The group first met in the summer of 2014 and collaboratively worked to
create the research questions and choose the frameworks that would guide the study. Interview,
observation, and survey protocols were also designed. All 18 students participated in the inter-
views of government leaders, executives from MNCs, and university representatives and shared
the results with the whole team. These contacts were obtained through the work of previous
doctorate studies from the USC, specifically Dr. Oryla Wiedoeft. Her knowledge of the country
and political connections were critical in obtaining the names of key government, business, and
higher education leaders that met the criteria for the study.
The selection of the 18 participating schools was done by the MEP and coordinated with
the regional directors from three regions. Three research pairs (six students), three bilingual and
three monolingual, were assigned to a region; this researcher was in a group assigned to the
Coastal Region. All six students visited all six schools assigned in the Coastal Region and
worked together to collect the data. The focus of this study was two schools in the Coastal
Region to which this researcher and her pair partner were assigned: Apple and Bear Elementary.
A comparison of the data collected from surveys, observations, and interviews will be analyzed
and discussed in this chapter.
Primary School Participation
One focus of this study was the comparison of teacher practices at successful schools to
teacher practices at less successful schools, as measured by the level of participation in the
PRONAFECYT initiative. Data were collected from Apple and Bear Elementary Schools to
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compare. At Apple Elementary surveyed were collected from 11 teachers and 44 students. At
Bear Elementary surveys were collected from the school director, 12 teachers, three parents, and
57 student surveys. The researchers interviewed the school director and two teachers at Apple
Elementary and the school director, two teachers, and one support staff member at Bear Elemen-
tary (see Table 1). Observations were conducted in three classrooms at Apple Elementary and six
classrooms at Bear Elementary.
Table 1
Summary of Study Participants Surveyed and Interviewed
Participants Surveyed Interviewed
Directors
Responses from Apple Elementary 0 1
Responses from Bear Elementary 1 1
Teachers
Responses from Apple Elementary 11 2
Responses from Bear Elementary 12 2
Support staff
Responses from Apple Elementary 0 2
Responses from Bear Elementary 0 2
Parents
Responses from Apple Elementary 0 0
Responses from Bear Elementary 3 0
Students
Responses from Apple Elementary 44 0
Responses from Bear Elementary 57 0
Note. Observations conducted: Apple, three classrooms; Bear, six classrooms.
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Government, Business, and Higher Education Leader Participation
Participants from government, business, and higher education were selected based on
their knowledge, experience, and influence on educational leadership and participation in the
PRONAFECYT initiative by Costa Rican primary schools. Their responses to the interviews and
surveys are analyzed and discussed in Chapter Four.
Government leaders were chosen by their role in the PRONAFECYT initiative. It is
important to understand the political view of how leadership on every level (nation, regional,
school) affects the participation of students in the initiative. Gaining insight regarding the
importance of the initiative from a policymaker level was significant to determine. The follow-
ing government leaders’ interviews and surveys were utilized in this study: Javier Cambronero,
Assemblyman; Alicia Porras Vargas, Vice Minister of Academic Education, MEP; Carolina
Vasquez Soto, Vice Minister of MICITT; Natalie Valencia, MICITT; Patricia Arias, Regional
Science Advisor, Occidente Region; Sylvia Ugaide Fernandez, Consulate General and Lander
Perez Barrantes, former Regional Science Advisor for the MEP.
Business leaders were interviewed and surveyed to understand their position and support
level regarding the PRONAFECYT initiative. Their responses regarding the students’ level of
preparedness for the 21st-century workplace due to their participation in the initiative were
important. The following business leaders were interviewed and surveyed: Vanessa Gibson,
CINDE; Mary Helen Bialas, Senior Officer of Projects and Programs at the Council for the
Promotion of Competitiveness; Ana Lourdes Acuna, Coordinator of Science, ODF; Eduardo
Monge, Project Development and International Relations, ODF; Ana Hernandez, Program
Evaluation, ODF; and Maria Santos Passamontes, Director of State of the Nation, National Unity.
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Higher education leaders were interviewed to further determine how the PRONAFECYT
initiative affects students’ competency with 21st-century skills when they enter a university.
Their responses assisted in understanding their level of support to the primary schools. The
following higher education leaders were interviewed: Alejandrina Segreda-Mata, Dean of
Primary Teacher Education, Universidad de Costa Rica (UCR); and Hugo Navarro, Dean, School
of Technical Education, ITCR.
In total, seven government leaders and three MNC executives were surveyed; and seven
government leaders, three MNC executives, and two university representatives were interviewed
(see Table 2).
Table 2
Summary of Participants Surveyed and Interviewed by Category
Job category Surveyed Interviewed
Government leaders 7 7
Business leaders 3 3
Higher education leaders 0 2
Results for Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, “What is the role that educational leaders play in implement-
ing the PRONAFECYT initiative?” The purpose of this question was to understand the relation-
ship between educational leadership and the implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative.
More specifically, how do leaders play a large role or a small role and how that affects the level
of participation in the PRONAFECYT initiative.
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Bolman and Deal’s (2008) four frames of leadership were utilized in the analysis of the
data to provide a rich picture of their beliefs of the four distinct leadership styles that exist.
Effective leaders can perceive the situation and decide which frame would be the most appropri-
ate style to utilize at that moment. Successful leaders have the capacity to wear the multiple
“hats” of the four frames to solve one problem using all or some of the frames; human resource,
structural, political, and/or symbolic. All lenses were considered because all are important in
effective leadership at every level (i.e., nation, region and school).
Data analysis revealed two dominant themes. First, the role of a strong leader at any level
will provide the necessary tools for successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative.
Second, the leader’s capacity to build a positive culture with recognition will also lead to effec-
tive implementation.
Strong Leadership at All Levels
Strong leadership is a quality that directly impacts the strength of the implementation of
the PRONAFECYT initiative. This applies not only to the school director but also to govern-
ment agency leaders who support the initiative and the regional directors. This theme was
prevalent throughout the data analysis of the surveys and interviews of the teachers and govern-
ment and business leaders.
Government agencies include leaders from the MEP, MICITT, and other agencies that are
directly related to or could influence the PRONAFECYT initiative. Alicia Porras Vargas, Vice
Minister of Academic Education at the MEP spoke about the importance of having strong
leadership collaboratively:
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It is a matter of leading together, not only one ministry and the other—both of us have to
lead towards a common goal, which is the science fairs or technological fairs, but we have
to do it in a partnership.
Lander Perez Barrantes, who worked as legislative counsel but also worked as regional
advisor in science to the MEP, relayed the significance of having strong leaders at every level,
especially ones who are passionate about the PRONAFECYT initiative, for successful implemen-
tation:
Leadership depends—there are people who are responsible for organizing fairs at the
institutional level, other circuit level at the classroom level, regionally, nationally—a lot
depends on the person and how the person is empowered with the process, because there
are people who marries the process. Some people do not marry the process; then it is
important when these leaders are people who really love research are selected, love
science, which the children love, because ultimately they are already betting on them so
they can do research, but above all else, is to try to encourage the children investigated.
The strength of the leadership at the regional level is also a key component, as noted by
Natalie Valencia, Coordinator of the PRONAFECYT at the MICITT:
Principals [directors] are important; teachers are important; parents are important. But I
also believe that one of the main components in the fairs are the regional science consul-
tants who manage to strengthen the fairs’ process and carry the message, which is to see
the process of science and technology fairs as a learning process and not as a competition.
Mary Helen Bialas, Senior Officer of Projects and Programs at the Council for the Promotion of
Competitiveness, agreed and added that financial support is an area that strong leaders must seek
out for success:
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The leaders at the local level are extremely important. Two ways: in Costa Rica also at
the local level, at the institutional level and at the circuit fairs, the district fairs and then
the regional fairs. Most of that comes from local funding that the schools themselves or
the coordinators. The science advisors have to get out there and search and look. They
don’t get that much funding from the government to do that.
At the school director level, two survey questions were closely related to this research
question; the results are summarized in Tables 3 and 4. As indicated the majority of teachers and
government and business leaders strongly agreed that the school director is critical in the imple-
mentation of the PRONAFECYT and that teachers need the support of the director to effectively
implement the PRONAFECYT.
This theme was also echoed during the interviews. When asked about the role of educa-
tion system leaders in the implementation of the fairs, Natalie Valencia responded:
I think that is one of the key components for the development of the PRONAFECYT.
Leadership can be exercised by different persons involved in the education community.
A principal [director] who is committed, a principal who empowers his teachers makes a
difference, and we have been able to notice that in the visits we made to the different
schools.
Alicia Porras Vargas also conveyed the importance of the role of the school director:
The main person that is responsible for the development of the school is of course the
principal [director]. He or she is the person who should enable the process to be carried
out. The scientific fair and all type of activities that we have in the schools have norms
and regulations that are given at the national level, so they are very well regulated, and the
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Table 3
Survey Responses for Teachers: Questions 1 and 2
Apple Bear T o tal
__________ __________ __________
Survey question n % n % n %
The School Director plays a critical role
in assuring teachers implement the
PRONAFECYT.
Strongly agree 9 81.8 11 91.6 20 86.9
Agree 2 18.2 1 8.4 3 13.1
Disagree 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Strongly disagree 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Do not know 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Teachers need the support of the School
Director to fully and effectively imple-
ment the PRONAFECYT.
Strongly agree 8 72.7 11 91.6 19 82.6
Agree 3 27.3 1 8.4 4 17.4
Disagree 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Strongly disagree 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Do not know 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Note. PRONAFECYT = Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología.
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Table 4
Survey Responses for Government and Business Leaders: Questions 1 and 2
G o v e r nment Business Total
__________ __________ __________
Question n % n % n %
The School Director plays a critical role
in assuring teachers implement the
PRONAFECYT.
Strongly agree 5 71.4 3 100.0 8 80.0
Agree 1 14.3 0 0.0 1 10.0
Disagree 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Strongly disagree 1 14.3 0 0.0 0 0.0
Do not know 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Teachers need the support of the School
Director to fully and effectively imple-
ment the PRONAFECYT.
Strongly agree 6 75.7 3 100.0 9 90.0
Agree 1 14.3 0 0.0 4 10.0
Disagree 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Strongly disagree 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Do not know 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Note. PRONAFECYT = Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología.
principal is the person who should establish how the activities are going to develop,
according to the norms and regulations that are, of course, provided.
During this research project, through the literature review of the frameworks, the surveys
and interviews, the theme of strong leadership has been frequently referenced. This fact was also
evident during the observations and interactions throughout the research team’s trip to Costa
Rica.
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Positive Culture With Recognition
The second theme that emerged during the data analysis was another role that leaders play
in the implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative is positive culture with recognition. It
was determined that when school directors were effective in this role, provided recognition, and
created a positive culture, there was greater participation by teachers and students. It was also
discovered that government and regional leaders want to expand recognition for the winners of
the PRONAFECYT.
In the data collected from Apple and Bear Elementary Schools, there was a discrepancy
among the recognition of students, the perception of the culture, and the participation rate at the
each site. As indicated in Table 5, Apple Elementary School teachers responded to the survey
with the majority strongly agreeing with the questions, “There is a high level of participation at
my school in the PRONAFECYT,” “There is a positive culture at my school towards the
PRONAFECYT,” and “Student participation in the PRONAFECYT is recognized throughout my
school.” However, the other responses were scattered among agreeing, disagreeing, strongly
disagreeing, and not knowing. In comparison, Bear Elementary had all teachers, with the excep-
tion of one outlier, respond with strongly agreeing or agreeing. This finding suggested two
conclusions. First, the school that had the higher percentage of teachers responding positively to
all areas also scored high for the question, “There is a high level of participation at my school in
the PRONAFECYT.” This finding shows that both positive culture and student recognition
could impact the level of participation at the site. Second, the school that had scores that were
less consistent also had a lower score overall in the area of participation in the PRONAFECYT.
Therefore, positive culture and recognition are linked to participation (see Table 5).
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Table 5
Survey Responses for Teachers: Questions 13, 18, and 23
A p ple B e ar T o tal
________ _________ __________
Question n % n % n %
Student participation in the
PRONAFECYT is recognized through-
out my school.
Strongly agree 6 54.5 9 75.0 15 65.5
Agree 3 27.3 3 25.0 6 26.0
Disagree 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Strongly disagree 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Not sure 2 18.2 0 0.0 2 8.5
There is a positive culture at my school
towards the PRONAFECYT.
Strongly agree 6 54.5 6 50.0 12 52.0
Agree 2 18.2 6 50.0 8 35.0
Disagree 2 18.2 0 0.0 2 8.5
Strongly disagree 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Not sure 1 9.1 0 0.0 1 4.5
There is a high level of participation at
my school in the PRONAFECYT.
Strongly agree 7 63.6 6 50.0 13 56.4
Agree 1 9.1 5 41.6 6 26.0
Disagree 0 0.0 1 8.4 1 4.5
Strongly disagree 1 9.1 0 0.0 1 4.5
Not sure 2 18.2 0 0.0 2 8.5
Note. PRONAFECYT = Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología.
To triangulate the data, following was the response from an Apple Elementary teacher
when asked about recognition for teachers’ efforts in the science fair:
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It’s never been recognized that I know of, . . . and I have 12 years at this school. No.
They thank the colleagues that participate that I don’t know, and it’s—how do you say?
Obligatory in this form. So there isn’t anything else.
Furthermore, when taking into consideration the data that were collected during observa-
tions at each school, there was a noticeable difference in the culture at each site. At Apple,
students were sitting on top of the desks during break time, there was graffiti on the walls, classes
were noisy during instruction, and there was no evidence of the science fair event (science fairs at
the school level all typically occur during the month of June). At Bear, the students were well
behaved, the school was extremely clean, and there was still a large display from the science fair
in the main hallway. Bear had a more welcoming and positive culture, as demonstrated by
classroom observations and antidotal note taking of the research team.
Recognition at the government level is an important aspect of the increasing the positive
culture. It was determined that both the MICITT and the MEP provide recognition, but
representatives from both ministries felt that this is an area that can be improved on. Natalie
Valencia noted during the interview:
The Ministry of Science and Technology provides the trophies and certificates for all the
participants in the regional science fairs, but I think we can work harder in the teachers’
recognition and especially from the Ministry of Public Education. I think it would be very
important to work on that aspect in order to reward the teachers and the principals, the
supervisors and the science consultants, through a public recognition. Not only the
material awards are important but also a public recognition is important.
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That same sentiment was indicated by Alicia Porras Vargas:
They have special ceremonies, and the president gives them a recognition when they are
chosen and when they come back. It’s a very nice ceremony because they meet with the
president and they have a press conference and some information is given by the news
media. In my opinion, I would say that it would be great if we could have more, if this
could be recognized, or could be published more, or could be mentioned more by the
national press.
Positive culture with recognition was an unmistakable theme during the observations and
interviews at both schools. This theme was also strong in the survey results. It was clear that
there was a strong correlation between this theme and participation in the PRONAFECYT.
Discussion for Research Question 1
The two dominant themes for this research question were that strong leadership at any
level will provide the essential tools for effective implementation of the PRONAFECYT initia-
tive and that leaders’ capacity to build a positive culture with recognition will also lead to suc-
cessful implementation. These themes were supported by the data gathered during interviews
and surveys with government and business leaders and observations conducted at the primary
schools. There was a direct correlation between (a) recognition and positive culture and (b) rate
of participation, and there was substantial evidence that supported strong leadership resulting in
effective implementation.
Results for Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, “How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from
teacher practices at less successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?” The purpose of this question was to determine what practices are used at
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schools that have been successful with academic instruction and have a high level of participation
in the PRONAFECYT and whether those same practices are used at less successful schools.
Wagner’s (2008) seven key survival skills for students (critical thinking and problem
solving, collaboration and leadership, agility and adaptability, initiative and entrepreneurialism,
effective oral and written communication, accessing and analyzing information, and curiosity and
imagination)—or more simply, the soft skills—were considered by the research team when
analyzing the data for this research question. Also considered was Wagner’s (2008) belief that
teaching is a “profession without practice” (p. 154) and that teachers working in “isolation is the
enemy of improvement” (p. 157). These principles support the use of PLCs and can lead to
successful teaching practices.
Data analysis revealed two prevailing themes. First, teachers at successful school inte-
grate soft skills into their classroom instruction. Second, in successful schools teachers collabo-
rate together, students collaborate together, and PLCs are part of the school’s practices.
Soft Skill Integration
The integration of critical thinking, collaboration, communication and creativity or soft
skills was a predominant theme at Bear Elementary. When comparing the data to Apple Elemen-
tary, these skills were not an area of focus for the teachers. The conclusion was reached from the
responses from the Apple teachers when interviewed and comparing them Bear teachers’ re-
sponses to the survey questions. An example of this is one Bear teacher’s response about how
the PRONAFECYT impacts instruction and benefits the students:
It’s incredible. First, the kids become very independent. They become creators of their
own learning. They research. What it promotes in them is the oral communication,
critical thinking, analytical thinking. They have a lot of benefits. Now, you find that the
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students are more independent, more analytical. They are critical. They are very func-
tional.
When the interviewer asked specifically whether soft skills are impacted by participation
in the PRONAFECYT, an Apple teacher responded, “It’s that in the science fair, when you
practice the project that you want—that is where the scientific abilities—even Spanish abilities,
because they have to express themselves, they have to—the way they speak.” This response
indicated that possibly the soft skill of communication is promoted; however, the response from
the Bear teacher at Bear provided a clear indication that all of the soft skills are fostered.
The government’s perspective was also taken into account. Government leaders recog-
nized that there is a disparity between the skills gained in the schools that do participate with
fidelity and the schools that do not. Natalie Valencia from the MICITT noted in response to a
question about what skills should be promoted by schools to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT:
Regarding students, there are many skills, not only in the scientific and technological field
but also the development of scientific thinking, creativity, communication, the compre-
hensive development . . . So, promoting students’ investigation and their participation in
the science and technology fairs ensures a comprehensive development of the student. . . .
However, I must accept that we have a lot of work to do as a country so that all the institu-
tions involved in the process of science and technology fairs.
The responses to the survey questions, “I am familiar with soft skills,” “Students develop
soft skills through participation in PRONAFECYT,” “My School Director talks about the
importance of soft skills and their impact on student achievement,” and “I have received training
on how to integrate soft skills in the classroom” were consistently strongly agree and agree from
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Bear Elementary. Apple Elementary’s responses were more scattered across the questions.
Table 6 provides the details of the responses from each school.
In investigating this research question through the lens of the instructional principles of
Wagner (2008, 2012), the surveys and interviews, as well as observations and interactions at the
school sites, it was noted that Bear Elementary had a strong integration of soft skills in the
instruction while Apple did not appear to have this as an area of strength.
Teacher Collaboration and Student Collaboration
The second theme discovered through the data collection was that in successful schools,
teachers communicate and collaborate together, students collaborate together, and PLCs are part
of the culture of the school. This information was noted in the comparison of Apple and Bear
Elementary Schools. Though interviews, surveys, and observations, it was determined that the
culture at Bear Elementary promoted collaboration and PLCs among all stakeholders.
The two questions on the survey concerning collaboration were the following: “Teachers
at my school work together to plan and prepare for the PRONAFECYT” and “The
PRONAFECYT has improved student collaboration in my classroom/school.” Bear Elementary
teachers all strongly agreed or agreed, with the exception of one outlier who disagreed. For
Apple Elementary, approximately half of their teachers strongly agreed, with other half with
indicating responses ranging from disagree to don’t know. Table 7 provides more details about
these questions.
When interviewing teachers from Bear, there was a common thread of working collabor-
atively, both students and teachers, as a team. Language utilized to support this included
“teams,” “group projects,” and “round table discussions with feedback.” In response to what
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Table 6
Survey Responses for Teachers: Questions 9, 10, 11, and 12
A p ple B e ar T o tal
_________ _________ __________
Question n % n % n %
I am familiar with soft skills (i.e., critical
thinking and problem solving, collabora-
tion, communication, adaptability, analy-
sis, curiosity, and imagination.
Strongly agree 5 45.0 6 50.0 11 48.0
Agree 5 45.0 5 42.0 10 44.0
Disagree 1 10.0 0 0.0 1 4.0
Strongly disagree 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Do not know 0 0.0 1 8.0 1 4.0
My School Director talks about the
importance of soft skills and their impact
on student achievement.
Strongly agree 5 45.0 8 67.0 13 57.0
Agree 3 27.0 4 33.0 7 30.0
Disagree 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Strongly disagree 1 10.0 0 0.0 1 4.0
Do not know 2 18.0 0 0.0 2 9.0
Students develop soft skills through
participation in PRONAFECYT.
Strongly agree 6 54.5 9 82.0 15 68.0
Agree 3 27.3 2 8.0 5 23.0
Disagree 2 18.2 0 0.0 2 9.0
Strongly disagree 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Do not know 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
I have received training on how to integrate
soft skills in the classroom.
Strongly agree 3 27.0 6 50.0 9 40.0
Agree 3 27.0 3 25.0 6 26.0
Disagree 2 19.0 2 17.0 4 17.0
Strongly disagree 3 27.0 0 0.0 3 13.0
Do not know 0 0.0 1 8.0 1 4.0
Note. PRONAFECYT = Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología.
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Table 7
Survey Responses for Teachers: Questions 14 and 15
A p ple B e ar T o tal
_________ _________ __________
Question n % n % n %
Teachers at my school work together to
plan and prepare for the PRONAFECYT.
Strongly agree 5 46.0 11 92.0 16 72.0
Agree 2 18.0 0 0.0 2 18.0
Disagree 2 18.0 1 8.0 3 12.0
Strongly disagree 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Do not know 2 18.0 0 0.0 2 8.0
The PRONAFECYT has improved student
collaboration in my classroom/school.
Strongly agree 5 46.0 8 66.0 13 57.0
Agree 1 9.0 4 34.0 5 22.0
Disagree 1 9.0 0 0.0 1 4.0
Strongly disagree 1 9.0 0 0.0 1 4.0
Do not know 3 27.0 0 0.0 3 12.0
Note. PRONAFECYT = Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología.
teaching practices teachers used in school to prepare the students for the fair, the school director
from Bear Elementary responded:
The methodology is the following: The teachers begin working on projects, the methodol-
ogy process, through projects. They also work in groups. It costs a lot, like I said—the
agent of changes is the teacher. There are some teachers who resist working in groups.
They love to stand in line. But since our school is inclusive, part of the inclusion is to
work no longer in line but only in groups, teams.
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A quote from a support staff member from Bear Elementary also substantiated this theme:
I think that it is important to add that the students also take on a more active role. They
are not as passive and they are no longer receiving the traditional lecture, right? They are
participating more in generating knowledge, and they also learn to work in teams. Most
of the projects that are presented here are group projects.
Another Bear teacher’s response regarding the changes that have taken place with instruction due
to the PRONAFECYT corroborated both soft skill integration as well as collaboration: “Well, for
example, the inquiry work, the teamwork that has been done similarly—personally, I practice it
constantly.” She also added:
Other practices [incorporated]. I use many diverse techniques such as the round table. In
the round table it’s that we research a theme and we talk about it among everyone. They
respond with their personal opinions referring to the theme that is being investigated, and
we give feedback with the rest of them.
When a teacher from Apple was asked the same question, she responded:
Well, I give them—as a teacher, I give them directives that they have to complete, present
a well-organized folder related with the theme that they’re going to research or they’re
going to present in the classroom. The realization of the date, the verbal exposition.
They want to do it within the school classroom that they don’t permit it, that they go to
the home.
By replying that the school does not allow for the students to work on the project in the class-
room, it was concluded that collaboration was not promoted and students were instead to work in
isolation at home. In investigating this question using the guiding principle that “isolation is the
enemy of improvement” (Wagner, 2008, p. 157), Bear Elementary exhibited strong collaboration
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within the school, while Apple did not appear to support collaboration and working in isolation
was indicated.
Discussion for Research Question 2
The two major themes for this research question were that teachers at successful schools
integrate soft skills into their classroom instruction and that teachers collaborate together,
students collaborate together, and PLCs are part of the school’s practices. These themes were
supported by the data gathered during the interviews and surveys with teachers and observations
conducted at the primary schools. PLCs were not referred to using this specific term during the
interviews or surveys; however, the responses obtained had the characteristics and components of
a PLC. To summarize, there was a direct correlation between schools successful with a high
level of participation in the PRONAFECYT and the utilization of soft skills integration and
collaboration.
Results for Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, “How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to
equip students with 21st- century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?” The purpose of this question was to determine whether and what tools
teachers and students have been given by government, business, and site leaders to be competi-
tive for participation in the PRONAFECYT. This question incorporated not only the physical
materials for participation but also academic instruction with 21st-century skills that give
students the capacity to truly be viable contestants in the fair.
Kotter’s (1996) change model was utilized to analyze the data for this question. His
eight-step change model includes a true commitment, a sense of urgency, stakeholder engage-
ment, openness, clear vision, good communication, strong leadership, and a well-executed plan.
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Each stage has a distinct purpose. The first four stages help to weaken the status quo; stages 5–7
seven introduce new practices; and stage 8 grounds the changes in the organization’s culture.
There are two reasons that this model was applied. First, from a big picture perspective, the
overall shift in the method in which the PRONAFECYT was implemented during the past 10
years has changed due to the expansion of the need for knowledge as opposed to skill-based
workers; consequently, change was necessary. Second, on a smaller scale, Apple Elementary
recently changed its school director, and the change process was slowly beginning to take place.
Investigating the question with this framework was valuable.
Data analysis determined two main themes. First, system leaders, both government and
business, have a clear vision for the fair and the tools that schools should be receiving; however,
the vision is not always executed. Second, training and ongoing professional development
provided at the site for the PRONAFECYT and in 21st-century skills for teachers are connected
to strong leadership.
Clear Vision but Lack of Execution
The first theme discovered through the data collection was that all system leaders, govern-
ment and business, conveyed that there was a clear, positive vision for the PRONAFECYT and
that there should be monetary support. They also all agreed that this vision was not always
achieved. This opinion was confirmed through the interviews with Mary Helen Bialas, Natalie
Valencia, Javier Cambronero, and Vanessa Gibson.
Ms. Bialas stated that good intentions are voiced but not always with the intentions of
following through on them:
I know what the talk is. I don’t know what the walk is. The talk is yes, this is very
important, but again, it’s going to have to be kept to the back and make some changes. I
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really can’t be unfair to the current minister because I work very little with her and I don’t
know what her plans are as far as this goes. . . . Their vision is definitely . . . This is
number one. Number one with changing policy, current policy, to prove that the busi-
nesses and innovation is ongoing right now. I found cases that are extremely interesting
where you have young people who they left Costa Rica to start their business. They’re
starting it in the United States. They’re starting it in Europe. They’re doing it in other
places.
When asked if the government provides to schools the necessary resources to participate
in the PRONAFECYT, Assemblyman Javier Cambronero spoke about the lack of resources that
are provided to the schools and his thoughts of what is needed to improve them:
No, in this case the Ministry of Public Education provides support and the injection of
resources is not very big. That is why there is a need for a law of the Republic, which
forces the investment in this type of processes. Currently, most of the expenditure is
financed by the education center, by the teachers who use their own money to make con-
tributions and from the parents of those children who are participating in the process. The
contribution is very small, and it should be increased.
Vanessa Gibson from CINDE agreed and provided more information about financial
resources that could be available:
Well, we could start from everything from scratch. We have received, personally, even
letters of professors requesting just materials. When I say materials, it’s like cardboard,
markers, things like that. Because there’s not a good distribution either. As you could
imagine, high schools or schools out of the great metro area pretty much would be heavily
challenged in terms of their own capabilities. [There was a] social fund [created from fees
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collected by businesses that wanted to enter the market in Costa Rica] that the idea it had
was to actually benefit and socialize. When I say socialize, is to extend for example
Internet and other technology to the educational system, especially outside the great metro
area. This fund is sitting down in a bank account. It has like 5 years now. It hasn’t start
spending. We have high schools that would buy that, that doesn’t have Internet access, et
cetera, et cetera. To that point, today, if the government is able to provide? No. Not
necessarily and having the resources to do so. Again, it’s all tied up huge political battle.
Natalie Valencia touched on both the resources provided and her thoughts about teacher
training:
The Ministry of Science and Technology also provides the resources for the organization
of the National Science Fair, together with the contribution provided by the University of
Costa Rica. Therefore, we can say that there are resources for the organization at regional
and national level but we still have a lot to do at school level, not only regarding financial
resources but also to strengthen the training processes. At the MICITT we consider that
we have to work harder regarding the training process of the teachers so that they get to
know and to understand what research implies so that they can enhance these processes as
a valuable tool for their students’ learning process.
Scarcity of resources was an evident theme during the interviews with government and
business leaders; however, all felt that it was important to provide resources. In addition, during
conversations the vision was clear that the PRONAFECYT is an important component of the
nation’s goal to produce a knowledge-based workforce.
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Training and Ongoing Professional Development at the School Site
The second theme revealed was that there was a correlation between strong site leadership
and the training provided for teachers. Teachers who received initial preparation and continued
professional development were able to produce students with 21st-century skills who were
successful in the fair. As indicated in the first two research questions, Apple and Bear Elemen-
tary Schools utilize different strategies in regard to the implementation of the PRONAFECYT
with varying levels of success. The data analysis for this question indicated the same results:
Apple teachers had minimal training while Bear teachers seemed well educated in how to prepare
students for the PRONAFECYT.
When asked if there was PRONAFECYT training provided for teachers, one Bear teacher
replied:
Well, we do and I like a lot—I’m very good with the technology, and so I’m constantly
getting involved, researching, and so there are many online courses. My colleague, the
science facilitator, she is always updating us because as she gave it to us before, we in
reality as we’re four curriculum facilitators—she is the one that goes to the trainings in
science. I go to the ones on math and the one who teaches Spanish and the one who
teaches social studies.
When the same question was posed to a teacher from Apple, the response was as follows:
I trained myself. Well, you do receive—because many years ago I was in the science fair
committee. A long time ago when the science fair first started, there was a small group of
which I was a member. They did train us; they did provide us with very good literature;
and in fact I still have that. But, like in everything, if you don’t have the right literature
and you are not motivated yourself, then you are not going to do anything.
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The interview responses were compared to the survey question responses. In the data
collected from Apple and Bear Elementary Schools, there was inconsistency between the amount
of training for the PRONAFECYT at each site. As indicated in Table 8, Apple Elementary
School teachers responded to the survey with the majority disagreeing, strongly disagreeing, or
not knowing to the following questions: “I am provided adequate training to prepare students for
the PRONAFECYT” and “I am provided yearly training on the PRONAFECYT guidelines.” In
contrast, Bear Elementary had the majority of teachers respond with strongly agreeing or agreeing
(see Table 8).
Table 8
Survey Responses for Teachers: Questions 7 and 22
A p ple B e ar T o tal
________ ________ __________
Question n % n % n %
I am provided adequate training to prepare
students for the PRONAFECYT.
Strongly agree 2 18.0 5 42.0 7 30.0
Agree 1 9.0 5 42.0 6 26.0
Disagree 4 36.0 2 16.0 6 26.0
Strongly disagree 1 9.0 0 0.0 1 5.0
Do not know 3 28.0 0 0.0 3 13.0
I am provided yearly training on the
PRONAFECYT guidelines.
Strongly agree 2 18.0 4 34.0 6 26.0
Agree 2 18.0 5 42.0 7 30.0
Disagree 3 28.0 1 8.0 4 18.0
Strongly disagree 2 18.0 1 8.0 3 13.0
Do not know 2 18.0 1 8.0 3 13.0
Note. PRONAFECYT = Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología.
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These results were also compared to the observations. The site leadership at Apple was
very new to the site, only officially the director for a few days. Although she seemed to be a
strong presence in her short time in the position, there was not enough data to see how she would
impact the school. The previous site leadership was not strong, as proven by the physical atmo-
sphere, the observations in the classrooms, and the responses provided when interviewing the
teachers. The site leadership at Bear was strong and provided adequate training for the
PRONAFECYT.
Discussion for Research Question 3
The two main themes for this research question were, first, that system leaders, in govern-
ment and business, have a clear vision for the fair and the tools schools should be receiving;
however, the vision is not always implemented. Second, strong leadership is connected to
training and ongoing professional development at the site for the PRONAFECYT and in 21st-
century skills for teachers to assist in preparing students to participate in the PRONAFECYT.
These themes were supported by the data gathered during interviews with government and
business leaders, teacher interviews and surveys, and observations of the primary schools. To
summarize, leaders have the vision and intentions to follow through with their ideas; however for
various reasons—mostly financial—they do not. In addition, initial and continuous training is
connected to strong site leadership.
Results for Research Question 4
Research Question 4 asked, “How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT
affected instructional practices?” The purpose of this question was to discover whether and how
instruction in the classroom has been influenced by participation in the PRONAFECYT.
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The PBL developed by Capraro et al. (2013) and Wagner’s (2008) 21st-century skills
frameworks were used to analyze this research question. PBL is a teaching method in which
students work with partners or in a group to gain knowledge and skills by working for an ex-
tended period of time to investigate and respond to this complex problem (Capraro et al., 2013).
Wagner (2012) contended that the essential elements of educating students are hands-on projects
where students have to solve a real problem and demonstrate mastery of learning the importance
of using a scientific method with academic content from multiple disciplines to solve a problem
and learning to work in teams. Both of these strategies are imperative when participating in the
PRONAFECYT.
Data analysis discovered one significant central theme—that participation in the
PRONAFECYT has influenced the integration of the scientific method and PBL in classroom
instruction.
Integration of Scientific Method and PBL in Classroom Instruction
The daily incorporation of PBL and the scientific method in instruction is a direct result
of the implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. This conclusion was established through
the data analysis of the interview with the school directors, the surveys of teachers and students,
and classroom observations.
The viewpoint of the directors was important to gain in order to understand their perspec-
tive of the curricular change. The directors from Apple and Bear revealed that they felt that the
fair influenced the shift toward utilizing the scientific method in instruction. In response to a
question about how the curriculum has changed to adapt to the fair, the Bear school director said:
With the science and technology fair, at a national level, the curriculum has had to change
since the previous program was too rigid and the scientific fairs were too innovative. So
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there was no consistency between the program and the scientific fair. But last year they
changed the science programs. And now is done through research method—everything is
done by research, making, research, making, doing, and researching.
The Apple school director answered the same question similarly:
We have given science classes a more openness so that they are not as structured as far as
blackboard-student/student-book, but by experience. So the children can be taken out of
the classroom and bring them to a green zone, give them a lesson, make it more experi-
mental—that the students have that space not just to ask question but also have criteria to
come and question some type of situation, start looking for those whys, offering the
method of inquiry, which is the one that we have been implemented for the last 4 years,
and that the student understands that there are other ways of learning and not what’s just
in the books, but know that I can look or see where the butterfly is or if the butterfly is in
the caterpillar stage and what’s going to happen next and begin to do research on that.
Equally significant was the perspective of the teachers and the students. The groups from
the two schools had similar thoughts about the application of the scientific method and PBL in
the classroom. As indicated in Tables 9 and 10, most of the teachers at Apple and Bear strongly
agreed or agreed to the following statements: “I provide opportunities for students to engage in
scientific inquiry as part of my regular instruction” (92%) and “I utilize project-based learning
(PBL) in my teaching” (74%). The majority of students from Apple and Bear strongly agreed or
agreed to the statements, “My teachers often help me learn about the scientific method through
science and technology activities” (91%) and “My teachers have us work on group projects where
we solve problems and work together” (84%; see Tables 9 and 10.
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Table 9
Survey Responses for Teachers: Questions 5 and 6
A p ple B e ar T o tal
________ ________ __________
Survey question n % n % n %
I provide opportunities for students to
engage in scientific inquiry as part of my
regular instruction.
Strongly agree 6 55.0 6 50.0 12 52.0
Agree 5 45.0 4 34.0 9 40.0
Disagree 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Strongly disagree 0 0.0 1 8.0 1 4.0
Do not know 0 0.0 1 8.0 1 4.0
I utilize project-based learning (PBL) in
my teaching.
Strongly agree 5 5.0 6 50.0 11 48.0
Agree 4 37.0 2 16.3 6 26.0
Disagree 0 0.0 2 16.3 2 9.0
Strongly disagree 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Do not know 2 18.0 2 16.3 4 17.0
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Table 10
Survey Responses for Students: Questions 5 and 6
A p ple B e ar T o tal
________ ________ ________
Survey question n % n % n %
My teachers often help me learn about the
scientific method through science and
technology activities.
Strongly agree 6 55.0 6 50.0 12 52.0
Agree 5 45.0 4 34.0 9 40.0
Disagree 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Strongly disagree 0 0.0 1 8.0 1 4.0
Do not know 0 0.0 1 8.0 1 4.0
My teachers have us work on group
projects where we solve problems and work
together.
Strongly agree 5 45.0 6 50.0 11 48.0
Agree 4 37.0 2 16.3 6 26.0
Disagree 0 0.0 2 16.3 2 9.0
Strongly disagree 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Do not know 2 18.0 2 16.3 4 17.0
Observations in the classrooms were also vital to triangulate the data. At Bear, the
classroom visitations included many examples of PBL and use of the scientific method. In five
of the six classrooms, student work displayed had inquiry and evidence of collaboration. The
projects that were shared with us all used the components of Wagner’s (2008, 2012) framework,
with critical thinking at the forefront. In four of the six classrooms, the physical space was
designed to promote PBL. The desks were shaped similarly to a triangle but with a flat top. This
setup made it easier to create tables for group work.
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The interactions that were observed at Bear Elementary in three of the six classrooms
involved multiple students communicating and working together to solve a problem. The
research team was fortunate to be visiting the school around the time that the school fair took
place and viewed multiple students presenting their projects to the research team. This situation
was not observed at Apple. As indicated earlier, the atmosphere of Apple Elementary was not
inviting. In the three classrooms visited, only one was in the instruction process and it was a
teacher-directed lesson. The research team considered that this visitation was just a snapshot of
instruction, as the survey results indicated that there was PBL and use of the scientific method in
the classroom.
Discussion for Research Question 4
The dominant theme for this research question was that the integration of PBL and the
scientific method in instruction is a direct outcome of the implementation of the PRONAFECYT
initiative. This conclusion was established through the data analysis of the interview with the
school directors and the surveys of teachers and students. This theme was also supported by the
data gathered during the classroom visitations at Apple and Bear Elementary Schools. There is a
direct correlation between the PRONAFECYT initiative and the curricular change to incorporate
PBL and the scientific method.
Chapter Summary
This chapter presented the findings based on data analysis of surveys, interviews, and
observations and aligning the results to the frameworks of leadership (Bolman & Deal, 2008),
STEM PBL (Capraro et al., 2013), change (Kotter, 1996) and 21st-century skills (Wagner, 2008,
2012). The results were aligned to address the four research questions:
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1. What is the role that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills (soft skills) necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
The findings for Research Question 1 indicated two significant themes. First, the role of a
strong leader at any level will provide the necessary tools for successful implementation of the
PRONAFECYT initiative. Second, the leader’s capacity to build a positive culture with recogni-
tion will also lead to effective implementation. These themes were supported by the data gath-
ered during the interviews with and survey responses of government and business leaders as well
as classroom observations at the primary schools. There was a direct relationship between recog-
nition and positive culture to rate of participation and there was significant evidence that supports
that strong leadership will result in efficient implementation.
The findings for Research Question 2 revealed two important themes. First, teachers at
successful schools integrate soft skills into their classroom instruction. Second, in successful
schools, teachers collaborate together, students collaborate together, and PLCs are part of the
school’s practices. These themes were supported by the data gathered during interviews with and
survey responses of teachers, as well as classroom observations at the primary schools. PLCs
were not denoted by this term during the data collection; however, the responses obtained had the
factors of a PLC.
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The findings for Research Question 3 yielded two main themes. First, system leaders,
government and business, have a clear vision for the fair and the tools that schools should be
receiving; however, the vision is not always executed. Second, training and ongoing professional
development provided at the site for the PRONAFECYT and in 21st-century skills for teachers is
connected to strong leadership. These themes were sustained by the data gathered during inter-
views with government and business leaders, interviews with and survey responses of teachers,
as well as classroom observations at the primary schools. Clearly the leaders have a clear vision;
however, for various reasons they do not accomplish their plan. In addition, professional devel-
opment is related to strong site leadership.
The findings for Research Question 4 generated one important theme—that participation
in the PRONAFECYT has influenced the integration of the scientific method and PBL in class-
room instruction. This conclusion was arrived at through the data analysis of the interviews with
school directors and the survey responses of teachers and students. It was also supported by the
data gathered during the classroom visitations at Apple and Bear Elementary Schools. There is a
connection between the PRONAFECYT initiative and the curricular change to incorporate PBL
and the scientific method.
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CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Globalization and the presence of MNCs in Costa Rica have drastically impacted the
educational landscape of the country. The necessity for knowledge and conceptual-based work-
ers with skills in STEM in addition to essential 21st-century competencies (Rodríguez-Clare,
2001) has become vital in continuing to strengthen the economy and to attract FDI. Costa Rica’s
future is dependent on schools that emphasize these skills. One approach to assist in ensuring
that all students are learning these concepts, beginning in the early years of a student’s academic
career, is participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT.
The purpose of this qualitative study was to understand the effects of educational leader-
ship in Costa Rican primary schools on participation in the PRONAFECYT. Throughout this
study, it was clear that leadership does make an impact on the level of participation, the ability to
provide necessary resources for success, the culture of the school, and the 21st-century curricu-
lum that was taught in classrooms.
Chapter One provided an introduction to the study and an overview of the statement of
the problem. It also presented the purpose of the study, the research questions, the definitions of
the key terms used throughout the study, and the organization of the study. Chapter Two
contained the literature review and the background information that assisted in understanding the
study. It began with the history of Costa Rica, including the government, economy, and educa-
tion system. It explained the influence of MNC’s on education and the focus on STEM education
and PBL. Leadership, classroom instruction, and the frameworks that would be utilized for the
study were also discussed.
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Chapter Three introduced the methodology of the study. This included an explanation of
the research design, team, and trip. Also reviewed were the population and sample, data
collection and analysis, and the ethical considerations for the study.
Chapter Four provided the results of the research questions through analysis of the data
and themes that were revealed. Finally, Chapter Five summarizes the results and offers implica-
tions for practice and recommendations for future research.
The study identified the role that school leaders have in the development and implementa-
tion of the PRONAFECYT initiative. Additionally, the study explored how schools may have
restructured their educational programs by focusing on sharing of leadership and teacher training.
The results were analyzed using the frameworks chosen by the research team: leadership
(Bolman & Deal, 2008), STEM PBL (Capraro et al., 2013), change (Kotter, 1996), and an over-
arching lens of 21st-century skills (Wagner, 2008, 2012). The goal of the study was to under-
stand the effects of educational leadership on the participation in the PRONAFECYT initiative in
primary schools in Costa Rica and was guided by the following research questions:
1. What are the roles that educational leaders play in implementing the PRONAFECYT
initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools, as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with 21st-
century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practices?
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Summary of the Findings
The analysis of the data revealed seven significant themes:
1. The role of a strong leader at any level (government, business, or site) will provide the
necessary tools for successful implementation for the PRONAFECYT initiative.
2. A leaders’ capacity to build a positive culture with recognition will also lead to
effective implementation of the PRONAFECYT.
3. Teachers at successful schools integrate soft skills into their classroom instruction.
4. Teachers at successful schools collaborate together, students collaborate together, and
PLCs are part of the school’s practices.
5. System leaders (government and business) have a clear vision for the PRONAFECYT
and the tools that schools should be receiving; however, the vision is not always executed.
6. Strong leadership is connected to training and ongoing professional development at
the site for the PRONAFECYT and in 21st-century skills.
7. Participation in the PRONAFECYT has influenced the integration of the scientific
method and PBL in classroom instruction.
Research Question 1
Research Question 1 asked, “What are the roles that educational leaders play in imple-
menting the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT initiative?” This question explored the relationship
between the educational leaders at all levels and how they implemented the PRONAFECYT
initiative. The data analysis revealed two strong themes:
1. The role of a strong leader at any level (government, business, or site) will provide the
necessary tools for successful implementation for the PRONAFECYT initiative.
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2. A leader’s capacity to build a positive culture with recognition will also lead to
effective implementation of the PRONAFECYT.
The first theme was validated through the interviews and surveys with all participants: the
teachers, directors, and government and business officials. In response to the survey questions,
“The School Director plays a critical role in assuring teachers implement the PRONAFECYT”
and “Teachers need the support of the School Director to fully and effectively implement the
PRONAFECYT,” all participants, with the exception of one outlier, responded strongly agree or
agree. This response supported the belief that the school director plays a vital role in the imple-
mentation of the PRONAFECYT. Mary Helen Bialas summed it up best when she said:
If the directors don’t believe in it, we definitely saw problems where teachers believed
and wanted to do it; but if the principal does not agree, doesn’t want to do the work,
doesn’t want to do that, then it dies.
The interviews with Natalie Valencia, Lander Perez Barrantes, Mary Helen Bialas and
Alicia Porras Vargas supported that strong leadership is especially key at all levels, not just the s
school director, for the PRONAFECYT initiative to be successful. The following comment from
Alicia Porras Vargas describes the support needed from the educational leaders who organize the
fair and how this organization will impact the initiative:
The fairs are developed at the schools, so the linkage, the support between the educational
leaders and the people who are organizing also this National Program of Science and
Technology Fairs have to be very strong. . . . They [educational leaders] have to be very
clear of what they want to improve in the students, and that’s why the regional and
national advisors for science or technology are important in this initial process. When
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they come to the regional fairs or the national fairs, those events have to be also organized
and supported by the educational leaders.
The second theme for Research Question 1, that a leader’s capacity to build a positive
culture with recognition will also lead to effective implementation of the PRONAFECYT, was
confirmed through the comparison of data collected from Apple and Bear Elementary Schools.
There was inconsistency between the recognition of students, the perception of the culture, and
the participation rate at the each site. The questions, “There is a high level of participation at my
school in the PRONAFECYT,” “There is a positive culture at my school towards the
PRONAFECYT,” and “Student participation in the PRONAFECYT is recognized throughout my
school,” were responded to by Apple Elementary School teachers with the majority strongly
agreeing with the questions; however, some responses were scattered among agreeing, disagree-
ing, strongly disagreeing, and not knowing. In comparison, Bear Elementary teachers responses
were much more consistent, and all answered with almost all strongly agreeing or agreeing.
From the survey results and through observations and interviews, it was established that Bear had
a more positive culture and recognized students more consistently. The level of participation by
Bear Elementary in the PRONAFECYT was also more evident. From the data collected, it was
clear that there was a strong correlation between this theme and participation in the
PRONAFECYT.
Research Question 2
Research Question 2 asked, “How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from
teacher practices at less successful schools, as measured by the level of participation in the Costa
Rican PRONAFECYT?” Using Wagner’s (2008) seven key survival skills as a framework to
analyze the data, two prevailing themes were discovered:
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1. Teachers at successful schools integrate soft skills into their classroom instruction.
2. In successful schools, teachers collaborate together, students collaborate together, and
PLCs are part of the school’s practices.
The first theme was supported through the comparison of the data of the interviews,
observations, and surveys between Apple and Bear. Bear Elementary survey results were consis-
tently strongly agree or agree to the questions, “I am familiar with soft skills,” “Students develop
soft skills through participation in PRONAFECYT,” “My School Director talks about the impor-
tance of soft skills and their impact on student achievement,” and “I have received training on
how to integrate soft skills in the classroom.” The teachers from Apple were more infrequent
across the questions. The data that contributed the most to this theme were the interviews with
the teachers from Bear. The terms inquiry, teamwork, critical thinking, and communication were
mentioned frequently when teachers were asked what skills were used to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT. The interviews and the observations provided a clear picture that Bear Elemen-
tary integrated soft skills into classroom instruction often and consequently had a higher partici-
pation level in the PRONAFECYT.
The second theme—that successful schools teachers collaborate together, students
collaborate together, and PLCs are part of the school’s practices—was also evident at Bear Ele-
mentary. This theme was further supported through the comparison of data collected from
interviews, observations, and surveys between Apple Elementary and Bear Elementary. In
response to the survey questions, “Teachers at my school work together to plan and prepare for
the PRONAFECYT” and “The PRONAFECYT has improved student collaboration in my
classroom/school,” Bear Elementary teachers all strongly agreed or agreed, with the exception of
one outlier who disagreed. For Apple Elementary, approximately half of the teachers strongly
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agreed, with the other half indicating responses ranging from disagree to don’t know. This
finding indicated that Bear Elementary did emphasize collaboration among teachers and students.
Again, this was also evident in the classroom configurations. Bear Elementary’s physical space
had desks placed in the shape of tables, while Apple Elementary had rows of desks. PLCs were
not referred to using this specific term during the interviews or surveys; however, the responses
obtained had the characteristics and components of a PLC. Based on the data collected for this
research question, there was a direct correlation between schools successful with a high level of
participation in the PRONAFECYT and the utilization of soft skills integration and collaboration.
Research Question 3
Research Question 3 asked, “How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to
equip students with 21st-century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?” Data analysis using Kotter’s (1996) change model revealed two main themes:
1. System leaders, both government and business, have a clear vision for the fair and the
tools that schools should be receiving; however, the vision was not always executed.
2. Training and ongoing professional development provided at the site for the
PRONAFECYT and in 21st-century skills for teachers were connected to strong leadership.
A clear vision by system leaders was validated through the interviews with Mary Helen
Bialas, Natalie Valencia, Javier Cambronero, and Vanessa Gibson. All confirmed that the vision
requires better support monetarily. Vanessa Gibson expressed her frustration to the lack of
funding and the follow-through beyond the fair:
I think it’s MICITT is the one that allocates the fund. They support in terms of allocating
funds, I would say. Maybe not, I think, of course not sufficient funds. Aside from the
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funding, as I said, with interventions of copy [manuscript] writing and so on give it that
something else than just a fair. Again, I’m starting being so not positive.
The data for the second theme, that training and ongoing professional development
provided at the site for the PRONAFECYT and 21st-century skills for teachers are connected to
strong leadership, were collected through interviews, surveys, and observations. As denoted in
the first two research questions, Apple and Bear Elementary Schools apply different strategies
with respect to the implementation of the PRONAFECYT with varying levels of success. The
data analysis for this question indicated the same results: that Apple teachers had a small amount
of training while Bear teachers were more confident in how to prepare students for the
PRONAFECYT. This inconsistency was implied through the surveys when Apple Elementary
School teachers responded to the questions, “I am provided adequate training to prepare students
for the PRONAFECYT” and “I am provided yearly training on the PRONAFECYT guidelines,”
with the majority disagreeing, strongly disagreeing, or not knowing. In comparison, Bear Ele-
mentary had the majority of teachers respond with strongly agree or agree. The observations and
interviews confirmed this theme.
Research Question 4
Research Question 4 asked, “How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT
affected instructional practices?” This question was designed to discover if and how instruction
in the classroom has been influenced by participation in the PRONAFECYT. The data were
analyzed utilizing the PBL framework developed by Capraro et al. (2013) and Wagner’s (2008)
21st-century skills framework. One significant central theme was discovered: that participation
in the PRONAFECYT has influenced the integration of the scientific method and PBL in class-
room instruction.
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This theme was confirmed through interviews with the school directors, surveys of
teachers and students, and classroom observations. The school directors from both schools
agreed that the curriculum has shifted toward the incorporation of 21st-century skills due to the
PRONAFECYT. Teachers confirmed that students exposed to these skills are taught in the
classroom by indicating strongly agree or agree on the survey results for the questions, “I provide
opportunities for students to engage in scientific inquiry as part of my regular instruction” (92%)
and “I utilize project-based learning (PBL) in my teaching” (74%). The data were considered
from the classroom observations at Bear Elementary, where multiple students were seen commu-
nicating and working collaboratively to solve a problem. All data collected and combined
suggested that participation in the PRONAFECYT has influenced the integration of the scientific
method and PBL in classroom instruction.
Implications for Practice
This research study confirmed that strong educational leadership is critical in the develop-
ment and implementation of the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT initiative. Strong leaders at the site
level (directors) have the capability to build a positive culture within their school and recognize
teachers and students for their efforts in the PRONAFECYT. Strong directors also emphasized
that collaboration among teachers and PLCs were in effect at their school sites. Teachers at suc-
cessful schools integrated Wagner’s (2008) seven survival or “soft” skills (i.e., critical thinking
and problem solving, collaboration and leadership, agility and adaptability, initiative and entre-
preneurialism, effective oral and written communication, accessing and analyzing information,
and curiosity and imagination) and PBL into their classroom instruction. The strategies and skills
implemented by the educational leaders at successful primary schools can be shared and ulti-
mately utilized by the leaders at struggling schools with respect to the PRONAFECYT initiative.
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Strong leadership at the government level is connected to training and ongoing profes-
sional development for the PRONAFECYT. System leaders (government and business) have a
clear vision for the PRONAFECYT and the tools that schools should be receiving; however, the
vision is not always executed. It is anticipated that this research will support the Costa Rican
MEP, the MICITT, ,MNCs and educational leaders in developing a plan to improve the amount
of training and tools necessary at the school site level for successful implementation of the
PRONAFECYT.
Throughout the research, it was clear that all stakeholders believed that the
PRONAFECYT initiative is valuable and, when implemented with fidelity, that it can help to
promote STEM and the 21st-century skills that are necessary to be competitive in Costa Rica and
as well as the world marketplace. The research concluded that some schools are successful with
their level of participation in the PRONAFECYT initiative when strong leadership is present at
the school site. These implications are important for government and business leaders to recog-
nize so that strategies can be created to promote the PRONAFECYT and ultimately influence
curriculum, student outcomes, and preparing students to be knowledge-based workers for the
continued growth of the country.
Recommendations for Research
Recommendations for future research would be to continue to study strong leadership and
include examining the relationships among primary schools between primary and secondary
schools to establish whether cross collaboration exists. This type of study would be helpful in
determining the level of support at each school site and to conclude whether strong leadership is
influenced by the impact and guidance of other site leaders or whether other factors are involved.
In addition, research on the relationships among the government leaders, regional science fair
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directors, and the school sites would be beneficial because this study did not focus on this subject
and it was revealed in this research that a lack of training and tools existed for successful imple-
mentation of the PRONAFECYT at all school sites.
Conclusion
During the past 30 years, Costa Rica has shifted from a rural, agrarian society to a
high-tech hub of innovation that continues to attract FDI in Latin America (Rodríguez-Clare,
2001). The country’s economic future is reliant on schools that produce knowledge and
conceptual-based workers with skills in STEM in addition to essential 21st-century competen-
cies. One method of attempting to ensure that students are acquiring these vital proficiencies in
the educational system is requiring that all school-age children participate in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT.
This study analyzed the effects of educational leadership on the participation in the
PRONAFECYT by primary schools in Costa Rica. It also identified the role that school leaders
have in the development and implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. The findings
revealed significant themes:
1. The role of a strong leader and his or her capacity to build a positive culture with
recognition will provide the necessary tools for successful implementation for the
PRONAFECYT initiative.
2. Teachers at successful schools integrate soft skills into their classroom instruction.
They collaborate together; their students collaborate together; and PLCs are a part of the schools’
practices.
3. System leaders (government and business) have a clear vision for the PRONAFECYT
and the tools that schools should be receiving; however, the vision is not always executed.
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4. Strong leadership is connected to training and ongoing professional development at
the site level for the PRONAFECYT and 21st-century skills.
5. Participation in the PRONAFECYT has influenced the integration of the scientific
method and PBL in classroom instruction.
The two focus schools of this study, Apple Elementary and Bear Elementary, have both
been impacted by the ability of leaders (system and site) and their strength to influence participa-
tion in the PRONAFECYT. Bear Elementary benefitted from having a strong site leader to
ensure that the PRONAFECYT initiative was implemented with fidelity to best of her ability,
given the resources she received. Apple Elementary was in the process of change with a new site
leader; and based on the interview with her, it seemed promising that there will be a higher level
of participation in the PRONAFECYT in the future. In addition, if strong system and site leaders
are in place, participation in the PRONAFECYT should increase; students will graduate from
school with conceptually based, 21st-century skills and continue to move Costa Rica toward
becoming a competitive force in the global marketplace.
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Appendix A
List of Research Sites
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Appendix B
Observation Protocol
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Appendix C
Teacher Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
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Appendix D
School Director Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
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Appendix E
Government Official/Business Leaders Interview Protocol: English and
Spanish Versions
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Appendix F
Parent Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
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Appendix G
Student Interview Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
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Appendix H
Teacher Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
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Appendix I
School Director Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
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Appendix J
Government Official Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
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Appendix K
Business Partner Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
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Appendix L
Parent Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
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Appendix M
Student Survey Protocol: English and Spanish Versions
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Appendix N
Recruitment Letter
DATE
Dear XXX,
On June 15, 2015, a group of 18 doctoral students from the University of Southern California,
Rossier School of Education, will travel to Costa Rica as part of a study team led by Dr. Michael
Escalante. The purpose of our research is to understand the effects of educational leadership on
participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (PRONAFECYT) in
primary schools in Costa Rica. Specifically, we are interested in the roles of primary school
leaders in preparing and implementing this initiative. As part of our study, the following ques-
tions will be addressed:
1. What is the role of educational leaders in implementing the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT initiative?
2. How do teacher practices at successful schools differ from teacher practices at less
successful schools as measured by the level of participation in the Costa Rican
PRONAFECYT?
3. How have site and system leaders prepared their schools to equip students with
21st-century skills necessary to participate in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT?
4. How has participation in the Costa Rican PRONAFECYT affected instructional
practice?
We would appreciate an opportunity to speak with you, members of the Ministry of Education,
and educational leaders at regional and school site levels. It is our goal to conduct surveys and
interviews to gather data to address these research questions. Your input will be invaluable to
our study.
Thank you for considering our request. We are available to meet with you any time between
from June 15 and June 19. Please feel free to contact any member of our study team if you have
any questions.
Sincerely,
USC Doctoral Students
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Appendix O
Summary of the Research Proposal
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Appendix P
Consent Form
University of Southern California
Rossier School of Education
Waite Phillips Hall
3470 Trousdale Parkway
Los Angeles, CA 90089
INFORMATION/FACTS SHEET FOR EXEMPT NONMEDICAL RESEARCH
THE ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN PARTICIPATION IN THE NATIONAL
PROGRAM OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FAIRS IN COSTA RICA
You are invited to participate in a research study. Research studies include only people who
voluntarily choose to take part. This document explains information about this study. You
should ask questions about anything that is unclear to you.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose of this study is to understand the effects of educational leadership on participation in
the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs in primary schools in Costa Rica.
PARTICIPANT INVOLVEMENT
If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked to participate in a 15-minute survey, a
30-minute audiotaped interview, and/or a 10-minute classroom observation. You do not have to
answer any questions that you don’t want to answer; if you don’t want to be taped, you can still
participate in this study.
CONFIDENTIALITY
There will be no identifiable information obtained in connection with this study. Your name,
address, or other identifiable information will not be collected.
The members of the research team and the University of Southern California’s Human Subjects
Protection Program (HSPP) may access the data. The HSPP reviews and monitors research
studies to protect the rights and welfare of research subjects.
When the results of the research are published or discussed in conferences, no identifiable
information will be used.
ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP 161
INVESTIGATOR CONTACT INFORMATION
Principal Investigator:
Dr. Michael Escalante, University of Southern California,
mescalan@usc.edumailto:mescalan@usc.edu; mailto:mescalan@usc.edu
Co-investigators:
Oryla Wiedoeft, Assistant to Dr. Escalante,
wiedoeft@usc.edumailto:wiedoeft@usc.edu
Patricia Brent-Sanco, Principal, Paramount Unified School District, pbrent@usc.edumailto:pbrent@usc.edu
Cindy Chavez Swenson, MWP Lecturer, University of California, Merced,
ccswenso@usc.edumailto:ccswenso@usc.edu
Jesus Corral, Senior Director, Los Angeles County Probation Dept.,
jesuscorral1@gmail.commailto:jesuscorral1@gmail.com
Ricardo Esquivel, Principal, Partnership to Uplift Communities, ricardoe@usc.edumailto:ricardoe@usc.edu
Carin Fractor, Teacher, Saugus Union School District,
fractor@usc.edumailto:fractor@usc.edu
Miguel Gonzales, Assistant Principal, Santa Barbara Unified School District
gonzalmm@usc.edumailto:gonzalmm@usc.edu
Denise Harshman, Coordinator, Orange County Department of Education
harshman@usc.edumailto:harshman@usc.edu
Mathew Kodama, Assistant Principal, Pasadena Unified School District
mathewwk@usc.edumailto:mathewwk@usc.edu
Jennifer Lashier, Assistant Principal, Arcadia Unified School District, lashier@usc.edumailto:lashier@usc.edu
April Leon, Teacher, West Covina High School,
aprilleo@usc.edumailto:aprilleo@usc.edu
Omar Lopez, Clinical Associate Professor, Assistant Director of Field Education, USC School of Social Work,
omarl@usc.edumailto:omarl@usc.edu
Christin Molano, Principal, Glendale Unified School District, cwalley@gusd.netmailto:cwalley@gusd.net
Fernando Marquez, Teacher on Assignment, Oro Grande School District,
fmarquez@usc.edumailto:fmarquez@usc.edu
Maribel Martinez, Principal, Lynwood Unified School District Mart632@usc.edumailto:Mart632@usc.edu
Wendy Poffenberger, Assistant Principal, Long Beach Unified School District,
wpoffenb@usc.edumailto:wpoffenb@usc.edu
Bea Spelker-Levi, Principal, Paramount Unified School District,
bspelker@paramount.k12.ca.usmailto:bspelker@paramount.k12.ca.us
Richard Storti, Vice President of Administrative Services, Fullerton College, rstorti@usc.edumailto:rstorti@usc.edu
John Tung, Assistant Principal, Arcadia Unified School District, johntung@usc.edumailto:johntung@usc.edu;
mailto:johntung@usc.edu; mailto:johntung@usc.edu
IRB CONTACT INFORMATION
University Park Institutional Review Board (UPIRB), 3720 South Flower Street #301, Los Angeles, CA 90089-
0702, (213) 821-5272 or upirb@usc.edumailto:upirb@usc.edu

Abstract (if available)

Abstract Globalization and the influx of multinational corporations over the past 30 years have significantly impacted the educational system in Costa Rica. The need for knowledge-based workers has become essential in continuing to strengthen the economy and attracting foreign direct investment. The purpose of this qualitative study was to understand the effects of educational leadership on the participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs (Programa Nacional de Ferias de Ciencia y Tecnología [PRONAFECYT]) in primary schools in Costa Rica. The goal was to identify the role that educational leaders play in effectively implementing the PRONAFECYT initiative. The research team collected data through interviews, surveys, and observations from political, business, and educational leaders in Costa Rican schools during a 10-day visit in June 2015. ❧ The data were analyzed using John Creswell’s six-step process. The findings revealed significant themes: The role of a strong leader and his or her capacity to build a positive culture with recognition will provide the necessary tools for successful implementation of the PRONAFECYT initiative. Teachers at successful schools integrate soft skills into their classroom instruction. They collaborate together

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Asset Metadata

Creator Molano, Christin (author)

Core Title The role of educational leadership in participation in the National Program of Science and Technology Fairs in elementary schools in the coastal region of Costa Rica

School Rossier School of Education

Degree Doctor of Education

Degree Program Education (Leadership)

Publication Date 04/21/2016

Defense Date 02/19/2016

Publisher University of Southern California (original), University of Southern California. Libraries (digital)

Tag 21st century skills,elementary education,Globalization,leadership,multinational corporations,OAI-PMH Harvest,PBL,PRONAFECYT

Format application/pdf (imt)

Language English

Contributor Electronically uploaded by the author (provenance)

Advisor Escalante, Michael (committee chair), Garcia, Pedro E. (committee member), Sheehan, Richard (committee member), Verdugo, David (committee member)

Creator Email cmolano@gusd.net,cwalley@usc.edu

Permanent Link (DOI) https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c40-237692

Unique identifier UC11277153

Identifier etd-MolanoChri-4330.pdf (filename),usctheses-c40-237692 (legacy record id)

Legacy Identifier etd-MolanoChri-4330.pdf

Dmrecord 237692

Document Type Dissertation

Format application/pdf (imt)

Rights Molano, Christin

Type texts

Source University of Southern California (contributing entity), University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses (collection)

Access Conditions The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the a...

Repository Name University of Southern California Digital Library

Repository Location USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus MC 2810, 3434 South Grand Avenue, 2nd Floor, Los Angeles, California 90089-2810, USA